proposals by way of contribution for writing a natural history of yorkshire. by jo. browne, dr. of laws and physick. browne, john, 1642-ca. 1700. 1697 approx. 5 kb of xml-encoded text transcribed from 4 1-bit group-iv tiff page images. text creation partnership, ann arbor, mi ; oxford (uk) : 2008-09 (eebo-tcp phase 1). a29841 wing b5129a estc r215206 99827154 99827154 31570 this keyboarded and encoded edition of the work described above is co-owned by the institutions providing financial support to the early english books online text creation partnership. this phase i text is available for reuse, according to the terms of creative commons 0 1.0 universal . the text can be copied, modified, distributed and performed, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. early english books online. (eebo-tcp ; phase 1, no. a29841) transcribed from: (early english books online ; image set 31570) images scanned from microfilm: (early english books, 1641-1700 ; 1904:12) proposals by way of contribution for writing a natural history of yorkshire. by jo. browne, dr. of laws and physick. browne, john, 1642-ca. 1700. 1 sheet (2 p.) s.n., [london : 1697] imprint from wing. reproduction of original in the cambridge university library. created by converting tcp files to tei p5 using tcp2tei.xsl, tei @ oxford. re-processed by university of nebraska-lincoln and northwestern, with changes to facilitate morpho-syntactic tagging. gap elements of known extent have been transformed into placeholder characters or elements to simplify the filling in of gaps by user contributors. eebo-tcp is a partnership between the universities of michigan and oxford and the publisher proquest to create accurately transcribed and encoded texts based on the image sets published by proquest via their early english books online (eebo) database (http://eebo.chadwyck.com). the general aim of eebo-tcp is to encode one copy (usually the first edition) of every monographic english-language title published between 1473 and 1700 available in eebo. eebo-tcp aimed to produce large quantities of textual data within the usual project restraints of time and funding, and therefore chose to create diplomatic transcriptions (as opposed to critical editions) with light-touch, mainly structural encoding based on the text encoding initiative (http://www.tei-c.org). the eebo-tcp project was divided into two phases. the 25,363 texts created during phase 1 of the project have been released into the public domain as of 1 january 2015. anyone can now take and use these texts for their own purposes, but we respectfully request that due credit and attribution is given to their original source. users should be aware of the process of creating the tcp texts, and therefore of any assumptions that can be made about the data. text selection was based on the new cambridge bibliography of english literature (ncbel). if an author (or for an anonymous work, the title) appears in ncbel, then their works are eligible for inclusion. selection was intended to range over a wide variety of subject areas, to reflect the true nature of the print record of the period. in general, first editions of a works in english were prioritized, although there are a number of works in other languages, notably latin and welsh, included and sometimes a second or later edition of a work was chosen if there was a compelling reason to do so. image sets were sent to external keying companies for transcription and basic encoding. quality assurance was then carried out by editorial teams in oxford and michigan. 5% (or 5 pages, whichever is the greater) of each text was proofread for accuracy and those which did not meet qa standards were returned to the keyers to be redone. after proofreading, the encoding was enhanced and/or corrected and characters marked as illegible were corrected where possible up to a limit of 100 instances per text. any remaining illegibles were encoded as <gap>s. understanding these processes should make clear that, while the overall quality of tcp data is very good, some errors will remain and some readable characters will be marked as illegible. users should bear in mind that in all likelihood such instances will never have been looked at by a tcp editor. the texts were encoded and linked to page images in accordance with level 4 of the tei in libraries guidelines. copies of the texts have been issued variously as sgml (tcp schema; ascii text with mnemonic sdata character entities); displayable xml (tcp schema; characters represented either as utf-8 unicode or text strings within braces); or lossless xml (tei p5, characters represented either as utf-8 unicode or tei g elements). keying and markup guidelines are available at the text creation partnership web site . eng natural history -pre-linnean works -early works to 1800. yorkshire (england) -history -early works to 1800. 2007-07 tcp assigned for keying and markup 2007-08 aptara keyed and coded from proquest page images 2007-09 emma (leeson) huber sampled and proofread 2007-09 emma (leeson) huber text and markup reviewed and edited 2008-02 pfs batch review (qc) and xml conversion proposals by way of contribution , for writing a natural history of yorkshire . by jo. browne , dr. of laws and physick . first of all , the author proposes to take into consideration the disposition of the heavens , and temperatu●e of the air in respect to the various changes and alterations therein ; and first the longitude and latitude of the country shall be reckoned in respect of london : likewise the usual salubrity or insalubrity of the air , and with what constitutions it agrees better or worse than others . 2dly . the water will be considered , as first rivers with their bigness , course and inundasions , with all the different species of plants , insects and fishes , that are to be found in them : likewise lakes , ponds , springs ; and especially mineral-waters , as of what medicinal use they are of , what sorts of earth they run through ; their kinds , qualities and vertues , and how examined . 3dly , the earth shall be observed , and first in its self , as to its dimentions , situation , figure , or the like , its plain hills or valleys , with the several kind of soyls , that are there ; as of clay , sand , gravel , &c. what are its products as to minerals , vegetables , or animals ; moreover , how all or any of these are , or may be further improved for the benefit of man. then 2dly , the inhabitants themselves will be consider'd , that have been long setlled there , particularly as to their ingenuity , diet , inclinations , &c. whith what improvements of arts have been made in those parts of late years : and further , the products of the earth will be more nicely examined , with all the pecularities observable therein ; as plants , trees , fruits , animals , and insects of all sorts ; with clays , marles , boles , earths , axungiae , coals , salts , aloms , vitriols , sulphers , and all other minerals of what kind soever that the earth yields ; and to what use they are , or may be apply'd , either to meat , physick or any other kind . 4thly , all gentlemen of the same county , that contribute to this work , shall have the summ contributed specified , with their names , armes , and titles inserted , and more particular descriptions given of their several houses and families , and exact prospects taken of every gentleman's seat that are contributors . 5thly , all burough , towns , towns-corporate , and other market towns , shall have prospects and particular observations taken with their several towns and respective constitutions faithfully described , if they be contributors hereto ; for the design is not intended a geographical , but natural history . 6thly , the author proposes to make exact maps of every wapon-take , or hundred ; which , with the several other cuts necessary to be inserted , will take above 150 copper plates ; for that he has , and further designs to take an impartial survey of all towns and places , so that he may impose nothing credulously upon the world from the unexamined traditions of the antients , but true and just observations , taken from the natural state of things , faithfully represented ; so that by this means , he cannot perfect such a vast work without great time and expences . 7thly , contributions will be receiv'd by mr. smith and mr. walford , at the princes arms in pauls church-yard , mr. bentley , in covent-garden , mr. bosvile , at the dial over-against st. dunstans church in fleet-street , london , by mr. clark bookseller , and the author in york , who will give receipts to all contributors that their money shall be returned to them again , if the undertaking be not finished within ● years . ☞ note , the design has already received very good encouragement from several persons of quality . finis . a design of a british dictionary, historical and geographical with an essay, entituled, archælogia britannica: and a natural history of wales. by edward lhwyd, keeper of the ashmolean repository, oxon. lhuyd, edward, 1660-1709. 1695 approx. 10 kb of xml-encoded text transcribed from 2 1-bit group-iv tiff page images. text creation partnership, ann arbor, mi ; oxford (uk) : 2004-03 (eebo-tcp phase 1). a48366 wing l1944b estc r213615 99825951 99825951 30343 this keyboarded and encoded edition of the work described above is co-owned by the institutions providing financial support to the early english books online text creation partnership. this phase i text is available for reuse, according to the terms of creative commons 0 1.0 universal . the text can be copied, modified, distributed and performed, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. early english books online. (eebo-tcp ; phase 1, no. a48366) transcribed from: (early english books online ; image set 30343) images scanned from microfilm: (early english books, 1641-1700 ; 1796:15) a design of a british dictionary, historical and geographical with an essay, entituled, archælogia britannica: and a natural history of wales. by edward lhwyd, keeper of the ashmolean repository, oxon. lhuyd, edward, 1660-1709. 2 p. s.n., [oxford : 1695] caption title. imprint from wing. a circular inviting subscriptions to enable lhuyd to undertake an extended antiquarian and scientific tour for five years. cf. d.n.b. reproduction of the original in the harvard university library. created by converting tcp files to tei p5 using tcp2tei.xsl, tei @ oxford. re-processed by university of nebraska-lincoln and northwestern, with changes to facilitate morpho-syntactic tagging. gap elements of known extent have been transformed into placeholder characters or elements to simplify the filling in of gaps by user contributors. eebo-tcp is a partnership between the universities of michigan and oxford and the publisher proquest to create accurately transcribed and encoded texts based on the image sets published by proquest via their early english books online (eebo) database (http://eebo.chadwyck.com). the general aim of eebo-tcp is to encode one copy (usually the first edition) of every monographic english-language title published between 1473 and 1700 available in eebo. eebo-tcp aimed to produce large quantities of textual data within the usual project restraints of time and funding, and therefore chose to create diplomatic transcriptions (as opposed to critical editions) with light-touch, mainly structural encoding based on the text encoding initiative (http://www.tei-c.org). the eebo-tcp project was divided into two phases. the 25,363 texts created during phase 1 of the project have been released into the public domain as of 1 january 2015. anyone can now take and use these texts for their own purposes, but we respectfully request that due credit and attribution is given to their original source. users should be aware of the process of creating the tcp texts, and therefore of any assumptions that can be made about the data. text selection was based on the new cambridge bibliography of english literature (ncbel). if an author (or for an anonymous work, the title) appears in ncbel, then their works are eligible for inclusion. selection was intended to range over a wide variety of subject areas, to reflect the true nature of the print record of the period. in general, first editions of a works in english were prioritized, although there are a number of works in other languages, notably latin and welsh, included and sometimes a second or later edition of a work was chosen if there was a compelling reason to do so. image sets were sent to external keying companies for transcription and basic encoding. quality assurance was then carried out by editorial teams in oxford and michigan. 5% (or 5 pages, whichever is the greater) of each text was proofread for accuracy and those which did not meet qa standards were returned to the keyers to be redone. after proofreading, the encoding was enhanced and/or corrected and characters marked as illegible were corrected where possible up to a limit of 100 instances per text. any remaining illegibles were encoded as <gap>s. understanding these processes should make clear that, while the overall quality of tcp data is very good, some errors will remain and some readable characters will be marked as illegible. users should bear in mind that in all likelihood such instances will never have been looked at by a tcp editor. the texts were encoded and linked to page images in accordance with level 4 of the tei in libraries guidelines. copies of the texts have been issued variously as sgml (tcp schema; ascii text with mnemonic sdata character entities); displayable xml (tcp schema; characters represented either as utf-8 unicode or text strings within braces); or lossless xml (tei p5, characters represented either as utf-8 unicode or tei g elements). keying and markup guidelines are available at the text creation partnership web site . eng lhuyd, edward, 1660-1709 -early works to 1800. welsh language -dictionaries -early works to 1800. natural history -pre-linnean works -early works to 1800. 2003-09 tcp assigned for keying and markup 2003-09 aptara keyed and coded from proquest page images 2003-11 john latta sampled and proofread 2003-11 john latta text and markup reviewed and edited 2003-12 pfs batch review (qc) and xml conversion a design of a british dictionary , historical and geographical ; with an essay , entituled , archaeologia britannica : and a natural history of wales . by edward lhwyd , keeper of the ashmolean repository , oxon. being invited by some persons of quality and learning , to attempt something further in the antiquities , and natural history of wales , than hath been yet performed ; and also finding my self more inclin'd , and ( as i presume ) better qualified for an employment of that kind , than for any other : i have here made bold to offer some proposals towards such a design , to the end that if the works above mention'd may seem conducible to the advancement of learning , and worthy of the favour and encouragement of those amongst the nobility and gentry , whom it more immediately concerns , i may forthwith resolve on the undertaking ; or desist , in case they shall appear otherwise . in the historical and geographical dictionary , a brief account is design'd : i. of all persons memorable in the british history , whether mention'd by the romans , or writers of our own nation : and of all such authors as have written in british ; whether welch , cornish , or armorican . ii. of all places in britain mention'd by the greeks and romans ; and of all hundreds , comots , towns , castles , villages , and seats of the nobility and gentry of chiefest note now in wales : as also of the most notable mountains , rivers , lakes ; barrows , forts , camps ; and all such places as either retain any monuments of antiquity at present , or seem from their names to have had such heretofore . throughout this whole work , an interpretation of all such proper names , as are now intelligible , is intended ; with conjectures concerning some of those which are more obscure . and in this part , 't is presum'd , we may proceed with greater security here , than might be expected in most other countries . for , whereas in other parts , the names of places have been so corrupted by foreign languages introduc'd by conquest , that few of them are now intelligible to the best critics ; wales has not been subject to such changes , the modern british being probably one surviving dialect of the language spoken by the first inhabitants of this island . the end i propose herein , is , the rectifying several errors already committed in the interpreting the names of places in this kingdom ; and the preventing of many more in wales and scotland ; as also in some places of england , where the british names , either entire or corrupt , are still preserv'd . but we need not make any apology for etymological observations , since bochartus , mr. camden , boxhornius , ioannes ger. vossius , aegidius menagius , and many other learned and judicious authors , have given the world such ample testimonies of their usefulness ; provided they be cautiously handled , with due regard to the corruption of languages , and free from the extravagancy of fancy . the essay entituled , archaeologia britannica , is design'd to be divided into four parts . the first to contain , a comparison of the modern welsh with other european languages ; more especially with the greek , latin , irish , cornish , and armorican . the second , a comparison of the customs and traditions of the britans , with those of other nations . the third , an account of all such monuments now remaining in wales , as are presum'd to be british ; and either older , or not much later than the roman conquest : viz. their camps and burial-places ; the monuments called cromlecheu , and meineu gwyr ; their coyns , arms , amulets , &c. the fourth , an account of the roman antiquities there , and some others of later date , during the government of the british princes ; together with copies of all the inscriptions of any considerable antiquity , as yet remaining in that country . the natural history may be divided into five sections . the first whereof may contain , a general description of the country , in respect of its situation , and quality of the soyl : an account of meteors ; with comparative tables of the weather in several places : also of the sea , rivers , lakes , springs , and mineral waters . § 2. an enumeration and description of the various sorts of earths , stones , and all mineral bodies . § 3. of form'd stones ; or such as have a constant and regular figure , whereby they are distinguishable from each others , no less than plants or animals . § 4. of plants : wherein we shall only take notice of such as grow spontaneously in wales , and have been rarely , or not at all , observ'd elsewhere in this island : adding a catalogue of such as are found in england , or scotland , and have not been observ'd in wales . § 5. of animals , in the same method . thus i have given a scheme of what seems to me at present , most likely to find acceptance amongst the learned and ingenious : but this i offer with submission to those of greater judgment and experience ; and shall be very ready , in case i undertake the performance , to admit of any alteration or amendment ( agreeable with my capacity ) which they shall think fit to recommend . now in order to the performance of what is here propos'd , 't will be necessary to travel wales , at least four or five summers ; and likewise to make one journey into cornwal , and another into ireland , or the highlands of scotland , for parallel observations , as to their language , their names of towns , rivers , mountains , &c. it being certain , that the want of such actual surveying , hath been in all ages the occasion of much error and ignorance in writings of this nature . during these travels , i propose to my self the collecting materials for each work ; but shall endeavour to prepare the dictionary for the press within the space of five years ; and the archaeologia within two years after at farthest . as to the natural history , i can set no time for its publication , as not being able to guess how tedious it may prove , and having some thoughts of writing it in latin , and publishing it in several sections apart . but before we engage in a work so very tedious and expensive , it seems necessary to understand , what encouragement we are to depend upon ; since nothing of this kind hath been undertaken ( nor indeed could well succeed ) in any country , without such an assurance . it 's well known , no kind of writing requires more expences and fatigue , than that of natural history and antiquities : it being impossible to perform any thing accurately in those studies , without much travelling , and diligent searching , as well the most desert rocks and mountains , as the more frequented valleys and plains . the caves , mines , and quarries must be pry'd into , as well as the outward surface of the earth ; nor must we have less regard to the creatures of the sea , lakes , and rivers , than those of the air and dry land. but 't is not the expences of travelling we are only to regard ; the charges of the figures or draughts of such new discoveries as will occur , must needs be much more considerable : not to mention , that a correspondence as extensive as we can settle it , must be maintain'd with the curious in these studies ; and such new books purchas'd , as are pertinent to our design ; and that labourers ( especially in mines and quarries ) are to be rewarded for preserving such things , as they shall be directed to take notice of . upon these considerations , i hope it will not be thought profuse liberality , ( provided those who are competent judges approve of the design ) if an annual pension be allow'd towards it , by such gentlemen as are of their own free choice inclin'd to promote it , for the space of five years : the money to be deliver'd on the first of march , or any time that month , into the hands of some friends in each county , who are pleas'd to take upon them the trouble of returning it . and if this proposal finds acceptance , my request is , that those gentlemen who are pleas'd to further the undertaking , would subscribe their names to this paper , adding how much they are dispos'd to contribute yearly . and if what is subscrib'd , shall answer these considerations , my design is ( with god's permission ) to begin travelling next march. i am very sensible , that such an encouragement is above my merits ; neither can i promise my patrons a performance ( if it please god i may live to go thorough with it ) any thing answerable to their generosity : but whatever shall be the success , i intend not to spare either labour or charges ; and being engag'd in no profession , nor ( by the favour of the university ) oblig'd to personal attendance in my present station , nor at all confin'd with the care of any family , i shall have little else to mind , but to endeavour the performance of this task to my own credit , and the satisfaction of those gentlemen who shall think fit to encourage me . oxon , octob. 20. 1695. parochial queries in order to a geographical dictionary, a natural history &c. of wales by e.l. lhuyd, edward, 1660-1709. 1697 approx. 15 kb of xml-encoded text transcribed from 3 1-bit group-iv tiff page images. text creation partnership, ann arbor, mi ; oxford (uk) : 2004-03 (eebo-tcp phase 1). a48368 wing l1947 estc r28980 10789037 ocm 10789037 45893 this keyboarded and encoded edition of the work described above is co-owned by the institutions providing financial support to the early english books online text creation partnership. this phase i text is available for reuse, according to the terms of creative commons 0 1.0 universal . the text can be copied, modified, distributed and performed, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. early english books online. (eebo-tcp ; phase 1, no. a48368) transcribed from: (early english books online ; image set 45893) images scanned from microfilm: (early english books, 1641-1700 ; 1387:31) parochial queries in order to a geographical dictionary, a natural history &c. of wales by e.l. lhuyd, edward, 1660-1709. 4 p. s.n., [oxford? : 1697] author's name from note on page 4. caption title. questionnaire. reproduction of original in the bodleian library. created by converting tcp files to tei p5 using tcp2tei.xsl, tei @ oxford. re-processed by university of nebraska-lincoln and northwestern, with changes to facilitate morpho-syntactic tagging. gap elements of known extent have been transformed into placeholder characters or elements to simplify the filling in of gaps by user contributors. eebo-tcp is a partnership between the universities of michigan and oxford and the publisher proquest to create accurately transcribed and encoded texts based on the image sets published by proquest via their early english books online (eebo) database (http://eebo.chadwyck.com). the general aim of eebo-tcp is to encode one copy (usually the first edition) of every monographic english-language title published between 1473 and 1700 available in eebo. eebo-tcp aimed to produce large quantities of textual data within the usual project restraints of time and funding, and therefore chose to create diplomatic transcriptions (as opposed to critical editions) with light-touch, mainly structural encoding based on the text encoding initiative (http://www.tei-c.org). the eebo-tcp project was divided into two phases. the 25,363 texts created during phase 1 of the project have been released into the public domain as of 1 january 2015. anyone can now take and use these texts for their own purposes, but we respectfully request that due credit and attribution is given to their original source. users should be aware of the process of creating the tcp texts, and therefore of any assumptions that can be made about the data. text selection was based on the new cambridge bibliography of english literature (ncbel). if an author (or for an anonymous work, the title) appears in ncbel, then their works are eligible for inclusion. selection was intended to range over a wide variety of subject areas, to reflect the true nature of the print record of the period. in general, first editions of a works in english were prioritized, although there are a number of works in other languages, notably latin and welsh, included and sometimes a second or later edition of a work was chosen if there was a compelling reason to do so. image sets were sent to external keying companies for transcription and basic encoding. quality assurance was then carried out by editorial teams in oxford and michigan. 5% (or 5 pages, whichever is the greater) of each text was proofread for accuracy and those which did not meet qa standards were returned to the keyers to be redone. after proofreading, the encoding was enhanced and/or corrected and characters marked as illegible were corrected where possible up to a limit of 100 instances per text. any remaining illegibles were encoded as <gap>s. understanding these processes should make clear that, while the overall quality of tcp data is very good, some errors will remain and some readable characters will be marked as illegible. users should bear in mind that in all likelihood such instances will never have been looked at by a tcp editor. the texts were encoded and linked to page images in accordance with level 4 of the tei in libraries guidelines. copies of the texts have been issued variously as sgml (tcp schema; ascii text with mnemonic sdata character entities); displayable xml (tcp schema; characters represented either as utf-8 unicode or text strings within braces); or lossless xml (tei p5, characters represented either as utf-8 unicode or tei g elements). keying and markup guidelines are available at the text creation partnership web site . eng natural history -wales -pre-linnean works. wales -description and travel. wales -description and travel -early works to 1800. 2003-09 tcp assigned for keying and markup 2003-09 aptara keyed and coded from proquest page images 2003-10 mona logarbo sampled and proofread 2003-10 mona logarbo text and markup reviewed and edited 2003-12 pfs batch review (qc) and xml conversion parochial queries in order to a geographical dictionary , a natural history , &c. of wales . by the undertaker e. l. having publish'd some proposals towards a survey of wales , and met with sufficient encouragement from the gentry of that country , and several others , lovers of such studies ; to enable me ( with god's permission ) to undertake it : i thought it necessary for the easier and more effectual performance of so tedious a task , to print the following queries ; having good grounds to hope the gentry and clergy ( since they are pleas'd to afford me so generous an allowance towards it ) will also readily contribute their assistance , as to information ; and the use of their manuscripts , coyns , and other monuments of antiquity : the design being so extraordinary difficult without such helps , and so easily improvable thereby . nor would i have any imagine , that by publishing these queries , i design to spare my self the least labour of travelling the country , but on the contrary be assured , i shall either come my self , or send one of my assistants into each parish throughout wales , and all those in shropshire and herefordshire , where the language and the ancient names of places are still retain'd : and that with all the speed , so particular a survey will admit of . my request therefore to such as are desirous of promoting the work , is , that after each query , they would please to write on the blank paper , ( or elsewhere if room be wanting ) their reports ; confining themselves , unless the subject shall require otherwise , to that parish only where they inhabit ; and distinguishing always betwixt matter of fact , conjecture , and tradition . nor will any , i hope , omit such informations as shall occur to their thoughts , upon presumption , they can be of little use to the undertaker , or the publick , or because they have not leisure to write down their observations so regularly as they desire : seeing that what we sometimes judge insignificant , may afterwards upon some application unthought of , appear very useful ; and that a regular and compleat account of things is not here so much expected , as short memorials , and some directions in order to a further enquiry . queries in order to the geography , and antiquities of the country . i. first therefore information is desired of the name of the parish ; both according to the modern pronunciation and the oldest records , ( which would be also very convenient as to all other places whatever ) and whence 't is thought to be deriv'd . also whether a market-town , town-corporate , or village . ii. in what comot or hundred situate ? how bounded ? of what extent , and what number of houses and inhabitants ? to what saint is the church dedicated , and whether a parsonage , vicarage , or both ? iii. an enumeration and brief description of the towns , villages , hamlets , castles , forts , monasteries , chappels of ease , free-schools , hospitals , bridges , and all publick buildings whatever within the parish , whether ruinous or entire ; or whose names only are preserv'd : when , and by whom founded , endow'd or repair'd ? iv. sanctuaries or places of refuge ; places memorable for battels , births , or interment of great persons , parliaments , councils , synods , &c. v. seats of the gentry ; with the names and quality of the present proprietors , and their arms and descent . vi. a catalogue of the barrows , or those artificial mounts distinguish'd by the several names of krigeu , gorsedheu , tommenydh , beili , &c. as also of the camps and all old entrenchments whatever . vii . roman ways , pavements , stoves , or any under-ground works : crosses , beacons , stones pitch'd an end in a regualr order ; such as meinibirion in caernarvonshire , karn lhechart in glamorgan , and buarth arthur in the county of caermardhin : as also all those rude stone-monuments distinguish'd by the several names of bêdh , gwely , karnedh , kromlech , lhêch yr âst , lhêch y gowres , lhêch y wydhan , koeten arthur , kist vnën , preseb y vuwch vrech , &c. viii . the old inscriptions in the parish , whether in the church , or elsewhere ; a collection of all being intended to the time of king henry the eighth . ix . old arms , urns , lamps , paterae , fibulae , or any other utensils ; where , and when discover'd ? x. coyns , amulets , chains , bracelets , rings , seals , &c. where , and when found ; and in whose possession at present ? xi . manuscripts : of what subject and language ; in whose hands ; whether ancient or late copies ? xii . the names of the most remarkable mountains , rocks , parks , woods , commons , warrens , &c. together with such names of any other places not comprehended under these queries , as seem so obscure as to be scarce , if at all intelligible ; with brief descriptions of them , and conjectures of their signification . xiii . the names of all the rivers and rivulets in the parish ; distinguishing always betwixt those that rise , or are discharged in it , and such as pass through it , or constitute its bounds ; together with their remarkable catarracts , or water-falls , where they afford any . xiv . names of the lakes and remarkable springs ; and whether any thing be noted of them extraordinary . xv. the customs , and peculiar games and feasts amongst the vulgar in the parish , hundred , county , or any part of wales : together with the vulgar errors and traditions ; parallel with those treated of by the learned and judicious author of pseudodoxia epidemica . xvi . what words , phrases , or variation of dialect in the welsh , seems peculiar to any part of the country ? what names of men and women uncommon ? and wherein doth the english of the vulgar , in pembrokeshire and gowerland , differ from that in the western counties , &c. of england ? queries toward the natural history . xvii . whether the parish be generally corn-ground or pasture ? colour of the soil ? very fertil , barren or indifferent ? mountanous or champion ground ? woody , heathy , rocky , clay-ground , sundy , gravelly , & c ? xviii . the sorts of grain sown in the parish , and the composts used ; with any useful observations in husbandry ; and a computation of the number of cattel and horses it breeds ; as also of the sheep , goats , hogs , &c. xix . of the state of health : whether the parish , hundred or comot be subject to any peculiar diseases ? what number of ancient men and women ; with their years ? whether they seem to differ at all in their diet from those that live elsewhere ; and what effects as to health and sickness , are ascrib'd to the air of the place ? xx. observations on the stature and complexion of the inhabitants in general ; with such exceptions as occur . instances of the strength or activity of particular men well attested , with all the circumstances requisite . antipathies of some persons to several sorts of meat , drink , &c. xxi . observations relating to cattel , horses , sheep , or other animals ; as to their general magnitude , shape , colours , good or bad qualities : the diseases they are subject to , whether owing to contagion , or the unwholsomness of their pasture or water ? also what inconveniences they are liable to , the several seasons of the year , at snowdon , cader idris , plyn lhymmon , and the other high mountains . xxii . a register of the weather , for the space of one year at least , kept by one or two in each county , would be of considerable use : with observations on the figures of snow and hail : the time it generally begins to snow on our highest mountains , and when it desists ; with any other curious remarks about meteors . xxiii . observations concerning tides , eddies , and whirl-pools ; form and consistence of the shoar or maritim land , and the influence the sea has upon it . what tokens of woods or buildings gain'd by the sea ? particularly whether kaer anrhod , sarn badric , and sarn y bwch ( in north wales ) be presum'd to be artificial or natural ; and if the former , what evidence there is for it ? xxiv . an account of the subterraneous and diving rivers ; and of such as are totally absorb'd , or no where distinguishable afterwards ; also of sudden eruptions of water , and periodical streams . a computation of the number of springs in the parish . how near the tops of hills are the highest running springs ? or are there any in very even plains remote from hills ? any fountains that ebb and flow ? waters that petrifie or incrustate wood , moss , leaves , &c. medicinal springs , or waters of unusual taste , smell , or colour , or remarkable for their weight , or tinging the stone or earth whence they proceed ? xxv . particular information of all places where there are any caves , mines , coal-works , quarries , stone-pits , marl-pits ; or in short , where labourers dig upon any occasion whatever . xxvi . if such places afford any uncommon oars , earths , or other minerals ; stones resembling sea-shells , teeth , or other bones of fish ; or crabs-claws , corals , and leaves of plumes ; or in brief , any stones , or other bodies whatever of a remarkable figure ; the workmen are desired to preserve them , till they are call'd for by the undertaker , or some of his friends ; in consideration whereof , they shall receive some reward suitable to their care and pains . xxvii . such as have made the history of plants any part of their diversion , are desired to communicate dried specimens of those sorts they esteem rarest , or that are unknown to them ; or to give directions where they may be met with : also what observations they have made by often repeated experiments , concerning the healing , or noxious qualities of plants . xxviii . whether any have been curious in observing the various sorts of sea-shells , sea-eggs , sea-spiders ; starres , buttons , sponges ; urticae , tethyae holothuria , &c. or have made any remarks extraordinary on land-insects ? xxix . information is desired from those who have been most conversant in fishing ; what sorts of fish their waters afford , and of these which are the rarest , or haunt those places most seldom ? what variety of colours and shape they have observ'd in the same species ? what baits used for each , and when in season ? what sorts are solitary , and which keep together in shoals ? what they have observ'd as to their feeding , spawning , and change of names according to age ; and by what tokens they know such , to be the same species ? also the iaws , and some of the vertebrae of the rarest ( for which some gratuity shall be allow'd the fishermen ) are desired ; in order to compare them with the fossil bones above-mention'd . xxx . by what is proposed of insects and fish ; the reader will judge what sort of information will be acceptable , relating to birds and quadrupeds . xxxi . who in each country is best skill'd in the welsh names of birds , fish , insects , plants , stones ; or any other natural bodies ? having thus propounded what queries occur to my thoughts ; nothing remains , but that i own to the publick , that in case this paper meets with a kind reception ( as from this last summer's travels , i have great hopes it may ) if the undertaking be ill perform'd , 't will be wholly my own fault ; the gentry of the country having in all respects done more than their part , and afforded such an encouragement towards it , as might sufficiently requite the labours of a person far better qualified for such a design : but of this , a particular account ( as is necessary ) shall be given hereafter . so i shall only add here ; that as to these queries , besides wales , i intreat the favourable assistance of the gentry and clergy in those other countries mention'd in the former proposals : and that in all places , they who are dispos'd to further the design , would please to communicate this paper where they think fit , amongst their neighbours ; interpreting some queries to those of the vulgar , whom they judge men of veracity , and capable of giving any the least information towards it , that may be pertinent and instructive . we judge mr. lhwyd qualified for this undertaking ; and that he cannot want proper materials towards it , if ( as an addition to his own industry ) he receives such answers to those queries , as can be conveniently return'd from each parish . john wallis . edward bernard . martin lister . john ray . advertisement . the subscribers may please to pay the money , the time specified in the proposals , to any of my corespondents in their neighbourhood ; who are desired to return it either to mr. william at the museum in oxford , or to mr. walter thomas of bernard's inn , london ; who will also safely convey to my hands any letters , papers , or manuscripts they receive on this occasion . miracles of art and nature, or, a brief description of the several varieties of birds, beasts, fishes, plants, and fruits of other countreys : together with several other remarkable things in the world by r.b., gent. r. b., 1632?-1725? 1678 approx. 102 kb of xml-encoded text transcribed from 65 1-bit group-iv tiff page images. text creation partnership, ann arbor, mi ; oxford (uk) : 2004-03 (eebo-tcp phase 1). a35244 wing c7345 estc r21178 12259737 ocm 12259737 57821 this keyboarded and encoded edition of the work described above is co-owned by the institutions providing financial support to the early english books online text creation partnership. this phase i text is available for reuse, according to the terms of creative commons 0 1.0 universal . the text can be copied, modified, distributed and performed, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. early english books online. (eebo-tcp ; phase 1, no. a35244) transcribed from: (early english books online ; image set 57821) images scanned from microfilm: (early english books, 1641-1700 ; 178:10) miracles of art and nature, or, a brief description of the several varieties of birds, beasts, fishes, plants, and fruits of other countreys : together with several other remarkable things in the world by r.b., gent. r. b., 1632?-1725? [7], 120 p. printed for william bowtel ..., london : 1678. r.b. stands for richard or robert burton, the pseudonym of nathaniel crouch. reproduction of original in british library. created by converting tcp files to tei p5 using tcp2tei.xsl, tei @ oxford. re-processed by university of nebraska-lincoln and northwestern, with changes to facilitate morpho-syntactic tagging. gap elements of known extent have been transformed into placeholder characters or elements to simplify the filling in of gaps by user contributors. eebo-tcp is a partnership between the universities of michigan and oxford and the publisher proquest to create accurately transcribed and encoded texts based on the image sets published by proquest via their early english books online (eebo) database (http://eebo.chadwyck.com). the general aim of eebo-tcp is to encode one copy (usually the first edition) of every monographic english-language title published between 1473 and 1700 available in eebo. eebo-tcp aimed to produce large quantities of textual data within the usual project restraints of time and funding, and therefore chose to create diplomatic transcriptions (as opposed to critical editions) with light-touch, mainly structural encoding based on the text encoding initiative (http://www.tei-c.org). the eebo-tcp project was divided into two phases. the 25,363 texts created during phase 1 of the project have been released into the public domain as of 1 january 2015. anyone can now take and use these texts for their own purposes, but we respectfully request that due credit and attribution is given to their original source. users should be aware of the process of creating the tcp texts, and therefore of any assumptions that can be made about the data. text selection was based on the new cambridge bibliography of english literature (ncbel). if an author (or for an anonymous work, the title) appears in ncbel, then their works are eligible for inclusion. selection was intended to range over a wide variety of subject areas, to reflect the true nature of the print record of the period. in general, first editions of a works in english were prioritized, although there are a number of works in other languages, notably latin and welsh, included and sometimes a second or later edition of a work was chosen if there was a compelling reason to do so. image sets were sent to external keying companies for transcription and basic encoding. quality assurance was then carried out by editorial teams in oxford and michigan. 5% (or 5 pages, whichever is the greater) of each text was proofread for accuracy and those which did not meet qa standards were returned to the keyers to be redone. after proofreading, the encoding was enhanced and/or corrected and characters marked as illegible were corrected where possible up to a limit of 100 instances per text. any remaining illegibles were encoded as <gap>s. understanding these processes should make clear that, while the overall quality of tcp data is very good, some errors will remain and some readable characters will be marked as illegible. users should bear in mind that in all likelihood such instances will never have been looked at by a tcp editor. the texts were encoded and linked to page images in accordance with level 4 of the tei in libraries guidelines. copies of the texts have been issued variously as sgml (tcp schema; ascii text with mnemonic sdata character entities); displayable xml (tcp schema; characters represented either as utf-8 unicode or text strings within braces); or lossless xml (tei p5, characters represented either as utf-8 unicode or tei g elements). keying and markup guidelines are available at the text creation partnership web site . eng natural history -pre-linnean works. curiosities and wonders -early works to 1800. 2003-09 tcp assigned for keying and markup 2003-09 aptara keyed and coded from proquest page images 2003-10 rina kor sampled and proofread 2003-10 rina kor text and markup reviewed and edited 2003-12 pfs batch review (qc) and xml conversion miracles of art and nature : or , a brief description of the several varieties of birds , beasts , fishes , plants , and fruits of other countreys . together with several other remarkable things in the world. by r. b. gent. london , printed for william bowtel at the sign of the golden key near miter-court in fleet-street , 1678. to the ingenious reader . candid reader , what thou findest herein , are collections out of several antient authors , which ( with no small trouble , ) i have carefully and diligently collected , and comprised into this small book at some vacant hours , for the divertisement of such as thy self , who are disposed to read it ; for as the several climates of the world , have not only influenced the inhabitants , but the very beasts , with natures different from one another : so hast thou here , not only a description of the several shapes and natures of variety of birds , beasts , fishes , plants and fruits ; but also of the dispositions and customs ( though some of them barbarous and inhumane , ) of several people , who inhabit many pleasing and other parts of the world. i think there is not a chapter wherein thou wilt not find various and remarkable things worth thy observation ; and such ( take the book throughout , ) that thou canst not have in any one author , at least modern , and of this volume . and if what i have done , shall not dislike thee , i shall possibly proceed , and go on to a further discovery in this kind , which doubtless cannot ( as all variety doth , ) please thee . 't is probable they are not so methodically dispos'd as some hands might have done ; yet for variety and pleasure-sake , they are ( i hope ) pleasingly enough intermixed . and as i find this accepted , so i shall proceed . farewel . chap. i. of aegypt in general . by reason of the southernly scituation of it , the air is very hot , and offensive ; so that to avoid the insupportable heat thereof , and to have the benefit of some fresh winds , the inhabitants are accustomed to build high towers in all their towns , in which they use to solace , and refresh themselves . the soil made fruitful by the over-flowing of the river nilus , is so exceeding plentiful of all sorts of grain , that it was called , horreum populi romani , the granary or store-house of the people of rome : which city , it did annually furnish with four months provisions . it abounds also with rich pastures , in which they feed great store of camels , horses , asses , oxen , sheep , and goates , greater of growth then usually in most places else ; and by reason of the moorishness of the country , they have great store of fowls , poultry they have in great abundance about their houses , hatched in a different manner from all other countries , not by sitting of the hen , but by the heat of furnaces , or ovens , in which their eggs are orderly laid in dung , and by a gentle heat brought to animation . palm-trees there are in great store , growing in couples , male and female , both thrusting forth their rods full of seeds ; but the female is only fruitful , and that not except growing by the male , and having his seeds mixt with hers : the pith of these trees is most excellent salad , in taste somewhat resembling a hartichoke ; of the branches of this tree they make beadsteads , latices , &c. of the leaves , baskets , mats , fans , &c. of the outward husk of the cod , cordage ; of the inner , brushes ; the fruit it bears best known by the name of a date . finally , it is said to bear whatsoever is necessary to the life of a man : it is the nature of this tree , though never so ponderous a weight were put upon it , not to yield to the burthen ; but still to resist the heaviness , and endeavour to raise it self the more upwards . for this cause planted in church-yards in the eastern countreys as an emblem of the resurrection : instead whereof we use the yew-tree in these more colder regions . the people , though the country be in the same clime with barbary , are not black , but tawny ; affirmed to weep and mourn over the bodies of their dead , daubed over with dung ; to have held it a great impiety to burn or bury them ; but having imbalmed them ; to lay them in some inward room of their houses : the men to keep themselves at home , for the houshould business , whilst the women follow merchandize and other affairs abroad ; the men to carry burdens upon their heads , and the women theirs on their shoulders ; antipodes in these last to most other nations ; but certainly they were witty and ingenious people , the first inventers of geometry , arithmetick , physick ; as also astronomy , necromancy , and sorcery : they first taught the use of letters to the neighbouring phenicians , accustomed at first to express their conceits in the shape of birds , beasts , and trees &c. which they termed hyeroglyphicks , of which , two or three examples will not be impertinent . for eternity , they painted the sun and moon , as things which they believed to have had no beginning , nor were likely to have any ending . for a year , they painted a snake , with his tail in his mouth , to shew how one year succeeding another , kept the world still in an endless circle . for a month , they painted a palm-tree , because at every new moon , it sendeth forth a new branch . for god , they painted a faulcon , as well for that he soared so high , as that he governed the lesser birds for integrity of life , they painted fire and water ; both because these elements are in themselves most pure , and because all other things are putrified by them . for any thing that was abominable to the gods , they painted a fish , because in their sacrifices their priests never used them . chap. ii. memphis . in egypt . near to the city memphis in egypt , stands , or did stand a pyramide square at the bottom , supposed to take up eight acres of ground , and each square 300 single paces long , and 255 steps from top to bottom , cach step above three foot high , and the breadth proportionable , growing by degrees narrower , till it comes to the top , which consists but of three stones only , yet so large , that sixty men may stand thereon : no stone so little in the whole , as to be drawn by any the greatest of our carriages ; and yet all brought thither from the arrabian mountains , how or by what manner is as great a wonder as the rest ; built for the sepulcher of an egyptian king , who imployed in it for twenty years together , no less then 366000 men continually at work on it ; the charges they put him to in no other food then garlick , radishes , and onyons , being imputed at a thousand eight hundred tallents . others there are of great note , though not so famous as this . chap. iii. caire in egypt . near that city , caire in egypt , is a place , which upon good friday , there appears the heads , leggs , and arms of men , rising out of the ground to a very great number ; which if a man come near , or touch any of them , they immediatly shrink into the earth again ; supposed by some to be the imposture of water-men only , who stick them in the sands over night , and keeping them secret ; obtain thereby the carrying of many thousands to behold the sight : but 't is reported by a sober and credible person ; who was an eye-witness of the wonder , that he had touched divers of them ; and going so to do to the head of a child , a man of caire cryed out to him , kali , kali , ante materasde ; that is to say , hold , hold , you know not what you do ; a strange fore-runner ( if true ) of the resurrection of the whole body . chap. iv. botanter in india . botanter in india , is a countrey very large , of three months journey in extent , full of high mountains ; one of which may be seen five days journey off ; in which are said to dwell a sort of people with ears of a span long , or more ; whom those of the valleys count as apes . in those parts which are next to bengab ; they are white , and gentiles , in other places more inclining to an olive colour ; their garments they wear close to their bodies , so streight that one cannot see a pleat or wrinkle in them ; and those they never put off by night or day , whilst they are able to hang on : nor do they wash at any time , for fear of defiling so pure a creature as the water . content with one wife , and yet co-habit not with her after two or three children ; when any of them die , the south-sayers are to tell them what to do with the body : according to whose directions , ( first consulting his books , ) they burn , bury , or eat the dead bodies of their friends . chap. v. narsinga in india . in the country narsinga in india , the people are in religion , gentiles , worshipping one god , as the lord of all , who is taught them by the light of nature , that they joyn the devil , or their pa-gods in commission with them , whereto induced by the perswasion of their beastly bramines , or priests , who suck there-out no small advantage : some christians there are intermixed of the old plantation , especially in maliapur , and the region of choromandel , but not so well instructed in the principles of their own belief , as to be able to convince or convert the gentiles , nor to disswade them from the use of some heathenish customs , though barborous and inhumane , and against all reason ; not used in any place , but amongst the indians : amongst which is reckoned for most savage , the forcing the poor women to burn themselves with their husbands bodies , the womens kindred not the husbands , thrusting them on these hard conditions , who reckon it a disgrace to their family , if she should refuse : and because they will be sure not to have that infamy stick upon them , they have ordered , that the women , who shall refuse , must shave her head , and break her jewels , and not be suffered to eat , drink , or sleep , or accompany with any body till her death ; a life more miserable then the flames which they seek to shun . this makes them leap into the fire with joy and greediness , and to contend which shall be foremost : she being thought to have been most loving during his life , which is now most willing to accompany him in his death . chap. vi. qvillacare . qvillacare is the head city , of a peculiar seigneury in india , but held of the kings of traneanor , as their next and immediate lord ; sthough this and other kings also are feuditaries of the throne of narsinga , and were that the worst tenure by which they held , it might be tollerable : but there is a matter of worse consequence ; which attends these besotted princes . the kingdom here , is but a pomp of twelve years continuance , and then endeth in a sad catastrophe : for at the end of those twelve years , the king repairs to quillacare , prayeth before an idoll ; then mounteth on a scaffold , covered with silk , or tapestry , and in the sight of all his people ( gathered together to behold this strange solemnity ) cuteth off his nose , ears , lips , and other parts , which he casteth towards the idoll , and in conclusion cuts his own throat : his designed successor being present at this bloody sacrifice , who at the twelve years end is to do the like . chap. vii . india . there are in other parts of india , a sort of people called by the name of basadae , said to be crooked , short , and thick ; but of a chearful aspect , and clear complexion : of which composition are all the inhabitants of the golden chersonese observed to the barrae , and cudute , other people also called sinris-magnus ; the lestori , a thievish and piratical people , who lived in caves , and were affirmed to have had skins so hard that they were not penetrable by an arrow . chap. viii . china . china is said to be a very rich and fertile countrey , insomuch that in many places they have two , and in some three harvests in a year , well cultivated and sown with all manner of grain , and planted with the best kind of fruits , which do not only bring corn to a speedy maturity , but to more excellency and perfection then any of these western parts ; particularly it aboundeth with wheat , barly , rice , wooll , cotten , olives , vines , flax , silk , all kinds of metals , fruits , cattel , sugar , honey , rhuburb , camphire , ginger , and all kind of spices , medicinal wood called china wood , musk , and salt , it yieldeth also an herb , out of which they press delicate juice , which serves not only instead of wine , but preserveth their health ; and freeth them from many of these inconveniences , which the immoderate use of wine breeds in others . such store of poultry of all sorts , but of ducks especially , that in the town of canton only , it is thought , there are eaten no less then 12000 every day , one day with an other . the people are for the most part of a swarthy complexion , but more or less according to their nearness to the heat of the sun ; short nosed , black eyed , and of very thin beards : they wear their garments very long , with long loose sleeves , and their hair much longer then their neighbouring tartars , who wear their hair exceeding short , and their cloaths much straighter , to which two fashions so addicted , that more of them take up arms for their hair and habit , ( when required to conform in those particulars to the will of the conquerour ) then had done either for their king , or their common liberty : so much delighted with their own fashion , that as the negroes use to paint the devil white , as a colour contrary to their own ; so when these chinoises use to draw the picture of a deformed person , they set him forth in a short coat , broad eyes , long nose , and bushey beard , they are much given to their bellies , and eat thrice a day , but not imoderately ; drink their drink hot , and eat their meat with two sticks of ivory , ebony , or the like , not touching their meat with their hands at all . chhp. ix . india . it is reported , that in some parts of india , there are men with dogs-heads ; men with one leg only , yet of great swiftness , of such as live by scent , of men that had but one eye only , and that in their foreheads ; and of others , whose years hung to the ground . it is reported also , that these men by eating the heart , and liver of a dragon , attain to the understanding of the language of beasts ; that they can make themselves invisible , when they please ; they have two tubs , whereof the one opened , yields wine ; and the other rain , and the like . but of these i doubt not but the understanding reader , knoweth how to judge , and what to believe . chap. x. aethiopia . aethiopia , is a country said to be parching hot , that the people dare not only go out without their shooes , but that they rost their meat by setting it in the sun. here is also a lake , whose waters are thrice a day , and thrice a night very salt , and unpleasant , but at all other times most sweet and deliberate to the pallate ; there are also in this countrey two other lakes of that poysonous nature , that who so ever drinks of them , doth either fall immediately mad , or else is troubled for a long time with a continual drowsiness : of which thus ovid aethiopesque lacus ; quos si quis faucibus hausit , aut furit , aut patitur mirum gravitate soporum . which may be thus paraphrased . who doth not know the aethiopian lake , of which who ever drinks his thirst to slake , either grows mad , or doth his soul oppress , with an unheard of heavy drowfiness . chap. xi . adell in aethiopia . adell in aethiopia , is a countrey , plentiful of flesh , honey , corn , wax , gold , and ivory ; great flocks of sheep , and many of those sheep of such burdensome fleeces , that their tails weigh twenty five pounds in weight ; some kine there are which have horns like stags ; others but one horn only , and that in the fore-head , about a foot and half long , but bending backward . chap. xii qviola in aethiopia . qviola in aethiopia , is a countrey rich and pleasant , the inhabitants for the most part of arrabian ancestry ; of complexion near to white . their women comely , and sumptuous in attire , and of civil carriage ; neat in their houses , which are generally well built , and richly furnished . the people of the quiola are said to have a strange custom amongst them , more to be mentioned for the rarity , then the decency of it : which is the sewing up of the private passages of nature in their female children , leaving only a small vent for their urine , thus sewed , they keep them careful at home , till they come to be married . and she that is by her husband found to want this sign of her perpetual virginity , is with all kind of ignominy sent back to her parents , and by them as disgracefully received . chap. xiii . cesaria in aethiopia . the inhabitants of cesaria in aethiopia , wear for the most part no other habits then the skins of beasts undrest , just as they have them from the flesh ; but when they cloath themselves with sheep-skins , they have so much wit , as to wear the flece next their bodies , in cold weather ; which at other times they expose ( with no small pride and glory ) to open view . their voices so inarticulate , that it is hard to be distinguished into words and syllables ; which being composed with that bruitishness , which commonly appeareth in all their actions , makes it hard to say , whether the people generally may be thought to be men in the skins of beasts : or beasts created in the shape and likeness of men ; but they make greater use of their cattel , then for garments only , their raw flesh serving them for food , and the guts for ornaments , which they hang about their necks uncleansed , and with all the filth in them , in as great a bravery as ropes of pearls , or chains of gold in more civil countreys : but amongst the several nations which inhabit this flourishing countrey , none are more barbarous then those , whom they call the imbians , dwelling not far from the cape of good hope ; tall , square and strong , addicted always to war and rapine ; feeding on the flesh , both of their conquered enemy , and their dying friends ; whose death they hasten for the shambles , the skulls of whom they use for drinking-cups : their weapons for poysoned arrows , and poles burnt at the end : and in their war they always carry fire before them , meaning thereby to roast , or boyl all such as they over-come ; the king , ( if such a sacred name , become such an impious monster , ) they account for lord of all the earth : and he with the old giant-like arrogancy , not only threathneth the destruction of men , but shooteth his poysoned arrows against heaven it self , as often as the rain , or heat offends him . chap. xiv . sian in india . the inhabitants of the city of sian in india , are said to maintain amongst other strange opinions , that after 2000 years , ( from when i know not ) the world shall be consumed with fire ; and under the ashes of it shall remain two eggs , out of which shall come a man and a woman , who are to people the world again . 't is said that in the city socotai in the kingdom of siam , there is a temple made wholly of metal , of a great height , adorned with many high steeples and idols . chap. xv. oriental islands . it is reported by travellers , that in some of the oriental islands , are a sort of hoggs that have teeth growing out of their snouts , and as many behind their ears , of a span and half long . a tree whose western part is said to be rank poyson , and the eastern part an excellent preservative against it . a sort of fruit , that whosoever eateth of it , is for the space of 12 hours out of his wits . also a stone , on which , whosoever sitteth hath imediately a rupture in his belly ; that there are tortoises taken there of that largeness , that 10 men may sit in one of the shells . it is also reported that there is a river , plentifully stored with fish , whose water is so hot that it scalds the skin of any beast thrown therein ; that some of their men have tails , and most of their swine horns , that they have oysters so large , that they often carry children in the shells , and that the cocks have a hole in their backs , wherein the hen lays her eggs , and hatches her young ones . sumatra one of the said islands , famous for having a whole mountain of gold in it , as appears by a letter written by pedrunoa sirie , one of the kings of the said isle , to ring iames of great brittain ; that all the furnitures of his house , trappings of his horses and elephants ; with all , his armour , were of pure gold : the inhabitants of the island , said to be the lovingest of all to their enemies of any people in this world ; otherwise they would never eat them , and after make use of their skulls instead of money ; which they exchange for such other necessaries as their wants require . and he is accounted the richest man that has most of this sort of coyn. chap. xvi . america . in america are said to be beasts and fowls , of strange shapes and colours , as their lyons , less in greatness then those of other countreys ; of colour gray , and so nimble as to climb trees ; their doggs snowted like foxes , but cannot bark at all ; their hoggs with talons sharp as razors , and the navil of their bellies , on the ridge of their backs ; their staggs and dear without horns ; their sheep , not only profitable for food and rayment , but used to carry burdens , some of 150 pounds weight , another sort of beast whose name not commonly known , whose fore-part resembleth a fox , his hinder part an ass , except his feet , which are like a mans ; beneath her belley is a receptacle like a purse , where she keeps her young ones , till they are able to shift for themselves , never coming thence , but when they suck ; and then in again : the armadilla , a beast in form like a barbed horse , seeming to be armed all over , and that with artificial , rather then natural plates , which both shut and open . the vicugue , some what resembling a goat , but much larger , and of more profit ; for with the fleece is made ruggs , coverings and stuffs , and in his belly is found the bezoar , a soveraign antidote against poysons , and venemous diseases : a kind of hare like a want in his feet , and a cat in his tail , under whose chin nature hath fastened as it were a little bagg , which she hath also taught him to use as a store-house ; for in this ( having filled his belly , ) he preserves the rest of his provision . the pigritia , a little beast that in 14 or 15 days , cannot go so far as a man can throw a stone at once . of birds , there are several sorts , and of most excellent colours ; amongst the rest one , called by the name of tominejo , of all colours ; and so little that he seems no bigger than a butter-fly , the mouth thereof no bigger then the eye of a needle ; and yet not at all yielding to the nightingale , in sweetness of his notes and musick : the bird and nest , both put into gold scales , weights not above 24 grains , yet beautified with feathers of so many colours , especially in the neck and breast , that the indians make great use of them in their feather-pictures ; others , as big as these are little , as the condore , of such strength and greatness , that they will fall upon a sheep or calf , open it , and eat it ; the like miracles of nature , they have in their fruits , plants , &c. chap. xvii . isle of rhodes the isle of rhodes honoured in ancient time with the huge collossus , one of the seven wonders of the world , made of brass ; in height seventy cubits , every finger of it as bigg as an ordinary man , and consecrated to the sun , as the proper diety of the island ; 't was 12 years in making and having stood but 66 years , was thrown down in an instant by an earth-quake , which terribly shook the whole island ; the rhodians being forbidden by an oracle to erect it again , ( or possibly pretending such an oracle to save the charge ) yet held the brass and other materials of it , in a manner sacred , not meddled with nor sacrilegiously purloined till mnaias , the general of osmen , the mahometan caliph , finding in himself no such scruple of conscience , ( after he had subdued the island , ) made a prey thereof , loading 900 camels with the very brass of it . chap. xviii . perv . in peru , are a sort of sheep by the inhabitants called pacos , profitable both for fleece and burden , as big as a small breed of horses , but in tast as pleasing , and no less nourishing then our mutton : a creature so well acquainted with his own abilities , that when he findeth himself to be overoaded , no blows nor violence shall make him move forwards , till his load be lessened ; and of so cheap a diet , that he is content with very little , and some times goes three whole days without so much as a little water . the camels of those parts not much unlike them , many rarities there are both in beasts and plants in this country , amongst their plants , they have a figg-tree , the north part whereof looking towards the mountains , brings forth its fruits in the summer only ; the southern part looking towards the sea , fruitful only in winter . some as deservedly , account the coca for a wonder , the leaves whereof being dried , and formed into lozenges ( or little pellets ) are exceeding useful in a journey ; for melting in the mouth , they satisfie both hunger and thirst , and preserve a man in his strength , and his spirits in vigour ; and are generally esteemed of such soveraign use , that it is thought , no less then 100000 baskets full of the leaves of this tree , are sold yearly at the mines of potosia only , each of which at some other places would yield 12 d. or 18 d. apiece . another plant , they tell us off , though there is no name found for it , which if put into the hands of a sick person will instantly discover , whether he be like to live or dye : for if on the pressing it in his hand , he look merry , and chearful , it is an assured sign of his recovery , as on the other side of death , if sad and troubled . here is said also to be a lake , near the mines of potozi ; whose waters is so hot , though the country be exceeding cold , that they who bath themselves therein , are not able to endure the heat of it , if they go but a little from the banks , there being in the midst thereof a boyling of above twenty foot square : a lake , which never doth decrease , though they have drawn a great stream from it to serve their mettal mills . chap. xix . orvietto . in orvietto , a city in italy , is said to be a church of wonderous lightness , and yet the windows not made of glass , as in other churches ; but of alablaster . and now we are in italy , we must wander into rome , and take a short view of the life of pope formosus , who was so ill beloved , and of such a general dis-esteem , that pope stephen the 7th . caused his body to be unburied : all his acts reversed , two of his fingers to be cut off , and then the mangled carcass to be interred again amongst the laity . and though the acts of stephen were adiudged illegal , both by iohn the 10th . and pope romauus , two of his successors , and the doing of formosus justified , yet sergius the third caused his corrupt and putrified body to be taken once more out of the grave , and his head to be cut off , as if still alive : so little did the infallibility of st. peter's chair preserve them from contraditions . iohn the 12th . also a wicked cruel , and libidinous pope , taken in adultery , and slain by the husband of the woman . chap. xx. castile in spain . in castile in spain , in the times of our grand-fathers ( saith mine author ) was discovered in a valley scituate amongst high and impassible mountains , a kind of patoecos or salvage people , never heard of in spain before , the occasion of this . an hawk of the duke of ava's , which he very much valued ; flew over those mountains , and his men not being able to find her at first , they were sent back again to seek her , clambering from one hill to another ; they happened at last upon a large and pleasant valley , where they spied a company of naked salvage people ; hemmed in amongst many craggy rocks . the salvages gazing a while upon them , ran into their caves made in the hollows of the rocks , the best houses they had , which being observed by the faulconers , they returned again to their lord ; telling him that instead of a faulcon , they had brought him news of a new world in the midst of spain , and of a race of people , which came in with tuball , strongly affirming what they said , they obtained belief , and the duke shortly after went with a company of musketteers , and subdued them easily ; they having no offensive weapons , but only slings . they worshipped the sun and moon , fed upon nothing that had life ; but had good store of excellent fruits , roots , and springs of water , wherewith a nature was well content , and though their language was not altogether understood by any , yet many of their words were found to be purely busquish , reduced on this discovery to christianity , but easily discernable by all other spaniards by their rawney complexions , occasioned by the reverberation of the sun-beams , from those rocky mountains , wherewith on all sides they are incompassed . chap. xxi . norwey . in norwey , there is a little sort of beast , called by the name of lemers , about the bigness of a mouse , and are by the inhabitants said to drop out of the clouds in tempestious weather , like the locusts , they devour every green thing on the earth , and at a certain time die all in heaps ( as it were ) together ; and with their stench so poyson the air , that the poor people are long after troubled with the jaundies , and a giddiness in the head : but these beast come not so often to infect the land , as the whales do to terrifie the shores ; the seas being there so deep , and therefore a fit habitation for those great leviathans , against whose violence and fury ; the people of the sea-coast have found a remedy , which is by casting some water intermixt with oyle of castor ; the smell whereof forces them immediately to retire , without this help there were no fishing on the coasts . chap. xxii . zisca a bohemian cap. we read of one zisca a bohemian captain , who in eleven battells fought in defence of the hussites against the pope , and his confederates ; prevailed , and went away victorious : insomuch that at his death , he willed the behemians to flea him , and make a drum of his skin ; perswading himself , if they so did , they would never be overcome : a fancy no less idle then strange . in some of the forrests of bohemia , there is a little beast called lomie , which hath hanging under its neck a bladder always full of scalding water , with which when she is hunted , she so tortureth the dogs , that she thereby easily makes her escape . chap. xxiii . assiria . the country of assiria , is said to be so fertile , that the hedges on the high way sides , afford very good fruit , and the adjoyning fields affords to the passengers the shades of fig-trees , were it not naturally so , it would not be much helped by art , or industry ; as being but meanly peopled , and those few without any encouragement , either to the planting fruits , or manuring the land. their sheep are commonly fat and fair , but so over-laded on the tail both with flesh and fleece , that they hang in long wreaths to the ground , dragged after them with no small difficulty , the tails of these sheep frequently weighing thirty pounds or upward . 't is said , that the assirians have a strange way of contracting their mariages , their wives they never see till the day of their marriage , but hearing a good report of them ; they negotiate with her friends , and when agreed , they meet in the chancell of the church ; wherein there is a partition with a hole in it : the bridegroom and his friends standing on one side ; and the bride and her kindred on the other , then that church-man biddeth the bridgeroom to put his hand through the hole in the partition , and take his bride by the hand , which he doth accordingly ; the mother of the bride with a sharp pointed instrument made of purpose , pricking the bridegrooms hand all over with sufficient eagerness , if when he feeleth the smart , he lets go her hand , they take it for a sign , that he will not love her ; but if he hold her fast , and wring her hand so hard , till she cry again ; they take it as a very good omen , and are glad , they have so well bestowed her . after the marriage is consummate , if a male child be born unto them , the father looseth his own name , and is called after his sons name ; so as if the fathers name be moses , and his sons name ioseph ; the father is no more called moses , but abba ioseph ; or the father of ioseph , so highly do they reverence marriage , and the fruits thereof , posterity . chap. xxiiii . qvivira in califormia . the province of quivira in califormia , is a country full of herbage , breeding great store of cattel , differing not much in bigness from those of europe . but that they have an high bunch betwixt their shoulders , bristled on the back like bores , which somewhat resemble the mane of a horse ; their legs short and clad with fetlocks , their horns short , but sharp ; the whole beast of so horrid an aspect , that a horse will not venture near him , till well acquainted ; yet in this beast lyes all the riches of the inhabitants of the country ; for they are to them , as ale to drunkards , meat , drink , and cloath , and more too ; for the hides yield them houses , or at least the covering of them , their bones , bodkins ; their hair , thread ; their sinewes , ropes ; their hornes , mawes , and bladders , vessels ; their dung fire ; their calfskins , budgets to draw and keep water in ; their blood , drink ; and their flesh meat . there is also said to be a cave between two mountains , from which the rain descending , turns into alablaster , naturally fashioned into pillars ; and other portraitures . chap. xxv . germany . in germany , once lived an earl , whose wife was called iermentrudis , having accused a poor woman of adultery , and caused her to be grievously punnished , for having twelve children at a birth ; was afterwards her self delivered of the same number , and all of them sons : her husband being absent at the time of her delivery , she commanded the nurse to kill eleven of them ; fearing ( it seems ) the like shame and punishment , as by her instigation was inflicted on the poor woman : the nurse going to perform this wicked command , was met by the old earl , then returning home-ward : who asked her ; what she had in her apron , she made answer whelps ; he desired to see them , she denied him : angry at this refusal , he opened her apron , and there found eleven of his own sweet babes , and most of them of promising countenances , examining the matter ; he found out the truth , and enjoyning the old nurse to be secret in it , he put the children out to nurse ; six years being expired , the earl invited to a feast , most of his own and his ladies kindred , and attiring the young boys all alike , presented them to their mother , who suspecting by the number of them , what the matter was ; confest her offense , is pardoned by a good old earl , and carefully educates her children : whom the father commanded to be called guelps , alluding to whelps , or the puppis which the nurse told him , she had in her apron . chap. xxvi . nova zelina . nova zelina , is one of the russian islands , scituate on the east of willoughby island , ( so called from sir hugh willoughby , because he first discovered it , and was hereabout found frozen to death the next year following ) and was first discovered by such adventurers as followed willoughby's design : famous for having a race of short statuted men , not above four foot high , a degree above the height of pigmies ; who by the relation of the russes have neither laws , nor religion , or civility ; but that they worshipped the sun , moon , and northern star , to which they offer a yearly sacrifice of their deer ; and that the island is a woody desart , and not easie for travel ; having in it neither green bough nor grass , yet there are abundance of bears , and such ravenous beasts . chap. xxvii . samogitia in poland . samogitia , is a small province in poland , the people thereof supposed to be of the saxon race , of a good stature , well set , bold , and apt for war , but withall boysterous , rude , and barbarous ; christians in general , but many who retain still their old idolatries : nourishing amongst them a kind of four-footed serpents , above three handfuls in length , which they worship ; as their houshould gods , mending them with fear and reverence when they call them out to their repasts ; and if any mischance do happen ; to any of their family , it is imputed presently to some want of due observations of these ugly creatures , naturally inclined to divinations , charms , and sorceries , frequently abused ( as for the most part such people are ) by diabolical illusions . they have some customes also as unprofitable , as these are heathenish ; breaking up their grounds as they do in muscovy , with spades or stocks ; and when one of their governours observing the husbandry of other countries , had brought them the use of the plough . it fortuned that for two or three years either by the indisposition of the weather , or some other accident , they had not so much corn , as they used to have , which want the people attributed to the use of the plough , and not believing that there was any other cause of it , grew so much incensed ; that the governour fearing some sedition like to follow on it , was forced to leave them to the old way , which before they went. an humour like to that of the present irish , in plowing with their horses tails . chap. xxviii . livonia . in some part of livonia , are a sort of people , so simple in point of religion , and the like ; that when they bury any of their dead , every one drinks one health to him , and poureth his part upon him , when his trun comes to drink ; putting into the grave with him an hatchet , wine , meat , and some money for his voyage : and yet they are great lovers of confession , esteemers of holy water , and diligent frequenters of their churches ; but so ignorant in matters of religion , that there is hardly one in a village , can say his pater noster . chap. xxix . sodom . the country , where the cities of sodom and gomorra once stood , was called the valley of sidim , which was exceeding fruitful ; insomuch that 't was compared to an earthly paradise ; but this place , so beautified and adorned with such a wonderful richness of soil , and other pleasures , that might make glad the heart of man ; through the sinfulness of the inhabitants , is so changed ; that after the cities and fields were destroyed by fire and brimstone from heaven , the whole country was turned into a most horrid stinking lake , called mare mortuum , or the dead sea. the waters whereof most thick , stinking , bitter , and salt , beyond any sea-water ; whatsoever , wherein no creature liveth or can live , therefore called the dead sea. the river iordan runs into it , and is infected by it ; insomuch that the fish of that river shun the lake as a deadly poyson , and if at any time by the swiftness of the river , they are driven into it , they immediately die . no living thing can be drowned in it ; which vespasian being desirous to make trial of , came in person to see it ; and caused some persons altogether ignorant in swimming , to be bound with their hands behind them , and thrown into the lake , but was as it were repulsed , by a certain spirit of the water ; and like a rock they floated upon the superficies of the water . every fair sun-shiny day , it changeth the colour thrice , by reason of the sun beams falling either . rightly or oblickly upon it , as at morning noon and sun set , according to which it varieth the colour , and yields a certain pitchy substance , called in latin bitumen , which swims upon the top of the lake , in great abundance , some pieces as big as an ox ; and is of such a nature , that if any small ships come near to fetch it away , they are caught and drawn away by the tenacity , or limy catching hold thereof , and not to be loosed again , but by application of urine . tui menses mulierbres permixti sunt , saith mine author , and with this only the bitumen is dissolved . it sendeth up a most pestilent air , insomuch , that one would think the very stream of hell fire were beneath it ; hereupon the banks , and neighbouring ; mountains are quite barren : if but an aple grow near it , it is by nature such , that it speaks the anger of god ; for without , 't is beautiful and red ; but within nothing but dusty smoak and cinders , the like saith tacitus . chap. xxx : anatolia : in anatolia , stands the mountain taurus ; a branch whereof called by the name of chimaera , vomiting flames of fire like sicilian aetna ; the bottom whereof infested with serpents , the middle part grazed upon with goats , and the higher parts made dangerous by the dens of lyons ; hence by the poets made a monster , having the head of a lyon , the body of a goat , and the tail of a serpent . the city cyzieus in this countrey , famous in its time for having a glorious temple in it ; the pillars whereof being four cubits thick , and 50 cubits high , were each of an intire stone only ; the whole fabrick all of polished marble ; every stone joyned to the other with a line of gold ; but at last ruined by an earth-quake . chap. xxxi . schelink in sevenwolden . in the isle schelink , in the province of sevenwolden in west friezland , the shores , and said to be well stored with dogg-fish , which the inhabitants take after this manner ; the men attire themselves with the skins of beasts , which they have made for that purpose , then going to the sea side , fall a dancing , with which sport , the silly fish being much delighted , presently make out of the water towards them , and nets are immediately pitched betwixt them and the water : which done , the men put off their disguises , which when the affrighted fishes see , post towards the sea , and so are caught in the coyles . chap. xxxii . begorre in the earldom of begorre near the pyrenaean mountains , are said to live a leprous , and infectious sort of people , of noisom breaths , deformed bodies , and gastly visages : in which regard not suffered to have commerce with other people , nor to inherit any lands , but only to apply themselves to drudgery , and the basest of mechanick trades , from their great mis-shapen heads called capets or gabets . chap. xxxiii . cascar . cascar , a province in altay in tartaria , the people thereof generally rude and barbarious , insomuch that in some parts , both sexes indulge themselves this mutual priviledge ; that if the husband or wife be absent twenty dayes , the other party is at liberty again to marry . chesmur , lopp , and camull , three other provinces in the said countrey , whereof the inhabitants of the first , are generally both idolaters and inchanters , causing the dumb idols to speak , the winds to rise ; and the sun to be darkened ; for studying which black-art ( if it comes to them by study ) they have many monasteries , in which their hermits , or monasticks live a strickt kind of life . the province of lopp , memorable for having a great desart of 30 days journey in it , so true a desart , that whosoever means not to starve himself , must carry all his victuals with him ; dangerous to travellers , if not before-hand made acquainted with their danger ; the evil spirits calling men by their names , and so make them stray from their company ; where they either perish with famine , or are devoured with wild beasts . camull , an idolatrous countrey , the people whereof account it a great honour to them , to have their wives and sisters at the pleasures of such , as they entertain ; from which bruitish custom , when restrained by mango cham , they petitioned at the three years end , to be restored again to their former liberty ; protesting they could never thrive since they left that custom ; which desire of theirs was at last granted , and is still in use . chap. xxxiv . moravia . in moravia , amongst other things , is said to grow great store of frankincense , and contrary to the nature of it ; not on trees , but on the ground : and that too ( which adds much to the miracle ) in the shape and figure of those parts , which men and women must endeavour to conceal . in the same countrey , is a town called massa , or messa , famous in ancient time , for having a temple in it ; whose beams and rafters are of the bones of whales , which usually are left dead on the sea-shores . chap. xxxv . hascora in morrocca . in the province of hascora in moroocca , are said to grow a sort of grapes , as large as pullets eggs. and not far from a town called tedza , in the said countrey stands the hill anchisa , where 't is said that it snoweth at all seasons of the year , notwithstanding the inhabitants go extreamly thin clad in the sharpest winters . chap. xxxvi . tvnis . t is reported , that in the kingdom of tvnis , corn hath in former time been so plentiful , that in the reign of augustus , were 400 ears growing upon one stalk . and in the time of domitius nero , were 360 more growing upon another ; and both sent to rome . chap. xxxvi . greece . in greece , are said to be two rivers by name cireus , and nileus , both of that strange nature , that if a sheep drink of the former , his wool turneth white ; and if of the latter , it turns cole-black . there is also a stone called aminthus , which is drawn into thread like hemp and cloth made thereof ; which when 't is foul , instead of being cleansed with water , as other cloth is , 't is thrown into the fire , and so cleansed by burning it ▪ but more of this hereafter . chap. xxxviii . iangoma . iangoma , in the countrey of laos , is a mighty nation , and a stout sort of people ; by religion gentiles , naked from the wast upward , russing up their hair like caps ; their countrey very rich and level , but very ill neighboured , by the gneons , who possess the mountains , whence falling into great companies , they hunt for men , whom if they take , they kill , and eat , as we do any sort of our game with us . chap. xxxix . chaldaea . in some part of chaldaea , and other places ; 't is said that for communicating the success of their affairs from town to town , and stage to stage ; they make use of pigeons as the speediest messengers ; which is done after this manner : when the hen pigeon sitteth , or hath any young , they take the cock , and set him in an open cage : whom when they have travelled a days journey , they let go at liberty , and he straight flyeth home to his mate ; when they have trained them thus from one place to another , and that there be occasion to send any advertisements ; they tye a letter about one of their necks , which at their return is taken off , by some of the house ; advertised thereby of the state of other places , the like is also used betwixt ormius and balfora . chap. xl. of locusts , and other strange meats . moses . we read in the law of moses , levit , the 11. ver . 22. that locusts were allowed of to be eaten , which surely had not been done , had they not been good and fitting to eat . plinie tell us , the parthians fed upon them as dainties ; strabo also affirm ▪ that the aethiopians lived most upon them : and galon tell us that the egyptians , did use to eat vipers and adders , as familiarly as we do eels , besides st. hierome affirmeth , that in pontus and phrygia , they usually eat those white worms with black heads that lye in wood , and between the bark of trees ; and that by tenants they were presented to landlords , as special dainties ; and some took them in lieu of rent . the assyrians were wont to eat land crocodiles ; and the affricans green lizards : among others , dormise were accounted the daintiest meat . in cozumela , and iucatana , islands of the east-indies , and other places there-abouts , they fat a king of dog , which cannot bark , as we do swine , and eat them ; the ancients also supposed sucking whelps to be so clean and pure , that they offered them their gods in sacrifice ; the parian indians , did not only eat mans flesh , but also ( as apes do ) lice , froggs , worms , and such filthy things : the tartarians eat the carrion carcasses of dead horses , camels , asses , cats , and dogs , even when they stink and are full of maggots ; and hold them as dainty as we do venison . chap. xli . galen . galen tell us of a certain man , that was extreamly sick of a leprosie , kept company a good time with some companions of his ; till one above the rest was infected with the contagion of the disease : for he was not to be endured , by reason of the loathsom stench that proceed from his unclean body : wherefore a cottage was built for him near a town , upon a hill remote from people , a fair spring running hard by ; and herein the leaper was placed , with a man attending him , to carry him victuals , and other necessaries : it happened that about the dogg-days , sweet wine being brought in an earthen vessel into the field to the mowers , near the place where this leaper was placed ; he that brought it , set it not far from them , and went his way ; being gon , and some of them being thirsty , came and took up the pitcher to pour out some wine into a bowl half full of water ; which they mixed with their wine , and out falls a drowned viper from the pitcher into the bowl ; hereupon the men being amazed , let the wine alone , and drank , and contented themselves with water : but when they had finished their days work , and were to go out of the field , as it were out of pity , they gave to the leprous man the wine ; wherein the viper was drowned , supposing it better for him to dye , than to live in that misery ; but he , when he had drank it , was as it were miraculously cured : for all that thick and most loathsom scabby swelling of the disease , that covered him over , fell a-away from him , like the hard outside of a crab-fish , and new skin and flesh succeeding underneath in the place , another example hereof though upon an unlike occasion , happened in mysia , a town of asia . chap. xlii . anziehana in aethiopia : anziehana in aethiopia , hath on the west part of it , songo and loango ; extended thence to the east , as far almost as the lake of zembre ; the inhabitants of it , the cruellest canibals in the world ; for they do not only eat their enemies , but their friends , and kinds-folk also ; and that they may be sure not to want these dainties , they have shambles of mans flesh , as in other places of beef , and mutton , so covetous with all , that if their slaves will but yield a penny more , when fold joynt by joynt , then if sold alive , they will kill and cut them out in pieces , and sell them so upon their shambles . chap. xliii . syria . in syria , are said to be a choice of religions , as a christian , mahometan , pagan , and one compound out of them all ; which is that of the drusians . the mahometans embraced by the generality of the people throughout the whole , and by all that are in office or authority , is only countenanced and approved ; though all the rest be tollerated : the pagan entertained only in the mountanous country , bordering on america , inhabited by a sort of people , whom they call curdi , or the curdens , supposed to be so descended from the ancient parthians , as being very expert in bows and arrows , their most usual armes : a race of people , who are said to worship alike , both god and the devil ; the one , that they may receive benefits from him ; the other , that he may not hurt them : but their principal devotions are addressed to the devil only , and that upon good reasons , as themselves conceive ; for god they say , is a good man , and will do no body harm , but the devil is a mischievious fellow , and must be pleased with sacrifices , that he do not hurt them , chap. xliiii . thebet . thebet , is a fenny region of tartaria , full of woods , rich in corral ; which they find on the sea-shores , and use it instead of money , so named from the chief city of it ; the ordinary seat of the abassi , or pope of this idolatrous people , much reverenced , and having in his power the disposing of all affairs which concern the service of their idols : they have also good store of musick , and abundance of wild beasts bred in their forersts ; but no beast wilder then the people , who in times past ( if not at present ) use to bury their parents in their own bowels , and to make drinking cups of their skuls , for fear least in the midst of their jollity , they should forget their progenitors . yet not more barbarous then immodest , it being contrary to their custom to take a wife that is a virgin : and therefore the mothers use to prostitute their daughters to the merchant-strangers , who having had their pleasures of them , gratifie them with a jewel , or some other present , which they wear on their wedding-day , she being the most acceptable bride to her husband , who bringeth the greatest dowry with her of these base rewards . chap. xlv . patavivm in italy . there was found in the territory of patavium in italy , in former ages , a very antient monument , wherein were two urnes , a greater and a less , both made of earth , the bigger contained the less : now in the less was found a lamp burning between two viols , the one of gold , the other of silver , and both full of a most excellent liquor ; by the benefit of which , it was supposed to have burned many years . the learned coming to the monument , affirmed it to be that perpetual fire , invented by the wonderful industry of the antient phylosophers , which would endure so many years : in which opinion they were confirmed , by verses written on both urnes , which seemed to be of great antiquity . the like ludovicus vives reports in his time , to have been found in antient graves , which by inscription had burnt above five hundred years . st. augustine likewise affirms , that in the temple of venus , was a lamp that never went out ; which he supposed to have been done either by art magical , or by the industry of some man , who had put lapidem asbestum , or the unchangeable burning stone within the said lamp , and in the time of pope paulus the third , the grave of tullio , cicero's daughter was found , wherein was the like lamp burning ; but as soon as 't was opened , that the air came to it , it presently went out ; this lamp had burnt there 15 hundred years . chap. xlvi . crete . t is observable , that in crete , there is bred no serpents , or venomous beasts , or worms , ravenous or hurtful creatures ; so that their sheep graze very securely without any shepheard ; yet if a woman happen to bite a man any thing hard , he will hardly be cured of it ; which if true , then the last part of the priviledge foregoing ( of breeding no hurtful creature ) must needs be false . they have an herb called alimos , which if one chew in his mouth , he shall feel no hunger for that day ; here is ( besides many medicinal herbs ) that is called dictamnum , or dictamnas , of special virtue against poyson , either , by way of prevention , or present cure ; peculiar only to this island : it affordeth great store of laudanum , a juice or gum , forced with incredible labour , out of a certain tree cisto , of which the mountains yield abundance ; good to cause sleep , if immoderately taken , but if not very well prepared , and taken with moderation , it brings the last sleep upon a man , out of which not to be awakened , till the sound of the last trumpet raise him . chap. xlvii . hvngaria . in hvngaria , are said to be many medicinal waters , and more hot baths then in any one countrey in europe ; some waters also of a strange nature , whereof some falling on the ground is turned into a stone ; others about the town of smalnice , which falling into ditches makes up a kind of mud , out of which tried , and melted , they make an excellent copper ; and some again which flow in winter , and freeze in summer ; and near to ●ristice , or mensoll , is a spring or fountain , out of which cometh a green water , whereof they make a soder for their gold. chap. xlviii . armagh . in the county armagh , in the kingdom of ireland , is a lake ; into which if one thrust a piece of wood , he shall find that part of it which remaineth in the mud to be turned into iron ; and that in the water to be turned into a whetstone . 't is said , that their kine will give no milk , if their calves be not by them ; or at least their calf-skins stuffed out with straw or hay . chap. xlix . madagascar . madagascar , one of the affrican islands , is a countrey plentiful of all things necessary for the life of man ; particularly of mill , rice , honey , wax , cotton , wooll , sugars , stags , goats , dear , and other creatures both wild and tame ; lemons , and other cooling fruits , red sanders , saffron , amber , and some mines of gold , silver , iron , and copper : their beefs and mutton so good and cheap , that for a two peny bead , or some such trifle , they will sell beefs and sheep of good taste and bigness ▪ great store of elephants & rare fruits , and amongst the rest they have plenty of those they call coco's , or cocon-uts ; a kind of date as bigg as a cabbage ; the liquor in it about the quantity of a pint , in taste like wine and sugar ; the kernel bigg enough to content two men : and like good ale , it affords not only meat and drink , but clothing two ; as also furniture for their houses , tackle for their ships , fewel for their fire , and timber for their building ; a country far too good for so bad a people . for as travellers report they are treacherous , inhospitable , ignorant both of prayers and festivals ; destitute of the distinction of time , into years and months ; not knowing any proper names for the days in the week , nor able to reckon above 10 ; naked except their privities , which they cover with a cotten ; idolaters in the midland parts , and mahometans on the shores ; commendable only for their hate to poligamy , and restravning themselves to one wife ; the defiling of the marriage bed severely punished : but otherwise so eager upon copulation , that their boys at the age of 12 years , and the girls at ten , think they stay too long if they keep their virginity any longer ; some of them like quartilla in petronius arbiter , begin so early , ut nunquam meminerint se virgines fuisse , that they remember not the time when they lost their maiden-heads . of colour they are black , and of strong complexion ; their breasts and faces cut and pinct , to appear more beautiful . chap. l. isle of cvba in america . amongst the rarities of the isle of cuba in america , they mention a fountain , out of which floweth a pitchey substance , which is found frequently on the seas , into which it falleth ; excellent for the calking of ships : secondly a navigable river , ( but the name not told us ) the waters whereof are so hot , that a man cannot hold his hand in it withont scalding ; they tell us also of a valley fifteen leagues from st. iago , which produceth stones exactly round , as if made for pleasure ; but yet meerly natural , but these no greater rarities then in other places , nor altogether so great as in hispaniola : of which they tell us of a fair river , whose waters are salt , and yet none but fresh streames fall into it : of another lake ( three leagues in compass ) on the top of the mountains , into which many rivers were known to run without any exit ; yet neither of these so rare or strange as the cucugo , a kind of a beetle , the eyes and wings whereof when opened , give so great a light in the darkest night , or places , that a man may see to read or write by it , as well as by a candle . chap. li. tiberivs . 't is reported in the time of tiberius the roman emperour , there was invented glass of that temper , that it would abide the hamer , and be beaten in length or breadth like lead , and pliable to bend every way like paper ; and that the inventor was put to death upon this occasion : he having built a magnificent palace in rome , which after the building began to sink , and was likely to fall , which tiberius seeing , and having before-hand paid him for the building of it ; commanded him to depart , and never to see him in the face again . he afterward having invented the way of making glass malyable , or to abide the hamer , came to shew the same to tiberius , in hopes of obtaining a reward for his nvention , but instead thereof , his whole shop was pulled down and laid waste , least brass , gold , and silver , should be undervalued in their price and esteem , some report that tiberius did it out of malice and envy , because he naturally hated learning , and all ingenious men : petronius relates the matter after this manner , saying , that there was a skilful crafts-man , who made cups , and vessels of glass , of that firmness that they would no more break their pots of silver or gold. now when he had made a viol of this glass , and thought it worthy to be given to tiberius , he was brought with his present before him ; tiberius received the viol , and much commended the workmanship of it , the workman more to amaze the beholders , and that he might make himself a further way into tiberius favour ; took the glass-viol again into his hand , and threw it down upon the pavement with so great a force , that had it been made of gold or silver , it had been either broke or bruised . tiberius was hereat astonished , but the maker took up his glass again , which was only a little bruised , but no where broken ; then taking a hamer out of his pocket , he beat out the bruise again , and brought it to ' its right fashion ; which being done , he thought he had purchased heaven , gaining at once tiberius's favour and admiration ; but it fell out otherwise , for tiberius demanded , if any knew that art but himself ? he answered , none that he knew ; whereupon tiberius commanded , he should be beheaded ; for , ( says he ) if this art were publickly known , gold and silver would be no more esteemed of then clay . chap. lii . henry the third emperour . there was a lady lived iu the time of henry the third , emperour , who brought forth at one birth 365 children , the just nnmber of days in the year ; in memory whereof , not far from leiden in holland , in a village called lansdunen , there is to be seen a table of marble , which contains the whole story of this stupendious accident . these two verses were ingraven uppermost being her epitaph . en tibi monstrosum nimis , memorabile factum quale nec a mundi conditione datum . margaret , the wife of herman earl of henenberge , and daughter of florence , the 4 th earl of holland , and zealand , sister of william king of the romans , and after caesar , or governour of the empire , &c. this noble countess being about forty years of age , upon easter day about nine of the clock in the year of our lord god , 1276. was brought to bed of 365 children , half males ; and half females , the odd one an fermophradite , all which were baptized , in the church of laudunen aforesaid by the names of iohn and elizabeth , who together with their mother , dyed the same day , and lye buried in the said church . this happened by the meanes of a poor woman , who carried in her arms two children , who were twins , and both of them males , which the countess admiring , said , that she could not have them by one father , and so shook her off with contempt and scorn : whereupon the poor woman being much perplexed , presently prayed to god to send her as many children , as there was days in the year , which thing beyond the course of nature , in a stupendious manner ; came to pass , as is before related . chap. liii . linvm vivvm . 't is reported , that in ancient times , there was a certain kind of flax , which the latins called linum vivum , whereof were made whole pieces of linnen-cloth , and garments , which could not be consumed by fire , not only so , but being cast into the fire , the soil and dirtiness of it would be burnt away , and taken out again ; it became more white then any water could wash it . the bodies of emperours and kings were burnt in sheets of this linnen , least the ashes of their bodies should mingle with the ashes of the wood : this flax is hard to be found , and as difficult to be woven , by reason of the shortness of it ; but being found , 't is equalled in price to the most excellent pearls nero is reported to have had a linnen garment of it , 't is also reported , that podocatarus a knight of cyprius , brought some of it to venice , or at least a sort of flax that could not be consumed by fire . now the flax of cyprus proceedeth from no plant , as our flax , but from the stone of amiantus , which being found in cyprus , and broken , the earthy dross being purged away , there remains fine hair threads , like to flax which is woven into cloth ; this flax was seen in the house of the said padocatarus by many men of worth and credit ; wherefore lime being made of this stone , and incombustible ; constantine the emperour ordained , that it should always burn in lamps in his chappel at rome : the same reports damasus in the life of pope silvester . st. augustine saith also , that he saw lamps at paris , whose lights never consumed . also at lovain , a napkin taken from the table at a feast , and thrown into the fire ; and being red as a coal , was taken out again , cooled , and restored to the owner more white then if it had been washed with all the water and soap in the town . chap. liv. chile . in chile , are said to be several fine rivers ; but there is one more famous then the rest , though nameless ; which in the day time runneth with a violent stream , and in the night hath no water at all : the reason of it is , because this river hath no constant fountain , but is , both begun and continued by the snow falling from the mountains ; which in the heat of the day is melted into water , and precipitately carried into the sea ; but congealed in the coldness of the night , yields no water at all , whereby the channel becometh empty . chap. lv. iapan . iapan , is a country mountanous and barren , but of a very healthy air , if not too much subject to cold : yet in some places they have wheat in the month of may ; but their rice , which is their principal sustenance , they gather not before september . the surface of the earth clothed with woods and forrests , in which are some cedars of so tall and large a body , that one of them only is sufficient to make a pillar for a church : the bowels of it stored with divers mettals ; and amongst others such inexhaustible mines of gold , paulus venetus reporteth some of their pallaces of their kings , to be covered with sheets of gold , as ours in europe are with lead their fields and meadows , full of cattel , but hitherto not made acquainted with making of butter , their fens much visited with wild ducks , as their yards with pigeons , turtle , quailes , and putten . the people for the most part of a good understanding , apt to learn , and of able memories ; cunning and subtile in their dealings , of body vigorous and strong , accustomed to bear arms till sixty years old , their complexion of an olive-colour , their beards thin , and the one half of their hair of their heads shaved off , patient they are of pain , ambitious of glory , uncapable of suffering wrong , but can withall dissemble their resentments of it , till opportunity of revenge . they reproach no man for his poverty , so it come not by his own thriftness , for which cause they detest all kind of gaming , as the wayes or ill husbandry ; and generally abhor slandering , swearing , and theft . their mourning commonly is in white , as their feasts in black ; their teeth they colour black also , to make them more beautiful ; they mount on the right side of the horse , and sit ( as we use to rise ) when they entertain . in physiek they eat salt things , sharp and raw ; and in their salutations , they put off their shooes ; the very antipodes of our world in custom , though not in sight ; in other things they much resemble those of china , if not the more ceremonious of the two : washing their infant children in the nearest river as soon as born , and putting on shooes when they go to meat . the people have but one language , but that so intermingled with the words of other nations , that it seems rather to be many then one : they have long used the art of printing , which probably they might have from china : the characters whereof are a kind of burchigraphy , and signifie not only letters , but some whole words also ; in matters of religion gentiles , adorning anciently the sun , moon , and stars of heaven , and giving divine honour to wild beasts , and the staggs of the forrests : but specially worshipping some of their deceased priests and princes , by the names of fotoques , and cames ; to the first of which , they use to pray for goods of the other world , and to the last for temporal blessings ; two famous mountains there are , one of which called figenojama , is said to transcend the clouds in height , the other ( but without a name , ) useth to cast forth dreadful flames like corsican aetna : on the top whereof the devil environed with a white shining cloud , doth sometimes shew himself to such of his votaries , as live about this hill an abstemious life , like the ancient hermits . chap. lvi . gilolo . gilolo , called also batachina , one of the oriental islands , which our navigators include under the name of del moro , of large extent , conceived to be half as big as italy , by that account ( the truth thereof is very much doubled ) greater than zelan is in compass , though of less reputation ; that being governed by its own princes , this is subject for the most part to the king of ternate . scituate east of the mollucoes , exceeding plentiful of rice , well stored with wild hens , and on the shores provided of a kind of shell-fish , which in tast much resembleth mutton ; a tree they have which they call by the name of sagu , of the pith thereof they make their bread ; and of the sap or juice of it , they compose a pleasing drink , which serveth them instead of wine ; the air intemperately hot ; the people well proportioned , but rude and salvage ; some of them gentiles , some mahometans ; of which last religion is their king ; the chief town of it is batchane or batachina , in which the hollanders have a fort to defend their factory . chap. lvii . calebs or gilolo . west of the calebs or gilolo , lyeth the isle of borneo , of more note and greatness than any of the oriental islands ; the country said to be provided of all things necessary , the people generally more white the then rest of the indians , of good wits , and approved integrity ; though all mahometans , or gentiles , divided betwixt two kings , and two religions ; the kings of borneo and his subjects , being all mahometans ; those of laus still remaining in their ancient gentilism . these think the sun and moon to be man and wife , and the stars their children , ascribing to each of them divine honour , to the sun especially , whom they salute at first rising with great reverence , saying certain verses ; their publick business are treated on in the night , at which time the counsellers of state meet and assend some tree , viewing the heavens till the moon rise , and then go to their senate house , the same apparrel , generally of both religions ; but thin by reason of the great heat of the air : a shirt of calico , or some such light stuff , worne more for modesty then for warmth . chap. lviii . borneo . opposite to borneo , towards the south lyeth the isles of iava , two in number , distinguished by iava major , and iava minor ; iava major the more northward of the two , and much the bigger , said to be in compass 3000 miles , the country rich and fertile , yielding great plenty of fruit , corn and rice especially , the people of a middle stature , corpulent , and broad faces , most of them naked , or covered only with a thin silk , and that no lower then the knee : accounted the most civillest people of all the indians , as fetching their deseent from china : but withall treacherous , very proud , much given to lying , and very careless of their words , to which so used , that they count it not amongst their faults ; cruel they are also said to be , and implacable , if once offended : accustomed of old to eat the bodies of their friend , accounting no burial so honourable , nor obsequie so applausive . this is also a custom amongst the rest of the indians , and so hath been ever since the beginning of the persian monarchy ; herodotus reporteth how darius hystaspes , understanding of this custom , and withall knowing how the grecians use to burn their dead ; sent to the greeks , that it was his pleasure they should eat the bodies of their dead ; but they used all manner of perswasion , and intreaty , not to be forced to so bruitish and barbarous a custom ; then commanding the indians to comform themselves to the fashion of the grecians ; but they all more abhorred to burn their dead , then the greeks did to eat them ; so impossible is it for a custom , either to be suddenly left off , or to seem undecent and inconvenient , if once throughly settled . chap. lix . fesse in barbary . the province of fesse in barbary , is a countrey very fruitful , well stored with cattel , and exceeding populous ; the villages whereof as bigg as the better sort of towns , in other places ; but contrary to the customs of other countreys , better inhabited on the hills , then amongst the villages , the people making use of the mountains , for their habitations as places of defence and safety , but husbanding the villages which lie nearest to them , in this province 't is said they have lyons so tame , that they will gather up bones in the street like dogs , without hurting any body ; and other lyons that are of so cowardly a nature , that they will run away at the voice of the least child . chap. lx. paria in america . paria in america , is a county for so much as hath been discovered , neither rich nor pleasant , and consequently , the less lookt after ; covered with shrubs and bushes , and such unprofitable things , heretofore famed for pearl , fishing all along the coast , from the gulf of paria , to that of venezuela , called therefore costos de las perlas ; but that gainful trade hath long since failed it , not only in esteem for a vein of excellent salt , found near promontory of araya , and the bay of cariaco ; gathered and digged up thereabout in great abundance , and yet never diminishing ; there are some strange creatures in this country , as the beast called capa , the soles of whose feet are like a shooe , a kind of hog which lives altogether upon ants , or pismires ; parrots and bats , of more then ordinary greatness ; of the people there is nothing singullers except it be , that having plenty of good fruits , fish , and flesh , they use themselves to a far worse diet , feeding on horse-leeches , bats , spiders , grashoppers , worms , lice , and such other vermine . in other things they seem to have , a mixture of all ill customs , used amongst the salvages of asia , affrick , and america ; as multitudes of wives , prostituting these wives for the first nights lodging , to the piacos , or priests ; and after to their guests , taking great pains to black their teeth , and putting strange colours on their bodies instead of garments , high minded they are , treacherous and revengeful , accustomed to the use of poysoned arrows , which they invenom with the blood of snakes , and other mixtures . in one thing only different from their neighbours , fencing of their grounds , orchards , with a cotton thread , as high as ones wast , and an opinion which they have , that whosoever breaketh it , or goes over , or under it , shall die immediately ; more safe in that opinion then by brazen walls . chap. lxi . nvmidia . the natural inhabitants of numidia , are said to be a base vile people , thieves , murderers , treacherous , and ignorant of all things ; feeding most commonly on dates , barley , and carrion ; accounting bread a diet for their festival-days . but the arrabians , who are intermingled with them , in most part of the countrey , affirmed to be ( comparatively with the nations ) ingenious , liberal , and civil . the garments of the numidians , of the coursest cloth , so short that they cover not half the body : the richer sort distinguished by a jacket of blew cotton with wide sleeves ; their steeds are camels , which they ride without a stirrup , or so much as a sadle : a leather thrust through an hole made in the nose of the camel , serves them for a bridle ; and to save the charge of spurs , they make use of a goad ; their religion mahometism , to which perverted ( christianity having once had footing here ) in the year 710. the azanaghi , and other people of those parts then subdued by the saracens , who held them for a nation of so little reckoning , that no man of account amongst them would descend so low , as to be their prince ; but left them to be ruled as in former times , by the chiefs , or heads , of their several claris. chap. lxii . nigritarvm . the country of nigritarvm , is said to be hot by reason of its scituation under the torrid zone ; yet very well inhabited , full of people ; and in some places always green , well watered , and exceeding fruitful , especially in those parts , which lye within the compass of the overflowing of the river niger ; and on the further side of the river sanaga , abundantly well stored both with corn , cattel , and garden-ware for the use of their kitchings , well wooded , and those woods well furnished with elephants , and other beasts ; both wild and tame . their greatest want ( but such a want as may be born with ) is the want of fruit-trees , few of which they have ; and those they have , bear one kind of fruit only ; which is like the chesnut , but some what bitterer ; rain here doth neither help nor hurt ; their greatest welfare consisting in the over-flowings of niger , as that of egypt in the innundations of nile . in some parts very liberally enriched with mines of gold and silver , very fine and pure . the inhabitants , till the coming of the portugals thither , were for the most part so rude and barbarous , that they seem to want that use of reason , which is peculiar to man ; of little wit , and destitute of all arts and sciences ; prone to luxury , and for the greatest part idolaters , though not without some admixture of mahometans . when the portugals first failed into these parts , the people took the ships for great birds with white wings , and after upon better acquaintance , they could not be brought to believe , but that the eyes which were casually painted on the beaks of the ships , were the eyes by which they saw how to direct themselves in their course . guns seemed to them for their hideous noise , to be the works of the devil ; and for bag-pipes they took them to be living creatures ; neither when they had been permitted to touch them , would they be perswaded , but that they were the work of gods own hands : the very nobles ( if so noble a name may without offence be given to such blokish people ) are so dull and stupid , that they are ignorant of all things , which belong to civil society , and yet so reverent of their king ; that when they are in his presence , they never look him in the face , but still flat on their buttock , with their elbows on their knees , and their hands on their faces ; they use to anoint their hair with the fat of fishes , which makes them stink more wretchedly then they would do otherwise . of complexion they are for the most part cole-black , whence the name of negroes ; but on the south-side of the river senaga , they are tawney : the blacks so much in love with their own complexion , that they use to paint the devil white , which i find thus versified . the land of negroes is not far from thence , nearer extended to the atlantick main ; wherein the black prince keeps his residence . attended by his ietty coloured train : who in their native beauty most delight , and in contempt do paint the devil white ▪ chap. lxiii . benin . benin , a province in the said country , iyeth east of gainea , by the portugals reckoned for a province , or kingdom of it : the king whereof is said to have six hundred wives , withall which twice a year he goeth out in pomp. the gentlemen ( if i abuse not the name ) have most of them eighty wives , some more , he that is poorest , ten or twelve ; and the more the merrier . the people thereof cut and raze their skin , with three lines drawn to the navel ; esteeming it necessary to salvation , they use all , both men and women , to go naked , till they are married ; and then to be cloathed only from the wast to the knees . chap. lxiv . bornvm . bornvm , a large and opulent province in the said county , extending in length 500 miles , distinguished equally into hills and villages : the hills inhabited by neat herds , and sheep herds , breeding great flocks of sheep and cattel ; the people are of no religion , but live like beasts without propriety , so much as in their wives , and children : nor are they differenced by names , as in other countrys , but by some mark upon their bodies ; which though it seem strange to us of this present age , yet was it thus in part with our saxon ancestors , whence have we else the names of white , black , brown , gray , and tawney ; or those of long , short , low , curle , crisp , and others ; but from such originals . the name of their chief city is borneo , where their king resideth ; a potent prince who keepeth in continual pay 3000 horse , and great numbers of foot , and yet is said to have no other revenew , then what he getteth by strong hand from his enemies , which if it be true , those kings must needs be good warriours , and have great success also in undertakings : it being also said of those kings , that all the furniture of their horse , all the dishes , cups , and plates , which they eat or drink in ; nay the very chains of their dogs were of purest gold. chap. lxv . nova albion . nova albion , is a country abundantly replenished heards of deer , grazing upon the hills by thousands , as also a with kind of conies , in their feet somewhat resembling a want , and on each side a sack , where they keep such victuals they cannot eat ; the flesh of them serving for food ; and of their skins , the kings , or chiefs of their several tribes , make their royal robes . their men quite naked ; the women with a piece of matt , instead of an apron ; chast , and obedient to their husbands : their houses made of turf and oyer , so wrought together , as serves to keep them from the cold ; in the midst whereof they have a hearth , where they make fire ; and about which they lye along upon beds of bull-rushes . chap. lxvi . nova hispania . amongst the rarities of nova hispania , ( though there be many plants in it of singuler nature ) is mentioned that which they call eagney or meto , said to be one of the principal : a tree which they both plant and dress as we do our vines ; it hath on it 40 kind of leaves , fit for several uses : for when they be tender , they make of them conserves , paper , flax , mantles , mats , shooes , girdles , and cordage ; upon them there grow certain prickles , so strong and sharp , that the people use them instead of staws from the top of the tree cometh a juice like syrrup ; which if you seeth it , will become honey ; if purified , sugar ; the bark of it roasted maketh a good plaister for sores ; and from the highest of the boughs comes a kind of gum , a soveraign antidote against poysons . nor is it less a rarity , though less useful to the good of man-kind , ( except it be to keep them in continual mind of the fires of hell ) that they have a mountain in this country , called propochampeche ( scituate in the province of mexico ) which vomiteth flames of fire like aetna : and other in the province of guaxaca , which sendeth forth two great streams , the one of red pitch , and the other of black ; they have many other mountains , but these most memorable . chap. lxvii . brasil . in brasil , amongst other things is said to be a plant called copiba , the bark of which being cut , doth send forth a balm , the soveraign virtue so well known to the very beasts , that being bit by venomous serpents , they resort to it for their cure . 2. the herb called sentida , or viva , which roughly touched will close the leaves , and not open them again , till the man that had offended it be gon out of sight . 3. a kind of wheat in the valley near st. sebastian , which is continually growing , and always ripe ; nor never wholly ripe , because always growing ; for when one ear doth grain , another doth bloom ; when one is ripe and yellow , and another is green. 4. the ox , fish , with eyes and eye-lids , two arms a cubit long , and at each and hand with five fingers and nailes , as in a man ; under the arm two teats , inwards like a cow , in every female . 5. a creature found of cate in the bay of all saints , which had the face of an ape , the foot of a lyon , and all the rest of a man ; a beast of a most terrible aspect . 6. beasts of such strange shapes , such several kinds , that it may be said of brasill , as once of africk . semper aliquid apportat novi ; every day some new object of admiration . chap. lxviii . arabia . 't is said , the people of arabia , had anciently many strange and barbarous customs amongst them ; adultery was punished with death , as in other places ; but only he was held an adulterer , which enjoyed any that was not his own kins-woman , be she sister , or mother ; and so they kept themselves in their own families . community of wives or women was esteemed no crime ; and of this there is a tale in strabo , that a king of this country had fifteen sons , but one daughter , who according to the customs hereof , was the common wife of all her brethren ; every of which had a staff of like making , which when he went in to his sister , he did leave at the door ; and by so doing did forbid enterance to the rest , till it were removed . the young lady , wearied with a continual supply of dalliance , secretly procured a staff like to the rest ; which when she was desirous to prohibit their accesses to her , she left at her chamber-door , and by that means did many times enjoy her desired privacy : at last it happened , that all the brothers being together , one of them departed towards his sisters lodging ; where finding a staff before the door , and knowing that he had left his brethren in one place together , he accused her of adultery ; but the truth being made known , the lady was quitted , and their visits afterward restrayned , of dead bodies they took no care , not so much as of their chiefs , or princes ; but left them to the custody of the next dung-hill . chap. lxix . albania . the country albania in turcomania , is of so rich a soil , that without the least labour of the husbandman , the earth doth naturally and liberally afford her store ; and where it is but once sowen , will yield two or three reapings : but being ill husbands on it in former times , they occasioned strabo to give them this note for a remembrance , that they needed not the use of the sea , who knew no better how to make use of the land : the people anciently so simple , that they could not reckon above an hundred : ignorant of weights , measures , and the use of money . old age they had in high esteem , but hold it utterly unlawful to make speech of the dead . pliny reports , that they were gray-headed from their very youth , and could see as well by night as by day : but withall affirmed to be a stout and couragious people , strong bodies , patient of toil and labour , as they are at this day . and well the men may be couragious and stout , where the women are so truly masculine ; of whom it is affirmed by authors of undoubted credit , that they were exercised in arms , and martial feats , as if descended from the ancient amazons . chap. lxx . florida . the people of florida , are said to be of an olive-coulour , great stature , and well proportioned ; naked except their privities , which they hide with the skins of stags : their arms and knees stained with divers paintings , not to be washed off ; their hair black , and hanging down as low as their thighs , cunning they be , and excellent in the arts of dissimulation ; so stomackful , that they naturally love war and revenge : insomuch that they are in continual war with themselves ; the women , when their husbands are dead , use to cut off their hair close to the ears , and strew it on his sepulchre ; and cannot marry again , till it be grown long enough to cover their shoulders . hermophradites hair are in great plenty , whom they use as beasts to carry their luggage , and put them to all kinds of drudgery . chap. lxxi . perv . the people of peru , are affirmed to be ( for the most part ) of great simplicity ; yet some of them ( those especially which lie near the equator ) to be great dissemblers , and never to discover their conceptions freely . ignorant of letters , but of good courage in the wars ; well skilled in managing such weapons they have been used too , and fearless of death ; the rather prompted to this last by an old opinion held among them , that in the other world they shall eat , and drink , and make love to women . and therefore commonly at the funeral of any great person , who was attended on in his life , they use to kill and bury with him one or more of his servants , to wait upon him after death ; the women here less esteemed of then in other places , treated as slaves , and sometimes cruelly beaten upon slight occasions . finis . new-englands rarities discovered in birds, beasts, fishes, serpents, and plants of that country : together with the physical and chyrurgical remedies wherewith the natives constantly use to cure their distempers, wounds, and sores : also a perfect description of an indian squa ... with a poem not improperly conferr'd upon her : lastly, a chronological table of the most remarkable passages in that country amongst the english : illustrated with cuts / by john josselyn, gent. josselyn, john, fl. 1630-1675. 1672 approx. 111 kb of xml-encoded text transcribed from 63 1-bit group-iv tiff page images. text creation partnership, ann arbor, mi ; oxford (uk) : 2004-03 (eebo-tcp phase 1). a46303 wing j1093 estc r20038 12353958 ocm 12353958 60068 this keyboarded and encoded edition of the work described above is co-owned by the institutions providing financial support to the early english books online text creation partnership. this phase i text is available for reuse, according to the terms of creative commons 0 1.0 universal . the text can be copied, modified, distributed and performed, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. early english books online. (eebo-tcp ; phase 1, no. a46303) transcribed from: (early english books online ; image set 60068) images scanned from microfilm: (early english books, 1641-1700 ; 212:3) new-englands rarities discovered in birds, beasts, fishes, serpents, and plants of that country : together with the physical and chyrurgical remedies wherewith the natives constantly use to cure their distempers, wounds, and sores : also a perfect description of an indian squa ... with a poem not improperly conferr'd upon her : lastly, a chronological table of the most remarkable passages in that country amongst the english : illustrated with cuts / by john josselyn, gent. josselyn, john, fl. 1630-1675. [6], 114, [2] p., 1 leaf of plates : ill. printed for g. widdowes ..., london : 1672. advertisements ([2] p.) at end. reproduction of original in huntington library. created by converting tcp files to tei p5 using tcp2tei.xsl, tei @ oxford. re-processed by university of nebraska-lincoln and northwestern, with changes to facilitate morpho-syntactic tagging. gap elements of known extent have been transformed into placeholder characters or elements to simplify the filling in of gaps by user contributors. eebo-tcp is a partnership between the universities of michigan and oxford and the publisher proquest to create accurately transcribed and encoded texts based on the image sets published by proquest via their early english books online (eebo) database (http://eebo.chadwyck.com). the general aim of eebo-tcp is to encode one copy (usually the first edition) of every monographic english-language title published between 1473 and 1700 available in eebo. eebo-tcp aimed to produce large quantities of textual data within the usual project restraints of time and funding, and therefore chose to create diplomatic transcriptions (as opposed to critical editions) with light-touch, mainly structural encoding based on the text encoding initiative (http://www.tei-c.org). the eebo-tcp project was divided into two phases. the 25,363 texts created during phase 1 of the project have been released into the public domain as of 1 january 2015. anyone can now take and use these texts for their own purposes, but we respectfully request that due credit and attribution is given to their original source. users should be aware of the process of creating the tcp texts, and therefore of any assumptions that can be made about the data. text selection was based on the new cambridge bibliography of english literature (ncbel). if an author (or for an anonymous work, the title) appears in ncbel, then their works are eligible for inclusion. selection was intended to range over a wide variety of subject areas, to reflect the true nature of the print record of the period. in general, first editions of a works in english were prioritized, although there are a number of works in other languages, notably latin and welsh, included and sometimes a second or later edition of a work was chosen if there was a compelling reason to do so. image sets were sent to external keying companies for transcription and basic encoding. quality assurance was then carried out by editorial teams in oxford and michigan. 5% (or 5 pages, whichever is the greater) of each text was proofread for accuracy and those which did not meet qa standards were returned to the keyers to be redone. after proofreading, the encoding was enhanced and/or corrected and characters marked as illegible were corrected where possible up to a limit of 100 instances per text. any remaining illegibles were encoded as <gap>s. understanding these processes should make clear that, while the overall quality of tcp data is very good, some errors will remain and some readable characters will be marked as illegible. users should bear in mind that in all likelihood such instances will never have been looked at by a tcp editor. the texts were encoded and linked to page images in accordance with level 4 of the tei in libraries guidelines. copies of the texts have been issued variously as sgml (tcp schema; ascii text with mnemonic sdata character entities); displayable xml (tcp schema; characters represented either as utf-8 unicode or text strings within braces); or lossless xml (tei p5, characters represented either as utf-8 unicode or tei g elements). keying and markup guidelines are available at the text creation partnership web site . eng natural history -new england -pre-linnean works. indians of north america -medicine. botany, medical -new england. zoology, medical -new england. 2003-09 tcp assigned for keying and markup 2003-09 apex covantage keyed and coded from proquest page images 2003-10 mona logarbo sampled and proofread 2003-10 mona logarbo text and markup reviewed and edited 2003-12 pfs batch review (qc) and xml conversion new-englands rarities discovered : in birds , beasts , fishes , serpents , and plants of that country . together with the physical and chyrurgical remedies wherewith the natives constantly use to cure their distempers , wounds , and sores . also a perfect description of an indian squa , in all her bravery ; with a poem not improperly conferr'd upon her . lastly a chronological table of the most remarkable passages in that country amongst the english . illustrated with cuts . by iohn iosselyn , gent. london , printed for g. widdowes at the green dragon in st. pauls church yard , 1672. to the highly obliging , his honoured friend and kinsman , samuel fortrey esq sir , it was by your assistance ( enabling me ) that i commenc'd a voyage into those remote parts of the world ( known to us by the painful discovery of that memorable gentleman sir fran. drake . ) your bounty then and formerly hath engaged a retribution of my gratitude , and not knowing how to testifie the same unto you otherwayes , i have ( although with some reluctancy ) adventured to obtrude upon you these rude and indigested eight tears observations , wherein whether i shall more shame my self or injure your accurate iudgment and better employment in the perusal , is a question . we read of kings and gods that kindly took a pitcher fill'd with water from the brook. the contemplation whereof ( well-knowing your noble and generous disposition ) hath confirm'd in me the hope that you will pardon my presumption , and accept the tender of the fruits of my travel after this homely manner , and my self as , sir , your highly obliged , & most humble servant , john josselyn . new-englands rarities discovered . in the year of our lord 1663. may 28. upon an invitation from my only brother , i departed from london , and arrived at boston , the chief town in the massachusets , a colony of englishmen in new-england , the 2●… th of iuly following . boston ( whose longitude is 315 deg . and 42 deg . 30 min. of north latitude ) is built on the south-west side of a bay large enough for the anchorage of 500 sail of ships , the buildings are handsome , joyning one to the other as in london , with many large streets , most of them paved with pebble stone , in the high street towards the common there are fair buildings some of stone , and at the east end of the town one amongst the rest , built by the shore by mr. gibs a merchant , being a stately edifice , which it is thought will stand him in little less than 3000 l. before it be fully finished . the town is not divided into parishes , yet they have three fair meeting ▪ houses or churches , which hardly suffice to receive the inhabitants and strangers that come in from all parts . having refreshed my self here for some time , and opportunely lighting upon a passage in a bark belonging to a friend of my brothers , and bound to the eastward , i put to sea again , and on the fifteenth of august i arrived at black-point , otherwise called scarborow , the habitation of my beloved brother , being about an hundred leagues to the eastward of boston ; here i resided eight years , and made it my business to discover all along the natural , physical , and chyrurgical rarities of this new-found world. new-england is said to begin at 40 and to end at 46 of northerly latitude , that is from de la ware bay to new-found-land . the sea coasts are accounted wholsomest , the east and south winds coming from sea produceth warm weather , the northwest coming over land causeth extremity of cold , and many times strikes the inhabitants both english and indian with that sad disease called there the plague of the back , but with us em●…iema . the country generally is rocky and mountanous , and extremely overgrown with wood , yet here and there beautified with large rich valleys , wherein are lakes ten , twenty , yea sixty miles in compass , out of which our great rivers have their beginnings . fourscore miles ( upon a direct line ) to the northwest of scarborow , a ridge of mountains run northwest and northeast an hundred leagues , known by the name of the white mountains , upon which lieth snow all the year , and is a land-mark twenty miles off at sea. it is rising ground from the sea shore to these hills , and they are inaccessible but by the gullies which the dissolved snow hath made ; in these gullies grow saven bushes , which being taken hold of are a good help to the climbing discoverer ; upon the top of the highest of these mountains is a large level or plain of a days journey over , whereon nothing grows but moss ; at the farther end of this plain is another hill called the sugar-loaf , to outward appearance a rude heap of massie stones piled one upon another , and you may as you ascend step from one stone to another , as if you were going up a pair of stairs , but winding still about the hill till you come to the top , which will require half a days time , and yet it is not above a mile , where there is also a level of about an acre of ground , with a pond of clear water in the midst of it ; which you may hear run down , but how it ascends is a mystery . from this rocky hill you may see the whole country round about ; it is far above the lower clouds , and from hence we beheld a vapour ( like a great pillar ) drawn up by the sun beams out of a great lake or pond into the air , where it was formed into a cloud . the country beyond these hills northward is daunting terrible , being full of rocky hills , as thick as mole-hills in a meadow , and cloathed with infinite thick woods . new-england is by some affirmed to be an island , bounded on the north with the river canada ( so called from monsieur cane ) on the south with the river mohegan or hudsons river , so called because he was the first that discovered it . some will have america to be an island , which out of question must needs be , if there be a northeast passage found out into the south sea ; it contains 1152400000 acres . the discovery of the northwest passage ( which lies within the river of canada ) was undertaken with the help of some protestant frenchmen , which left canada and retired to boston about the year 1669. the northeast people of america , i. e. new-england , &c. are judged to be tartars called samoades , being alike in complexion , shape , habit and manners , ( see the globe : ) their language is very significant , using but few words , every word having a diverse signification , which is exprest by their gesture ; as when they hold their head of one side the word signifieth one thing , holding their hand up when they pronounce it signifieth another thing . their speeches in their assemblies are very gravely delivered , commonly in perfect hexamiter verse , with great silence and attention , and answered again ex tempore after the same manner . having given you some short notes concerning the country in general , i shall now enter upon the proposed discovery of the natural , physical , and chyrurgical rarities ; and that i may methodically deliver them unto you , i shall cast them into this form : 1. birds . 2. beasts . 3. fishes . 4. serpents and insects . 5. plants , of these 1. such plants as are common with us , 2. of such plants as are proper to the country , 3. of such plants as are proper to the country and have no name known to us , 4. of such plants as have sprung up since the english planted and kept cattle there , 5. of such garden herbs ( amongst us ) as do thrive there and of such as do not . 6. of stones , minerals , metals ▪ and earths . first , of birds . the humming bird. the humming bird , the least of all birds , little bigger than a dor , of variable glittering colours , they feed upon honey , which they suck out of blossoms and flowers with their long needle-like bills ; they sleep all winter , and are not to be seen till the spring , at which time they breed in little nests made up like a bottom of soft silk-like matter , their eggs no bigger than a white pease , they hatch three or four at a time , and are proper to this country . the troculus . the troculus , a small bird , black and white , no bigger than a swallow , the points of whose feathers are sharp , which they stick into the sides of the chymney ( to rest themselves , their legs being exceeding short ) where they breed in nests made like a swallows nest , but of a glewy substance , and which is not fastened to the chymney as a swallows nest , but hangs down the chymney by a clew-like string a yard long . they commonly have four or five young ones , and when they go away , which is much about the time that swallows use to depart , they never fail to throw down one of their young birds into the room by way of gratitude . i have more than once observed , that against the ruin of the family these birds will suddenly forsake the house and come no more . the pilhannaw . the pilhannaw or mechquan , much like the description of the indian ruck , a monstrous great bird , a kind of hawk , some say an eagle , four times as big as a goshawk , white mail'd , having two or three purple feathers in her head as long as geeses feathers they make pens of , the quills of these feathers are purple , as big as swans quills and transparent ; her head is as big as a child 's of a year old , a very princely bird ; when she soars abroad , all sort of feathered creatures hide themselves , yet she never preys upon any of them , but upon fawns and iaccals : she ayries in the woods upon the high hills of ossapy , and is very rarely or seldome seen . the turkie . the turkie , who is blacker than ours ; i have heard several credible persons affirm , they have seen turkie cocks that have weighed forty , yea sixty pound ; but out of my personal experimental knowledge i can assure you , that i have eaten my share of a turkie cock , that when he was pull'd and garbidg'd , weighed thirty pound ; and i have also seen threescore broods of young turkies on the side of a marsh , sunning of themselves in a morning betimes , but this was thirty years since , the english and the indian having now destroyed the breed , so that 't is very rare to meet with a wild turkie in the woods ; but some of the english bring up great store of the wild kind , which remain about their houses as tame as ours in england . the goose. the goose , of which there are three kinds ; the gray goose , the white goose , and the brant : the goose will live a long time ; i once found in a white goose three hearts , she was a very old one , and so tuff , that we gladly gave her over although exceeding well roasted . the bloody-flux cured . a friend of mine of good quality living sometime in virginia was sore troubled for a long time with the bloody-flux , having tryed several remedies by the advice of his friends without any good effect , at last was induced with a longing desire to drink the fat dripping of a goose newly taken from the fire , which absolutely cured him , who was in despair of ever recovering his health again . the gripe and vulture . the gripe , which is of two kinds , the one with a white head , the other with a black head , this we take for the vulture : they are both cowardly kites , preying upon fish cast up on the shore . in the year 1668. there was a great mortallity of eels in casco bay , thither resorted at the same time an infinite number of gripes , insomuch that being shot by the inhabitants , they fed their hogs with them for some weeks ; at other times you shall seldome see above two or three in a dozen miles travelling . the quill feathers in their wings make excellent text pens , and the feathers of their tail are highly esteemed by the indians for their arrows , they will not sing in flying ; a gripes tail is worth a beavers skin up in the country . a remedy for the coldness and pain of the stomach . the skin of a gripe drest with the doun on , is good to wear upon the stomach for the pain and coldness of it . the osprey . the osprey , which in this country is white mail'd . a remedy for the tooth-ach . their beaks excell for the tooth-ach , picking the gums therewith till they bleed . the wobble . the wobble , an ill shaped fowl , having no long feathers in their pinions , which is the reason they cannot fly , not much unlike the pengwin ; they are in the spring very fat , or rather oyly , but pull'd and garbidg'd , and laid to the fire to roast , they yield not one ▪ drop . for aches . our way ( for they are very soveraign for aches ) is to make mummy of them , that is , to salt them well , and dry them in an earthen pot well glazed in an oven ; or else ( which is the better way ) to bury them under ground for a day or two , then quarter them and stew them in a tin stew●…an with a very little water . the looue . the looue is a water fowl , alike in shape to the wobble , and as virtual for aches , which we order after the same manner . the owl . the owl , avis devia , which are of three kinds ; the great gray owl with ears , the little gray owl , and the white owl which is no bigger than a thrush . the turkie buzzard . the turkie buzzard , a kind of kite , but as big as a turkie , brown of colour , and very good meat . what birds are not to be found in new-england . now by what the country hath not , you may ghess at what it hath ▪ it hath no nightingals , nor larks , nor bulfinches , nor sparrows , nor blackbirds , nor magpies , nor iackdawes , nor popinjays , nor rooks , nor pheasants , nor woodcocks , nor quails , nor robins , nor cuckoes , &c. secondly , of beasts . the bear , which are generally black . the bear , they live four months in caves , that is all winter ; in the spring they bring forth their young ones , they seldome have above three cubbs in a litter , are very fat in the fall of the leaf with feeding upon acorns , at which time they are excellent venison ; their brains are venomous ; they feed much upon water plantane in the spring and summer , and berries , and also upon a shell-fish called a horse-foot , and are never mankind , i. e. fierce , but in rutting time , and then they walk the country twenty , thirty , forty in a company , making a hideous noise with ●…oaring , which you may hear a mile or ●…wo before they come so near to endanger ●…he traveller . about four years since , ●…corns being very scarce up in the coun●…ry , some numbers of them came down amongst the english plantations , which generally are by the sea side ; at one town called gorgiana in the province of meyn ( called also new-sommerset-shire ) they kill'd fourscore . for aches and cold swellings . their grease is very good for aches and cold swellings , the indians anoint themselves therewith from top to toe , which hardens them against the cold weather . a black bears skin heretofore was worth forty shillings , now you may have one for ten , much used by the english for beds and coverlets , and by the indians for coats . for pain and lameness upon cold. one edw. andrews being foxt , and falling backward cross a thought in a shallop or fisher-boat , and taking cold upon it , grew crooked , lame , and full of pain , was cured , lying one winter upon bears skins newly flead off , with some upon him , so that he sweat every night . the wolf. the wolf , of which there are two kinds ; one with a round ball'd foot , and are in shape like mungrel mastiffs ; the other with a flat foot , these are liker greyhounds , and are called deer wolfs , because they are accustomed to prey upon deer . a wolf will eat a wolf new dead , and so do bears as i suppose , for their dead carkases are never found , neither by the indian nor english. they go a clicketing twelve days , and have as many whelps at a litter as a bitch . the indian dog is a creature begotten 'twixt a wolf and a fox , which the indians lighting upon ▪ bring up to hunt the deer with . the wolf is very numerous , and go in companies , sometimes ten , twenty , more or fewer , and so cunning , that seldome any are kill'd with guns or traps ; but of late they have invented a way to destroy them , by binding four maycril hooks a cross with a brown thread , and then wrapping some wool about them , they dip them in melted tallow till it be as round and as big as an egg ; these ( when any beast hath been kill'd by the wolves ) they scatter by the dead carkase , after they have beaten off the wolves ; about midnight the wolves are sure to return again to the place where they left the slaughtered beast , and the first thing they venture upon will be these balls of fat . for old aches . a black wolfs skin is worth a beaver skin among the indians , being highly esteemed for helping old aches in old people , worn as a coat ; they are not mankind , as in ireland and other countries , but do much harm by destroying of our english cattle . the ounce . the ounce or wild cat , is about the bigness of two lusty ram cats , preys upon deer and our english poultrey : i once found six whole ducks in the belly of one i killed by a pond side : their flesh roasted is as good as lamb , and as white . for aches and shrunk sinews . their grease is soveraign for all manner of aches and shrunk sinews : their skins are accounted good fur , but somewhat course . the raccoon . the raccoon liveth in hollow trees , and is about the size of a gib cat ; they feed upon moss , and do infest our indian corn very much ; they will be exceeding fat in autumn ; their flesh is somewhat dark , but good food roasted . for bruises and aches . their fat is excellent for bruises and aches . their skins are esteemed a good deep fur , but yet as the wild cats somewhat coarse . the porcupine . the porcupine in some parts of the countrey eastward , towards the french , are as big as an ordinary mungrel cur ; a very angry creature and dangerous , shooting a whole shower of quills with a rowse at their enemies , which are of that nature , that wherever they stick in the flesh , they will work through in a short time if not prevented by pulling of them out . the indians make use of their quills , which are hardly a handful long , to adorn the edges of their birchen dishes , and weave ( dying some of them red , others yellow and blew ) curious bags or pouches , in works like turkie-work . the beaver , canis ponticus , amphybious . the beaver , whose old ones are as big as an otter , or rather bigger , a creature of a rare instinct , as may apparently be seen in their artificial dam-heads to raise the water in the ponds where they keep , and their houses having three stories , which would be too large to discourse : they have all of them four cods hanging outwardly between their hinder legs , two of them are soft or oyly , and two solid or hard ▪ the indians say they are hermaphrodites . for wind in the stomach . their solid cods are much used in physick : our englishwomen in this country use the powder grated , as much as will lye upon a shilling in a draught of fiol wine , for wind in the stomach and belly , and venture many times in such cases to give it to women with child : their tails are flat , and covered with scales without hair , which being flead off , and the tail boiled , proves exceeding good meat , being all fat , and as sweet as marrow . the moose deer . the moose deer , which is a very goodly creature , some of them twelve foot high , with exceeding fair horns with broad palms , some of them two fathom from the tip of one horn to the other ; they commonly have three fawns at a time ; their flesh is not dry like deers flesh , but moist and lushious somewhat like horse flesh ( as they judge that have tasted of both ) but very wholsome . the flesh of their fawns is an incomparable dish , beyond the flesh of an asses foal so highly esteemed by the romans , or that of young spaniel puppies so much cried up in our days in france and england . moose horns better for physick use than harts horns . their horns are far better ( in my opinion ) for physick than the horns of other deer , as being of a stronger nature : as for their claws , which both englishmen and french make use of for elk , i cannot approve so to be from the effects , having had some trial of it ; besides , all that write of the elk , describe him with a tuft of hair on the left leg behind , a little above the pastern joynt on the outside of the leg , not unlike the tuft ( as i conceive ) that groweth upon the breast of a turkie cock , which i could never yet see upon the leg of a moose , and i have seen some number of them . for children breeding teeth . the indian webbes make use of the broad teeth of the fawns to hang about their childrens neck when they are breeding of their teeth . the tongue of a grown moose , dried in the smoak after the indian manner , is a dish for a sagamor . the maccarib . the maccarib , caribo , or pohano , a kind of deer , as big as a stag , round hooved , smooth hair'd and soft as silk ; their horns grow backwards a long their backs to their rumps , and turn again a handful beyond their nose , having another horn in the middle of their forehead , about half a yard long , very straight , but wreathed like an unicorns horn , of a brown jettie colour , and very smooth : the creature is no where to be found , but upon cape sable in the french quarters , and there too very rarely , they being not humerous ; some few of their skins and their streight horns are ( but very sparingly ) brought to the english. the fox . the fox , which differeth not much from ours , but are somewhat less ; a black fox skin heretofore was wont to be valued at fifty and sixty pound , but now you may have them for twenty shillings ; indeed there is not any in new-england that are perfectly black , but silver hair'd , that is sprinkled with grey hairs . the iaccal . the iaccal , is a creature that hunts the lions prey , a shrew'd sign that there are lions upon the continent ; there are those that are yet living in the countrey , that do constantly affirm , that about six or seven and thirty years since an indian shot a young lion , sleeping upon the body of an oak blown up by the roots , with an arrow , not far from cape anne , and sold the skin to the english. but to say something of the iaccal , they are ordinarily less than foxes , of the colour of a gray rabbet , and do not scent nothing near so strong as a fox ; some of the indians will eat of them : their grease is good for all that fox grease is good for , but weaker ; they are very numerous . the hare . the hare in new-england is no bigger than our english rabbets , of the same colour , but withall having yellow and black strokes down the ribs ; in winter they are milk white , and as the spring approacheth they come to their colour ; when the snow lies upon the ground they are very bitter with feeding upon the bark of spruce , and the like . thirdly , of fishes . pliny and isadore write there are not above 144 kinds of fishes , but to my knowledge there are nearer 300 : i suppose america was not known to pliny and isadore . a catalogue of fish , that is , of those that are to be seen between the english coast and america , and those proper to the countrey . alderling . alize , alewife , because great bellied ; olafle , oldwife , allow . anchova or sea minnow . aleport . albicore . barble . barracha . barracoutha , a fish peculiar to the west-indies . barsticle . basse. sea bishop , proper to the norway seas . river bleak or bley , a river swallow . sea bleak or bley , or sea camelion . blew fish or hound fish , two kinds , speckled hound fish , and blew hound fish called horse fish. bonito or dozado , or spanish dolphin . river bream . sea bream . cud bream . bullhead or indian muscle . river bulls . burfish . burret . cackarel or laxe . calemarie or sea clerk. catfish . carp. chare , a fish proper to the river wimander in lancashire . sea chough . chub or chevin . cony fish. clam or clamp . sea cob. cockes , or coccles , or coquil . cook fish. rock cod. sea cod or sea whiting . crab , divers kinds , as the sea crab , boat-fish , river crab , sea lion , &c. sea cucumber . cunger or sea eel . cunner or sea roach . cur. currier , post , or lacquey of the sea. crampfish or torpedo . cuttle , or sleeves , or sea angler . clupea , the tunnies enemy . sea cornet . cornuta or horned fish. dace , dare , or dart. sea dart , iavelins . dogfish or tubarone . dolphin . dorce . dorrie , goldfish . golden-eye , gilt ▪ pole , or godline , yellowheads . sea dragon or sea spider , quaviner . drum , a fish frequent in the west indies . sea emperour or sword fish. eel , of which divers kinds . sea elephant , the leather of this fish will never rot , excellent for thongs . ears of the sea. flayl fish. flownder or flook , the young ones are called dabs . sea flownder or flowre . sea fox . frogfish . frostfish . frutola , a broad plain fish with a tail like a half moon . sea flea . gallyfish . grandpiss or herring hog , this , as all fish of extraordinary size , are accounted regal fishes . grayling . greedigut . groundling . gudgin . gulf. sea grape . gull. gurnard . hake . haccle or sti●…klebacks . haddock . horse foot or asses hoof. herring . h●…llibut or sea pheasant . some will have the turbut all one , others distinguish them , calling the young fish of the first buttis , and of the other birt . there is no question to be made of it but that they are distinct kinds of fish. sea hare . sea hawk . hartfish . sea hermit . henfish . sea hind . hornbeak , sea ruff and reeves . sea horseman . hog or flying fish. sea kite or flying swallow . lampret or lamprel . lampreys or lamprones . limpin . ling , sea beef ; the smaller sort is called cusk . sea lanthorn . sea liver . lobster . sea lizard . sea locusts . lump , poddle , or sea owl . lanter . lux , peculiar to the river rhyne . sea lights . luna , a very small fish , but exceeding beautiful , broad bodied and blewish of colour ; when it swims , the fins make a circle like the moon . maycril . maid . manatee . m●…la , a fish like a lump of flesh , taken in the venetian sea. millers thumb , mulcet or pollard . molefish . minnow , called likewise a pink ; the same name is given to young salmon ; it is called also a witlin . monkefish . morse , river or sea horse , fresh water mullet . sea mullet , botargo or petargo is made of their spawn . muscle , divers kinds . navelfish . nunfish . needlefish . sea nettle . oyster . occulata . perch or river partridge . pollack . piper or gavefish . periwig . periwincle or sea snail or whelk . pike , or fresh-water wolf , or river wolf , luce and lucerne , which is an overgrown pike ▪ pilchard , when they are dried as red herrings they are called fumadoes . pilot fish. plaice or sea sparrow . polipe or pour-contrel . porpuise or porpiss , molebut , sea hog , sus marinus , tursion . priest fish or sea priest. prawn or crangone . punger . patella . powt , the feathered fish , or fork fish. river powt . pursefish or indian reversus , like an eel , having a skin on the hinder part of her head , like a purse , with strings , which will open and shut . parratfish . purplefish . porgee . remora , or suck stone , or stop ship. sea raven . roch or roach . rochet or rouget . ruff or pope . sea ram. salmon . sailfish . scallope or venus coccle . scate , or ray , or gristlefish ; of which divers kinds , as sharp snowted ray , rock ray , &c. shad. shallow . sharpling . spurling . sculpin . sheepshead . soles , or tonguefish , or sea capon , or sea partridge . seal , or soil , or zeal . sea calf , and ( as some will have it ) molebut . sheathfish . sea scales . sturgeon , of the roe of this fish they make caviar●… or cavialtie . shark or bunch , several kinds . smelt . snaccot . shrimp . spyfish . spitefish . sprat . spungefish . squill . squid . sunfish . starfish swordfish . tench . thornback or neptunes beard . thunnie , they cut the fish in pieces like shingles and powder it , and this they call melandria . sea toad . tortoise , torteise , tortuga , tortisse , turcle or turtle , of divers kinds . trout . turbut . sea tun. sea tree . uraniscopus . ulatife or sawfish , having a saw in his forehead three foot long , and very sharp . umber . sea urchin . sea unicorn or sea mononeros . whale , many kinds . whiting or merling , the young ones are called weerlings and m●…ps . whore. yardfish , asses prick or shamefish . the sturgeon . the sturgeon , of whose sounds is made i●…inglass , a kind of glew much used in physick : this fish is here in great plenty , and in some rivers so numerous , that it is hazardo●…s for canoes and the like small vessels to pass to and again , as in pechipscut river to the eastward . the cod. the cod , which is a staple commodity in the country . to stop fluxes of blood. in the head of this fish is found a stone , or rather a bone , which being pulveriz'd and drank in any convenient liquor , will stop womens overflowing courses notably : likewise , for the stone . there is a stone found in their bellies , in a bladder against their navel , which being pulveriz'd and drank in white-wine posset or ale , is present remedy for the stone . to heal a green cut. about their fins you may find a kind of lowse , which healeth a green cut in short time . to restore them that have melted their grease . their livers and sounds eaten , is a good medicine for to restore them that have melted their grease . the dogfish . the dogfish , a ravenous fish. for the toothach . upon whose back grows a thorn two or three inches long , that helps the tooth-ach , scarifying the gums therewith . their skins are good to cover boxes and instrument cases . the stingray . the stingray , a large fish , of a rough skin , good to cover boxes and hafts of knives , and rapier sticks . the tortous . the turtle or tortous , of which there are three kinds : 1. the land turtle ; they are found in dry sandy banks , under old houses , and never go into the water . for the ptisick , consumption , and morbus gallicus . they are good for the ptisick and consumptions , and some say the morbus gallicus . 2. the river turtle , which are venomous and stink . 3. the turtle that lives in lakes and is called in virginia a terrapine . the soile . the soile or sea calf , a creature that brings forth her young ones upon dry land , but at other times keeps in the sea preying upon fish. for scalds and burns , and for the mother . the oyl of it is much used by the ●…ndians , who eat of it with their fish , ●…nd anoint their limbs therewith , and ●…heir wounds and sores : it is very good ●…or scalds and burns ; and the fume of it , ●…eing cast upon coals , will bring women ●…ut of the mother fits. the hair upon ●…he young ones is white , and as soft as ●…ilk ; their skins , with the hair on , are good to make gloves for the winter . the sperma ceti whale . the sperma ceti whale differeth from ●…he whales that yield us whale-bones , ●…or the first hath great and long teeth , the other is nothing but bones with tassels hanging from their jaws , with which they suck in their prey . what sperma ceti is . it is not long since a sperma ceti whale or two were cast upon the shore , not far from boston in the massachusets bay , which being cut into small pieces and boiled in cauldrons , yielded plenty of oyl ; the oyl put up into hogsheads , and stow'd into cellars for some time , candies at the bottom , it may be one quarter ; then the oyl is drawn off , and the candied stuff put up into convenient vessels is sold for sperma ceti , and is right sperma ceti . for bruises and aches . the oyl that was drawn off candies again and again , if well ordered ; and is admirable for bruises and aches . what ambergreece is . now you must understand this whale feeds upon ambergreece , as is apparent , finding it in the whales maw in great quantity , but altered and excrementitious : i conceive that ambergreece is no other than a kind of mushroom growing at the bottom of some seas ; i was once shewed ( by a mariner ) a piece of ambergreece having a root to it like that of the land mushroom , which the whale breaking up , some scape his devouring paunch , and is afterwards cast upon shore . the coccle . a kind of coccle , of whose shell the indians make their beads called wompampe●…g and mohaicks , the first are white ▪ the other blew , both orient , and beautified with a purple vein . the white ●…eads are very good to stanch blood. the scarlet muscle . the scarlet muscle , at paschatawey a ●…lantation about fifty leagues by sea east●…ard from boston , in a small cove called ●…akers cove there is found this kind of muscle which hath a purple vein , which ●…eing prickt with a needle yieldeth a per●…ect purple or scarlet juice , dying linnen 〈◊〉 that no washing will wear it out , but ●…eeps its lustre many years : we mark ●…ur handkerchiefs and shirts with it . fish of greatest esteem in the west-indies . the indians of peru esteem of three ●…ishes more than any other , viz. the sea ●…orteise , the tubaron , and the manate ●…r sea cow ; but in new-england the in●…ians have in greatest request , the bass , ●…he sturgeon , the salmon , the lamprey , the ●…el , the frost-fish , the lobster and the ●…lam . fourthly , of serpents , and insects . the pond frog . the pond frog , which chirp in th●… spring like sparows , and croke lik●… toads in autumn : some of these whe●… they set upon their breech are a foot high the indians will tell you , that up in th●… country there are pond frogs as big as 〈◊〉 child of a year old . for burns , scalds , and inflammations . they are of a glistering brass colour , and very fat ▪ which is excellent for burns and scaldings , to take out the fire , and hea●… them , leaving no scar ; and is also very good to take away any inflammation . the rattle snake . the rattle snake , who poysons with a vapour that comes thorough two crooked fangs in their mouth ; the hollow of these fangs are as black as ink : the indians , when weary with travelling , will ●…ake them up with their bare hands , laying ●…old with one hand behind their head , with ●…he other taking hold of their tail , and ●…ith their teeth tear off the skin of their backs , and feed upon them alive ; which ●…hey say refresheth them . for frozen limbs , aches , and bruises . they have leafs of fat in their bellies , which is excellent to annoint frozen limbs , ●…nd for aches and bruises wondrous soveraign . their hearts swallowed fresh is a good antidote against their venome , and ●…heir liver ( the gall taken out ) bruised and applied to their bitings is a present remedy . of insects . a bug. there is a certain kind of bug like a beetle , but of a glistering brass colour , with four strong tinsel wings ; their bodies are full of corruption or white matter like a maggot ; being dead , and kept a while , they will stench odiously ; they beat the humming birds from the flowers . the wasp . the wasps in this countrey are pie●… black and white , breed in hives made lik●… a great pine apple , their entrance is a●… the lower end , the whole hive is of a●… ash colour , but of what matter its mad●… no man knows ; wax it is not , neithe●… will it melt nor fry , but will take fire suddenly like tinder : this they fasten to a bow , or build it round about a low bush , a foot from the ground . the flying gloworm . the flying gloworm , flying in dark summer nights like sparks of fire in great number ; they are common liewise in palestina . fifthly , of plants . and 1. of such plants as are common with us in england . hedghog-grass . mattweed . cats-tail . stichwort , commonly taken here by ignorant people for eyebright ; it blows in iune . blew flower-de-luce ; the roots are not knobby , but long and streight , and very white , with a multitude of strings . to provoke vomit and for bruises . it is excellent for to provoke vomiting , and for bruises on the feet or face . they flower in iune , and grow upon dry sandy hills as well as in low wet grounds . yellow bastard daffodill ; it flowereth in may , the green leaves are spotted with black spots . dogstones , a kind of satyrion , whereof there are several kinds groweth in our salt marshes . to procure love. i once took notice of a wanton womans compounding the solid roots of this plant with wine , for an amorous cup ; which wrought the desired effect . watercresses . red lillies grow all over the country innumerably amongst the small bushes , and flower in iune . wild sorrel . alders tongue comes not up till iune ; i have found it upon dry hilly grounds , in places where the water hath stood all winter , in august , and did then make oyntment of the herb new gathered ; the fairest leaves grow amongst short hawthorn bushes , that are plentifully growing in such hollow places . one blade . lilly convallie , with the yellow flowers ▪ grows upon rocky banks by the sea. water plantane , here called watersuck-leaves . for burns and scalds , and to draw ater out of swell'd legs . it is much used for burns and scalds , and to draw water out of swell'd legs . bears feed much upon this plant , so do the moose deer . sea plantane , three kinds . small-water archer . autumn bell flower . white hellibore , which is the first plant that springs up in this country , and the first that withers ; it grows in deep black mould and wet , in such abundance , that you may in a small compass gather whole cart-loads of it . wounds and aches cured by the indians . for the tooth-ach . for herpes milliares . the indians cure their wounds with it , annointing the wound first with raccoons greese , or wild-cats greese , and strewing upon it the powder of the roots ; and for aches they scarifie the grieved part , and annoint it with one of the foresaid oyls , then strew upon it the powder : the powder of the root put into a hollow tooth , is good for the tooth-ach : the root sliced thin and boyled in vineager , is very good against herpes milliaris . arsmart , both kinds . spurge time , it grows upon dry sandy sea banks , and is very like to rupter-wort , it is full of milk. rupter-wort , with the white flower . jagged rose-penny-wort . soda bariglia , or massacote , the ashes of soda , of which they make glasses . glass-wort , here called berrelia , it grows abundantly in salt marshes . st. john ' s-wort . st. peter ' s ▪ wort. speed-well chick-weed . male fluellin , or speed-well . upright peniroyal . wild-mint . cat-mint . egrimony . the lesser clot-bur . water lilly , with yellow flowers , the indians eat the roots , which are long a boiling , they tast like the liver of a sheep , the moose deer feed much upon them , at which time the indians kill them , when their heads are under water . dragons , their leaves differ from all the kinds with us , they come up in iune . violets of three kinds , the white violet which is sweet , but not so strong as our blew violets ; blew violets without sent , and a reddish violet without sent ; they do not blow till i●…ne . for swell'd legs . wood-bine , good for hot swellings of the legs , fomenting with the decoction , and applying the feces in the form of a cataplasme . salomons-seal , of which there is three kinds ; the first common in england , the second , virginia salomons-seal , and the third , differing from both , is called treacle berries , having the perfect ●…ast of treacle when they are ripe ; and will keep good along while ; certainly a very wholsome berry , and medicinable . doves-foot . herb robert. knobby cranes bill . for agues . ravens-claw , which flowers in may , and is admirable for agues . cinkfoil . tormentile . avens , with the leaf of mounta●…e-avens , the flower and root of english avens . strawberries . wild angelica , majoris and minoris . alexanders , which grow upon rocks by the sea shore . yarrow , with the white flower . columbines , of a flesh colour , growing upon rocks . oak of hierusalem . achariston is an excellent medicine for stopping of the lungs upon cold , ptisick &c. oak of cappadocia , both much of a nature , but oak of hierusalem is stronger in operation ; excellent for stuffing of the lungs upon colds , shortness of wind , and the ptisick ; maladies that the natives are often troubled with : i helped several of the indians with a drink made of two gallons of molosses wort , ( for in that part of the country where i abode , we made our beer of molosses , water , bran , chips of sassafras root , and a little wormwood , well boiled , ) into which i put of oak of hierusalem , cat mint , sowthistle , of each one handful , of enula campana root one ounce , liquorice scrap'd brused and cut in peices , one ounce , sassafras root cut into thin chips , one ounce , anny-seed and sweet fennel-seed , of each one spoonful bruised ; boil these in a close pot , upon a soft fire to the consumption of one gallon , then take it off , and strein it gently ; you may if you will boil the streined liquor with sugar to a syrup , then when it is cold , put it up into glass bottles , and take thereof three or four spoonfuls at a time , letting it run down your throat as leasurely as possibly you can ; do thus in the morning , in the afternoon , and at night going to bed . goose-grass , or clivers . fearn . brakes . wood sorrel , with the yellow flower . elm. line tree , both kinds . a way to draw out oyl of akrons , or the like , &c. maple ; of the ashes of this tree the indians make a lye , with which they force out oyl from oak akorns that is highly esteemed by the indians . dew-grass . earth-nut , which are of divers kinds , one bearing very beautiful flowers . fuss-balls , very large . mushrooms , some long and no bigger than ones finger , others jagged flat , round , none like our great mushrooms in england , of these some are of a scarlet colour , others a deep yellow , &c. blew flowered pimpernel . noble liver-wort , one sort with white flowers , the other with blew . black-berry . dew-berry . rasp-berry , here called mul-berry . goose-berries , of a deep red colour . h●… ho●…n , the haws being as big as services , and very good to eat , and not so astringent as the haws in england . ●…oad flax . pellamount , or mountain time . mouse 〈◊〉 minor. the making of oyl of akrons . to strengthe●… weak members ▪ ●…or scall'd-heads . there is oak of three kinds , white , red and black , the white is excellent to make canoes of , shallopes , ships , and other vessels for the sea , and for claw-board , and pipe-staves , the black is good to make waynscot of ; and out of the white oak acorns , ( which is the acorn bears delight to ●…eed upon ) : the natives draw an oyl , taking the rottenest maple wood , which being burnt to ashes , they make a strong lye therewith , wherein they boyl their white oak-acorns until the oyl swim on the top in great quantity ; this they fleet off , and put into bladders to annoint their naked limbs , which corrobarates them exceedingly ; they eat it likewise with their meat , it is an excellent clear and sweet oyl : of the moss that grows at the roots of the white oak the indesses make a strong decoction , with which they help their papouses or young childrens scall'd heads . iuniper , which cardanus saith is cedar in hot countries , and juniper in cold countries ▪ it is hear very dwarfish and shrubby , growing for the most part by the sea side . w●…llow . spurge lawrel , called here poyson berry , it kills the english cattle if they chance to feed upon it , especially calves . gaul , or noble mirtle . elder . dwarf elder . for a cut with a bruse . alder ; an indian bruising and cutting of his knee with a fall , used no other remedy , than alder bark chewed fasting , and laid to it , which did soon heal it . to take fire out of a burn. the decoction is also excellent to take the fire out of a burn or scalld . for wounds and cuts . for wounds and cuts make a strong decoction of bark of alder , pour of it into the wound , and drink thereof . hasel . for sore mouths , falling of the pallat. filberd , both with hairy husks upon the nuts , and setting hollow from the nut , and fill'd with a kind of water of an astringent taste ; it is very good for sore mouths , and falling of the pallat , as is the whole green nut before it comes to kernel , burnt and pulverized . the kernels are seldom without maggots in them . the figure of the walnut . walnut ; the nuts differ much from ours in europe , they being smooth , much like a nutmeg in shape , and not much bigger ; some three cornered , all of them but thinly replenished with kernels . chestnuts ; very sweet in taste , and may be ( as they usually are ) eaten raw ; the indians sell them to the english for twelve pence the bushel . beech. ash. quick-beam , or wild-ash . coals of birch pulverized and wrought with the white of an egg to a salve , is a gallant remedy for dry scurfy sores upon the shins ; and for bruised wounds and cuts . birch , white and black ; the bark of birch is used by the indians for bruised wounds and cuts , boyled very tender , and stampt betwixt two stones to a plaister , and the decoction thereof poured into the wound ; and also to fetch the fire out of burns and scalds . poplar , but differing in leaf . plumb tree , several kinds , bearing some long , round , white , yellow , red , and black plums ; all differing in their fruit from those in england . wild purcelan●… . wood-wax , wherewith they dye many pretty colours . red and black currans . for the gout , or any ach. spunck , an excrescence growing out of black birch , the indians use it for touchwood ; and therewith they help the sciatica , or gout of the hip , or any great ach , burning the patient with it in two or three places upon the thigh , and upon certain veins . 2. of such plants as are proper to the country . toripen any impostume or swelling . for sore mouths . the new-englands standing dish . indian wheat , of which there is three sorts , yellow , red , and blew ; the blew is commonly ripe before the other a month : five or six grains of indian wheat hath produced in one year 600. it is hotter than our wheat and clammy ; excellent in cataplasms to ripen any swelling or impostume . the decoction of the blew corn , is good to wash sore mouths with : it is light of digestion , and the english make a kind of loblolly of it , to eat with milk , which they call sampe ; they beat it in a morter , and sift the flower out of it ; the remainer they call homminey , which they put into a pot of two or three gallons , with water , and boyl it upon a gentle fire till it be like a hasty pudden ; they put of this into milk , and so eat it . their bread also they make of the homminey so boiled , and mix their flower with it , cast it into a deep bason in which they form the loaf , and then turn it out upon the peel , and presently put it into the oven before it spreads abroad ; the flower makes excellent puddens . bastard calamus aromaticus , agrees with the description , but is not barren ; they flower in iuly , and grow in wet places , as about the brinks of ponds . to keep the feet warm . the english make use of the leaves to to keep their feet warm . there is a little beast called a muskquash , that liveth in small houses in the ponds , like mole hills , that feed upon these plants ; their cods sent as sweet and as strong as musk , and will last along time handsomly wrap'd up in cotton wool ; they are very good to lay amongst cloaths . may is the best time to kill them , for then their cods sent strongest wild-l●…kes , which the indians use much to eat with their fish . a plant like knavers-mustard , called new-england mustard . mountain-lillies , bearing many yellow flowers , turning up their leaves like the martigon , or turks cap , spotted with small spots as deep as safforn ; they flower in iuly . one berry , or herb true love. see the figure . tobacco , there is not much of it planted in new-england ; the indians make use of a small kind with short round leaves called pooke . for burns and scalds . with a strong decoction of tobacco they cure burns and scalds , boiling it in water from a quart to a pint , then wash the sore therewith , and strew on the powder of dryed ▪ tobacco . hollow leaved lavender , is a plant that grows in salt marshes overgrown with moss , with one straight stalk about the bigness of an oat straw , better than a cubit high ; upon the top-standeth one fantastical flower , the leaves grow close from the root , in shape like a tankard , hollow , tough , and alwayes full of water , the root is made up of many small strings , growing only in the moss , and not in the earth , the whole plant comes to its perfection in august , and then it has leaves , stalks , and flowers as red as blood , excepting the flower which hath some yellow admixt . i wonder where the knowledge of this plant hath slept all this while , i. e. above forty years . for all manner of fluxes . it is excellent for all manner of fluxes . live for ever , a kind of cad weed . tree primerose , taken by the ignorant for scabious . a solar plant , as some will have it . maiden hair , or cappellus veneris verus , which ordinarily is half a yard in height . the apothecaries for shame now will substitute wall-r●…e no more for maiden hair , since it grows in abundance in new-england , from whence they may have good store . pirola , two kinds . see the figures , both of them excellent wound herbs . homer's moll●…y . lysimachus , or loose strife , it grows in dry grounds in the open sun four foot high , flowers from the middle of the plant to the top , the flowers purple , standing upon a small sheath or cod , which when it is ripe breaks and puts forth a white silken doun , the stalk is red , and as big as ones finger . marygold of peru , of which there are two kinds , one bearing black seeds , the other black and white streak'd , this beareth the fairest flowers , commonly but one upon the very top of the stalk . treacle-berries . see before salomons seal . oak of hierusalem . see before . oak of cappadocea . see before . earth-nuts , differing much from those in england , one sort of them bears a most beautiful flower . for the scurvy and dropsie . sea-tears , they grow upon the sea banks in abundance , they are good for the scurvy and dropsie , boiled and eaten as a sallade , and the broth drunk with it . indian beans , better for physick use than other beans . indian beans , falsly called french beans , are better for physick and chyrurgery than our garden beans . probatum est : squashes , but more truly squonte●… squashes , a kind of mellon , or rather gourd , for they oftentimes degenerate into gourds ; some of these are green , some yellow , some longish like a gourd , others round like an apple , all of them pleasant food boyled and buttered , and season'd with spice ; but the yellow squash called an apple squash , because like an apple , and about the bigness of a pome-water , is the best kind ; they are much eaten by the indians and the english , yet they breed the small white worms ( which physitians call ascarides , ) in the long ●…ut that vex the fundament with a perpetual itching , and a desire to go to stool . water-mellon , it is a large fruit , but nothing near so big as a pompion , colour , smoother , and of a sad grass green rounder , or more rightly sap-green ; with some yellowness admixt when ripe ; the seeds are black , the flesh or pulpe exceeding juicy . for heat and thirst in feavers . it is often given to those sick of feavers , and other hot diseases with good success . new-england daysie , or primrose , is the second kind of navel wort in iohnson upon gerard ; it flowers in may , and grows amongst moss upon hilly grounds and rocks that are shady . for burns and scalds . it is very good for burns and scalds . an achariston , or medicine deserving thanks . an indian whose thumb was swell'd , and very much inflamed , and full of pain , increasing and creeping along to the wrist , with little black spots under the thumb against the nail ; i cured it with this umbellicus veneris root and all , the yolk of an egg , and wheat flower , f. cataplasme . briony of peru , ( we call it though it grown hear ) or rather scamnony ; some take it for mech●…acan : the green juice is absolutely poyson ; yet the root when dry may safely be given to strong bodies . red and black currence . see before . wild damask roses , single , but very large and sweet , but stiptick . sweet ●…ern , the roots run one within another like a net , being very long and spreading abroad under the upper crust of the earth , sweet in taste , but withal astringent , much hunted after by our swine : the scotch-men that are in new-england have told me that it grows in scotland . for fluxes . the people boyl the tender tops in molosses beer , and in possets for fluxes , for which it is excellent . sarsaparilia , a plant not yet sufficiently known by the english : some say it is a kind of bind weed ; we have in new-england two plants , that go under the name of sarsaparilia ; the one not above a foot in height without thorns , the other having the same leaf , but is a shrub as high as a goose berry bush , and full of sharp thorns ; this i esteem as the right , by the shape and savour of the roots , but rather by the effects answerable to that we have from other parts of the world ; it groweth upon dry sandy banks by the sea side , and upon the banks of rivers , so far as the salt water flowes ; and within land up in the country , as some have reported . bill berries , two kinds , black and sky coloured , which is more frequent . to cool the heat of feavers , and quench thirst. they are very good to allay the burning heat of feavers , and hot agues , either in syrup or conserve . a most excellent summer dish . they usually eat of them put into a bason , with milk , and sweetned a little more with sugar and spice , or for cold stomachs , in sack. the indians dry them in the sun , and sell them to the english by the bushell , who make use of them instead of currence , putting of them into puddens , both boyled and baked , and into water gr●…el . knot berry , or clowde berry , seldom ripe . sumach , differing from all that ▪ i did ever see in the herbalists ; our english cattle devour it most abominably , leaving neither leaf nor branch , yet it sprou●…s again next spring . for colds . the english use to boyl it in beer , and drink it for colds ; and so do the indians , from whom the english had the medicine . wild cherry , they grow in clusters like grapes , of the same bigness , blackish , red when ripe , and of a harsh taste . for fluxes . they are also good for fluxes . transplanted and manured , they grow exceeding fair . board pine , is a very large tree two or three fadom about . for wounds . it yields a very soveraign turpentine for the curing of desperate wounds . for stabbs . the indians make use of the moss boiled in spring water , for stabbs , pouring in the liquor , and applying the boiled moss well stamp'd or beaten betwixt two stones . for burning and scalding . and for burning and scalding , they first take out the fire with a strong decoction of alder bark , then they lay upon it a playster of the bark of board pine first boyled tender , and beat to a playster betwixt two stones . to take fire out of a burn. one christopher luxe , a fisher-man ▪ having burnt his knee pan , was healed again by an indian webb , or wife , ( for so they call those women that have husbands ; ) she first made a strong decoction of alder bark , with which she took out the fire by imbrocation , or letting of it drop upon the sore , which would smoak notably with it ; then she playstered it with the bark of board pine , or hemlock tree , boyled soft and stampt betwixt two stones , till is was as thin as brown paper , and of the same colour , she annointed the playster with soyles oyl , and the sore likewise , then she laid it on warm , and sometimes she made use of the bark of the larch tree . to eat out proud flesh in a sore . and to eat out the proud flesh , they take a kind of earth nut boyled and stamped , and last of all , they apply t●… the sore the roots of water lillies boiled and stamped betwixt two stones , to a playster . for stitches . the firr tree , or pitch tree , the tar that is made of all sorts of pitch wood is an excellent thing to take away those desperate stitches of the sides , which perpetually afflicteth those poor people that are stricken with the plague of the back . note , you must make a large toast , or cake slit and dip it in the tar , and bind it warm to the side . the most common diseases in new england . the black pox , the spotted feaver , the griping of the guts , the dropsie , and the sciatica , are the killing deseases in new-england . the larch tree , which is the only tree of all the pines , that sheds his leaves before winter ; the other remaining green all the year : this is the tree from which we gather that useful purging excrense agarick . for wounds and cuts . the leaves and gum are both very good to heal wounds and cuts . for wounds with bruises . i cured once a desperate bruise with a cut upon the knee pan , with an ungent made with the leaves of the larch tree , and hogs grease , but the gum is best . spruce is a goodly tree , of which they make masts for ships , and sail yards : it is generally conceived by those that have skill in building of ships , that here is absolutely the best trees in the world , many of them being three fathom about , and of great length . an achariston for the scurvy . the tops of green spruce boughs boiled in bear , and drunk , is assuredly one of the best remedies for the scurvy , restoring the infected party in a short time ; they also make a lotion of some of the decoction , adding hony and allum . hemlock tree , a kind of spruce , the bark of this tree serves to dye tawny ; the fishers tan their sails and nets with it . to break sore or swelling . the indians break and heal their swellings and sores with it , boyling the inner bark of young hemlock very well , then knocking of it betwixt two stones to a playster , and annointing or soaking it in soyls oyl , they apply it to the sore : it will break a sore swelling speedily . one berry , herba paris , or true love. sassafras , or ague tr●…e . for heat in feavers . the chips of the root boyled in beer is excellent to allay the hot rage of feavers , being drunk . for bruises and dry blowes . the leaves of the same tree are very good made into an oyntment , for bruises and dry blows . the bark of the root we use instead of cinamon ; and it is ●…old at the barbadoes for two shillings the pound . and why may not this be the bark the jesuits powder was made of , that was so famous not long since in england , for agues ? cran berry , or bear berry , because bears use much to feed upon them , is a small trayling plant that grows in salt marshes that are over-grown with moss ; the tender branches ( which are reddish ) run out in great length , lying flat on the ground , where at distances , they take root , over-spreading sometimes half a score acres , sometimes in small patches of about a rood or the like ; the leaves are like box , but greener , thick and glisteri●…g ▪ the blossoms are very like the flowers o●… our english night shade , after which succeed the berries , hanging by long small foot stalks , no bigger than a hair ; at first they are of a pale yellow colour , afterwards red , and as big as a cherry ; some perfectly round , others oval , all of them hollow , of a sower astringent taste ; they are ripe in august and september . for the scurvy . they are excellent against the scurvy . for the heat in feavers . they are also good to allay the fervour of hot diseases . the indians and english use them much , boyling them with sugar for sauce to eat with their meat ; and it is a delicate sauce , especially for roasted mutton : some make tarts with them as with goose berries . vine , much differing in the fruit , all of them very fleshy , some reasonably pleasant ; others have a taste of gun powder , and these grow in swamps , and low wet grounds . 3. of such plants as are proper to the country , and have no name . ( 1. ) pirola , or winter green , that kind which grows with us in england is common in new-england , but there is another plant which i judge to be a kind of pirola , and proper to this country , a very beautiful plant ▪ the shape of the leaf and the just bigness of it you may see in the figure . the leaf of the plant judged to be a kind of pirola . the ground whereof is a sap green , embroydered ( as it were ) with many pale yellow ribs , the whole plant in shape is like semper vivum , but far less , being not above a handful high , with one slender stalk , adorned with small pale yellow flowers like the other pirola . it groweth not every where , but in some certain small spots overgrown with moss , close by swamps and shady ; they are green both summer and winter . for wounds . they are excellent wound herbs , but this i judge to be the better by far . probatum est . a type of plant 2. this plant was brought to me by a neighbour , who ( wandering in the woods to find out his strayed cattle , ) lost himself for two dayes , being as he ghessed eight or ten miles from the sea-side . the root was pretty thick and black , having a number of small black strings growing from ●…t , the stalks of the lea●…●…bout a handful long , the leaves were round and as big as a silver five shilling piece , of a s●…p or dark green colour , with a line or 〈◊〉 as black as jeat round the circumference , from whence came black lines or ribs at equal distance , all of them meeting in a black spot in the center . if i had staid longer in the country , i should have purposely made a journey into those parts where it was gathered , to discover if possible , the stalk and flower ; but now i shall refer it to those that are younger , and better able to undergo the pains and trouble of finding it out ; for i 〈◊〉 by the natives , that it is not common , that is , every where to be found , no more th●…n the embroydered pirola , which al●… i●…●… most elegant plant , and which ●…●…id endeavour to bring over , but it 〈◊〉 a●… 〈◊〉 . for 〈◊〉 . 〈◊〉 all ●…eal , o. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , 〈◊〉 another 〈◊〉 ●…rb 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ours , but rather beyond it : some of ou●… english practitioners take it for vervene and use it for the same , wherein they are grosly mistaken . the leaf is like a nettle leaf , but narrower and longer ; the stalk about the bigness of a nettle stalk , champhered and hollow , and of a dusky red colour ; the flowers are blew , small , and many , growing in spoky tufts at the top , and are not hooded , but having only four round leaves , after which followeth an infinite of small longish light brown seed ; the roots are knotty and matted together with an infinite number of small white strings ; the whole plant is commonly two cubits high , bitter in taste , with a rosenie savour . ( 3. ) this plant is one of the first that springs up after white hellibore , in the like wet and black grounds , commonly by hellibore , with a sheath or hood like dragons , but the pestle is of another shape , that is , having a round purple ball on the top of it , beset ( as it were ) with burs ; the hood shoots forth immediately from the root , before any leaf appears , having a green hollow leav'd lavender . page 54. sprig growing fast by it , like the smaller horse tayl , about the latter end of april the hood and sprig wither away , and there comes forth in the room a bud , like the bud of the walnut tree , but bigger ; the top of it is of a pale green colour , covered with brown skins like an onion , white underneath the leaves , which spread in time out of the bud , grow from the root with a stalk a foot long , and are as big as the great bur dock leaves , and of the colour ; the roots are many , and of the bigness of the steel of a tobacco pipe , and very white ; the whole plant sents as strong as a fox ; it continues till august . a branch of the humming-bird tree . ( 4. ) this plant the humming bird feedeth upon , it groweth likewise in wet grounds , and is not at its full growth till iuly , and then it is two cubits high and better , the leaves are thin , and of a pale green colour , some of them as big as a nettle leaf , it spreads into many branches , knotty at the setting on , and of a purple colour , and garnished on the top with many hollow dangling flowers of a bright yellow colour , speckled with a deeper yellow as it were shadowed , the stalkes are as hollow as a kix , and so are the roots , which are transparent , very tender , and and full of a yellowish juice . for bruises and aches upon stroaks . the indians make use of 〈◊〉 for aches , being bruised between two stones , and laid tocold but made ( after the english manner ) into an unguent with hog●… grease , there is not a more soveraign remedy for bruises of what kind soever ; and for aches upon stroaks . in august , 1670 ▪ in a swamp amongst alders , i found a sort of tree sow thistle , the stalks of some two or three inches , about , as hollow as a kix and very brittle , the leaves were smooth , and in shape like souchus laevis , i. e. hares lettice , but longer , some about a foot , these grow at a distance one from another , almost to the top , where it begins to put forth flowers between the leaves and the stalk , the top of the stalk runs out into a spike , beset about with flowers like sow thistle , of a blew or azure colour : i brought home one of the plants which was between twelve and thirteen foot in length , i wondered at it the more for that so large and tall a plant should grow from so small a root , consisting of slender white strings little bigger than bents , and not many of them , and none above a finger long , spreading under the upper crust of the earth ; the whole plant is full of milk , and of a strong savour . ( 5. ) this plant i found in a gloomy dry wood under an oak , 1670. the 18th of august , afterwards i found it in open champain grounds , but yet somewhat scarce : the root is about the bigness of a french walnut , the bark thereof is the plant when it springs up first . brown , and rugged , within of a yellowish colour , from whence ariseth a slender stalk , no bigger than an oat straw , about two cubits in height , somewhat better then a handful above the root shooteth out one leaf of a grass green colour , and an inch or two above that , another leaf , and so four or five at a greater distance one from another , till they come within a handful of the top , where upon slender foot stalks grow the flowers four or five , more or fewer , clustering together in pale long green husks milk white , consisting of ten small leaves , snipt a little on the edges the figure of the plant when it is at full growth . with purple hair threads in the midst ; the whole plant is of a brakish tast : when it is at its full growth the stalks are as red as blood. ( 6. ) this plant flowers in august , and grows in wet ground ; it is about three or four foot in height , having a square slender stalk chamfered , hollow and tuff , the leaves grow at certain distances one against another , of the colour of egrimony leaves sharpe pointed , broadest in the midst about an inch and half , and three or four inches in length , snipt about the edges like a nettle leaf , at the top of the stalk for four or five inches thick , set with pale green husks , out of which the flowers grow , consisting of one leaf , shaped like the head of a serpent , opening at the top like a mouth , and hollow throughout , containing four crooked pointels , and on the top of every pointel a small glistering green button , covered with a little white woolly matter , by which they are with the pointels fastened close together and shore up the tip of the upper chap , the crooked pointels are very stiff and hard , from the bottom of the husks , wherein the flower stands , from the top of the seed vessel , shoots out a white thread which runs in at the bottom of the flower , and so out at the mouth : the whole flower is milk white , the inside of the chaps reddish , the root i did not observe . a type of plant ( 7. ) this plant i take for a varigated herb paris , true love or one berry , or rather one flower , which is milk white , and made up with four leaves , with many black threads in the middle , upon every thread grows a berry ( when the leaves of of the flower are fallen ) as big as a white pease , of a light red colour when they are ripe , and clustering together in a round form as big as a pullets egg , which at distance shews but as one berry , very pleasant in taste , and not unwholsome ; the root , leaf , and flower differ not from our english kind , and their time of blooming and ripening agree , and therefore doubtless a kind of herba paris . the small sun flower , or marygold of america . ( 8. ) this plant is taken by our simplists to be a kind of golden rod , by others for sarazens consound , i judge it to be a kind of small sun flower , or marygold of the west indies ; the root is brown and slender , a foot and half in length , running a slope under the upper face of the earth , with some strings here and there , the stalk as big as the steal of a tobacco pipe , full of pith , commonly brownish , sometimes purple , three or four foot high , the leaves grow at a distance one against another , rough , hard , green above , and gray underneath , slightly snipt and the ribs appear most on the back side of the leaf , the flower is of a bright yellow , with little yellow cups in the midst , as in the mary gold of peru , with black threads in them with yellow pointels , the flower spreads it self abroad out of a cup made up of many green beards , not unlike a thistle ; within a handful of the top of the stalk ( when the flower is fallen , growes an excrense or knob as big as a walnut , which being broken yieldeth a kind of turpentine or rather rosen . what cutchenele is . the stalk beneath and above the knob , covered with a multitude of small bugs , about the bigness of a great flea , which i presume will make good cutchenele , ordered as they should be before they come to have wings : they make a perfect scarlet colour to paint with , and durable . 4. of such plants as have sprung up since the english planted and kept cattle in new-england . couch grass . shepherds purse . dandelion . groundsel . sow thistle . wild arrach . night shade , with the white flower . nettlesstinging , which was the first plant taken notice of . mallowes . plantain , which the indians call english-mans foot , as though produced by their treading . black henbane . wormwood . sharp pointed dock . patience . bloodwort . and i suspect adders tongue . knot grass . cheek weed . compherie , with the white flower . may weed , excellent for the mother ; some of our english houswives call it iron wort , and make a good unguent for old sores . the great c●…ot bur. mullin , with the white flower . q. what became of the influence of those planets that produce and govern these planets before this time ! i have now done with such plants as grow wild in the country in great plenty , ( although i have not mentioned all ) i shall now in the fifth place give you to understand what english herbs we have growing in our gardens that prosper there as well as in their proper soil , and of such as do not , and also of such as will not grow there at all . 5. of such garden herbs ( amongst us ) as do thrive there , and of such as do not . cabbidge growes there exceeding well . lettice . sorrel . parsley . marygold . french mallowes chervel . burnet . winter savory . summer savory . time. sage . carrats . parsnips of a prodigious size . red beetes . radishes . turnips . purslain . wheat . rye . barley , which commonly degenerates into oats . oats . pease of all sorts , and the best in the world ; i never heard of , nor did see in eight years time , one worm eaten pea. garden beans . naked oats , there called silpee , an excellent grain used insteed of oat meal , they dry it in an oven , or in a pan upon the fire , then beat it small in a morter . another standing dish in new-england . and when the milk is ready to boil , they put into a pottle of milk about ten or twelve spoonfuls of this meal , so boil it leasurely , stirring of it every foot , least it burn too ; when it is almost boiled enough , they hang the kettle up higher , and let it stew only , in short ●…ime it will thicken like a custard ; they season it with a little sugar and spice , and so serve it to the table in deep basons , and it is altogether as good as a white-pot . for people weakned with long sickness . it exceedingly nourisheth and strengthens people weakned with long sickness . sometimes they make water gruel with it , and sometimes thicken their flesh broth either with this or homminey , if it be for servants . spear mint . rew , will hardly grow . fetherfew prospereth exceedingly . southern wood , is no plant for this country . nor , rosemary . nor bayes . white satten groweth pretty well , so doth lavender cotton . but lavender is not for the climate . penny royal. smalledge . ground ●…vy , or ale hoof. gilly flowers will continue two years . fennel must be taken up , and kept in a warm cellar all winter . housleek prospereth notably . holly hocks . enula c ▪ panae , in two years time the roots rot . comferie , with white flowers . coriander , and dill. and annis thrive exceedingly , but annis seed , as also the seed of fennel seldom come to maturity ; the seed of annis is commonly eaten with a fly . clary never lasts but one summer , the roots rot with the frost . sparagus thrives exceedingly , so does garden sorrel , and sweet bryer , or eglantine . bloodwort but sorrily , but patience , and english roses , very pleasantly . celandine , by the west country men called kenning wort , grows but slowly . muschata , as well as in england . dittander , or pepper wort , flourisheth notably , and so doth . tansie . musk mellons are better then our english , and. cucumbers . pompions , there be of several kinds , some proper to the country , ●…y are dryer then our english pompions , and better tasted ; you may eat them green . the ancient new-england standing dish . but the houswives manner is to slice them when ripe , and cut them into dice , and so fill a pot with them of two or three gallons , and stew them upon a gentle fire a whole day , and as they sink , they fill again with fresh pompions , not putting any liquor to them ; and when it is stew'd enough , it will look like bak'd apples ; this they dish , putting butter to it , and a little vinegar , ( with some spice , as ginger , &c. ) which makes it tart like an apple , and so serve it up to be eaten with fish or flesh : it provokes urin extreamly and is very windy . sixthly and lastly , of stones , minerals , metals and earths . as first , the emrald which grows in flat rocks , and is very good . rubies , which here are very watry . i have heard a story of an indian , that found a stone , up in the country , by a great pond as big as an egg , that in a dark night would give a light to read by ; but i take it to be but a story . diamond , which are very brittle , and therefore of little worth . crystal , called by our west country men the kenning stone ; by sebegug pond is found in considerable quantity , not far from thence is a rock of crystal called the moose rock , because in shape like a moose , and muscovy glass , both white and purple of reasonable content . black lead . bole armoniack . red and yellow oker . terra sigilla . vitriol . antimony . arsnick , too much . lead . tin. tin glass . silver . iron , in abundance , and as good bog iron as any in the world. copper . it is reported that the french have a copper mine at port royal , that yieldeth them twelve ounces of pure copper out of a pound of oar. i shall conclude this section with a strange cure effected upon a drummers wife , much afflicted with a wolf in her breast ; the poor woman lived with her husband at a town called by the indians , casco , but by the english , famouth ; where for some time she swaged the pain of her sore , by bathing it with strong malt beer , which it would suck in greedily , as if some living creature : when she could come by no more beer , ( for it was brought from boston , along the coasts by merchants , ) she made use of rhum , a strong water drawn from sugar canes , with which it was lull'd a sleep ; at last , ( to be rid of it altogether ) she put a quantity of arsnick to the rhum , and bathing of it as formerly , she utterly destroyed it , and cured her self ; but her kind husband , who sucked out the poyson as the sore was healing , lost all his teeth , but without further danger or inconvenience . an addition of some rarities overslipt . the star fish , having fine points like a star , the whole fish no bigger then the palm of a mans hand , of a tough substance like leather , and about an inch in thickness , whitish underneath , and of the colour of a cucumber above , and somewhat ruff : when it is warm in ones hand , you may perceive a stiff motion , turning down one point , and thrusting up another : it is taken to be poysonous ; they are very common , and found thrown up on the rocks by the sea side . sea bream , which are plentifully taken upon the sea coasts , their eyes are accounted rare meat , whereupon the proverbial comparison , it is worth a sea breams eye . blew fish , or horse , i did never see any of them in england ; they are as big usually as the salmon , and better meat by far : it is common in new-england and esteemed the best sort of fish next to rock cod. cat fish , having a round head , and great glaring eyes like a cat : they lye for the most part in holes of rocks , and are discovered by their eyes : it is an excelling fish. munk fish , a flat fish like scate , having a hood like a fryers cowl . clam , or clamp , a kind of shell fish , a white muscle . an acharistor , for pin and web. ] sheath fish , which are there very plentiful , a delicate fish , as good as a pr●…wa , covered with a thin shell like the sheath of a knife , and of the colour of a muscle . which shell calcin'd and pulveriz'd , is excellent to take off a pin and web , or any kind of filme growing over the eye . morse , or sea horse , having a great head , wide jaws , armed with tushes as white as ivory , of body as big as a cow , proportioned like a hog , of brownish bay , smooth skin'd and impenetrable ▪ they are frequent at the isle of sables , their teeth are worth eight groats the pound ; the best ivory being sold but for half the money . for poyson . it is very good against poyson . for the cramp . as also for the cramp , made into rings . for the piles . and a secret for the piles , if a wise man have the ordering of it . the manaty , a fish as big as a wine pipe , most excellent meat ; bred in the rivers of hispaniola in the west indies ; it hath teats , and nourisheth its young ones with milk ; it is of a green colour , and tasteth like veal . for the stone collick . there is a stone taken out of the head that is rare for the stone and collect. to provoke urine . their bones beat to a powder and drank with convenient liquors , is a gallant urin provoking medicine . for wound and bruise . an indian , whose knee was bruised with a fall , and the skin and flesh strip'd down to the middle of the calf of his leg ; cured himself with water lilly roots boyled and stamped . for swellings of the foot. an indian webb , her foot being very much swell'd and inflamed , asswaged the swelling , and took away the inflamation with our garden or english patience , the roots roasted . f. cataplas . anno 1670. iune 28. to dissolve a scirrhous tumour . an indian dissolv'd a scirrhous tumour in the arm and hip , with a fomentation of tobacco , applying afterwards the herb stamp'd betwixt two stones . a description of an indian squa . now ( gentle reader ) having trespassed upon your patience a long while in the perusing of these rude observations , i shall , to make you amends , present you by way of divertisement , or recreation , with a coppy of verses made sometime since upon the picture of a young and handsome gypsie , not improperly transferred upon the indian squa , or female indian , trick'd up in all her bravery . the men are somewhat horse fac'd , and generally faucious , i. e. without beards ; but the women many of them have very good features ; seldome without a come to me , or cos amoris , in their countenance ; all of them black eyed , having even short teeth , and very white ; their hair black , thick and long , broad breasted ; handsome streight bodies , and slender , considering their constant loose habit : their limbs cleanly , straight , and of a convenient stature , generally , as plump as partridges , and saving here and there one , of a modest deportment . their garments are a pair of sleeves of deer , or moose skin drest , and drawn with lines of several colours into asiatick works , with buskins of the same , a short mantle of trading cloath , either blew or red , fastened with a knot under the chin , and girt about the middle with a zone , wrought with white and blew beads into pretty works ; of these beads they have bracelets for their neck and arms , and links to hang in their ears , and a fair table curiously made up with beads likewise , to wear before their breast ; their hair they combe backward , and tye it up short with a border , about two handfulls broad , wrought in works as the other with their beads : but enough of this . the poem . whether white or black be best call your senses to the quest ; and your touch shall quickly tell the black in softness doth excel , and in smoothness ; but the ear , what , can that a colour hear ? no , but 't is your black ones wit that doth catch , and captive it . and if slut and fair be one , sweet and fair , there can be none : nor can ought so please the tast as what 's brown and lovely drest : and who'll say , that that is best to please ones sense , displease the rest ? maugre then all that can be sed in flattery of white and red : those flatterers themselves must say that darkness was before the day : and such perfection here appears it neither wind nor sun-shine fears . a chronological table of the most remarkable passages in that part of america , known to us by the name of new-england . anno dom. 1492. christ. columbus discovered america . anno dom. 1516. the voyage of sir thomas pert , vice admiral of england , and sir sebastian cabota to brazile , &c. anno dom. 1527. new-found-land , discovered by the english. anno dom. 1577. sir francis drake began his voyage about the world. anno dom. 1585. nova albion discovered by sir francis drake , and by him so named . anno dom. 1585. april 9. sir richards greenevile was sent by sir water rawleigh with a fleet of seven sail to virginia , and was stiled the general of virginia . anno dom. 1586. captain thomas candish , a suffolk gentleman , began his voyage round about the world , with three ships past the streights of magellan , burn'd and ransack'd in the entry of chile , peru , and new-spain , near the great island callifornia in the south sea ; and returned to plymouth with a precious booty anno dom. 1588. september the 8th ; being the third since magellan that circuited the earth . anno dom. 1588. sir walter rawleigh first discovered virginia , by him so named , in honour of our virgin queen . anno dom. 1595. sir walter rawleigh discovered guiana . anno dom. 1606. a collony sent to virginia . anno dom. 1614. bermudas planted . anno dom. 1618. the blazing star ; then plymouth plantation began in new-england . anno dom. 1628. the massachusets colony planted , and salem the first town therein built . anno dom. 1629. the first church gathered in this colony was at salem ; from which year to this present year , is 43 years . in the compass of these years , in this colony , there hath been gathered fourty churches , and 120 towns built in all the colonies of new-england . the church of christ at plymouth , was planted in new-england eight years before others . anno dom. 1630. the governour and assistants arrived with their pattent for the massachusets . anno dom. 1630. the lady arabella in new-england . anno dom. 1630. when the government was established , they planted on noddles island . anno dom. 1631. captain iohn smith governour of virginia , and admiral of new-england , dyed . anno dom. 1631. mr. mavericke minister at dorchester in new-england . anno dom. 1631. iohn winthorpe esq chosen the first time governour , he was eleven times governour ; some say nineteen times ; eleven years together ; the other years by intermission . anno dom. 1631. iohn wilson pastor of charles town . anno dom. 1631. sir r. saltingstall at water town came into new-england . anno dom. 1631. mr. rog. harlackinden was a majestrate , and a leader of their military forces . dr. wilson gave 1000 l. to new-england , with which they stored themselves with great guns . anno dom. 1633. mr. thomas hooker , mr. haynes , and mr. iohn cotton , came over together in one ship. anno dom. 1634. the country was really placed in a posture of war , to be in readiness at all times . anno dom. 1635. hugh peters went over for new-england . anno dom. 1636. connecticat colony planted . anno dom. 1637. the pequites wars , in which were slain five or six hundred indians . ministers that have come from england , chiefly in the ten first years , ninety four : of which returned twenty seven : dyed in the country thirty six : yet alive in the country thirty one. the number of ships that transported passengers to new-england in these times , was 298. supposed : men , women , and children , as near as can be ghessed 21200. anno dom. 1637. the first synod at cambridge in new-england , where the antinomian and famalistical errors were confuted ; 80 errors now amongst the massachusets . anno dom. 1638. new-haven colony began . mrs. hutchinson and her erronious companions banished the massachusets colony . a terrible earth quake throughout the country . mr. iohn harvard , the founder of harvard college ( at cambridge in new-england ) deceased , gave 700 l. to the erecting of it . anno dom. 1639. first printing at cambridge in new-england . anno dom. 1639. a very sharp winter in new-england . anno dom. 1642. harvard college founded with a publick library . ministers bred in new-england , and ( excepting about 10 , ) in harvard college 132 ; of which dyed in the country 10 ; now living 81 ; removed to england 41. anno dom. 1643. the first combination of the four united colonies , viz. plymouth , massachusets , connecticut , and new-haven . anno dom. 1646. the second synod at cambridge touching the duty and power of majestrates in matters of religion : secondly , the nature and power of synods . mr. eliot first preached to the indians in their native language . anno dom. 1647. mr. thomas hooker died. anno dom. 1648. the third synod at cambridge , publishing the platform of discipline . anno dom. 1649. mr. iohn winthorpe governour , now died. this year a strange multitude of caterpillers in new-england . thrice seven years after the planting of the english in new-england , the indians of massachusets being 30000 able men were brought to 300. anno dom. 1651. hugh peters , and mr. wells came for england . anno dom. 1652. mr. iohn cotton dyed . anno dom. 1653. the great fire in boston in new-england . mr. thomas dudley , governour of the massachusets , dyed this year . anno dom. 1654. major gibbons died in new-england . anno dom. 1655. iamaica taken by the english. anno dom. 1657. the quakers arrived in new-england , at plymouth . anno dom. 1659. mr. henry dunster the first president of harvard college now dyed . anno dom. 1661. major atherton dyed in new-england . anno dom. 1663. mr. iohn norton pastor of boston in new-england , dyed suddenly . mr. samuel sto●…e , teacher of hartford church , dyed this year . anno dom. 1664. the whole bible printed in the indian language finished . the manadaes , called new amsterdam , now called new york ; surrendred up to his majesties commissioners ( for the settling of the respective colonies in new-england , viz. sir robert carr , collonel nicols , collonel cartwright , and mr. samuel mavericke , ) in september , after thirteen dayes the fort of arania , now albania ; twelve dayes after that , the fort aw●…apha ; then de la ware castle man'd with dutch and sweeds ; the three first forts and towns being built upon the great river mohegan , otherwise called ●…udsons river . in september appeared a great comet for the space of three months . anno dom. 1665. mr. iohn indicot , governour of the massachusets dyed . a thousand foot sent this year by the french king to canada . captain davenport killed with lightning at the castle by boston in new-england , and several wounded . anno dom. 1666. the small pox at boston . seven slain by lightning , and divers burnt : this year also new-england ▪ had cast away , and taken 31 vessels , and some in 1667. anno dom. 1667. mr. iohn wilson pastor of boston dyed , aged 79 years . anno dom. 1670. at a place called kenibunck , which is in the province of meyne , a colony belonging to the heir of that honourable knight sir ferdinando gorges ; not far from the river side , a piece of clay ground was thrown up by a mineral vapour ( as we supposed ) over the tops of high oaks that grew between it and the river , into the river , stopping the course thereof , and leaving a hole two yards square , wherein were thousands of clay bullets as big as musquet bullets , and pieces of clay in shape like the barrel of a musquet . anno dom. 1671. elder peun dyed at boston . anno dom. 1672. mr. richard bellingham , governour of the massachusets in new-england . finis . books printed and sold by giles widdows at the green dragon in st. pauls church yard . folio . doctor nath. homes's works . mr. davies's rights belonging to uniformity in churches . a book of the five sences , in copper plates . quarto . mr. caryl's exposition on the 32 , 33 , and 34 chapters of the book of iob. dr. sibbs's light from heaven , discovering the fountain opened , the angels acclamatio●…s , the churches riches , the riches poverty , in four treatises . mr. barto●…s remedy for londons languishing trade . the younger brothers apology , or a fathers free power , &c. marcelia , or the treacherous friend , a tragy-comedy . written by madam boothby . large octavo . mr. stucklyes gospel glass , representing the miscarriages of english professors . mr. gales theophily . his anatomy of insidelity . his idea of iansenism both historick and d●…gmatick , in small octavo . pufendorfs elementorum iuris prudentia universalis . walker's grammar . his art of teaching . 12. and 24. frommoni●… synopsis metaphysica . hoole's greek testament . history of the bible . batavia , or the hollander displayed in brief charectars , &c. dr. collet's daily devotions , or the christians morning and evening sacrafice ; digested into prayers and meditations , with some short directions for a godly life ; and a brief account of the authors li●…e , by doctor fuller . those famous lozenges for the cure of consumptions , coughs new and old , and all other diseases incident to the lungs , are made by edmund buckworth , physitian to the queens most excellent majesty , and are sold at the green dragon in st. pauls church yard , where you may also have his famous homogenial pill . gw printer's or publisher's device the novum organum of sir francis bacon, baron of verulam, viscount st. albans epitomiz'd, for a clearer understanding of his natural history / translated and taken out of the latine by m.d. novum organum bacon, francis, 1561-1626. 1676 approx. 112 kb of xml-encoded text transcribed from 19 1-bit group-iv tiff page images. text creation partnership, ann arbor, mi ; oxford (uk) : 2003-01 (eebo-tcp phase 1). a28309 wing b310 estc r38681 17890949 ocm 17890949 106723 this keyboarded and encoded edition of the work described above is co-owned by the institutions providing financial support to the early english books online text creation partnership. this phase i text is available for reuse, according to the terms of creative commons 0 1.0 universal . the text can be copied, modified, distributed and performed, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. early english books online. (eebo-tcp ; phase 1, no. a28309) transcribed from: (early english books online ; image set 106723) images scanned from microfilm: (early english books, 1641-1700 ; 1115:7) the novum organum of sir francis bacon, baron of verulam, viscount st. albans epitomiz'd, for a clearer understanding of his natural history / translated and taken out of the latine by m.d. novum organum bacon, francis, 1561-1626. m. d. [4], 32 p. printed for thomas lee ..., london : 1676. reproduction of original in the huntington library. created by converting tcp files to tei p5 using tcp2tei.xsl, tei @ oxford. re-processed by university of nebraska-lincoln and northwestern, with changes to facilitate morpho-syntactic tagging. gap elements of known extent have been transformed into placeholder characters or elements to simplify the filling in of gaps by user contributors. eebo-tcp is a partnership between the universities of michigan and oxford and the publisher proquest to create accurately transcribed and encoded texts based on the image sets published by proquest via their early english books online (eebo) database (http://eebo.chadwyck.com). the general aim of eebo-tcp is to encode one copy (usually the first edition) of every monographic english-language title published between 1473 and 1700 available in eebo. eebo-tcp aimed to produce large quantities of textual data within the usual project restraints of time and funding, and therefore chose to create diplomatic transcriptions (as opposed to critical editions) with light-touch, mainly structural encoding based on the text encoding initiative (http://www.tei-c.org). the eebo-tcp project was divided into two phases. the 25,363 texts created during phase 1 of the project have been released into the public domain as of 1 january 2015. anyone can now take and use these texts for their own purposes, but we respectfully request that due credit and attribution is given to their original source. users should be aware of the process of creating the tcp texts, and therefore of any assumptions that can be made about the data. text selection was based on the new cambridge bibliography of english literature (ncbel). if an author (or for an anonymous work, the title) appears in ncbel, then their works are eligible for inclusion. selection was intended to range over a wide variety of subject areas, to reflect the true nature of the print record of the period. in general, first editions of a works in english were prioritized, although there are a number of works in other languages, notably latin and welsh, included and sometimes a second or later edition of a work was chosen if there was a compelling reason to do so. image sets were sent to external keying companies for transcription and basic encoding. quality assurance was then carried out by editorial teams in oxford and michigan. 5% (or 5 pages, whichever is the greater) of each text was proofread for accuracy and those which did not meet qa standards were returned to the keyers to be redone. after proofreading, the encoding was enhanced and/or corrected and characters marked as illegible were corrected where possible up to a limit of 100 instances per text. any remaining illegibles were encoded as <gap>s. understanding these processes should make clear that, while the overall quality of tcp data is very good, some errors will remain and some readable characters will be marked as illegible. users should bear in mind that in all likelihood such instances will never have been looked at by a tcp editor. the texts were encoded and linked to page images in accordance with level 4 of the tei in libraries guidelines. copies of the texts have been issued variously as sgml (tcp schema; ascii text with mnemonic sdata character entities); displayable xml (tcp schema; characters represented either as utf-8 unicode or text strings within braces); or lossless xml (tei p5, characters represented either as utf-8 unicode or tei g elements). keying and markup guidelines are available at the text creation partnership web site . eng science -methodology. natural history -pre-linnean works. 2000-00 tcp assigned for keying and markup 2001-09 apex covantage keyed and coded from proquest page images 2002-06 kirk davis sampled and proofread 2002-06 kirk davis text and markup reviewed and edited 2002-07 pfs batch review (qc) and xml conversion the novum organvm of sir francis bacon , baron of verulam , viscount st. albans . epitomiz'd : for a clearer understanding of his natural history . translated and taken out of the latine by m. d. b. d. london , printed for thomas lee at the turks-head in fleetstreet . 1676. licens'd jan. 26. 1675. roger l'estrange the preface to the reader . i need not recommend to your perusal this useful treatise , seeing that it proceeds from such a genius , whose most trivial conceptions have obtained the esteem of his age , not inferiour in learning to any of the former . he was a person of a sound judgement , sharp wit , vast comprehension , and of extraordinary abilities both natural and acquir'd . but i need not run over the praises of a person so well known amongst us to oblige my reader to a kind reception , and favourable interpretation of this obscure , but useful book : for the things therein contained are so excellent in themselves , and so well designed , that we may be inclinable of our own accord to embrace and peruse them . the authors purpose , as you may 〈◊〉 , is to censure the limitations of sciences to the bounds prescribed to us , by the shallow pates of some of former ages , to discover the mistakes of our understandings , to point at the sources from whence they proceed , to rectifie the common errours of men , backed by ill grounded axioms , to direct us to a right interpretation of nature's mysteries , and oblige us to settle our judgements , upon better and sounder principles than ordinary ; his purpose is to open to us a gate to a greater proficiency and improvement in all kind of learning , to pull down the wals of partition , and remove the non plus ultra , that we might sail to those indies full of gold and jewels . i mean the sciences not yet discovered to our world , and fetch from thence all the rarities , the knowledges , and inventions , that might pleasure and benefit our humane life . for that purpose he adviseth us not to take things and notions too much upon trust , but to ground our belief upon practice , and well ordered experience . he layes down several principles , which may seem strange and new ; but if they be rightly examined , we shall find them naturally proceeding from the nature of things . i confess the most excellent conceptions are wrapped up in obscure terms , and in such new contrived expressions , that king james at the first perusal judged this novum organum to be past all mans understanding . but we may consider , that a new method , and new things and principles deserve new expressions , and that 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 speaks not to the vulgar , but unto the 〈◊〉 , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 he 〈◊〉 other lands never found out 〈◊〉 and adviseth them in 〈◊〉 to seek and to proceed on without minding the discourage 〈◊〉 and 〈◊〉 of our predecessors in learning . this 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 was 〈◊〉 upon as a seasonable addition to his matural history , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 have made it too 〈◊〉 , i have been desired to 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 and directions as might be answerable to that subject . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , after a serious perusal , i did scarce know what was to be set aside ; for all the things things therein contained , are so material and seasonable , that i have wondred , that our english curiosi have not had the desire to study and understand the directions that are 〈◊〉 given 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 their mistaken 〈◊〉 . in such a case , that this novum organum might be the better intelligible , a meer interpretation is not sufficient , in regard of the authors difficult and new found expressions , a comment weuld be required , which if it were well and judiciously composed according to the authors true meaning and intent , i am perswaded every one 〈◊〉 be of my judgement , that it is the best and most useful treatise of our dayes for the purpose that is designed . i am perswaded that it might be of a singular use to such vertuosi amongst us , as are not perfectly acquainted with the latine tongue , and yet imploy their time and studies in the improvement of their abilities , and finding out inventions useful to the life of man , for it would supply them with such principles as their 〈◊〉 and 〈◊〉 might wonderfully improve in new discoveries . i was sorry 〈◊〉 my , pen was limited to so few sheets , and that i had not the liberty to make the whole organum appear in our language . for brevity sake therefore i have in some places shortened the authors expressions . 〈◊〉 this will be sufficient to give a taste of the whole , which such 〈◊〉 understand the language of the learned may peruse at their leasure , vale. m. d. part of the novum organum , or , aphorisms of the interpretation of nature and kingdome of man. taken out of the first book . man , natures minister and interpreter , acts and understands only so much of the ordering of nature , as he hath observed by the assistance of experience and reason : more he neither doth , nor can apprehend . neither the hand alone , nor an understanding eft to it self , can do much . things are performed by instruments and helps , which the 〈◊〉 needs as much as the hand . now as 〈◊〉 instruments assist and govern the hands motion , likewise the instruments of the understanding prompt and advise it . humane knowledge and power are co-incident in the same , or happen to be alike , because ignorance of the cause renders the effect unintelligible : for nature is not overcome without submission , and that , which in contemplation stands instead of the cause , in operation serves as a rule . as to operation , man can do no more but only apply or remove natural bodies . the rest nature willingly compleats . the mechanick , the mathematician , the physitian , the chymist , and the magician are variously concerned in natural operations , but as it happens at present their attempts are but slight , and their successes inconsiderable . it were an extravagancy , and a plain contradiction to expect the accomplishment of those things , which were never yet done unless by means never yet attempted . even those operations which are found out are rather to be ascribed to chance and experience than to sciences ; for the sciences , which are now professed amongst us , are nothing else , but an adorning and a setting forth of things formerly invented , not the modes of invention or the desigments of new operation . the cause and origine almost of all the mischiefs , that happen in sciences , is this alone , that we too much admire and set up the strength and power of our understanding , and we neglect the true helps and aids thereof . natures subtilty far exceeds the subtilty of our sense , or that of our understanding ; so that the delicate meditations of mankind , their speculations and inventions are but foolish things , if they were narrowly searched into . as siences commonly so called are unprofitable for the invention of operations , so the logick now in use is not conducible to the finding out of true sciences . the logick , which we now use tends to the establishment and confirmation of errours , which are founded in vulgar notions rather than to a serious enquiry after truth , therefore it is more hurtful than profitable . a syllogisme is not used amongst the principles of sciences , and in medial axioms it is imployed in vain , for it falls much short of natures subtility . it hath therefore a command over assent , not over the things themselves . a syllogisme consists of propositions , propositions of words , words interpret notions , therefore if notions , the basis of things be confus'd , and rashly abstracted from things , nothing will be firm that is built upon them , therefore our only assurance is in a right induction . there is no soundness in logical and physical notions , neither substance , nor quality , action , passion , nor being it self , are proper notions , much less heavy , light , thick , thin , moist , dry , generation , corruption to attract , to expel element , matter , form , &c. all these are phantastical and ill designed . the notions of the lower species , as a man , a dog , a dove , and the immediate apprehensions of our senses ; namely , hot , cold , white , black , don't much deceive us , and yet nevertheless by the fluidity of matter and m●xture of things they are sometimes confounded . all other notions , which men have hitherto used are aberrations , and are neither duely nor truely abstracted , and raised from the very things themselves . the things that are already invented in sciences , are such as most commonly depend on vulgar notions . if any will search into the more inward , and remote mysteries of nature , he must make use of notions and axioms , abstracted from things in a more certain and solid manner , that the working of the understanding may be better and surer . there are and may be two ways of searching and finding out truth : one from sense and perticulars leads to the most general axioms , and out of those principles and their unquestionable authority judges and finds out middle axioms . this way is much in use . the other raiseth axioms from sense , and perticulars by a continual and gradual ascent it proceeds at last to generals . this is a true way but not yet attempted . the understanding left to it self goes the former way , observing a logical method ; for the mind delights to leap to generals , that it might acquiesce there , and after a little stay it loaths experience . but these evils are now at length augmented by logick for the pomp of disputations . an understanding left to it self , accompanied with sober , patient , and grave wit , if not hindred by former 〈◊〉 , essays the other way , which is right but not successful ; because when the understanding is not directed and assisted , is but weak , and unable to overcome the obscurity of things . either way derives its beginning from sense and perticulars , and acquiesces in things most general . but yet they differ very much , for the one does lightly run over experience and perticulars ; the other converses in them in a right and methodical manner . again the one layes down at first , certain abstract and un profitable generals . the other rises by degrees to these things , which indeed are more known to nature . it can never be that axioms framed by arguing , for finding out new operations , should be of any value , because the subtilty of nature doth far surprise the acuteness of disputation . but axioms rightly abstracted in order from perticulars , do easily discover and shew forth other new perticulars , and therefore by that means sciences became active . the axioms now in use sprang from small and slender experience , and a few common perticulars , they are for the most part made and enlarged according to their measure , so that it is no wonder , if they lead not to new perticulars . now if by chance any instance not observed or known before , offer it self , the axiome is salved by some friviolous distinction ; whereas it is more proper , that the axiom it self should be mended . that humane reason , which we use in natures assistance , we are wont to call anticipations of nature , because it is rash and hasty . but that reason , which is rightly extracted out of things , we call interpretation of nature . an icipations are strong enough to gain consent , seeing that if all men were equally and conformably made , they would agree well enough among themselves . to speak plainly , no right judgement can be made of our way , nor of those things which are found out agreeable unto it by anticipations , i mean by the reason now in use : because we cannot desire any one to stand to the judgement of that thing which is it self called in question . it is no easie matter to deliver , or explain those things which we have produc'd ; because things new in themselves are to be understood by the analogy they have with old ones . borguas tells us of the french expedition into italy , that they came with chalk in their hands to mark out their inns , and not with arms to break through them . our design is the same , that our doctrines might be admitted by well disposed and capacious souls , for there is no need of confutations , where we disagree in the very principles , notions , and forms of demonstration . their reason , who held non-comprehension , and our way do in some sort agree in the beginning , but they vastely differ and are opposite in the end , for they absolutely affirm , that nothing can be be known , but we say not much can be known in nature , in that way as it is now handled . they by their assertion destroy the authority of sense and understanding , we study and give remedies to help them . idols , mistakes , and mis-apprehensions , which now possesse , and are deeply rooted in mans understanding , so besiege the minds of men that truth can hardly get admission , but if it should they would hinder and disturb the restoration of sciences , unless men being fore warned would arm themselves against them , as much as they could . there are four sorts of idols or false images , which besiege mens minds : we , for distinction sake , have called them first idola tribus . 2. idola specus . 3. idola fori . 4. 〈◊〉 theatri . the raising notions and axioms by true induction is doubtless a proper remedy to drive away and remove these idols , yet their indication is of great use , for the doctrine of idols conduces to the interpretation of nature ; even as the doctrine of sophistical arguments doth to vulgar logick . idola 〈◊〉 are founded in humane nature it self , and in every family and stock of mankind . for humane sense is safely affirm'd to be the measure of things . on the contrary , all the conceptions both of sense and reason are taken from the analogy of man , not the analogy of the universe . humane understanding is like an unequal looking-glass to the rayes of things , which mixing its own nature with the nature of things , doth wrest and infect it . idola specus are the mis-apprehensions of every individual man. for every one hath besides the mistakes of humane nature in genéral , a den or individual cave , where the hight of nature is obscured and corrupted . this happens either through every mans singularity ; or through education and conversation among others , or by reading of books and the authorities of them who are honoured and admired by every one , or through the different impressions which occur in a prepossessed and predisposed , or in a calm and equal mind , or the like : so that the spirit of man , as it is placed or qualified in every man , is a various , a troubled , and a fortuitous thing ; wherefore heraclitus said well , that men sought after siences in lesser worlds , and not in the great and common world. there are also idols or mis-apprehensions arising from the mutual contracts , and also ciations of men , which by reason of humane commerce and society we call idola fori : for men are associated by speech , but words are imposed according to the vulgar capacity ; therefore a vitious and an improper imposition of words doth wonderfully mislead and clog the understanding . neither the definitions and explications , wherewith learned men are wont to defend and vindicate themselves in some things , do mend the matter for words , do plainly force the understanding and disturb all things , they lead men into many idle controversies and foolish inventions . lastly there are idols or misapprehensions , which are entered into mens minds from divers opinions of the philosophers , as also from the 〈◊〉 laws of demonstrations : these we call idola theatri . because all the kinds of philosophy , which have been invented and received we look upon as so many fables produced and acted to make fictitious and senical worlds . neither speak we of those amongst us , or only of the ancient philosophers and sects ; seeing many the like fables may be composed and made , because the causes of the different errours are for the most part common ; neither do we understand this only of universal philosophy , but also of many principles and axioms of sciences which have prevailed by tradition , credulity and neglect . but of all these kinds of idols we must speak more largely and distinctly , that so the humane intellect may take more heed . humane understanding is inclinable of it self to suppose a greater order and equality in things than it finds . and whereas many things in nature are monodical and altogether unlike , yet it appropriates to them parallels , correspondencies , and relatives , which are not from hence , are derived those figments . in coelestial bodies all things are moved by perfect circles . in the mean time they reject spiral and serpentine lines , retaining yet the names : from hence it is , that the element of fire is introduced to make a quaternion with the other three , which are within the reach of our senses . to the elements also , as they call them , fancy ascribes to them a double proportion of excess in their mutual rarefaction , and such like dreames are invented . nor is this vanity predominant in opinions only , but also in simple notions the humane understanding attracts all other things to give its suffrage and consent unto those things which once please it , either because they are received and believed , or because they delight . and though a greater strength and number of contrary instances occur , yet it doth either not observe , or contemn them , or remove , or reject them by a distinction not without great and dangerous prejudice , by which an inviolable authority remains in those former conceptions . therefore he gave a right answer , who , when a list of the names of such as had paid there their vows for escaping the danger of shipwrack , was shewn to him hung up in a temple , and when he was questioned whether he did not acknowledge the deity of the gods ? he in answer demanded what was become of their pictures who had perished after that they had paid their vows ? there is almost the same reason for all superstition , as in astrological dreams , presages , &c. men delight in such vanities , they mind the events when they come to pass , but when they fail , which is very often , they neglect and pass them by . but this evil more subtilly invades philosophy and sciences , wherein that which once takes , infects and corrupts the rest , though more firm and better . but in case this delight and vanity were wanting , yet it is a proper and perpetual error in humane understanding , to be rather moved and stirred up by affirmatives than by negatives , although in truth it ought to be indifferent to both : yet on the other hand the strength of a negative instance is greater in constituting every axiom . humane understanding is for the most part moved with those things , which suddenly and at once effect and reach the mind , and wherewith the fancy is wont to be filled and puffed up . as for the rest it supposes and fancies to have them in a kind of inperceptible manner , even like those few things that possess the mind . but as to that quick running over remote and heterogeneous instances , whereby axioms are tried as it were by fire , the understanding is altogether slow and unable , unless severe laws and violent commands be imposed upon it . humane understanding cannot rest , but still desires more and more , though all in vain . therefore it is not to be imagined that heaven should hear any extream or extime parts ; for it may be alwayes necessarily urged , that there is something further . again it cannot be conceived how eternity hath run along until now , because there is a common distinction usually admitted , that it is infinite a parte ante & a parte pòst , which can in no wise be proved , for then it would follow that one infinite is greater than another , and that an infinite consumeth and tends to a finite . the like nicety occurs through the weakness of our imagination concerning lines alwayes divisible , but this mental infinity more dangerously interposes in the invention of causes : for whereas universals chiefly ought to be in a positive nature , as they are found out , being not really causable , yet the humane understanding being unable to rest , still desires things more known , but whiles it tends to further things it falls back to nearer ones , viz. final causes , which indeed arise rather from humane nature , than the nature of the universe . out of this fountain philosophy is strangely corrupted . but he is equally an unskilful and a slight philosopher , who seeks out a cause in primary universals , as he who desires it not in subordinate and subaltern things . humane understanding is not an ignis fatuus a meer light , but it receives an impression from the will and the affections , which produces the reason why it desires sciences , for what a man had rather have true , that he resolves to believe . therefore he rejects difficult things , through impatiency of inquiry ; sober things , because they confine the hope ; the high mystery of nature , because of our natural superstition ; the light of experience , because of an arrogancy and pride , least the mind should seem to converse in vile and transitory affairs , he rejects paradoxes being too much over-ruled by the mistakes of the vulgar . lastly affection qualifies and infects the soul many wayes which cannot be conceived . but the greatest hinderance of the humane understanding , and its most dangerous errors proceed from the dulness , unsufficiency , and deceptions of the senses : those things which make impressions on the senses are of a greater weight than others of a higher nature , that do not affect them : therefore contemplation most commonly ends with the sight , insomuch that there is little or no observation made of invisible things . therefore the actings of the spirits shut up in sensible bodies are hid from us . and all subtil transformation , that happens in the parts of the grosser things , which we commonly stile alteration , but is in truch a subtil metaschematism escapes also our knowledge . nevertheless , if these two that we have named be not found out , there can be no great matter performed in the works of nature . again the nature of common air , and of all bodies which in thinness surpass the air , they being many in number are almost unknown , for sense in it self is a weak and an erroneous thing , nor do the organs conduce much to enlarge or sharpen the senses , but the truest interpretation of nature is made by instances , and by fit and proper experiments , when sense judges of the experiment , the experiment of nature , and of the thing it self . the humane intellect is by its own nature carried on to abstracts , and those things which are unstable it fancies to be constant . but it is better to dissect nature than abstract her , which was done by democritus's school . by that means he searched further than the rest into nature . for that purpose we must rather examine matter , its schemes and transformations , its pure acts and the law of action and motion . forms are but the invention of mens brains , unless you will call the laws of the act forms . of this kind are those false imaginations , which we call idola tribus , they proceed , either from the equality of the substance of the humane spirits or the prepossessions , coarctations , and turbulent motions thereof , or from the inspirations of the passions , or disagreement of the senses , or the manner of impression . idola specus proceed from the proper nature of every individual mind or body , as also from education , custome or other casualties , which kind though various and manifold , yet more especially we propound those which require most caution , and have greatest power to defile the understanding , and render it 〈◊〉 contemplations of nature and most simple bodies only disturb and impair the understanding , but contemplation of nature and of bodies compound , and in their configuration astonish and dissolve the intellect , this is most evident in the school of hencippus and democritus compared with other philosophy , for it so much considers the particles of things , that it almost neglects their frames : and others so amazedly behold them , that they cannot arrive to natures simplicity . these contemplations therefore are to be altered and interchangeably assumed , that the understanding at the same time , may be made penetrating and capable , and those inconveniencies we speak of be avoided with the false notions proceeding from them . let therefore your speculative prudence be so disposed in expelling and removing the idola specus , which proceed either from the predominancy , or excess of composition and division , or from our affection to the times , or from large and small objects . in general let every one , who studies the nature of things , chiefly suspect that which captivates his understanding , and so much the greater heed is to be taken in these opinions , that the understanding may be kept equal and pure . but idola fori are the most troublesome of all , which , by a confederacy of words and names , have 〈◊〉 themselves into the understanding . for men believe that their reason governs words , but so it happens that words retort and reflect their power upon the understanding . this hath made philosophy and sciences sophistical and unactive . now words are for the most part accommodated to vulgar capacities , and by lines most apparent to common apprehensions they divide things . but when a sharper intellect , or more diligent observation would transfer those lines , that they might be more agreeable to nature ; words make a noise : from hence it comes to pass , that the great and solemn disputations of learned men , often end in controversies concerning words and names , with which , according to the custome and prudence of mathematicians 't were a wiser way to begin , and to reduce them into order by definitions . and yet definitions in natural and material beings cannot remedy this evil because they also consist of words , and words beget words , so that it is necessary to have recourse to perticular instances , and their ranks and orders , as we shall presently shew , when we come to the manner and reason of constituting notions and axioms . mis-apprehensions forced by words upon the understanding are of two sorts . 1. the names of things which are not : for as there are things which through inadvertency wanting a name , so are there names without things , through a phantastical supposition . 2. or the names of things which are but confused , ill determined , rashly , and unequally abstracted from things . of the first sort are fortune , the primum mobile , the planetary orbs , the element of fire , and such like fictions arising from vain and false speculations . this kind is easier cast out , because it is exterminable by a continued abnegation and antiquation of such speculations . but the other sort is perplex'd and deeply rooted , proceeding from an ill and unskilful abstraction . for example sake , take any word , humidum if you please , and let us see how its various significations agree , and we shall find this word humidum to be nothing else but a confused note of divers actions enduring no constancy or reduction ; for it signifies that which easily circumfunds it self about another body , and is in it self indeterminable and inconsistent , that which easily gives place on all sides , and easily divides and dissipates , and as easily collects , and reunites it self , that which easily flowes and moves , easily adheres to another body and moistens it , that which is easily reduced into a liquid , or melts , having been before consistent or solid : therefore if you consider the predication and imposition of this word taken in one sense the flame is moist , in another sense the air is not moist . in one sense again small dust is moist , in another glass is so . whence it is evident , that this notion was only rashly abstracted from waters and common liquors without any due verification . in words also there are certain degrees of pravity and error , less vitious are the names of some substances , especially the lowest species well deduced , for the notion of chalk and clay is good , the notion of earth bad , more vitious are the actions of generation , corruption , alteration : the most vitious qualities , excépt the immediate objects of sense , are heavy , light , rare , dense , &c. and yet even among these it cannot be helped but some notions will be better than others , accordingly as more copious matter supplies humane sense . the other mistakes named idola theatri , are not innate , nor secretly wrought in the understanding , but by fabulous speculations , and the perverse laws of demonstrations plainly infused and received . but in these to undertake or endeavour a confutation is not agreeable to what we have spoken . for seeing that we neither agree in our principles nor demonstrations all disputation it taken away . but this is good luck for the ancients , that they may preserve their reputation , for nothing is detracted from them , seeing the way is so questionable . because a lame man , as they say , in the way , out goes a racer out of the way , for t is evident the stronger and nimbler he is , the greater is his aberration , whiles he is out of the way . but such is our manner of inventing sciences , that we attribute not much to the sharpness and strength of wit , and yet we almost equalize them , for even as the describing of a right line or perfect circle much depends on the 〈◊〉 and exercise of the hand , 〈◊〉 it be done meerly by the hand , but if a rule or compasses be used , there is little or no such dependancy upon the hand : so fares it exactly with our reason , although there be no particular use of confutations , 〈◊〉 yet we must say something of the sects and kinds of these theories , and afterwards of their outward signs , because they are in a bad condition , and lastly of the causes of so much unhappiness , and so long and general a consent in error , that truth may have an easier access , and the humane understanding may be more throughly purged , and rid of these mistakes . idola theatri or theoretical mistakes are many , and may be more , and in time to come will be , for unless mens wits had been employed about religion and divinity during many ages , and also about civil governments , especially monarchies , they had 〈◊〉 such novelties in contemplations . so that men addicted unto them , ran the hazard of their fortunes , not only deprived of a reward , but also exposed to contempt and envy . doubtless many more sects of philosophy , and theories like to those , which once in great varieties flourished amongst the grecians , had been introduced : for as upon the etherial phoenomena's more figures of heaven may be formed , likewise many more various opinions may be as easily founded and established upon the phenomena's of philosophy : now the fables of this theater are like those that are acted on the poetical stage , whence it comes to pass , that scenical and 〈◊〉 narrations are more quaint and elegant than those taken out of true history , and better please the readers . in general either much out of little , or little out of much is assumed into philosophical matter , so that on all sides , philosophy is founded on the too narrow basis of experience , and natural history , and determines out of fewer things than it ought ; for the rational sort of philosophers snatch from experience several vulgar things , and they to neither certainly found out , nor diligently examined or tried , the rest they place in meditation , and the exercise of wit. there is another sort of philosophers , who have bestowed a great deal of pains in few experiments , and from thence have presumed to draw and frame a philosophy strangely wresting all other things thereunto . there is also a third sort of them , who intermingle divinity , and traditions of faith and adoration amongst whom the vanity of some has inclined them to seek and derive sciences from spirits and demons . therefore the stock of errours and false philosophy is threefold , namely sophistical , emperical , and superstitious . of the first kind aristotle is an evident example . by his logick he corrupted natural philosophy made the world consist of categories attributed to the humane soul , a most noble substance , a genus made up ofsecondary notions , transacted the business of dense and rare , whereby bodies under go greater or 〈◊〉 dimensions or spaces by the cold distinction of act and power . he asserted only one proper motion to be in all bodies , and if they had any other , that he said was from another ; many more things he affirmed according to his fancy , which he imposed upon nature , being every where more solicitous how he might explain himself in answers , and make any thing positive in words , than of the internal truth of things . this plainly appears if you compare his philosophy with others famous amongst the grecians , for the homoiomera of anaxagoras , the atoms of lencippus , and democritus , the heaven and earth of 〈◊〉 , the discord and concord of empedocles , heraclitus's resolution of bodies into the adiaphorous nature of fire , and the replication of them to density , have something of natural philosophy in them , and a relish of nature and experience : whereas aristotles physicks are nothing but logical notions , which under a more specious name , not nominal but more real he retracts in his metaphysicks , nor let not that move any one , that in his books of animals , in his problems and other treatises he frequently useth experiments . for he first decreed them , neither did he rightly consult experience in establishing his determinations and axioms , but after he had determined them according to his pleasure , he made experience a slave to his fancies : and upon this account he is more to be blamed than his modern followers , i mean a sect of scholastical philosophers , who have altogether forsaken experiments . but the emperical kind of philosophy brings forth more deformed and monstruous opinions than the sophistical or rational , because it is not founded in the light of common notions , which though slender and superficial is notwithstanding in some measure universal and conducive to many things , but in a few narrow and obscure experiments . and therefore to those who daily converse in such experiments , and have thereby corrupted their fancy , this philosophy seems probable and certain , but to others incredible and vain . a notable example whereof we find in the chymists and their opinions , but now scarcely any where else , unless in gilberts philosophy . however we must by no means omit a caution concerning this philosophy , because we inwardly foresee and presage that if men awakened by our precepts , shall at last betake themselves to experience , bidding adieu to sophistical doctrines , they will sustain some damage , through a praemature and inconsiderate haste of the understanding , by soaring too soon to generals and principles , which evil we ought to prevent . but the corruption of philosophy through superstition and intermixed divinity extends it self further , and works much mischief , both to philosophy in general and particular . for the humane understanding is no less obnoxious to the impressions of fancy , than to the impressions of vulgar notions . for the contentious and fallacious kind of philosophy ensnares the understanding , but the other kind being phantastical , swoln and poetical doth rather flatter it . for there is in man a certain ambition of the understanding as well as in the will , especially in sublime and elevated wits . of this kind you have an example amongst the grecians , especially in pythagoras , but joyned with gross superstition , but more dangeroufly and subtilly in plato , and his school . this kind of evil is found in the parts of other philosophers ; by the introduction of abstract formes , final causes , first causes , and frequent omitting the medial , and the like . wherefore take great heed to this matter , for it is the worst of evils to defie errors , and to adore vain things may be well accounted the plague of the understanding . some modern men guilty of much levity , have so indulged this vanity , that they have essayed to found natural philosophy in the first chapter of genesis , the book of job , and other places of holy writ , seeking the living among the dead . now this vanity is so much the more to be check'd and restrained , because by unadvised mixture of divine and humane things , not only a phantastical philosophy is produced , but also an heretical religion . therefore it is safe to give unto faith with a sober mind , the things that are faiths . hitherto our excellent author hath spoken of the bad authority of philosophy , founded in vulgar notions , a few experiments , or in superstition : he examines next the depraved matter of contemplation especially in natural philosophy . he proceeds next to discover to us by what means demonstrations lead us into errors and mistakes , and concludes that experience is the best demonstration , if it be founded upon mature experiments . he discourses afterwards of the several sorts of philosophers among the greeks , and takes notice of their imperfections , of their ignorance in ancient history , and in cosmography , so that they could not be acquainted with so many experiments , as the learned of our dayes . afterwards he discourseth of the causes of errors , and of their long continuance in credit in the world , that none might wonder how it comes to pass that some in these last ages , find so many mistakes in the learning and wit admired in former ages . the first cause of the small prosiciency in sciences , he saith , is the streights of time , and their ignorance of former times : for their observation had not scope enough , nor sufficient assistance from true history , to gather right and judicious experiments . in the second place another cause of great moment certainly offers it self ; namely that in those times , when the wits of men and learning flourished most or but indifferently , natural philosophy had the least share in humane contemplations : nevertheless this ought to be accounted the great mother of sciences : for all arts and sciences , pluck'd away from this root . may perhaps be polished and accommodated to use , but they will never grow . now it is evident , that since the christian faith was embrac'd and encreas'd the most part of the rarest wits applied themselves to divinity . to this end large rewards were propounded , and all manner of helps plentifully afforded . this study of divinity took up the third part or period of time amongst us europeans , and the more because about that time learning began to flourish , controversies touching religion did wonderfully increase : but in the preceding age , during the second period among the romans , the chiefest meditations and studies of philosophers were imployed and spent in moral philosophy , which was then the heathens divinity . moreover the greatest wits in those dayes for the most part applied themselves to civil affairs , by reason of the roman empires greatness , which required the labours of many men . but that age wherein natural philosophy seem'd chiefly to flourish among the grecians was a parcel of time of small continuance , for even in ancienter times , those seven , called wisemen , all except thales , applied themselves to moral philosophy and politicks . and in after times , when isocrates had brought down philosophy from heaven upon earth , moral philosophy prevailed further still , and diverted mens thoughts from physiological speculations . that very period of time also , wherein physick enquiries flourished was corrupted and spoiled with contradictions , and new determinations . wherefore natural philosophy in every one of those periods , being greatly neglected or hindred , 't is no wonder men profited so little in it , seeing they altogether minded other things . add moreover , that those who studied natural philosophy , especially in these modern times , did not wholly addict themselves thereunto , unless perhaps you may alledge the example of some monk in his cell , or nobleman in his country house . so at length it was made but a passage and draw-bridge to other things . this , this famous mother of sciences , was basely thrust down into servile offices , and made a drudge to wait upon medicine , or the mathematicks ; and again to wash the immature wits of young men , and give them a superficial mixture , that they might afterwards be the better qualified to receive of another . in the mean while let no man expect a great progress in sciences , especially in the practical part , unless natural philosophy be produced to particular sciences , and those again reduced to natural philosophy : for hence it comes to pass , that astronomy , opticks , musick , many mechanichal arts , physick it self , and what is more wonderful , even moral philosophy , politicks , and logick , have for the most part no considerable depth , but languish in the surface and variety of things , because when once these particular sciences are divided , they are no longer nourished by natural philosophy , which out of the fountains and true contemplations of motions , rayes , sounds ; texture and figuration of bodies , affections , and intellectual apprehensions , communicates new strength and augmentation to them . and therefore 't is no wonder , that sciences grow not since they are separated from their roots . another great and powerful cause , why sciences are so little advanced , is this , that race cannot rightly be run , where the goal is not rightly placed and fixed . now the true and legitimate mark of sciences is to enrich mans life with new inventions and forces . but the greater number of men know nothing of this , because they are mercenary and professory , unless it happens that some artist of a sharper wit , and ambitious of glory , studies some new inventions , which commonly tends to his own undoing . therefore most men are so far from propounding to themselves the advancement of arts and sciences , that even out of those things that they have , they seek no more than what may be converted into professory use , gain , reputation , or the like advantages . and if any one amongst the multitude seeks knowledge ingeniously and for it self , yet you will find he doth this rather to obtain variety of contemplations and precepts , than for the rigid and severe inquiry of truth . again suppose another more severely enquires after truth , yet even he propounds to himself such conditions of truth as may satisfie his mind and understanding in reference to the causes of things known long ago , not those which may give fresh pledges of operations or new light to axioms , the end therefore of sciences being not yet rightly defined , or well assigned by any body , no wonder if error and mistakes attend those things which are subordinate thereunto . the noble author condemns next the erroneous wayes which conduct to sciences ; namely obscure traditiòns , giddy arguments , the windings of chance or unclean experience ; and wonders that none yet have recommended sense , and well ordered experience , which he supposes to be partly caused by a great mistake . that the majesty of humane understanding is impaired with long conversing in experiments and particular things , subject to sence , and determined to matter ; especially seeing these things are laborious in the inquiry , ignoble in the meditation , harsh in discourse , illiberal in the practice , infinite in number , and full of subtilty . again the reverence of antiquity , and the authority and consent of those who have been accounted great men in philosophy , has detained and inchauted men from making any progress in sciences . as for antiquity the opinion which men entertain of it , is idle and incongruous to the word it self , for the old age , and great age of the world are terms equivolent to antiquity , and ought to be attributed to our times , not to the youthful age of the world , that wherein the ancients lived . for that age in respect of ours was greater and ancienter , in respect of the world it self , lesser and younger : and therefore in like manner , as we expect a greater knowledge in humane affairs , a more mature and a riper judgement from an old man than from a young man , by reason of his experience , and the variety and plenty of things which he hath seen , heard , observed , and understood , so also far greater matters may rationally be expected from our age , than from the ancient times , if it would but know its strength , and were willing to try and mind things , because we live in the worlds old age , and are stored with infinite experiments , and advanced in our noble observations . the discoveries of other lands unknown to former ages are no small helps to our experience . besides it is a great weakness to attribute so much to ancient authors , for truth is the daughter of time not of authority , and the ancientest times are the youngest in respect of the world. the other cause of mens mistakes is their admiring the operations which can shew grey hairs , and a too great esteem of liberal arts and learning already found out , which is an act of simplicity and childishness . but the greatest damage hath happened to sciences through pusilanimity ; and the smalness of those tasks , which humane industry hath proposed to it self , and yet , what is worst of all , that pusilanimity is accompanied with arrogance and disdain . moreover natural philosophy in all ages hath had a troublesome and harsh enemy ; namely superstition , and a blind immoderate zeal of religion . lastly the way to all reformed philosophy hath been blocked up by the unskilfulness of some divines , who were afraid least a deeper enquiry should dive into nature beyond the bounds of sobriety , traduce and falsly wrest those things , which are spoken of divine mysteries in the sacred writings , against searchers of divine secrets : others cunningly conceive , if the means be unknown , which they think greatly concerns religion , all things may more easily be referred to the deity . others from their example fear least motions and mutations in philosophy should terminate in religion . again all things in the manners and institutions of schools , universities , colledges ; and the like places destimated for learned men , and getting learning , are found to be against the advancement of sciences , &c. but the greatest obstacle in the progress of sciences , and new undertakings thereof is discerned in the dispairing of men , and a supposed impossibility , for even wise and grave men are wont to diffide in these things , pondering with themselves the obscurity of nature , shortness of life , deception of the sences , weakness of judgement , difficulty of experiments , and the like , &c. we must take our beginnings from god , in what we are about , for the excellent nature of good therein it manifestly from god , who is the author of good , and father of lights . the foundations of experience , for we must descend to them , have hitherto been either none at all or very weak ; neither hath a sufficient system of particulars been any wayes as yet found outand congested , either in number , kind , or certainty , able to inform the understanding . in the plenty of mechanical experiments , there is discovered a great want of such as assist or tend to the information of the understanding , &c. not onely a greater plenty of experiments is to be sought , and procured , differing in kind from what ever was yet done . but also another method , order and process are to be introduc'd , for the continuing and promoting of experience . for wandring experience , guided by it self , is a meer cheat , and doth rather amaze men than inform them . but when experience proceeds regularly , orderly , and soberly , there may be some better hope of sciences . seeing there is such a great number , and as it were an army of particulars , but so scattered and diffused , that they disgregate and confound the understanding , we can expect no good from the skirmishes , light motions , and transcursions of the understanding , unless by fit , well disposed , and exact tables , there be an instruction , and co-ordination of those things which appertain to the subject of our enquiry : and the mind be applyed to the preparatory and digested helps of these tables . but when this plenty of particulars is rightly and orderly placed before our eyes we must not presently pass to the inquisition , and invention of new particulars or operations , or if we do we must not rest in them , &c. we must not permit the understanding to leap or fly from particulars to remote and general axioms , such as are called the principles of arts and things , or by their constant verity to prove or discuss medial axioms . but then men may hope well of sciences , when by a true scale , and continual not intermitted degrees , we ascend from particulars to lesser axioms , then to medial , for some are higher than others ; and lastly to universals ; for the lowest axioms differ not much from naked experience , but the supressive and more general which occur , are rational and abstracted , and have no solidity . the medial therefore are those true solid and lively axioms , wherein mens fortunes and estates are placed , and above those also are those more general , if not abstracted , but truely limited by these medial or middle axioms . therefore the humane understanding needs not feathers but lead and weights to hinder its leaping and flying . but this is not yet done , when it is we may have better hope of sciences . now in constituting an axiom another form of induction contrary to what was formerly , or is now used , is found out , and that not onely to prove or invent principles , as they call them , but also lesser and medial axioms , ye all . for that induction , which proceeds by simple enumeration , is a childish thing , and concludes precariously , being exposed to the danger of a contradictory instance . and yet most commonly it gives judgement from fewer instances than it ought , or from those onely which are at hand . but that induction which would induce to the invention and demonstration of arts and sciences , must separate nature by due rejections and separations , and , after sufficient negatives , conclude upon affirmatives , which thing is not yet done , nor so much as attempted , unless by plato only , who indeed , to examine definitions and ideas , doth in some measure use this form of induction . but for the good and lawful institution of such an induction or demonstration . many things are to be used , which never yet entered into any mortal mans heart , so that greater pains is to be taken herein than was ever yet spent in a syllogism . now the help of this induction is not onely to be used in finding out axioms , but also in terminating motions , for certainly in this induction our greatest hope is placed . far more and better things , yea and in shorter time , are to be expected from the reason , industry , direction , and intention of men , than from chance the instinct of animals , which hitherto have given the beginning to inventions . this also may be brought as an encouragement , that some things which are found out , are of that kind , that before their production it could not easily come into mans mind to imagine any thing of them , for every body despised them as impossible , as the use of guns the invention of silk , the seamans needle , &c. therefore we hope there are in natures bosome many secrets of excellent use , which have no alliance nor paralellism , with the things already invented , but are placed out of fancies road , not as yet found out , which doubtless after many revolutions of ages shall at last come forth , even as those former did . but by the way we now declare , they may speedily and suddenly be both anticipated and represented . we must not omit another thing , which may raise up our hope . let men reckon the infinite expence of wit , time , and money , which they are at in things and studies of far lesser use and value ; the least part whereof , were it converted to sound and solid things , would conquer all difficulty . had we a man among us , who would de facto answer nature's queries , the invention of all causes and sciences would be the study but of a few years . some without doubt , when they have read over our history and tables of invention , may object that something is less certain , or altogether , false in our experiments , and therefore perhaps will think with himself , that our inventions are founded on false foundations , and dubious principles . but this is nothing , for such things must needs happen at first , for it is all one as though in writing or printiug some one letter or other should be misplaced , which does not usually hinder the reader , for such errors are easily corrected by the sence , &c. many things also will occur in our history and experience , first slight and common , then base and mechanical , lastly too curious , meerly speculative , and of no use , which kind of things may divert and alienate the studies of men . now for those things which seem common , let men consider , that they themselves are wont to do no less than refer and accommodate the causes of rare things to these which are frequently done , but of things daily happening they enquire not the causes , but take them for granted . and therefore they inquire not into the causes of weight , coelestial rotation , heat , cold , light , hard , soft , slender , dense , liquid , concistent or solid , animate and inanimate , similar dissimilar , nor lastly organical , but dispute and judge of other things , which happen not so frequently and familiarly by these as being evident , manifest , and received . but we , who know well enough , that no judgement can be made of rare and notable things , much less new things be brought to light without the causes of vulgar things , and the causes of causes rightly examined and found out are forced necessarily to receive the most vulgar things into our history : furthermore we perceive nothing has hindred philosophy more , than because things familiar and frequently happening do not stay and detain the contemplation of men , but are entertained by the by , and their causes not inquired into , so that information of unknown matters is not oftner required than attention in known things . now as touching the vileness and dishonesty of things , they are no less to be entertained in natural history than the richest and most precious things , nor is natural history thereby polluted , for the sun does equally visit pallaces and sinks , and yet is not defiled . again we do not build or dedicate a capitol or pyramid to the pride of men , but we found an holy temple for the worlds pattern in humane understanding . therefore we follow our copy for whatsoever is worthy of essence is worthy of science , which is the image of science , but vile things subsist as well as costly ones . moreover , as out of some putrid matters , as musk and civet , sometimes the best odours come , even so from low and sordid instances sometimes excellent light and information flowes . before all things we have and must speak first of this thing , viz. that we how at first setting out , and for a time , seek only lociferous not fructiferous experiments , according to the examples of divine creation , which only produced light on the first day , and bestowed a whole day upon it , not intermingling with it , in that day , any material work. if any one therefore think these things are of no use , it is all one as if he should think light useless , because it is indeed no solid nor material being ; for we may truely affirm , that the light of simple natures being well examined and defined , is like light which affords passage to all the secret rooms of operations , drawing after it all the companies and troops of operations , and potentially comprizing the fountains of most noble axioms , yet in it self it is not of so great use : thus the elements of letters of themselves and separately signifie nothing , neither are of any use , but yet are like the first matter in the composition , and preparation of every word . thus the seeds of things strong in power are as to use , except in their increase of no value , and the scattered beams of light unless they unite together , become unbeneficial to men . some also will doubt rather than object , whether we speak only of natural philosophy , or else of other sciences ; namely , logick , ethicks and politicks to be perfected according to our way . but we surely understand what we have said of all this , and as vulgar logick , which rules things by syllogism , belongs not onely to natural , but to all sciences . so ours , which proceeds by induction , compriseth all things ; for we make an history and inventory tables , as well of anger , fear , modesty , &c. as of politick examples , and so of the mental motions of memory , composition and division , judgement and the rest , no less than of heat and cold , or light and vegetation , &c. but as our method of interpretation after history is prepared and ordered , doth not only behold mental motions and discourses , as common logick , but also the nature of things . so we govern the understanding , that it may apply it self in a perfect and apt manner to the nature of things . but that ought by no means to be doubted , whether we desire to destroy and demolish the philosophy , arts , and sciences which we use , for we on the contrary willingly allow their use , cultivation , and honour ; nor do we any wayes hinder , but that those which have been in credit , may nourish disputations , adorn orations , be used in professory employments . lastly , like currant money , be received among men by consent . but how truely we profess this very thing , which we mention concerning our affection and good will towards allowed sciences , our publick writings , especially our books of the advancement of learning declare and attest . it remains that we now speak somewhat cóncerning the excellency of the end. had we before treated 〈◊〉 these things , our expectations probably had better succeeded , but now we are in hopes , that all prejudices being removed , these matters may perhaps be of more weight . for though we had perfected and compleated all things , nor had called others to share in our labours , yet should we have refrained these words lest we might be thought to proclaim our own merits , but seeing the industry of others is to be sharpened , and their minds to be stirred up and inflamed , 't is fit we put men in remembrance of some things . first then the introduction of noble inventions seems to carry the greatest sway amongst humane actions , as former ages also have judged ; for they gave divine honor to the inventors of things , but to those who were meritorious in civil affairs , as the founders of cities and empires , lawgivers , 〈◊〉 of their countreys from temporal evil , destroyers of tyranny &c. they only decreed heroick honor . inventions also , are the new creations , they are man's glory , they cause him to be a god to the rest of mankind . new inventions are of a wonderful consequence as the art of printing , gun-powder , and the sea mens compass . these three have changed the face and state of affairs in the whole world. first , in learning . secondly , in warfare . thirdly , in navigation . there are three sorts of ambition , the first desires to enlarge man's own power over countries and people , this is common and ignoble , the second , endeavours to enlarge other mens , as our prince's dominions , this hath more dignity , but no less desire . but if any one endeavours to restore and inlarge 〈◊〉 power and dominion of mankind , over the university of things , doubtless this ambition is sounder , and nobler than the other two : now mans dominion over things consists onely in arts and sciences , for nature is not trusted , but by obedience . it is now high time that we propound this art it self of interpretating nature , wherein though we suppose we have given most true and profitable precepts , yet we do not attribute unto it any absolute necessity or perfection , as though nothing could be done without it . for we are of opinion if men had by them a just history of nature and experience , and would diligently study it , and could command themselves in two things ; first in putting away received opinions and notions . secondly , in forbearing a while generals and subgenerals , they would by the proper and genuine strength of the understanding , without any art , light upon our form of interpretation ; for interpretation is the true and natural work of the mind , all obstacles being first removed : but certainly our presents will make all things more ready and sure . nevertheless we do not affirm that nothing can be added unto them . on the contrary we , who consider the mind not only in its own faculty , but as it is united with things ought to determine , that the art of invention may grow and increase with things invented . part of the novum organum , or , aphorisms of the interpretation of nature and kingdome of man. taken out of the second book . it is the business and intent of humane power to produce and superinduce a new nature , and new things upon a body given to it ; but it is the business and purpose of humane science , to find out the true form of this body , or the right difference , or the essence of nature , called natura naturans , or the fountain of emanation : these words we use , because they express the thing , and discover it best . now to these works of the first rank there be two of a second and inferior sort , that are subordinate . to the first , the transformation of concrete bodies from one to another within possible limits . to the second , invention in all generation and motion of a secret proceeding continued from an apparant efficient and vissible matter to a new form ; as also the invention of an hidden schism of resting bodies not in motion . although the ways leading to the power and humane science , be nearly allied and almost the same , nevertheless it is the safest , because of that old and pernicious custome , of spending time in abstracts to begin and raise sciences from their very foundations , which look upon the active part in order , that it might consume and determine the active part , therefore we must see to some nature to be superinduced upon another body , what precept or direction any should require for that purpose , and that in an easie and plain expression . for example , suppose any should desire to cover over silver with the yellow colour of gold , or give unto it an increase of weight , with a regard to the laws of matter , or to make an obscure stone become transparant , or glass gluttinous , or to cause a body not vegetable to grow ; we must see in such a case what direction or deduction may cheifly he desired , first a person would doubtless wish for something of a like experiment to be shewn unto him , which might not fail in the operation , nor deceive in the undertaking . secondly , he would desire some directions which might not bind him , and force him to certain mediums , and particular ways of acting , for it may be , that he may be unable to purchase , and procure unto himself such mediums , therefore if there be any other mediums and other methods of acting , besides that direction of producing such a nature , it may perhaps be of such things , as are in the power of the worker ; yet notwithstanding he may be excluded from the 〈◊〉 of such , things by the narrowness of the rule , so as that he shall meet with no 〈◊〉 . thirdly , he may desire , that 〈◊〉 may be shewn unto him , which may not be altogether so difficult , as the operation that is in question , but that comes nearer to the practise . therefore it is 〈◊〉 , that every true and perfect rule of working be certain , 〈◊〉 , and well designing , or in order to action : therefore this is the same as the invention of a true form , for the form of any nature is such , that when it is supposed the nature it self must needs follow , therefore it is always present , wherever that nature is , it be speaks it in general and 〈◊〉 it . such is the form of a thing that when it is taken away the 〈◊〉 of the thing is removed . therefore it is always 〈◊〉 from it , when that nature is absent , and is in it alone . 〈◊〉 , a true form is such , that it deduceth the nature of a thing out of the fountain of being , which is common to many , and more 〈◊〉 than the nature , as they speak , than the form . therefore the rule of knowing a true and perfect axiom is this , that 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 found out which might be convertible with the nature given , and yet be 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 of a more known nature , like as of a true genus . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , the one active , the other speculative , are the same in effect , and what is most useful in operation is most true in speculation . but the rule or axioms of transforming bodies are two fold . the 〈◊〉 consider'd a body , as a troop or conjugation of simple 〈◊〉 , as in 〈◊〉 these things do meet , that it is yellow , weighty , and of such 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 may be beaten thin and drawn into wire , of such a bigness that it is not volatile , and that it loseth nothing by fire , that it is to be run in such a manner , that it is to be separated and loosned by such means , and the like of the other natures or properties of gold. therefore such an axiom deduceth the thing from the forms of the simple 〈◊〉 or properties , for he that knows how to bring new forms and methods of yellow , of weight , of fluidity , &c. he will see and take care of their graduations and means , that all these be conjoined in one body from whence transformation into gold may be expected . therefore this manner of marking belongs to the primary action , for there is the same method required in bringing forth one simple nature , as many ; onely man meets with more difficulty in working , when he is to joyn together many natures , which meet not of themselves unless by the ordinary and usual ways of nature ; nevertheless we may affirm that the method of working , which considers the 〈◊〉 natures , though in a concrete body , proceeds from those things , which in nature are constant , eternal , and universal , and open a wide door to mans ability , which as affairs are now manag'd our humane understanding can scarce comprehend or represent . but the second kind of axioms , which depends from the invention of a secret proceeding , acts not by simple natures , but by concrete bodies , as they are found in natures ordinary course ; for example , suppose an inquisition is made from what beginnings , how , and in what manner gold , or any other metal , or stone is generated from its first matter and deform substance until it comes to a perfect mineral , likewise in what manner herbs grow , form their 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 of the sap in the earth , or from the seed until it riseth up to be a plant with all the succession of motion , and the divers , and continued endeavours of nature . likewise of the ordinary generation of animals from their conception to their birth , in like manner of all other bodies . but this inquisition relates not onely to the generation of bodies , but also to other motions and workings of nature ; for example , suppose an inquisition be made into the universal series , and continued manner of nourishment , from the 〈◊〉 reception of the food , until it turns into the substance of the body ; likewise of the voluntary motion in animals , from the 〈◊〉 impression of the fancy , and repeated endeavours of the spirits , to the movings and turnings of the arters , or of the outward motion of the tongue , and lips , and other instruments to the giving of articulate 〈◊〉 ; for these things relate to concrete or collegious bodies , and in operations they are lookt upon as particular and special custom of nature , not as fundamental , and common laws , which constitute forms . but we must needs 〈◊〉 , that this method seems to be the most expedite , the most likely and 〈◊〉 and more than the other primary . 〈◊〉 wise the operative part , which answers this speculative , doth 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , working from those things , which are commonly 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 things near at hand , or from those things to other 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 highest and radical operations upon nature depend 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 axioms . moreover , when man hath not the 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , but onely of knowing and beholding , as in 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 are not within mans reach he cannot change nor alter them . 〈◊〉 the inquisition of the fact it self , or of the truth of the 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 as the knowledge of causes and agreements , relates to the primary and universal axioms of simple 〈◊〉 as the nature of voluntary relation , or the 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 of the load stone , and many others ; which are more common than the 〈◊〉 : neither can any body hope to terminate the question , whether in the daily motion , the earth doth in truth come round , or the heavens unless he understands 〈◊〉 the nature of voluntary rotation . the hidden proceeding , which we have mentioned , is otherwise , so that our humane understanding , as it is now wrapt up in 〈◊〉 , cannot easily search into it ; neither do we 〈◊〉 certain measures , 〈◊〉 , or degrees of proceeding visible in bodies , but that continued proceeding , which for the most part is not subject to our senses . for example , in all generation and transformation of bodies , we must inquire what is last , and what flies away , what remains , what is added , what dilates it self , what is drawn to it , what is united , what is separated , what is continued , what is cut off , what means , what hinders , what commands , and what yields , and many other things . again , neither are we to enquire after these things in 〈◊〉 and transformation of bodies , but in all other alterations and motions we are likewise to enquire , what proceeds , and what succeeds , what is most fierce , and what is most remiss , what gives the motion , what commands , and the like . all these things are unknown to , and never handled by the sciences , which are composed by the grossest and the unablest wits . seeing 〈◊〉 natural action is transacted by the least beginnings , or by such as are so small , that they are not to be perceived by our senses , no body can hope to rule or turn nature , unless he can comprehend and take notice of them in a due manner . out of the two kinds of axioms , which are already mentioned , philosophy and sciences are to be divided , ( the common received words which approach the nearest to the discovery the of things , being applied to our meaning ) namely that the inquisition of forms , which in reason according to their own laws are eternal and unmovable , constitutes the metaphysicks ; but the inquisition of the efficient , of the matter , of the secret proceeding , and hidden schismatism , all which things regard the common and ordinary course of nature , not the foundamental and eternal laws , should constitute the physicks . now to these are subordinate two practical sciences , to physick the mechanick is subordinate , and to the metaphysicks , the better sort of magick , in regard of its large ways and greater command in nature . now that we have thus described our doctrine we must proceed to the precepts in a right and orderly manner ; therefore the discovery of the interpretation of nature contains chiefly two parts . the first tends to the drawing out and raising axioms from experience ; the second teacheth how to take and derive experiments from new axioms . the first part is divided in a threefold manner into three ministrations ; into that which relates to sense , into that which relates to the memory , and to that which relates to the mind or understanding . first we must have a natural and experimental history ; sufficient and good , which is the foundation of the thing : it must not be feigned or contrived onely , but we must find what nature doth , or bears . but the natural and experimental history is so various and scattered that it confounds and disturbs the understanding ; unless it be limited and placed in a right order ; therefore we must form some tables and ranks of instances in such a manner and order , that the understanding may work upon them . which , when it is done , the understanding left to it self , and moving of it self , is not sufficient , but unable , for the working of axioms , unless it be ruled and assisted ; therefore in the third place a lawful and true induction is to be brought in , which is the key of the interpretation ; we must begin at the end and proceed back-wards to the rest . an inquisition of forms proceeds in this manner , first , upon nature given , we must bring to the understanding all the instances of notes , that agree in the same nature , though by different matters ; therefore such a collection is to be historical , without any hasty contemplation or greater subtilty than ordinary , for example in the inquisition of the form of hot. convenient instances in the nature of hot. 1. the sun beams chiefly in summer ; and at noon . 2. the sun beams beaten back and pressed together ; specially between mountains , walls , and through burning-glasses . 3. all fiery meteors . 4. fiery thunderbolts . 5. the bursting forth of flames out of the caves of mountains , &c. 6. all flame . 7. all solid bodies of fires 8. hot and natural baths . 9. all liquids heated or boiling . 10. vapors and hot smoak , and the air it self , which receives a strong and furious heat , when it is shut up , as in all places of reflection . 11. some kind of storms , by the constitution of the air , when there is no respect to the time of the year . 12. the air shut up in subterraneous caves , chiefly in winter . 13. all hair and shag , as wooll , the skins of beasts , feathers , have something of heat . 14. all bodies , as well solid as liquid , as well thick as thin , as the air , may be heated for a time . 15. sparks of fire out of iron or steel , when they are struck out . 16. all bodies rubb'd together as a stone , wood , cloth , &c. so that the axle-trees , and wheels of carts sometimes are enflamed . and the custome amongst the western indians is to make fire by rubbing . 17. all green herbs , and moist , shut up close together , as roses , pease in a basket , and hay , if it he laid up wet will often take fire . 18. lime watered . 19. iron when it is first dissolved by strong waters , in glass without any assistance of fire , and likewise pewter , &c. which is not so hot . 20. all animals chiefly in their inwards , though the heat in insects , because of the smalness of their bodies cannot be perceived by our feeling . 21. horse-dung and the new excrements of such like creatures . 22. strong oil of sulphur and vitriol performs the office of heat in burning linning . 23. the oyl of wilde majoram , and the like , doth the office of heat in burning bones and teeth . 24. the strong spirit of wine well rectified performs the office of heat , so that if the white of an egg be cast into it , it will thicken and whiten almost in the same manner , as when it is boiled , and cloth being cast into it will burn , and be brown as a toasted piece of bread . 25. all sweet sents , and hot herbs , as dragon wort , cresses , &c. although the hand feels not their heat , neither when they are entire , nor when reduced to ashes , but when they are chewed a little , they heat the tongue , and the pallet , as if they did burn . 26. strong vinegar , and all things acide or sharp , are hot in a member , where there is no * epidermis , as in the eye and tongue , and in a wounded part , or where the skin is taken off , they cause pain like to that of heat . 27. also extroardinary cold seems to be burning . 28. garlick . this list we are want to name the table essence and presence . secondly , we must examine with our understanding the instances which are deprived of * nature given . the instances at hand which have not the nature of heat . the beams of the moon , of the stars , and of the comets seem not to be hot to our feeling , for we may observe that the greatest frosts are in the full moon , but the fixed and bigger stars , when the sun goes under them , or draws near them , they are thought to be heated by the heat of the sun , as when the sun is in leo , or in the dog days . the sun beams , in the middle region of the air , are not hot : the reason is , because that region is not near enough to the body of the sun , from whence the beams burst forth , nor to the earth that reflects them back ; therefore this is plain , upon the tops of mountains , which are not the highest , snow abides upon them alwayes . but on the contrary , some have taken notice , that on the top of the pick of tenerif , and on the top of the mountains of peru , there is no snow to be seen , but upon the sides of these hills snow remains ; therefore the air on the top of those mountains is not cold , but subtil and sharp , so that in the mountains of peru it pricks and offends the eyes with its sharpness , and the stomack , so that it makes men inclinable to vomit . the ancients have taken notice , that , on the top of mount olympus , the air is so subtil , that such as climb up to the top , must carry with them spunges dipt in water and vinegar , and often put them to their mouths and noses , because the air is there so subtil , that it sufficeth not for respiration . they say also that there is there so great a calm , free from all rain , storms , snow and winds , that some who sacrificed there , upon jupiters altar , having made with their fingers an impression in the ashes upon the altar , the next year the same letters and impression were to be seen without the least alteration . and such as venture up to the top of the pick of tenerif go by night and not by day , they are called upon a little after the rising of the sun by their guides to hasten down again , because of the danger , as it seems , caused by the subtilty of the air , for fear that it should stiffle the spirits . the reflection of the sun beams near the northern pole are very weak and inefficacious in matter of heat . let this experiment be tried , take a looking gloss made contrary to the burning-glasses , and put it between your hand , and the sun beams , and take notice whether it don't diminish the heat of the sun , as the burning-glass increaseth it . try this other experiment , whether by the best and strongest burning-glasses it is not possible to gather together the beams of the moon in one point , and cause thereby a small degree of warmth . try also a burning-glass upon any thing that is hot , but not luminous or shining , as upon hot urine , or hot stone , which is not fiery or upon boiling water or the like , and see whether it increaseth not the heat , as at the rayes of the sun. try also a burning glass before the flame of the fire . the comets have not always the same effects in encreasing the heat of the year , though some have observed that grievous droughts have succeeded them . bright beams , and columns , and * chasmata , and such like meteors appear more frequently in the winter than in the summer , and especially in great frosts , when the air is very dry . thunder and lightnings seldom happen in winter , but in the time of great heats . but falling stars are thought to consist for the most part of a thin substance , bright and kindled , near a kin to the strongest fire . there are some lightnings that yield light but don't burn , such happen alwayes without thunder . the breaking out , and eruptions of flames are to be seen in cold regions as well as in hot , as in istandia , greenland , as the trees which grow in cold countreys are more combustible , more full of pitch , and rosom , than others that grow in hot regions . all flame is hot , more or less : nevertheless , they say , that ignus fatuus , which lights sometimes against a wall , hath but little heat : it may be like the flame of the spirit of wine , which is mild and soft ; but that flame is yet milder , which some credible and discreet historians affirm to have been seen about the hair and heads of boys and girls , which did not so much as singe the hair , but did softly wave above them . every thing that is fiery , when it turns into a fiery red , when it should not yield any flame , it is always hot . of hot baths , which happen by the scituation and nature of the sun , there hath not been sufficient inquiry . all boiling liquors in their own nature are cold , for there is no liquor to be toucht , which is so naturally , which remains always hot ; heat therefore is given to it for a time , as an acquired nature or quality ; so that the things themselves , which are in their operations most hot , as the spirit of wine , some chymical oiles , and the oyl of vitriol , and of sulphur , and the ike , which at the first touching are cold , but soon after they burn . there is a doubt whether the warmth of wool , of skins , and of feathers , and the like , proceed not from some small inherent heat , as it riseth from animals , or whether it proceeds not from a fatness and oyliness , which is agreeable to warmth , or whether it comes not from the inclusion and fraction of the air. there is nothing tangible , or yielding spirit , but is apt to take fire : yet many things differ in this , that some receive heat sooner , as air , oyl , and water ; ohers not so quickly , as stone , and metals . there can be no sparks struck out of stone , or steel , or out of any other hard substance , unless some minute parts of the substance of the stone or metal be also struck out . there is no tangible body to be found , but becomes warm by rubbing ; therefore the ancients did fancy , that the heavenly globes had no other warmth or vertue to cause heat , but that which was derived to them from the 〈◊〉 of the air , when they were rowled about in their swift and surious course . some herbs and vegetables , when they are green and moist , seem to have in them some secret heat ; but that heat is so small , that it is not to be perceived by feeling when they are single , but when they are heaped together , and shut up , that their spirits cannot escape out into the air , but encourge one another , then the heat appears , and sometimes a flame in convenient matter . new lime becomes hot when it is sprinkled with water , either because of the union of heat , which before was dispersed . or by the irritation and exasperation of the spirits of water and of fire ; for there is a kind of conflict and antiperistasis . how the heat is caused will easily appear , if instead of water , oyl be cast into it , for oyl , as well as water , unites the spirits shut up , but it will not irritate or anger them . all dung of animals , when it is old , hath the power of heating , as we may see in the fatting of ground . aromatick substances , and herbs sharp at the taste , are much hotter when they are taken inwardly ; we may try upon what other substances they discover any hot vertue . the seamen tell us , that when heaps and lumps of spices or aromatick substances , are long shut up closs , and then opened , there is some danger for such as stir them , or take them out first ; for the fumes that arise from them are apt to inflame the spirits , and to give feavers . likewise an experiment may be tried , whether their dust will not be able to dry bacon , and other flesh hung over it , as over the smoak of a fire . there is an accrimony or penetration in cold things , as vinegar , and oyl , of 〈◊〉 , as well as in hot , as in the oyl of wilde marjoram , and the like ; therefore they cause a like pain in animals , and in inanimate substances they dissolve , and confirm the parts . in animals there is no pain but is accompanied with a certain sense of heat . cold and hot have many effects common to them both , tho produced in a different manner ; for snow seems to burn the hands of children , and cold preserves flesh from putrefaction , as well as fire , and heat draws together some substances to a lesser bulk as well as cold . a table of degrees , or of such things as are comparatively hot . we must first speak of those things , which seem not to the feeling to be hot , and yet are so potentially afterwards : we shall descend to mention such things as are actually , or at the feeling hot ; and to examine their strength and degrees of heat . 1. amongst the solid and tangible bodies , there is none found , which is hot naturally or originally , neither stone , nor metal , nor sulphur , nor any mineral , nor wood , nor water , nor the carcase of any anima ; but in baths there is hot water by accident , either by subterraneous flames , as fire ; such as is in etna , and many other mountains , or by the conflict of bodies , as heat is produced in the dissolution of iron and pewter . therefore our feeling cannot be sensible of any degree of heat in inanimate substances , but they differ in their degrees of cold , for wood is not so cold as metals . 2. but touching things that have heat potentially in them , and that are ready to kindle , there are many inanimate substances of that nature , as sulphure , naptha , salt-peter , &c. 3. those things which before were inflamed , as the horse dung , by an animal heat , or lime , ashes , and soot ; by the fire they yet retain certain relicks of their former heat . therefore there are certain distillations , and separations of bodies , effected by the heat of horse dung ; and the heat is raised in lime by water , as we have already said . 4. amongst the vegetables there is no plant , nor part of a plant as the droppings , or sap , which seems to our feeling to be hot . 5. there is no part of dead animals nor any thing separated from them , which appears hot , nor the horse dung it self , unless it be shut up , and buried close . but nevertheless all dung seems to have heat potentially in it , as may appear by the improvement of the ground . likewise the corpses of dead animals have the same secret heat potentially ; therefore in church-yards , where they are daily buried , the ground hath by that means acquired a secret heat , which soon consumes a carcase newly buried , and sooner than other earth . 6. whatsoever fatness the ground , as all sorts of dung , chalk , sea-sand , salt , and the like have a secret disposition and tendency to heat . 7. all putrefaction hath some beginnings of a little heat , though not to that degree as to be perceived by feeling 8. the first degree of heat of those things , which are to be felt . to be hot by feeling is the heat of animals , that have a great latitude of degrees ; for the lowest degree , as in insects , is not to be perceived by touching . the highest degree scarce attains to the degrèe of heat of the sun beams in the hottest regions and times : nevertheless it is reported of constantine and of several others , that they were naturally so hot , and their constitution so dry , that in several violent feavers their bodies did burn so much , that when any did but touch them with the hand it would seem to burn a while after . 9. all animals do encrease their heat by motions and exercise , by wine , good chear , and venery , and in burning feavers , and pain . 10. all animals in the intervals of feavers are ceased with cold and shivering at first , but a little after they burn the more . 11. we may further inquire and compare the heat of several animals , as of fishes , four footed beasts , serpents , birds , and according to their several species , as in a lyon , in a kite , or a man ; for , according to the common opinion , fishes are inwardly less hot , birds most , especially , pigeons , hawks , and austriches . 12. let us inquire further of the heat compared in the same animal with the several parts and members , for milk , blood , seed , eys , are of a moderate degree of warmth , and less hot then the exterior flesh of animals , when it moves and is stirred about , but what degree of heat is in the brain , stomack , heart , and other parts , was never yet found out . 13. all animals , during the winter and in cold storms , are outwardly cold , but inwardly they are thought to be hotter than in summer . 14. the coelestial heat , in the hottest regions , times of the year , and day , is not so hot as burning wood , straw , or linnen , neither doth it burn but through a glass . 15. the astrologers inform us , that some stars are hotter th another , amongst the planets , next to sol , mars is the hotest , afterwards jupiter , then venus , but luna is thought to be cold , and saturn colder : amongst the fixed stars sirius is the hottest , then cor leonis or regulus , afterwards the dog star , &c. 16. the sun warms most when he is nearest to our zenith , over our heads ; the same we may think of the other planets , according to their degree of heat , for example , jupiter is hotter when he is under cancer or leo , than when he is under capricornius or aquarius . 17. the coelestial heat is increased three several ways , namely , when the globe is over our heads , when it draw near by proplnquity , and by a conjunction or association of several stars . 18. there are several degrees of heat in flames , and fires in strength and weakness . 19. i judge that the flame , that bursts forth and proceeds from certain imperfect metals , is very strong and fierce . 20. but the flame of thunder seems to be fiercer than all other flames , for sometimes it hath dissolved iron it self into drops , which all other flames cannot do . 21. in things set a fire there is also a different degree of heat , we esteem the weakest to be burn'd linnen , or tinder , touch wood or match ; after them the weakest fire is that of a burnt coal , and laths set a fire : but the hottest we think to be metal inflamed , as iron and copper , &c. 22. motion increaseth heat , as we may perceive by blowing with bellows : for some of the harder sort of metals are not to be dissolved , or liquefied by a dead fire , unless it be stirred up by blowing . 23. we judge that the great fires that happen , when the wind blows hard , do struggle and strive more against the wind than they do yield to it , for the flame in such a case flies back with a greater fierceness when the wind yeilds than when it drives it . by the common fire , especially by the subterraneous fires , which are the remotest and shut up clossest from the rayes of the sun , you may expel the caelestial nature from the form of hot . by the heating of bodies of all sorts , i mean of minerals , of vegetables , and of the exterior parts of animals , of water , of oile , &c. in drawing them nearer to the fire or any hot body you may expel all variety , and subtil texture of bodies . by iron or other fiery metals , which may heat other bodies without minishing ought of the weight or substance , expel the mixture of the substance of another hot thing . here follows several other directions and precepts most useful , if well understood ; but because i am limited i proceed to the other helps of natures interpretation recommended by the worthy author . first , he placeth prerogatives of instances . secondly , helps of induction . thirdly , arectification of induction , &c. amongst the prerogatives of instances the solitary instances are first . they are such as discover the nature , which is inquired after in such subjects , which have nothing common with other subjects , except that nature . and again , such as discover not the nature inquired for in such subjects , which are like in all things with other subjects , unless it be in the nature it self , for example , if the nature of colour , is inquired into , the solitary instances are gems of christal , which yeild not not only a color in themselves , but cast it upon a wall. they have nothing common with the fired colours in flowers , coloured gems , metals , wood , &c. unless it be the colour ; from whence it may easily appear , that colour is nothing else but a modification of the image of light cast into , and received in the first kind , by divers degrees of lightning upon the body ; in the second , by the textures and various schesmatisms of the body . the second are the instances called migrantes , they are such in which the nature inquired for passeth to the generation , when before it was not , or contrariwise passeth to corruption , when it was before these instances are useful for a right understanding of the nature of things , and to direct us to practise ; for example , suppose the nature of whiteness be inquired into , the instance putting to generation is whole glass , and glass beaten to with powder , likewise simple water , and water stirred about into froth , for whole glass and water are transparent , not white , but glass beaten and water turned into froth , are not transparant , but white ; therefore we must inquire what happens from that change or passage to glass or water ; for it is evident that the form of whiteness is conveighed in by the contusion of the glass , and the stirring of the water , and there seems to be nothing added besides the communition of the parts of glass and water , and the mixture of the air . by these instances we may understand such as pass , not onely to generation and privation , but such as proceed to majoration and minoration ; for they tend also to discover to us the true forms of things . the third assistances are named offensive , they are such as discover the nature inquired , for nakedly and in it self also , in its rise , and highest degree of power , free from all impediments ; for as every body receives the forms of many natures conjoyned , so as that in the concrete one weakness depresseth , breaks , and binds another , by that means every form is obscured : now there are some subjects to be found in which the nature sought for is above the rest in its full vigor , either by the absence of the impediment , or by the predominancy of its vertue . these instances do chiefly discover the nature of forms . for example , if you inquire for the nature of weight take quick-silver , which is the heaviest of all other things beside gold , which is not much heavier : but the instance of quick-silver is more proper to discover the nature of weight , than gold ; because gold is solid and close , but quick-silver is liquid and full of spirits ; nevertheless it is heavier than diamonds , and the most solid things , from whence we may understand the form of weight , which consists in the abundance of the matter , not in the compactness and closeness of the thing . the fourth instances are named clandestine . they shew the nature inquired for in its lowest power , and as it were in the cradle and beginning , rising and hid under a contrary nature that domineers over it . these instances are of great consequence to find out the forms of things , for example , if we inquire for the nature of solid ; the clandestine instances are such as discover a weak , and lowest degree of consistency , a solidity in a fluide substance , as in a buble of water , which is as a thin skin of solidity determined and made of a watery body . by this example , and by snow , froth , and melted metals , we may understand that liquid and solid , are but ordinary notions , agreeable to the sense , for in truth there is in every body a liquidity which is weaker and more infirm in bodies homogeneous , as water , but stronger in heterogenious , therefore the conjunction to an heterogeneous body unites and joyns together , but the insinuation of the homogeneous dissolves and loosens . the fifth sort of instances are named constitutive . they are such as constitute a species of the nature inquired into , as a lesser form , for as the lawful forms which are convertible with the natures sought for , are hid in secret , & are not easily to be found , the thing it self and the weakness of our intellect requires that the particular forms be not neglected , but be diligently inquired into , for whatsoever unites nature , although in an imperfect manner , it shews a way to find out forms . for example , if any desires to understand nature of memory , or that which excites or helps memory , the constitutive instances are order and distribution , which evidently help our memory , also places in an artificial memory , &c. so that there are six lesser forms of those things which help memory ; namely ; limitation , a reducement of intellectual matters , to a sensibility an impression into a strong affection , an impression into a pure and disingaged mind , a multitude of helps and a former expectation . the sixth are consormable instances or proportioned , for they shew similitudes , agreements , and conjugations of things , not in the lesser forms , as the constitutive instances do , but in a concrete body . they shew and discover a certain agreement between bodies , although they don't much 〈◊〉 to find out 〈◊〉 , nevertheless they are very beneficial to reveal the fabrick of several parts of the universe , and in its members they make a kind of dissection , and therefore they lead us , as it were , by the hand to high and noble axioms . for example , these are conformable instances , a looking glass and an eye , the make of the ear , and the places where the eccho sounds , but of which conformity , besides the observation of resemblance , which is very useful for many things , it is easie to gather and form this axiom , viz. that the organ for the senses , and the bodies , that send back the sounds to the sense , are much alike . again , the understanding being from hence informed , may easily rise to another axiom higher and more noble ; namely , that there is no 〈◊〉 between the consents , or sympathies , of sensible bodies , and such as are inanimate without sense , unless it be that in the former , there is an animal spirit in the body , fitted to receive and entertain it , but in the latter there is none . therefore as many consents as there are in inanimate bodies , so many senses there might be in animals , if there were as many holes or perforations in the animate body , for the animal spirit to move and fly to the member rightly disposed , as a right organ , &c. another conformable instance is the root of a plant , and the branches . every vegetable swells and pushes out its parts round about as well downwards as upwards neither is there any difference between the roots and branches , but only that the root is shut up in the earth and the branches , spread in the air and the sun , for if any one will but take a tender branch that grows , and turn the top towards the ground , though it toucheth not the earth , it will push forth a root and not a branch . and on the contrary , if the earth be put upon a plant , and be prest with a stone or other hard substance that might hinder the plant from spreading up , it will bring forth branches in the ground and underneath . other conformable instances are the gum of trees , and the most part of the gems of rocks , for either of them are but the exudations and sweatings , the first out of the sap of trees , the second out of rocks , from hence proceeds the clearness and splendor of both . namely from the thin and subtil percolation from hence it is also that the hairs of animals are not so beautiful and of such a lively colour as the plumes of birds , for their sweat is not so fine when it issues out of their skin as when it comes out of a feathers . other conformable instances are the fins of fishes , and the feet of four footed beasts , or the feet and wings of birds unto which aristotle adds four circles in the motion of serpents . therefore in this great fabrick of the world the motion of living creatures seems to be performed by four arters or flexions . also in terrestrial animals the teeth , and in birds , their bills are alike , from whence it is evident that in all perfect animals there is a certain hard substance that draws to the mouth . the seventh are irregular instances , such as discover bodies in their whole , which are extravagant and broken off in nature , and do not agree with other things of the same gender , but are only like to themselves , therefore stiled monodicae . they are useful to raise and unite nature , to find out the genders and common natures , to limit them by their true differences . neither are we to desist from an inquisition until the properties and qualities , which are found in such things as are thought to be miracles in nature , may be reduced , and comprehended under some form or certain law , that all irregularity and singularity might be found to depend upon some common form . such instances are the sun and moon amongst the stars , the loadstone among the stones , quick-silver amongst metals , the elephant , amongst the four footed beasts , &c. the eighth sort of instances are named diviantes , because they are natures errors , and monsters , when nature declines and goes aside from its ordinary course . the use of these is to rectifie the understanding , to reveal the common forms ; neither in these ought we to desist from the inquisition until we have found out the cause of the deviation . but this cause doth not rise properly to any form , but onely to the hidden proceeding to a form , for he that knows the ways of nature , he shall with more ease observe its deviations . and again , he that understands its deviations can better discover its ordinary ways and methods . the ninth sort of instances are named limitanea , such as discover the species of bodies , which seem to be composed of two species , or the rudiments between one species and another : such are flies between rottenness and a plant , certain comets between stars and fiery meteors , flying , fishes , between birds , and fishes , &c. the tenth are instances of power , which are the noblest , and the most perfect , as the most excellent in every art ; for as this is our business chiefly , that nature should be obedient and yield to the benefits of men ; it is fitting , that the works , which are in the power of men , as so many provinces , be overcome and subdued , should be taken notice of , and reckoned specially such as are most plain and perfect , because from them there is an easier and a nearer way to new inventions , never found out before . the eleventh instance are stiled comitatus and hostiles . they are such as discover a concrete body such in which the nature inquired after , doth always follow it as an individual companion , and on the contrary , in which the nature required doth always fly from it , & is excluded out of its company as an enemy : for out of such instances propositions may be formed , which may be certain , universal , affirmative , and negative , in which the subject shall be such a body in concrete , & the predicate the nature it self that is sought , for example if you seek for hot the iustantia comitatus is the flame , &c. the twelth are subjunctive , &c. the thirteenth are instances of union which confound and joyn together natures , which are esteemed to be heterogeneous , and for such are noted and confirmed by the received divisions . for example , if the nature required is hot . that division seems to be good and authentick , that there are three kinds of heat ; the coelestial , the animal , and that of the fire . these heats especially one of them being compared with the other two , are , in essence and species , or by a specifick nature , differing and altogether heterogeneous ; for the heat of the coelestial globes , and the animate heat , encourage and help generation ; but the heat of the fire corrupts and destroyes . it is therefore an instance of union . this experiment , is common enough when the branch of a vine is brought into the house , where there is a continual fire , by which the grapes will ripen a month sooner than those that are in the air : so that fruits may be brought to maturity when they hang upon the tree by the fire , whereas , this seems to be a work proper only to the sun. therefore the understanding is perswaded from hence to inquire , what are the differences which are really between the heat of the sun and that of the fire ; from whence it happens that their operations are so unlike , and they nevertheless partake of the same common nature . the differences are found to be four . first , that the heat of the sun in respect of the heat of the fire is a degree much milder and more favourable . secondly , that it is conveyed , to us through the air , which of it self is humide . thirdly , and chiefly that it is very unequal , sometimes drawing near and increasing in strength , anon departing and diminishing , which very much contributes to the generation of bodies . fourthly , that the sun works upon a body in a long space of time ; but the working of the fire , through mens impatiency , performs the business in a shorter time . if any will be careful to attemper and reduce the heat of the fire to a more moderate and milder degree ; which may be done several ways , if he will besprinkle it , and cause it to send forth something of humidity ; cheifly if he imitates the suns inequality . lastly , if he stayes a little , by this means , he shall imitate or equal , or in some things cause the fires heat to be better than the suns . the fourteenth sort of instances are the judicial , which is when an inquisition is made , and the understanding is placed in an equilibrium , in an uncertainty where to assign the cause of the nature inquired for . for example , suppose any man seeks the cause of the flux and reflux of the sea twice a 〈◊〉 . this motion must needs proceeds from the progress and regress of the waters , in the manner of water troubled up and down in a bason , which when it toucheth the one side of the bason , it leaves the other . or it must proceed from the rising and falling of the waters in the bottom , as boiling water : now there is a doubt unto which of these causes the ebbing and flowing , or flux and reflux of the sea is to be assigned ; which if the first of these be asserted , then it will follow , that when the flux is on this side , the 〈◊〉 will be at the sametime on the other . but acosco with some others have found after a diligent inquiry , that upon the coast of florida , and upon the coast of spain , and africa , the ebbing and flowing of the sea happens at the same moment of time . this question is further examined in the original . the fifteenth sort of instances are of divorce , because they discover the separations of those 〈◊〉 which often meet . the sixteenth are the instances of the lamp , or of the first information , which assist the sense , for as all interpretation of nature begins by the sense , and from the perception of the sense leads by a right and straight-way to inform the understanding , which are the true notions and axioms ; it must needs be , that the more copious and exact the representations of the senses are , so much the better and the happier all things must succeed . the seventeenth sort of instances are stiled of the gate , because they help the immediate actions of the senses . amongst the senses , it is certain that the sight is the chief , in regard of information ; therefore we must seek assistances to this sight . the eighteenth are instances called citantes , which deduce that which is not sensible to be sensible . the nineteenth are named instances of supplement , because they supply the understanding with a right information when the senses fail , therefore we must fly to them , when we have no proper instances . this is done in a two fold manner , either by gradation , or by analogy . for example , the medium is not to be found which stop the load-stone in moving the iron , neither gold , if we put it between , nor silver , nor stone , nor glass , nor wood , &c. nevertheless after an exact tryal , there may be a certain medium sound , which might dull its vertue more than any thing else comparatively , and in some degree , as that the loadstone should not be able to drawiron to it self through gold of such a thickness , &c. the twentieth sort are stiled instances persecantes , because they cut nature asunder , &c. the one and twenty sort are instances of the rod , or of non ultra . the two and twentieth are called instances curriculi . they measure nature by the moments of time , as the instances of the rod measure it by the degrees of space . for all motion and natural action is performed in a time , some quicker , some softer , &c : the three and twentieth sort are instances quanti , &c. the four and twentieth sort are instances of predominancy , the 25. sort are called innuentes , because they discover and design the benefits of men . the six and twentieth sort are named instantiae polychrestas . the seven and twentieth are the magick instances . they are such in which the matter or the officient is but little and slender , if compared with the greatness of the work , or of the effect that follows , in somuch that though they are common , they are looked upon as miracles , &c. i am forced to out short , and abbreviate many excellent directions , and to pass over several weighty observations , because i am limited . however this abbreviation may give the reader 〈◊〉 of the whole . finis . notes, typically marginal, from the original text notes for div a28309-e2080 * or skin to cover such as covers the body . * natura data . * gaping of the firmament . a journal of the embassy from their majesties john and peter alexievitz, emperors of muscovy &c. over land into china through the provinces of ustiugha, siberia, dauri, and the great tartary to peking the capital city of the chinese empire by everard isbrand, their ambassador in the years 1693, 1694, and 1695 written by adam brand, secretary of the embassy ; translated from the original high-dutch printed in hamburgh, 1698 ; to which is added curious observations concerning the products of russia by h.w. ludolf. beschreibung der chinesischen reise. english brand, adam, d. 1713. 1698 approx. 174 kb of xml-encoded text transcribed from 77 1-bit group-iv tiff page images. text creation partnership, ann arbor, mi ; oxford (uk) : 2004-03 (eebo-tcp phase 1). a29216 wing b4246 estc r29054 10802917 ocm 10802917 45971 this keyboarded and encoded edition of the work described above is co-owned by the institutions providing financial support to the early english books online text creation partnership. this phase i text is available for reuse, according to the terms of creative commons 0 1.0 universal . the text can be copied, modified, distributed and performed, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. early english books online. (eebo-tcp ; phase 1, no. a29216) transcribed from: (early english books online ; image set 45971) images scanned from microfilm: (early english books, 1641-1700 ; 1416:19) a journal of the embassy from their majesties john and peter alexievitz, emperors of muscovy &c. over land into china through the provinces of ustiugha, siberia, dauri, and the great tartary to peking the capital city of the chinese empire by everard isbrand, their ambassador in the years 1693, 1694, and 1695 written by adam brand, secretary of the embassy ; translated from the original high-dutch printed in hamburgh, 1698 ; to which is added curious observations concerning the products of russia by h.w. ludolf. beschreibung der chinesischen reise. english brand, adam, d. 1713. ludolf, heinrich wilhelm, 1655-1710. curious observations concerning the products of russia. 134 p. : 2 leaves of plates. printed for d. brown and t. goodwin, london : 1698. some curious observations concerning the products of russia has special t.p. (pp. 121-134) translation of the author's beschreibung der chinesischen reise. reproduction of original in the bodleian library. created by converting tcp files to tei p5 using tcp2tei.xsl, tei @ oxford. re-processed by university of nebraska-lincoln and northwestern, with changes to facilitate morpho-syntactic tagging. gap elements of known extent have been transformed into placeholder characters or elements to simplify the filling in of gaps by user contributors. eebo-tcp is a partnership between the universities of michigan and oxford and the publisher proquest to create accurately transcribed and encoded texts based on the image sets published by proquest via their early english books online (eebo) database (http://eebo.chadwyck.com). the general aim of eebo-tcp is to encode one copy (usually the first edition) of every monographic english-language title published between 1473 and 1700 available in eebo. eebo-tcp aimed to produce large quantities of textual data within the usual project restraints of time and funding, and therefore chose to create diplomatic transcriptions (as opposed to critical editions) with light-touch, mainly structural encoding based on the text encoding initiative (http://www.tei-c.org). the eebo-tcp project was divided into two phases. the 25,363 texts created during phase 1 of the project have been released into the public domain as of 1 january 2015. anyone can now take and use these texts for their own purposes, but we respectfully request that due credit and attribution is given to their original source. users should be aware of the process of creating the tcp texts, and therefore of any assumptions that can be made about the data. text selection was based on the new cambridge bibliography of english literature (ncbel). if an author (or for an anonymous work, the title) appears in ncbel, then their works are eligible for inclusion. selection was intended to range over a wide variety of subject areas, to reflect the true nature of the print record of the period. in general, first editions of a works in english were prioritized, although there are a number of works in other languages, notably latin and welsh, included and sometimes a second or later edition of a work was chosen if there was a compelling reason to do so. image sets were sent to external keying companies for transcription and basic encoding. quality assurance was then carried out by editorial teams in oxford and michigan. 5% (or 5 pages, whichever is the greater) of each text was proofread for accuracy and those which did not meet qa standards were returned to the keyers to be redone. after proofreading, the encoding was enhanced and/or corrected and characters marked as illegible were corrected where possible up to a limit of 100 instances per text. any remaining illegibles were encoded as <gap>s. understanding these processes should make clear that, while the overall quality of tcp data is very good, some errors will remain and some readable characters will be marked as illegible. users should bear in mind that in all likelihood such instances will never have been looked at by a tcp editor. the texts were encoded and linked to page images in accordance with level 4 of the tei in libraries guidelines. copies of the texts have been issued variously as sgml (tcp schema; ascii text with mnemonic sdata character entities); displayable xml (tcp schema; characters represented either as utf-8 unicode or text strings within braces); or lossless xml (tei p5, characters represented either as utf-8 unicode or tei g elements). keying and markup guidelines are available at the text creation partnership web site . eng ides, evert ysbrants. natural history -soviet union -pre-linnean works. asia -description and travel. china -description and travel. 2003-09 tcp assigned for keying and markup 2003-09 aptara keyed and coded from proquest page images 2003-10 rina kor sampled and proofread 2003-10 rina kor text and markup reviewed and edited 2003-12 pfs batch review (qc) and xml conversion a journal of an embassy from mvscovy into china , over land. peter alexiovitz the present grand czar of moscovie anno aetat . 27. a journal of the embassy from their majesties iohn and peter alexievitz , emperors of muscovy , &c. over land into china , through the provinces of vstiugha , siberia , dauri , and the great tartary , to peking , the capital city of the chinese empire . by everard isbrand , their ambassador in the years 1693 , 1694 , and 1695. written by adam brand , secretary of the embassy . translated from the original in high-dutch , printed at hamburgh , 1698. to which is added , curious observations concerning the products of russia . by h. w. ludolf . london : printed for d. brown at the black swan and bible without temple-bar ; and t. goodwin at the queens head over-against st. dunstan's church , fleet street . 1698. the habitts of the ostiacken & kerrgiesen people . the habitts of the tungusen and daurischn people . an account of an embassy from mvscovy into china over land . the now most illustrious princes ivan and peter alexievits , great lords , emperors , grand dukes , and conservators of all the great , and little , and white russia ; of muscovy , of volodimir and novogorod ; emperors of casan ; emperors of astrachan ; emperors of siberia ; lords of plesko ; great dukes of twersco , leghorscho , permsco , veatsco , belgarsco , &c. lords and great dukes of novogorod in the lower countries ; of rosansko , rostessko , gerestessko , beteozarsko , oudersco , obdorsko , condinsko , and all the northern parts ; lords of the country of versco , of cartalinsko , and of gruzinsco , and of the country of cabardinsco ; czars and dukes of circasco , and igorsco , lords and monarchs of several other dominions and provinces , east , west , and north ; which are their inheritance from father to son : these , i say , my most gracious lords and princes , having after mature deliberation resolved to send a most splendid embassy to the great amologdachan ( or emperor of china ) ; everrard isbrand , a native of germany , born in the city of gluckstad , in the dukedom of holstein , was pitch'd upon by the abovementioned two czars , as a fit subject to discharge so great a trust ; and being accordingly declared their ambassador to the great amologdachan , he gratefully accepted of the favour bestowed upon him by both their czarish majesties ; and after his humble thanks for the grace received from their hands in putting so much confidence in him , he ordered his equipage , and all other matters requisite for so great a journey , to be got in readiness to depart at a minutes warning . after some time spent in providing several rich presents , which we were to carry along with us into china , and all other necessaries ; the ambassador and the chiefest of his retinue were in the year 1692 , the 3d of march , introduced into the presence of ivan alexievits , to kiss his czarish majesty's hands ; and on the 12th of march following , having been admitted into the presence of peter alexievits , the youngest of the two czars , to receive the same honour from his hands after his return to musco from peresla , we set out on our journey the next following day , being the 13th of march. the whole attendance of the ambassador at his departure from musco , consisted only in one and twenty persons ; among whom were twelve germans , the rest muscovites . we were provided with a good chest of physick , a physician , and a good number of baggage-waggons to carry our provisions , wines , and all other necessaries for so great a journey ; and having taken our leave , not without some tears , of our friends , both germans and muscovites , who conducted us for some miles out the town , we continued our journy towards troitza . but before i go any further in giving an account of this embassy , i hope it will not be look'd upon in me as a presumption , if by way of digression , i touch upon some general matters concerning muscovy , which being otherwise known by the name of the great or black russia , extends its frontiers to the utmost borders of europe and asia . it is of a vast extent , its length reaching from the confines of poland as far as to the great asiatick tartary , and its breadth from the frozen sea to the caspian lake or sea ; but many of its provinces ( especially those bordering upon asia ) are almost desolate . among many others , it has four great and famous rivers ; the first is the river wolga , arising not far from the confines of poland , and exonerating it self in the caspian sea. the second is the river oby , which disimbogues in the frozen sea ; and on that side divides asia from europe . the third the river don , which discharges it self in the euxine sea. and the fourth the river dwina , which falls near archangel into the white sea. the city of musco , besides its antiquity , has this to boast of , that ever since the year 1540. at what time czar ivan basilovits began his reign , it has been the constant residence of the succeeding czars , to wit , of fedor ivanovits , boris goudenou , fedor berisovits , of the counterfeit demetrius ivanovits , of basili ivanovits zusksi , michael federovits , alexoi michaelovits , ivan alexiovits . and of the present czar peter alexiovits . it is near fifteen english miles in compass , being scituate on the river mosco ( which not far from thence joins its current with the river occa , and falls afterwards into the great river wolga ) in the center of muscovy . the castle , called cremelina , where the czars of muscovy keep their ordinary residence , is fortified with a very strong wall , a deep ditch , and some demilunes , upon which are mounted good store of large cannon . russia has its own patriarch , who exercises the same authority all over the muscovian empire , as the pope does in other roman catholick countries . but for the conveniency of commerce , the lutherans , as well as other protestants , are allow'd the free exercise of their religion in the city of musco , as well as in some other places of muscovy . the lutherans are very confiderable for their number in the capital city , where they have two churches built of stone in the german suburbs . the calvinists have also one very finely built in the same place . the roman catholicks and iews , who have not been tolerated till of late , only exercise their devotion in a private house , and the jesuits are excluded from that benefit also , under pain of banishment , as it happened to one of that fraternity not many years ago . it is very well worth taking notice here , that the present czar peter is a prince of an excellent good humour , and a great favourer of the lutherans , whom he presented with all the stone materials which were made use of in building their new church , and gave them permission , without the approbation of the patriarch , to adorn their church with a steeple . but to return to our journey ; we travelled the 14th of march to troitza , a place very agreeable both for its scituation and the fertility of the circumjacent country . this place is chiefly famous for the convent of troitza ; which by reason of its strong fortifications resembles a great castle at a distance , being scituate about 60 versts or english miles from musco . the present czar peter is so extreamly taken with the delightfulness of this place , that scarce a week passes but he diverts himself there . after we had passed here one day and two nights to refresh our horses , and to take a full view of the place , we travelled the 16th of march as far as pereslaw , a great and magnificent city , according to the muscovian fashion , the houses being all of wood. it is scituate on a lake about 60 versts or miles from troitza , near it are fine saltpits , which afford great store of very white salt , which is from thence transported to other places . from hence we pursued our journy to the city of rostof , having a convent of the same name ; it is the capital of the province of the same name , which in former ages was , next to novogored vetiki , accounted one of the most ancient and most considerable of muscovy , and afterwards was appropriated as an appenage to the use of the younger brothers of the imperial family ; but the last prince of that race being in the year 1565 , by the tyrant ivan basilovits bereav'd at once of his dominions and life , the same was reincorporated with the crown of muscovy . the city of rostof it self is a very large and stately city , scituate on a lake ; from whence arises the river coterius , which discharges it self into the river wolga ; it is dignified with the title of an archbishoprick , and the archbishop keeps his residence in the castle , which is built of wood ; it is 60 versts distant from pereslaw . we did not tarry long here , being afraid to lose the conveniency of making use of our sleds , by reason of the approaching spring ; for which reason having provided our selves with fresh horses , we came on the 18th of march to iaroslaw , the capital of the province , scituate near the river wolga , and one of the largest cities of the whole russian empire . it is a place of vast traffick , but especially celebrated for its trade in muscovia-leather ; of which such prodigious quantities are dressed in this place , that it furnishes not only muscovy , but also a great part of europe with this commodity . the province of iaroslaw is of a very large extent , and extremely fertile , especially where it borders upon the river wolga . this province , like the former , was allotted as an appenage to the younger house of muscovy ; who enjoyed it for a considerable time , with the title of princes , till being also subdued by the aforementioned tyrant ivan basilovits , they were forced to rest contented with a certain yearly allowance under the jurisdiction of the czars of muscovy . we were forced to stay here the 19th of march , partly to take a little rest , partly to expect the coming of our baggage . the 20th we again set forward in our journey , and arrived at mid-night in the city of wologda , situate upon the river of the same name , about 180 versts or miles from iaroslaw . all the country betwixt this city and that of musco is extreamly populous , we seldom travelling a day but within sight of 14 or 15 villages or towns. this city is the capital of the province of the same name , which is almost impassable at some times of the year , by reason of the many forests and boggs : it formerly was under the jurisdiction of the dukes of novogorod veliki ; but since the peace concluded in the year 1613 , betwixt the swedes and muscovites ; by vertue of which , the last were put in possession of the dukedom of novogorod veliki , that of wologda , as being its dependency , also devolved unto the muscovites . it is a pretty large city ; but what is most remarkable is its castle , which by the indefatigable care of the muscovites is surrounded with so strong a fortification of stone , as to be accounted impregnable . the river wologda , which has communicated its name both to the city and province , runs from west to north , till it joins its current with the river dwina . on the 21st day of march ( as good fortune would have it ) the weather turn'd again to a hard frost , to our great satisfaction ; for without it we must have quitted our sleds , and must have stay'd there till the frost had been quite broke , which in all probability would have stopp'd our journey for several months . we therefore pursued our journey the 22d , and on the 23d came to scuskajam ; where being provided with fresh horses , we , after dinner was over , went forward upon the river of sucagna . on the 24th of march we again changed our horses in a small place called tettma ; which having nothing in it to stay us in our journey , we travelled on with all the expedition imaginable , in hopes to take up our next nights quarters in the village of vsgorodishna ; but meeting beyond expectation there with more fresh horses ; and being willing to improve our time to the best advantage , we travelled on the same night ; and the following day , being the 26th of march , to the village of bobroffskajam , where indeed we refresh'd our selves a little ; but having again the good fortune to find new horses ready for us , we set forward the same night ; and the next following , being the 27th of march , and the first easter holiday , arrived in the capital city of the province of vstiugha ; where we spent that day and the following night in affording our selves necessary rest , and such other good cheer as we thought most convenient to restore our decayed spirits . scarce had we taken a few hours rest to recover our selves from the past fatigues , but the governor of the place sent one of his servants ; who after a compliment from his master , offered us in his name every thing that might be in his power to serve us ; and i must confess , that we were not only very handsomely entertain'd here , but also furnish'd with every thing that was thought convenient for the prosecution of our journey . the city of vstiugha , as well as its castle , is situate upon the very bank of the river sucagna , being a very populous and well-built city ; its chief traffick consists in all sorts of furrs and skins , but especially in white fox-skins . we travelled all the way from schuskajam to vstiugha , upon the river sucagna , not without great danger , the ice being almost melted by the beams of the approaching sun : this is the same river by which the merchants of wologda travel to archangel . being again provided here with fresh horses , we came on the 29th of march to a small place called lolowitzgoth , upon the river of wictzegda : this river joining its current with the river dwina , is very well known to the russian merchants , who from this place travel in six or seven nights to archangel , for the rest , this place having nothing in it , which was inviting enough to detain us there ; and meeting with fresh horses , we travell'd the same day near 50 miles through a very large forest , which is accounted by the inhabitants to contain 800 miles in length . it is in sundry places inhabited by a certain people called sirenes , who tho' quite different from the muscovites in their language and manners , yet profess the greek religion , and are therefore in great esteem among the russians . where-ever we came we had our share in the publick rejoicings , which are made , during the easter-time , all over muscovy , in remembrance of the resurrection of christ ; it being an ancient custom in russia to present one another not only on easter-day , but for 14 days after , with painted eggs , of which you see great quantities ready boil'd , to be sold on all the corners of the streets , no body , of what quality , degree , age or sex , daring to refuse either the eggs or the kiss , which is always given as you present the eggs. if they meet in the streets , they salute one another in these words , christo vos chrest ; that is , christ is risen : whereto the other having answered , wo is tenoros chrest ; that is , he is certainly risen , they kiss one another . this custom is so general , that if during this time you are invited at a russian's house to partake of their merriments , and you should not offer to kiss the ladies there present , ( where it is to be observed that you must take care not to touch them with your hands ) you would be look'd upon as an ill bred clown ; whereas if you acquit your self handsomely in this point , you are sure to receive a cup of aquavitae in return for your civility . but to return to our journey , which for some days after proved very troublesome to us , being obliged to cut down many trees , to facilitate our passage through the forest : besides which , the many rivers ( amongst which the siasellae , chasim , and nactim peris , were the chiefest ) we were to pass , rendered our passage not only difficult , but very dangerous , many of our men and sleds falling into the last of these rivers by the breaking of the ice ; but , by the help of the rest , having happily escaped the danger , we were obliged to take new measures for the future . for which reason , when we came to any of these rivulets , which coming from the adjacent hills , run through the valleys , we fastned many pieces of timber together , over which ( in the nature of a bridge of boats ) we drew our sleds by the help of strong ropes , whilst we were forced to walk it on foot , and to let our horses swim through the rivers ; we had at last the good fortune to surmount all these obstacles , without any great damage or loss ; but being extreamly fatigued by so troublesome a passage , we rested our selves for some time in a village . having a little recovered our selves , we continued our journey , and arrived safely on the 6th of april at kaigorod , upon the river kama . this place has its own governor , and a good garison , who keep a watchful eye over the inhabitants , who are sirenes ; besides , that the cosacks sometimes pay them a visit when they least expect it . of this the governor of the place , ivan mikietivits lopugin , related us an instance which had hapned two years before , in the year 1690 , being the first of his government . it seems thirty of these cosacks having had intelligence that the place was at that time not sufficiently provided for its defence , had taken a resolution to attack it on the water-side : for which purpose , having provided themselves with all necessary arms , and , among the rest , with one great piece of cannon , they took the opportunity of the night , when every body enjoying the benefit of rest , they surprized the town , murthered and plundered all that came in their way , and were within an inch of having seized the governor ; who happily escaping their hands , caused the alarum to be given to the inhabitants ; who being thereby made sensible of the danger , run to their arms , and soon obliged these vagabonds to betake themselves to flight . they pursued them for some time upon the river ; but the darkness of the night covering their retreat , they escaped with the greatest part of the booty . our sleds being now become quite useless to us , we were obliged to tarry here till such time that the ice were sunk in the river : in the mean while we diverted our selves with hunting , and such other pastimes as the place and our present circumstances would afford . for we had not been here many days , when we were frightned with a new report , that a considerable number of these robbers had again associated together in order to come and surprize our baggage , which put us under no small consternation , till the governor having order'd us a good guard , and disposed the garison so as to be ready upon all occasions , we were soon freed from these apprehensions , and passed the rest of our time in our usual divertisements . the river being by this time cleared of the ice , we took our leave of the governor , and embark'd in a vessel built for that purpose , on the 23d of april , upon the river kama ; in our passage we saw several monasteries on both sides of the river , but very few villages . the large river kama comes from the north-east , and with a swift current runs as far as casan , where it exonerates it self on the left side of it into the river wolga . it approaches in bigness to the river weser in germany . it is increased by several lesser rivers , among which is the river wiesetzca , which falls into it about 25 miles from solokamsko . we left the river kama on the 26th of april , towards evening , directing our course to the left , to the small river vsolsko , from whence we had 7 miles to travel to solokamsko : but going against the stream , we came not till the 27th to solokamsko , being a place situate in a very pleasant plain upon the river vsolsko , built there on purpose by the muscovites for the conveniency of such , as have occasion to travel into those far distant places . it is inhabited both by russians and tartars , who trade in all sorts of cattle , but especially in horses ; which being very excellent hereabouts , are preferred before others all over muscovy . there being constantly fourscore coppers employed here in making of salt , this makes this place , as well as the adjacent villages , ( where they follow the same employment ) very considerable , it being very fine , and from hence transported to casan . on the 29th of april we had the misfortune to have one of the ambassador's attendance to fall over-board , and to be drowned : he was a muscovite by birth , his name being simon callaction , for the rest a good honest fellow ; but being overcome by the strength of aquavitae , came by this accident , by tumbling over-board , and was , notwithstanding all the care taken by his comrades to save his life , carried away by the swiftness of the current : his body was found floating on the first of may , when it was interr'd near the shoar . on the second of may the ambassador , with most of his retinue , were invited by a certain muscovian gentleman , one of the czar's factors , whose name was alexi astaffi philatoff , to his country-house , about 20 miles distant from solok , where we were entertained with a very handsome dinner , and pass'd the day very merrily . near this place his czarish majesty employs above 20000 workmen in making of salt. the gentleman whom we mention'd before , had , at his own cost , two large vessels built in this place , of 400 tuns each , for the transportation of salt ; and hearing of our coming that way , had caused them to stay for some time , to make us eye-witnesses of the manner of convoying these ships , and what order and discipline there was observed among them . each of these vessels had 500 men on board , who were to labour without intermission at the oars , relieving each other at certain and convenient times , under the command of several officers ; so that by the continual supply of fresh men , these vessels could perform a great voyage in a little time . both these vessels being loaden with nothing but salt , were bound to casan , where they sold it to a great advantage : for whereas the pode ( being 40 pound weight ) did not stand the owner in above half a copeck upon the spot , it was sold at casan for twelve or thirteen copecks . the night , betwixt the 3d and 4th of may , it began to snow and freeze so hard again , as if it had been in the winter ; which continuing till the 6th , put us to no small trouble , being obliged to stay here seventeen days , which however we passed pleasantly enough . the worst of all was , that by the melting of the snow , and the overflowing of the rivers , we were disappointed in our design of going by land to wergaturia , situate upon the frontiers of siberia ; which being but a small place , and furnished with very low and indifferent buildings , notwithstanding this has its own waywode or governor . but , as i said before , being disappointed in our design , we were forced to make use of five boats , each of them mann'd with five watermen , who , by the help of their oars , brought us on the 14th of may as far as vskogorod ; but the wind veering about as we were within sight of the place , drove us back down the river vsolka , into the river kama . they count it 50 german miles from solokamsko to wergaturia . on the 16th of may we entred the small river susora . from solokamsko to this river it is counted 30 , and from hence to vlko 40 miles . here we were again in no small danger ; for the river having overflowen all the circumjacent country , just as we pass'd upon it , to such an extraordinary a degree , that our boats often pass'd over the tops of the trees ; if there had happened a sudden fall of the waters , we must have infallibly perish'd ; but we happily escaped the danger , and arrived safely on the 19th of may in a small city called niesna susowa , where we refresh'd our selves . on the 20th we came to another small town , the inhabitants of both are employed in making of salt. from hence upwards the river , the pleasant woods and hills on both sides afford a very delightful prospect . in these forests you meet with the agarius tree , whose spongeous substance is from hence carried to archangel , and from thence into other parts of europe . we saw several villages on both sides of the river ; and on the 25th of may took up our lodgings in one of them , situate upon the very banks of it . after we had a little recovered our selves from our past fatigues , we had the curiosity to enquire into the manners and customs of the people inhabiting those parts . they are called wogultzoi , subjects to the czar of muscovy , and are all pagans , much addicted to superstition . their stature is low and mean , not unlike the tartars ; their habitations having also a great resemblance to the tartarian huts , but they are never without a chimney in them ; they use a language different both from the muscovites and tartars . they being asked concerning their faith , gave us for answer , that they believed a creator , who resided in heaven , for whom they had a great veneration ; they pay adoration to the heavens , sun , moon , and water ; they sacrifice horses , cows and calves ; they expose their skins only upon a pole or high tree , to which they pay their devotion ; the meat they eat afterwards . they were altogether ignorant of any thing relating to baptism ; they only told us , that it was a most ancient custom among them , to name the child after the most ancient person of the village . they are very careful to inter their dead in their best accoutrements , being of opinion that at the resurrection ( which they believe , without the least sense , whither they are to go afterwards ) every one is to appear in the same posture and condition as he was buried . the muscovites observe many fasts throughout the year , but these were ignorant of what fasting meant ; yet we observed that they did not eat any fowl , but only their eggs , which they look'd upon as a great dainty . their marriages are contracted and performed in a very odd manner : if a young man , who intends to marry a young woman , comes to ask her father's consent , the answer is , if thou be'st in a condition to pay for her , thou may'st have her ; so they make the bargain as well as they can , the bridegroom being obliged to purchase the bride from her father , sometimes for 40 , sometimes for 50 or more rubles , which amounts to 20 or 30 pounds sterling . the money being paid , the bride is surrendred to the bridegroom without any further ceremony ; but if the money be not ready , there is no bride to be had ; they are yet so civil to allow the bridegroom a certain time to raise the money , and in the mean while he has the liberty to court his mistress ; who , when the bargain is fulfill'd , is carried veiled to his bed-chamber . after the bridegroom has gathered the first fruits of his nuptial bed , their friends and relations are invited the next day to a feast , where they make themselves heartily merry with eating , drinking , and dancing till the next morning ; when , after they have made some presents to the young couple , they part , to their own homes . what was credibly related to us concerning their child-bearing women , is no less surprizing than the former : for when the time of their delivery approaches , they retire into some forest or another , where they stay for two months after , till having recovered their full strength , they return to their husbands . during their stay in the woods , their husbands dare not approach them under pain of death ; these ignorant wretches being persuaded , that there are certain invisible persons inhabiting these forests , who , as they are very careful to preserve these women against any misfortune that might befal them , so they would be sure to punish the husband with death , if he should be so presumptuous as to come near his wife , whilst she is under their protection in the forest. we had the opportunity to be present at the burial of one of their dogs : he was of a very large size , and had been , as it seems , a good hunting-dog in his life-time ; for which reason , these poor wretches made sad moans and lamentations for the loss of so serviceable a creature : after having uttered many things in his praise , they put him into a grave dug for that purpose , with a piece of wood under his head , for fear he should lie uneasy ; and as a monument of their gratitude for his past services , they erected a little hutt over his grave . we were credibly informed , that it is a very ancient custom among these people , to bury all their dogs , and to reward their past services in the same manner . their manner of living is very miserable , husbandry being a thing unknown among them : hunting is their only livelihood ; sables and the reen-deer being the only commodities this country affords . we pursued our journey on the 26th of may , leaving the small river called silva reka on our right hand , and towards noon the small river kine , on the same side , and towards evening the river serebrena reka , to the left of us . on the 28th of may , we passed by vlko mesovasa and sullem reka to the left of us . on the 29th of the same month we left vlko serebrena reka on the same side , and on the right the river doria reka . on the 1st of iune we came to vlk●gorod , a place fortified after the russian manner , with wooden fortifications , but very small , containing not above twenty families . we spent above three weeks upon the river susowa , our vessel being sometimes drawn , sometimes rowed , but always against the current ; which , by reason of the many windings of the river , is very swift , and so violent , that we were sometimes droven back for a quarter of a mile before we could recover our selves ; besides , that we met with several cataracts , which took up a whole day before we could pass them , and that not without great danger . to add to our affliction , we were continually pestered with such an infinite number of gnats , that , whatever precaution we took , it was impossible for us to preserve us against their fury . all the way betwixt solamsko and vlko we saw nothing but desarts and rocks on both sides of us , which are most dreadful to behold at a distance ; and because we could not go further up the river , we were forc'd to tarry nine days at vlko , before we could be furnish'd with land-carriages ; which time we spent in providing our selves with forage and all other necessaries ; and on the 10th of iune set forward again in our journey to newa , leaving our baggage to follow us the next day . the 12th of iune we travell'd through a town call'd ajat , situate upon a river of the same name ; and the 13th to another town called romasheva , upon the river resh . the grounds hereabouts are very fertile and well peopled , abounding in all sorts of corn ; and whereas , whilst we were upon the river susowa , we scarce got sight of a village in 60 miles ; we now could not travel a verst , or english mile , without meeting with a good village , where we were furnish'd with every thing we stood in need of . whilst we were in this town , the inbabitants received intelligence by messengers and letters sent for that purpose , that the calmu●k tartars , to the number of 6000 , had made an inroad into the next province ; where they had made such miserable havock , with murthering , burning , plundering , and driving away both men and cattle , that they had put all the country round about under a great consternation , as dreading the same treatment . on the 14th of iune we reach'd newagorod , a small , but very pleasant town ; it has but an indifferent fortification , not much better than vlko ; but is remarkable for its situation upon the river newa , the boundary of siberia on this side . this journey was very pleasant and diverting to us after our former fatigues and dangers , the country being everywhere fill'd with inhabitants , and the fields well cultivated , the wild roses , and other sweet herbs , affording a very agreeable scent , and a most delightful prospect . the pleasantness of the place invited us to tarry here a whole day , which we spent in walking about the fields , and gathering of roses , lillies of the valley , and such like ▪ on the 16th of iune our baggage arrived at newa-gorod ; and the next following day we again received intelligence , that the above-mentioned calmuck tartars were advanced within four days journey of this place ; and that after they had made themselves masters of a certain frontier town , which they had besieged , they intended to march this way : the inhabitants hereabouts being sufficiently sensible of the cruelties exercised by these vagabonds in their excursions , were in most dreadful fear of these barbarians ; and we forewarned of the approaching danger , hastned the equipment of our vessel ; which being got ready in five days after , we stay'd not one moment longer : but after we had thus spent seven days betwixt hope and fear at newa , we set out from thence on the 21st of iune , steering our course upon the river for tobolsko , being provided with a convoy of 12 cossacks of the garison of newa , for our better security . the river resh falls 5 miles above newa into another river , where , with its stream , it loses its name , and is from thenceforward called niatza . the first town we met with upon this river on the 22d , is called rudna ; and not far from thence another goodly town called nigniske , situate in a very fertile and populous country , fit both for pasturage and tillage , the fields and plains being surrounded and covered with rose-trees , which afford a most delightful prospect . on the 23d of iune we pass'd by three very handsome towns , to wit , iebitzke , kerginskoy , and suborara . on the 24th we came in sight of the town called ialan , famous for nothing else , but that near it , this river joins its current with the river kira . towards the evening we saw another town at some distance named krasna hobod ; and on the 25th , about midnight , came to the city of tumen . it is a large and strong place , being fortified with a very good wall ; the inhabitants are for the most part tartars , who have setled here for the conveniency of trade : they are much more civilized than any of the other tartars , by reason of their frequent conversation with strangers . most of these towns furnish'd us with fresh water-men ; who being well rewarded for their pains , so warmly ply'd their oars , that we advanced apace . i cannot pass by here in silence the extraordinary liberality and hospitality of the inhabitants of these parts ; for we scarce could pass by a town , tho' never so indifferent , but the inhabitants would come forth and bring us provisions , and sometimes furs , without the least reward or recompence , to our no small astonishment , who were not used to meet often with such kind treatment among such barbarous nations , they being generally of the tartarian race . the next town we met with , was called makowa , situate on the confluence of the rivers pishma reka , and the tura , which runs by the city of wergaturia . on the 28th of iune we came as far as sutska , situate on the confluence of the rivers tura and tobol . the next day we passed by piesda reka , and turba reka ; and on the 30th of iune leaving the river taffda to the left of us , we arrived safely on the 1st day of iuly in the city of tobolsko . this city , which is the capital of siberia , is situate near the river tobol , about 3000 miles from the city of musco . it is situate upon a hill of a large extent , the suburbs being most inhabited by tartars . there is here a very fair monastery , surrounded with a very strong brick wall. near this place the river irtish joins its current with the river tobol ; tobolsko is not only the capital , but also the chief place of trade of all siberia . their traffick consists most in furrs , such as sables , ermins , fox skins , and such-like . the kingdom of siberia is watered by a great many large rivers , among which the river oby is the chiefest . this river has many islands , which by reason of the thick woods are unpassable . in some places the oby is a league , in other places half a league broad ; it abounds in fish , such as sturgeon , white-fish or belluja's , and others . the principal cities of siberia are , werchaturia , iapahzeen , tumen , tobolsko , narim , tomskoy , kosnezi , krasnojer , ker , ienokisko , ilim , mongassy , most of which are very large and populous cities . the kingdom of siberia is surrounded by several tartarian nations , such as the calmuck tartars , the tartars of mongul , and others , as the tungoskoy , bratzkoy , ostiacky , barrabinsy , governed by their own princes , and each of them distinguish'd by their different languages . the samoyedes are under the jurisdiction of the czars of muscovy . the natives of siberia are much addicted to sorcery and idolatry . the russians inhabit most of the cities ; czar iohn basilovits was the first who brought this kingdom under his jurisdiction , after he had conquered the two tartarian kingdoms of casan and astrachan ; since which time they pay their yearly tribute of all sorts of furrs which are found in siberia , to wit , sables , martins , red and white fox skins , which amount to two hundred thousand rubles per annum . the sables are catch'd by the inhabitants by traps , not unlike our rat and mice-traps ; but they have also another way of hunting and killing the sables , of which we shall have occasion to speak anon . they go a sable hunting with sleds drawn by dogs , who carry the sleds with more ease over the snow than horses . the czar of muscovy has the twentieth of all the sables that are catch'd throughout the year ; we being obliged to stay for some time at tobolsko , as well to repose our selves after so tedious and troublesome a journey , as to make all necessary preparations for the future ; we passed our time very pleasantly in the company of the waywode or governor stepan ivanovits sotticove , and his two sons fedor stepanovits , and ivan stepanovits , who shew'd us all the civilities in the world , and there pass'd few days but that they either were with us , or we with them , and entertain'd one another with every thing the place would afford . the ambassador having dispatch'd in the mean while an express to their czarish majesties , and every thing being provided for the prosecution of our journey , we put as many provisions , forage , and other necessaries on board our two vessels , as would serve us for three months : for , from hence to ienokisko , whither we were bound , is 6000 miles , for the most part through a desolate country , where there is but little forage and provision to be met with . accordingly after we had all taken our leave from the governor and his sons , we went on board our vessels on the 22d of iuly , under convoy of 20 strelitzes or musqueteers , who were to conduct us to surgutt , and directed our course upon the river irish , towards ienokisko . the 24th we sailed with a fair gale by a town called dernjan ; but having occasion for fresh water-men , we went on shoar till we could be supplied with some . near this place the river derjansko falls into the irtish on the right hand , and the inhabitants hereabouts being ostiaky , a lazy and idle people , we changed our water-men sometimes twice and thrice a day : of their manner of living we shall speak more hereafter . on the 28th of iuly , early in the morning , we came to a town called samurskojam , where we stay'd till the 29th , when we got on board again by break of day . we had scarce sailed two miles upon the river irtish , when we pass'd into another lesser river ; which being a branch of the river oby , we were towed up against the current , and at last , on the first day of august , entred that famous river oby . this river rising among the calmuck tartars from the south-west , disembogues in the tartarian sea ; it is very dangerous for ships , by reason of its depth , and the many rocks , which render its waters very boisterous . the 6th of august we reach'd the city of surgutt , a place which has nothing remarkable , but a small garison ; the governor of which having given us 16 of them to convoy us to narim , we sent back those we had taken along with us from tobolsko . hereabouts you see nothing but a barren desolate country , inhabited by a few miserable wretches , who have scarce wherewithal to cover their nakedness , all their employment being hunting of sables , ermins and foxes . they catch here the sables in a quite different manner from what we have related before ; for they shoot them with arrows , or they make fire under the trees where they know the sables do shelter themselves ; who being suffocated by the smoak , fall from the trees , and are soon catch'd . the ermins they catch in traps , and the foxes they hunt with dogs . we stay'd here till the 9th of august , when being furnish'd with fresh and sturdy young water-men , who encouraged by the hopes of a good reward , stood briskly to their oars , we passed the 13th the river wache to the left of us , on the 19th the river tim , and on the 24th arrived safely at narim , a city situate on the left-side of us upon the river oby . it is worth observation , that in the winter-time there is no travelling from tobolsko to narim with horses , but this journey must be performed in sleds drawn by dogs ; they put three or four of them before the sled , and whip them along as we do our horses . when they go abroad a hunting , they put their provisions and hunting tackle , such as bows , arrows , launces , and such-like , in one of these sleds drawn by dogs , and thus travel to their rendezvouz , which is sometimes 14 or 15 days journey from their habitations , and many times don't return in two months . the ostiaky living in these parts , make use of these sleds in the same manner when they go abroad a fishing ; so that you may see them bring their fish to market in many sleds all drawn ( in the winter-time ) by dogs . we were provided here with new barge-men , and 24 cossacks , who were to convoy us to ienokisko , and on the 25th of august re-imbark'd upon the river oby , which we left on the 29th of the same month , and entred the river ketto , where being obliged to row against the current , we were above a month before we could reach the town of mokuskoy , from whence we continued our journey by land to ienokisko . we saw abundance of cedar-trees on both sides of the river ketto , and on the first of september refresh'd our selves at a small town called kettskoy . but meeting with very slender accommodation , we got on board again the same night , and did not stir out of the vessel till the 28th following , there being nothing but desarts on both sides of the river . on the 16th of september we were all on a sudden put under a great consternation ; for it having frozen very hard the night before , we were in no small apprehension of the danger of perishing for want of necessaries in these desarts , which must have been infallibly our fate , if the frost had continued longer ; but , as good fortune would have it , we were soon freed from this danger by a very agreeable thaw ; and being , besides this , encouraged by a fresh and favourable gale , we made use of all our skill ; and on the 28th of the same month came to a monastery , situate upon the banks of the river , where we reposed our selves for some days , after a long fatigue of a whole month ; and in remembrance of the past danger , kept a thanksgiving day there on the 2d of october , to offer our thanks to god almighty for our deliverance , and to implore his mercy for the future . after prayers , &c. we set sail again the same evening , when we passed a small village , which contained not above six families . we saw hereabouts abundance of currant-trees , both black and red ; we had met with some of them before near this river , but no where else in so great a quantity , which made us judge , the grounds hereabouts were more kind and fruitful than in other places . on the 3d of october died one of the ambassador's retinue after 13 days illness : his name was iohn george weltzel , a native of germany , of the city of golding in silesia , by his profession a painter . on the 7th of the same month , we got safely to the so long wish'd for small city of mokuskoy , where , among other things , we gratified our selves with a cool draught of very good beer . by orders from the ambassador we interr'd the dead body of our friend upon a hill , upon the very banks of the river ietto , where we put a cross ; this being the only monument we were capable of dedicating to the memory of our deceased fellow-traveller . after we had a little recovered our selves from the past fatigues , the ambassador , and most of his retinue , pursued their journey by land on the 10th of october , leaving nine of his attendance behind to take care of the baggage , which was to follow us , as soon as the roads should be rendred convenient for the passage of sleds . we travell'd for two days and nights through a most dreadful forest , till on the 12th of the same month we came in sight of ienokisko , where we made our publick entrance the same night , with so much magnificence , that the inhabitants were surprized thereat . this city lies upon the river ienska , famous not only for the conveniency of shipping , but also for the most prodigious plenty of fish it affords . betwixt this place and tobolsko the ostiacky have their habitations . they are low of stature , and very deformed ; besides which , both men and women constantly are subject to a certain weakness in their eyes , the cause of which they attribute to the want of bread ; which being a scarce commodity among them , they seldom are masters of it , unless they are by chance furnish'd with it by travellers ; which happening very rarely in so remote a country , we supplied them with what we were able to spare : their common food is river-fish ; and instead of bread , they make use of the same fish dried . whilst we were as yet upon the river oby , we were every day suppli'd with great quantities of the best river-fish by those ostiacky , who refused our money , but earnestly entreated us to give them in lieu of it some salt , bread , and chinese sharr or tobacco , which we did accordingly . not far from the banks of the river ketto , i espied one day some wretched hutts , which believing to belong to the ostiacky ; and being willing to satisfy my curiosity in taking a view of their habitations , i got on shore ; and having easily got admission by the help of a small present of bread and salt to the owners , i entred them , which made a wretched appearance , being made only of the barks of trees . one among them , somewhat bigger than the rest , and distinguish'd by certain figures , invited my curiosity to take a full view of it . being entred , i found three women lying upon the ground , who at the sight of me arose from their places , and by their noddings and threatnings sufficiently testified their displeasure of seeing a stranger to interrupt them in their retirement ; but being sensible that i had prepared my way by the presents given to the owners , i took , notwithstanding all their wry faces , the liberty to search every corner of the hutt . these three women , as i was informed afterwards , were the wives of so many knezes or dukes of the ostiacky , but their equipage appear'd little suitable to their quality , for i could not meet with any thing worth taking notice of all over the hall but their sheitan , or ( as they themselves call'd it ) their god : this idol was of wood , of about a yard in length , appearing most dreadful at first sight ; the head of it being covered with a strong tin or iron-plate , which look'd as black as a chimney-stock , by reason of the many incenses which they offer to this idol . for the rest , it was dress'd up in a ragged coat of woollen cloth , patch'd together with 1000 pieces of all sorts of colours ; i don't remember that ever i saw the most wretched beggar make so miserable an appearance as this their god , unto whom this superstitious people attribute a power of preserving them from ill . all the while we were upon the river betwixt sergutt and mokuskoy , we had no other barge-men but these ostiacky ; who , though they were young and lustly fellows , and were well entertained on board of our vessels , yet were so lazy , that they would rather have sate at home and starved , than to come and work for a good livelihood . it is by reason of this their lazy temper , that they seldom take the pains to go abroad a hunting . and for the same reason it is , that they change continually their habitations , sometimes 16 or 20 times in a year , because , say they , we are willing to put our selves beyond the reach of such travellers who come this way , and oftentimes , sorely against our wills , force us to the oars . the ambassador being willing to divert us with the simplicity of these ignorant wretches , he caused his valet du chambre to bring forth a wooden drummer ; which being very artificially made with clook-work within , beat the drum , and express'd some other motions of the head , eyes and hands so naturally , that the ostiacky being at first surprized at it , started back ; but having a little recovered themselves , and taken a full view of all his postures , they knock'd their heads against the ground , prostrating themselves before the wooden drummer in the same manner as they do before their sheitan , or god ; at which we could not forbear laughing . to continue the sport , a wooden bear was brought forth by the ambassador's order , who , as he was made after the same fashion , so he beat the drum with his fore-paws , and all the motions of the head and eyes as artificially as the drummer ; wherefore they also paid him the same veneration . but they soon gave us to understand , that they were much more taken with the drummer than with the bear ; for they with a very profound reverence begg'd the ambassador to bestow upon them the drummer , offering to give the weight of him in money . but the ambassador , being unwilling to encourage their idolatry , and for some other reasons , denied their request . their garments are made of the skins of beasts , with the furr on the out-side ; in the summer they cloath themselves with the skins of fishes . we also made this observation among them , that some have their sheitan or idol made of wood , others of lead , and others again of brass , according to their several abilities ; and the poorer sort dress them up in rags , the richer in sables . they have a very odd way of paying their devotion to this idol : for , instead of saying their prayers , they whistle a certain tune , with strange postures , clapping their hands together , beating their heads to the ground , and making many gesticulations with their feet as they lie prostrate before them , with many more such-like ridiculous ceremonies , too many to insert here . whenever they feast , they set a certain share of the best dish aside for the sheitan ; which if they should neglect , they are of opinion , that the victuals they eat , would turn to worms in their bowels ; and if they should take it away again from before the idol , they are persuaded , they should be struck lame in all their limbs . we were credibly informed , that at certain times they met in their hutts , where they first began with whistling , and afterwards continued to make most horrid out-cries and lamentations , till a certain spectre appear'd to them , which foretold them what was to happen to them the next year : as for instance , whether they were to be plagued with famine ; whether they should be fortunate or unfortunate in their hunting and fishing ; whether they should continue in health or not ; whether they should marry young or old wives ; whether they should die a natural death , or whether they should be slain or torn to pieces by the bears and other wild creatures ; and more of such like predictions : which done , they pay their adoration to the spectre ; and that being vanish'd , they look upon its predictions as infallible , and accordingly attend their fate with an unshaken resolution . they also pay a kind of veneration to the bear-skin , and swear by it . when they have shot a bear , they cut off his head ; and paying their veneration to it , they whistle and ask , who is it that kill'd thee ? the russians did it . who cut off thy head ? the russian axe did it . who is it that has handled thee thus ? the russians have done it ; laying thus all the fault upon the russians . these blind and ignorant wretches have nevertheless this good quality belonging to them , that they don't curse nor swear ; for which they shew such an abhorrence , that they take care to make very lively impressions against this vice in their young babes ; being persuaded , that he who swears falsely or foolishly , shall certainly be unfortunate the whole year , and be in danger of being torn to pieces by the bears , or other wild beasts . for the rest , the ostiacky are great admirers of chinese sharr or tobacco , which they take in a manner peculiar to themselves : for when they intend to smoak , they fill their mouth with water ; and so sucking the tobacco-smoak in greedily , swallow it down with the water . for which reason it is , that generally at the taking of the first pipe in the morning , they fall down drunk and insensible , but soon recover themselves . they seldom take tobacco sitting , but always standing . for want of tobacco , they smoak the shavings of their tobacco-pipes , which are made of wood , after a very course fashion . we stay'd in the city of ienokisko , or ienessay , ten weeks , where we were extreamly civilly treated by the inhabitants , but most especially by the governor . on the 13th of december we sent our heavy baggage before upon sleds , and the ambassador with his retinue followed on the 21st of the same month , taking our way towards irkutskoy . we were conducted out of the town to the next village , as well by the governor himself as the chiefest inhabitants ; and after having bid one another farewel , we continued our journey for some time upon the river ienska , which we afterwards left to our right , and pass'd all along the river tungusko reka , or tongusi , the boundary of tungoeses on this side , of whom we shall have occasion to speak more hereafter . we pass'd by several villages on both sides of the river , and on the 30th of december took up our quarters in the village called buhutsha , where we refresh'd our selves for four and twenty hours . beyond this village begins the great wolock or desart , where you travel 8 or 10 days , without meeting any village , or house fit for entertainment . in the year 1693 , on new-years-day , we left the above-mentioned village , and entred the above-mentioned wolock or desart , which proved very troublesome to us by reason of the coldness of the weather , which was so excessive , that our victuals and drink ( which was only fair water ) froze , and turn'd to ice , before we could bring it from hand to mouth . and when we had occasion to travel upon the river , the mountains of ice , which often obstructed our passage , were such obstacles as were not easy to be surmounted , being obliged to cut our way through them with axes . this prodigious quantity of ice , and the uneven ways which are all over the desart , deter most travellers from taking this road in the winter-time . we had once more the good fortune to overcome all these difficulties , and on the 8th of ianuary came safely to the village called kasma . to refresh our selves and our horses after so troublesome a journey , we were obliged to stay here 13 days , which time we employed in sending for fresh horses , and in taking a view of the habitations of the tongueses , of whom i will give you a short relation . they were formerly a war-like nation , governed by its own princes , inhabiting a very large countrey . but they have of late years been conquered by the victorious arms of the czars of muscovy , unto whom they pay a yearly tribute . as to their persons , they are very lusty and well proportion'd , their cloaths being nothing but the skins of beasts , with the furrs on the outside of divers colours , neither sex being to be distinguish'd by the least difference in their habits . they take a particular pride to have their cheeks stitch'd ( whilst they are young ) with black thread through and through , some cross-ways , some in imitation of a square , or any other figure they like best . this unaccountable piece of pride , as painful as it is , ( as causing great swellings in their faces ) they look upon it as badges of honour , transmitted to them from their ancestors ; the marks of which they retain with a great deal of satisfaction till their dying-day . their cabans or hutts are generally made of the skins of the reens , or some other wild beasts ; those of the better sort of the barks of trees : it is a most surprizing thing to conceive how these poor wretches are able to defend themselves against the violence of the cold , in such miserable cottages ; but custom has inured them to endure these hardships without the least inconveniency to themselves . for no sooner are their children come into the world , but they lay them in the summer in cold water , in the winter in the snow ; by which means they are so accustomed to cold , that they are the hardiest people in the world. they are distinguish'd into three sorts : the first are called kunny tungoesi , who make use of horses . the second alenny , who live altogether upon hunting . the third sobaltzy , who live more like dogs than men. their idols are made only of wood , every one has his domestick or tutelar god. there is one who is look'd upon as the patron of hunting , who sends them good fortune when they go a hunting after the wild beast or wild fowl. another makes them successful in catching of sables ; another in fishing : but sometimes they use their gods but scurvily ; for , if they have offered up their prayers to them , and are deceived in their expectation , the god is thrown out of doors , till they happen to have better luck ; then they are admitted again , and have their full and best share of what they have got abroad ▪ if five or six of these tonguese families happen to live near one another ( which is very rarely seen ) they maintain betwixt them a shaman , which signifies as much as a sorcerer or priest. at their meetings this priest appears in a habit distinguish'd by many figures of beasts , such as lions , bears , serpents , adders , and such-like ; which being all of iron , weigh generally above two hundred pounds weight . then he beats a drum in a very doleful manner , at which the standers-by break out into most dreadful lamentations and outcries , pretending that they see certain spectres in the figures of ravens and other strange birds ; and the priest , as if strucken with an epileptick-fit , falls down upon the ground , and is reverenc'd by these ignorant people as a saint . how mean and miserable soever their condition is , they all of them have several wives , whom they look upon as their greatest treasure : the richer sort have often 10 or 12 , whom they buy from their fathers , sometimes for 10 , sometimes for 15 reen-deers a-piece . their manner of taking an oath is most abominable : for , he that is to confirm the truth of a thing by his solemn oath , is obliged to suck the blood of a dog wounded for this purpose , with a knife in his left fore leg , till he expires . they don't bury their dead corps , but hang them on trees , where they putrify , and at last waste away . they are very cautious of swearing or cursing ; the worst curse they give one another , is to wish them to be forced to live among the russians , or to till the ground , and such-like . on the 21st of ianuary we left the village of kasma , and continued our journey in sleds upon the river tunguska , or tongusi , till after some time leaving it to the right of us , we passed from thence to the small river ilim ; both these rivers are well peopled on both sides of the shoar . on the 25th we arrived in the small city of ilimskoy , situate upon the river ilim , in the very center of some high mountains which surround it . on the 27th we continued our journey from thence through a great forest , which by reason of the badness of the ways , we did not lay behind us till after a troublesome journey of three days and nights , when we came to the river angara , where we pass'd by many others of less note , the isle of balagansko and kamenko , which are well peopled . hereabouts live the brattskoy , who being of the race of the mongul tartars , are tributaries to the czars of muscovy . betwixt ienokitsko or ienessay , and irkutskoy , great quantities of martins and foxes are caught in the beginning of the winter ; but about ienokisko are the best black foxes , which are sold at 20 , 25 , and 30 rubles a-piece . on the 11th of february we arrived safely in the city of irkutskoy , situate upon the river angara , where , for several reasons we stay'd a whole month , in which time we receiv'd all manner of civility from the governor knez ivan petrovits gargaran . as he used often to invite us to dinner , i met several times there with a certain person , who being accounted a saint among the mongul tartars , used to mutter out his prayers , which were very long , holding in his hands a long string with red coral beads , which he told without intermission . on the 15th of february the ambassador dispatch'd a messenger to the city of naun , on the frontiers of china , to notify our arrival in those parts . on the 9th of march we left the city of irkutskoy , and being conducted out of the town by the governor and the chief inhabitants to the next village , we spent the whole night there in making good cheer ; and having bid one another adieu , the next morning we came on the 10th of march in sight of the lake of baikala , where the river angara has its rise . this river was from the city of irkutskoy , to its entrance into the lake , quite free from ice , and had been so all the winter long . they count it 30 miles from the city to the lake , the utmost boundary of the kingdom of siberia . the lake of biakala is about four days . journey in length , but at this season we passed its breadth with sleds in six hours . it is more dangerous in the summer by reason of the changeableness of the winds : the inhabitants have this superstitious opinion concerning it , that whoever calls it oser or a lake , will scarce pass it without danger ; but those who give it the title of mor or sea , need not fear any thing . we dined on the 11th of march upon the said lake , and towards evening discovered six cabans or hutts belonging to the above-mentioned brattskoy . near these hutts we saw a dead sheep and goat fix'd upon a tree with the heads upwards , which , they told us , were two sacrifices made to the heavens . i made the best inquiry i could concerning their religion , but could get no satisfactory account , only that they used to sacrifice a sheep and a goat once a year to the creator of the heavens , and that they adore the sun. they are very industrious in breeding of cattle , but especially of camels for the conveniency of the caravans travelling to china . we came the same evening to a monastery on the other side of the lake , situate upon the frontiers of the province of dauri , a very large and fertile country . the next morning , being the 12th , we passed through the towns of kabania and bolsko sainko , both small places , but well fortified by the inhabitants , they serving them as bulwarks against the tartars of mongul , on the 19th of the same month we came in sight of vdinskoy , and the ambassador was met three miles out of town by an officer at the head of 50 cossacks , who conducted him to the city , where he was received under the discharge of the cannon . this place , which is considered here as the key of the province of dauri , has not been inhabited above six years . the castle , which is very well fortified after the russian manner , lies upon a hill , from whence they have at several times bravely repulsed the mongul tartars that assaulted them . we lay still here three weeks , which time we spent ( as we had done at irkutskoy ) in buying of cattle for the conveniency of our carriage . we bought camels at 10 or 15 rubles apiece , and horses for 4 , 5 , or 6 rubles . we provided our selves also with as many oxen as might furnish us with beef in our journey to china , and back again . being now to travel through the great desart belonging to the mongul tartars , we pack'd our baggage upon camels and horses , the first carrying about 600 weight , the last about 250 : we entred the desart on the 6th of april , our caravan consisting of 250 men , some hundreds of camels and horses , and 400 waggons , which in the night-time being drawn up in a circle , enclosed the rest , and at some distance from thence we placed our centries , to advertise us of the approach of our enemies , if any should appear . but they not daring to attack us , took another course to vex us to the utmost of their power ; for during the space of three weeks , that we travell'd through this desart , where we often were in want of water for men and beast , the monguls and tongueses burnt that small quantity of dry winter-grass that was left , before us ; so that being unprovided with forage , we saw our beasts , but especially our horses , drop down dead for want of fother ; and what was the worst of all , the rest were become so lean , that they were almost rendred quite unserviceable . we lost above a hundred horses in this journey , to the great satisfaction of the tongueses ; who iooking upon horse-flesh as a great dainty , devoured them so soon as we had left them . the tongueses , who are dispersed through these desarts , are of the same religion with the brattskoy , whom we have mentioned before . they bury with the dead corps of their friends all their best moveables ; and if they become decrepit before they die , they lead them upon a high mountain , where they burn them , and impale their best horse near it . the 24th and 25th of april we passed to the left of us by a lake called ierawena , abounding with all sorts of very good fish ; it is 20 miles long , and 15 broad . here it was we met with the messenger who had been sent before by the ambassador to musko . on the 26th we came to a small place called ierawena , where we provided our selves with as many new horses as we could get for money . it is to be observed , that in the desarts round about ierewena , there are the best black sables ; the cossacks of ierwena , who are the sable-hunters hereabouts , go abroad a hunting sometimes for three or four months together ; they make use of scates , by the help of which they pass over the snow with great agility . we bought some of these sables of them , from 8 and 10 , to 20 , 30 , and 50 rubles a pair . on the 28th of april we again entred the desart , but met here and there with some woods . the 29th we pass'd on horse-back the river vda , which arises from a great lake , and is here not above three fathoms broad . the want of fother continuing among our cattle , occasioned by the revengefulness of the monguls , we lost abundance more of our horses , and the rest were so fatigued that we were in danger of wanting provisions , before we could pass the desarts . for which reason the ambassador commanded 10 men to go in quest of horses , which they effected with good success ; for on the 3d of may they met us with a good number of fresh horses near the lake , called schack's oser , which is four miles long , and two broad . we had the good fortune to find here some fother for our horses and camels , which obliged us to stay here till the 5th of the same month , when leaving the lake to our left , we continued our journey to another lake , which we pass'd by on the 6th in the morning , and the same day in the afternoon reach'd the end of this troublesome desart , after a most tedious and fatiguing journey of near four weeks . the first place we came to , is called plotbus , near the small river skieta , containing not above six families , who are settled there but very lately . on the 15th we continued our journey from plotbus by water upon floats of wood to nartzinskoy . about a mile from plotbus the river schieta falls into the river ingeda , as the river okkon joins its current with the same at a small distance from thence , and is afterwards called schiteka . the rivers nertza and argun fall afterwards into the same river , out of the last of which arises the famous river of yamour , which disembogues into the ocean . on the 20th of may we came to the city of nertzinskoy , the last place of note ( unless it be argun , a small town eight days journey from thence ) under the jurisdiction of the czar of muscovy . nertzinskoy is situate upon the river nertza , where about 6000 tungoeses , all subjects to the czar of muscovy , have their habitations ; who have fortified themselves here against their enemies . hereabouts are abundance of lucerns and sables , which are in great esteem among the chineses . we were fain to stay two months in this place , to give time to our horses and camels to recover themselves in the adjacent pastures . the cossacks hereabouts are very rich , by reason of their traffick with china , where they are exempted from paying any custom . we then began to make all the necessary preparations for our journey through the desart ; we provided our selves with oxen , which were to be killed by the way as occasion should require ; 50 cossacks were allotted us as a convoy to china , and to see us safe back again to nertzinskoy , and the ambassador appointed such gentlemen as belonged to his retinue to manage all the affairs belonging to the whole caravan , each in his respective station ; who having the command both over the russian gentlemen and merchants , were treated by them with a great deal of respect , especially the germans , who led the van , in regard they had had the honour before their departure from musco to be admitted to kiss their czarish majesty's hands . on the 18th of iuly , when we were just ready to leave nertzinsko , two cossacks brought letters to the ambassador from offdokim andre kurdikoff , who , as we said before , had been dispatch'd from irkutzkoy to the city of naun , on the frontiers of china . the contents of these letters were , that he being not permitted to go to peking , the residence of the emperor of china , had been obliged to deliver his letters at naun ; which being dispatch'd from thence to peking , a certain person of quality , attended by a great many servants , was come to naun to expect the ambassador's arrival . that the said chinese lord having sent for him , had asked him , among other things , upon what account the ambassador was sent to the kams hi ammaogdo chan ? to which he had answered , that he did not know the least thing of it ; but if he did , it would not become him to discover it . he had further asked him , what countreyman the ambassador was , and in what station at court ? to which he had reply'd , that he was not able to give him an exact account of the matter , he having been only taken into his service at irtkutskoy , from whence he had soon after been dispatch'd to naun ; that all what he could tell was , that the ambassador was a german by birth , and in great favour at court , desiring him to supersede to ask him any further questions , which he was not in a capacity to answer . we did not set out from nertzinskoy till in the afternoon , to wit , on the 18th of iuly , and reached the same night with part of our caravan the river schileka , where we ferried over . but our whole caravan consisting of 400 men , we stay'd here three days , this being the place of our rendezvouz . from hence the ambassador dispatch'd a messenger , whose name was andre avonass kruhoff , to their czarish majesty's in musco . there were abundance of gentlemen and merchants belonging to our caravan , who traded with furrs to china . each of them had 30 pounds weight of bisket allotted him for his share , during our whole journey through the tartarian desart , which took up two months . this slender allowance did not proceed from any covetousness of the ambassador , but because we were obliged to manage our carriages to the best advantage . besides which , our ordinary food was good beef , and sometimes venison . from the above-mentioned river schileka , we travelled three days together through a great forest full of bogs , and three days after through a desart ; and further , two days again through a forest , before we reach'd the river samur , which falls into the river schileka . in the night-time we lodged in our tents , of which we had 50 in number . there is otherwise no travelling hereabouts with waggons , but only with camels and horses . for several days after we met with very bad ways , the ground being very boggy till you come to the river of argun . at last we came on the 3d of october to the city of argun , where we stay'd till the 7th , it being so long before our whole caravan could pass the river . this river is at present the boundary betwixt the emperors of muscovy and china , this city being the utmost frontier place of the province of dauri , as far as it is under the jurisdiction of the muscovites . some years ago the territories of the czars of muscovy extended to the famous river of yamour , but these were by vertue of a treaty made in the year 1689 , ( when fedor alexievits was sent ambassador to china ) betwixt both the emperors , granted to the chineses , as was also the strong fortress of albazin , situate upon the same river . the mongul tartars being always abroad in parties , we were obliged to be continually upon our guard , for fear of our baggage and horses : these monguls are generally great cowards , ten well disciplin'd men being able to beat a hundred of them . the ambassador dispatch'd from hence some cossacks to the before-mentioned city of naun , on the frontiers of china , to desire the chinese governor to send us some carriages to a certain place . the best of our diversion was hunting in the desart , where there was such vast numbers of deer , that one night , when we were drawing up our waggons to make our usual fence , some deer leapt among us , of which we catch'd one with our hands . the river denbu , which exonerates it self into the river argun , is four days journey from the city of argun . the 15th of august we came to a large navigable river called gaun , whose banks being overflown by the late rains , we could not pass with our camels ; whereas at other times it is fordable in many places . being unwilling to lose time , we contrived a way to transport our selves and the caravan , by killing a good many of our oxen , the hides of which we joined together ; and with what wood we could gather , we made a kind of floating-boats for the conveniency of transportation . but the hides were carried two miles lower by the current , and were not brought on the other side without great danger . our floating-bridges succeeded better , which did us good service : the horses being unloaded , were forced to swim cross the river ; we spent two days in passing the river , and lost but one horse . on the 16th of august some tongueses , who having surprized some monguls in their habitations , and after they had massacred 50 of them , had carried the young ones into slavery , offered us five of these slaves , to wit , three boys and two girls , whom they would willingly have exchanged for horses . we could have bought them at the rate of 4 or 5 rubles apiece ; but the ambassador considering that we were entred the chinese territories , would not allow us to buy any of them . on the 23d of august we reach'd the small river keilar , which falls into the river arguin ; we cross'd the same river the next day on horse-back . the 26th of august we cross'd again the river saduma , a small , but navigable river , which likewise discharges it self into the river argun . the 27th we pass'd by the river gnar , which joins its current with the river saduna ; and on the 28th we met a caravan , consisting of 150 russian merchants , and 300 camels , but no horses . they had left nartzinsko the last winter , in their way to china , and were now returning home . they brought us the good news , that the chineses expected the arrival of our ambassador with a great deal of impatience . we tarried here two days , which time we spent together as merrily as the circumstances of the place would allow of ; they presented us with some tea , which was very welcome to us , who were grown quite weary of drinking cold water . after we had taken our leave of one another , we travelled for two days through a countrey , very agreeable for its pleasant hills and fertile valleys , where the river iall has its rise , and afterwards becomes a large navigable river . on the 31st of august our messenger kundikoff ( whom the ambassador had dispatch'd from iokutskoy to naun ) returned and brought advice , that a certain person of note , in the quality of an adogeda ( or conductor of ambassadors ) was arrived from peking to naun , where he expected the arrival of the ambassador . on the 1st of september there came a messenger from the said adogeda to the ambassador , who having complimented him in his master's name , brought us the first chinese carriages , and a present of 10 sheep , some rice and oatmeal , he was sent back immediately . on the 2d of september we reach'd the first out-guards ( consisting of 12 persons ) of the chineses , on the 3d we came to the second , and on the 4th to the third . these scouts lay concealed upon the hills , and as soon as they perceive any caravans or other strangers coming that way , they give notice to one another by certain signals , which reach to the cities of china . for several days together we travelled through very pleasant forests , where , among other trees , we found abundance of oaks , which were very low , but spread their branches in a very large compass . we saw here also filbird-trees in the plains , differing in shape from those we have in europe , as being not above half or three quarters of a yard high , and their stalks very thin ; they bear a prodigious quantity of nuts of a very large size . the next place we came to , was inhabited by the targuts chinay , who are pagans , subject to the chineses ; they are good husband-men , the countrey abounding in oats , barley , oatmeal and tobacco ; and we being in want of some oatmeal and salt , we furnished our selves with as much as we stood in need of . these people live on the utmost confines of the province of dauri ; for that part of the province which is under the muscovite jurisdiction , extends only to the river argun , from whence to the village of suttegarshe , all the rest belongs to the chineses , by vertue of the above-mention'd treaty . on the 10th of september several other messengers arrived from the adogeda , who were sent back immediately . after we had travelled three days longer through a desart , we arrived at last to the village of sutt●ga , belonging to the chineses ; where meeting with the adogeda , whose attendance consisted of 50 persons , he invited us the same evening into his tent , where he presented us with some thee boil'd in milk , with flower and butter , in wooden dishes , and some preserves and sweet-meats . the 13th of september the said adogeda invited the ambassador , with all his retinue , to dinner , where he met the ambassador at some distance from his tent , and after a very obliging salute conducted him with his left hand thither . we stay'd about half an hour before dinner was brought in , which time they bestow'd in entertaining one another with several questions : the adogeda ask'd the ambassador , how long he had been travelling from musco to this place ? unto which he reply'd , a year and a half . he ask'd him further his name ; which he told him was , ilesar ilesarevits isbrand . whilst they passed their time in such-like discourses , dinner was served up , upon a small table , without a table-cloth , the ambassador and the adogeda having each his own dish , as had all the rest : our dishes were filled with mutton and pork ; the second course was pottage , wherein was a mixture of fine flower , made in the nature of a pudding , but very long and thin , not unlike a gut : we were put to a nonplus how to manage this dish ; but two secretaries belonging to the adogeda , who were much better acquainted with it than we , shew'd us the way . for , instead of knives , they had two bonesticks ; betwixt these they took up these puddings , which they thus conveyed to their mouths , which they held over the dishes ; and after they had bit off a good mouthful , they let the rest drop in the dish again . these sticks used by the chineses , in lieu of our knives and forks , are streight , of about a quarter of a yard long , made either of ebony-wood , bones or ivory , tipp'd on the end where they touch the victuals , with gold or silver , which they use with a great deal of dexterity , without touching the victuals with their fingers . after dinner two silver cups fill'd with brandy were brought to the adogeda , one of which he presented to the ambassador , the other he drunk himself . all the rest had also purcelain cups with brandy presented them , which they were to take off to the bottom . the feast concluded with a service of sweetmeats in wooden dishes . the 14th of september the ambassador invited the adogeda to his quarters , where we observed , that our way of entertaining seem'd to them as strange as theirs had done to us the day before . after dinner the ambassador desir'd the adogeda to provide us the necessary carriages and passes , which he performed to our satisfaction . the ambassador had for his daily allowance two sheep ; for each of his secretaries , one sheep ; for each of his gentlemen , one sheep ; for the rest of his attendance , some two , some three , some four to a sheep ; for the cossacks , labourers and grooms , ten men to a sheep ; for the ordinary fellows , a measure of oatmeal each a day ; and for the better sort , a paper with tea , which was a very plentiful allowance , but that we wanted bread , which is a commodity as little known among the chineses , as some other asiaticks . the inhabitants of the city of naun , 5 miles distant from the village of suttigatt , are idolaters , adoring the devil in the night-time , with most horrid out-cries . their houses are very commodious and neat , their livelihood being most planting of tobacco . on the 16th of september the ambassador sent to the adogeda the following presents : 10 sables . 50 ermins . 5 yards of black cloth. a looking-glass with a gilt frame . another looking-glass with a black frame . several glass-bottles with aquavitae . some pieces of gilt leather . and several rare pieces made at augsburgh , that moved by the help of clock-work . it was a great while before the adogeda could be prevailed upon to accept these presents , by reason they are under an obligation not to receive any presents ; for which reason it is , that , when any presents are offered them , which they cannot in honour refuse ; they have them valued , and are to return double the value of it to those who presented them . on the 21st the adogeda sent to the ambassador six tables covered with sweetmeats , and two earthen bottles of chinese brandy . on the 23d he invited the ambassador to dinner , and he was invited by us again on the 24th . having thus diverted our selves for 14 days in the village of suttigett , in the mean while that our carriages were got ready , we continued our journey on michaelmas-day . each person of the first rank had a waggon drawn by oxen , and a horse allowed him . the rest of the attendance were provided with waggons , three , four , five and six in a waggon ; we came the same night to a village , where we took up our quarters , and the following night to another , where we also stay'd all night , after we had pass'd the day before through a desart . it ought to be remembred here , to the great honour of the chineses , that they treat strangers with a great deal of civility : for , tho' we passed through uninhabitable desarts , yet did we never want conveniencies for lodging ; a sufficient number of cabans being brought from distant places , which were always ready provided against our arrival . they were stor'd with all necessary utensils for the kitchen , and each hutt had a servant , whose business was to take care of the fuel , water , and other necessaries . every other day we had fresh horses ready at hand , and the chineses kept all night a constant guard round our waggon fence , to prevent any surprize ; they were provided with bells , to give the alarm to one another in case of necessity . the adogeda keeping constant company with our ambassador during the whole journey , they often fell in discourse together concerning the nature and policy of several nations , which commonly ended in the praise of china , of which the adogeda , but especially of the chinese wall , ( round which he told us , a man could not travel in three years time ) related us such wonders , that we could not but be surprized at it . nothing was so troublesome to us in this desart , as the want of fresh water , which we were forced to dig for very deep , and was commonly so muddy , that it went against our stomachs . if we met with any that was tolerably good , we took care to carry some of it along with us in leathern flasks . our best comfort was , that the ambassador had every morning a small kettle-full of boil'd tea allowed him for his breakfast , of which some of us had our share , which was served us in cabans or hutts set up for that purpose , at certain distances . we often used to divert our selves with hunting , these desarts being full of all sorts of very good game . i and another , a particular friend of mine , rid out one morning a hunting , to shoot some wild sheep , but paid dearly for it ; for having lost our caravan , we rid two days and nights up and down the desart , not knowing where we were , till at last we came in sight of some hutts belonging to the mongul tartars , but durst not approach for fear of being assassinated by them . but they having espied us at a distance , came up with us , inviting us to their cabans , where , beyond all expectation , they treated us very civilly : it is possible they had heard of our ambassadors coming that way , and judged that we belonged to his retinue . our greatest trouble was how to find out means to send to the ambassador , who had sent several of his men in quest of us : we made them at last understand by many signs who we were , and what our errand was with the ambassador ; upon which they sent a messenger to give him notice where we were : it is easy to be imagined that we were very eager of going along with the messenger ; but our horses being quite tired , we were forced to tarry there till our caravan came by that way . on the 15th of october we arrived near the river casumur , which exonerates it self in the river naun , where we halted 24 hours , and refresh'd our selves with fair water , which was as welcome to us as if it had been the best wine , because we had been in great want of it before . having provided our selves with as much as our leathern vessels would hold , we continued our journey , and on the 19th passed by the ruins of several cities , where we observed the remnants of very ancient stone monuments , representing several figures , quite different from those we meet with in europe . they say that these places were destroyed by alexander the great . we saw also hereabouts several large stone pillars of an excessive bigness , which being hung about with small bells , made a great noise when they were put in motion by the wind. beyond these we saw again the ruins of several places , and several figures cut in stone , representing men , women , and several sorts of beasts . deer , hares , and wild sheep we meet in vast numbers , of the last we saw sometimes 2 or 300 together ; but they are very difficult to be catch'd , they being nimbler than a deer . the hares are hereabouts very small , not much bigger than our leverets . pheasants are also here in great quantities , but not easily to be reach'd by the gun , for they don't settle upon the trees , but run all along upon the ground , swifter than other birds can fly in the air. we took a great deal of delight in the dexterity of the chineses , who with their arrows would shoot any bird flying . the adogeda had very fine falcons , who seldom let escape any pheasant or hare they met with . the nearer we approached the chinese wall , the more populous we found the country : for three days together , before we came in sight of it , we travelled all over rocks and precipices , through which there was cut a safe road for the conveniency of travellers ; and in the midst of these rocks there is a goodly city , called by the russians , schoma gorod , or kora katon . all hereabouts are abundance of tigers , leopards , and panthers , for which reason the ambassador , upon the persuasion of the adogeda , ordered that no body should ride at any distance from the caravan , unless there were at least three or more in company . in the city of karakaton some alterations were made in our provisions by the chineses ; for , instead of sheep we had hogs allowed us , and a measure of rice for each person . the hogs in china have such hanging bellies , that they touch the ground . from hence we had a long days journey to the chinese wall , betwixt rich , and the city of naun ; the country is inhabited by the mongul tartars , who acknowledge the dalaclama for their head. they keep their idols in their houses , and present their offerings to them , which is commonly victuals and drink . when they bury their dead , they put a white cock upon the coffin . a mongul nun , who was continually muttering her prayers with her beads in her hands , being asked by the ambassador , who it was she adored , she gave for answer , i adore the same god , who being deprived of heaven by your god , will certainly return thither , and put your god out of his place ; when you will see strange alterations upon earth . on the 27th of october , towards evening , we came in sight of the famous chinese wall , which is four fathoms high , and of such thickness that eight persons may ride upon it a-breast . it is 1500 english miles long in a straight line ; for if you will count the hills and vast mountains upon which it is built in some places , it would amount at least to 500 more . at each miles distance there is a tower. at the first gate we entred , the wall appear'd to be much decay'd ; but at a musket-shot from thence we passed through another gate , which resembled a large bastion . we were conducted through two more , and those three last enclosed a large place with their walls , the three gates serving for as many bastions . upon the first wall we saw a very large corps de guards , where , as they told us , there was kept a constant guard. at some distance from the first wall without the gate , there was also a watch kept , consisting only of 20 soldiers . about a mile within the wall we passed by to the left of us the city of galgan , which is surrounded with a very fine stone wall. near this place we met with the first chinese idols . it is to be admired what vast numbers of temples the chineses have dedicated to their idols , all their cities and villages are full of them , nay you meet with them upon unaccessible mountains ; they shew very well at a distance . but as to the figures of their idols , they are so dreadful as if they had been contrived on purpose to strike terror into the beholders . they are made either of wood or clay , and are sometimes gilt . in all their temples you meet with a certain idol , which being of a terrible aspect , holds a scepter in his hand , him they call the god of war , and pay a great deal of veneration to him . this god is surrounded with drums of all sizes , which are beaten whilst they are at their devotion . we were quartered in the suburbs , and at our arrival were met by their pipers and others who play'd upon cymbals , and beat the drums , but made a very doleful noise . the adogeda invited us to supper , where we were very well entertain'd , and were treated with tarrasun , a liquor made of rice . after supper the adogeda diverted us with a play , or rather farce , acted by the players that were sent from peking to meet him . what was most remarkable was , that they acted the mimicks to the life , and changed their postures and cloaths , which were extraordinary magnificent , frequently to our great astonishment . on the 28th of october we passed by another chinese city , and towards evening arrived in the city of xantuning , where the ambassador was entertained by the governor with a magnificent feast , and another play. all the apartments were hung with very rich tapistry , and the whole entertainment was very noble . the ambassador , the governor and the adogeda , were plac'd each on a table by themselves , but we were all put together on one table . the dishes were brought in one after another , but none taken away till after the feast was ended . there were in all eight courses , and as often as a dish ( which were all of purcelain ) was brought in , the clerk of the kitchen led the way , admonishing the guests to eat heartily . at the beginning of the feast , the adogeda putting out his sticks , show'd them to the ambassador as a signal , that we should follow his example . before dinner we were entertained by a boy of 10 years of age , who very naturally acted the mimick , and made strange postures upon the ground , which was covered with tapestry : which done , seven purcelain cups were placed upon a table , which he took up backwards with his mouth ; which he repeated afterwards , holding his hands upon his back . this was followed by an entry , where a man and a woman acted the lovers , and , to conclude the matter , a man dressed up in a tigers skin pass'd through the room upon all-fours , to the no small astonishment of those who were ignorant of the contrivance . the feast lasted above three hours , and the adogeda desiring the ambassador to take a walk with him , they were just going to take their leave , when one of the adogeda's servants whispering his master , that the after-course was going to be served up , they changed their resolution , and stay'd near two hours longer ; during which time they were again diverted by the players , who changed their cloaths 8 or 10 times . the 29th of october we came in sight of the city of xunguxu ; in this as well as in all other cities where we pass'd , the ambassador was treated with all imaginable respect and civility . we were again entertain'd in this city with a play , in a play-house fitted up for that purpose . in one of their temples there , we saw a goddess , which being of stone 128 feet high , had 700 hands . i had often the curiosity to enter their temples , and to take a view of their idols , who are of very different shapes and figures , and very terrible to behold , but most magnificently dress'd . near this place there is a famous pagan temple built upon a very high rock , near the monastery of iugangu . on the 30th of october , as we were travelling upon the road , we met a great number of men and women , who followed an idol carried by two men , and play'd merrily upon their pipes , cymbals and drums . the ambassador asked the adogeda , what the meaning was of this procession ? to which he answer'd , that they were going to a neighbouring temple to perform their devotion . the same day we pass'd in sight of a goodly place , called the red city , the residence of the sister of the bogdegan , and famous for the tombs of several chans . this city lies near the chinese wall ; we were fain to take up our lodgings that night in a village . early the next morning the adogeda sent word to the ambassador , that , having some business of moment to dispatch , he begg'd his pardon that he could not wait upon him immediately , but that if he would be pleased to go before , he would follow him as soon as possibly he could . we had scarce rid three or four hours , when the adogeda's steward overtook us near one of their temples , desiring us to tarry a little in this place , his master being upon the road to overtake us . we took this opportunity to take a view of the temple , where meeting with three more of the adogeda's servants , we saw them prostrate themselves first before the idol that stood in the middle of the temple , and afterwards to perform the same ceremony to two others that stood on both sides of it . towards noon we got to the city of xangote , where having been entertained with a very handsome dinner by the governor , we continued our journey , and took up our nights lodging in a countrey town . the first of november the ambassador was again treated at dinner by a governor of another city , and was quartered also in another countrey town at night . all the way as we passed along the roads we met with such a prodigious number of most magnificent temples , that we could not but admire at the ignorance of these people , who shew so much veneration to these idols . the 2d of november we came to the great and famous city of tunxo , situate on a river , where the ambassador was invited also to dinner by the governor , who conducted us afterwards out of the town . that night we were quartered in the next town to the city of peking . the city of tukxe is famous for its , traffick in purcelain , which is sold here much cheaper than in peking . the chinese have a way of pleating their sails together in a very small compass . on the 3d of november , towards noon , we made a publick entry in the capital city of peking , in very good order and great splendor , the streets being crowded with vast numbers of spectators on both sides of the way , which raised such a dust , that we scarce could see one another : we had our lodgings assigned us in the court , which is the ordinary residence of foreign ambassadors . on the 12th of november the adagada and his tawares or associate , waited upon the ambassador , to give him notice that he was to be admitted to his publick audience the next day , and to be conducted thither by 30 horses , desiring him to get his credentials and the presents ready against that time . he asked the ambassador who was to carry the presents ? and being answered , that this was to be performed by the cossacks , he shew'd his dislike , desiring that it might be done by some of his retinue ; which the ambassador refused , telling him , that when they were carried to the place where they were to be delivered , he would do it with his own hands , wherewith he was very well satisfied , desiring only , that they might be conveyed with good couverts . matters being thus settled , the ambassador drank to him a glass of spanish wine , to the health of the dorgamba ; who being one of the first men of the empire , he took it off to the bottom ; whereas before this time , we could never persuade any of them to pledge us , they being a very obstinate people , and very noisy with their tongues , if not gratified in their desires . it was the 14th of november before the ambassador could be in readiness to deliver his credentials , when we were conducted to court in the following manner : 15 cossacks , who carried the presents , led the van ; these were followed by one of the masters of the jewel-office belonging to the czar of muscovy . after him the secretary of the embassy , who carried the credentials after him came the ambassador betwixt the two adogeda's ; and lastly , the rest of the gentlemen belonging to the ambassador . at the entrance of the castle , we did alight from our horses , and marched on foot through a long gate , arch'd on the top . before we entred the second gate , we pass'd over a very fine stone-bridge , about 50 or 60 paces long , on both sides of which we took notice of a wall about three foot high , with many figures cut in stone . within the gate we were conducted through a very spacious court , where we saw two large pillars , very artificially wrought with variety of figures . from thence we went into a very fine hall , where we found two tables . no sooner were we entred there , but the adogeda desir'd the ambassador to sit down upon the ground upon such bolsters as were brought thither for that purpose ; and soon after we saw four lords , who are the chiefest of the whole empire , to enter the room before the bogdegan himself . these four were the dorgamba , the askamba , the aligamba , and the adogamba . after the credentials were delivered to the king himself , the presents were given to the adogeda , who laid them upon the two tables . which done ; the dorgamba , with the other three lords , came up to the ambassador , and after having made their compliments , and given him each both their hands , the dorgamba , after his congratulatory speech upon our happy arrival , enquir'd after health of both their czarish majesties , telling him , that his credentials should be forthwith translated , and he to receive an answer to the same . after which , he told him what allowance was to be given to himself and his retinue ; to wit : every day for the ambassador himself , two sheep , one goose , three pullets , three fish , a large measure of flower , a large measure of rice , two pound of butter , two papers of thee , salt , and other things proportionable , besides two gallons of tarrasun . the rest of his retinue and other servants , had the same allowance as before , with some addition of flower , butter and tarrasun . the ambassador being reconducted to his quarters by the two adogeda's , scarce three hours were pass'd , before the youngest of the two adogeda's brought word , that the czar's letters had been receiv'd with a great deal of satisfaction , desiring him in the bogdegan's name , to come and take a share , with all his retinue of his own table . as they were going along the streets to court on horse-back , the adogeda told the ambassdor , that he ought to look upon this invitation as a most particular grace , it being not customary for ambassdors to receive this honour immediately after the delivery of their credentials . being entred the same hall where the credentials had been deliver'd before , the adogeda invited the ambassador to sit down , and soon after entred the same four lords before the bogdegan , and saluted the ambassador very obligingly . immediately after , four tables were brought into the room , two of which were cover'd with forty silver dishes , full of all sorts of sweet-meats , for the amhassador , the other two ( where there were also some sweet-meats , and a dish with boil'd cold mutton ) fell to our share . after dinner , we were treated with thee boil'd in milk , in wooden dishes , which we took , and re-delivered to the servants , with making deep reveences . so soon as the ambassador arose from the table , all his sweet-meats were given to his attendants ; but what was left upon our tables , was divided among the cosacks . the 16th of november , the dorgamba , with several other chinese lords , and the two adogeda's , came to pay a visit to the ambassador ; who entertain'd them with a sett of very good musick , at which they seem'd to be extreamly well satisfied ; and after they had staid some time , the ambassador made to the dorgamba these following presents . a large looking-glass with a black wooden frame . a less looking-glass . a round looking-glass with a gilt frame . two watches . twenty pieces of gilt leather . several fine cuts . six very fine crystal-glasses . a large case for glasses . three large dogs spotted like tygers . a fine black gun-dog . a piece of fine hollin linen-cloth . four lac'd handkerchiefs ; besides some sables , black foxes , ermins , and other siberian commodities , which were received in a most obliging manner by the dorgamba . on the 17th of november , two heralds at arms , were sent to invite the ambassador and fourteen of the gentlemen of his retinue , to the bogdegan's table ; and we were not a musket-shot from our quarters , before we were met by the adogeda's , who conducted us into the castle . being entred the same hall , where we had deliver'd our credentials before . the adogeda presented the ambassador and his retinue , with chairs ; immediately after , came the four abovementioned lords , who after having paid their complements to the ambassador , asked him , whether he could speak latin ; and being answer'd , he did not : they asked further , whether any of his retinue were masters of the said language ; and it being told him , that there was one who had some knowledge of it , but not to perfection ; they left us to return our answer to the bogdegan . we sat above four or five hours before word was brought us , that we were to come to the bogdegan ; but were in the mean while treated with thee boil'd in milk by the adogeda . an account was likewise taken of our names , how many there were of us ; which done , the adogeda receiv'd orders to conduct us . we pass'd through three several gates , and as many large and handsome courts ; among which , one deserves to be particularly taken notice of . for in the midst of it , there was a bridge of marble , sustain'd by very fine arches ; under which was a water , which being call'd , the bogdegan's fish-pond , had the resemblance of a fair small river , and surrounded the castle . so soon as we entred the room , where the bogdegan was seated upon his throne , the ambassador was plac'd by the adogeda's on one side of the throne , which was surrounded with above three hundred courtiers , who all wore the emperour's armes upon their breasts and backs . the roof of this room was extraordinary high , and the sides adorn'd with a great number of marble statues . just opposite to it was the emperour's temple , a most magnificent structure . on the other side of the room , you look'd into another court , where were the lodgings of the enuchs and other women , that attended in the emperour's seraglio . the ambassador was placed on the left-hand of the throne , and his attendance about four rods behind him , on the right-hand ; just opposite to the ambassadors were the four abovementioned lords ; about forty persons , armed with half-pikes and battle-axes attended about the throne . we had not sat very long , before we saw a table cover'd all over with dishes of massive gold , and fill'd with sweet-meats brought in , which was set before the emperour ; after this , two tables with sweet-meats were brought in for the four lords ; and next to them , another table with sweet-meats for the ambassador ; several tables were placed for us , three belonging to a table ; the sweet-meats were all serv'd in silver dishes ; besides which there were grapes , apples , pears , chesnuts , china-oranges , citrons , and other fruits . as for the chineses , of whom there were above a hundred , each had his own table , with several dishes of meat . so soon as we saw the emperour begin to eat , we were obliged to pay our reverence by a low inclination of the head , and then we eat of what was before us . after dinner , which lasted above three hours , two large cups of brandy were presented to the bogdegan , who ordered the dorgamba and another great lord , to conduct the ambassador upon the throne ; being advanc'd upon the steps , the dorgamba , by orders from the emperour , presented one of these cups to the ambassador , telling him , that he must make a low reverence , and drink it all off at a draught . in the mean while , some iesuits having been sent for , they appear'd instantly , and by orders from the emperour , spoke to the ambassador in latin ; who answering them in italian , that he was not very well vers'd in the latin tongue , one of the fathers began to talk in italian with the ambassador , whom he asked many questions , and among the rest , how long it was since he left muscovy ? unto which he having given a suitable answer , he was re-conducted to his place . we were also each in his turn , placed opposite to the throne , and presented with a golden cup of brandy , which after we had taken up , with a very low reverence , we were re-conducted to our respective places . soon after we as well as the chineses there present , had some thee boil'd in milk presented to us in wooden dishes , which as before we received , and return'd with a very low bow to the very ground . the tables being remov'd , we were conducted out of the room , which done , both the adogeda's made a sign to the ambassador to follow them into another apartment , which was done , because we should not see the bogdegan descend from his throne . he is originally a mongul tartar , of a brown complexion , of about 45 years of age. the ambassador desir'd to be dismiss'd for that time , but the dorgamba return'd from the emperour , and asked the ambassador , whether he could tell any tidings concerning some iesuits , who about three years before intended to travel to china , by the way of muscovy , but were stopt in their journey ? the ambassador having answer'd that he knew nothing of them , the dorgamba return'd with this answer to the emperour . in the mean while we were conducted to our former places , where the adogeda desir'd the ambassador to sit down a little , till the sweet-meats that were left , could be given to our servants ; which was done accordingly ; it being a very antient custom among the chineses , always to let the remnants of the emperour's table to be carried home . our servants being well loaden with sweet-meats , the two adogeda's reconducted the ambassador to his quarters . on the 18th of november , we as well as the cosacks were entertain'd at our quarters from the emperour's table . there was a table in the ambassador's appartment for his own use , those for the gentlemen was laid in the hall. all the tables being cover'd with meats , two of the bogdegan's courtiers came to desire the ambassador and his retinue in the emperour's name to sit down , which we did with a profound reverence , in respect to his imperial majesty . our dishes were , boil'd geese , pullets , eggs , and all sorts of meats ; grapes , apples , pears , wall-nuts , chesnuts , citrons , china-oranges , all sorts of preserves and sweet-meats . the cosacks din'd in the court ; and before dinner , were all presented with thee boil'd in milk. towards evening the two adogeda's came to tell the ambassador , that the bogdegan was going to make a progress for 20 days ; and on the 7th of december , they came to give us notice of his return to peking . on the 8th we were again invited to the bogdegan's table , where we were treated in the same manner as before . on the 11th the askamba and surgushey , were sent by the bogdegan , to invite the ambassador and his retinue to be present at a great feast at court , and to be conducted through the left-side of the castle , whereas before , we had been brought in through the great court on the right-side . accordingly next morning , five hours before day-light , the two adogeda's came to our quarters , and conducted us on horse-back to the castle , where being entred on the left-side , the adogeda's desired the ambassador to sit down , where we were treated several times with thee ; in the mean while that one of the adogeda's was gone to receive his further instructions . at break of day , both the adogeda's led us into a court , where we saw two elephants of an extraordinary bigness , with very rich furnitures : opposite to them , we saw a great many drums plac'd upon the ground , near which stood the emperour's guards , cloath'd in red damask , and all round the court we saw above a hundred chairs , belonging to the chinese lords . being from thence conducted to the place where the bogdegan was to make his appearance , we entred on the left-side , where we saw several hundreds chinese lords very magnificently dress'd , with the emperour's armes upon their backs and breasts , sitting upon bolsters or cushions , upon the ground . their caps were adorn'd with the feathers of peacocks , which were fastn'd to them with fine crystals . those of the first rank had very large saphirs upon their caps . near to these we had our seats assign'd us ; and scarce had we thus sat an hour , when by the discharge of a cannon ( which made no great noise ) a signal was given for the chineses to rise , whilst the bogdegan was coming in to mount his throne , which stood directly opposite to the door , thro' which we were introduc'd . all on a sudden we heard a chime of bells , which being the signal for the chineses , they in very good order made their appearance before the bogdegan : in the mean while , a certain person who stood near the bogdegan , read for above an hour with a very loud and audible voice out of a book , which done , we heard very fine singing at some distance from us ; after this two drums were beat , which being another signal to the chineses , they fell upon their knees , bending their heads to the ground , three times , one after another . then they rise , and several musical instruments made an agreeable harmony for some time , during which they performed the same reverence twice more , and so took their seats again . we were then conducted by the two adogedan's in the presence of the bogdean , where we performed the same ceremony in the same manner as the chineses had done ; and the ambassador being led by the hand by the adogeda up to the bogdegan's throne , had the honour to receive a dish of thee from the bogdegan's own hands . we were likewise , after we had taken our seats , again treated with thee boil'd in milk , being obliged every time we took and re delivered the cup , to turn our left-leg under our bodies , and so to make a low inclination with our heads . soon after , the ambassador being re-conducted by the adogeda to his seat , the chineses , all on a sudden , plac'd themselves on the right-side upon their bended knees , knocking their heads against the ground three times , whilst the bogdegan was descending from the throne . we were led by the two adogeda's to the same place , where we were obliged to perform the same ceremony . that part of the court where the bogdegan's throne was plac'd , was lin'd with his guards , cloath'd in red damask , and arm'd with battle-axes and half-piques . the solemnity being ended , we pass'd again through the place where before we had deliver'd our credentials , in order to our return to our quarters ; but the adogeda's desiring the ambassador to stay a little longer , there being some chinese lords , who were very ambitious to see the ambassador and his retinue , he granted his request . as we were coming out of the castle , we saw one of the elephants , which was shewn us before , draw a great waggon , in which was the bogdegan's throne ; we were scarce return'd to our quarters , when the adogeda again entreated the ambassador to go along with him to the bogdegan's play-house , vvhere a very diverting play vvas acted that day . he invited not only the ambassador's retinue , but also all the merchants and cosacks , to partake of the shovv . and as vve vvere on our way thither , we met several chinese lords , among whom was the askamba , who came on purpose to bear the ambassador company thither . before dinner we had the diversion of seeing a fellow play all sorts of tricks . he took a stick , which was sharp at one end in his hand , on which he fixed a large round wooden ball , which turn'd it self without intermission upon the stick , till he threw it in the air , and catch'd it again upon the point of the stick , where it rowl'd about like before ; secondly , he took another stick , but not so big as the former , which he fixed upon his upper lip ; in the middle of this stick was a small wooden horse , which continually turn'd about the stick , as did another wooden ball on the top of the stick . sometimes he put the stick upon his thumb , where it perform'd the same operation . thirdly , he put the same stick through a certain instrument , not unlike our flutes , which he held in his mouth . on the point of the stick he had fixed two knives , not unlike our shoe-maker's knives , with their edges to one another , which turn'd themselves upon the stick to the no small astonishment of the spectators . fourthly , he took three ordinary knives , two of which he kept steady in his left-hand , but no sooner had he thrown the third up in the air , but the other two follow'd , which he catch'd all three by the handles . he shew'd us also several fine postures on horse-back , and whilst we were very magnificently treated at dinner , we had the diversion of the play , which lasted till night ; when we return'd home well satisfied with our entertainment . the 18th of december , hoth the adogeda's came to salute the ambassador in the name of the dorgamba , and to invite him and the chiefest of his domesticks to pass the next day at his house . the next morning his horses stood ready to attend us at our quarters , from whence we went directly to the dorgamba's palace . we were conducted by the adogeda's in a small appartment , where we found the dorgamba ready to receive the ambassador , which he did in very obliging terms . soon after we were treated with thee boil'd in milk , and the ambassador having communicated for some time with the dorgamba , concerning the instructions , he had received from their czarish majesty's , the ambassador was conducted from thence into the dining-room . as we entred the room , the players who were very magnificently dress'd , stood ready to begin the play , which they did accordingly ; it is the custom in china for the actors to give a book , containing the contents of many plays , to the master of the feasts , out of which he chuses which he likes best , which is commonly perform'd by singing in the nature of our opera's . the dorgamba sat at a table by himself , next to him was plac'd the ambassador at another table , and next to him the two adogeda's at another . two other tables were brought in for the ambassador's retinue ; we were treated with great deal of splendor . our drink was aqua vitae prepared with cinnamon , which was brought to us in golden cups , and we were forced to take it off quite to the bottom , the dorgamba shewing us the way by his own example . the floor was covered all over with tapistry , and behind the dorgamba stood a little page with a basket made of straw-work , which was the dorgamba's spitting-pot . thus we spent the greatest part of the day with a great deal of diversion , and on the 19th , being a great feast day at court , we were again splendidly entertained at the bogdegan's table . in the year 1694. on the 6th of ianuary , and on the 16th , we were again invited to the bogdegan's table . on the 26th of the same month , the dorgamba obliged us with the sight of a very fierce panther , and the same day we were again admitted to the bogdegan's table . on the 27th we paid a visit to the jesuits , who treated us with a very good breakfast ; their church is a very curious piece of architecture , with a fine organ , which is placed on the outside of it towards the street . there were at that time eight fathers of that society at peking . on the 29th it was a hard frost , with a strong north wind and abundance of snow . on the 4th of february both the adogeda's brought orders for the ambassador to make his appearance at court. accordingly we went on horseback to court on the 5th of february , where after we had been entertain'd very splendidly at the bogdegan's table , the ambassador was told , that according to his desire he should be dismiss'd in twelve nights . accordingly on the 15th of febr. the bogdegan sent one of his coutiers to the ambassador to desire him to come to court the next morning with all his attendance , and the cosacks , to receive the usual presents of the bogdegan . the day before we went to court we were treated at the bogdegan's charge at our quarters , when the ambassador with his whole attendance went on horseback , being conducted by the adogeda's into a spacious court , where we received the following presents . a horse , with bridle and saddle , and all other accoutrements . a chinese cap , with a silk puff on the top of it . a sur-toot of damask brocaded with gold serpents , and lined with lamb-skins . a scarff , a knife , 6 handkerchiefs , and 2 tobacco bags . a pair of leather boots , and a pair of silk stockings . a piece of black sattin of 10 yards . a piece of ludan of 20 yards . 16 pieces of kitaick . 7 lan of silver worth 14 crowns . the ambassador's gentlemen had each of them the following presents . a chinese cap , with a red silk puff on the top . a damask surtoot lined with lambs-skin . a piece of sattin of 10 yards . a piece of ludan of 10 yards . a scarff , with a knife , 2 tobacco baggs , and 6 handkerchiefs . one pair of leather boots , with a pair of silk stockings quilted with cotton . 16 pieces of kitaick . one lan and a half of silver worth 3 crowns . the cosacks and servants received each the following presents . a piece of sattin of 10 yards . eight pieces of kitaick . one lan of silver . on the 18th of february , the ambassador being again invited to court , the dorgamba told him , that if he were ready for his departure , the carriages should attend him the next morning at his quarters . i am not ignorant that in this place i ought to give the reader a particular account of the manners , customs and religion of the chineses ; but i will content my self to give only in this journal a general account of the empire of china , and its capital city called peking . the most potent empire of china is known under several names among foreign nations . the tartars call it katay , those of siam , sin , the iapanneses , than , and some of the tartarian nations call it han. the chineses themselves have given it many sir-names ; for among the many families that have sway'd the chinese scepter , each founder of its race has assigned it its particular title . thus it is called than , ( broad without measure ) iu , ( peace ) , tha , ( large ) , sciam , ( pleasant ) , cheu , ( complea● ) ; but among all the rest , the chineses have retain'd two , the first of which is , chungehoa , that is , the middle empire , and chunque , which is the middle garden , being of opinion that the earth was four square , and their empire in the midst of it . this vast country was in the year before the birth of christ 2254 , divided into 12 provinces by their emperor xucus , and by his successor iva into 9 , which at that time comprehended only the northern provinces , as far as the river kiang . but after the southern parts were united with this empire , it was divided into fifteen provinces . most of them were formerly under the jurisdiction of their own princes , but after they were conquered and united with the chinese crown , were governed by viceroy's , who to this day have the administration of affairs in those places . it is divided into the northern and southern part. the first is that which is properly called katay by the tartars , and comprehends 5 provinces : to wit , peking , xantung , xansi , xiemsi , honan , to which some add the province of leaotung , and the peninsula of corea . the other 9 provinces , are ; nanking , chekiang , kiangsi , huquang , suchuen , queicheu , iunnan , quangsi , quantung , fockien , which by one general name are called by the tartars , mangin . the north and southern provinces are divided by the river kiang , ( by the chineses , ) called the son of the ocean . ) the empire of china borders on the east on the great eastern ocean , called by the chineses , tung . towards the north , on the chinese wall , which divides it from the great tartary ; on the west it has the mountain of thebet to the confines of bengala : on the south-side is the kingdom of couchinchina , which is tributary to the chineses empire . it s whole breadth , from the isle of hanon , situate under the 18th degree of north latitude , to the 42th degree of north latitude , is 330 german leagues . it s length from the west , under the 112th degree , till east under the 34th degree , near the city ningpo or nampo , is 450 german leagues . this whole empire seems both by art and nature made impregnable . for on the west side is the mountain of thebet , and the great desart of xama ; on the north side the famous chinese wall , which was begun to be built in the year 215 before christ's birth , and was finished in 5 years ; on the south and east it is surrounded with the ocean , where by reason of the many rocks and sands there is no no safe landing unless it be in a few places . the city of peking , the capital of the empire , and residence of its kings , has borrowed its name from the province of peking , which on the east borders on the great gulph betwixt corea and iapan ; on the north-east upon the province of leaotung , on the north upon the great tartary , and part of the chinese wall , and on the west the province of xansi . this province has 8 famous cities , to wit ; peking , paoting , hokian , chinting , xunte , quanping , taming , and iunping : the city of peking is situate under 39 degrees 59 minutes upon the northern confines of the province of peking , not far from the famous chinese wall. on the south side it is fortified with two very strong and high walls . the suburbs are enclosed in one single wall , with 3 very good bastions on each side of the gate . you enter these suburbs by a bridge built over a river , which to the north side surrounds the wall ; from the suburbs through the south-gate , it is half an hours walking before you come to the body of the city , where , at the entrance there is a very high bastion , and as you turn to the left , another well-mounted with cannon , from whence you may go into the city through the old gate . there are many other bastions to be seen all round the walls , where every night the garison keeps as strict a guard as if an enemy were near at hand ; but in the day time , the emperor's gentlemen of the bed-chamber guard the gates , not so much for its defence , as to look after the customs , which are to be paid there . the citizens houses are generally finely built , and the palaces of persons of quality very stately structures , but their greatest magnificence appears in their triumphal arches . their temples are adorned with steeples of an extraordinary height , and most artificially built : but the streets of this so stately city are in no wise suitable to its grandeur , there being very few among them paved with stones , which seems to be strange in a place where they don't want these materials , the streets being extreamly inconvenient and troublesome to walk both in fair and fowl weather . in dry weather , when the wind blows from the north , the dust is raised all over the city to that degree , that it spoils every thing in the houses . the inhabitants preserve themselves a little when they go abroad , by wearing a thin veil almost like our gawses , over their faces , which comes down to their breasts ; besides that , they can see every body that passes without being seen by them , and without exposing their faces to the dust ; they enjoy by it this conveniency , that they are not obliged to those frequent salutes and other ceremonies which are so much admired , and otherwise practised among the chineses . all the chinese women are of a verylow stature , those of quality have very little feet , in which they take a particular pride , for which reason they keep them extraordinary streightned , to such an excess , that many thereby quite lose the use of their feet . it is look'd upon as very ignominious among the chinese ladies to shew their naked feet . there is scarce a street , bridge or gate in the city of peking , where you don't meet with horses or asses , which may be hir'd for a small price to go up and down the streets , where a servant attends you and your horse . the streets are always crouded with people ; here you may see one dance upon the rope , in another place you see one upon the stage , who is surrounded with many auditors , unto whom he relates certain stories , and these reward him for his pains with a kind of brass-money , which being four square , sign'd on one side with four characters , and a hole in the middle for the conveniency of carrying them upon a string , ten of them make no more than a penny. but when any thing is to be bought or paid with silver they use this method : they always wear by their sides a pair of shears , and weights enclosed in wooden cases in their pockets , by which means they cut the silver plates , and weigh of it as much as they have occasion for at that time . you meet sometimes in the streets certain chineses , who beat their breasts with stones , others knock their heads against stones , till the blood follows . there is scarce a street but what has many publick-houses , which are distinguished by their sign-posts , where you find it written what sort of liquor they sell within . these houses are very neatly kept , and affording good accommodation . but it is time to look backwards , and to give you a short account of our return to muscovy . on the 19th of february towards evening , we began our journey from peking , being conducted out the town by the two adogeda's , and several other persons of quality to the next village . about five days journey from peking , the surgushey ( who was to conduct us as far as to the city of naun ) brought us through an old ruined city , where in one of their temples , we saw an idol made of clay but richly gilt , representing a woman ; it was about 15 yards high , and had many heads and hands . not far from thence in a gallery , you saw another figure , resembling a woman kind , which they said , was her daughter , lie in a bed of damask quilt , cover'd with rich chinese carpets . on the 30th of may , we came to the city of naun , and took up our quarters in the village suttigart . on the 5th of april , i was surprised in my quarters by a very strange spectacle ; for my host's daughter appear'd all on a sudden , as if she had been possess'd by the devil , making such horrid out-cries , as put us all in a fright . after she had thus continued for some time , she began to sing very agreeably for half an hour , when the other women there present , having begun to sing certain verses , she answered them immediately . i was so curious as to enquire , what could be the meaning of all this ; to which they reply'd , that there being a neighbour's child very ill , this virgin had been consulted concerning her recovery , she being one vvho vvas in great esteem among them , and look'd upon as a saint . the neighbours vvere no sooner departed , but an aunt of hers took a fevv coals , upon vvhich she threw certain incenses , vvhich holding near her face , she soon opened her eyes , and recovered her senses . on the 14th of april , vve set forvvard in our journey from naun , in company of a chinese envoy , vvho being a native of the city of margenn , vvas sent by the bogdegan , to the waywode of nartzinskoy . on the 23th of april , vve pass'd over a very high mountain , not vvithout a great deal of difficulty , the snow being above a yard high on the top . on the 25th , vve changed our course , being forevvarn'd by our guide , vvho vvas a tungoese , that three or four thousand mongul tartars laid in ambush for us , expecting our coming at a certain place . this obliged the ambassador to chuse another road more to the right . on the 27th , vve came to the river laduna , vvhere vve halted for some time . on the 2d of may , vve pass'd over the river keilar , and vve had not travell'd very far , before on the third of may , vve vvere overraken by a fire : for the mongul tartars , finding they had miss'd their aim , had out of revenge , set fire to the long and dry grass , which was remaining , after the winter season , in the desart , which being augmented by the violent winds that blew towards us , surprised us so on a sudden , that we had not time enough left us , to save our tents . if this fire had surprised us as we were upon our march , scarce any body would have escaped the flames that surrounded us on all sides . but now we had the good fortune to save our cattle , and the damage received by the fire was inconsiderable on our side , what was endamaged in our carriages , being all repair'd in one day . the worst was , that being deprived of forage , some of our cattle died daily for want of it , and we our selves began to be much streightned for provisions . for which reason the ambassador dispatched three cosacks to the waywode of nartzinskoy , to solicite prompt succors of cattle and provisions . and wherever we could light of any horses or camels , we bought them up at a dear rate ; the first at 40 and 50 , the last at 70 or 80 rubels a-piece . the 8th of may , we came to the river margenn , where meeting with good forage , we staid two days to refresh our cattle . and as we were travelling , we lost one of our russian servants , who having lost his horse , was lost himself in looking after it . on the 12th , we pass'd the river gann with our loaden camels and horses ; and finding the trees hereabouts full of green leaves and a pleasant country , we staid here two days . on the 15th of may ; we met the convoy , which by order of the governour of nartzinskoy , was sent us from argunn . they came to us in very good time ; for if they had staid two days longer , our cattle must all have perish'd , and we been droven to the necessity of feeding on horse-flesh ; for most of our servants had lost their horses before , and were fain to march on foot through the desart . on the 21th of may , notwithstanding there was a deep snow faln the night before , we ferry'd over the river of argunn , a long days journey from the city of the same name , where we staid till the 25th and provided our selves with all necessaries , enough to serve us till we came to nartzinskoy . most of our attendance began to be very sickly hereabouts , by reason , that having not been used to any bread before these six months , they eat of it with too much greediness . at some distance from argunn , the ambassador , with some of his german and russian attendance left the caravan , making the best of thei● way towards nartzinskoy . on the 1st of iune , we came to a small river , which being by the late rains rendred impassable by horses , we were feign to strip , and so to swim over our selves and our horses . on the second , we arriv'd safely at nartzinskoy , as did our caravan on the 9th following . the 13th of iune , three tungoeses brought the russian servant , whom we had lost on the 8th of may in the desart to nartzinskoy . he had swarved about the desart for three days , having no other food , but herbs and roots , and meeting at last with these three tungoeses , whom he believed to have been mongul tartars , he put himself in a posture of defence , and would not have surrendred himself , if his horse had not been so tir'd , as not to be able to stir any longer . on the 3d of iuly , we set forward from nartzinskoy , after the ambassador had dispatch'd two messengers to mosco , to notifie our safe arrival , to their czarish majesties ; and on the same day the chinese envoy , whom we mentioned before , return'd from thence to naun . this last winter , whilst we were at peking , 350 cosacks of nartzinskoy , and 500 tungoeses , had made an incursion into the territories of the mongul tartars , through the desarts of nartzinskoy , with such success , that they had attack'd and ruin'd their habitations on two several places , put all the old ones to the sword , and carried off the young ones into slavery . the 13th of iuly , we came to plotbus , the 15th to the lake of shock , the 19th to the lake of ierawena , near which are three lakes more . on the 21th of iuly , our two messengers , who had been dispatch'd to mosco , as we mention'd before , return'd to us in a pitiful condition , they having been overtaken about 10 miles from vdinsko , by some mongul tartars , who had robb'd and stript them , but had not taken their letters from them . on the 22th , we foarded the river ana , which falls into the river vda : and on the 26th the river kurba , which running with a very swift current , disembogues likewise in the river vda . on the 27th , in the afternoon , we arriv'd safely at vdinsko ; where we sold our camels and horses at five rubels a-piece ; whereas the camels had cost us 35 and 40 rubels , and the horses 10 and 15 a-piece . on the 28th , we embarqu'd our selves on board two large vessels ; and towards evening went on shoar in a great village , call'd saimkojam linsko , on the left-side of the river selinga . on the 29th in the afternoon , we set sail from thence , and on the 31th came to the entrance of the lake of baikela , where we were fain to lay by for two hours , and afterwards row'd three miles further , before we could make use of our sails . towards evening the wind chopping about , we were droven back for several miles , and at last met with a place fit for anchorage . the winds being somewhat laid , we early in the morning set sail again , and happily made the river of angara , and so arriv'd on the first of august , toward noon at irkutskoy . on the 5th , we again set sail from hence towards ienekiskoy . on the 11th , we went on shoar in a town belonging to the bratskoy , on the left-side of the river of angara , into which falls hereabouts another very large river . we left that place again the same day in the afternoon , and had not sail'd above a mile , when we were forced to pass a very dangerous cataract ( or water-fall ) call'd pogmaly . not far from thence we pass'd another , call'd pyan , much longer than the former ; and no sooner were the vessels brought over this dangerous place , but they were in danger of having been swallowed up in a whirl-pool . on the 12th of august , we came to another cataract , call'd poduna , where we were fain to unload our vessels ; the passage being very streight and dangerous . on the 13th , we pass'd another cataract , not so dangerous as the former , but which continued for four or five miles . on the 14th , we came to an anchor near the cataract , call'd skamansko , till we could be provided with expert watermen , who being acquainted with the river , brought our vessels safely without being unloaden ( the water being very high ) over the cataract , tho' it was near three miles long . on the 16th , before noon , we pass'd by the river itim , which falls on the right-hand into the river tungusko , as the angara does to the left . we pass'd the same day over another cataract ; and on the 17th left the river ketto to the right of us . on the 19th , we pass'd over three several cataracts , near the last of which , we were met by a messenger , whose name being andreknihoff , had been dispatch'd by the ambassador from nartzinskoy to musco . on the 22d , we left the river kama to the right of us ; and on the 25th in the morning , pass'd over another most dangerous cataract , and arrived safely the same evening at ienekiskoy . we continued our journey from thence on the 1st of september by land to makoffsko , where we arriv'd the 3d day , and on the 7th , set forward again towards tobolsko . on the 12th , we din'd in a monastery , but did not stay longer than till night . on the 23d , early in the morning , we came to iam-kutskoy ; and on the 26th towards evening , to the city of narim , about a mile distance from the river oby , where we embarqu'd on the 28th , but came on shoar again in the afternoon , by reason of a strong north-wind , which was quite contrary to us ; we were fain to lie here till the 30th . on the 3d of october , the wind veering about again to the north , we were obliged to come to another again till night ; when we pass'd by the river wache . the 4th , the wind blew strong again from the north , so that we were fain to lie still till the next morning . on the 6th , we were stopt again by the north-wind , besides which , it froze very hard that night . on the 8th , we got on shoar at surgutt ; and on the 9th the north-wind blew very strong against us , with great snows and a hard frost , so that we were obliged to stay on shoar till the 11th , when it began to thaw ; but the north-wind continued till the 13th , in the morning , when we set sail again , and pass'd by two villages ; the 14th , in the forenoon , we entred the river irtish ; and on the 15th , early in the morning , arriv'd safely at samorskojam . the ambassador being indisposed staid there till the 14th of november , when , being restor'd to his former health by the use of proper remedies , and the river irtish being quite frozen up in the mean while , we continued our journey from samarskojam in sleds . on the 19th , we came to demjansko ; and on the 20th to tobolsko . betwixt samarskojam and tobolsko , we pass'd by abundance of huts belonging to the ostiaki , most of wood , and the roads were hereabouts very narrow and not well beaten . on the 17th of december , we left tobolsko ; and the 20th in the afternoon arrived at tumen . from thence we went on the 21st , and came on the 23d too early in the morning to the city of iapantshin , where we staid only till the next day ; and on the 27th early in the morning , arrived in the city of wergaturia , from whence we went further on in our journey the 28th . in the year 1695 , on new-years-day , we came to the city of sotokamskoy , where we staid till the next day ; on the 5th we reach'd kaigorod , which we left again the 6th ; and on the 9th came to iam-vsga , situate upon the river sisella . the 9th we din'd at iata pyoldie , and the 11th at ianrspas vspilsco . the 12th we reach'd st. soto witzogda , where we staid the next day till towards evening . the 14th we came to the city of vtingha , and left it again the 15th towards evening . the 18th we din'd in the city of totma , where we staid till the 19th towards night . the 21st , early in the morning we reach'd schusca-jam , and continued our journey from thencethe next day . the 25th we came to ieresla , where we only staid till night . on the 27th to peresla , from whence we set forward again in our journey on the 29th , and on the 31st of ian. at night , arrived safely in a villlage , call'd alexeshe on the river ianse , not above five miles from the city of musco . here the ambassador received orders to stay till the next morning , when czar peter alexievits came to this place to confer with him in private . after they had spent some hours together , the czar took the ambassador along with him to ischmeiloff , and from thence to brebolensko ; and we arrived the same day , being the 1st of february , safely in the city of musco , where we repos'd our selves after our journey to china , in which we had spent 3 years , wanting 6 weeks . finis . some curious observations concerning the products of russia , which may serve as a supplement to the preceding treatise . written originally in latin by henry william ludolf . london , printed for d. brown , at the black-swan and bible without temple-bar , and t. goodwin , at the maidenhead over against st. dunstan's church , fleet-street , 1698. some curious observations concerning the products of russia , &c. chap. i. of their minerals . they have three sorts of salts in russia ; the first is boil'd out of springs , of which the best is made at permia in siberia . the second is , their stone-salt , which is found in great quantity in the province of vffa ; the third is brought to perfection by the heat of the sun in the salt-pits , near astrachan , and in siberia . there is also great store of the best salt-petre to be found , as also good brimstone , betwixt siberia and the river wolga , not far from the kingdom of casan : but the exportation of it is prohibited . there are also some iron-mines in russia , and near olonitz , on the confines of sweden . near archangel there is sluida talck dug , which the english call muscovy glass . in the the province of vffa , are found very fine chrystals . on the frontiers of siberia , near the river ienessay , there is a mine which produces an oar , resembling in colour and weight a golden oar , but it is so volatile as to flie away in the smoak , as soon as it is tryed by the fire . perhaps this oar is much of the same nature in comparison to gold , what a certain oar in germany , call'd bismuth , is in respect to silver , it being of the same colour and weight , and is found in the saxon silver mines . the russians are destitute of silver mines , but they often dig some of the metal out of the old graves . the mammotovoy , which is dug out of the earth in siberia , is very well worth taking notice of . the common people in russia relate surprising things concerning its origin . for they say , they are the bones of certain animals , which exceed in bigness any living creature upon earth ; they make use of it in physick , as we do of the unicorn . a friend of mine presented me with a piece of it , which he said was given him by a muscovite , who had brought it himself out of siberia , which appears to me to be nothing else than a true ivory . the more understanding sort believe them to be elephants teeth , which ever since the time of the deluge , have lain thus under ground . the adamavoi-kost or adam's earth , is dug out of the earth near archangel ; it is of a black colour , very near as hard as a stone , but its figure resembles the branches of trees ; from whence some conjecture that it is a wood petrefied . according to this opinion , it must be supposed that this wood being perhaps laid at the bottom of some river , whose current has been choak'd up by the sands , and covered these woods . chap. ii. of their vegetables . the ground in many parts of muscovy is more fertile than can well be imagined by strangers . for it being full of nitrous particles , these not only promote the production of all kinds of fruits , but also quicken their growth , and bring them sooner to perfection , than in some of the more southern countries ; as it is besides some other fruits , very observable in their melons . they have a certain kind of apples , call'd nativa , which are not only of a fine taste , but also transparent like glass . they have also several sorts of berries , which are not to be found in other places . the hostanici are of a black colour , but of the same taste as our cherries , having also a stone in the middle . their punanitzi they use to suppress the fumes after hard drinking . besides which , they have those call'd , brussenici kluckva and gersmici ; the two last of which are also found in livonia . but among all their vegetables , that herb which they call , kosa travic , deserves to be taken notice of , for it resists iron , and makes the sythes if they touch it , spring to pieces . i cannot question the truth of it , because i have heard it confirm'd by very credible persons , who have seen the effect of it in siberia ; tho' otherwise i am not very apt to give credit to the relations of the vulgar sort in muscovy , among which , that of the vegetable lamm is a general received fable , sufficiently contradicted by experience . there is a certain root in russia , endow'd with an extraordinary balsamick quality , which also grows in siberia , they call it voltschnoy-koron , which signifies as much as wolfs-root . they attribute to it a specifick vertue of healing wounds ; but what they related of it , to wit , that it heals a wound by only chewing of it , i will not affirm for truth . arbusi are called the astrachan melons ; they are not of so delicious a taste as the others ; they come nearer to a circular figure , and their seeds don't lie in the middle , but straggling thro' the flesh of the melon . the astrachan pepper is more sharp and biting than other pepper , is enclosed in a red husk , the pepper it self is yellow , and not round but flattish . chap. iii. of their living creatures . among the insects of russia , those call'd toreau , are the most common , they most infest wooden houses , but are not mischievous . among the fish , the sterlet is counted one of the most delicious in russia . it has a long head and tail , both of them making up above one half of its whole length , the rest of the body being but very short . it s skin is most like that of an eel ; those inclining to a yellowish colour , are accounted the best . the fish sasan is very like our carps . somis , a very broad fish , with a sharp nose . beluga , or white-fish , is sometimes found in the danube , near comorrah ; they call it hausam in hungary , and is carried to vienna , where it is look'd upon as a great dainty , its flesh being very luscious . out of the spawn of this fish the best caviare is made in muscovy ; tho' they also make it of the spawn of the sturgeons and pikes . the river kama , which exonerates it self into the river wolga , furnishes the city of musco with the best beluga . i don't remember that ever i met with any birds in muscovy , but what are sufficiently known among other european nations . among the four-legg'd animals , the muscovites esteem those the most , whose furs protect them against the injuries of the cold season . they have four different kinds of foxes . the first are the ordinary sort ; the second are those who have two dark strokes cross their backs ; and therefore are by the germans , called cross foxes . the third are the white foxes , whose skins are the cheapest of all ; and fourthly , the black ones , whose skins are sold at a very dear rate , sometimes , as i have been told , at 80 rubels or ducats a piece . the rosomacha , so called by reason of its greediness , affords the most durable furs . but the chief vanity of the muscovites , consists in their sables . there is such a prodigious difference betwixt these furs , that a pair of them are sold from three rubels to a hundred rubels . the black ones are the most precious ; but the white ones are very rare . in the great plains betwixt muscovy and the crim tartary , there are abundance of wild oxen , and wild goats ; the first they call zubri , the last zajaki . vichocolis , a kind of water-rats , whose skins are of a delicious scent . chap. iv. of the natives of russia , the muscovites are generally of a very strong constitution , both very tall and bulky . they are also very fruitful , which makes the country very populous , as may be judged by the vast armies which the muscovites bring into the field in time of war. i have it from very credible persons , and such as had considerable commands in the present czar's army , that a few years ago the army which was raised against the precopian tartars , consisted of above 300000 men. above one half of the year being taken up with their fasts , when the common people feed upon nothing else but cabbage and cucumbers , and these raw , only pickl'd . this is an evident sign of their natural vigour , tho' it must also be allow'd , that they promote the digestion by the brandy and leeks , which they use in great quantity , and questionless , correct the viscous humours arising in the stomach by such indigestible nourishments . they know of no epidemical distempers in russia , unless you would give the scurvy , ( the general plague of all the northern countries ) that name . the russians call it tsinga . among the rest we ought not to pass by in silence here their strange manner of travelling betwixt siberia and china . for they make use of sleds with sails , which carry them over the snow when the wind proves favourable ; but if it proves contrary , they have dogs ready at hand , who supply the defect of the sails , which are laid by at that time . i have heard it affirm'd for truth , that twelve of these dogs will draw as much as a good horse . the commodities exported from russia are : rhubarb , but much inferior in goodness to that which is brought from china and turkey . ambergreese , honey , wax , tar , course linen , caviare russia leather and hemp. the city of ieresla is famous for the dressing of russia leather , which as well as the caviare , is for the most part transported into italy , the english and dutch consume abundance of russia hemp , out of which they make their cables for their ships . sometimes the dutch are also permitted to export some corn , of which they make great profit . the cities of archangel and narva , are the two chiefest places of commerce betwixt the russians , english and dutch. the first is most frequented by the dutch , the last by the english. the armenian merchants have a free trade at narva , for the convenicy of transporting such commodities as they buy in holland , by the way of narva , into muscovy , and from thence by the river wolga and the caspian sea , into persia. but no body is permitted to return into persia by way of muscovy , unless he be come the same way before ; it being otherwise much easier to return that way into persia , than to come from thence , as being against the current of the river wolga . formerly the banjans ( who are indian merchants ) used to traffick in the capital city of musco . but of late they are forbidden to come any further than archangel , where they drive a very considerable trade . there is also at present a constant trade betwixt muscovy and china ; from whence the muscovites bring silks , thee , and among other things a certain mixture , almost like chalk , but of a yellowish colour , of an aromatick scent , which is look'd upon as a sovereign remedy against many distempers . the buchartzi , who , if i mistake not , are mahometans , inhabiting near samarkand , come frequently to tobolsko , the capital city of siberia , with all sorts of indian commodities , for which reason perhaps it is , that , as i have been informed , the arabian tongue is taught in some places of siberia . the calmuck tartars bring every year after harvest-time , a great many thousands of horses to sale to the city of musco . they trade also in slaves , and sometimes sell their own children to the russians . i met once a young boy of that country who understood the russian tongue , whom out of curiosity i asked several questions , and among the rest , how they called god in his native tongue ; he answered , bogunasniet , we have no god. but it is nevertheless certain , that they have a certain religion , such a one as it is ; their high priest being called kutafta , who as well as the kutafta of the mongul tartars , is subordinate to the dalac-lama , who being the pagan pope in those parts , keeps his residence at a place called baontola , not far from the confines of china . i have been credibly informed , that the chinese lama's or priests , do also acknowledge this dalac-lama for their head. they are perswaded that this dalac-lama is immortal , which opinion they maintain among the common people without much difficulty ; forasmuch as he scarce ever appears , but to his priests , who are all partners in the fraud . i heard once a certain muscovian lord , who had been sent as ambassador from musco to china , say , that it was offered him as a particular favour , to appear before the dalac-lama , provided he would prostrate himself before him ; but , that he gave them many thanks for the honour they intended to do him , without accepting their offer . i conclude with this hearty wish , that the door of mercy may be opened to these blind wretches , that they may be brought out of darkness to partake of the light of the true religion . finis . books printed for d. brown , at the black-swan and bible , without temple-bar . a late voyage to st. kilda , the remotest of all the hebrides , or western islands of scotland ; with a history of the island , natural , moral , &c. by mr. martin , gent. beauty in distress , a tragedy : as it is acted by his majesty's servants . written by mr. motteux : with a discourse of the lawfulness and vnlawfulness of plays . by the learned father caffara , divinity professor at paris ; sent in a letter to the author , by a divine of the church of england . with a copy of verses by mr. dryden , in defence of the stage . the canterbury guest : or , abargain broken , a comedy , acted at the theatre-royal . written by mr. ravenscroft . the sullen lovers : or , the curious impertinents . a comedy . written by th. shadwell . the cornish comedy , as it is acted at the theatre-royal in dorset-garden , by his majesty's servants . dr. colebatch's four tracts ; his treatise of the gout , and doctrine of acids further asserted . new observations on the natural history of this world of matter, and this world of life in two parts : being a philosophical discourse, grounded upon the mosaick system of the creation and the flood : to which are added some thoughts concerning paradise, the conflagration by tho. robinson ... robinson, thomas, d. 1719. 1696 approx. 258 kb of xml-encoded text transcribed from 141 1-bit group-iv tiff page images. text creation partnership, ann arbor, mi ; oxford (uk) : 2004-03 (eebo-tcp phase 1). a57471 wing r1719 estc r14369 12390765 ocm 12390765 60989 this keyboarded and encoded edition of the work described above is co-owned by the institutions providing financial support to the early english books online text creation partnership. this phase i text is available for reuse, according to the terms of creative commons 0 1.0 universal . the text can be copied, modified, distributed and performed, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. early english books online. (eebo-tcp ; phase 1, no. a57471) transcribed from: (early english books online ; image set 60989) images scanned from microfilm: (early english books, 1641-1700 ; 225:14) new observations on the natural history of this world of matter, and this world of life in two parts : being a philosophical discourse, grounded upon the mosaick system of the creation and the flood : to which are added some thoughts concerning paradise, the conflagration by tho. robinson ... robinson, thomas, d. 1719. [45], 222, [3] p., 2 folded leaves of plates : ill. printed for john newton ..., london : 1696. errata: p. [43]. advertisements: p. 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ascii text with mnemonic sdata character entities); displayable xml (tcp schema; characters represented either as utf-8 unicode or text strings within braces); or lossless xml (tei p5, characters represented either as utf-8 unicode or tei g elements). keying and markup guidelines are available at the text creation partnership web site . eng creation -early works to 1800. meteorology -early works to 1800. natural history -pre-linnean works. 2003-09 tcp assigned for keying and markup 2003-10 spi global keyed and coded from proquest page images 2003-11 emma (leeson) huber sampled and proofread 2003-11 emma (leeson) huber text and markup reviewed and edited 2003-12 pfs batch review (qc) and xml conversion new observations on the natural history of this world of matter , and this world of life : in two parts . being a philosophical discourse , grounded upon the mosaick system of the creation , and the flood . to which are added some thoughts concerning paradise , the conflagration of the world , and a treatise of meteorology : with occasional remarks upon some late theories , conferences , and essays . by tho. robinson rector of ousby in cumberland . london : printed , for iohn newton at the three pigeons over against the inner-temple-gate in fleet-street , 1696. to the reverend mr. william nicholson arch-deacon of carlisle . reverend sir , i have read over the books you were pleased to lend me , ( viz. ) dr. burnet's theory of the earth , and dr. woodward's essay toward a natural history of it : both which entertain'd me with a great many new and very notable hypotheses , managed with a great deal of art , ingenuity and learning ; but in my opinion very ill grounded ; many of their notions being inconsistent with common sense and experience , with scripture and reason ; especially the mosaick account of the creation , paradise , and the universal deluge ; and in some particulars , dr. woodward seems inconsistent with himself . these following chapters , ( which i make bold to present to your hand , and to give you the trouble of perusing ) will shew you wherein i cannot concur with these great virtuoso's , and why i endeavour to establish a quite different notion of things ; and do ground it upon such philosophical theses , as moses , that great philosopher , has laid down as so many postulata in his short , but most comprehensive system of the creation ; the whole being a short and compendious description of this world of matter , and this world of life wherein we live . sir ; i am so far from being big with a fond concei● of any of these notions , that i dare not trust them in any hands but yours ; for i am unwilling that these papers ( without your approbation and encouragement , ) should go further abroad than your study , lest some ill-natur'd and peevish critick should take occasion to expose the ignorance and disingenuity of their author . i know ( sir ) that the experience you have lately gain'd by searching into those occult regions of matter , being now added to your former speculations about it ; has made you the most capable of determining all differences , and solving the most difficult phaenomena of this kind . if you will be pleas'd therefore to correct with your pen the mistakes you meet with in any of these notions , and let me have your honest and impartial opinion of them , you will further oblige , sir , your most affectionate and humble servant , tho. robinson . to the gentlemen miners . gentlemen , if his observation be true , that no man can lose by the world ; but what he loseth in purse , he gains in experience : you will have no reason to complain , if sometimes your subterranean projects miscarry upon your hand : since that loss may easily be repaired by your experimental knowledge , of those occult regions of matter ; concerning which , the most profound philosopher can give no account , but by way of hypothesis and conjecture . solomon , that great master of experimental knowledge , tells us that wisdom is better than rubies ; and all the things that may be desired are not to be compared to it . and tho' that by wisdom he may mean that divine philosophy which the new testament calls religion ; yet certainly there is nothing contributes more towards making one morally or physically wise , than experience , as he intimates in the following verse , where he brings in wisdom thus speaking : prov. 8.11 . i wisdom dwell with prudence , and find out the knowledge of witty inventions . i confess that the theorick part of philosophy ( being the first-born , ) is more noble ; and therefore deservedly sits regent in the superior faculties of the soul : attended with sublime notions and speculations ; and sometimes figments and chimaera's are also her maids of honour . and altho' the practick or experimental part , sits below in humble garb , attended only with mechanick artificers , and manual operators : yet she oftentimes entertains the world with more of certainty , and demonstration than the former . gentlemen , i shall not complement you into a good opinion of these no●ions which i am willing should abide the test of an impartial iudgment ; only i think it may be convenient to let you know that they are the product of 20 years experience and observation ; for so long i have been concerned in the inspection of under-ground works of several kinds . besides the place of my habitation being under crosfell , ( one of the highest mountains in england ) whose lofty top gives a large prospect both of the east and west seas ; i have from thence observed , not only the different classes of matter , the eruption of rapid springs ; but also the rising and falling as well as the rarefaction and condensation of vapours . gentlemen , if the publication of this short treatise ( which i presume to present to your hand , as the most proper patrons of subterranean philosophy ) put you to the charge of an easie purchase , you will certainly have it much cheaper than the author , who shall always remain , gentlemen , d●●●ys , april the 16. ( 1696. ) your most humble servant and well-wisher , tho. robinson . the preface . if the learned authors of the new theories and essays had but taken the pains to have consider'd better of those great advantages of learning and education which moses ( the greatest philosopher that ever was in the world , and the first describer of its creation ) had beyond any of those learned philosophers of later date , who have writ upon the same subject ; they would have entertain'd a greater veneration and esteem for his short , but most comprehensive system ; than for the larger volumes of those common philosophers and historians whose writings are only the product of their own natural reason ; though set off with the greatest artifice of words , and advantages of human learning . the first progress which this great philosopher made in human learning and wisdom was in pharoah's court , where he had his education , under the tuition of his own daughter , who having no child of her own , design'd to adopt him her son , and make him heir apparent to that crown : to which end he was by her care instructed in all the learning , wisdom , and philosophy of the egyptians : and no doubt but some of the most learned amongst the hierophanthae , who were the most skilled in the knowledge of mystical as well as natural philosophy , were his tutors . he being thus qualified with the best learning egypt could then afford , the second improvement he made was in the family of his kinsman iethro , who being as well a priest as prince of midian , did not only discipline him in all the rules of policy , conduct , and government ; by which he was fitted and prepar'd for being captain general of that mighty host of the hebrews , which god design'd to deliver from the egyptian yoak , and under his conduct to settle in canaan ; but also he was instructed by him in the religion of his ancestors , the patriarchal traditions concerning the creation of the world , the beginnings of things , and the genealogies of men ▪ which being best known to adam , who coming immediately out of god's hand , did undoubtedly deliver it to his son seth , seth to enos , and so from father to son , to abraham , from whom iethro descended by a second marriage . during his time of residence in midian , which was forty years , and most of that time being spent in contemplation : it s generally believed he wrote this system of the creation , with the rest of his book called genesis , by the assistance and direction of his father-in-law , who could not be ignorant of the patriarchal traditions ; himself being descended from a patriarch of special note . after these gradations and improvements in all kinds of humane learning , wisdom and philosophy , god took him into his own service , and was pleased by a sort of per●onal communication to impart to him as well the manner how all things began to exist , as how the manners of mankind were to be exercised ; so that he may be reasonably supposed to found the authority of his writings , as well as of his government over god's people , upon divine revelation . in this most excellen● system , philosophy , divinity and mystery seem to be so closely interwoven that it wou'd be a matter of great difficulty ( if not impossibility ) for any , unless such as are well skill'd in the cabalistical traditions and mythology , to unravel the contexture and distinguish its parts . and some of the most learned rabbies are of opinion that god directed moses , and the rest of the holy pen-men , frequently to make use of metaphors , allegories , and other sche matical forms , which must needs be attended with some darkness and obscurity ( these being as it were a veil drawn over the face of divine truth ) and this might occasion solomon to joyn the words of the wise , and their dark sayings together . and this was not only the practice of the sacred writers ; but of the learned heathens , especially their priests and philosophers ; who undoubtedly did imitate moses herein : but for different ends and purposes ; for it did highly concern the pagan priests to hide and conceal their mysteries from the light ; which like bastard eagles would not endure the tryal of it . but the holy spirit might direct the holy pen-men to observe their style for reasons of greater and more weighty moment . for the divine wisdom might see it fit in the infancy of the world , to discover his will and mind in some things very suitable to the capacities of the men of that age : and to reserve other things of great moment veil'd under allegories , and mystical expressions until the minds of men were more opened and enlarged ; for discovering of those brighter beams of divine truth . yet that the glories that were after to appear might not be wholly clouded ; he order'd it so , that such a thin veil shou'd be drawn over the matter , as shou'd not more set off the beauty , than stir men up to a diligent search after those divine truths . if then a modest attempt be made to ground a philosophical discourse upon some of these veiled mysteries , with submission to men of greater learning , and better skill'd in mystical philosophy : i presume that it will not be judg'd an effect either of pride or vain-glory. preliminary postulata . i know that it 's much out of fashion to beg principles in this philosophizing age ; yet considering that this schematical account which moses has given of the creation is as well philosophical and mystical , as historical and ad hominem , i presume that these following postulata , being grounded upon such reason , as cannot be denyed , will easily be granted me ; as first — that this natural world was created in a natural way , by the agency of second causes ; god almighty concurring with them by his direction and approbation in these words ( he saw that it was good . ) that the work of the creation cou'd not , in a natural way , be compleated in so short a time as six days ; for as it cannot be easily imagined that all the solid strata and beds of iron cou'd be digested into such good order , as we find them in ; and receive their several degrees of consolidation in that time : neither can it be suppos'd that all these different natures in the vegetative and animal sphere of life shou'd grow up to such a degree of perfection , that adam cou'd eat ripe fruit in paradise of six days production : and that all the beasts of later birth cou'd in that time get strength to appear before him . it may then be taken for a granted principle , that by the six days work is meant the six distinct productions ; and by the evening , and the morning , is meant the principles of activity and passivity , which were the instrumental causes of these productions . that paradise in a literal sense may signify a local place or garden of pleasure , in a philosophical sense all those rational and sensual pleasures our natures are capable of in this material world : in a mystical sense it signifies heaven , or those intellectual pleasures our natures shall be capable of when they are spiritualiz'd and exalted . that adam and eve in a literal sense signify the first individual persons that were of that species . in a philosophical sense , they signify a generation of men , and w●men ; in a mystical sense , they signify reason and sense , or the superior , and inferior faculties of the soul. that by the serpent in a literal sense is signified a subtile insinuating brute , whose speckled skin ( being beautified with all the variety of natural paint ) made it a fit object to work upon the visive f●culty ; in a philosophical sense , it may signifie natural concupiscence : and , in a mystical sense , it may signifie the devil . by the tree of life , in a literal sense , may be signified an individual tree producing fruit , and preserving life . by the tree of knowledg in a literal sense , may be understood a tree bearing fruit of a poisonous quality , and destructive of life ; in a philosophical sense they may signifie the whole species of vegetables , both of a wholesome and poisonous nature ; in a mystical sense they may denote eternal life and eternal death . adam's giving of names to the beasts signifies the exercise of his natural reason , by distinguishing of their natures . lastly , by eve's eating of the forbidden fruit , may be understood the desire of natural concupiscence ; to gratifie her senses with their beloved objects . advertisement with additional remarks . since the writing of the following discourse , a new theory of the earth hath been publish'd by a thoughtful young divine , who agrees in some notions with me ; this therefore is to assure the reader , that my manuscript laid all the last winter in london , and was printed off before i had a sight of the aforesaid book , which several of my friends can testifie ( if there should be occasion ) thro' whose hands these papers have passed . another thing ought to be taken notice of , and that is my referring several hypotheses and observations to a late writer ( a fault which mr. whiston hath committed up and down his book ) who it seems hath taken them from others ; which i accidentally discover'd by falling upon the monthly miscellany letters , vol. 1. numb . 22. pag. 561 , 566. vol. 2. numb . 2. pag. 49. to 57. as also the philosophical transactions of the royal society . numb . 219. from p. 181. to 201. of which 't is but just to give some instances ; for a tender regard ought to be had for the o●iginal inventors of things , who ought not to be robb'd of the fruits of their labours and studies by pyratical rovers , who set up for stupendous and miraculous discoverers . turn to this essay , pag. 33. the origine of mountains from the disruptions and changes of the strata of the earth was steno's opinion . see his prodrom to a dissertation concerning the changes of the earth . pag. 40.75 , 76 , 77. the same steno , in his prod. places about the central fire of the earth , a huge sphere or abyss of waters ; which , according to him , supplies the earth with springs , the air with vapo●rs , and was sufficient for the general deluge , when by the force of the subterraneous fires , it was thrust and forc●d up , whereby the globe was broken to pieces , and dissolv'd in the vast ●luid . pag. 61.62 . the perpendicular and horizontal fissures of the earth , dividing the strata or beds of sediments , are with great care and accuracy delineated and described by dr. steno in his prodrom , and many other phenomen● relating to the history of the earth , are explain'd at the end of his anatom . canis carchar . in his specim . myolog . pag , 76 , 86 , 88. the resetling or subsiding of bodies , as well terrestrial as marine ( dissolv'd or mix'd with the waters of the deluge ) according to the laws of specifick gravity in their several strata or beds of stone , sand , clay , ma●le , slate , lime , chalk , &c. was publish'd above 26 years ago , by nicholas steno , and agostino scilla ; if the ●oremention'd accounts in the monthly miscellan . letters , and the philosophical tra●●●●●●ons ar● to be rely'd upon ; the books thems●lves being not to be come at in a remote province . this stenoni●n hypothesis of the formation of the * present earth out of the several beds or sediments of matter mix'd with , and sinking down from the waters of the general flood according to the affinity and weight of parts is much oppos'd by a late author of two essays from oxford , who cannot believe the deluge to have been universal , nor the whole earth planted with animals from noah's ark , whose arguments i do not approve of , being inconsistent with true philosophy , and divinity : neither is dr. nichol's second creation of animals after the flood to be allow'd of , being contrary to the design of noah's ark , and to the whole mosaick narration . as to my opinion concerning the origine of fossil shell● , of form'd stones , and subterraneous plants ; scilla himself , tho he with s●eno has taken great pains to prove them to be the exuviae or spoils of animals and vegetables ( from the similitudes of their parts in every particular ) and to be the remains of the deluge subsided and lodg'd in several beds , layers , or sediments ; yet i find by dr. lister , that scilla own'd some sorts of them to be of another original , and the learned dr. himself proves beyond all contradiction , that real perfect shells are ●requently found in the bladder , kidneys , imposthumes , and other cells of animal bodies ; and if so , why need we force them into the midst of quarries and rocks by dissolving the whole frame of nature for their sakes ? if true shells can be form'd within stones of the bladder , and in many other parts of the bodies of creatures ; then by the same argument a million may be form'd in the bowels of the greater world , every ways resembling those of the sea , in striae , lamellae , fasciae , tendons , threds , &c. so that they might perswade steno , dr. hook , boccone , scilla , columna , and mr. ray , that they were really the very same , owing their original to the flood , or chaos , or earthquakes . my hypothesis concerning the generations of several animals is much confirm'd by the learned and experienced father buonani in his late observations circa viventia in non viventibus rep●rta ; who maintains equivocal generation from many clear and undoubted proofs . for , pag. 151. to pag. 166. compare huetius and bochart de paradiso . pag. 189 , 191. some great natural philosophers will have the ignes fatui to be flying gloworms , or some other shining insects . pag. 205. see more of the figures and phenomena of snow and hail in barthol . de nive , hook's micrography , boyle of cold , marten's greenland voyage , lewenho●ck's letters . as for mr. whiston's new theory , i am afraid it will be found altogether inconsistént with the mosaick history , being adapted only to the formation of our little globe , without taking in the heavens ( which moses is particular in ) and depending too much upon mechanical & necessary laws ( as several other late theorys and hypotheses do ) whereby the flood and conflagration might be brought to pass without any relation to the fall of man or sin. for comets and eruptions of boyling abysses may frequently destroy our globe , by such chains of natural causes ; comets by the laws of trajection may dash and drown us with their tails , and the central fire may drive up the vast abyss upon us , whether we sin or no ; these phenomena may befall the moon and all the planets , without any respect to inhabitants , and may happen frequently by such concourses and links of mechanism , and by the ordinary laws of motion . therefore we ought to be cautious of making such grand revolutions to rowl upon machines , as well as on the other hand of coining new miracles and second creations without any warrant from scripture ; of the first i am afraid the ingenious mr. whiston is too guilty ; and of the latter the learned dr. nichols . but considering we are in a country of liberty , and in an age of thought and observation , i can easily pardon the freedom they are pleas'd to take in their studies and enquiries . having lately met with an accurate discourse of bernardini ramazzini , printed 4 years ago in quarto , concerning the subterraneous waters , the several layers or beds of earth upon deep diggings , the fossil shells , bones , vegetables , pavements , &c. as also upon inundations , and deluges , with their effects , i thought fit here to acknowledg the many obligations we owe to that inquisitive physician for his various observations on the changes of the earth about the territory of modena , which are equally commendable with those of columna upon apulia ; dr. hooke , mr. ray , dr. plot , and dr. lister upon england ▪ steno upon tuscany ; scilla and boccone upon sicily and malta ; to whose discoveries little hath been added as yet , notwithstanding the high and mighty pretences of a late author ; who , in an essay toward a natural history of the earth , pag. 37. throws dirt upon those very gentlemen , from whose writings he hath made bold to borrow the best part of the observations in his work : 't is also remarkable , how , pag. 249 , 252 , 255 , 256 , 257 , 259. he falls foul upon a very famous and reverend divine for taking the same philosophick liberty , which he himself assumes in many places of his essay . as for his darling notion ( though none of his own ) of specifick gravity , 't is notoriously false in fact and nature , for the strata , layers , or bed● of sediments ( out of which steno , scill● , grandius , ramazzini , and others , will have the earth made up ) do not lie according to their different weights , or according to the statick laws of descent of solids in fluids ; for the strata of marble , and other stone , of lead , and other metals , lye often near the top or superficies , having many lighter strata under them ; and if all the strata thro the whole globe could possibly be viewed and examined , i am confident the respective order of specifick gravity would not hold in any two together ; and who can fancy , that the parts of ferns , mosses , and other plants , of shells , teeth , and other bones , should equiponderate with those of metallick fossils ; nay , oftentimes subside below them ; and whoever views the dimensions , weight , figure , and place of those vast natural columns , call'd the devil 's causy in ireland , will be soon convinced of the weakness of this hypothesis . their origine therefore must be accounted for some other way than what colu●na , steno , scilla , boccone , grandius , and others copying after them , have deliver'd concerning the deluge and inundations , strata , crusts or sediments according to the laws of specifick gravity ; neither are the many phenomena relating to their situation , explicable by any theories of the earth as yet publish'd ; i know not what dr. hooke may do when he comes to print his lectures upon this subject , which the virtuosi expect , and very earnestly crave of him : much also may be perform'd by the learned mr. edward lhwyd , keeper of the oxford museum , who hath been very diligent and accurate in his observations on these bodies , and whose candor and modesty , joyned with his exquisite judgment , render him capable of such an undertaking . as to the origine of subterraneous plants , either digg'd out of earthen beds , or lodged within stony substances , or else impress'd upon them , which steno in his prodroms ( translated by mr. oldenburgh ) pag. 93 , 94 , 95. will needs derive the same way with those of shells , teeth , bones , and other parts of animals , buried in the like strata or sediments of the deluge ; mr. lhwy'd of oxford has rais'd many invincible objections against this stenonian hypothesis in the last edition of camden's britannia , p●g . 692 , 693. and mr. ray in his second preface to the synopsis of british plants ▪ argues very philosophically against this opinion , reviv'd of late with great assurance , and in a positive manner ; but mr. whiston hath done very wisely in taking no notice of the many insuperable difficulties which have been u●g'd against the bringing in of these bodi●s , and the forming our present crusts and layers of earth , out of a general deluge . he hath saved himself much swea● and pains in having recourse only to two or three late books , and in consulting copies instead of originals , which would have given more strength and beauty to his work , and would have look't more masterly ; however the gentleman hath perform●d very well in the main , and hath shewn a profound and clear knowledge in physical science , though not in the history of learning , nor in that of nature . hi● conjectures are admirable , but his quotations and references are not co●mendable , being injurious to those eminent philosophers who were the first i●ventors , and yet passed over in silence , as though there had been no such writers ; many of their observations being attributed by the author of the new theory to one of his own acquaintance , who may do as much for him another time ; but i would not willingly accuse mr. whiston of any ungenerous dealing , having discover'd a noble genius in the formation of his system ; and therefore i conclude with respect to him , and with charity to all mankind . the contents of the first part. chap. 1. the philosophical meaning of these words ( in the beginning god created the heavens and the earth , ) and what may be concluded from them . chap. 2. of god the supream and effici●nt cause ; and why moses proves not the being of a god expresly by way o● argument ; ●ut implicitly by describing of the several degrees of perfection , and the subordinations of life . chap. 3. of the creation of second causes , and the manner of their production , and ways of working . chap. 4. of light and darkness , the common principles of mix'd bodies , what they were in mass ; and how their division made the first production . chap. 5. of light the formal cause of all mix'd productions ; what it was whilst in mass. chap. 6. of darkness , the material cause of all mix'd productions ; what it was in mass , how it was redu●'d into form : of the power of matter and motion : of sympathy and antipathy . chap. 7. of the spirit of god moving upon the face of the waters , what is philosophically meant by it : of the ●irst division of the waters , and the clearing of the sublunary firmament . chap. 8. the division of the lower waters into subterranean , superterr●nean , and nubiferous , and by what gradations the dry land appear'd . chap. 9. of the primeval or antediluvian figure o● the earth . chap. 10. of the constituent p●rts o● the earth ; and ●irst of the volatile part of it , or the central fire , its natural vses . chap. 11. of the sixt part of the earth : and first of the inequality of its surface ; their natural causes and vses . chap. 12. of mountains , their original cause , consistences , and natural vses ; being the first dry land that appear'd . chap. 13. of mountain heaths , &c. chap. 14. o● the plains and valleys , &c. chap. 15. of the channel of the sea , &c. chap. 16. of the ●luid part of this terraqueous globe ; and ●irst of the sea , &c. chap. 17. of those preternatural accident● that disturb and interrupt the course of nature in this material world , &c. chap. 18. of the central damps : their causes , natures , and dreadful effects upon this globe . c●ap . 19. of terrene damps , and their dreadful effects upon this globe , &c. chap. 20. of noah's flood , its causes , the season of the year when it happen'd , the effects and alterations it made upon the earth . chap. 21. of the season of the year when the deluge happen'd . chap. 22. of the alterations which noah's flood made in , and upon the earth . the contents of the second part. chap. 1. of the plastick spirit in matter , and its natural products . chap. 2. of the grand cover of the earth , the sympathetical vnion of the plastick and vivisick spirit ; and the production of vegetables , the first and lowest degree of life . chap. 3. of reducing the confus'd mass of light or the etherial flame into a body , which made the sun ; of reducing those lighter fogs and wa●erish mists into a body , which made the moon ; how by clearing of the superlunary firmament , or the planetary spheres , the stars appear'd , and what the sun , moon , and stars contribute towards the production of sensitive or locomotive animals , and why the creation of these second causes made the fourth production . chap. 4. of the production of the second degree of life , and first of oviparous animals , as fish and waterish insects . chap. 5. of the second genus o● oviparous animals , viz. the aerial : and first of fly-insects , secondly of serpents , thirdly of birds , and why moses makes the waterish and aerial animals congenial . chap. 6. of the terrene , or viviparous animals . chap. 7. of the creation of man , the sixth production . the conclusion : wherein is shewn the meaning and signisicancy of these words . and god saw every thing that he had made , and behold it was very good . a discourse concerning the terrestrial paradise , shewing how adam was introduced into it : the time he continued in it , and how he and eve employed that time. a discourse concerning the conflagration of this material world ; the local hell ; its outmost boundaries , or abraham's gulph . a short treatise of meteorology , with some observations concerning the changes and alterations of the weather . chap. 1. of vapour●●nd exhalations , &c. chap. 2. of the efficient causes o● all meteors , and first of heat . chap. 3. of cold , the other efficient cause of meteors . chap. 4. of the air , or medium wherein all meteors are generated . chap. 5. of fiery meteors , &c. chap. 6. of comets , &c. chap. 7. of thunder , its causes and effects . chap. 8. of vaporous meteors , and first of dews and hoar frosts . chap. 9. of rain , hail , and snow . chap. 10. o● hail and snow , with observations . chap. 11. of frost and thaw . chap. 12. o● the sphere of rarefaction . chap. 13. of wind , helms , and arches . chap. 14. prognostications of the change and alteration of weather , from the setting and rising of the sun. the author living at a great distance from the press , desires the reader ●o p●●don those following mistake● . page 5. line 13. read further , p. 25. l. 6. r. philosophically , p. 27. l. 9. r. anteperistatical , p. 30. l. 10. r. nutritius , p. 44. l. 25. r. fluidity , p. 67 l. 1. r. nature , p. 91. l. 4. r. sublunary , p. 121. l. 24. r. litoral●s , p. 13● . l. 25. r. assimilation , p. 139. l. 10. r. learned , p. 155. l. 28. r. zodiack ▪ a scheme wherein the several phaenomena of this terraqueous globe are explained . abcdefg a the central fire disseminating a vital heat , through the whole cortex or shel of the globe . b the mountains ●rom the centre to the surface . c heaths . d plains . e the channel of the sea. the flatt strata or beds of matter , with their acclivities to the ●ountains and declivities to the seas together with their elevations and depressions : thus described the winding and turnings of the greater veins , dividing the several classes of matter described thus through which the whole mass of s●●terranean water circulates . their lesser fibres , or rami factions ▪ filling all the flat strata with feeders of water , which breaking out upon the surface of the earth cause spring &c. described thus ▪ f the seas with the rivers flowing into them from the tops of the mountains swelling them into a ci●bosity ; and causing in them a continual fermentation . g vapors arising from the seas , which being attracted by the coldness of the mountains , fixeth there : forming an atmosphere round the whole globe . part . i. chap. i. ●he philosophical meaning of these words [ in the beginning god created the heavens and the earth , ] and what may be concluded from them . moses in his philosophical description of the creation , lays it down as a granted principle or a grand thesis , ●●at the heavens and the earth , with 〈◊〉 their parts , furniture and variety 〈◊〉 natures contained in them , were ●●eated [ de novo ] and that god the ●●pream being un-created , and inde●endent , almighty in power , and in●●nite in wisdom and all perfections , ●as the efficient cause : that the time when the world was created , was in the beginning of time ; or when time first began to have a being ; for before the world was created there was duration , or stabilis aeternitas [ as the schoolmen express it ] but time being an equal mensuration of motion , it and motion began together . from this grand thesis we may conclude , first against aristotle , who endeavour'd by many arguments to prove that the world , as it now stands in matter and form , was eternal ; which hypothesis advanceth the world into an equality with god ; makes it its own efficient cause , uncreated and independent . in the second place this mosaick thesis concludes against plato and his followers ; who , tho' he did positively assert , that god made the world ; yet he did conceive that the matter on which it did consist was eternal and pre-existent : by which hypothesis he concludes god to be an impotent cause , not able to create the world without matter and stuff to work upon . these mistaken principles in philososophy were occasion'd from the observation of the regular course of nature ; not considering that there might be other causes which might produce effects in an other way than cou'd ever come within the compass of their narrow observation ; for how spiritual causes produce their effects , its impossible for us whilst we continu● in this dark state of matter ; wherein we have but a very short and narrow prospect to understand . in the third place it concludes against democritus and his followers , who did not only conceit that matter was eternal and pre-existent ; but that the world had no efficient cause , but what was from chance , or the casual motion of matter ; which consisting of infinite numbers of atoms or little corpuscles of different figures , natures and qualities , which rainged about in a vast and infinite space ; until at the last by divisions , separations and mixtures occasioned by their contrary and mixt qualities , and the innate power of sympathy and antipathy , they at last setled into the form and figure of this world , which it can no more alter or vary from , than the active fire be taught to change its nature , and descend and gravation to ascend and fly upward . no doubt but this hypothesis wa● grounded upon an experimental observation of the several kinds of matter of different natures , which being mixt together in a glass , or any transparent vessel , will separate and divide themselves proprio m●tu ; tho never so jumbled and mix'd together . i shall not in this place sh●w you the absurdity of this hypoth●sis ; but rather chuse in the following chapters to give some account what feats , matter and motion will produce by vertue of their contrary qualities , and the power of sympathy and antipathy ; and how far god almighty might make u●e of th●se towards the forming the materrial part of this world. we may hence farther conclude , that although neither the world as it stands , nor the matter on which it consists did pre-exis● ; yet it was an immediate consequent of eternity , and the natural product of the divine essence , and attributes ( viz. ) power , wisdom , and goodness , according to that model and idea pre-conceiv'd in the divine understanding : for it cannot be imagin'd that th● divine essence wou'd for some time sit still , and wrap up it's self in sloth and idleness ; but did always display its self in a vigorous activity . besides the natural tendency of infinite power , is action ; of infinite wisdom is counsel ; of infinite goodness is beneficence : we cannot therefore but conclude from these natural arguments , that god would from all eternity follow the inclinations of his own divine perfections . from this grand thesis we may yet futher conclude , that this universal fabrick of the world was not created at one stroke , by an imperious f●at ; for tho this might have been consistent with infinite power ; yet it would not have been agreeable with infinite wisdom , which consists in deliberation , counsel and contrivance . moses therefore tells us that god first created the heavens , and then the earth : like as some mighty monarch designing to build a spacious and most glorious palace , first forms the model of it in his mind ; and having prepar'd his materials , sets on work his under-agents , who first of all lay the foundations , and compleat his own royal apartments , then the apartments of his chief ministers of state , after that chambers for his domesticks , and last of all lodgings for his out servants ; and the work being finish'd , according to the model which he gave his architects to work by , he gives it his approbation . in like manner , the great and almighty monarch of the universe may be supposed , first to have laid the foundations of those super-coelestial regions of unaccessable light , the royal chambers of his own most glorious presence ; where he sits in great majesty attended with an innumerable retinue of the most noble angels his courtiers : after these he creates the highest of the coelestial spheres , in which he placed thousands of royal mansions , where the arch-angels and brighter cherubins , the chief ministers of state in that coelestial kingdom keep their residence : and these are the morning stars which iob tells us [ by way of synecdoche ] that met together , and the sons of god that did shout for joy . after these god created the inner or lower spheres , in which he placed innumerable numbers of bright , lucid and aetherial globes ; wherein the inferior angels and domestick officers do inhabit , and these the scripture stiles ministring spirits . and these differ in office , power and light , as they are placed in spheres nearer , or at a distance from the regions of light : for as one star differeth from another star in glory , light , purity and magnitude ; so do their heavenly inhabitants : and so shall it be in the resurrection from the dead ; for as men improve here in vertue , goodness and the divine life and light , so shall they be placed nearer , or at a distance from god , the fountain of life and light. after the finishing of these inner courts of this royal palace , last of all god created this material globe or outer court ; and made it the center of the universe : and it 's built of the rubbidge , dross and sediment of the whole creation , and inhabited with the meanest of creatures , and lowest degree of life and perfection , which may most properly be called god's out servants ; over which he has placed man deputy lord governour . this material globe , tho it appears in its own dimensions to be o● great magnitude to us ( who bear not so much proportion to it , as a mole-hill does to the greatest mountain ) yet being compared to the whole universe [ if the computation of the best philosophers be true ] it will scarce bear proportion to the ninety six thousand part of it . it cannot therefore be imagined that the wise creator [ who never made any thing in vain , but to the best end● and wisest purposes● ] should be so fond of a piece of dull stupid matter , as to create all those innumerable numbers of bright , lucid , aetherial globe● ( the least of which exceeding this mole-hill in magnitude by several diameters ) for no other end or purpose than distinguishing of days , months , seasons and years ; and for casting a dark glimmering light to us poor mortals . as god almighty finished any part of the creation , he gave it a motion , and this motion it performs naturally and insensibly , without labour or difficulty ; as our blood circulates through our veins and our vital spirits glide in the nerves through the whole body . the almighty having now finished the creation which made up but one royal palace , containing in it innumerable mansions , fit for the subjects of so great a monarch to live in : he sits at the helm of this floating universe , and steers all its motion● with a steddy and unerring hand . and it can be no more labour to god to govern and actuate this world ; who as an universal soul is diffu●'d in it , and is vitally present in every part of it , than for a man 's rational soul by will and cogitation , to move a finger or a toe , or any other part of his body ; tho at the greatest distance from its seat. chap. ii. of god the supream and efficient cause ; and why moses proves not the being of a god expresly by way of argument ; but implicitly by describing of the several degrees of perfection , and the subordination● of life . when moses writ this excellent system of the creation , politheism and idolatry had prevailed over the generality of mankind , and abraham's posterity were become worshippers of egyptian gods , as appears by their making of a molten calf at horeb. yet notwithstanding this multitude of inferior deities which the world had set up for divine worship ; the generality of mankind did universally believe , that there was one supreme god , who was the efficient cause and almighty creator of this world , consisting of the heavens and the earth : and that this god was the father and governour of all the rest . the philosopher might therefore justly conclude it superfluous to prove by strength of argument a tenet , or rather an article of faith ; to which the common suffrage of mankind did so universally consent and agree : and if it be suppos'd that moses writ this system of the creation , with the rest of his book , which gives an account of the patriarchal genealogies , on purpose for the benefit and instruction of the israelites ; who in all probability could not but be ignorant of the traditions and religion of their ancestors : [ the ●pse dixit ] of so great a philosopher ; a man so eminent for these mighty and unparallel'd miracles and wonders , which th' almighty wrought by his hand upon egypt before their eyes ; were sufficient to convince them , not only of a bare credibility ; but of the truth and certainty of this divine thesus , that there was a god , and that he created the heavens and the earth . but as god did not limit and consine his favours wholly to abraham's posterity ; but extends them to the universal body of mankind : so notwithstanding that moses wri● these books for the instruction of that people in the first place , he undoubtedly de●●gn'd them for the information of others living in a state of ignorance : and therefore although he does no● expresly by way of argument prove the being of a god , and that he wa● the supreme cause of the world's creation [ atheism being not then heard of in the world ] yet he does it implicitly by describing of those several degrees and subordinations of life in the world ; and by shewing how eve●y inferior rank of creatures is subservient to its superior ; and how every inferior species is concatenated and link'd to its superior by intermediates , all which is so visible and obvious in the frame of the world , that an easie philosopher without any great difficulty , or hard study may ascend gradatim , first from those common minerals of salt , sulphur and mercury , to the several degrees and kinds of oars and metals ; from these to the fertile soil : from it to the several degrees of life and perfection in vegetables , as grass , herbs , plants , shrubs , trees , &c. and from these to the zoophyta or plant-animals , which concatenates the highest degree of vegetation to the lowest degree of sensation ; from the several degrees of sensation in brutal animals , to man which is an intermediate animal , that links and couples heaven and eearth together ; from man to t●e several degrees of light , life and perfection in the angelick nature ; and from the intellectual nature , to god the fountain of light , life and perfection ; who , as an universal soul , actuates the whole world , by giving of the several degrees of life and perfection to all the creatures in the animal world , as they are plac'd in orbs or spheres nearer or at a greater distanc● from his divine essen●e . thus in god all creatures live , move , and have their beings , and by these gradations we may either ascend up to heaven , where god almighty resides in infinite glory and perfectio● , or from thence descend to the hidden and dark regions of matter . chap. iii. of the creation of second causes , and the manner of their producton ; and ways of working . the grand reason why plato and aristotle , and ●he rest of the natural philosophers did assume it as a granted principle , that nothing wa● made out of nothing ; and that every thing produced , had necessarily some pre-existent matter out of which it was so formed ; was [ as i have already hinted ] because they cou'd not observe in the ordinary course of nature any thing produced de novo ; therefore ●hey concluded it impossible that any such production cou'd ever be , or ●appen in nature : but from particular experiments or observations to establish a general conclusion ; especially concerning the impossibility of any thing 's existence , is no regular and warrantable way of argumentation ; for there may be agents of another sort , and powers which can produce effects in another way , than cou'd ever come within the compass of our observation ; for we see , and cannot but make it an observation , that one sensitive animal by the power of sensation can do more , and produce greater effects , than all the vegetables can produce by the power and strength of vegetation . and one man by the power of his natural reason can produce more noble effects , than all the brute animals by the strength of sensation ; so one angel by the power and vigour of his spiritual and intellectual natures , can produce effects more great and wonderful , than all the men in the world can by the power of reason , tho' never so exalted and sublimated ; for we read in 2 kings 19. chap. and 15. verse that an angel in one night went out and smote in the camp of th' assyrians one hundred and fourscore and five thous●nd ; but how or by what means this angelick , power was exercised it is not within the compass of shallow reason to conceive : yet we may reasonably conclude from it , that if an angel , by the power of his intellectual nature , can do more than a●l the men in the world ; so god almighty by his divine essence can produce greater and far more wonderful effects than the whole angelick nature ; even such as is impossible either for us , or them to understand . but moses having , to hi● great improvements in natural philosophy , the advan●ages of the patriarchal tradition● , and a divine revelation ; and being best acquainted with god almighty's power in producing effects ; doth not only positively asser● , that god was the maker and builder o● this world ; but that he created i● and the matter on which it doth consist , out o● nothing , and that by uttering of tha● almighty word [ s●at ] not audibly , for then there was no sensible auditor in being ; but mentally , that is , by an act of volition ; sic volo sic ●ubeo being o●ly a prerogative of almigh●y power . the second causes which this almigh●y power created out of nothing , and which he made use of as instrumental i● all productions of a mixt constitution , may be considered either as they are essential or accidental . the essential causes were light and darkness ; the external and accidental causes were motion , time , and place ; without which all natural productions are physically impossible . god having created these second causes by another imperious vvord , set them on working ; and he gave them also a rule or model to work by , which is most commonly called the course of nature ; and when these new agents had produced any effect , he view'd it , and gave it his divine approbation , in these words ; god saw that it was good ( i.e. ) that it was agreeable with that rule and model he had given them to work by ; which words , tho' they be spoken ad hominem , yet undoubtedly moses intended by them to instruct and inform mankind , that the world was not made by chance , or the casual motion of blind atoms , as some since have atheistically asserted ; but by wisdom , councel and deliberation . and this establish'd course of nature , or these laws and rules which the divine wisdom gave to the second causes to work by , he never interrupts or varies from ; but upon great and extraordinary occasions , when he is pleas'd to give some demonstrations , of his almighty power and universal providence by which he governs the world at his will and pleasure ; then he can either divert the natural causes from their usual course , or by them produce supernatural effects ; as the destruction of sodom and gomorrah by extraordinary thunder and lightning ▪ the destruction of all living creatures upon the face of the earth by an universal deluge ; or he can stop them in their natural course , as when he caus'd the sea to divide and stand still , and the sun to move backwards . chap. iv. of light and darkness , the common principles of mix'd bodies , what they were in mass ; and how thei● division made the first production . all the natural philosophers wanting the assistance of a divine revelation , did agree in this ; that there cou'd be no production of a mixt constitution , without a sympathetical union of an active and passive principle ; but what these principles of activity and passivity were , they could not easily determine . these our great philosopher expresseth by the names of light and darkness ; which when they came immediately out of gods hand , were bound up and hamper'd in one confus'd mass ; which might fitly be compar'd to a dark and palpable mist , like the aegyptian darkness which was to be felt , in which vast fog or mist were bound ●p , and smother'd those bright , lucid and active particles of pure and volatile aether , as we see light inclos'd within the walls of a dark lan●horn ; or the active particles of fire when smother'd in ashes , or imprison'd within the dark body of matter . thus darkness was upon the face of this thick mist or fog of matter , until god by another almighty fiat created motion ; which being infus'd into the stagnating mist of matter , the whole mass of it was put into a fermentation and motion ; and whilst the contrary q●alities were acting their antipathies one upon another , these nimble and active particles of lucid aether [ being the most volatile ] broke through this dark mass of matter , and uniting themselves , caus'd a bright shining light , which moses calls day : and this division of light from darkness , occasion'd by the putting of the whole mass of matter into a fermentation and motion , made the first production . chap. v. of light , the formal cause of all mixt productions , what it was whilst in mass. by light is to be understood that vast aetherial flame , which whilst ●t was in mass diffus'd its bright shining rays , not only through the material regions , but the planetary and coelestial spheres : this aetherial flame was the anima mundi , the vehicle of life , wherein was contain'd the seminal and specifick forms of all sublunary creatures , [ man o●ly ●xcepted ] and then da●c'd about the passive matter , like a●oms in the morning sun beams ; until its prolifick slime , by vertue of its plastick power was modifi'd and pr●par'd for receiving of life . and this seems to be the sense and philosophical meaning of moses in the second chapter of genesis , verse the fifth ; god made every plant of the field before it was in the earth , and every herb of the field before it grew ; meaning only their seminal and specifick forms which were contain'd in a vehicle of light , before they were united to their material vehicles . thus light according to the mosaick principles of natural philosophy , became the formal cause or the male parent of all mixt productions . chap. vi. of darkness , the material cause of all mixt productions ; what it was in mass , how it was reduc'd into form : of the power of matter and motion : of sympathy and antiphathy . by darkness , the other principle , or material cause of generation , is not meant a bare p●ivation of light ; but that vast mist , or dark fog of matter consisting of infinite numbers of particles or little corpuscles of different figures , and contrary qualities , which by reason of a principle of motion infus'd into it , run a reel in a dark confusion until these contrary q●alities of heat and cold , siccity and humidity , gravitation and levity , falling out among 'em selves begun to act their antipa●hies upon one another ; which causing them to separate and divide , those of the same kindred and affini●y , by the power of a s●cret and innate sympathy drew together and united . and first of all , these particle● of matter , which were of a hot and volatile nature , being most active and vigorous , plac'd themselves in the centre or middle , as we observe 'em always to do in s●acks of hay , corn or other composi●ions of mixt matters , wherein there is a strife or contest between those contrary qualities of heat and cold , siccity and humidity . and these hot and siery pa●ticles having by their natural tendency taken possession of the centre , began immediately to ●ct their antipathy upon those particles of matter that were of a cold and waterish substance ; forcing them to fly to the circumfe●●nce , and to range about in thick fogs and waterish mists ; filling up not only that vast expansion between the superficies of the ea●th and the moons vortex ; but all ●he planetary spheres . during which contest between heat and cold , fi●e and water , the intermediate matter of a mixt nature , neither ●imply hot nor cold ; but participa●ing of both natures ( viz. ) such as were of an unctious , pinguid , bituminous and terrene quality , se●led themselves in a midle sphere . and every class of matter of the same kind and species , the better to secure it ●elf from intermixing with the matter of a different nature , did inclose it self with great dykes or partitions , consisting of excrementitious , confu●'d and undigested matter ; and the natural position of these being rake-wise from the surface towards the centre , they most properly may be esteem'd the greater joynts of the earth . and as these divide the several kinds of matter , so they preserve the several feeders and mineral waters from intermixing , as will be more largely shewn ; when we shall have occasion to discourse of dykes , rakes , veins , strings , riders , &c. the confus'd m●ss of mixt matter being thus red●c'd to several classes and a regular ●orm ; every class leading to some proper mine or mineral , which is the siner and better digested part of that class ; as coal , rudle , iron and the several kinds of ore ; and these all lay in lax and ●luid strat● or beds , like the loose leaves in an unpres●'d volume or book , or like the weak joynts in a newly conceiv'd embrio , enclos'd in a bag of water in the womb of its pregnant mother . chap. vii . of the spirit of god moving upon the face of the waters , what is pholosophically meant by it : of the first division of the waters , and the clearing of the sublunary firmament . the whole mass of terren● matter being thus far reduc'd into form and order ; [ not according to the laws of gravity , the heaviest subsiding first in order and falling lowest , as dr. woodward conceives , which mistake in observation will be made apparent in its proper place ] [ but by motion of consent , suitability of natures , and an agreeable juxta-position of parts . ] the spirit of god moved upon the face of the waters , which words , if we consider 'em under a philoso●●ical notion , may be understood o● the aetherial flame , which moving upon those waterish fogs and mists , rarifi'd the more subtile and t●nuious parts or fumes of it into a brisk gale of cold condensing wind ; which did not only clear up the sublunary firmament by dividing of those fogs into sublunary and superlunary waters ; but by condensing the sublunary fogs and mists into a vast body of water , it cover'd and surrounded the whole body of terrene matter ; and as the waters sank down towards the centre , they press'd together the several strata or layers of stones , mines , minerals and other subterrene earths , as we press together the leaves of a large volume ; and in our sinking and digging into the body of the earth , we find them lying upon fla●s with a dibb and rise , the rise towards the tops of mountains , and the dibb towards the main ocean ; as the waters left them and forc'd them up , when they drew down into their proper channel . the whole mass of terrene matter being thus compact and cemented together by the pressures of the circumambient ambient waters , as we press brick and tyle in their several moulds ; the central ●ire did by its heat bake and consolidate those stones , metals , mines and minerals that were of a fiery nature , as well as those of an unctuous and pinguid quality , into their several degrees of consolidation and induration ; whilst the anteperistical cold , together with those petrifying juices of salt and nitre which then did abound in all the lax and undigested strata , did petrify those strata of a terrene nature into their several degr●es of induration and lapidifaction . by these natural gradations the earth became fixt upon its center , and ●he waters a fluid body moving and circulating about it ; and they both made one terraqueous globe of a spherical and mathematical rotundity ; all the lines from the superficies to the centre being of an equal length . thus the space between the surface of the waters and the moon 's vortex was clear'd of all those fogs and mists which ranged about in it : and being fill'd with their air , moses calls it the firmament of heaven , which made the second production ( viz. ) of space , wherein the under-agents or second causes had room to work , and produce effects of a higher and more noble nature and quality . chap. viii . the division of the lower waters into subterranean , superterranean , and nubiferous ; and by what gradations the dry land appeared . tho' this great embrio was ready for birth and to breath in fresh air ; yet it could not be deliver'd from this great bag of water , wherein it was enclos'd , by any innate power it had in it self , without a supernatural assistance : the almighty was pleas'd therefore to play the midwife , and to deliver it by breaking of this great body of water ; and by dividing of the sweet from those of a saline and brakish nature . for as soon as the intermediate matter which made the shell of the earth , was redn●'d into form and order ; and the several strata or layers of stones , metals , minerals , and subterrene earths with their cross-cutting and dividing dykes , rakes , ryders , veins and strings or side-branches had receiv'd from the heat of the central fire and the petrefying juices of salt and nitre , their several degrees of incrustation , induration and lapidifaction ; the thirsty matter gradually suckt in the thin sweet water , until all its veins , dykes , cavities and pores were fill'd and saturated with it . the salt water being the sedement of the whole mass , and likewise being too thick to penetrate and pass through the stra●t pores and strainers of the solid and condensed matter , did gradually draw down to its channel : and all the veins and pores of the earth being now saturated with sweet water ; the subterranean lympheducts , or underground water-works began first to bubble up and play from the tops of the highest mountains ; from whence th● rivers took their first rise , and began to form their courses to the sea ; and by their rapidity and weight continually pressing in upon her from all sides , swell'd her up into a gibbosity , and for●'d her into a constant flux and reflux , which reciprocation of motion causing in her a boyling fermentation , the sweet water does disentangle it self from the salt ; and being lighter , riseth up in fumes and vapours , which fly abroad until they be condens'd into clouds , which falling down in showers of sweet water upon the earth become● the succus nutritivus of the fleshy pa●t of it ; giving not only a vital nourishment to the several kinds of animals living on the outer coat or skin of it ; but repairing the subterranean waters by preserving them from wasting . the waters being now divided into superterranean , subterranean and nubiferous , the dry land appear'd , and was gradually prepar'd for being an habitable world. chap. ix . of the primeval or antidiluvian figure of the earth . dr . burnet , in his theory of the earth , conceits and endeavours to perswade the world , that the primeval earth was spherically or mathematically round , without seas , mountains or any inequalities upon its surface . which hypothesis ( or rather ingenious conceit ) seems in the first place to be inconsistent with the original state of this materi●l globe ; which being design'd for a plac● of habition for several kinds of animals of ● mixt and compounded constitution , whose vital ●lame is nourish'd and maintain'd by a continual respiration of a soft and vaporous air ; which must not only be frequently fann'd with the brisk gales and blasts of a cleansing wind , but also moistned and sweetned with showers frequently falling through it : all which have their original cause from the constant flux and reflux of the sea , and those inequalities upon the surface of the earth : without which there would neither have been an atmosphere , wind , rain , or air ; but the superficies of the earth would have been [ by the sun's beams continually beating upon it ] baked and incrusted into the hardness of brick and tyle . this hypothesis seems also inconsistent with the different natures of those animals with which the almighty creator has been pleas'd to stock it ; some of which being only produc'd in a warm and fertile soil , others only in a cold and sterile : so some animals delight only to breath a warm and soft air , others a more bleak and piercing : thus strawberries and gilliflowers will not thrive upon the tops of cold and barren mountains ; nor mountain vegetables in the most fertile soil , or best prepar'd warm beds . this will be made more clear and evident when we shall give account of the natural uses of the flux and reflux of the sea , and those inequalities and irregularities of the earth's surface . once more to suppose the earth to have been of an even and spherical supersicies seems inconsistent with the different kinds and natures of that matter of which it consists ; some of which being hard , others soft , some fix'd others ●luid , it cann't be imagin'd that all this variety of matter would settle in a figure spherically and mathematically round . from these arguments we may without being guilty of any great presumption , conclude against dr. burnet's hypothesis , that as the antediluvian earth consisted of the same matter with this present earth , and produc'd the same species of animals , of the same natures and qualities , it was of the same figure that now we find it in , a terraqueous globe of a physical rotundity , with seas , mountains , &c. and th●t these irregularities and inequalities of this terrestrial globe did not date their original from that disruption which was occasion'd by the deluge as dr. woodward positively asserts , part 2d page 80. is evid●nt from part 6. page 246. where he undertakes to prove that the face of the earth before the deluge was not smooth , even and uniform ; but unequal , and distinguish'd with mountains , valleys ; as also with seas , lakes and rivers . chap. x. of the constituent parts of the earth : and first of the volatile part of it , or the central fire ; its natural uses . the constituent parts of this terraqueous globe are reducible to three different classes of matter , ( viz. ) volatile , fix'd and fluid ; and these bear equal proportion one to another , and in the structure of the earth do occupy the same proportion of place . the volatile matter , consisting of sublimated sulphur , nitre and bitumen keeps possession of the central part ; and as all matter of the same kind and affinity , which having an appetite to union , naturally affects a round and globular figure , so the central fire may be suppos'd to be of the same form. that figure wherein the excentral fire appears , is only accidental , occasion'd by the compressures of the circumambient air. that vast subterranean vault wherein this volatile globe of central fire is contain'd [ which the miners call th● belly of the earth ] may be suppos'd to be either of a round or circular ; or of an aequilateral , multangular figure ; occasion'd by the solid strata of stones spreading and vaulting themselves about it . the natural uses of this central fire seem to be analogous to that vital flame which is seated in the he●rt or center of all animals ; for as that by its vital heat ●nlivens the whole body ; so this central ●ire by that vital warmth it disseminates through the whole mass of matter , enlivens it ▪ and gives as well to the several strata of stones , metals , minerals and other subterranean earths , their degrees of consolidation ; as to the several kinds of ores , their different degrees of purity and perfection . as the vital flame does not only cause the ebullition and pulsisick faculty in the exterior pa●ts of the body ; but also the circulation of the whole mass of blood through all the greater and lesser veins of it ; so the central fire is as well the cause of the ebullition of springs , thermae and mineral feeders which break out upon the tops of mountains and the exterior parts of the earth ; as of the constant circulation of the whole mass of subterranean water through those dykes , rakes and fissures , which from the mountains do divide and spread themselves through the whole body of the earth , and are the greater and lesser veins of it . again , as the vital flame gives the tincture and colour to the blood , flesh and all the heterogeneous parts of the body ; so the central fire , by the different degrees of concoction and boyling up of matter , gave to the several kinds of it their different tinctures and colours ; this might be illustrated by several analogous experiments and observations , as in the boiling of quinc●s and other fruits ; so likewise in b●king of bread ▪ &c. the central fire , by running a perpetual round within the boundaries of its own infernal vault , carries the shell of the earth about with it , and is the cause of its diurnal motion . lastly , it is the earth's aequilibrium that keeps it fix'd upon its center . chap. xi . of the fixt part of the earth : and first of the inequalities of its surface ; their natural causes and uses . the fixt part of this terraqueous globe which we call the earth , may be describ'd either as to its exterior parts , or interior consistences of it . the exterior parts consist of mountains , heaths , dales , plains , valleys , with the channel of the sea. the interior consistences of it are the strata or beds of stones , metals , mines , minerals and subterranean earths , all lying upon flats with a dibb and rise . or they are dikes , rakes , riders , veins and strings either cross-cutting and dividing the several kinds of stones , metals , mines , minerals , &c. of a different kind ; or cross-cutting and dividing those of the same species ▪ as all metallick rakes , &c. of the inequalities of the earths surface . these irregularities and inequalities upon the superficies of the earth , are occasion'd by the elevations and depressions of the solid strata ; and these are cau'd either by the greater dikes , which divide one species of stones , &c. from those of a different kind ; and these greater dikes make channels and water-courses for the greater rivers , which following their windings and turnings till they empty themselves into the sea , cause all those pleasant dales , which at last , when the mountains wear out , dilate themselves into spacious plains and valleys , the lesser dikes and joynts which divide the stones , &c. of the same kind , by throwing them up and down , cause all those lesser hills , which as well delight the eye with a grateful variety of objects , as refrigerate and cherish the whole body with a more cool , clear and wholsome air. there is not any thing in this natural world , that contributes more towards the making of it habitable , then these inaequalities upon its surface . for , first they occasion all these different kinds and natures of soil , which produce the several species of vegetables suitable to the several natures of those animals that feed upon them : the earth's surface being god's storehouse , wherein is provided food and nourishment agreeable to the nature of every animal , and every living creature by a natural instinct knows its proper food and nourishment , and when and where to find it . they occasion all those different qualities of the air , as warm , cold , thick , thin , moist and dry ; for as god has provided food suitable to the several natures to feed on , so he has provided air suitable to their natures to breath in . those inequalities upon the earth occasion all those springs , mineral feeders and medicinal waters , which break out in rapid streams from the tops of mountains , and the skirts of lesser hills ; so that as god has provided convenient food for every animal to feed upon , and agreeable air to breath in ; he has likewise [ by causing of springs to break forth and bubble up at the foot almost of every hill ] provided convenient water for every animal to quench its thirst with . whereas if the earth had been of an even and spherical supersicies , cover'd with one solid strata , or incrusted cover of earth ; i doubt we should have been forc'd to have digg'd as deep as dr. burnet and dr. woodward's abyss , before we sho●'d have met with water sufficient to have quench'd our thirst ; and it s also doubtful that when we had found it , it wou'd not have been sweet and wholsome . these inequalities also cause the s●veral strata of stones , mines and o●es , &c. [ having a natural rise ] to br●ak ●o●th at day , so that the inge●●ou●●●d industrious miner may meet with , not only stone for building of houses , coals for his fires ; but the several kinds of ore to enrich his coffers with . these inequalities also produce all those pleasant and most profitable copises and thickets of all kinds of trees , which delight most to grow where the solid beds of stone are weak and broken and lye near day , and where they may easily thrust their roots into their broken joints and suck in the mineral spirits , &c. chap. xii . of mountains , their original cause , consistences and natural uses ; being the first dry land that appear'd . the mountains are the ebullition o● matter , occasion'd by the central fire when it was in its ●ull strength and vigour . they consist of such strata of stones , metals , raggs , chivers , cills , &c. as are of a hot quality ; and these are like so many hot-beds wherein the several kinds of ore receiv'd their conceptions , as well as their different degrees of concoction and perfection ; as hereafter will be more fully shewn . the mountains consisting of such matter as is of a hot quality , and being bound with strong cills , which having a quicker rise than those upon the plains , do lift up their heads above the rest of the earth ; and became not only the great pillars and supporters of the whole fabrick ; but the first sea-banks that broke the circulation of the waters , and were the first dry land that appear'd . the tops of the mountains reaching a● high as the cold regions of the air ; and having but the advantage of a single r●flection of the sun 's globuli , have always a cold and condensing air upon them , and striking a level with the gibbosity of the sea , do by the sympathy between cold and cold attr●ct the vapours to them , which either fall down in showers of rain , being condens'd by the rising of the ground cold ; or are rarifi'd into wind by the falling of the sphere of rarefaction , which term will be hereafter explain'd when we describe the nature of winds . all the greatest dikes and divis●ons of the earth [ as i have already observ'd ] do contract themselves and meet in the mountains , as the veins do in the necks of animals ; and these being the greater veins of the earth , by dividing into lesser veins and branches , maintain and preserve a constan● communication or circulation of water through the whole body . and this is the only reason why the heads of all the greatest rivers in the world have their rise from the tops or sides of the highest mountains ; which by following of the windings and turnings of these greater dikes or veins , and by receiving into them the lesser dike-feeders , are increas'd from small rivulets into large and navigable rivers , which at the last empty themselves into the main ocean . the declivity of the mountains gives rapidity of motion to the rivers , which does not only preserve their sweetness for the benefit of men and beasts ; but also by pressing upon the sea from all sides , swells her up into a gibbosity , and is the only cause of her flux and reflux , which the following chapters will give account of . as the declivity of the mountains gives rapidity of motion to the rivers ; so it gives motion to the winds and air : for as the condensation of vapours causeth an inundation in the waters ; so the rarefaction of the vapours and exhalations causeth an inundation and overflowing in the air : and those lateral blasts of wind that come so strong upon us , are only waves of the air ; and the roaring noise we oftentimes hear upon the mountains , is only the breaking forth of the winds upon the still body of the air , and there putting of it into a rapid motion , which is increas'd by the descent of the mountains ; for air and water are the same in specie , differing only in degrees of thinness and fludity , as the mountains are the great pillars and supporters of the earth , their foundations all meeting in the center , and forming that vast subterranean vault , which keeps the central fire from breaking forth ; so they are the greatest ornament of its superficies ; giving not only a most pleasant prospect over the plains and valleys , but terminating the visive faculty with a grateful variety of objects . the mountains have their natural position either in ridges or clusters ; those we see in clusters intermixt with great dales , gills and valleys , were [ at the first settling of matter ] all of an even superficies ; but their joynts and divisions consisting of raff , ragg , chiver and such confus'd matter , without strong cills or strata of stones to bind them together , were by great storms and tempests of rain , &c. but especially by noah's flood , broken and driven down into the valleys ; and from thence into the next adjacent sea. and this is the reason why some mountains have a perpendicular rise , why their ribs and sides lye naked and frightful , threatning to fall upon us ; and these great dikes and joynts are either fill'd with ponds of water , which afford great plenty of fish ; or they are become pleasant valleys gills and dales ; having a f●uitful soil and the warmest sun , by reason of its beams being reflected from all sides of the mountains . chap. xiii . of mountain heaths , &c. the mountain heaths lye upon the skirts of mountains towards the sea , their consistences and several strata are rather of a pinguid , bitumious and nitrous , than of a hot and sulphureous quality ; and they generally lead to mines of coals , which are the pneumatick parts of such strata of stones and metals as are their uppercovers ; the principal and more pneumatical ingredients whereof are bitumen , sulphur and nitre ; bitumen gives the flame ▪ nitre blows it up , and sulphur gives the heat . th●ir cros●-cutting and dividing dike● consist of tough clay and a mixture of confus'd matters ▪ these mountain heaths were the second dry land that appear'd ; for as the sea did gradually draw down into its channel ; its unruly waves drove up these lesser hills we see upon the skirts of the mountains , and forc'd their strata of stones , metals , &c. to have a rise towards them , thereby making a channel so spacious as might contain so vast a body of water , and keep its proud waves within their proper limits . their stones , metals , &c. had their degrees of incrustation and lapidifaction from the central fire . chap. xiv . of the plains and valley , &c. the last dry land that appear'd , was the plains and valleys , which by the depression of their strata sank down into the channel of the sea ; the consistences of these are rather of a terrene and nitrous , than ● pinguid quality . they afford us the best free-stone as white , grey , red and yellow ▪ these tinctures and colours they receiv'd from those different degrees of concoction they had from the central fire ; and the degrees of lapidifaction and induration they receiv'd from the anteperistical cold , and petrefying juices : their strata have an easie dibb towards the sea , sometimes not a yard at fifty ; for as the waters divided , their strength abated , and the flat strata laid more level . chap. xv. of the channel of the sea , &c. as the valleys sink down gradually into the channel of the sea ; so the channel is only a spacious valley as far depress'd before the surface of the earth , as the mountains and mountainous heaths are advanc'd above it . its consistences are of a terrene , nitrous , mercurial and saline quality , which is the reason the sea-sand will by a violent heat run into a glassy substance . and why the most precious pearls are found in that part . chap. xvi . of the fluid part of this terraqueous globe ; and first of the sea , &c. the sea is that vast body of salt wa●er contain'd in its proper channel : it s the sediment of the whole mass of water , and therefore is thicker and heavier than either the subterranean or aerial waters ; which is the reason why it can neither penetrate the straight pores of solid matter , and so intermix with its sweet feeders ; nor be elevated in vapours by the sun's in●luence and fall down in brackish showers , which would be destructive as well of plants and herbs as men and beasts . the seas are in a continual flux and reflux : the cause of which is the rapidity and weight of the rivers continually pressing in upon it from all sides ; and the sea-waters being not only thicker , but of a different nature from the thin and sweet river-water , and having a natural appetite to union , will not easily suffer the rivers to incorporate with them , which is the true reason why the rivers swells her up on both sides of the shoar , unt●l the weight of the salt-water over-balancing the weight of the sweet-waters causeth the sea to break in the middle , and by the greater weight and strength of her wa●es forceth the invaders to retreat and ●all back until the salt-water has lost its weight and strength ; and this is the cause of its flux . the salt-water having thus lost i●s weight and strength , the rivers redouble their force , and by the rapidity of their motion and weight of their waves forceth the salt-waters to a gradual and orderly retreat ▪ and to swell up into such a height of gibbosity that its weight again over-balanceth the weight and strength of the rivers ; and this is the cause of its reflux . thus the flux and reflux of the sea is occasion'd by the continual strife between the fresh-water and the salt ▪ and the spring-tides and dead-tides are occasion'd by the gradual increase and decrease of the reciprocation of their motion ; as we observ'd in the spring or balance of a clock in giving her back stroaks at every tenth . this continual strife between the fresh-water and the salt causeth a conconstant heat and fermentation in the sea ; and this boiling fermentation causeth the sweet river-water to fly up in mists and vapours , which causeth an atmosphere to be round the whole terraqueous globe ; and when these mists and vapours are condensed into clouds they fall down in showers of sweet rain upon the surface of the earth . thus tho' the sea affords no sweet-water , yet it is the only medium which preserves and maintains a constant communication and circulation between the subterranean and aerial waters . the saline quality of the sea is occasion'd by her being boiled up into a sediment by the central fire ; as well as those rocks of mineral salt that abound in her channel . this saltish quality of the sea does not only preserve that vast body of water from corrupting ; but by causing her water to be thicker and heavier than those in the fresh rivers , it makes them more able to bear burthens of much greater weight , and fitter to maintain a correspondence and communication of trade between land and land , tho' at the greatest distance . tho' the sea and main ocean seems to contain a vast quantity of water ; yet it being compar'd to the subterranean waters which circulate through the veins of that great body , and are contain'd in the strata and pores of dens'd matter ; it will scarce bear the same proportion to them that one does to seventy-two ; for if the computation of those learned men be true who give account that the sea and main ocean cover but one half of the globe , and that the channel of the sea is but one german mile deep [ the shallows being compar'd to the deeps ] then it would necessarily follow that if the earth were mathematically round , it would cover the whole globe only half a german mile , which bears but proportion to the circumference of the earth , as half a mile does to twenty one thousand six hundred miles . again , the diameter of twenty-one thousand six hundred miles being seven thousand two hundred , of which if we allow a semidiameter to the center or belly of the earth there will remain three thousand six hundred miles for the shell or body of it , to which three thousand six hundred the fluid part or superterranean water can bear no less proportion than one to an hundred ; which computations being granted ( and indeed they cannot ●easonably be deny'd ) in the whole body of the earth , there will be found thirty-six german miles of fluid matter , which bears proportion to the seventy-two superterranean seas or oceans . to strengthen this hypothesis we may further add that in sinking of pits , the deeper we sink , we raise the more water ; and that stone or mine of coal which at three fathom deep runs six tubs of water in one hour , containing thirty gallons a-piece , at six fathom it will double the number ; and so on till the water be invincible ; as in hogsheads full of water the highest tap runs slowly , because there is little weight of water upon it ; but the middle or lowest tap will run double and treble the quantity in the same time , there being double and treble the weight of water upon it . again , if we do further add that besides the water that circulates in the veins of the earth , there is so much of water intermix'd and incorporated with the fixt and solid matter , that if stone , metal , or coal [ when it s digg'd out of its living strata or beds ] be immediately expos'd to the sun or fire , it will in a short time want of weight above an hundredth part , the fluid part being exhal'd . the greater dikes or veins in the earth , are principally four : the first divides and changes the mountain-strata from the mountain-heaths : the second divides those several strata of stone , &c. of which the mountain-heaths consist , from those of the plains and valleys : the third divides those beds and layers of matter on which the plains and valleys consist , from the channel of the sea : the fourth runs under the channel of the sea , whose side-branches causeth all those submarine quick-sands which are the warm beds wherein the sea-fish scatter their eggs for the propagation of their several kinds : as this , so all the rest of the greater dikes and veins have their side-branches filling all the strata of stones , metals , minerals and subterranean earths with water ; so that where-ever we sink into the body of the earth , as soon as we prick [ with our digging instruments those kells of clay &c. which divide the several strata ] we presently raise their feeders . and if any [ who being prompt'd either to gratifie his natural curiosity , or gain some considerable advantage to himself ] would raise a new river upon dry ground , let him go to the foot of some hill or rising ground and begin a level-drift , which by cross-cutting of the several strata of that rising earth , he will tap and fet at liberty all the feeders ; and if he drive on till he shall cross-cut with the drift one branch of those greater dikes , he will raise a considerable river , which may turn to his great advantage . chap. xvii . of those preternatural . accidents that disturb and interrupt the course of nature in this material world &c. having in the former chapters given an account of the originals , causes , consistences and natural uses of the several parts of this natural globe , as well fix'd as fluid : it will not be improper to subjoin an account of such preternatural accidents as sometimes have disturb'd , and may for the future interrupt the regular course of nature ; and at the last so far destroy the frame and fabrick of this material part of it , as to render it uncapable of being an habitable world. and these are earthquakes , hurricanes , volcano's , violent eruptions of the subterranean waters , as at noah's flood ; stagnations of the subterranean air , causing the springs and mineral feeders to sink down into the interior ●arts of the earth ; interruption of the circulation of vapours , and rains upon the earth ( as in the days of elisha the prophet ) ; violent and preternatural thunders , such as destroy'd sodom and gomorrah . these and the like , are the accidental distempers that have happen'd in the body of the earth , and they seem analagous to those fevers , agues , convulsions , &c. which interrupt the healthful constitutions of our own bodies , and are sometimes destructive of 'em : and as all the diseases and distempers our bodies are subject to , have their original from accidental heats or colds , which either sublimates and exalts our animal spirits into a feverish degree of volatility ; or by cold and aguish damps depresseth them into a degree of stagnation . so all those accidental and preternatural disturbances that happen in the course of nature , have their original cause , from the several kinds and natures of damps , which are , either central , subterrene , or aerial ; and are of quality either hot , cold , sweet , or foul. chap. xviii . of the central damps : their causes , natures , and dreadful effects upon this globe . the subterranean vault being filled with a confus'd mass of undigested matter , consisting of sublimat'd sulphur , bitumen and nitre , whenever it happens that there ariseth a war between these angry volatiles , and their fluid neighbours ( viz. ) the subterranean water and air , which circulates through those greater veins that environ this large vault ; and do not only feed and nourish that infernal smother , but keep and confine it within its own boundaries , that it break not forth in violent eruptions upon the fixt body of the earth , as soon as this intestine war commenceth , these active volatiles of sublimated sulphur , bitumen and nitre , collect and aggregate into great bodies . and when these discharge in the central part of the vault , the nitre which is the principal cause of the grand effort or flatus , dilates and expands its self on all sides , upwards and downwards indifferently : and this violent effort or flatus causeth an universal concussion of the whole globe . when the damp gathers towards the circumference of the vault , and there dischargeth it self , the grand flatus hath its tendency upwards ▪ and sometimes causeth a concussion of one half of the globe , without any eruption of fire . when the damp fires upon some class of the superincumbent strata , it either splits them , making cracks and chasms in the exterior parts of the earth for some miles in length , which at the instant of the shock openeth , and in the interval between the shocks closeth again : [ of this kind was that ●rack or chasm which open'd and ●●allow'd up the tents of korah , dathan and abiram ; and no doubt , but the shock struck a terror into the whole camp ] or if the grand flatus be very strong and vehement , it either elevates the whole class above the superficies of the earth , forming a new mountain ; or else it sinks down into the vault , and the vacant place is immediately fill'd with water [ not from dr. woodward's abyss ] but from the veins of the earth which break into it . when the damp fires near or upon some of the great joints or clifts of the earth , the flatus pursues all the windings and turnings of these joints and clifts until it break forth in dreadful hurricanes ; either under the sea , occasioning most horrible disorders and perturbations , raising its surface into prodigious waves , tossing and rowling them about in most strange whirlpools , overturning and swallowing up ships in an instant : and upon the dry land overturning cities , towns , blowing up mountains , &c. tho' these effects of the subterranean nitre when rarified and dilated by the central flame be very dreadful ; yet if these fissures and spiracles through which they get a vent and break out upon the earth had been perpendicular [ as dr. woodward conceits ] they wou'd have destroy'd the whole surface of it . for then every one of these lesser damps or squibs which daily take fire in the subterranean vault , wou'd have broken out upon us . and the greater damps being fired wou'd have blown up not only the inhabitants of the earth ; but their houses with its superficies into the air ; for the deeper the fissure or spiracle is , if it be perpendicular in a streight line , the more strength and impetuosity it gives to the flatus , as we observe in guns and fuzees . again , the very sulphurous exhalations which wou'd have ascended through these perpendicular fissures without interruption , wou'd [ with their noisome smell ] have suf●ocated and stifled those animals that live by respiration , and wou'd have afforded matter for continual thunder in the air. it was then most agreeable with the state of this habitable globe that these fissures or joints of the earth shou'd have their position from the surface to the c●nter in crooked lines with various windings and turnings , openings and closings ; not only for securing us from those dangerous effects of the central and terrene damps ; but also for the better and more commodious communication of the subterranean waters through the flat strata of matter . and lastly , that the subterranean waters by following of the windings and ●urnings of these greater fissures might have a longer journey to the sea , and thereby supply the inhabitants of the earth with sweet waters at a more commodious and convenient distance . these phenomena of central damps , and that they are the only cause of all those universal earth-quakes that have happen'd in this natural world , being wholly new , and the world not yet accquainted with them , may at first sight seem only the products of fancy , or meer conjecture ; yet if seriously and impartially enquir'd into , will be fou●d grounded upon such reason , as cannot without a prejudic'd opinion be easily deny'd . for it cannot be imagin'd by any who have made it their business to understand the structure of the earth ▪ those ●everal classes of solid and dense matter on which it consists , the windings and turnings of those dikes and partitions which divide them and are the subterranean water courses , that there shou'd be magazines of subterranean gunpowder lodg'd in infernal cavities round the whole globe , and that there shou'd be trains laid from one collection to another , and that all these trains shou'd take fire through all the subterranean rivers in one instant of time. neither can it reasonably be suppos'd that there shou'd be a concussion of the whole or half , or any considerable part of the globe , by one subterranean flatus ; but what is from the central vault . again , the consistences of the greatest part of the earth being rather of a gold , terrene and mercurial , than of a bituminous nitrous and sulphureous quality , it cannot be suppos'd that those parts of the earth which afford no quantities of this natural gunpowder shou'd suffer a concussion or earthquake , but from these central damps . besides those miners who have sunk deepest into these occult regions , do from their own experience assure us , that there are no grotto's or cavities above an hundred fathoms deep , unless in those mountainous countries where the consistences are of a sulphurous and nitrous quality , affording plenty of natural gun-powder , which being fir'd cause all those vulcano's we read of in history . chap. xix . of terrene damps , and their dreadful effects upon this globe &c. terrene damps have their original either from heat or cold , and are either fiery or waterish : those which have their original from fire , are of the same nature with those central damps we have given account of . as all local earth-quakes do more frequently happen in the mountainous countries , than in the plains and valleys ; because all the greater dikes , joints and veins of the earth contract and meet there : and the flatus which is the occasion of the shock makes its way by what passage soever it can get vent . but these mountainous cou●tries especially , which yield great store of sulphur , bitumen , and chiefly nitre [ these minerals affording the greatest plenty of natural gun-powder ] are most injur'd by those dreadful shocks , because those mountains whose natural consistences are of so hot and fiery a quality are commonly very cavernous ; and their greater joints and fissures , as well as strong strata having by frequent concussions and earthquakes lost their natural feeders , are become the most proper receptacles for those fiery stores to be lodg'd in until either the central fire , or their own natural heat being contracted into a point , discharge first the lowest damp , and the rest by trains like so many subalterns discharge in course , and sometimes for several months together , till the subterranean gun-powder be all spent . and these burning mountains such as aetna , vesuvius , hecla , and others , are only so many spiracles or vulcano's serving for the discharge of these subterranean damps , which disgorgeth flames of fire , and stones of great weight and substance , showers of sand and rivers of melted minerals ; and yet these mountains by those vulcano's lose nothing of their height or mag●itude , all these eruptions being recruited out of the great magazine of natural gun-powder contain'd in the infernal vault . besides these damps of a fiery natore contain'd in the interior parts of the earth , there are others which sometimes happens in the exterior parts of it ; such as those fiery damps in colleries are only the perspirations of sulphur and nitre out of the cole , wall or mine , collected into a body ; and these either take fire at a candle , or like so many dry exhalations receiv'd into the body of a cloud , and discharge like thunder shakes the earth about the collery , kills the miners , and have other dreadful ●ffects . to these we may add those preter-natural ebullitions and eruptions of subterranean waters , which moses calls the breaking up of the fountains of the great deep : and these whenever they happen upon the earth [ as at noah's flood ] are occasion'd by an universal fermentation and dilation of the central fire , which gaining ground upon their fluid neighbours , force them into a most rapid motion through all the subterranean veins , and consequently causeth those v●olent eruptions of water in all the springs , rivers , joints and fissures of the earth . sometimes the circulation of the subterranean waters stagnates and sinks down into the interior parts of the earth ; the springs and rivers dry up , as in the days of elisha : and this is occasion'd by the stifling and damping of the central heat , the circumambient waters prevailing upon it . sometimes the circumbient air which circulates in the exterior parts of the earth , especially the caverns , joints and concavities of rocky stones and other metals [ and is the only cause of the eruption and motion of springs , rivers , &c. ] damps and stagnates , which forceth the springs and eruptions of waters to stand back , and fill those caverns and joints , from whence they flow until the weight of the waters break the damp , or rather damm of stagnated air ; and then follows eruptions and overflowings of springs , rivers , &c. this kind of damps i have met with sometimes in colleries , where the water made way for it self in such joints and open closers , as it met with in the under cills ; especially lime-stone , which is of all stone the most jointy and open. and when the air in these open joints and cavities was dampt , the waters stood back in the working , and forc'd the mines out of the pit , until the weight broke the damp , and then the waters drain'd this damp most frequently happens in the summer months , when the ambient air is thick with hot and piery exhalations , and the effluvia of sweet blossoms , especially of peas and beans . and this the miners call the sweet damp. this stagnation and damping of the subterranean air is [ in all probability ] the cause of the annual over-flowing of the river nilus , the horary overflowing of the spring at gigleswick in york-shire , the drumming in the well at bautry , &c. and these being by men of learning reckon'd among the magnalia naturae , we shall enquire more particularly into the causes of them : and first of the over-flowing of nilus . nilus is one of the noblest rivers in the world , and is famous not only for the long course it takes through ethiopia and egypt , which is suppos'd to be three thousand miles before it empty's it self into the miditerranean sea ; but also for its over ●lowing and fertilizing that low and level country , supplying in it the want of rain . 't is believ'd by men of great learning that this yearly over-flowing of that country is oc●●s●on'd by the great quantities of snow dissolv'd upon the mountains , from whence it takes its rise ; and these [ as geographers give account ] are that vast ridge of mountains , which for their height bear the name of montes lunae , as i● their lofty tops wash'd their head● in the moon 's waterish vortex . others are of opinion that the yearly over-flowing of that river is caus'd by those great rains which fall every spring in the higher ethiopia : but if either the dissolution of snow , or inundations caus'd by the falling of those spring-rains , were the true reason , &c. they wou'd also cause the othe● rivers in those countries to overflow their banks at the same time ; which is so far from being observable , that when nilus over-flows , the othe● rivers are at a very low ebb. the cause then of this yearly overflowing of nilus , which begins about the 17th of iune and continues until the 6th of october , seems to be a subterranean damp , which yearly stagnates the circulation of air in these vast rocks and open strata , from whence those rapid springs and feeders slow , which are the heads of that famous river . the subterranean air being dampt , the springs and mineral fe●ders are forc'd to stand back and fill all those vast concavities and hollows for several miles upon ●he side-rise , and some miles upon the top-rise of those rocks and metals ; until the weight of so vast a quantity of water [ which may be compar'd to a l●sser sea ] breaks the damp or damm of stagnated air , and then the river begins to over-flow , an● continues until the waters be spent , and the damp gathers again . it s observ'd that when the river nilus begins to over-flow its banks , that great plagues break out in cairo , which seems to be occasion'd by those gross vapours and mineral exhalations that arise from so vast a quantity of stagnated water , which [ whilst by its motion , its purging of it self and recovering of its sweetness ] fly about , corrupt the air , and cause infections . this subterranean damp is likewise the cause of the horary over-●lowing of the spring at gigleswick in yorkshire ; for this spring b●ing the feeder of a lime-stone rock near thirty yards perpendicular in height , which breaks out at the foot of it ; so oft●n as the circulation of the air in the rock is dampt , the spring runs very slowly , and when the weight of the water has broken the damp , it over-flows , and this flux and reflux is once in every hour . i observ'd my self , that before the waters began to flow there was a knocking in the rock , and this was caused by the pressing of the water upon the damp before it broke . the same is the cause of that drumming in the well at bautry , which the inhabitants of the town told me never happ●n'd but against the change of government : this well is observ'd to be ●or the most part dry , which is occasion'd by the feeders standing back ; the drumming noise is occasion'd by the waters pressing upon the damp , and the hollows of the well ; for as soon as the damp is broken , the well fills wi●h water and the drumming is over . this occasions the report of under-ground spirits , which miners call mineral spirits ; and they observe that these spirits give notice by knocking or groaning before the mineral vein be discover'd : i have observ'd my self that in a new collerie , when the workmen were near the coal ( and only the kell which kept the feeder of it unbrok●n ] there wou'd have been a sort of knocking , sighing or groaning , heard in the vein , which was only occasion'd by the weight of the water lying in the coal , and pressing forward for more room and liberty ; for as soon as the coal was prick'd , the water rose in the pit , the knocking was over and the mineral spirit conjur'd . of this kind also is that damp which the miners sometimes meet with in their sinking of deep pits and new works ; where a cloud of breath or sweat perspiring from the bodies of the workmen , will sti●le the circulation of the air , and not suffer the candles to burn. this damp will steal 〈◊〉 breath insensibly from the workm●● and sti●le ' em . there is yet another kind of damp the miners complain of , which they call the foul or stinking damp ; and this is caused by the breaking out of corrupted air from old crusted works . this , if not prevented , will kill and stifle the workmen . the aerial damps will be treated upon in meteorologie . having given an account of the causes , natures and effects of damps , and such preter-natural accidents as have and may disturb and interrupt the regular course of nature ; we cannot but make an enquiry into the causes of noah's flood , the season of the year when it happen'd , and the alterations and devastations it made upon the earth , chap. xx. of noah's flood , its causes , the season of the year when it happen'd , the effects and alterations it made upon the earth . if these two learn'd men ( viz. dr. burnet and dr. woodward had understood better the structure of the terraqueous globe , the natural consistences of it , the causes , natures and effects of damps , and that those subterranean waters which circulate through the veins of the earth bears proportion to seventy two oceans , they wo●'d have discover'd such a quantity of water as wou'd have caus'd an universal deluge without the conceit of a central or subterranean abyss . which hypothesis [ tho' manag'd with the greatest artisice of invention and oratory ] when seriously enquir'd into , will be found to have very little of truth in the bottom of it ; for it seems not only inconsistent with the original settlement of matter , as we have observ'd already ; but also with dr. woodward's hypothesis concerning the re-settling of the fluid matter dissolv'd by the deluge which he positively asserts to have been according to the rules of specifick gravity ; the heaviest subsiding the lowest . this hypothesis if taken for granted , we must necess●rily conclude from it , that all those kinds of ponderous ore , and heaviest rocks of iron , stone , marble , &c. would have sunk down into the central vault and fill'd it up . that the rest of the fix'd matter being by some degree lighter would have spread their solid strata uppermost : and that the fluid waters being by several degrees lighter than the fix'd matter , would have cover'd the whole terre●e globe , and consequently wou'd have caus'd an universal and perpetual deluge upon the earth . but suppose it possible to improve the strength of imagination to such a height , as to fancy that there was originally , and is still , a vast abyss of hot water contain'd in the center of the earth ; it cannot be so easily apprehended by what power or means this vast substance of water shou'd be put into so high a degree of fert●entation and commotion , as to cause an universal disruption and dissolution of the earth , as dr. woodward conceits ; for although that fire placed under a pot sill'd with water , will by emitting of its fiery globuli , and mingling them with the water , cause so violent an ebullition and commotion in it , as to raise the cover and overturn it ; yet it cannot be suppos'd that either that uniform and constant fire or heat , disseminated through the body of the earth ; or the external heat of the sun 's warm influence can produce any such effects ; because fire and nitre do naturally exert their power upwards and side-way , but never downward , but when it is so pent up that it can get no other vent : and when even gun-powder is forc'd to make its effort upon the waters , the strength of its flatus does little execution , being presently sti●l'd . we shall therefore suspend further enquiry about this matter , until dr. woodward's larger volume be made publick , and endeavour to find out some other causes by which that universal deluge which happen'd in noah's time might be effected in an other way , and grounded upon fair probabilities of reason and certainty . first then , no doubt but god almighty was the principal cause , the sins of mankind the provoking cause , and the subterranean superterranean and nubiferous waters were the immediate instruments of it . but how all these divided waters shou'd be re-united and gather'd into such a body as was sufficient to cover all the tops of the mountains fifteen cubits high , as moses gives account , is the only matter of difficulty to be ●ncounter'd . in order to which , i shall not entertain you with a long story of the opinions of learn'd men about it , not undertake to shew you upon what improbable grounds and inconsistences the theorist and dr. woodward have establish'd their hypothesis of it ; but having discover'd a vast and por●entous body of water circulating in the veins of the earth , bearing proportion [ as i have observ'd ] to seventy-two oceans , and several oceans of water more floating in the clouds and rarisied into thin air [ tha● it might be a sit medium for respiration , &c. ] my adventure , shall be ●irst to shew how , and by what cause , the subterranean vvater was rais'd above ground , and the thin air was condens'd into vvater ; how both join'd with the sea , and caus'd the deluge . and then secondly , i shall give account how the waters again divided ; how all things return'd to their natural course ; and by what gradations the dry land appear'd : and more than this is not necessary to make and establish a clear hypothesis of the universal deluge . first then , we may conclude , from arguments of the greatest probability imaginable , that the collection and reuniting of such a quantity of water as was sufficient to drown the world , was caus'd by an universal damp that happen'd at that time in the whole course of nature . for , first , all the central fire by a preternatural fermentation and dilation of those angry volatiles on which it consists , gain'd ground upon its fluid neighbours , those subterranean waters which circulate in the body of the earth , and forcing them into a most rapid ebullition and commotion , caus'd most violent eruptions in all the veins , joints , fissures and hyatus's as well under the channel of the sea , as in all the parts of the earth's surface . these violent eruptions of the submarine and subterranean waters , which moses calls the breaking up of the fountains of the great deep , swell'd up the sea into such a height of gibbosity that it forc'd the rivers to stand back , and rise as high as their fountain heads , which covering all the dry land , excepting the tops of the highest mountains ; the aerial damp caus'd by the moon 's waterish vertex pressing down the vortex or atmosphere of this terraqueous globe , did not only interrupt the communication of the subterranean and aerial waters , by causing the raising and circulation of vapours to cease ; but also by condensing the moist air into waterish clouds , which falling down in continual spouts for forty days and nights together [ the air being without motion , consequently neither able to break nor support them ] the tops of the highest mountains were cover'd fifteen cubits , as moses gives account , gen. 7.15 . and these portentous rains which fell in spouts , moses expresseth by the opening of the windows of heaven , gen. 7.11 . thus the divided waters being reuni●●d as they were in the creation , and the circulation of vapours broken by the stagnation and damping of the aerial regions , the whole surface of the earth was cover'd , until god caus'd a wind to pass over the earth , which breaking the aerial damp , the rain ceased ▪ the subterranean waters sunk down into their veins ▪ recover'd the ground which the central fire had gain'd from them : the rivers forc'd the sea to retreat back to her own channel , and returning to her regular flux and reflux , the vapours arose and repair'd the air again wi●h clouds and moisture , and all things return'd to their natural course . i● cannot be imagin'd how the heart of noah and his family was reviv'd when the sun began to shew its face again , and the rain-bow appear'd in a broken cloud . for noah being undoubtedly as well a natural philosopher as a priest in his family , the appearance of a rain-bow [ which after a long storm is an infallible sign of fair-weather ] cou'd not but encourage him with hopes that the damp was broken and the storm over . god therefore made a covenant with noah and his posterity that there shou'd never be an universal deluge upon the earth , gen. 9.23 . and to establish this covenant with●him , he made the rain-bow [ being a waterish meteor , and after a storm a sign of fair-weather ] a most proper and significant sign and seal of that covenant [ viz. ] a sign commemorative of the past deluge , and a seal confirmative that there shou'd never be any more flood to destroy the earth . and no more than this seems to be meant by the appearance of the rain-bow in the cloud ▪ chap. xxi . of the season of the year when the deluge happen'd . dr . woodward declares his opinion , that the deluge com●enc'd in the spring season in the month we call may ; but upon what reason he grounds this conceit i cannot easily apprehend . for the fruits of the earth being then but growing ; and the former autu●n seeds being destroy'd by the by past winter , nature wou'd have been forc'd to a spontaneous production of the several kinds of vegetables as had lost their seeds . and whe● the several species of animals which were preserv'd from the flood , had liberty to go abroad and seek food , they wou'd not easily have found it in november and december , which months according to his hypothesis were the season when the waters ab●ted , and the beasts orde●'d to leave the ark , and seek their own food where ●hey cou'd find it . it seems then most probable that the universal deluge commenc'd in that month we call august , when the seeds of all vegetables were full ripe , and ready to sow themselves in the fertile soil , that when the deluge was over , and the dry land had for some time appear'd , and had receiv'd heat and incrustation from the warm influence of an approaching sun : these seeds being mingl'd with a warm and waterish soil , might be ready to spring up and supply the animals with pleasant food . we likewise observe that when the dove was sent forth out of the ark the second time , she brought with her a leaf pluck'd from an olive-tree : when she was sent forth a third time , she return'd no more , having found food upon the earth , which cou'd be no other than corn floating upon the surface of the waterish earth . again , moses gives us an account that in the first month , which probably answers our ianuary , the waters were dry'd up from the face of the earth ; and upon the 27th day of the second month , which seems to be our february or march , god order'd all the beasts in the ark , to be tur●'d out to grass , and shift for themselves . again , we find daily not only great trees of several kinds [ as oak , birch , &c. ] rooted up by the roots , and lying upon heaps bury'd and entomb'd in great mosses wher● they never had grown ; but had been brought thi●her by that general d●vastation made by the deluge : but hazel-nuts ▪ whose kernels are as fresh ●s if they had now been growing upon the trees . these nuts having been scatter'd there by the deluge , and having layn there bury'd and ●mbalm'd in those bituminous mosses to this day ; and in all probability might have been continu'd as long as the earth . from these observations , we may reasonably infer , that the flood commenc'd when the seeds of all vegetables were ripe for the propagation of their kinds . we may yet farther add , that all damps as well subterranean as aerial ▪ most frequently happen in the autumn season . chap. xxii . of the alterations which noah's flood made in , and upon the earth . i cannot agree with dr. woodward's hypothesis , wherein he asserts that during the time of the deluge , whilst the water was out upon , and cover'd the terrestrial globe , all the stone and marble with the metals and mineral concretions , &c. of the antediluvian earth , were totally dissolv'd ; and their constituent corpuscles all disjoin'd , their cohaesion perfectly ceasing , &c. this hypothesis seem inconsistent with sense and experience , as well as na●ural reason and scripture [ especially the mosaick account of the deluge . ] for first , experience tells us , that there is no such dissolving power or quality ei●her in the subterranean or aerial waters as to effect such a dissolution as he describes , and these were the immediate instruments of the deluge . it cannot reasonably be suppos'd [ without a miracle ] that all the solid consistences of the earth shou'd be dissolv'd into a fluid substance ; and again resettle and receive their several degrees of consolida●ion in so short a time as the flood continued upon the earth . if the earth suffer'd by the deluge a total and universal dissolution , then all those form'd stones and shells which the dr. conceives to be marine bodies born forth of the sea , by the universal deluge , and left behind at land when the waters return'd , wou'd have lost their forms and shapes , these being not only found upon the surface of the earth ; but in the interior parts of it , incorporated with several solid strata of stone , as well upon the mountains as plains . if not only the solid fossils ; but also sand , earth , animate bodies , parts of animals , bones and teeth , shells , vegetables and parts of vegetables , made one common and confus'd mass , dissolv'd into a fluid substance : then the whole species of vegetables , root and branch , stock and seed , wou'd have been lost , and nature forc'd to a s●ontaneous production , as at the creation . the re-settling of the confus'd fluid ma●s ac●ording to the r●l●s of spe●ifick gravity , the ●e●viest subsiding lowest , is a grand mistake in observation ▪ and by the same rule , the earth wou'd have been cov●r'd with a perpe●ual as well as universal deluge , as w● have already obs●rv'd . as this hypothesis is inconsistent with sense , reason and experience , so is it with the account moses gives of the universal deluge ; for he tells us that there were mountains during the prevalency of the waters , and that the flood cover'd the tops of them fifteen cubi●s . he tells us likewise , that the first dry land that appear'd , was the tops of the mountains , and that the ark rested upon the mountains of ararat . if this account be t●ue , as undoubtedly it is , the alterations which the deluge made were only in the surface and exterior parts of the ear●h : and those places of scripture which speak of destroying the earth , are to be understood , only the outward coat or superficies , and no● the mineral part of it . and neither was the surface of the earth altogethe● destroy'd , as appears by the dove 's b●inging of an olive leaf in her mouth pluck'd off ; and by all living creatures in the ark , being turn'd to grass and to shi●t for themselves in the seventh month after the deluge commenc'd , which might be in the beginni●● of our march. the alterations , which the deluge made upon the earth , being only in the exterior part of it , i shall take notice of such as are most remarkable and obvious . as first , the uppermost strata upon the tops of mountains ▪ were broken up and tumbl'd down to the skirts of them , and these we ●ind lying upon their inland sides in great confusion , with false and counter dibs and rises , like those flags and boards of ice , thrown out of the water upon the breach of a storm . the joints of the mountains consisting of rag raff and chiver , and not being bound together with strong cills of stone , were broken , as we have observ'd already . the courses and channels of rivers were enlarg'd , which caus'd all these pleasant gills and dales with their rapid river running through the midst of them . the whirling about of the water , caus'd all those hills or lesser mountains , whose consistences are only sand , gravel , or broken strata of stone &c. the deluge rooted up all the greater trees , some of which we find bury'd and emb●lm'd in great mosses , as well upon the mountains as in the valleys . the surface of the plains and valleys was fertiliz'd by the deluge , by it● leaving a prolifick slime and faeculent mud upon it . these alterations were not caus'd by the rising , but the decreasing waters ; for whilst the waters were arising , the aerial as well as the subterranean damp continu'd , and the subluniary course of nature was stagnated ; but as soon as god caus'd a wind to pass over the earth , the damp broke , and the waters were put into a most violent perturbation and commotion ; which was the only cause of all those alterations and devastations . the end of the first part . a scheme wherein the several degrees & concatenations of life are explained animalia intermedia zoophi●a insects apes idiots heroes genii boni a angels god the centre of the world. the mineral sphere the vegetative sphere of life the sensitive sphere of life the rational sphere of life the intellectual sphere of life the divine essence or fountain of life as the highest degree of vegetation in the zooph●●a makes a near approach to the lowest degree o● s●nsation in the insects . so the highest degree of sensation in apes &c. makes a near approach to the lowest degree of rationalit● in idiots &c. as the highest degree of rationality in the heros ▪ and speritualizd rationals makes a near approach to the boni genii or lowest order of angels : so the highest degree of intellectuallity in the angelick nature makes a near approach to the divine essence . part ii. chap. i. of the plastick spirit in matter , and its natural products . the plastick and vivifick . powers being the first principles of life in this natural world , which forms the first lines , and kindles the first sparks of the vital flame : it will be necessary in order to our present design , [ which is to give a short account of the originals , degrees and propagations of life in this natural world ] to describe the natural operations and products of these two first principles , and to shew how they act severally , as well as in consort . the plastick spirit in this world of matter , is a subtle saline volatile , which [ whilst matter was in a fluid substance ] diffus'd it self through all the lax strata and consistences of it . and ●s that acid a●● s●line humour in the stomachs of animals , together with the vital flame , by several degrees of concoction and depuration , separates the more pure and spirituous parts of the nourishment from the cras●er and more excrementitious parts of it , or as that acid and saline rennet separates and coagulates the more pure , spirituous and oyly parts of the milk from the waterish and more terre●e ; so this subtle and acid volatile , together with that subterranean flame [ which desseminates its warm and enlive●ing influence , not only through all the greater veins branches and ramifactions of the earth , but also pervades the smallest pores of the densest matter ] did separa●e , collect and coagulate the more simple , pure and homogeneous parts of ma●●er , from the crasser parts of it . and as the mass of fluid and waterish matter , receiv'd its degrees of consolidation , these purer and pneumatical coagulations were concreted in those solid as well as laxer strata wherein we find them , and the magnitude and figure of these concreted coagulations , corr●sponds with those moulds of crasser matter from whence they were extracted , and wherein they are enclos'd and compress'd . these we find lodg'd either in the exterior or interior parts of the earth , those concreted coagulations which we meet with in the outer coat , or grand cover of the earth , are of an irregular figure ; and they are lodg'd in that part in disorder and confusion . and these are either the common pebles , which are of a terrene saline or pinguid quality : or , they are common flints , pyritae and marchasites of a pneumatical and fiery quality : or , they are agates , onyxes , jaspers , cornelians , &c. of a mercurial and waterish quality , which are more or less transparent . this outer coat or surface of the earth consisting of sand , gravel , clay , bituminous peat-earth , and other kinds of matter of an heterogeneous nature , affords the greatest variety of these homogeneous concretions . and these are all of the same nature and quality with that courser and crasser matter from which they were extracted and coagulated . those more simple and homogeneous concretions which we meet with lodged in the interior strata of solid matter , which are of an irregular figure , are either of a liquifiable or calcinable quality . those that are not of a liquifiable nature , are those which the miners call the kernels of stones . for as the spirit of nature [ at the first setling of matter ] reduc'd all the constituent parts of the earth to several classes ; and every class of matter leading to some mine or mineral ; so every bed or layer of stone or metal has its proper kernels , by which the ingenious miner may be directed what mine or mineral ●●ey lead to ; whether to coal , rudle , iron . stone , lead or other metallick ores ; and these coagulated concretions , are commonly lodg'd in the midle of such solid strata those homogeneous and more pneumatical concretions of an irregular figure , which are of a liquifiable quality , are the several kinds of metallick ores , and these are lodg'd in those rakes , veins , riders , and strings which cross-cut and divide those solid strata of a hot quality , and the highest degree of concoction . the male parent of all these is sulphur , which being either white or yellow gives the tincture or colour , to all metals . the female parent is quick-silver , which is the cause of their liquifaction , flexibility , and ductility . all solid bodies consist of two several natures , tangible and pneumatical ; the pneumatical substance , is the native spirit of the body , which distinguisheth the several kinds of them : i define therefore all metallick ores to be the more simple homogeneous corpuscles of such stones and cills as are of a hot quality , and the highest degree of concoction , coagulated and concreted in those rakes , veins , &c. which cross-cut and divide those cills . the more homogeneous that metals are , the less of dross they have in them : the more of this native spirit they have in the tangible parts , they are the more liquifiable , flexible and ductile ; for the cause of liquifaction is the detention of the spirits which play within the body and open it ; so that the greater plenty of spirits any tangible matter has in it , it 's the more flexible , and therefore when the tangible parts are jejune of spirits , or easily emit them , they are fragile , and will not easily liqui●ie . when the tangible parts of matter are ductile or tensile , it 's occasion'd by the appetite which the native spirits have to union , and aversness to discontinue . secondly , that the metallick ores are the homogeneous and pneumatical corpuscles of stones and cills of a hot q●ality , and the like , coagulated and concreted by the plastick spirit of m●tter , is evident from the experience of mineralists , who find the greatest plenty of ore , in the veins of such cills as are of the highest degree of induration and concoction ; for where the cills are weak and soft , and have not receiv'd a right degree of heat and temper , their veins are only fill'd with sparr , soyl , clay or vein-stone , like unripe nuts whos● soft and weak shells are only fill'd with a milky pabulum , having little of kernel in them . again , in the third place , that ores are the pneumatical corpuscles of sulphur and quick● silver coagulated and concreted into clods and nodes , and lodg'd in the veins , will be apparent to those who will take the pains to observe , th●t the more rich any v●in is of ore , the less spangled with sulphur , and quick-silver are those cills and m●tals they cross-cut and divide ; and so on the contrary , the more spangl'd the stones are , the less ore in the vein . and the reason why those metallick spangles are collected , coagulated and concreted in those rakes and veins , is because they lay most open and ready to receive them ; and this is the reason too , why we meet with float ore lying in flat beds in those upper cills which lye open : these being ebullitions or overflowings of vein ore. as that hypothesis of the theorist wherein he conceits ▪ that there was no metallick ores or minerals in the antediluian earth , contradicts the account which moses gives of tubal-cain , who was , as he tells us , an instructer of every artificer in brass and iron : this tubal-cain living before the deluge . so dr. woodward's hypothesis , that the metallick and mineral matter , which is now found in the perpendicular intervals of the strata , was all of it originally , and at the time of the deluge lodg'd in the bodies of the strata , being interspers'd or scatter'd in single corpuscles in the sand or other matter , whereof the strata mainly consisted ; seems inconsistent with reason and his own notions of specifick gravity . for , first , it cannot be easily imagin'd by what art or chymistry the metallick or mineral matter , which interspers'd and scatter'd in single corpuscles in the strata of solid stone , [ especially the corpuscles being smaller than those of the smallest sand ] cou'd be separated and made fit for use . again , if the mass of fluid matter , after the deluge was over , did resettle according to the rules of specifick gravity , the heaviest subsiding the lowest [ as the dr. asserts ] why did not these small grains of ponderous ore subside the lowest , being heavier than the corpuscles of those strata wherein they were lodg'd ? and to assert that they were born up by the waters of the abyss rising up towards the surface [ as the dr. supposeth ] is as inconsistent with gravitation and levity , as for feathers t● sink and lead to swim . these hypotheses being inconsistent both with scripture and reason ; we shall take it for granted , that all these coagulated concretions of metallick ores , were by the plastick spirit in matter lodg'd in the veins of the several strata , lying most open , and being most ready to receive them : and that the state of the antediluvian earth did not differ as to its constituent parts from this postdiluvian earth . having given an account of the originals , natures , and causes of such concreted coagulations , as are of an irregular figure ; i proceed to describe the natures and causes of those of a more regular form. and these are the kernels or catheads which we meet with in coal metals or stone metals , which being either of a saline or pinguid quality , and consisting of the smallest grit , gave way to the plastick spirit to form them into more regular shapes and figures ; and these are either globular , oval , triangular , quadrangular , &c. as the matter coagulated had a natural tendency to such a form or figure ; and they lie in these beds of metals , either in layers , or in disorder and confusion besides these irregular and regular concretions ; there are others of a more uniform shape and figure ; and these may most properly bear the name of form'd ston●s . they are found lodg'd either in beds of pinguid and luxuriant soil , or in such b●ds of stone , chalk , sand , gravel and e●rths as are of a s●line quality . those we meet with lodg'd in beds of pinguid and luxuriant soil , have the forms and shapes of worms , serpents , snails and other t●rrene ins●cts , which perhaps cou'd never come within the compass of our observation . those we meet with in the solid strata of stones , chalk , sand , gravel and earth of a saline quality , have the forms of cockels , muss●ls , oyst●rs , and other marine insects , which probably mankind h●s never yet been acquainted with ; and not withs●anding that these shells have the fo●ms of those marine insects they repres●nt , yet th●y never were the spoil● of marine b●dies ; but form'd in those stones and e●rths , where we find them lodg'd : and it seems most probable that they receiv'd these forms and shapes at the creation of this material globe , wh●n m●tter was in a fluid and wate●ish mass ; and wh●n there was a commixture of light and darkness , of the plastick and vivisick powers ; for then the vivifick spirit of nature disseminated the specifick forms of those animals of the lowest degree of life in those waterish funds and promptuaries of matter in which they were form'd , and increas'd into that shape and figure we now find them in . and if god almighty had not [ by dividing the light from darkness , the vivisick from the plastick power , and by consolidating the exterior strata of matter ] cursed the earth , these terrene and marine insects which we find petrefi'd and entomb'd in marble , limestone and chalk , or bury'd in beds of sand , gravel or earth , might have increas'd to higher degres of perfection , as well as those subterranean toads , frogs , asks and clocks , which we meet with in the cavities and joints of such stones as have lost their natural feeders . but of these the following chapters will give a more full account . chap. ii. of the grand cover of the earth ; the sympathetical union of the plastick and vivifick spirit ; and the production of vegetables , the first and lowest degree of life . the outer cover of the more solid parts of the earth , which we call the surface and fertile soil , being [ as we have observ'd ] the universal fund or promptuary , or the common matrix , wherein was desseminated the specifick forms of the lowest degree of life and vegetation , whilst others of a higher degree danc'd about it , like atoms in a morning sun 's beam. it will be necessary in the first place to give a fuller description of the natures and qualities of it , and to shew by what degrees of heat and vital incubations it was modified and prepar'd to answer that imperious word ▪ let the earth bring forth . when the waters were divided and the sea drawn down to its proper channel , they left behind them a feculent mud and sedement , which being like to a universal q●ag , of a lax and waterish substance , consisting of the several kinds of matter of an heterogeneous nature , and saturated with great plenty of mineral spirits of all qualities : these mineral spirits , by a natural motion and tendency rising up to the surface , as we observe cream riseth up to the top of milk , or as oyl sloateth above water ; the warm influence of the aetherial flame moving upon it , thickn●d these mineral spirits into a liquid gelly , or a pinguid and unctious slime . and this we call the naked skin of the earth or fertile soil . this skin or fertile soil , before it got any coat or cover upon it , was not only tinctur'd and colour'd with all those wate●ish colours of green , red , yellow , &c. but also was spotted and speckl'd with great variety of other colours , occasion'd by a commixture of these mineral spirits . and these gave not only the tinctures and colours to the common and waterish herbs , as grass , plants and flowers , but gave also the different complexions to birds , beasts and men. and as the several colours and complexions were occasion'd by the mixture and temperament of the mineral spirits , so were their different natures and qualities ; for a cunning chymist will extract out of herbs and plants the several kinds of mineral spirits , as well as out of the mineral it self . the virgin matter being thus modifi'd and prepar'd by the warm influence and enlivening vegetations of the aetherial flame , and its naked skin adorn'd and beautifi'd with her great variety of natural paints : those seminal forms or plastick ▪ souls which were disseminated in her warm and moist womb , and sympathetically united to their belov'd matter , began to exert their plastick powers , and put forth spungy strings and roots ; not only to fasten them to the earth , but to suck in such juices as were most proper for their food and nourishment , which by their seminal vertues being digested into the substance of a plant , herb or tree , of such an order , figure and temperament , it became an individual of that numerous species of vegetables ; which began first to peep out of the earth , as corn out of the furrows ; and afterwards gradually increas'd to the highest degree of perfection and maturity its nature was capable of . thus the naked skin of the earth was cover'd with a coat or green livery , beautifi'd and adorn'd with flowers of several kinds of colours ; and as the passive matter increas'd in degrees of heat and modification , it produc'd vegetables of higher degrees of life and perfection , as all kinds of trees , from the lowest shrub to the tallest cedar or most robust oak . that these productions were not brought forth all at once ; but gradually as the passive matter receiv'd higher degrees of heat and modification , is apparent from our observing of those annual productions which every season bringeth forth . for there are some vegetables of a cold and waterish quality , whose natural spirits are more fine , light and active , which require only a smaller degree of heat to raise them , and these are the productions of those early months , ianuary , february and march : and these come to their perfection and maturity before april and may , which present us with an other crop and order of vegetables : and for this same reason , iune , iuly and august go further , and presents us still with different shows of plants , herbs and flowers : and thus as the sun increaseth in heat , and the passive matter in degrees of modification , we are presented with higher and more noble productions . the seminal forms of vegetables , being now united to their material vehicles , and being grown up to their several degrees of perfection and maturity , they retain'd seed in themselves , and did propagate their several kinds by scattering of their ripe seed upon the fertile soil , which like the warm and moist womb of a fruitful mother , dissolves them first into a liquid jelly , and then divides their parts into their several uses . that the seminal forms of vegetables were originally disseminated in the earth as in an universal fund or promptuary , will be yet further evident by those ocular observations which has been frequently made of productions without seed ; for take some quantity of earth digg'd several fathoms under ground , and expose it to the sun and rain , and it will spontaneously without any seed bring forth common grass and several herbs and plants again , we observe that particular soils will produce , without propagation by seed , herbs and plants peculiar to that kind of soil and earth , as pavements do naturally produce knot-grass , &c. if it be object'd , that the smaller seeds are disseminated over all by the winds , and the greater seeds scatter'd by birds that feed upon them . i answer that its commonly observ'd , when earth is brought out of the indies or other remote countries for ballast to ships , and cast forth upon some ground in italy or other countries at a great distance , it will put forth foreign herbs to us unknown : and it cannot be imagin'd that the winds shou'd blow the seeds of these plants from the indies , or that the birds shou'd cross the seas and scatter them at so great a distance . to these i might farther add those try'd experiments of transmutation ▪ transmigration , and degeneration of herbs and plants . having describ'd the original of vegetables the first and lowest degree of life , and shewn that tho' the manne● of their propagation be now by seed ; yet when seed is wanting , the fertile soil will bring forth common grass and other plants in the natural way by a spontaneou● generation : thus the evening and the morning , or the sympathetical union of the active form and passive matter produc'd the first and lowest degree of life , which made the third production . chap. iii. of reducing the confus'd mass or light of the aetherial flame into a body , which made the sun ; of reducing those higher fogs and waterish mists into a body , which made the moon ; how by clearing of the superlunary firmament or the planetary spheres , the stars appear'd : and what the sun , moon and stars contribute towards the production of sensitive or locomotive animals , and why the creation of these second causes made the fourth production . tho' the earth was now gay and trim with a new green livery of grass , adorn'd with painted flowers , and pleasant copices or thickets of young trees ; the passive matter was yet too cold and waterish to draw down out of the second degree of life any of the sensitive forms to actuate and inform it . the almighty power did therefore contract this dilated aetherial flame of light into a body , which moses calls the sun , that those enlivening heats and vital incubations which flow from it , might be more strong and vigorous , and penetrate deeper into the cold matter . and god plac'd this coelestial fire at such a convenient distance from the earth , that it might neither be too much scorch'd by being too near it ; nor frozen , by being at too great a distance from it ; but that it might receive such a temperate heat from it , as to excite its seminal vertues , and draw up its juices into them , and thereby ripen its natural fruits . god gave to the earth also a diurnal motion , that by a just and regular turning about upon its own cen●re , it might have the benefit of day and night every four and twenty hours , so that no part of the earth might be too much heated by thesun's presence upon it , or too long benighted by his absence from it ; because as one side is warm'd and cherish'd by its rays , it withdraws and turns to it its other side ; and so by this just and regular turning about of the earth , and an equal distribution of day and night , the active animals get leave to rest , the over-heated air to cool , and the gasping earth to recover its fainting vertues , which a continu'd day wou'd soon exhaust and extinguish . god gave also the sun an annual motion , and has directed it into such a commodious course , that it sheds forth its enlivening light , heat and influence over all the parts of the earth , and by turns , gives all countries their yearly seasons . and this gradual increase and decrease of heat , answers all the ends of nature , both in the vegetive and animal world much better than the constant temperature and equality of heat , which the theorist supposeth to have been in the an●ediluvian earth . after the creation of the sun , god reduc'd all those vast fogs and waterish mists that rang'd about in the planetary spheres into a body , which moses calls the moon , and he design'd it [ as a reverend and learn'd divine of our own has observ'd ] to be for a vicarious light to the sun , to supply his absence , and perform his office in the lower world. he plac'd the moon in the lowest of the coelestial spheres , at such a conv●nient distance from the earth , that the warm influence of the sun being reflected from it , might carry down with it some of its coelestial moisture . he gave also to the moon so commodious a motion , which it performs in every 28 or 29 days , that when the sun is southward it moves northward , and when the sun moves northward it's motion is southward , by which motion the cold and darkness of the long winter nights are moderated , and these remote regions under the poles comforted with the sun's influence at second-hand , when they want it at the first . thus by reducing of those waterish fogs into the body of the moon , the upper firmament or the planetary spheres were clear'd , and the plan●ts , with the rest of the stars created in the morning of the world , began to appear ; and to send down their aetherial and invisible influences upon this globe , which were obstructed and interrupted by the interposition of these waterish mists . and the creation of the sun and moon and the clearing of the planet●ry spheres god made use of as 〈…〉 , or necessary second causes tow●rd ●he production of the second d●●ree of life , and therefore these made the fourth production . chap. iv. of the production of the second degree of life , and first of oviparous animals , as fish and waterish insects . having already observ'd , that whilst the earth was a fluid and waterish mass , and there was a commix●ure of light and darkness , the plastick and vivifick spirits ; the specifick forms of vegetation , and the lowest forms of animals were disseminate● in the exterior strata of this waterish mass ; and if god had not curs'd the earth , by dividing light from darkness , the material and formal principles of life , the luxuriant matter wou'd have teem'd fo●th such numbers of animal productions , that the surface of the earth and waters wou'd not have maintain'd them . this hypothesis is grounded not only upon the form'd stones we meet with lodg'd in the interior strata of the earth [ which having the shapes and representations of terrene and marine insects ] cou'd proceed from no other original than a plastick spirit ; but also upon those subterranean animals , as toads , frogs , asks and clocks , which we sometimes meet with inclos'd in the cavities and hollows of stone , as well as in their dry joints . i have found a large toad six yards under ground , inclos'd in the very middle of a hard stone , where the joint that led to it was so straight , that it wou'd not receive the thinnest knife ; so likewise great numbers of asks , clocks and beetles in the dry joints of stones , which cou'd have no other generation , but what was from a plastick spirit modifying a subterranean vapour collected into that cavity or dry joint , the vivifick flame kindl'd a spark of life in them , which [ by sucking in such subterranean vapours , as abounded in the joints of these dry stones , which had lost their natural feeders ] were increa●'d to that bulk we found them in ; no doubt but the stamina vitae of these subterrene animals are preserv'd by continual sleeping , and the air they breath is purely subterranean , like embrios in the womb , which live by the respiration of their mothers : and it may seem very probable that these under-ground animals have liv'd in these joints and cavities ever since the deluge , and perhaps long before ; for as nothing preserves the vital flame more than sleep ; so nothing wastes and spends it more than action . to these i might add the production of eels , worms , marine and waterish insects , as the vrtica marina , &c. which being zoophyta or plant animals , and not locomotive , cou'd have no other production , than what was meerly aequivocal or spontaneous , and from matter modifi'd and prepar'd for rec●iving of the vital spark . besides these invisible productions , i shall add one more , visible and apparent . take a strong horse-hair , and put it into the water warm'd by the influence of the sun [ especially in may o● iune ] and within some few hours it will take life , move at both ends , and in a short time , its probable that it might become one of those several kinds of eels we meet with in the waters . notwithstanding that all these productions had their first original from such matter as was most proper and capable to be modisied by the plastick spirit of nature ; yet being produc'd , they sometimes propagate their several kinds by univocal generation , these marine insects which are not locomotive , being only excepted . from these praeliminary instances , and a great many more ocular observations which might easily be produc'd , i conclude , that as the several forms of vegetables , were disseminated in the upper covers of the earth ; so were the specifick forms of several kinds of fish [ as well those which the natu●alists call pelagiae , as those they call l●turales ] desseminated in the wa●●r● , or submarine and fresh-water quicksands ; and as the water receiv'd higher d●grees of modific●tion , they produc'd fish of a higher degree of life , in obedience to that command laid upon them , let the waters bring forth abundantly . the second causes which concurr'd in the production of these waterish animals , were , first , the coelestial influences . secondly , the water which being modified by the plastick spirit and the coelestial influences , became waterish vehicles , or bodies for their specifick forms to act in . thirdly , the submarine and waterish quick-sands in which their eggs were generated . fourthly , the subterranean heat , which abounding most in these submarine quick-sands or waterish nests , did hatch these eggs into life . fifthly , an innate power in the plastick form , which discriminated their kinds . the original production of all kinds of fish , being from their invisibe and vital forms disseminated in waterish quick-sands , as soon as they came to perfection and maturity , they retain'd seed in themselves , by which they propagated their own kinds . the time of their propagation is with us about september ; for then being grown strong and lusty with their summers feeding , and the influence of the moon and the rest of the aetherial bodies , being then more strong and powerful upon the waters . again , about that time the subterranean heat rises towards the surface of the earth , and breaks out in springs and quick sands , which is the reason , why about that time the fresh-water fish draw up to the spring-heads , and the sea fish to the submarine q●ick-sands , wherein they scatter their eggs. the manner how they propagate , is , first by digging up the sand where they intend to make their nests , and then [ not by copulation or penetration of parts , but playing cheek for chole , and by sympathetical touches ] the female whones her eggs , and the male his spawn , which mixing together falls down into these prepar'd nests which they cover up with sand , thereby securing it from the winter floods . after this they return to their winter holds , leaving their eggs to be hatch'd by the subterranean heat , which continues in the springs and quick-sands until the april following ; and then the young frie , being hatch'd creep out of their warm nests and swim down the waters in numerous swarms or shoals . after the production of all the subordinate kinds of fish , god last of all created great whales , by which words moses intimates to us , that all the rest of the waterish animals were produc'd by the ordinary concurrence of second causes ; but god to shew his great power in the deep waters as well as upon the dry land , did seem to give a preter-natural assistance to the production of an animal of so great a body ; which in the atlantick ocean , when they appear to mariners upon the waters , appear like little islands or mountains ; and these are the leviathans that god made to take their pastime in the deep : he made them lords also over all the fish , which he gave to them for meat . for as every superior rank or species of terrene animals feed upon their inferior , and man upon all ; so every superior species of fish live upon their inferior , and so the whale , being lord over all the rest , lives upon its underlings . chap. v. of the second genus of oviparous animals , ( viz ) the aerial : and first , of fly insects , secondly , of serpents , thirdly , of birds , and why moses makes the waterish and aerial animals congenial . as it seems preposterous to create any species of animals , before meat suitable to their natures to live upon was provided for them ; so it seems most probable and agreeable with the ends of nature , that grass , plants , herbs , and the whole set of vegetables shou'd be the first spring and summers product . that the replenishing of the waters with all kinds of fish , the production of the following winter ; and that the next spring shou'd begin with the production of aerial animals ; these ●iving and feeding upon the first products of the earth and waters . again , since the several degrees of modification of matter , and the animal life increaseth , as the enlivening influence of the sun grows hotter and more powerful ; it necessarily follows , that the several kinds of flying insects , [ being the lowest degree of life under this genus ] shou'd be the first product ; for as soon as the fertile soil had receiv'd a degree of heat from the approaching sun , the earth began to revive , the young plants began to peep out of their winter beds , and the tender leaves of trees began to break their autumn buds . the east wind blowing then dry , by it's soft and easie blasts did condense the morning and evening dews into viscous and clammy strings , which like cobwebs hang upon every thorn and spread themselves upon the young grass , till the sun advancing towards the meridian , sent down a warm reflection upon the earth , and caus'd all these fine and tender threads to draw together , and fashion themselves into little nests , in which by a higher degree of heat were form'd little eggs ; which by another degree of heat took life , and did fly about in the open air , some feeding upon dews , others upon leaves ; others upon corruption in the air ; others were blood-suckers . besides these generated of dews , there are infinite numbers of other kinds of insects which are generated of slime and corruption ; and these are either daily or weekly productions , some of which transmute from one species to another , as those insects which we call caterpillars the first summer , the next summer will become butterflies : so cod-bates in april and iune will transmute into those kind of flies we call clegs , which are blood-suckers . to shew particularly the kinds , natures and numbers of all these transmutable insects , wou'd be a task invincible . thus were the several kinds of flying insects produc'd , having their colours , natures and qualities from flowers , plants , herbs , trees , or corrupted water and slime , and their shapes and figures from their plastick forms , these being the lowest degree of life , a small degree of heat produc'd ' em . of the production of serpents . after the production of these flying insects , the east wind still blowing warm and dry , those standing puddles of stagnated and corrupted water being drain'd , and leaving behind a poisonous slime , on which by the sun's influence were form'd poisonous eggs ; which by higher degrees of heat were hatch'd into life , and by sucking in and feeding upon such poisonous matter as they cou'd meet with ●uitable to their natures , they got strength , feet and wings , and became serpents of several kinds , some creepers , as adders and snakes , some with feet , as the asp and viper , some with horns , as the cerafles ; some with wings , as the basilisk and dragon , and the like . altho that these have all of them head , heart , blood , nerves , senses and other parts agreeable with the most perfect animals ; and tho' that some of them be the most subtile amongst the irrationals ; yet by reason of their disparity with quadrupedes , they are accounted amongst the imperfect animals and of a lower degree of life . of the several kinds of birds . after this the cold and waterish earth , being drain'd and warm'd by the increasing influence of the sun , the mountains , heaths , dales , valleys , water-sands and the sea-shore , were cover'd with a luxuriant , plastick and prolifick slime , which drew down [ by way of sympathy ] out of the warm regions of the air , the specifick forms of birds or aerial animals , which being united to this luxuriant and plastick slime , there were form'd innumerable numbers of eggs upon the mountains , heaths , valleys , and all parts of the earths surface ; and no sooner were these eggs form'd , but the warm influence of the sun , sat on brood upon them until they were hatch'd into little chickens . those hatch'd upon the sea-shore became sea-birds , those by the sides of rivers , feeding upon fresh-water fish , and those hatch'd hy the sides of lakes and ponds , became amphibious birds , feeding both upon fish and herbs , as geese , swans , ducks , &c. those hatch'd upon mountains and heaths feeding upon mountain vegetables , heath birds ; those upon the plains and valleys became domesticks , feeding both upon grass and corn ; and those in the woods , singing birds and birds of prey , as the eagle , and the rest of those tyrants of the air. after this manner were the aerial animals produc'd , and the reason why moses makes the aerial and waterish animals congenial , is , first , the parity of their production , being both from eggs. secondly , the affinity of that matter on which they were produc'd , the air and water being transmutable elements . thirdly , from the likeness of their actions and qualities , the one kind having fins by which they swim in the water , the other having wings by which they fly or swim in the air. as these were the productions of the first spring months ( viz. ) ianuary , february and march ; so in these months they do always propagate their kinds by laying of eggs , every species according to its kind ; some on mountains , others in valleys ; some by water-sides , others in the woods , &c. the warm wing of the dam , now supplying the want of a warm sun-beam . for as the wing hatcheth them out of their shells , so it strengthens and nourishes them by vital incubations , till their pinions be able to bear them up to seek their own food : thus the wing is both the midwife that brings them out , and the nurse that brings them up . chap. vi. of the terrene , or viviparous animals . after the production of these animals of a lower degree of life , and perfection , and the sun was advanc'd higher in his annual motion , which darting down his warm beams upon the earth in a more direct line , they did penetrate deeper into the cold matter ; and by drawing forth its fertile spirits towards the skin or surface of it , they set the plastick power on working , and modifying the passive matter into more noble forms ; which by their sympathetical charms drew down the specifick forms of the most perfect animals within the second sphere of life . for in every little pit or hollow of the earth , which being fill'd with luxuriant and prolifick slime was kindl'd by the vivifick vertue of the seminal form , a little bubble of life , which the plastick power began to shape into the form or figure of an animal . and thus was the numerous brood of quadrupedes , [ being animals of the most perfect kind ] first conceiv'd in the warm and moist womb of modified matter , nourish'd by sucking in the luxuriant and prolifick slime ; which by their vital heat they digested and distributed into the several parts and members of their bodies increasing of them by an equal assimulation of parts ; and as soon as these young embrio's had got strength , they crawl'd out of their warm nests of matter , and began to suck in those honey dews , and lick up that sweet manna which laid upon the grass and herbs , and this supply'd to them the want of maternal milk and nourishment . for during the time of these productions , god neither suffer'd it to rain upon the earth , nor the winds to blow , lest this infant brood of young animals shou'd have been destroy'd , before the birds got wing , or ●he beasts foot and strength to defend themselves against a storm ; but there went up only a mist from the earth , which water'd the whole face of the ground . and this mist was only a warm and moist smother , which arose from the earth , as we observe it to rise from the furrows in the spring , months occasion'd by the morning sun-beams , and these clouds which did swim in the air , only serv'd for umbrello's and parasoli to screen those infant animals from being scorch'd by the heat of the sun , and from drying up their food and nourishment . the earth being now stock'd with the several kinds of animals , contain'd under the sensitive genus , they did propagate their kinds by univocal generation . for which end nature and providence hath form'd several vessels of slime-pits in every female , for preserving something analogous to that original slime , which was then the passive principle of generation , and likewise in every male such vessels as are most fit and commodious for preserving a beam or spark of the aetherial flame [ which being the material vehicle , wherein the specifick form is preserv'd ] kindles the first buble of life in the passive matter . and we observe that as soon as age and maturity hath fill'd these seminal vessels with this prolifick slime , and digest'd it into a right degree of heat and temperature , the females of every kind or species of animals , begin to prune , dress and trim themselves , by which modest way of courtship , the male is drawn and charm'd to within their sympathetical spheres : thus the evening and the morning , or the sympathetical union of the active form and passive matter , made the fifth production . chap. vii . of the creation of man , the sixth production . the earth being now cover'd with the great variety of species , contain'd under the genus of vegetation , the waters replenish'd with all kinds of fish , the mountains , plains and valleys stock'd with herds and flocks of all kinds of cattle : god did once more modifie the passive matter into a more noble and excellent form , not only capacitated to receiv● the lower degrees of the animal life : but also fitted with organs to entertain an intellectual soul , which moses ●ells us god breath'd into it : it being impossible for matter , tho' never so curiously modifi'd by the plastick spirit of nature and the joint concurrence of the coelestial influences to draw down by the power of any material sympathy a soul out of the immaterial and intellectual spheres of life to animate and enform it . and this noble creature god call'd man , being made not only after his own image , spiritual and immortal ; but also after his similitude ( viz ) endow'd with all the affections and communicable attributes of the divine nature , by which he became capable not only of disclosing the secret mysteries of nature , and of diving into its deep philosophy ; but also of knowing and adoring his creator ; by which perogatives of his birth , and noble extraction , he became qualifi'd for being his creator's vicegerent upon earth . the conclusion . wherein is shewn the meaning and significancy of these words . and god saw every thing that he had made , and behold it was very good . that god , who is infinite in goodness and all perfections , cannot be the author or producer of any thing , but what is good and perfect in its kind , hath been always assum'd as a granted principle , not only by the best of divines , but even the generality of pagan philosophers : yet moses , notwithstanding this , foreseeing that this excellent frame of the world , which was design'd on purpose to bring all reasonable creatures to the knowledge and veneration of their creator , wou'd be perverted to contrary ends and effects ; and that the production of all the creatures might be ascrib'd wholly to second causes , or to no cause at all ; but to chance and to the casual motion of matt●r , for the prevention of which , he here brings in the almighty more humano taking an exact view and survey of the whole creation , both as to its structure and furniture , and giving it his divine approbation in these words , and he saw every thing that he had made , and behold it was very good . the goodness of the creatures do principally consist in these four particulars . in their correspondency and agreement with those patterns and ideas preconceiv'd in the divine understanding . in their fitness and suitableness for those misplaid ends and purposes for which they were created . in their being good and perfect in their several kinds . in the regular keeping and observing those rules given them at their creation . th●t this infinite variety of orders , shapes and figures , by which the several species of creatures are charact●riz'd and distinguish'd , are not the effects of blind chance or casual motion , but t●e products of infinite power , wisdom and counsel , will be clear and evident , if we carefully observe , that not only their numbers , shapes and figures ; but also their whole contextures and contemperation of parts , with their natures and qualities , have all of them a manifest relation to those several uses and operations they perform ; and this is so fairly illustrated and prov'd by the ing●nious and leaned mr. ray , in his treatise concerning the wisdom and providence of g●d in the creation of the world ; that a ●urther enlargement upon this argument , wou'd be wholly superfluous . that all creatures are good and perfect in their kind , will appear , if we consider that it was most agreeable with the divine wisdom , that the whole scheme and system of nature , shou'd consist in different degrees of perfection and subordination of life : and that every inferior spe●ies shou'd be concatenated to its superior by animals of an intermediate nature , and yet notwithstanding this difference amongst the creatures in degrees of life and perfection , we cannot but observe , that every creature even of the lowest degree of life is good and perfect in its kind ( viz ) without any blemish , defect or flaw ; for the meanest insect , is as perfect an animal , as the elephant and whale , and god's wisdom and power is as well to be admir'd in the paint upon the butterflie's wing , as in the glorious body of the sun. again , there is nothing more agreeable with the divine wisdom , than that there shou'd be in so great a variety of creatures , degrees of subordination and perfection , will yet further appear if we consider that these creatures of a lower degree of perfection do by comparison illustrate and commend those of a higher degree . that those regular subserviencies and harmonies might make up a vital cement whereby the whole frame and structure shou'd be united . it was nec●ssary that there shou'd be variety of natures , and different degrees of life , that the wisdom of the creator might be the more display'd , acknowledg'd and celebrated , and that his infinite and universal goodness might be more visible in the supplying and providing for the wants of so vast a number of creatures of so different natures . lastly , that man being pla●'d at so great a distance from the beatisick vision [ which whilst he continues in this compounded state , wou'd either have dazl'd or confounded his sight , or affright'd and ravish'd his soul out of his body ] it pleas'd therefore the divine wisdom to create all this great variety of creatures that he might behold his creator at second-hand , when his bodily eyes cou'd not bear the sight of him at the first . and secondly , that he might exercise and improve his rational faculties , and entertain his heaven-born soul with natural as well as divine speculations , which in some measure compensates for the want of a clearer sight of the divine vision . again , altho' it must be granted that in those different degrees of perfection all are not alike amiable , lovely and beneficial to man ; yet those that are the less beautiful and lovely sets off the beauty of the rest , as shadows set off the more lively colours . thirdly , that the goodness of the creature , does consist in its fitness for those ends and purposes for which it was created will appear , if we consider that it cannot be easily imagin'd , that god who is infinite in wisdom and goodness , shou'd create any thing in vain ; but to good ends , and the best of purposes . we therefore in the nature of things can discover infinite agreeableness of this to that , and of one thing to another . and though we cannot throughly penetrate and discover the relation use and end , of every thing in nature , by reason of our incapacity , occasion'd by the darkness of that state we live in ; yet we have reason from what we can discover , to conclude , that every thing was created for good ends and particular uses : for , first of all , we do observe that every inferior creature was subservient to its superior : and all the creatures subservient to man ; altho our ignoranc● in this dark and degenerate state , has made us uncapable of understanding their natures and uses . secondly , we observe that every element is fitt'd for its animal , and every animal for its proper element . we observe that every object is fitted for its sense , and every sense to its proper object . we observe that food and nourishment is provided in nature's s●ore-house for every animal , and every animal for its proper food and nourishment . these being trite and common topicks , i refer the reader to those authors who have made it their business to enlarge upon them : i shall proceed therefore to shew how in the last place , the goodness of the creatures consist in observing and keeping of those laws given them at their creation . when the almighty had created the world , and stock'd it with several ranks and degrees o● creatures , he gave them laws to keep , and rules to walk by : and these we call the regular course of nature , from which they never vary unless at their creator's command . these laws which all the creatures are govern'd by , are , 1. a divine impression ; or , 2. natural instinct , 3. external senses . 4. the laws and rules of natural reason . 1. the inanimate creatures , are govern'd by a divine impression ; for if we look up to heaven , we observe how the sun , moon and all the aetherial globes do perform their natural motions , from which they have not vary'd higher or lower , faster or slower , since their first creation ; and how they shed forth their coelestial influences on all things here below . 2. if we look downward , we may observe , how this terraqueous globe consisting of dull and stupid matter , turnes about its own centre , and naturally , constantly and regularly performs its diurnal motion , its cold sides ●her●by receiving th● warm influence of the co●l●stial bodies . 3. we may obse●ve , that those ●●eak a●d groveling plants ( viz. ) the hop , vi●e and ivy , are by nature 〈◊〉 with ●endrils or pliant strings , and how by a natural kind of instinct they seek about for supporters , and having found them , they clasp about them ; for all the plants of this kind , as 〈◊〉 they were sensibe of their being , adjective , are always in busie quest for their substan●ive . fourthly , we may observe how the insects , those animals of the lowest degree of life , propagate and preserve their kind by natural instinct , which in them supplies the want of higher degrees of sense ; for with what curiosity do the bees make their waxen cells , lay in their winter provision , and how obedient they are to their master bees or governors ? with what wonderful art does the spider spin his web out of his own bowels ? with what care and industry does the little ant first make her store house in some dry hill , then seeks about for winter provisions , and that the corn and seed she gathers may not grow nor sprout in her store-house , she eats off that end where the seminal form is lodg'd . fifthly , we may observe how all those winter sleepers , who when their summers provisions are spent , and by their natural instinct they foresee the winter's frost approaching , do withdraw into some warm winter-quarters , where they live by sleeping , till the approaching sun invite them out into the fields . sixthly , we may observe with what wonderful art and curiosity the smallest birds build their nests of several form● suitable to their weakness or strength ▪ how when their nests are built , they lay their eggs , hatch them with their wings , and then feed them till they get strength to fly abroad , and seek their own meat ; we may further observe , that all those creatures that are govern'd by the laws of natural instinct , never varies in their operations ; but walk in the same roads and pursue the same methods . seventhly , we may observe how those animals that are govern'd both by sense and instinct do prepagate their kinds , and how they are all provided with natural armour for self-preservation : we may also observe amongst those animals of a higher degree of sense such instances of love and hatred , as are seldom practis'd by the most passionate lovers , or the most malicious haters . i have known and heard of dogs and other ●re●tures , that have pin'd away ●nd dy'd for want of their masters ▪ and others also that have born such an impl●cable antipathy against some particular persons , as was never to be reconcil'd . eighthly , and lastly , i might instance in those excell●nt laws of prudence and reason , as well as those of the divine life , which god imprinted upon the nature of man , before they were obliterat'd and defac'd by sense . thus all the creatures , m●n only excepted , continue still under the government of those laws given them at their first creation . this may seem sufficient to convince the most profess'd atheist , who is not resolv'd to offer violence to his natural sense as well as reason , that there is a god , and that the world with all its furniture , was the product of the divine power , wisdom and counsel . the end of the second part. a discourse concerning the terrestrial paradise , shewing how adam was introduced into it : the time he continued in it ; and how he and eve employed that time. a discourse concerning the terrestrial paradise , shewing how adam was introduced into it . several men of great learning ▪ as well ancient as modern , have made most industrious enquities , after the place and situation of this terrestrial paradise ; of which moses has given us so particular a description in his second ●hapter of genesis . and their opinions about it , being as different and wide , as east and wes● , heaven and earth ▪ we shall therefore only undertake , to present the reader with some conclusions , drawn , as well from the fairest arguments of probability , as from the mosaick account of the place . and first we conclude from the literal sense of the text , that there was such a place upon earth , as a local paradise ; and that this place , did as far exceed the rest of the earth , in fertility of soil , and all the products of nature , as gardens of the best cultivation , exceed the common fields . we collect from the literal sense , that this terrestrial paradise , in respect of iudea or midian [ where we suppose moses writ this system of the creation ] was eastward . that in respect of the surface of the earth , its particular situation was misplaced in a middle between the tops of the highest mountains , and the lower plains and valleys . that in respect of the heavens , its situation was under the aequinoctial line . these two last hypothesis's having no authority from the sacred scripture , we shall endeavour to ground them ; not only upon the bare account which tranellus has given of the fertility of those aequinoctial regions , but also upon such natural arguments as cannot [ without offering violence to reason if self ] be easily deny'd . for notwithstanding , that several of the ancient writers , were of opinion that those countries , under the torrid zone , were uninhabitable , by reason of the sun 's darting down its fiery globuli upon them in down-right lines : and because they wanted those plentiful and pleasant showers of rain , which fertiliz'd the rest of the habitable world ; yet the experience of later travallers hath discover'd to us , first that the want of rain is repair'd by those great and rich dews , which the morning-cold condenseth , and which lying upon the ground until ten a clock , the sun's influence upon it , having then exhal'd the more nitrons and airy part of it ; the sphere of rarefaction [ which in those regions falls low , and is always open ] rarifies it into such cool gales , and briezes of wind [ which always blowing from ten a clock in the morning until three in the afternoon ] so cools and abates the extremity of the heat ; that no inconvenience or distemp●eture is found there . again , the nights [ as sir walter raleigh has observ'd in his trav●ls ] are so cool , fresh and equal , by re●son of the intire interposition of the earth , that there is not to be found i● any part of the habitable world a better , more wholsome , or equal temper of air. and although there be some tracts , which lye under the perpendicular mountains where the air stagnates , the fresh gales and briezes of wind over-blowing them , and some other places sandy , barren and less inhabited , yet the greatest part of those regions [ especially the dales , which lying above the plains and lower valleys , have always their air brush'd and swee●n'd with these fresh briezes of wind ; and are plentifully water'd , with rapid rivolets arising from the tops and sides of their neighbou●ing mountains . and these as well as ●he plains and valleys , are beautify'd with abundance of stately cedars , and other trees , casting a pleasant shade , and delightful fragrancy . they are enrich'd too with all ●orts of most delicate fruit-trees , always green , and bearing the choi●est fruit in their highest degree of perfection . their boughs and branches are never uncloath'd and left naked ; for their sap never creeps under ground fearing the winter frosts . to these accounts which we have from travellers of the greatest truth ●nd fidelity ; we further add , that as all the flat strata or layers of stones , metals , and sub●erranean earths , have a natural rise toward this middle girdle of the earth , and a gradual declivity towards the two poles ( which all mineralists , who understand the structure of the earth , and the position of the solid strata willingly agree to ) we may thence most reasonably collect , that these aequinoctial regions were the ●irst dry land that appear'd after the waters began to divide and decrease . we yet further subjoin , that as this middle girdle upon the earth , lies parallel to that middle circle in t●e heavens [ we call the sodiack ] through which the sun performs its annual course , we collect that it , with th● adjoining regions , received the first and largest influence of the sun's enlivening vegetation , and consequently were stored with the first products of nature ; as well animals , as vegetables . so that in all probability , there might be ripe fruit in paradise , before those other regions towards the tropicks and poles were drain'd from the waters , or receiv'd the sun's vegetation according to their natural seasons . again , as these aequinoctial regions produced all kinds of vegetables and animals in the highest degree of perfection their natures were capable of : so they did , and do to this day afford us not only the greatest plenty of the most precious stones , but also the most valuable and useful metals , as gold , silver , brass , iron , &c. and this is not only evident from the mosaick account of the rivers of paradise ; but the experience of those merchants , who being tempted by their value , trade thither . once more , as it is most probable , that these aequinoctial regions were the first dry land , that they receiv'd the first enlivening vegetation of the sun , and were honour'd with the first products of nature ; so it is most agreeable with reason , that all the regions upon earth are more or less paradisaical , as their situations are nearer or at a distance from this middle zone , and that from paradise they were first stock'd with the several products of nature , and the several genera of animals ; which began to propagate their kinds there , until the earth was replenish'd . altho' its most probable , that they did degenerate from their original perfection as their propagations were at a distance from paradise . as from these arguments we collect and conclude , that the terrestrial paradise was in respect of the heavens situated under the aequinoctial line ; so in the last place , we conclude that its particular situation was in a middle between the tops of the highest mountains and the lowest valleys . and we ground this hypothesis upon the account which moses gives of the course and motion of that river which water'd paradise : for this river undoubtedly had its rise from the top or side of some of the eastern mountains , and took its course first in one rapid stream , through the midst of that most pleasant dale , and then by dividing it self into four lesser streams , they became the heads of four of the greatest and most noble rivers in the world ▪ which sliding down through the lower dales , plains and valleys , of a great part of asia and africa ; at last empty'd themselves into the main ocean at great distances . the hight of its situation gave it a most wholesome , delightful and cherishing air , together with the most advantageous and grateful prospect over the rest of the rising and growing world. this paradisaical dale , had all the advantages of a natural situation . for first of all , it must be necessarily suppos'd , that it had its situation under the skirts of the highest mountain in those eastern countries , which defended it from the cold blasts of the northern wind , from whose lofty top did flow that rapid mineral feeder which took its course through the midst of it . it may be supposed also , that it was encompassed with lesser hills on all sides excepting the south-e●st , which let into it the warm enlivening beams of the rising sun , and which was the onl● passage that gives liberty of entrance into it . that these hills were beautify'd and adorn'd with all kinds of trees , which might gratifie the senses with their fresh and beautiful colours , always green , and casting a most pleasant shade and delightsome fragrancy ; in which the active and chearful birds sung their morning and evening anthems . that these hills encompassed a large and spacious plain , wherein did spring up and grow to perfection all the species of herbs . plants and flowers that are to be found in the large volume of natures inventory . in the middle of which nature had planted a most curious grove or orchard , wherein did grow all kinds of fruit-trees bearing the choise●t of all fruit , that might either gratifie the eye or please the palate . the most remarkable trees in this most pleasant garden , were the tree of life and the tree of knowledge , which [ being taken in a literal and natural sense ] had their names from the nature and quality of the fruit they bore . the former ( viz. ) the tree of life bore a wholsome fruit , preserving both the growing sensitive and rational life ; and that so long as a body compounded of matter , consisting of contrary qualities could last . the other ( viz. ) the tree of knowledge , bore an unwholesome fruit of a poysonous nature , which destroying the excellent frame and temperament of the body , made it subject to diseases and pains , and last of all to death and mortality . as the former gave us the experience of health , life and vigour , which men are seldom sensible of , whilst that happy state continues . so the fruit of the other gave us the knowledge and sad experience of an unhealthy and sickly constitution of body , and lastly of death and mortality ; hence it had its name of the tree of knowledge from the dear bought experience of its fruit. this i con●ess is but a rude draught of the terrestrial paradise ; yet i presume to offer it as a probable hypothe●is , and i doubt not , [ but with men of better judgment ] it may pass for such , and serve to illustrate their notions of a more elevated and exalted nature , having given a short and compendious description of the terrestrial paradise according to the literal and natural notion of it , we shall proceed to give a probable account how ad●m was introduc'd into it , how long he might continue in it , and how he and his confort eve employ'd that time . adam the royal patriarch of mankind , being form'd as to his body and organical part of the same matter with the rest of the terrene animals , and having a rational and intellectual soul infus'd into him ; as soon as his weak members got strength to walk abroad from the place of his nativity , and to take a view of those large dominions his bountiful creator design'd to put under his goverment ; the first place he had i● prospect was this terr●strial paradise , toward which his curiosity led him ; but not finding an entrance into it , god sent an angel to be his guide , and to introduce him in●o its possession , as an earnest of all th● felicities of this world ▪ and an emblematical assuranc● of the glories of ●he ●oelestial paradise . and no sooner had this royal patriarch enter'd this pleasant and delightful ●arden , but all the birds and bea●●s in paradise [ being surpriz'd at the sight of a creature of a shape and form quite different from any of them , and of so divine and majestick a countenance , ] came towards his presence to gaze and wonder at him . and a panick fear having seiz'd them , they be●ame all his vassals . ● will not undertake to determine the time that adam might spend in walking round the woods and plains of paradise , whilst he took a view of all the creatures , distinguish'd their tribes , and gave names and offices to them , according to their several natures and quali●ies i presume that it can hardly be imagin'd that one day could be sufficient for so great ●●ask . as adam's ambition was to exercise and improve his rational faculties , by enquiring into the natures and quali●ies of the sensitive animals ; no doubt but eve [ being no less desirous to improve her wisdom and knowledge , than her master ad●m ] did spend that time during his absence , not only in gratifying her external se●ses , with the fragrant smell of the fair flowers of paradise , and tasting its sweet fruit ; but in making enquiries into the natures and kinds of fruits and simples , in distinguishing their several sorts , and giving names to them according to their natures . and certainly it was not her ambition to be like god in so divine a perfection as wisdom and knowledge , made her forfeit not only the fair fields and pleasant w●lks of paradise , but life and immortality ; but her taking a course and method to that end , contrary to the express command of her creator . and although it be most probable that a natural serpent , having a speckled skin , beautify'd and adorn'd with all the variety of natural paint , in the most fresh and lively colours , was her officious favorite , and presented to her royal hand this beautiful and lovely fruit ; yet doubtless it was her own natural serpent , or concupisence , did frame and suggest to her a discourse to this effect . hath not our bountiful creator made this world , with all this great variety of creatures in it , on purpose for the entertainment of your external senses with the satisfaction of enjoying their beloved objects , as well as the int●rnal faculties of the rational soul with the entertainments of wisdom and philosophy ? if you taste not then this lovely fruit , you evacuate god's design in creating of it : again , if god did not design that you should eat of this fruit , he would not have made it so beautiful and desireable ; it 's inconsistent with the natural goodness of your creator , to lead you into the fire and oblige you not to burn , to inflame your affection with a strong desire , and not to gratifie it . further , you cannot but observe that god has made all poysonous and hurtful creatures of a less comely , if not of a frightful aspect , and you have a strong antipathy against them ; but this charming complexion tempts you to taste of it . to which the considerative or rational faculty reply'd , our bountiful creator has given us liberty to eat of all the tr●es in the garden , but this is forbidden upon pain of death . this is a grand mistake of the divine intention , saith concupiscence , which was by your eating of this fruit to improve your knowledge , and ●herefore he gave it the name of the tree of knowledge . for as you have discover'd the natural differences amongst the sensi●ive animals , and have given names to them , your creator certainly expects that you should understand the natures and differences amongst fruits and vegetables ; o●herwise you will never be compleatly skill'd in your natural philosophy . this proud thought of being wife , and a natural philosopher , so tickl'd adam , or reason , that he condescended that his bride eve , or concupiscence ▪ sh●u'd take a taste to cure her longing . and she finding it a fruit as w●ll grateful to the taste as pleasant to the eye , perswades adam to a further condescention , until a second considera●ion made him feel the miserable efects of it , as well in his conscience as in the constitution of his body ; which his reason being asham'd of , he fled ●rom the presence of god , who usually , as it 's believ'd by some learn'd authors , came down in the evening to discourse with the young philosopher , who finding himself naked , or at a loss for arguments to defend his guilt and shame , endeavou●'d to cover it with the thin figg-leaves of excuses . a discourse concerning the conflagration of this material world ; the local hell : it s outmost boundaries , or abrahams gulph . a discourse concerning the conflagration of this material world. having in the former part of the history of matter , give● an account of such preternatural accidents as have disturbed , and sometimes in all ages interrupted the regular course of nature ; and having demonstrated that these preternatural disturbances , were occasion'd by that natural strife , that happens between the contrary qualities of heat and cold , fire and water : and having also shewn how water ▪ by uniting her forces in the time of noah , chang'd this terraqueous globe for some time into a waterish planet , by effecting an universal deluge which covered the tops of the highest mountains fifteen cubits ; and how the central fire has ●requently threatned , not only by universal concussions , and earthquakes , to unhinge its foundations , but also by extraordinary and most violent eruptions of fire and vulcano's to break the structure and temperament of it , and turn it into a globe of fire , or fiery planet ; now as a great many learned men in all ages , have been inquisitive into the natural causes of this universal deluge , and the difficulty they met with , being to find water sufficient to effect it , without a miracle ; so a great many le●rned undertakers , have been no less industrious to find fire sufficient to dry up the seas and rivers , and then to effect an universal con●lagration of this material world : these two difficulties [ in my opinion ] might have been ●asily remov'd , if they had understood better the structure of the earth , and the nature and quality of that matter which makes up the constituent parts of it . it will be necessary therefore , in order to our establishing a well-grounded hypothesis concerning the universal con●lagration in a natural way , to resume what we have formerly observed concerning matter in general ; which we have divided into three classes [ viz. ] volatile , fixt , and fluid ; and to shew that these three different class's of matter , bear equal proportions one to an other , and in the structure of the earth occupie the same proportion of place . the volatile class [ which we call the central fire consisting of aethereal , nitrous , sulphurous , and bituminous particles ] bears proportion to one third part of the diameter ; and this class makes the earths equilibrium ; and by running a perpetual round within the circle of its own infernal vault , carries about with it this crust or shell of fixt and fluid matter whereupon we live , once in every twent● four hours , and this we call the diur●al motion of the earth . the fixt and fluid matter being intermixt , like the flesh , blood , and bones , or heterogeneous parts of a compounded body , bears propo●tion to the other two parts of the diameter . the fixt class of matter consists of parts , combustible , calcinable , liquifiable , and inflammable . the fluid class consists of water ; which is either subterranean , or superterranean . the subterranean water , either circulates through the larger veins of the earth , or pervades the strait pores of the densest matter . that which circulates through the larger veins , does not only [ by being transmuted into air ] feed and nourish the central flame , but also hampers it and keeps it within the limits and boundaries of its own infernal kingdom . that which pervades the strait pores of dense matter , does as well feed and nourish the pneumatical and native spirits of that matter , as shackles them , by keeping of them within their little cells , which otherwise would break out , and set on fire the more combustible part of it . the superterraneous waters do by maintaining a constant communication between the subterranean and air●al waters , and by the falling of plentiful showers of rain upon the earths surface , preserve it from being either over-crufted , or set on fire by the external heat of the suns influence upon it . by these divisions and computations it is apparent , that one third part of this globe is volatile , another third part combustible and inflammable , and only a third part fluid . which third part preserves the harmony and conspiracy of its parts , which makes the cement and temperament of the whole body , and if this should once be broken , and the volatile and fluid suffered to act their antipathies upon each other , the whole frame and structure would presently be dissolved , and all things shusled into th●ir original chaos and confusion . now as in all compounded bodies , which have any degree of li●e or vital cement in them , the vital flame is fed and nourished by the radical moisture ; which , as it wasts and consumes , the exterior parts of the body become dry , withered , and more combustible ; and at the last the whole body is thrown into a feverish burning , which continues until the vital flame be extinguish'd , and the native spirits fly out : so in this great body of the earth , the central fire , which is the vital flame of it , by continual feeding upon the fluid matter , does gradually wast and consume it . and this is not only observable in our sinking of pits , where we generally meet with the upper strata or beds of stone and cole drained from their waterish feeders , their native spirits exhal'd ; but also several ancient springs sunk down in their veins ; large rivers decre●s'd in their water courses ; and the seas in s●veral countries to have lost ground , as in aegypt and holland ▪ which undoubtedly [ in former ages ] have been in the possession of the main ocean . from these general desiccations of the fluid part of the globe we conclude that [ according to the natural course of things in this world ] the volatile matter , as the central fire , will in process of time so far gain ground upon the fluid part of it , as to bre●k out upon the combustible and inflammable part , and by setting them first on fire , the whole globe will be turn'd into a fiery planet ; from whose scorching and fiery atmosphere , the fluid matter shall be forc'd to fly and range about it thick ●ogs and waterish mists , until they fix and settle in a waterish vortex , ●ividing the coelestial regions from the smoaky and flaming atmosphere of this burning globe ; and it s most probable that by that vast gulph which father abraham told dives was placed between heaven and hell , is only meant these fogs and waterish mists , which shall divide the outmost boundaries of them ; through which the damned souls may probaly see , hear , and have some interlocution with thos● in the coelestial regions ; tho' all this shall only inflame and aggravate their torments , wh●n they shall see abraham , isaac and iacob , in the kingdom of heaven , and themselves shut out , by this unpassable gulph . having already m●de it apparent , th●t when the confus'd chaos of matter settled into the form of this habitable globe , the volatile part of it by a natural tendency of motion , settled in the central parts ; and that the central vault , wherein this volatile and fiery matter is contain'd , bears proportion to a third part of the whole , seems to be most probable , as well from scripture as natural reason ; for the scripture represents hell as a lake of fire , mat. 9.43 rev. 20.10 , 15. and this lake of fire or local hell is commonly called infernus , which signifies a place infra nos , i. e. below the cortex or outer coat of the fix'd matter whereon we live ; it s also call'd ta●tarus , which signifies the pit of hell , or that infernal dungeon fill●d with fire and brimstone , that burns and scorcheth , but casts no light ; and that this infernal lake of fire was in the central part of the earth , was not only the opinion of the roman church , which had undertaken to give the dimensions of it ; but agrees with the opinions of most of the ancient fathers and doctors of christianity ; it is also agreable with the opinions of our own doctors , who assert , that at the day of judgment , when the sentence against the wicked shall be pronounced in these words , depart from me ye cursed into everlasting fire , the central fire shall break out , and cause an universal conflagration of this material world ; for then the central hell shall be enlarged , and the aerial regions which are now the devils territories shall be fill'd with smoak and fire , and the damned confin'd to that everlasting smother , where the worm shall never die , and the fire shall never be quenched ; by which words its more than probable that this terraqueous globe shall be changed into a fiery planet , that the aerial heavens shall become a flaming atmosphere , and that this shall be the eternal state of this world. he that would desire further satisfaction in this particular , may consult dr. hackwel and mr. ray's discourses concerning the conflagration of this world ; my intention being only to shew , that it is most probable that there is a central vault of large dimensions , filled with volatile matter , consisting of nitre , bitumen , and sulphur ; and that it is as probable that this may break out , and set the earth on fire , as its possible for a man to die of a burning fever . a short treatise of meteorology , with some observations concerning the changes and alterations of the weather . a short treatise of meteorology , chap. i. of vapours , and exhalations , &c. vapours and exhalations are the perspirations of this terraqueous globe , and are caus'd as well by the internal heat and fermentation of it , as the external influence of the sun , which by opening of its pores , sucketh them out , and raiseth them up into the regions of the air. these vapours and exhalations are the material cause of the several kinds of meteors that are generated within the compass of the atmosphere ; which extends as high as the fiery globuli of the sun make their rebound from the solid surface of the earth , and fluid superficies of the waters , and no higher . the higher the sun ascends in the meridian , it strikes down these fiery globuli with greater force upon the earth and waters ; and consequently they rise higher , and èlevate the vapours with them . so that the atmosphere is higher or lower in several parts of the earth , as the sun riseth higher or lower in the meridian , and its beams are darted down in a more direct or oblique line . and as the lowness of our northern atmosphere , causeth the sterility and barrenness of the northern mountains ; so the height of the southern atmosphere , causeth those mountains in the aequinoctial and southern regions to be more fertile and productive . chap. ii. of the ●fficient causes of all metors ; and first of heat . by heat is not to be understood the element of fire , which aristotle and his followers conceited to be under the concave of the moon , [ there being no such element there ] but by heat is meant that internal heat and fermentation which is in the body of the earth , and that natural fire which is originally and essentially in the body of the sun , the vehicle of external heat , which streams out from every part of that fiery globe , giving heat , light , and enlivening vegetations to the whole material world , being within the compass of its fiery and luminous atmosphere . these streams of heat and light [ which is only the shadow of heat ] being darted through the regions of the air in strait lines , and single rayes , are not perceivably hot or cold , no more than the light of a candle without the sphere of its heat ; but being doubled by multiplyed reflections , and reboundings from the solid surface of the earth , does increase its heat , as the reflections are multiplyed and rebounded ; which makes it hotter against a wall , than upon the plane ground , and in the vallies , than upon the mountains . we must therefore distinguish between those single rayes of heat , which dart through the air in instants , which are neither perceivably hot or cold , and the heat upon the superficies of the earth , which being contracted by an artificial glass , is r●al fire . the essential qualities of heat are calefaction , elevation , rarefaction , liquefaction , and consolidation , as it meets with matter predisposed to receive its effects . chap. iii. of cold , the other efficient cause of meteors . by cold is not meant a bare privation of heat , as former philosophers did conceit ; but a real body , of a subtile sublimated and homogenous nature , and of a cold and frigid quality . it s proper place of existence is between this earths atmosphere , and the atmosphere of the moon , which is our next neighbouring globe ; and by the rising and falling of this main body of cold , are caused the several changes and alterations of the weather with us . the cause of its rising and falling , is the pressures of these two atmospheres between which it is plac'd : when the waterish atmosphere of the moon presseth it down , it causeth storms and tempests here upon this globe ; and when it rises , it causes the same in the moon . the rising and falling of this main body of cold , is sometimes also occasion'd by its dilating and contracting of it self . now as the suns beams are hotter in their reflections upon the earth , than in the sun it self , so these cold rays which are darted from this main body of cold , being increas'd and multiply'd by reflection from the mountains and rivers , are much colder than the main body of cold in its own sphere . these reflected globuli of cold may be term'd the lower or ground-cold ; because in summer it penetrates the earth , and in winter it seldom rises higher than the tops of the highest mountains , unless when it joins with the main body , and then it causeth great storms of frost and snow , &c. this lower or ground-cold , is commonly the rear-guard and van-guard of the sun , always going before and following it ; and it s most perceivable in the evening and morning twilights ; especially , by birds and aerial animals , whose bodies do so sympathize with the air , that they can more quickly perceive the change of weather ( especially the rising of a storm or rain or snow ) than any of the terrene animals ; and this they commonly discover by their flying high or low , or flocking together ; or sometimes by different notes or voices . this occasion'd the ancient augurs to conceit them prophets , &c. the essential qualities and effects of cold in general , are frigefaction , congelation , and sometimes petre●action ; and when the lower cold is contracted , either by art , or proprio motu , it starves and freezes , as the fire burns and scorcheth . this lower cold contracts and dilates it self , as it meets with opposition from the contrary quality of heat and fire . the effects of the lower cold when it enters the earth . by antiperistasis it fires damps in collieries , mines , burning mountains , and vulcano's . when it lyes upon the earth , it causeth dews and hoar frosts , it sucks out damps and corrupted air out of under-ground works , &c. chap. iv. of the air , or medium wherein all meteors are generated . the air is a vast medium or expansion , fill'd with rarify'd vapours and exhalations ; which like water would stagnate , unless by a daily addition of rarify'd vapours or wind , it were put into a flux and reflux , as the sea is the addition of rivers continually flowing into it from all sides . when the air is calm , then are the meteors generated ; when by the wind the air is put into a violent flux and reflux , they are broken and dispapear . chap. v. of fiery meteors , &c. the lower cold which follows the sun in the evening twilight , continues its operation for some hours after its beams are out of sight , and no longer ; [ the middle of the night being for the most part a calm as well in winter as summer ] during which time of its operation , it causeth all those fiery meteors which the former philosophers gave several names to , as falling stars , rods , beams , ignes fatui or will with wisp , &c. according as they differ'd in matter , magnitude , and manner of appearance ; some consisting of a hot and dry exhalation , others of an exhalation mix'd with a viscous and unctious matter , a third of a simple and unmix'd exhalation : all these are generated in the lower regions of the air , the matter of them being drawn up out of the earth , waters , and bituminous boggs and mosses , by the sun's influence upon them , especially in the spring months . for then the sub●erranean heat draws out to communicate with its main body ; for as at this time all animals renew their hair , clear their blood from gross humours , so doth this great animal the earth purge her self of gross humours , by mushrooms , and other pinguid evaporations ; for then the sub●erranean heat drawing out to communicate with the external heat , brings forth of the earth these mineral spirits and pinguid perspirations , in so plentiful a measure , [ which being taken up into the air are condens'd into clouds , and fall down again upon the earth in such fertilizing showers ] that the psalmist tells us the clouds at this season drop down fatness . these hot and fiery exhalations which are flying about , scatter'd and dispers'd in the lower re●ion of the air , being seiz'd on by the evening cold , are forc'd in defence of ●hemselves to unite their forces , and being united do fire upon their grand enemy ( viz. ) cold. some fire in a round figure like a fireball , which the meteorologists call a falling star ; some in a long train , either strait or crooked , and these they call'd by the name of rods or beams ; others being simple and unmix'd exhalations , flash out in lightning , like gun-powder upon a table ; others being mix'd with a viscous and unctious kind of matter fire near the earth , are mov'd by the motion of the air , or an easie and soft wind , or are drawn down in pursuit of their enemy cold , to waters , mosses , boggs , and heaths , still burning like a candle in a lanthorn , till their unctious matter be exhaust'd , and then they leave a liquid jelly upon the earth . this meteor they call will with wisp , or ignis fatuus , or fool 's fire , because ignorant people conceiting it to be a spirit , keep their eyes upon it , until they lose their way , and then are apt to give a dreadful account of a spirit they met with , which misled them . if any of these fiery exhalations escape the evening cold , the morning cold about break of day , before it be drawn down to the waters , fires them , by causing them to pursue the same method of self-defence they took in the evening . chap. vi. of comets , &c. amongst the fiery meteors , all the former philosophers reckon'd comets to be the most remarkable : and they gave such dismal accounts of the dreadful effects of them , that their very appearance put the world under a great consternation . but in my opinion , the world [ according to the old proverb ] was more affraid than hurt by them . for that comets are fiery meteors , and have such dreadful effects following their appearance , is a mistake in meteorology so palpable , that it needs no confutation : that which we call a comet , being no more than a star of a fiery and luminous body , in conjunction with an other star of an opake and waterish substance , or a vast coelestial cloud , which by receiving into its body the bright rays of the luminous star , becomes translucent , and appears to us in the form and figure of a luminous or fiery globe ; and by emitting beams or streams of light , it appears to be a fiery and burning meteor , which by the meteorologists is call'd a comet . if this conjunction and interposition be centrical , it sends forth its beams of light on every side ; and this we call a bearded comet . if the interposition be not centrical ▪ but the luminous star be higher or lower , or on one side , it sends forth a beam or stream of light upward or downward , or to one side ; and this beam or stream of light , is call'd the tail of the comet . the appearance of this comet continues until their different motions have separated them . a demonstration of this you may have several evenings , when a black waterish cloud interposeth between us and the body of the sun ; if the interposition be centrical , the sun's beams stream out every way ; if the sun be higher , it sends forth its beams of light downward ; if lower , upward , or to one side , according to the interposition of the cloud . against this hypothesis , it may be objected , that there is no such thing in nature as an opake waterish coelestial body . to which i answer , that th● moon is an opake globe of a waterish substance ; and if its natural course and motion was not within the compass of the suns atmosphere , it would be to us invisible : so there may be [ for any thing that we know ] thousands of opake globes , within the vast expansion of the coelestial spheres , which are never visible to us , but when they fall into conjunction , or oppositon , with a luminous star : and when these opake globes are of a round and waterish substance , they appear to us in the form of comets . again , it is most probable that all these new stars , which have appear'd for some time , and then disappear'd , [ which astronomers have given such remarkable accounts of , ] are only opake globes , made visible for sometime , by their being in conjunction or opposition to a luminous star , and when their different motions have separated them the opake star hath disappear'd . chap. vii . of thunder , its causes and effects . of all fiery meteors , there are none so dreadful as thunder , which being an aerial fire damp , the nature and notion of it will be best illustrated by comparing it to an aerial battle between these two powerful and irreconcilable enemies , fire and water . the army of fire consists of hot and fiery exhalations , raised out of the earth and bituminous bogs by the influence and heat of the sun ; especially out of the south-east , full east , and north-east parts of this globe : those vast and spacious continents affording most of those hot and fiery soldiers . the general that commands in chief , and which leads them forth into the field , is a sulphurous and east wind. the army of water consists of cold and moist vapours , raised out of the southern and western ocean . their general that leads them forth to batt●e , is a cold moist west wind : for it s to be observ'd , that for some time befor● the thunder begins , and whilst it continues , the blasts of wind always blow from contrary points , and the clouds gather and march up in the full face of the wind , which always blows from an east quarter . these two armies being form'd into two wings , and two main bodies ; first fire , being the more active and volatile , sends forth a detachment of fiery chariots , from the south-east wing ; which being met with by an other detachment of vaporous clouds from the south-west wing , the battle begins : and those hot and fiery exhalations that we see riding in chariots of fiery clouds , like pillars of translucent smoke , being inclos'd and surrounded with this vaporous cloud , are forc'd to unite all their forces together , that , vis vnita being fortior , they may the better be able to defend themselves , and destroy the enemy . no sooner then the forces on both sides are united , but the fiery exhalations discharge upon the waterish 〈◊〉 ▪ in fire and lightning . the thundring noise we hear is occasion'd by the opposition they met with , and the breach of the cloud ; which falls down in great and dreadful showers of rain upon the earth ; the dr●ps of water being greater or less a● the breach of the cloud is at a higher or lower distance from the earth . after the thundering battel is thus begun , the other wings engage , and we hear the thundering sound of the battel both south-east and north-west . the b●ttel by this time growing very hot , the main bodies engage ; and then nothing is to be heard but a thundering no●se , with continual flashes of lightning , and dreadful showers of rain , falling down from the broken clouds . and sometimes random shots flie about , kill both men and beasts , fire and throw down houses , split great trees and rocks , and tear the ve●y earth . for it is no more impossible for the more earthy part of an exhalation to be on a sudden petresied into stone [ which we call the thunder-bol● ] in the body of a cloud ; than that lax● matter should be petrefied into a stone in the body of the earth ; the antiperistatical cause being the same in both . ●●ese t●o irreconcil●ble enemies still keep the field , until one of them be utterly destroy'd . if the fiery exhalations keep the field , the east wind blows still hot and sulphurous . if the vapours get the victory , the west wind blows cold and moist , the sky is clear , the air is cold , the battel is over , and the earth bu●ies the dead and gets the spoil . if any should think this account of thunder to be rather figment and romance , than true natural philosophy , i advise him [ when ever he sees the thunder packs rising white and translucent in a south-east point , when he feels the air hot ●nd sulphurous , with some contrary blasts of wind coming whistling from the west ] that he haste make on to the top of crossfelt , or some other high mountain , that gives a prospect to both east and west , and he may be inform'd both as to the truth and manner of this aerial battle . chap. viii . of vaporous meteors ; and first of dews , and hoar frosts . dews are vapours condens'd upon the surface of the earth , by the evening and morning cold , these being the times of the dews falling . i have observ'd that sometimes about mid afternoon , the under-ground cold being impatient of a long summers days confinement , has broke out , and condens'd the vapours into a d●w , which by the first reflection of the sun was taken up into the air , and a viscous matter left upon the grass , like cobwebs or fine threds , which we call tela beatae mariae ; and these vapours being condens'd into a cloud , will fall down again in a shower of rain about sun-setting . but the usual time wh●n the evening dews fall , is immediately after the sun is set ; for then the lower cold lyeth upon the ground , and as the sun goes down it riseth . the morning dews begin to fall about break of day : for about that time the waters being colder than the mountains , draw down the lower cold from the mountains to them . and it bringing the vapours along with it , sits regent upon the waters , in thick foggs and waterish mists , until the influence of the sun , by warming of the waters , either scattereth and disperseth the vapours , or forceth them to rise up to the mountains , or the cool regions of the air , leaving only dews upon the ground behind them . these dews , when the cold is contracted and freezing , become hoar fro●ts ; for a dilated cold causeth dews , and a contracted cold frosts . in the spring months , when the subterranean heat draws out from its winter quarters to join with the external heat of the atmosphere , it brings out of the earth with it some of the finer mineral spirits ; and the sun-beams being then powerful and attractive , do suck up these mineral spirits , with the sweet efluvia and perspirations of herbs and flowers ; which the evening and morning cold condenseth into honey-dews , or manna . in these months , the sun's beams are so strong and vigorous , that they will draw up frog-spawn ; which being receiv'd into the body of a warm ●loud , will presently be form'd into little frogs , which will fall down upon the earth in these fertilizing spring showers : sometimes they will suck up blood , which will fall down in showers of rain , especially after bloody battels fought at great distances : so corn , &c. will fall down in rain . but these are magnalia naturae . chap. ix . of rain , hail , and snow . rain , hail , and snow , are the same as to their matter . the difference among them is only accidental ; hail being only drops of rain frozen in their falling down from a broken cloud , by a contract'd body of the lower cold ; snow being vapours frozen before they be condens'd into a cloud . of rain . rain is either general or particular , higher or lower . observations concerning rain . when the evening dew falls before sun-set , and the sun draws it up again , the evening cold condenseth it into a cloud , and it falls down in a shower of rain in the evening twilight . when the evening cold condenseth not the vapours into dews , but draws them up to the tops of the mountains , and thence into the cold regions of the air , they fall down in rain about break of day . when the morning cold condenseth not the dews , but draws up the vapours to the tops of the mountains , and thence into the cold regions of the air , they fall down in rain about ten a clock or sooner , and so continues a general rain for some hours together , the evening and morning vapours being join'd . when the air is calm , and the waters colder than the mountains , the vapours draw down to the waters , and there they lie in a thick fogg or mist , until the sun by warming of the waters , causeth them to rise about nine or ten a clock : if the morning cold dilate it self , it raiseth the vapours to the middle of the mountains , where they continue in a thick fogg , the mountain tops being clear , until the vapours be all spent in a mizling kind of rain . when the morning cold divides it self into many little contracted bodies , these lesser bodies of contracted cold condense the vapours , and they fall down in particular showers , some not mountain height ; so that one may sometimes go through a shower of rain [ if he please ] which will fall upon the skirts of the mountains , when at the same time 't is clear both above and below the shower . thus a man may be above the clouds and the rain . when the morning cold draws the mists and the foggs ●rom the waters , gradatim [ or in sops , as we call it ] to the tops of the mountains , and they trall there too and fro , sometimes rising , and then falling again , the dispute being between the water-cold and the mountain cold , whether should get the prize , if at the last these tralling mists or vapours be lifted up into the cold regions of the air , and be there condens'd by some of those lesser bodies of cold which are flying about , they fall down in particular showers within an hour or less after they be taken up ; so qui●k is the return of vapours into showers of rain . chap. x. of hail and snow . observations . when these lesser bodies of contracted cold , are so placed one above another , having distances of warm air betwixt them , [ as oftentimes it happens in very hot weather , for the greater the heat is , the more narrowly do these lesser bodies of cold contract themselves ] if any of the higher bodies of cold condense the vapours into a cloud , and it break , and fall down in drops of rain through a body of more contracted cold , it freezeth these drops of rain into hail-stones . i have observ'd a shower of rain upon the mountains , the same a shower of hail upon the skirts of the mountains , the same dissolved again into a shower of rain in the vallies . i have observ'd also a shower of hail at one end of the town , the same a shower of rain at the other end ; the contracted body of cold that caused the hail , being not a quarter of a mile in circumference . of snow . when the lower cold riseth , and the upper cold falleth , and so straitens the sphere of rarefaction that the wind blows thin , as out of a contracted mouth , the vapours are frozen in-snow before they be condensed into a cloud , and the shower of snow only at first covers the tops of the mountains ; but as soon as the lower cold riseth mountain height , and joyns with the upper cold , the snow falls down into the vallies and covers the earth . observations . when the wind has blown for some time s. e. or full s. or s. w. we must expect a great and general rain ; for these winds blowing from such regions where the atmosphere rises high , bring over with them the greatest quantity of vapours ; which our mountanous country condenseth into clouds , which fall down in great and general rains. and this is the reason why those countries where most of the vapours rise , have the least of rain ; which want is supplied by great dews , which the evening and morning cold condenseth upon the ground . for where the atmosphere riseth high , the lower and higher cold never meet , which is the cause of their want of rain . when the wind blows n. or n. e. or full e. we have seldom rain , but great flights of snow . for the atmosphere in those parts being very low [ especially in winter ] and the mouth of the sphere of rarefaction very strait , the wind that blows from these quarters is so very thin and freezing , that those few vapours which are brought from those places for the most part fall down in snow . chap. xi . of frost , and thaw , &c. frost and thaw are the effects of quite di●ferent causes ; the one being occasion'd by the influence of heat , the other of cold ; and these two contrary qualities do not give ground one to another without great struggle and contest . the first beginning of freezing is at the waters , and this we call a water frost ; it s the effect or operation of the morning cold ; which drawing down to the waters in the morning twilight , and carrying the vapours along with it , leaves a waterish hoar frost upon the ground behind it . these vapours lie upon the waters until nine a clock ; for by that time the influence of heat having warm'd the waters , forceth them to remove their quarters , first to the cold tops of the mountains , and thence to the cooler regions of the air , from whence they fall down in showers of rain about twelve a clock , this frost only gains the waters , vallies , and plains . the second morning , the cold doubles its force , and glaceates the waters , congeals the earth , and riseth to the middle of the mountains ; [ their tops still continuing in the possession of heat ] this degree of cold is over-powered by the influence of heat about two a clock , and falls down in rain in the evening twilight . the third morning , the cold trebles its force , and gains the tops of the mountains . and the influence of heat commonly recovers this lost ground a little before the sun set ; and in the morning twilight it falls down in a shower of snow , covering only the tops of the highest mountains . the upper and lower cold being now united , the frost keeps its possession of the earth and waters sometimes for a month or more together ; and in some countries [ lying at a distance from the sea ] the whole winter quarter ; the wind all the time blowing cold and thin , the mouth of the sphere of rarefaction being straitned by the joyning of the higher and lower cold. during the time that the earth and waters continue in the possession of frost and snow , the subterranean heat breaks out of the springs and mineral feeders , and joyning with the heart of the sun rege●es the spring-heads , and part of the rivers , gaining them intirely into its possession : but the general frost continues until the vapours rising from the southern or western ocean , recover the wind into some of the solar quarters ; which opening the sphere of rarefaction , the wind blows warm and moist . for as the same breath from an open mouth warms ones fingers , so from a contracted mouth it will cool his porridge . the general frost in the northern countries near the pole , and in countries at a distance from the sea , seldom regeles , until the subterranean heat break forth , and joyn with the heat of the approaching sun , and then the frost and snow is dissolved in a very short time ; and the spring comes on much sooner than in those countries where the regelation is more gradual . thus as a constant intercourse of day and night gives the active animals liberty , by rest and sleep , to recover their wasted strength and spirits ▪ so an annual return of frost and snow , recovers and repairs the strength and spirits of the earth , which had been spent in the preceeding summers productions . for in this natural world all things are repair'd by corrupting , preserv'd by perishing , and reviv'd by dying . as the operation of cold did gradually gain ground upon the influence of heat ; so by the same methods and degrees heat recovers its lost ground , the fresh or thaw beginning first at the waters , and from thence riseth up to the plains and vallies ; and last of all the tops of the mountains [ which are for sometime kept in the possession of frost and cold , after the lower parts of the earth be regeled ] are gained . chap. xii . of the sphere of rarefaction . the sphere of rarefaction is a sphere of heat , wherein the suns reflections meet , and unite themselves in their own defence against the upper and lower cold. and being placed in a middle between them , it riseth or falleth , openeth or closeth as it prevails upon them , or as they open or close , rise or fall . this sphere of heat , by rarefying of vapours and exhalations , causeth wind. that heat is the cause of wind , is apparent from the experience of such people , who , to cause wind , usually set chaff , seeds , or straw on fire . and when houses or towns are accidentally thus set on fire , the heat of the flame , by rarefying of the vapours and exhalations round about , will raise the wind to so great a height , as will make it a matter of great difficulty to quench the flame . chap. xiii . of wind , helms , and arches . wind is the nitrous part of vapour and exhalation , rarified and dilated by the sphere of rarefaction . the winds are either higher or lower , as the sphere of rarefaction riseth or falleth ; they are thicker or thinner , as it openeth or closeth ; they are moist , hot , or dry , as they have more or less of vapour or exhalation in them . the pabulum of winds , is commonly called a helm , from the greek word 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , which signifies spiro ▪ to breath ; and they are either visible or invisible . the visible helms , are either opake , mixt , or translucent . these wind helms fix upon the coldest parts of the globe , as the gibbosity of the sea , the tops of the highest mountains , mountain-heaths , waters , and rivers . the matter on which these helms consist , is a vaporous mist , which as it endeavours to rise up , is pressed down by the sphere of rarefaction ; and by rarifying the nitrous part of it [ which is always uppermost ] into wind , the still body of the air is put into a violent flux , every blast of wind being only a wave of air ; the rapidity of its motions is occasion'd by the declivity of the mountains . wherever the grand helm fixeth , from that quarter the wind blows , untill the stock of vapours be spent : for instance , if the grand helm fix upon the mountains of germany , the second helm fixeth upon the gibbosity of the eastern seas ; [ by the gibbosity of the sea , i understand that middle ridge where the flux and reflux breaketh ; ] the third helm fixeth upon crossfelt , and that ridge of mountains ; the fourth helm fixeth upon skidday , and that ridge of mountains ; and so forward until the grand pabulum be spent , and then the wind ceaseth , and the air is calm . that distance between helm and helm we call an arch ▪ over which [ as the vapours rise ] the wind blows them from helm to helm , one feeding and repairing another , until the grand stock be spent . and so on the contrary , if the grand helm fix upon the mountains in irela●d , the wind blows west , forming helms and arches till that stock be spent . the grand helm is always opake ▪ consisting of all vapour . the first wind is wet and ●ainy , the arch over-clouded ; for as the nitrous part of the 〈◊〉 ●iseth , and is ●arify'd into wind , it driveth before it the rain , as the sal● 〈◊〉 [ being fir'd ] drives before it hail shot . the second helm is mix'd , being part exhalation , and part vapour ; the upper part of the helm being exhalation , is translucent ; this wind is showry ▪ and the arch cloudy . the third helm is translucent , being all exhalation , the wind dry , the air clear. the invisible helms are all exhalation , and they seldom rise as high as the tops of mountains ▪ but fix upon waters , rivers , the tops and sides of h●lls , and high buildings ; these winds are the lowest that blow ▪ one may go through them , and find a calm upon the tops of mountains . this is a common observation made by those who live under the mountains . the p●●ulum of these winds being soon spent , they change often . observations concerning winds , helms , and arches . when the vapours and e●halations rise from the waters to the skirts of the mountains , and 〈◊〉 roll and trail to and fro , the sphere of rarefaction is 〈◊〉 , and these vapours and exhalations being rarefy'd into wind , it blows till the stock be spent . these are spring winds , and summer winds ▪ they continue only from ten a clock till three in the afternoon , and are sometimes ●arri●d about 〈◊〉 the sun they seldom rise as high as the tops of the mountain● . when the vapours rise to the tops of the mountains , and fix there in a black and opake ledge , expect a rai●y wind. when they are opake at the bottom , and white at the top , expect a showery rain . when the helm is white and translucent , expect a dry wind. when the helms are even ballanc'd with vapours and exhalations ▪ the wind will blow sometimes from both helms , and sometimes a third blast of wind will come from a middle point or quarter ; and sometimes also a blast of wind will come whirling down from above our heads with great violence . when the whole horizon is helm'd about , expect contrary blasts , whirlwinds , or hurricanes . when the helms rise and close up the arch with black clouds , expect great rains. where the clouds begin to open and brighten mountain height , the wind will blow from that quarter ; for there a new helm is fix'd , and the sphere of rarefaction is faln a working . in large continents at great distance from the sea , where there are not many mountains , wherever the wind-helm fixeth , and the pabulum is gathered , the wind will blow from that point or h●lm for some months together ; these we call trade winds . chap. iv. prognostications of the change and alteration of weather , from the setting and rising of the sun. prognostications of rain , from the setting of the sun. when the sun setteth in ● black waterish cloud , the vapours are condens'd by the evening cold , and the morning cold raiseth them up into the cold regions of the air , where they swim until nine or ten a clock next morning , and then their own weight causeth them to sink and break into rain . when the sun goes down wading , or forcing , [ as they call it ] the vapours are drawing down with the evening cold , and the next morning cold condenseth them into clouds , which the next day fall down in showers of r●●n about twelve a clock . when the sun sets broad and glimmering , it sets in thin vapours , which the next day will fall down in a misling rain . signs of fair weather . when the sun sets clear , and appears little and fiery , the vapours are all spent , and you may expect a fair and hot day to follow . when the sun sets through thin clouds , sharp edged like swords , these are little wind-helms , and you must expect a fair and windy day to follow . when after the sun is set , its beams strike the air with a crimson-red , you may expect that the next day will be fair and windy . signs of rain from the rising sun. if before the sun appears , its rising beams strike the air with a crimson-red , expect wind and rain about ten a clock ; for the air is full of vapours and exhalations . when the sun riseth broad ▪ and glimmering , and is presently receiv'd into a black cloud , the morning cold rise●h , and takes up with it the vapours , which fall down in great rains. when the sun riseth clear , and several little black clouds are ready to receive it , expect a showery day . signs of a fair day , from the rising sun. if the sun rise little and fiery , and the vapours draw down to the waters , leaving a dew upon the ground , these vapours about ten a clock are rarify'd into wind , which continues blowing only till three in the afternoon , and prognosticate a fair season . if the sun rise in thick clouds , and appear not till until ten a clock , expect a clear afte●noon . if the sun appear not till twelve a clock , expect not only a clear afternoon , but a dry season ; for the morning cold riseth not . the rising of the morning cold , and its lif●ing up the vapours with it , is the cause of all the rain we have . finis books printed for iohn newton , at the three pigeons over against the inner-temple-gate in fleet-street . a charge given at the general quarter sessions of the peace for the county of surrey , holden at darking , on tuesday the fifth day of april 1692 , and in the fourth year of their majesties reign . by the honourable hugh hare , esq one of their majesties justices of the peace for that county . the second edition corrected . an historical relation of the conspiracy of iohn lowis count deffieschi against the city of genoua in the year 1547. written in italian , by augustin mascardi , gentleman of the bed chamber to pope urban the eighth . done into english by the honourable hugh hare , esq an account of the isle of iersey , the g●eatest of the islands that are now , the only remainder of the english do●inions in france , with a new and accurate mapp of the said island . by ph. falle , m. a. rector of st. saviour , in the said island , and chaplain in ordinary to his majesty . mr ▪ falle's sermon before the english g●●●ison in iersey , april the 10th 1692. — one sermon at whitehall , decemb. the 30th , 1694. — one sermon before the lord mayor april the 21th , 1695. a discourse of natural and reveal'd religion in several essays , by mr. t. nourse . the anatomy of 〈◊〉 earth , dedicated to all miners , by tho. robinson rector of outby in cumberland . the history of the campagne in flanders for the years 1692 , 1693 , 1694 , and 1695. all written by edward ● auergne m. a. rector of st. brelade in the isle of iersey , and chaplain to his majesties regiment of scots guards . notes, typically marginal, from the original text notes for div a57471-e1580 * note , that steno proves the earth to have been twice fluid , twice plain and dry , twice scabrous and craggy ; the first was at the original chaos , the second at the flood ; this ( says he ) is manifest from some beds of the higher hills , containing no heterogeneous bodies , because form'd before there w●re any animals or plants , or other mix'd solids ; and so pres●rv'd in their simple antediluvian st●●e by the heighth of their si●uation , which might secure them against the load of many adventitious or factitious b●ds , falling for the most part on the vallies and low places , where they make up all the compound strata , which in●rust t●● pres●nt earth , and separate it from the primitive o●e , whose beds are more simple , not stuffed up with such di●●●●ent bodies as make up the postdiluvian strata , or sediments . this agrees with what mr. whiston delivers in m●ny places of his new theory . to which we may add that the simple antediluvian beds on the high mountains , destitute of heterogeneous solids , may be l●id open by the washings away of the incumbent diluvian sediments or compound beds , by the torrents of rains , which carry down those c●usts and bodies along with them . notes for div a57471-e4400 dr. ●urnet● inconsistences . the cause of this globes atmosphere . dr. woodard's contradiction of himself . ● . vse . 2. vse . 3. vse . 4. vse . 5. vse . 1. vse . 2. vse . the cause of hills . 1. the cause of different soils and natures of vegetables . 2. the different qualities of the air. 3. the occasion of spring● , &c. 4. of the breaking out of m●nes , &c. 5. of the product●on of trees , &c. the cause of mountain● . 1. vse . their consistences . 2. vse . their natural uses . 3. vse . 4. vse . 5. vse . 6. vse . 7. vse . the position of mountains . the cause of gills , dales and vallie● . the ingred●ents of coal . lesser mountains . the cause of the chanel of the sea. the nature and quality o● the sea. 〈…〉 〈…〉 the cause of the seas gibbosity . the cause of the flux . the cause of its reflux . the cause of spring-tides and dead-tides . the cause of the seas fermen●ation . the effect● and uses of the seas fermentation . the cause of the saltness of the sea. it● uses . the proportion which the subterranean water bears to the sea. of the greater veins of the earth , &c. to raise new river● upon dry ground . a subterranean contest between fire and water . a concussion of the whole globe . a concussion of half the globe . a local earthquake . new mountains and pond● . of hurricains and their effects . dr. woodwards notion of perpendicular fissures is a mistake in observation . of burning mountains . vulcano's . her damps in colleries . their effects . violent eruptions of water . of water damps . an air damp. a sweet da●● . the over-flowing of nilus . the over-flowing of the gigleswick spring . the drumming w●ll a● baut●y mineral spirits . foul. air. the meaning of these words , the fountains of the great deep were broken up . the cause of the aerial damp and its effects . what is meant by the opening of the windows of heaven . the meaning of the wind which god caused to pass over the earth , and its effects . what the rain-bows appearing in the clouds did signifie . a refutation of dr. woodward's hypothesis , &c. the time when the deluge commenced . dr. woodwa●d'● hypothesi● concerning the effects of the d●l●ge refuted . the alterations which th● deluge made upon the ea●●h . the time when these alterations were made . gen. 4. verse 22. part the 4th . page 188. fabius columna , dr. hook , steno , scylla , bocc●●e , ra● , and many others . gen. 2.6 first . secondly first . secondly thirdly . secondly thirdly secondly thirdly . fourthly fourthly the laws of divine impression . the laws of natural instinct . the laws of external sense . letters and divers other mixt discourses in natural philosophy many of which were formerly published in the philosophical transactions of mr. oldenburg, and part in the philosophical collections of mr. hooke and else where : all which are now revised, augmented, and to them are added very many other matters of the same nature, not before published : also an intire treatis of the nature and use of colours in oyl. painting / written by m. lister, f. of the r.s. lister, martin, 1638?-1712. 1683 approx. 277 kb of xml-encoded text transcribed from 117 1-bit group-iv tiff page images. text creation partnership, ann arbor, mi ; 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(eebo-tcp ; phase 1, no. a48704) transcribed from: (early english books online ; image set 56944) images scanned from microfilm: (early english books, 1641-1700 ; 1507:18) letters and divers other mixt discourses in natural philosophy many of which were formerly published in the philosophical transactions of mr. oldenburg, and part in the philosophical collections of mr. hooke and else where : all which are now revised, augmented, and to them are added very many other matters of the same nature, not before published : also an intire treatis of the nature and use of colours in oyl. painting / written by m. lister, f. of the r.s. lister, martin, 1638?-1712. 137 p., 47 leaves of plates : ill. printed by j. white for the author, york : 1683. imperfect: pages badly stained, with print showthrough and considerable loss of print. imperfect : t.p. and all after p. 40 lacking. pages torn, with some loss of print. best copy available for photographing. reproduction of original in the bodleian library. created by converting tcp files to tei p5 using tcp2tei.xsl, tei @ oxford. re-processed by university of nebraska-lincoln and northwestern, with changes to facilitate morpho-syntactic tagging. gap elements of known extent have been transformed into placeholder characters or elements to simplify the filling in of gaps by user contributors. eebo-tcp is a partnership between the universities of michigan and oxford and the publisher proquest to create accurately transcribed and encoded texts based on the image sets published by proquest via their early english books online (eebo) database (http://eebo.chadwyck.com). the general aim of eebo-tcp is to encode one copy (usually the first edition) of every monographic english-language title published between 1473 and 1700 available in eebo. eebo-tcp aimed to produce large quantities of textual data within the usual project restraints of time and funding, and therefore chose to create diplomatic transcriptions (as opposed to critical editions) with light-touch, mainly structural encoding based on the text encoding initiative (http://www.tei-c.org). the eebo-tcp project was divided into two phases. the 25,363 texts created during phase 1 of the project have been released into the public domain as of 1 january 2015. anyone can now take and use these texts for their own purposes, but we respectfully request that due credit and attribution is given to their original source. users should be aware of the process of creating the tcp texts, and therefore of any assumptions that can be made about the data. text selection was based on the new cambridge bibliography of english literature (ncbel). if an author (or for an anonymous work, the title) appears in ncbel, then their works are eligible for inclusion. selection was intended to range over a wide variety of subject areas, to reflect the true nature of the print record of the period. in general, first editions of a works in english were prioritized, although there are a number of works in other languages, notably latin and welsh, included and sometimes a second or later edition of a work was chosen if there was a compelling reason to do so. image sets were sent to external keying companies for transcription and basic encoding. quality assurance was then carried out by editorial teams in oxford and michigan. 5% (or 5 pages, whichever is the greater) of each text was proofread for accuracy and those which did not meet qa standards were returned to the keyers to be redone. after proofreading, the encoding was enhanced and/or corrected and characters marked as illegible were corrected where possible up to a limit of 100 instances per text. any remaining illegibles were encoded as <gap>s. understanding these processes should make clear that, while the overall quality of tcp data is very good, some errors will remain and some readable characters will be marked as illegible. users should bear in mind that in all likelihood such instances will never have been looked at by a tcp editor. the texts were encoded and linked to page images in accordance with level 4 of the tei in libraries guidelines. copies of the texts have been issued variously as sgml (tcp schema; ascii text with mnemonic sdata character entities); displayable xml (tcp schema; characters represented either as utf-8 unicode or text strings within braces); or lossless xml (tei p5, characters represented either as utf-8 unicode or tei g elements). keying and markup guidelines are available at the text creation partnership web site . eng natural history -pre-linnean works. science -early works to 1800. 2005-02 tcp assigned for keying and markup 2005-02 aptara keyed and coded from proquest page images 2005-04 melanie sanders sampled and proofread 2005-04 melanie sanders text and markup reviewed and edited 2005-10 pfs batch review (qc) and xml conversion letters , and divers other mixt discourses in natural philosophy , many of which , were formerly published in the philosophicall transactions of mr. oldenburg , and part in the philosophicall collections of mr. hooke , and else where . all which are now revised , augmented , and to them are added very many other matters of the same nature , not before published . also , an intire treatis of the nature and use of colours , in oyl painting . written by m. lister , f. of the r. s. york , printed by j. white for the author . 1683. some observations concerning the odd turn of some shell-snailes , and the darting of spiders , communicated to mr. j. w. and published in the philosophicall transactions n. 50. 1669. sir , i can deny you nothing , and you may do what you please with the notes i send you . you would know of me ( you say ) what i have observed concerning the odd turn of some shell-snailes with us in england , and the darting of spiders . i will tell you then of the first , that i have found two ( a ) sorts of them , easily to be distinguisht one from the other , and from all besides , because the turn of the wreathes is from the right hand to the left , contrary to what may be seen in common snailes . they are very small , and might therefore well escape thus long the more curious naturalist ; neither of them much exceeding , at least in thickness , a large oat-corne . the first i thus describe : the open of the shell is pretty round , and the second turne of wreaths is very large for the proportion , and the rest of the wreaths , about the number of six , are still lesson'd to a point . this turbin or conical figure is well near a quarter of an inch ; the colour of the shell is duskish , yet when the shrunk animall gives leave , you may see day through it , and then it is of a yellowish colour . these shells are extream brittle and tender , so that i cannot send them in a letter : you may guess at the figure , if i tell you , they are som●thing like those of aldrovandus de testaceis , markt p. 359. turbinum levjum . of the second sort ( b ) i send you inclosed at aventure halfe a dozen ; ( you see , in that i can so plentifully repair the loss of the former , that they are not very rare ; ) they seem to be much stronger and thicker shel'd ; they are well near halfe as long again as the other , and as slender they have the exact figure of an oat-corn , being as it were pointed at both ends , and the middle a little swelled . the open of the shell is not exactly round there being a peculiar sinus in the lower part thereof . i think , you may number above 10. spires , having their turn from the right hand to the left . the colour of the shell is of a dark and reddish brown . there are two sorts of this make described , and with their respective cutts , in fabius columna ; but ours agree not with them in any thing more than the odd turn : though it 's true , that the other , the third there described , and call'd by him cochlea terrestris turbinata et stirata , ( c ) is very frequent in the road 'twixt canterbury and dover , and likewise in some woody parts of the woles in lincoln-shire . there are odd differences in this very snaile very remarkable , as its having but one pair of horns ( if i mistake not , ) as also a hard shelly cover ; its manner of wearing that cover &c. which i leave to another opportunity and place . and to return to our two new described snailes , they , when they creep , lift up the point of their shells towards a perpendicular , and exert with part of their body two pair of horns , as most of their kind do . in march they are still to be found in paires , aristotle affirms all these kind of creatures to be of a spontaneous birth , and no more to contribute to the production of one another , then trees , and therefore to have no distinction of sex. i have no reason to subscribe to his authority , since i have seen so many of them pair'd , and in the act of venery . that they engender then , is most certain ; but whether those , that are thus found coupled , be one of them a male , and the other female , or rather , as you first observ'd , and published to the world in the catalogue of plants growing wild about cambridge , that they are both male and female and do in the act of generation both receive into themselves , and immit alike penis ( as it seems probable to any man that shall part them ) i leave to further and more minute discovery to determine . moreover we find in aristotle a circle of other parts , but of those we find no mention at all . however the romans knew something extraordinary of these kind of animals , that made them so choice of them as to recken them among their most delicate food , and use all care and diligence to breed and fat them for their tables at large discribed to us by varro . their tast and relish is none , methinks , of the most agreeable . of late , comparing bussy's historire amoureuse de gaule with petronius arbiter , out of whom i was made to believe , he had taken two of his lettes word for word , beside other love intrigues ; i find , in running him over , what satisfied me ; not a little in this very subject of snailes ; viz. that these very animals , as well as other odd things in nature , as truffs , mushroms , and no doubt too the cossi or great worms in the oak ( another roman dainty ) were made use of by the antients to incite venery . you 'l there find , that the distressed and feeble lover prepares himself with a ragoust of snailes necks , ( cervices cochlearum ; ) and indeed in this part it is that these strange penes's are to be found . mr. hook does as it were promise the anatomy of this insect . it were surely worth his paines , and the learn'd world would be obliged to him for a piece of this nature ; nothing , accuratly done of the inward part of any insect , being yet published * these snailes are to be found frequent enough under the loose barke of trees , as old willows , and in the ragged clefts of elmes and oak &c. and in no other places else , that i could observe . you tell me , that it is generally concluded by phylosophers , that the reason of the usuall turn of snailes from the left to the right , is the like motion of the sun , and that especially more north-ward , there have not been hitherto discovered any in our parts of the contrary turn to the sun's motion . but this is not the only case , where they are out , who consult not the stores of nature , but their own phancy . what i am further about to tell you concerning spiders , is as evident an instance against them . the long threads in the aire in summer , and especially towards september , have been a strange puzel to the wiser world. it would ●●ert you , though you know them as well as i , if i 〈◊〉 ●●ckoned up the ridiculous opinions concerning them ; but i omit them , and proceed to tell you the certain and immediat anthors of them , and how they make them . i say then , that all spiders , that spin a thread , ( those which we call shepherds or long-legged spiders , never doe ; ) are the markes of these threds , so much wondred at , and in such infinite quantities every where . i sent you the last summer a catalogue of thirty sort , of spiders , that i had distinguisht here with us in england ; and i must confess , i had well near compleated that number , with many other experiments concerning them , before i discovered this secret . you must not expect from me any thing more , then what you demanded of me ; for as for other experiments , i reserve them till our meeting . i had exactly marked all the way of weaving , used by any sorts of them , and in those admirable works i had ever noted that they still let down the thred they make use of ; and draw it after them . happily at length in neerly attending on one , that wrought a nett , i saw him suddenly in the mid-work to desist , and turning his taile into the wind to dart out a thread with the violence and streame , we see water forced out of a squirt or syring pipe : this thread taken up by the wind , was in a moment emitted some fathoms long , still issuing out of the belly of the animal ; by and by the spider leapt into the aire , and the thread mounted her up swiftly . and after this first discovery , i made the like observation in all the sorts of spiders , i had before distinguished ; and i found the air filled with young and old , sailing on their threads , and undoubtedly seizeing gnats and other insects in their passage ; there being often as many fest signes of slaughter , as the leggs , wings of flyes &c. on those threads , as in their webbs below . one thing yet was a wonder to me , viz. that many of these threads , that came down out of the air , were not single , but snarled and with complicated woolly locks , now more now less ; and that on those i did not elways find spiders , though many times i had found two or three upon one of them : whereas when they first flew up , the thread was still single , or but little tangled , or , it may be , thicker in one place then in another . in the end , by good attention i plainly found , what satisfied me abundantly , and that was this ; that i observed them to get to a top of a stalk or bough , or sum such like thing , where they exercise this darting of threads into the air , and if they had not a mind to sail , they swiftly drew it up again , winding it ●p with their fore-feet over the head into a lock , or brok it off short , and let the air carry it away . this they will do many times together , and you may see of them , that have chaines to these locks or snarled thread before them , and yet not taken flight . again , i found , that after the first flight , all the time of their sailing they make locks , still darting forth fresh supplyes of thread to sport and saile by . it is further to be noted , that these complicated threads are much more tender , then our house-webbs . in winter and at christmas i have observed them busy a darting , but few of them saile then , and therefore but single threads only are to be seen ; and besides , they are but the young ones of last autumns hatch , that are then employed ; and it is more than probable , that the great ropes of autumne are made onely by the great ones , and upon long passages and summer weather , when great numbers of pray may invite them to stay longer up . but i cease to be tedious : i have many experiments by me to satisfy many doubts , that may be made , viz. infinite number of these insects , and their numerous increase ; and besides how strangely they are able to furnish and husband great quantities of matter out of so small a bulk &c. you may expect all from me after another summers leisure , which at least i think necessary to confirm to me these ; and other things concerning their generation and poison . what i have said at present , is such as i have certainly observed ; and you may take the truth of these observations for excuse of the ill texture of them . note , ( a ) i have since also found one sort of snaile of this turn , amongst the aquatik or fresh water kind : see my book . ( b ) this i have caused to be elegantly drawn in the plate , published in the appendix to that book , 1680. ( c ) of this see the said book . extract of a letter , written to mr. oldenbourgh , and published in the philosoph : transactions , n. 68. 1670. about an insect , which besides pismiers , may probably yield an acid juice . also about the winter bleeding of the sycamore tree . sir , concerning the acid liquour of pismiers , i have very lately received from mr. wray the account ( i suppose you have it by this time , ) that was sent him from mr. fisher and mr. jessop ; wherein these two last gentlemen make this further inquiry , whether there be any other insect , or animal , flesh or fish , that will afford an acid juice ; they having with great industry tryed many species amongst insects , and other animals , without lighting on the like acid liquor . i am of the mind , there are ; and a ready way to find such out , may be , that having observed , that a pismire bruised and smelt to , emits a strange fiery and piercing savour , like the leafe of the herb , by botanists called flammula , broken at one's nostrills ; by this means i have , since mr. wray put the question to me , found an insect , which i suspect , may yeild an acid liquour ; as well as the pismire ; and that is the long and round-bodied lead-coloured julus , distinguished from all other multipeds in that their innumerable leggs are as small as hair , and white and in going they are moved like waves ; not rare amongst drier rubbish ; no scolopendra , ours being an harmless insect , and not armed with dangerous forcipes . the body of this julus being bruised strikes the nostriis exceeding fiercely ; but i have not yet any opertunity to furnish my selfe with any quantity of them for farther trials . the change of colours in flowers , &c. is a subject i have a little considered , and you shall have my thoughts an experimen●s about it more a leisure . as to the bleeding of sy●amore ; the last year i winter'd at nottingham , where i pierced a sycamore about the begining of november ; the turgescence of the buds invited me thereto , and some hopes in improving the notion of winter-bleedings , so happily discover'd by mr. willughoby and mr. wray . this succeeded so well with me , that i did afterwards engage my selfe in keeping a journal throughout the whole winter ; from which journal , i think i may note ; 1. that the wounded sycamore niver bled , neither in november , december , nor january , nor february , nor march , ( which yet they did above 40. several times , that is , totally ceasing and than beginning a new , ) unless there preceded a sensible and visible frost ; for i had no other way of recording the temper of the air. 2. that the frost did not always set a bleeding the wounds , they found made before they came , though sometimes they did ; but upon their breaking up , or very much relenting , the wounds either made in that instant of time , or made many months before , did never fail to bleed more er less . 3. that particularly upon the breaking up of the two great and long frosts ( the first of which hapn'd that year in that country to be on the third of january ; the second , about the 12 th . 13th . 14th . of february , ) all the wounds ra● mist plentifully : so that such times may be looked upon as the most proper season of gathering great quantities of juyce from this tree . removing into cravon the latter end of march , and thence to london , my journal was discontinued ; i had yet , ●pon my return from london unto craven , some leasvre to prosicute it . those , i there wounded the latter end of may , did not bleed neither the remaining part of that month , nor the following months of june and july , but had the orifice of the wounds , made with a small auger , in a manner quite grown up , and would scarce admit a pigeons feathers . wherefore the 30 th . of july i cut out a square piece of about two inches of the barke of a large and well-grown sycamore , about my hight in the body of it : this wound began to run the next morning about 9 a clock , so as to drop ; and that was all , and dryed up by 11 in the morning . it continued in like manner the 21 days following , that is as long as i had the oppertunity of observing it . the like cut i made in a young sycamore the 8th of august ; which in like manner bled the next morning , but stopp'd before 9 a clock . it did so for 2 or 3 days , but then totally drying . afterwards removing to york , the first of november i here pierced , and otherwise wounded two sycamores ; and having observ'd them my self at times , when , according to my former observations made in nottingham shire , i might wel expect to have found them bleeding ; yet they never stirr'd , that we could observe , to this day . since mr. wray hath assured me , that those of warwick-shire bled the 16th of november last past copiously ; and since the walnuttres also . and so much for matter of fact . to what cause we may truly refer this anomalous bleeding , is not easie to say . for my part , i am not apt to think , that there is such a sudden and extemporary ascent of sap , at such time as these trees are most disposd to bleed ; but rather , that the sap , already in all parts of the tree , is some ways notably alter'd in its temper and consistance : and this bleeding by stress of weather may in these trees probably be look'd upon as a violence done to their natures from an unkind climate ; considering the walnut and sycamore as strangers , and not natives of england . 't is indeed true , there are many sorts of english plants , which will bleed in winter ; but note also , that such plants never refuse to do so at any time of the year , no more than a man , who may bleed a vein when he pleaseth , but let the hypothesis be what it will , i am perswaded , we shall have but dark and imperfect notions of the motion of the juyces in vegetables , until their true texture be better discover'd . to conclude this subject , i now put these two quaries ; 1. whether the juyce of trees , whil'st alive & vegete , can properly be said , at any time of the year , to descend , or to be wanting in any part , or not to be therein in a much like quantity ? 2. what condition the soil is of , where such trees are planted , that shall either bleed or refuse to do so ; whether sandy , as that of nottingham ; or a wet clay , as that of the two trees , i have observ'd here at york . an extract of another letter written febr. 8th . 1670. containing some experiments about the bleeding of the sycamore , and other trees ; as also , a considerable note of pliny about the mulberry-tree . ibidem . concerning the bleeding of the sycmore , let me acquaint you with the following experiment . the first instant it froze , the wind at north ; the frost and wind continued ( some little snow and rain falling ) the 2d , 3d , 4th , 5th , 6th , until the 7th in the morning , when the wind came about to the south-east , and the weather broke up a pace . the sycamores bled not all this while , but the 7th about noon all trees of that kind bled very freely , both at the twigs and body , and i struck above a dozen . at this same critical season i was willing to repeat the experiment upon other trees ; and to this end i forthwith struck the hawthorn , hazel , wild-rose , gooseberry-bush , apple-tree , cheery-tee , blather-nut , aprickcock , cherry-lawrel , vine , walnut ; yet none bled but the last-named , and that faintly in comparison of the sycamore . this is consonant to our former experiments : and if it did happen ( as i said in my former letter , ) that these sycamores bled not all this winter afore at the wounds made the first of november , i do now think , that if new wounds had been still made at every break of frost , some signes , at least of our york-shire bleeding , might have been discover'd before now . but i affirm no more , than i have seen and tried . in all the monuments of the antients , collected by the great industry of pliny , i find but few instances of this nature . amongst those few , there is one that is rgistred with two or three remarkable circumstances to our purpose . he tells us , that the physitians of old , when they had a mind to draw the juyce of the mulberry-tree , were wont to strike it skin-deep only , and that about two hours after sun-rise . this experiment is twice mentioned by him , and in both places as a strange phoen●menon . we might make our comment upon the places , but for this time are content only to transcribe the text. lib. 16. c. 38. mirum ; hic ( cortex ) in moro , medicit succum quaerentibus , ferè horâ diei secundâ , lapide incussus manat , allius fractus ficcus videtur . lib. 23. c. 7. mora in aegypto & cypre sui generis , ut diximus , largo succo abundant , summo cortice desquamato , aeltiore plagâ siccantur ; mirabili naturâ . extracts of divers letters , touching some inquiries and experiments of the motion of sap in trees , and relating to the question of the circulation of the same . phi. traus . n. 70. 1. january . 28. 1670. york . you may be pleased to put this quaerie also , concerning the bleeding of the sycamore : what condition the soil is of , where such trees are planted , that shall either bleed , or refuse to do so : whether sandy , as that of nottingham , or a wet clay , as that of the two trees , i have observed here at york . * 2. febr. 8. 1670. york . concerning the bleeding of the sycamore , be pleased that i acquaint you with the following experiments of very late date . the first instant it froze , the wind at north ; the frost and wind continued ( some little snow now and then falling ) the 2d , 3d , 4th , 5th , 6th , until the 7th in the morning , when the wind came about to the south-east , and the weather broke up a pace , the sycamores bled not all this while ; but the seventh about noon , all trees of that kinde bled very freely both at the twigs and body , and i struck above a dozen . at this same critical season , i was willing to repeat the experiment upon other trees , and to this end i forthwith struck the haw-thorn , hazel , wild-rose , gooseberry-bush , apple-tree , cherry-tree , blathen-nut , apricock , cherry-lawrel , vine , wal-nut ; yet none bled but the last nam'd , and that but faintly in comparison of the sycamore . this is consonant to our former experiments : and if it did happen , as i said in one of my former letter * , that these sycamores bled not all this winter afore at the wounds made the first of november , i do now think , that if new wounds had been still made at every breach of frost , some signes at least of our york-shire bleeding * might have been discovered before now : but i affirm no more than i have seen and tried . 3. febr. 15. 1670. york . to continue our experiments concerning the motion of the sap in trees ; febr. 11th , all was here cover'd with a white frost betwixt 9 and 11 in the morning . the weather changing i made the experiments , which follow , upon the sycamore , watnut , maple . a twig cut asunder would bleed very freely from that part remaining to the tree ; and , for the part separated , it would be altogether dry and shew no signs of moisture , although we held it some prety time with the cut end downward ; but , if this separated twig was never so little tipp'd with a knife at the other end , it would forthwith shew no moisture at both ends . the same day , late in the after-noon , the weather very open and warm , a twig cut off in like manner as in the morning , would shew no moisture at all from any part . these experiments we repeated very many times with constant and like success on all the trees abvoe-mentioned . i enter'd this experiment with these quaries for the next opportunity . 1. whether a twig , or the small part of a root cut asunder , will not bleed faster , upon the breaking up of a frost , from the part remaining to the tree , than from the part seperated ; and whether the part seperated will bleed at all , and shew no more signes of moistule , than a twig cut from the top of the tree , unless that small root be likewise cut off at the other end also ? 2. whether when it shall happen , that a sycamore shall be found to bleed upon the setting in of a great frost , the top twigs and small roots will not both of them bleed freelier from the parts separated , in proportion to their bigness ? 3. and if it shall not so prove in the tryal , that in cold weather the sap moves inwards from root and branch to the trunk to the extremities of both root and branch ; i say ; if this prove not so , whether there be any different motions of sap at a time in the divers parts of one and the same tree ; and where such motions of sad begin , and whither they tend ? 4 whether the sap , when it will run , moves longer in the branches than in the roots ; or whether it begin not to move in all parts of a tree at a time , and rest every where at a time ; 5. when it rests , whether it retires to the body of the tree , from the roots and branches , or sinks down to the root , or is any way spent by insensible steams , or is quiet and lodged in every part of the tree in proportion ? i shall long to hear the success of your experiments in the question of the circulation of the sap. i have many years been inclin'd to think , that there is some such motion in the juyces of vegetables . the reasons which induced me , are ; 1. because i finde , that all the juyce of a plant is no extravasate and loose , and like water in a spunge ; but that there are apparent vessels in plants , analagous to veins in animals : which thing is most conspicuous and clear in such plants , whose juyce is either white or red , or saffron colour'd ; for instance , in each kind of juyce we propose latuca , atractilis , cbelidonium majus . 2. because that there are very many plants ( and these last named are of the number ) whose juyce seems never to be at rest , but will spring at all times iteely , as the blood of animals , upon incision . the way of ligature by metalline rings , by you mention'd is an expedient i have not used ; but other ligatures i have , upon a great number of our english plants , not without the discovery of many curious phenomena . the success of an experiment of this nature upon cataputia minor lobel . was as followes : i tied a silk-thread upon one of the branches of this plant , as hard as might be , and not break the skin ; there follow'd no greater swelling , that i could discern , on the one side than on the other ; although in often repeating the experiment , some silks were left hours and dayes unloosed , and yet the dimple which the thread had made in the yielding branches , had a little raised the immediate sides , but both alike : the plant in like manner would bleed very freely both above and under the tye. this was also , i thought , very remarkable , amongst other things , in this experiment , that in drawing the rasour round about the branch just above or below the tye , the milky juyce would suddenly spring out of infinite small holes , besides the made orifice , for more than half an inch above and below the tye : which seems to argue , that though there was no juyce intercepted in appearance from any turgescence , ( as in the like process upon the members of a sanguineous animal ) yet the veins were so over-thronged and full , that a large orifice was not sufficient to discharge the sudden impetus and pressure of a some-ways streighten'd juyce . i have endeavou'rd many wayes to discover the configuration of the veins of vegetables and their other constituent parts and texture ; but enough of this in one letter . 4. march 17. 1670. york . to the end that i might satisfie my self about some of the doubts i sent you , i have been most concern'd , according to former thoughts and inclinations , in examining the truth of these quaeries , viz. whether saps are not to be found at all seasons of the year in a much like consistence and quantity in the respective parts of a vegetable ; and what communication one part of a plant may have with another in relation to the ascent and decent of sap ? now , because sap is then said to ascend from the root , when it is found to move in tapping ; i lopp'd off certain branches of a sycamore , the morning betimes of a hard frost ( febr. 21. ) before they would bleed , or shew any signe of moisture . this i did to vary the efficient , not willing to wait the change of the weather , and the suns heat ; but brought them within the air of the fire : and by and , as i expected , they bled apace , without being sensibly the warmer . the experiment repeated afforded me divers phoenomena , which follow ; and proved almost an universal way of bleeding all sorts of trees , even those , which of themselves would not shew any signes of moisture . 1. poles of maple , sycamore and walnut , cut down in open weather , and brought within the warmth of the fire , did bleed in an instant . also willow , hazel , cherry , wood-bind , blather-nut , vine , elder , barbery , apple-tree , ivy , &c. whicking egge-berry tree ( i. e. padus theophrasti ) tried in the same manner in craven . 2. briar and rasberry-rcds were more obstinate . ash utterly refused , even heated hot . 3. branches , that is , poles with their tops entire and uncut bled also when brought to the fire side ; but seem not so freely to drink up their sap again when inverted , as when made poles . 4. the same willow-poles , left all night in the grassspot , and returned the next day to the fire-side , bleed afresh . 5. maple and willow-poles , bleed and cease at pleasure again and again , if quickly withdrawn and balanced in the hand , and often inverted to hinder the falling and and expence of sap : yet being often heated , they will at length quite cease , though no sap was at any time sensibly lost . and when they have given over bleeding , that is , shewing any moisture , by being brought within the warmth of the fire , the bark will yet be found very full of juyce . 6. an hard ligature made within a quarter of an inch of the end of a wood-bind rod , did not hinder its bleeding at all when brought within the warmth of the fire . 7. maple and willow-poles , &c. quite bared of bark , and brought to the fire , will shew no moisture at all in any part . 8. one barbery , or pipridge-pole bared of its bark , brought to the fire , did shew moisture from within the more inward circles , though not any from the outward . 9. maple and willow-poles , &c. half bar'd of bark , woud bleed by the fire , from the half onely of those circles , which lay under the bark . 10. maple and willow-poles , split in two and planed , would not shew any moisture on the planed sides , but at the ends only . 11. a pole of ivy did of it self exudate and shew a liquid and yellowish rosin from the bark and near the pith ; but when brought to the fire-side , it bled a dilute , thin and colour-less sap from the intermediat wood circles . 12. a pole of willow ( for example ) bent into a bow , will ouse its sap freely , as in bleeding either spontaneously or by the fire . extract of a letter , written from york , april 8. 1671. both in relation to the futher discovery of the motion of juyces in vegetables , and removing some difference noted the in next fore-going letter . sir , yours of the 4th instant came safe to my hands . this last month hath been a busie time with me in my private concerns , so that i have but a few things to return to what you have been pleased to communicate to me , in relation to the further discovery of the motion of juyces in vegetables . and i must acquaint you , that these notes following are above 14 dayes old ; for i have scarce busied my head , or put my hand to any experiment of later date . one or both ends of the pith of a willow-pole seal'd up with hard wax , will yet freely bleed by the warmth of the fire . this was tried , when the last experiment , i sent you , were ; and was then , i think , omitted . march 23th , was the greatest frost and snow we have had this winter in these parts about york . some twigs and branches of the very same willow-tee , as formerly , and likewise of many other willow-trees , taken off this morning , march 23th , when brought within the air of the fire . would shew no moisture at all ; no not when heated warm , and often and long turn'd . march 24th , the same willow-branches , which yesterday would not bleed , and were thrown upon the grassspot all night , ; did , both they and others , new cut down by the fire-side , freely shew moisture and bleed this morning upon the breaking up of the frost . ash-poles and branches this day , nor yesterday , would by the fire-side , be no more moist , than when i formerly tried them . the same morning march 24th , a twig of maple , which had had the top cut off the 7th of february last past ▪ and which then bled , this day being quite taken off from the tree , and brought within the air of the fire , and held with the formerly cut-end down-wards , did not run at all at the end , but held on in that posture , it did run apace at the other new-cut end uppermost , so as to spring and trickle down . note , that this doth well agree with my experiments made the last year at nottingham , where i observ'd wounds of some months standing to bleed apace at the breaking up of every hard frost . for first , in these parts there hath been no hard frost this year , not comparable to the last year . again , those nottingham-trees i wounded in the trunk , and they stood against a brick-wall , and the wounds were on the side next it ; and besides had horse-dung stopp'd in all of them for some reasons ; which things did undoubtedly defend them much from the air and winds , and keep the wounds still green and open : wheras the tops of these maple-twiggs , spoken of in the last experiment , were expos'd in an open hedge to the air and winds ; as also the two sycamores here at york mention'd in my former letter to have been wounded in november last , and not to have shew'd any signes of moisture , for that very cause , that they were not fresh struck at bleeding times . concerning the bleeding of poles and entire branches held perpendicular , mr. willboughby is in the right , and some experiments in my last to you of march 17th confirm it . yet it is very true what i observ'd , though the cause i did not then well take notice of , when i first made the experiment and sent you an account of it . for , i held the twigs , which i had cut off , a slope , joyning and holding up the cuts together in my left hand , that i might the better observe , which part or cut would bleed or not bleed the faster ; and because i found , that the cut of the separated twig did not in that posture ( holding it upwards , as i said , for the advantage of my eye ) bleed at all , when as the cut of the branch remaining to the tree did freely bleed ; i therefore inverted the separated twig and held it perpendicular with the cut end downward , and found , that that little they were expos'd to the air in an upright posture , had so very much check'd the motion of the sap , that i concluded they would not bleed at all ; and yet striking off their tops , and making poles of them , i found some of them , if not all , that i chanc'd to try , as i remember , would shew moisture : but i am convinced since , that it was was rather some unheeded accident , as violently bending them , or perhaps the warmth of my hand and season , or place , which caused this new motiom of sap , than meerly the striking off their tops . some observations , touching colours , in order to the increase of dyes , and the fixation of colours 15. 1670. two things , i conceive , are chiefly aimed at in the inquiry of colours , which subject you desire my thoughs of ; the one , to increase the materia tinctoria , and the other , to fix , if possible , those colours we either have already , or shall hereafter discover for use . as to the first , animals and vegetables , besides other natural bodies , may abundantly furnish us . and in both these kinds some colours are apparent , as the various colours of flowers , and the juices of fruits , &c. and the sanies of animals : others are latent , and discovered to us by the effects , the several family 's of salt and other things may have upon them , concerning the apparent colours of vegetables and animals , and the various effects , of different salts in changing them from one colour to another ; we have many instance in mr. boyle . and if we might , with the good leave of that honourable and learned person , range them after our fashion , we should give you at least a new prospect of them , and observe to you the conformity and agreement of the effects of salt on the divers parts of vegetables : viz. 1. that acid salts advance the colours of flowers and berries , that is , according to the experiments of mr. boyle , they make the infusious of balaustium or pomgranat-flowers , red-roses , clove-jilly flowers , meserion , pease-bloom , violets , cyanus flowers , of a fairer red ; also the the juices of the berries of ligustrum , of black cherris , buck-thorn-berries , of a much fairer red : and to the same purpose acid salts make no great alterations upon the white flowers of jasmin and snow-drops . 2. that vrinous salts , and alcaly's , on the contrary , quite alter and change the colours of the same flowers now named , and juices of the said berries also , from red to green ; even jasmin and snow-drops . 3. again , that in like manner vrinous spirits and alcaly's advance , at least do not quite spoyle the colours of the juices of leaves of vegetables , of their wood and root . thus mr. boyle tells us , that vrinous spirits and alcaly's make the yellow infusions of madder-roots red ; of brazil-wood , purplish ; of lognum nephriticum , blew ; the red infusion of leg-wood , purple ; of the leaves of sena , red . 4. that on the contrary , acid salts quite alter and change the said infusions from red or blew , to yellow . in the next place we would note to you the effects of salts upon animals in the production and change of colours ; but the instances are very few or none , that i meet with in any author ; the purple-fish being quite out of use , and cochineil and kermes are by most questioned , whether they are animals or no ; but i think , we may confidently believe them both to be insects , that is , worms or chrysalys's of respective fly 's in proxima faetura . we find then , and have tried concerning cochineil ( which of it self is red , ) that upon the affusion of most the oyl of vitriol , that is , an acid salt , it striks the vivid crimson that can be imagined ; and with vrinous salts and alcaly's it will be again changed into an obscure colour 'twixt a violet and a violet and a purple . pliny somewhere tells us , that the gaules in his time could dye with vegetables , what the romans with so much danger and pains sought for in the bottom of the sea. indeed , we find many plants mentioned by the same author , for dying which either are not known to us at this present , or neglected . to what we have briefly observed out of authors , we will subjoyne some of our own considerations and tryals , and first , concerning the apparent colours in flowers , we think we may insert ; 1. that generally all red , blew and white flowers are immediately , upon the affusion of an alcaly , changed into a green colour , and then , in process of no long time , turned yellow . 2. that all the parts of vegetables , which are green , will in like manner strike a yellow with an alcaly . 3. that what flowers are already yellow , are not much changed , if at all , by an alcaly or vrinous spirit . 4. the blew seed-husks of glastum sylvestre old-gathered and dry , diluted with water , stain a blew , which upon the affusion of lye striks a green , which green or blew being touched with the oyl of vitriol dyes purple ; all these three colours stand . 5. on the tops of fungus tubulosus , so called by m. wray in his late catalogue of the plants of england , are certain red knots ; these , upon the affusion of lye , will strike a purple , and stand . as for the latent colours in vegetables and animals ; to be discovered to us by the affusion of salts ; they likewise , no doubt , are very many . we will set down only a few instances in both kinds , which have not been , that we know of , discovered or taken notice of by others . latent vegitable colours , 1. the milky juice of lactuca sylvestris costâ spinosa , and sonchus asper & laevis upon the affusion of lye , will strike a vivid flame-colour or crimson , and after some time quite degenerate into a dirty yellow . 2. the milk of cataputia minor , upon the affusion of lye , especially if it be drawn with a knife , and hath any time stood upon the blade of it , will strike a purple or bloud-red colour , and by and by change into an ignoble yellow . latent animal dyes , 1. the common hawthorn-catter-pillar will strike a purple or carnation with lye , and stand . 2. the heads of beetles and pismires , &c. will with lye strike the same carnation-colour , and stand . 3. the amber-coloured scolopendra will give with lye a most beautiful and pleasant azure or amethystine , and stand . lastly , we might consider the fixing of colours for use ; but we are willing to leave this to more experinced persons , as also the philosophizing on the particulars we have produced , to better heads . some obvious inferences we may venture to take notice of ; 1. that in all the instances above mentioned , whether vegetable or animal , there is not one colour truly fixed , however there may , i conceive , be some use made of them , as they are . i say , truly fixed , that is , proof of salt and fire ; for , what seem to stand and be lye-proofe , are either wholly destroyed by a different salt , or changed into a much different colour ; which must needs prove a stain and blemish , when it shall happen in the use of any of them . 2. that both the apparent and latent colours of vegetables are fixable : an instance whereof we may observe in the seed-husks of glastum , and the use diers make of the leaves after due preparation . 3. it is probable from the same instance , that we may learn from the colour of some part of the fruit or seed , what colour the leaves of any vegetable and the whole plant might be made to yeild for our use . 4. that the latent colours are praeexistent , and not produced ; from the same instance of wood , and likewise from this that the milky juyce of lactuca silvestris doth afford it self a red serum . 5. that the change of colours in flowers is gradual and constant . 6. that the colours of flowers , which will not stand with lye , seem to be wholly destroyed by it , and irrecovrable : thus it happens in the experiment ; that one part of a violet-leaf , upon the affusion of lye , is changed very soon into yellow , and will never be revived into a red by an acid salt ; but if another part of the same leaf be still green , it will be revived , 7. that the dryness seems to be a means , if not of fixing , yet bringing the vegetable colour into a condition of not wholly and suddainly perishing by the otherwise destroying alcaly . 8. that those plants or animals that will strike different and yet vivid colours upon the affusion of different salts , and stand , as the cochinel and glastum , are probably of all others to be reckoned as the best materials . it would have been a much safer way , to have put these inferences in the quaeri't ; but besides that i affirm no more but matter of fact , it is lawful for our encouragement ( as my lord bacon advises ) to set up rests by the way , and refresh our selves with looking back , though perhaps we have not much advanced . you will be pleased to excuse the little cohaerence that i have used in these notes , and attribute it to the readiness and affection i have to answer such inquiries as you put to me . i never yet did make this subject any part of my businese , but the desire i have to search after and examine the medicinal qualities of things iu nature , hath by the by presented me with such phoenomena , as i was not willing to leave unnoted , nor to refuse them you , though in a confused way , because you desire them . to conclude , how immethodical and barren these papers may seem ; yet the consideration of them hath led me to a way of fixing colours , which i willingly forbear to relate , until i may have an oppertunity of shewing the experiment before the r. society . i have found out a colour most exquisitely black , & comparable to the best ink ; even in the use of the pen , and which will not change by fire or salt. this an english vegetable yielded me , and for ought i know ( for i have not repeated the trial on any thing else ) the like method will succeed to good purpose , i am , &c. an observation concerning certain insect husks of the kermes-kind may 22. 1671. philosophical transactions . n. 71. i gave you a short account formerly * of certain matrices or insect-husks , of the kermes-kind , which i had some years since observ'd on plum-trees . this instant may hath afforded me the same observation , and some little improvement of it . i have observed the same patellae . husks indifferently on vine-branches , cherry-laurel , plvmb-trees , and the cherry-tree , also on the apricock-tree . the figure of the husk is round , save where thy cleave to to the branch ; for bignes , somewhat more than the half of a grey pea . these , i say , cleave to their branches , as patellae do to the rocks : for colour ; they are of a very dark ches-nut , extreamly smooth , and shining membran-like . they adhere most commonly to the under side of a branch or twig , and so are best secur'd against the injuries of weather , as too much sun and rain . they are well fastned to the branches single , and some will be double and sometimes many in company . they are seldom found without vermin , as pismires , &c. which , i guess , pierce them and pray upon them . thus much for the entire coccum . if you open one of them , that is , cut off dextrously the top of the husk with a rasor , you 'l find somtimes five or more small white magots of the wasp or bee-kind , that is , sharp at both ends . when these are carefully taken out , you will further observe the remainder of their provision of meat , and a partion 'twixt them and the branch , where , what they excerne , is reserv'd . lastly , if , when you have clear'd the husk of maggots , bee-meat , and excrements , you then rub the inside of the empty membran upon white paper it will freely and copiously tinge the paper with a beautiful purple or murrey . at the date of this , none of the maggots were yet in nympha , so that you cannot expect from me a description of the bee or wasp they will turn to , when they come to perfection . before the season be over , the curious may satisfie themselves forthwith about it , and verifie and improve it . few cherry-trees , i suppose , in any place , but will yield them some of these berries . however , if they shall not be so fortunate as to light on them , i shall furnish you with them , &c. york . jan. 10. 1670. a viviparous fly. inquiries and a table about spiders . philosophical transactions . n. 72. sir , i return you thanks for your obliging letter of the third of january , and have sent you the viviparous fly and the sett of inquiries you desire of me . the fly is one , if not the very biggest , of the harmless tribe that i have met with in england ; i call them harmless ; because that they are without that hard tongue or sting in the mouth , with which the oestrum-kind , or gad-flyes , trouble and offend both man and beasts . this fly is striped upon the shoulders grey and black , and as it were checkered on the tail with the same two colours : the female may be known by a redness on the very point of the tail . the very latter end of may 1666 , i opened several of them , and found two baggs of live white worms of a long and round shape , with black heads ; they moved both in my hand and in the unopened vescicles , backwards and forwards , as being all disposed in the cells , length-ways the body of the femal , like a sheaf of arrows . some such thing is hinted by aldrovandus lib. 1. de i●sect . p. 57. edit . bonon . tiro cùm essem ( saies he ) è grandioribus muscis unam albis pict●m lineis , specie illectus , cepi ; ea , in vola manus aliquandiu retenta , plusculos edidit vermiculos candidos , mobilitate propria insignes . this is the only fly i have observed with live and moving worms in the belly of it ; yet i guess , we may venture to suspect all of this tribe to be in some measure viviparous . with these flyes i have sent you a paper of those odd turned snails * mentioned in my former letter , which perhaps you may think will deserve a place in the repository amongst the rarities of the r. society . some general enquiries concerning spiders 1. what sorts of spiders to be found with us in england , and what is the best method to distinguish them and to reduce them to classes ? 2. whether spiders come not of spiders , that is , of creatures of their own kind ? and whether of spiders are bred grashopper , cicadae , &c. as interpreters falsly make aristotle to say , first aldrovandus , and lately kircher ( v. arist. hist. nat. lib. 1. cap. 19. confer interpret . the : gazae , scaliger , aldrov . ) 3. whether spiders are not male and female ; and whether female spiders growing bigger than the male , be sufficient to distinguish sexes . 4. whether all kinds of spiders be alike , as to the place and number of penis's ; and whether all the thread-yeilding kinds , are not furnished with a double penis , that is , if the cornicula or certain knobbed horns , by which all males are best distingushed , be not each a penis , and used in the coit alternatively ? 5. whether the eggs in spiders be not formed , and very large before the time of the coit ? 6. what spiders breed in spring , and what in autumn ? what spiders are content with one brood in the year , and to lay all their eggs at a time ? what seem to breed every summer month , at least to have many subordinate broods ; and whether the eggs be accordingly distinguishable in several matrices or cells in the body of of the female . 7. whether spiders do not take their form and perfection in the egg , and are not thence hatched necessarily at a stated and set time , that is , after a certain number of days , as 21 , compleat animals of its own kind ? and whether the presence of the female be necessary in order to the hatching the eggs , at least for three days , as the ancients seem to affirm ? 8. whether the perfectly-round eggs of spiders ought to be called and esteemed worms , as aristotle and pliny will have them , that is , in swammerdam's phrase and doctrine , whether they be puppets in the egg , and undergo all alterations accordingly , before they be thence hatched perfect spiders ? 9. what different colours observable in the eggs of spiders , as well of pulps as shell , as white , yellow , orange , purple , greenish ? and what respective tinctures they will give , or be made to strike with the several families of salts ? 10. whether there be not eggs of some sorts of spiders , which the worms of certain slender wasps ( the kind in general being called by mouffet muscae tripiles ) delight to feed on ? and whether the fable of vespae iehneumones , told us by the ancients , be not to be made out by the same observation , of these wasp-worms feeding on the eggs , and perfected into wasps in the very webs of spiders ? 11. after what manner do spiders feed ; whether in sucking they devour not also part of their prey ? how long can they live without food , since they store up nothing against winter ? 12. whether spiders feed only of their own kind of creatures , as of insects , that is , of flyes , beetles , bees , scolopendrae and even of one another ? or whether they kill snakes too , as the ancients affirm , for food or delight ? 13. whether some of them choose not to feed on one sort of fly or other insect only ; and what properties such have ? 14. when , and how oft in the year they cast their skins , and the manner of their casting it ? what variety of colours immediatly after the shifting the hackle in one and the same species of spider , that may , if not well heeded , make the history of them more confused ? 15. what mean the ancients by spiders casting their threads , which aristotle compares to porcupins darting her quills , or bark-starting from a tree ; and democritus to animals voiding of excrements ? 16. whether the thread be formed in the body of the animal such as it comes from it ; i mean , whether it be , as it were , unwound of a stock or clew , as i may say , and which indeed to me seems to have been aristotles meaning ; or whether it be drawn off of a liquid mass , as in spinning of glass or melted wax , which seems to have been democritu's sense , in saying it was excrement corrupted or fluid at certain times ? 17. whether the spiders-thred being glutinous , every thing sticking to it upon the lightest touch , be not so much the reason of the spiders taking his prey , as the figure of the net. 18. whether a web be not uninflammable ; and whether it can be dissolved , and in what menstruum ? 19. what difference 'twixt the thred of spiders , and that of the silk-worm or caterpillars ? what strength a spiders thread is of , and what proportion it bears with the like twist of silk ? whether there be not stronger thread from some sort of spiders than from others , as there are threds from them of very different colours , as white , greenish , blewish , dark hair-colour , &c. whether the strength of the barmudo nets to hold a thrush , mentioned in one of the transactions , consist in the thickness only , or much too in the nature of thred ? 20. whether its being to be easily drawn out at any time and at what length one pleases , and many threds together in spight of the animal , be not as advantageous to the working of it up and twisting , &c. as the unravelling the cods of silk-worms . 21. whether either the viscous substance of their bodies or webs be healing to green-wounds , &c. as the ancients have taught us , and we use vulgarly ? and whether some one kind of them be not preferable , for this purpose , before others ? 22. what use may be made of those animals , which devour spiders for their daily food , as wrens , red-breast , & c. ? whether spiders be a cure for sick poultry , as the good wives seem to experiment ? 23. whether the reason why spiders sail not in the air until autumn , be not because they are busily emplyed the summer months in breeding , or what other reasons may be assigned ? the first article of enquiry i have in part answered , by sending you enclosed a scheme , which , after some years observation , i have corrected and enlarged to what it is : yet i must acquaint you , that such draughts will be ever lyable to change and improvement , according to the measure of knowledge a continued observation may bring us to . however it is the first , that i know of , that will be extant , on this subject , and it may be acceptable to the curious . araneorum angliae tabula . aranei octonoculi aucupes à me dicti ; qui scilicet muscas capiendi causâ tendunt reticula scutulata antiquis dicta ; scil . universis maculis in eodem plano dispositis in modum cujusdam scuti sive orbitae . numero x. conglobata ; scil . maculis crebris in omnes in circuitu dimensiones precedentibus . num. vi. telas linteoformes ; scil . reticulorum filis densè inter se contextis in modum veli sive panniculi . num. viii . venatorii , qui aperto marte muscas insectantur ; cùm tamen aliàs texere possunt ; nimirum telas ad nidificationem & ad hyberna . lupi propriè sic dicti . num. iv. cancriformes . num. ii. phalangia , sive aranei pulices assul●im ingredientes . num iv. binoculi , ferè longipedes , opiliones quibusdam dicti , telis digitatis sive forcipatis , cancrorum marinorum more armati . numero iv. may 30. 1671 ; concerning an insect feeding upon henbain , together with the colour yeilded by the eggs of the same , &c. sir , you may please to annex a late observation to the last i sent you : both being chiefly concerning the improvement of colours , and from the insect-kind . there is a cimex of the largest size , of a red colour spotted black , and which is to be found very frequently and plentifully , at least in its season , upon henbain : i therefore in my private notes have formerly intitled it , cimex ruber maculis nigris distinctus super folia hyoscyami frequens . this insect in all probability doth feed upon this plant ( on which only we have yet observed it ) if not upon the leaves by striking its trunk ( the note of distinction of the kind of insect from the rest of the beetle-kinds ) into them , and sucking thence much of its substance , like as other sorts of cimices will upon the body of man yet upon the unctuous and greasy matter , with which the leaves seem to touch to abound . it is further observable , that that horrid and strong smell , with which the leaves of this plant do affect our nostrils , is very much qualified in this insect , and in some measure aromatick and agreeable , and therefore we may expect , that that dreadful narcosis so eminent in this plant , may likewise be usefully tempered in this infect ; which we refer to tryal . about the latter end of may and sooner , you may find adhering to the upper side of the leaves of this plant , certain oblong orange-coloured eggs , which are the eggs of this infect . note 1. that these eggs yet in the belly of the females are white , and are so somtime after they are layd ; but as the young ones grow near their time of their being hatched , they acquire a deeper colour , and are hatched cimices , and not in the disguise of worms . 2. as to the colour , these riper eggs yeild , if they be crushed upon white paper , they stain it of themselves ( without any addition of salt ) with as lively a vermilion or couler de seu , as any thing i know in nature ; cochneil scarce excepted when assisted with oyl of vitriol . whether this be not precisely so , i refer to the tryal and judgment of the curious . i have sent you a couple of the cimices themselves , though you will scarce find a henbain-plant without them . i add concerning the purple-husks , whereof i gave you an account in my last , that i have found them since on rose-tree-twiggs also , and that very dark coloured ones , yeilding an exquisit murrey : so that i conclude , that the tree they may be found on , scarce contributes any thing to the colour or vertue of the husks , but they are the sole work and product of the mother-insect , indifferently choosing a twig of any tree in order to the convenient placing and hiving her eggs. two letters of june 14. 1671 and july 5 , 1671. concerning the kind of insect , hatched of the english ke●mes . the first letter . june 10th , i found several of the patellae kermi formes hatched in a box , where i had purposely put them . they prove a sort , as i guessed by the figure of the worm , of bees , but certainly the least , that i ever yet saw of that tribe as not much exceeding in their whole bulk the half of a pismire . they are very compact and thick for the bigness ; of a cole-black colour . they seem to want neither stings , nor the three balls in a triangle in their fore-head ; which yet are things to be referred to the testimony of a microscope . that which is very remarkable to the naked eye , is a white or straw-colour large and round spot on the back : of their four wings the upper pair are shaded or darked-spotted , the undermost pair are clear . we may entitle them , according to our custom , apiculae nigrae , maculâ super humeros sub-●lave scente insignitae , è patellis sive savis membranaceis , veri kermes similibus , suâque itidem purpurâ tingentibus , cerasi aut rosae aliarumve arborum virgis adtextis , exclusae . this of the purple-husks , and the other history of scarlet-staining eggs * i present you as parallels of our english store to kermes and cocheneil ; i mean , additaments to encrease the number of agreeable tinging● materials and not medicaments , unless wary and safe tryal shall discover to us if they have any medicinal qualities , as use and custom hath made us believe the exotic have in an high degree . one of the husks , i sent you , ad hered to a rose-tree-twig , and other to a cherry-tree . but a rose-bush since hath afforded me some scores of these patellae , many of which are hatched in the box i put them . it is to be further observed , 1. that those that look the blackest , yield the deepest and best purple : 2. that as the bees come to maturity the dye seems to be spent , and the husks grow dry . 3. that the young ones make their way out at several small holes ; whereas the true kermes husk seems to be pierced but in one place . the second ; the discovery of our english kermes hath very much pleased some of it the curious in these parts ; who resolve upon tryals of it the next season . i think i advertised you formerly , that that deep purple or violet , with which the insides of the husks are lin'd , is much spent , if the husks be not taken whilest the bees are in vermiculo ; and the blackest husks are richest in colour . yesterday in very good company we compar'd our english purple-kermes with the scarlet-kemers or grains of the shops , and found them in every point to agree save in the colour of their juices ; and particularly ( finding in some parcels of the shops many yet sticking to little twigs of the ilex , ) we confidently affirm that those as well as ours are only contiguous to the ilex-branches , and are not excrescencies of the tree , much less fruit or berries ; by which abusive names they have been too long known ; but that they are the artifice and sole work of the mother-bee in order to the more convenient hiving and nourishment of her young . concerning vegetable excrescencies , july 17. 1671. from york . n. 75. p. t. i understand by yours of the 13 th instant , that m. ray cannot without much trouble retrieve the letter , wherein i gave him formerly my opinion concerning vegetable excrescencies ; and yet not wholly to deny you the satisfaction of what you seem much to desire , i am willing to think again upon the same subject , at least to recollect part of my former thoughts , as my memory will serve me . the occasion then of that letter was upon the account given us by you in numb . 57 , of the opinion of the italian f. redi ; viz. that some live plants or their excrescencies do truly generate some insects . to which opinion of f. redi i told my friend , as i remember , that i indeed had observed , that the by-fruits of some vegetables , as of the oak and wild rose , for example , did grow up together with their respective worms in them from small beginnings to fair and large fruit , some of them emulating even the genuin off-spring of the plant , — & miratur non sua poma , and further , that i did believe , the worms were furnished with food in and from them ; but not by any navilconnexion , as that author fancies , and which i said , to me was unintelligible , and that i should be glad of a notion , which might make out to me such monstrous relation , as half animal half vegetable , or which is all one , vegetable vessels inserted into an animal , or , the contrary . strange oeconomy ! that it had never been my good fortune ( what ever diligence i had used ) to discern eggs in the center of galls , but a worm constantly , even at the very first appearance , as near at least as my fortune led me . yet i would not deny , but that diligence might one day discover the egg it self , which i was of opinion was affixed to or near the place by the parent-insect , where the gall rose . that i ever found the worms in all the excrescencies , that i had yet met with , perfectly at liberty ; and for the filaments , our author mentions , it was very possible he might be mistaken , it being very hard , and a matter not yet treated of in my publick paper , which and what are the vessels that enter into the texture of a vegetable , as of a large tree , for example ; much more hard would it be to say , this is a vessel in a small gall. that there were many by-fruits of different figure and shape ( though perhaps of a like texture ) upon one and the same plant , every one of which did nourish and produce a different race of insects : whence , i told him , i thought might rather be argued the diverse workmanship of different insects , then one and the same principle of vegetation to be author of several sorts of animals . that the animals themselves , produced of such excerscencies , were of such a genus many of whose species were well known to us to be otherwise generated of animal parents , and therefore it was probable , that these were so too , as well as their tribe-fellows . that the insect-animals produced of such excrescencies were male and female ; and that , if so , we might argue with aristotle ( lib. 1. c. 1. de generat . animal . ) that nature made not such in vain , and that , if from the coit of these animals , which have their birth from no animals , animals should be born , they would either be like their parents and of the same species with them , and if so , it would necessarily follow ( since in the generation of all other creatures it so comes to pass ) that their very parents had such origin too : or unlike them , and if so ( if these also were male and female ) of this second unlike off-spring a third race of different animals or species would be begot , and of them a fourth , and so in infinitum . and that these insects , which he and i had observed to be produced of the excrescencies of some vegetables , we had good cause to suspect they were male and female , since some of them had slings and were tripilous , and others not ( vide catalog . plant . cantab . ad rosam caninam & alibi . ) these were some at least of the arguments , as far as i remember i used , when i formerly wrote on this subject to my friend ; but since that letter , i have perused the book of f. redi it self , and do find , that the said opinion is barely proposed as thing not unplausible , but the proofs thereof are reserved , till the publishing of a curious piece , concerning the excrescencies of the oak ; and therefore i shall be less earnest in the refutation of that opinion , which perhaps a more accurate search into nature will in time make the author of it himself find erroneous . i presume not to venture to decide this controversy , my experience in these matters being too insufficient , and my leisure and health but little to hasten a convenient stock of particulars , and a due examination of them ; yet before i leave this subject , i am willing to run over and present you with a few abreviated instances of some of the several kinds of vegetable excrescencies , and likewise some un-obvious ways of insects feeding on plants ; and these i shall deliver in confirmation of the following propositions . 1. that all are not truly vegetable excrescencies that are reputed such . and here we may justly name the purple-kermes , for example , whose history you were pleased to publish in numb . 73. this , i say , both gives a clear light to the discovery of the nature of the scarlet-kermes , ( a thing wholly unknown to the ancients , as far as we can see by their writings , and no less ignored by the moderns , and yet , which is admirable , in very great esteem and continued use for some thousands of years , ) and also is an evident instance , that some things , confidently believed vegetable excrescencies , are no such matter , but artificial things meerly contiguous to the plant , and which have no other relation to it than the patella-shellfish to the rock it cleaves . 2. generally , insects eggs laid upon the leaves of plants , or their respective feeding on them do not accasion or raise excrescenies . this truth every body , that hath been the least curious , is an eye-witness of . thus , for example , the eggs of the common red butter-fly , laid upon the nettle , are thereon hatched without blistering the plant into an excrescence , and the stiff haired or prickly catterpillars hatched from them eggs , feed upon the leaves without any ill impression , puncture , or prejudice , save that they make clean work , and eat all before them . i could produce some hundreds of instances , if this were to be doubted of . 3. some insect-eggs , laid upon the leaves or other parts of plants , do , as soon as hatched , pierce and enter within the plant to feed . to give you a convincing instance of the truth of this proposition , take this from my notes . may 22 , i observed on the back or underside of the leaves of atriplex olida , certain small milk-white oblong eggs , on some leaves four , on others fewer , or more ; these eggs were on some plants yet unhatched , but on many of the same plants i found the egg-shells or skins yet adhering to the leaves , and the little maggots already enterd ( through i know not what invisible holes ) within the two membranes of the leaf , and feeding on the inward pulp or substance of the leaf : in other leaves of that plant , ( he that shall make the observation after me , will find plants enough of this species seized on , to vary , as i did , the observation in one day , ) i found those maggots grown very great , and yet the two membranes , that is , the uppermost and undermost skin of the leaf , entire , but raised and hollow like a blather . note 1. that those maggots were of a conick shape . 2. that in july they shrunk into fly chrysalis's and accordingly came to perfection , &c. to this unobvious way of feeding we may refer all worm-eaten fruits , wood , &c. 4. worms feeding within some of the parts of some plants do cause excrescencies . thus the head or seed-vessels of papave . spont . sylv. ger. emac. &c. are disfigured for having worms in them , and grow thrice as big , as the not seased ones . this is also plain in the excresc . of pseudo teucrium , and barbarea , &c. 5. the substance or sibrous part of many vegetable excrescencies is not the food of the worms to be found in them . the instances given in confirmation of the last proposition do also confirm this : neither is an oak-apple properly worm-eaten , or the shagged galls , or sponges of the wild rose , or the smooth ones on the leaves of the same plant , or the baggs upon the leaves of the yellow dwarf willow or the elm , &c. this is the sum of what i to say at present concerning this subject being very unwilling to advance further , than my own private observations will suffer me . york august 25 1671. confirming the observation in n. 74. p. l. about musk sented insects ; adding some notes upon d. swammedam's book of insects , and on that of m. steno concerning petrisy'd shells . sir . i have observed the two insects , which mr. ray saith , smell of musk , which indeed they do in an high degree . the small bees are very frequent in the wooles in lincoln-shire , and about the latter end of april are to be found in pastures and meadows , upon the early-blown flowers of a sort of ranunculus , as you have been rightly inform'd ; but it is something improper to say bees feed on flowers : and likewise the same bees are no less frequent on the flowers of dens leonis , &c. the sweet beetle , is a very large insect , and well known about cambridge . all the trials i have made to preserve them with their smell , have proved ineffectual : for , both sorts of these insects will of themselves in very few weeks become almost quite sent-less . to these i shall add another sweet-smelling insect , which is a hexapodeworm feeding on gallium luteum . the observation of the vespae ichneumones , as it hath relation to spiders , i willingly reserve for other papers : yet i may tell you in general , that this kind of insect is one of the greatest puzzels † in nature ; there being few excrescencies of plants , and very many births of insects , wherein these slender wasps after divers strange ways are concerned . though i be at present from my books , yet i well remember the passage , which mr. willoughby refers you to in musset * . and he is well able to judge , whether the observation be made upon the same sort of insect . i conceive it a fault not consistent with ingenious spirits , to pass by in silence the industry of moderns as well as ancients writers ; according to that of c. celsus : oportet neque recentiores viros in his fraudare , quae vel repererunt , vel rectè secuti sunt ; & tamen ea , quae ab antiqui-oribus posita sunt , authoribus suis reddere . you can best inform me , what d. swammerdam does in a matter of this nature : when i read in the account given us by you of his book , numb . 64 ; that snails are both male and female ; that catterpillars may teach us , by their feeding , the correspondence of the vertues of plants , i am defirous to know , whether he quote mr. ray for the former , as having publish't the observation ten years ago at least ; and for the latter , the learned and noble fab. columna , who did propose the way of essaying the vertues of plants by the palats of insects in the beginning of this age. but i leave this , and proceed to a remark of my own ; and it shall be , if you please , concerning petrified shells ; i mean such shells , as i have observed in our english stone-quarries . but sir , let me premise thus much , that i am confident , that you at least will acquit me , and not believe me one of a litigious nature . this i say in reference to what i have lately read in steno's prodromus , that , if my sentiments on this particular are somewhat different from his , it proceeds not from a spirit of contradiction , but from a different view of nature . first then , we will easily believe , that in some countries , and particularly along the shores of the mediterranean sea , there may all manner of sea shells be found promiscuously included in rocks or earth , and at good distances too from the sea. but , for our english-inland quarries , which also abound with infinte number and great varieties of shells , i am apt to think , there is no such matter , as petrifying of shells in the business ( or , as steno-explains himself p. 84. in the english version , & alibi , that the substance of those shells , formerly belonging to animals , hath been dissolved or wasted by the penetrating force of juices , and that a stony substance is come in the place thereof , ) but that these cockle-like stones ever were , as they are at present , lapides sui generis and never any part of an animal . that they are so at present , is in effect confessed by steno in the above cited page ; and it is most certain , that our english quarry-shells ( to continue that abusive name ) have no parts of a different texture from the rock or quarry they are taken , that is , there is no such thing as shell in these resemblances of shells , but that iron-stone cockles are all iron stone ; lime or marble all lime-stone and marble ; sparre or chrystalline-shells all sparr , &c. and that they never were any part of an animal . my reason is : that quarries of different stone yeild us quite different sorts or species of shells , not only one from another ( as those cockle-stones of the iron-stone quarries of adderton in york-shire differ from those found in the lead-mines of the neighbouring mountains , and both these from that cockle-quarrie of wansford-bridge in northampton-shire , and all three from those to be found in the quarries about gunnerby and béavour-castle , ) but , i dare boldly say from any thing in nature besides , that either the land , salt , or fresh water doth yeild us . 't is true , that i have picked out of that one quarry of wansford very resemblances of murices , telinae , turbines , cochleae , &c. and yet i am not convinced , when i particularly examined some of our english shores for shells , also the fresh waters and the fields , that i did ever meet with ( n. b. ) any one of those species of shells any where else , but in their respective quarries ; whence i conclude them lapides fui generis , and that they were not cast in any animal-mold , whose species or race is yet to be found in being at this day . this argument perhaps will not so readly take place with those persons , that think it not worth the while exactly and minutely to distinguish the several species of the things of nature , but are content to acquiesce in figure , resemblance , kind , and such general notions ; but when they shall please to condescend to heedful and accurate descriptions , they will , i doubt not , be of that opinion , which an attentive view of these things led me into some years ago . though i make no doubt , but the repository of the r. society is amply furnished with things of this nature ; yet if you shall command them , i will send you up two or three sorts of our english cockle-stone of different quarries , nearly resembling one the other and all of them very like a common sort of sea-shell , and yet if there shall not be enough specifically to distinguish them , and hinder them from being sampled by any thing of the spoils of the sea or fresh waters or the land-snails ; my argument will fail , and i shall be happily convinced of an errour . another letter , from york sept. 13 1671. enlarging his former communications in numb . 75. about vegetable excrescencies , and ichneumon-wormes . in my last paper about vegetable excrescencies , i was wholly-silent of the opinion , which mr. willoughby is pleased to favour ; and because that worthy gentleman hath so far made it probable , that now it seems only to depend upon the good fortune of some lucky observer , i am willing to reassume my former thoughts , that all those odd observations , we have made of the births of ichneumons , do but beget in me a strong belief , that they have a way yet unheeded , whereby they do as boldly , as subtly , convey their eggs within the bodies of insects and parts of vegetables . a fifth and last proposition of that paper * was , that the substance of many vegetable excrescencies seemed not to be the food of the worms to be ●ound in them . my meaning was , that the substance of the vegetable excrescencies in which those ichneumon worms were to be found , was rather augmented , than diminished or worm-eaten . and the like conformity of their feeding within insects is well observed by mr. willoughby * , that the impraegnated caterpillars seem not to be concerned , though their bodies are full of insects of a quite different kind , but go on as far as they may towards the atchievement of the perfection of their own species . thus i have seen a poppy-head fwoln to a monstrous bulk , and yet all the cells were not receptacles of ichneumons , but some had good and ripe feed in them . i shall not refuse mr. willoughby ( though you know upon what grounds i have twice done it to you ) the satisfaction of an answer to my 10 th quaere , by him resolved negatively : it is true , the swarms of the ichneumons , coming out of the sides of caterpillars , do immediatly make themselves up into bunches , and each particular theca , from the cabbage-catterpillar ( for example , ) is wrote about with yellow silk , as those from the black and yellow jacobaea-catterpillar with white ; but as for web to cover those bunches of theca's , i never observed it but in the green catterpillar so common in our lincoln-sheir , heaths , which are affixed to bents or other plants . these in truth never deceived but my expectation , for i verily thought i had found , when i first observed them , a caterpillar equivalent to the indian silk-worm ; but having cut them in two , and expected to have found a caterpallars chrysalis in the middle , there presented themselves a swarm of ichneumons . these are as large many of them as my thumb , that is , at least four times bigger then the folliculus or egg-bag of any english spider that i ever saw yet . by good fortune i have not thrown away the boxes , wherein i made the observation concerning ichneumons feeding upon the eggs of certain spiders . i have had them in several boxes , some 8 , some 10 , some 12 days in vermiculo , feeding upon the very cakes of spiders-eggs , before they wrought themselves theca's for further change ; and they seldome exceeded the number of 5 to one cake of eggs , &c. so that you may assure mr. willoughby , this is no conjecture , but a real observation accompanied with more circumstances , than i am willat present to relate . some additions about vegetable excrescencies , and ichneumons wasps ; together with an inquiry concerning tarantula's , and a discovery of another musk-sented insect : from york in two letters , of octob. 16. and 28. 1671. the extract of one of these letters that this letter may not be all matter of philosophy , you may take an occasson to put this quaere to your correspondents of italy , viz. whether the tarantula be not a phalangium ( that is , a six-eyed skipping spider ) as matthiolus and others seem to tell us ? if so , whether some later authors impose not on us by giving us a cutt of the figure of a net or reticulm orbiculatum , which our english phalangia are never ( that i know of ) observed to weave or make use of in hunting ? and whether the person bit by a tarantula , be not ever , when on his feet , disposed to and actually dancing after the nature of a phalangium , which seldom or never moves , but by skipping ; even as it happens with such that are bitten by a mad dog , who have been sometimes observed to bark like a dog , &c. and if so , what we are to think and credit concerning such and such musical tunes , said to be most agreeable and tending to the cure of persons bit by a tarantula ? but next among other things , i had the good fortune to present mr. willoughby giving me the honour of two visits , with a musk-ant * an insect observed by me not many days before his first visit : and though i cannot send you the insects themselves , as having parted with all i had , yet i will the note , viz. septemb. 2. i found in a sandy ditch-bank , the first hollow beyond the ring-houses in the high-road to london about a mile and an half from york , a sort of exceeding small pismires ) by which note alone i think they may be sufficiently distinguish't from all at least that i have seen . ) those without wings were of a light-yellow or flaxen , and being broken at on 's nostrils they emitted , like others , an acid or sowre sent ; but those of the same bank with wings , were cole-black , and these , bruised and smelt to , emitted so fragrant a smell like musk , that i must confess they were too strong for me to endure : yet having kept them some time by me , the more delicate sex were not displeased with the smell . and an apothecary in this city , famous for his diligence in chymical operations , did compare them ( unseem and not yet made known to him ) to an excellent balsom , he is wont to prepare . mr. willoughby inform'd me , that he had found the goat chafer or sweet-beetle * out of season as to that smell ; and thereupon asked me , what i had observed as to the time of their sweetest and strongest smelling ? i answer'd , that i believed it to be at the time of the coit , for asmuch as at that time , when i took them highly perfumed , i had observed the female full of egg. the extract of the other letter : i send you a second paper about vegetable excrescencies ; the shortness of the former * and some things therein , perhaps liable to exception , obliging me thereto . concerning the fifth and last proposition of the first paper , it might be more intelligibly experssed thus , viz. that the substance or fibrous part of many vegetable excrescencies seems not to be the food of the worms found in them : my meaning is , that the worms in those vegetable excrescencies , which produce ichoneumons ( to which kind of insect we would limit this proposition , and therefore expunge all other instances , ) these worms , i say , do not seem to devour the substances or fibrous part of them , as other worms eat the kernels of nuts , &c. but that ( what-ever their manner of feeding is , and we doubt not but that they are nourish't in and upon some part of them , ) the vegetable excrescencies still mightily increase in bulk , and rise as the worms feed . it is observable ( to endeavour a solution ) that some of the ichneumons delight to feed of a liquid matter , as the eggs of spiders , the juices ( if not eggs ) within the bodies of caterpillers and maggots : whence we conjecture , that those of the same genus , to be found in vegetable excrescencies , may in like manner suck in the juices of the equivalent parts of vegetables . and this the dry and spongy texture of some of those kind of excrescencies , seems to evince : for , if you cut in pieces a wild-poppy-head , for example , ( or the great and soft balls of the oak ) you 'l find in those partitions , wherein these worms are lodged , nothing but a pithy substance like that of young elder ; and if there chance to be any cells yet unseised , ( which i have sometimes observed ) the feeds therein will be found yet entire and ripe . whence very probably they feed upon or suck-in by little and little the yet liquid pulp of the tender seeds , and leave the substance or fibrous part to be expanded into an excrescence . as for matter of fact , to clear the truth of that opinion , that the divers races of ichneumons are generated by their respective animal-parents , and particularly that which the divers excrescencies of vegetables produce , are not plantigenous , i am in great hopes , the instance of poppy-heads , swoln into excrescencies , will favour us the next season . my expectation is chiefly grounded upon the condition and nature of that plant ; which is such , that nothing can pierce the skin of it and wound it but it must necessarily leave a mark of its entry , the milky juice springing upon the lightest puncture , and drying and concreting suddainly into a red scar : and this , i think , i may affirm , that of the many heads grown into excrescencies , which i gathered this summer , all had more or less of those marks upon them . but our aim is heer only to make way for the observation against the next season ; to which purpose also we propose the following quaere's ; 1. whether the shagged balls of the wild rose are not excrescencies grown from the bud and very fruit of the plant ; like as the wild-poppy-heads are apparently not for worms but seed . 2. whether the large and soft balls of the oak are not in like manner the bud and acorn with all the parts of a sprouting branch , thus monstrously perverted from the first design of nature ? 3. upon what parts or juices the ichneumons-wroms , supposed to be thrust into caterpillars and other maggots can be thought to feed : and whether there be not actually eggs in caterpillars and maggots ( as there are to be observed in their respective chrysalis's ) sufficient to serve them for food ? concerning the name 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 although i could willingly refer you to mr. ray , who is another hesychius ; yet for present satisfaction i shall transcribe what the excellent critique g. vossius saith ( c. 16. de inimicitia ; ) ichneumon ( i.e. mus pharaonis sive aegyptiacus ) crocodili & aspidis ova indagat , unde illi ichneumonis nomen , quasi dic●s indagatorem ( 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ) reperta utriusque ov● conterit ; ut est apud oppianum in 30 de venation● : nicander tamen ait , cum aspidis ova humi mandare . now a like observation of certain insects of the wasp-kind , made no doubt by some of the ancients , occasioned the application of that name to wasps , as well as to that aegyptian mouse . yet cannot i remember to have met with , in any of the ancients , of more than one text concerning those wasps ; viz. aristot de hist. anim , 5. c. 20. which pliny ( vid. lib. 11. c. 21. ) hath rendred in a manner verbatim , thus : vespae , quae ichneumones vocantur ( sunt autem minores quàm aliae ) unum genus ex araneis perimunt , phalangium appellatum , & in nidos suos ferunt ; deinde illinunt , & ex iis , incubando , suum genus procreant . how far this relation is true , and agreeable to modern observations , we shall have perhaps occasion to discourse of else-where ; our design here is only to tell you , that we have enough to make us believe , that those very insects , we have been treating of , are for kind , the ichneumons of the antients . a letter . york , januar. 10. 1671. containing an account of veins observ'd in plants , analogoue to humain veins . sir , i am very much pleased , when you give me to understand , that somthing is published of the anatomy of vegetables , and that more is designed by that excellent person signior malpighi * . and since the receipt of your last , i have perused the very ingenious book of dr. ●rew and , as far as i have observed these matters , all things therein are faithfully delivered , and with great sagacity . in turning over my notes , made some years agoe , i find , among other things of this nature , some few observations concerning the veins of plants , or such duct●●'s as seem to contain and carry in them the noblest juices of plants . of these there is little or no mention made in this curious tractate , unless under the notion of pores . and because i am of the opinion , that they will prove vessels analogous to our hu man veins , and not meer pores , they shall , if you please , be the subject of your entertainment in this letter ; and the rather that , if they prove veins ( as i little doubt them ) they are not to be passed over in silence , but are early to be accounted for in the anatomy of vegetables . to avoid ambiguity ; those parts of a plant , which pliny ( lib. 16. 38. ) calls by the names of venae and pulpae , are nothing else , in my opinion but what our late author , dr. crew , calls fibres and insertments , or the lignous body interwoven with that which he takes to be cortical , that is , the several distinctions of the grain . now , that the vessels , we are about to discourse of , are not any of the pores of the lignous body ( to use the doctors terms ) is plain in a traverse cut of angelica sylvestris magna vulgatior j. b , for example ; the veins there very clearly shew themselves to an attentive view to be distinct from fibres , observable in the parenchyma of the same cortical body together with themselves ; the milky juice still rising besides and not in any fibre . also in the like cut of a burdock in june , the like juice springs on this and on that side of the radii of the woody circle , that is , in the cortical body and pith only . again , where there is no pith , there is none of these veins as in the roots of plants , and trunks of trees ; but ever in the bark of either . i need not here enumerate the many plants , wherein these particulars are most plainly observable , as in sphondylium , cicutaria , many of the thi●sle kind , &c. further , neither are they probably of the number of the pores , described by our author in the cortical body , or pith. not surely of those pores extended by the breadth , because the course of the juice in these vessels is by the length of the plant ; as i have sometimes very plainly traced in the pith of a dryed fennel-stalk , following them by dissection quite through the length of the pith . it remains , that , if pores , they are of those pores of the cortical body , that are supposed to be extended by the length thereof ; which yet seems ( to me at least ) not enough , but we think them vessels invested with their own proper membranes , analogous to the veins of our humaine body ; for these reasons : 1. because they are to be found in the pith , and sometime in the cortical body of a plant , not included within the common tunicle of any fibres , as is above noted : ( that fibers , or the seminal root are cloathed , is most plain in some plants , as in fern and geranium batrachoides , the fibres of the former are coated , at least in some parts of the plant , with a black skin , in the latter likewise with a red one : ) and in these cases , had they not , i say , their own proper membranes , we see no cause , why the very porous and spongy body of the pith and cortex , should not be in all places filled alike with the juice , and not rise ( as most plainly it doth ) in a few determinate and set places only , that is , according to the position and order of these vessels . 2. again the experiment i made , which you were pleased to publish * , concerning the effect of a ligature on cataputia minor l●bel . viz. the sudden springing of the milky juice out of infinite pores besides the incision : ( the cause of which phoenomenon i take be , the dissected veins impetuously discharging themselves of part of their juice within the porous panenchyma of the bark ; ) whence it is probable , that , if there was no coated vessel to hold this milky juice , we might well expect its springing upon the bare ligature , as when we squeez a wet sponge ; the external cuticle of the plant , as this experiment shews , being actually perforated . in the next place it is very probable , that these vessels are in all plants whatsoever . for as it is truth-like of all the other substantial parts of plants , though specified by divers accidents in figure and texture ; so of these veins , which , though they be discernable mostly in those plants where they hold discouloured juices , yet we may very probably think , that they are not wanting , where the eye finds not that assistance in the challenging of them . and in these very plants , where they are least visible , there is yet a time when they are , if not in all , yet in some parts of these plants , plain enough to the naked eye : the tender shoots of the greater and lesser maple , in may , are full of a milky juice ; viz the known liquor of these veins . again to this purpose , if you apply a clean knife blade to a travers cut of the like shoots of elder , the gummy liquor of these veins will be drawn forth into visible strings , as is the nature of bird-lime of the bark of holly , or the milk of cataputia minor lobel . further , the leaf stalks of our garden rubarb do sometimes shoot ( by what accident , we enquire not here ) a transparent and very pure chrystallin gumm , though the veins , that held this gummy juice , are by no ordinary means visible in them , and yet by comparing the nature and properties of this gum , with that of the gums of other vegetables to be of theirs , by the same comparative anatomy . lastly , we think , that even mushromes ( that seemingly inferiour and imperfect order of vegetables ) are not exempt and destitute of these veins , some of them yielding a milky juice , hot and fiery , not unlike some of the spurge kind , or euphorbium . it might be expected , that i should add somethings at least , concerning the original and productions of these veins , if not an exact description of them , the course of the juices in them , and their more immediate and primary uses in the matter of vegetation : but i must acquaint you , that ( besides the season is not now proper to improve and verifie , if i had leisure , the observations formerly noted , and that they were things thrown into my adversaria without other order , than that nothing should slip from me in the quest of medicaments , that might be of light ) although i find indeed many scattered particulars ( besides them already delivered ) concerning the position , order , number , capacity , distributions , differences , figure , &c. of these veins ; you will be pleased to take it in good part , if i think fitting to reserve them until the opportunity of another summers review : it seeming to me no small matter , to have fairly hinted the existence of them to such curious persons as shall have the leisure , and find themselves in better circumstances , than i can pretend to , as to those great advantages of glasses . designing , &c. to conclude with the primary use of these veins ; which is , in my opinion , to carry the succus nutritius of plants , because , where they are not , there is no vegetation ; as it is seen , if an ingrafted branch or arm be bared and stripped off the clay , &c. in june , all the course of vegetation will appear to have been made only by the bark , and not by the wood , that is , in the place only , where these veins are . a secondary use is the rich furniture of our shops ; for , from these veins only it is , that all our vegetable drugs are extracted , and infinite more might be had , by a diligent enquiry , and easy means , which i have not unsuccefully put in practice ; witness the black resin , i not long since sent you a specimen of . an account of a stone cut out from under the tongue of a man ; sent in a letter to his grace the lord arch-bishop of york . may it please your grace , in obedience to your grace's commands , i have penned the circumstances of a not common medical observation , viz. the excision of a stone from under the tongue . and i here with present your grace also with the stone its self , as i had it from the person it was taken . * as to the occasion and time of its birth , he tels me , ( my lord , you may be pleas'd to give firm credit to every particular , that he hath answered me at your grace's instance ) it was from a winter sea-voyage , which lasted much longer than he expected , and wherein he suffered an exceeding cold ; and that , not long after his landing , he found a certain nodus or hard lump in the very place whence this stone was cut . there was about 8 years betwixt its breading and being taken away . as to its growth , and the inconveniences thence enensuing ; he further saith , that upon all fresh-cold taking , he suffered much pain in that part especially ; and yet , that cold once being over , that part was no more painful than the rest of his mouth . he adds , that towards the 7 th and 8 th year it did often cause sudden swellings in all the glanduls about the mouth and throat upon the first draught of beer at meals ; which yet would in a short time fall again . lastly , as to the particulars remarkable at the time of its being taken away , he relates ; that it began its work with a sudden vertigo ; which vertiginous disposition continued more or less from spring 'till august ; in which month , without any praevious cause save riding , the place where it was lodged suddainly swelled , and ran purulent matter at the aperture of the duct●●● whartouianus : that it suddainly stopped of its running ( which he cannot attribute to any thing but cold , ) and swelled with a great inflammation , and very great danger of choaking ; it being scarce credible , what pain the party suffered in endeavouring to swallow even beer or any liquid thing . this extremity lasted 5 days , in all which time , the party had so vast a flux of spittle runing from him , that it was not possible for him to repose his head to sleep , without wetting all the bed about him ; insomuch as that it was very much questioned by some friendly visitants , whether he had not of himself , or by mistake , made use of mercurial medicines . the varieties or degrees of this spontaneous salivation were such , that he urged me not to omit them in the relation i was to make to your grace , as thinking them very notable . the first day , the saliva ran thin and transparent , almost like water without any bubles . the 2 day it ran frothy ; it tasted salt , ( which yet he is apt to think hot rather , than really salt , because that day the inflammation was at the height ) . the 3 day it roaped exceedingly ; on which day a small pin-hole broak directly over the place of the stone and ran with purulent matter as formerly . the 4 day the saliva ran insipid , sensibly cold in the mouth ; ( which again confirms me in that opinion , that the former sharp tast was the effect of heat , and not the immediate quality of a salt humour ; ) very little forthy . the 5 day ( which was that of the incision , ) it ran as on the 4 th but left an extream claminess on the teeth , insomuch that they often clave together , as though they had been joyned together with glue . upon the inci●ion , which proved not wide enough , the membrances or baggs , wherein the stone lay , came away first . as to the stone it self , it was so hard as to endure the forcipes in drawing it forth : it was covered over with grass green matter , which soon dryed , and left the stone of a whitish colour , as it is to be seen . it is but light in proportion to its bulk , weighing about 7 grains ; and it s much of the shape of our ordinary horse-beans . there are visible impressions upon it of some capillary and small vessels , it was bred amongst . lastly , it is scabrous or rough , sand-like , although the substance is tophaceous . the accidents accompaning the working away of this stone , ( for the incision was meerly obstetrical , ) and the place of its birth give occasion to call the distemper a ranula . yet in truth this was nothing else but one of those tumours called atheroma , and therefore we will name it lapis atheromatis . an extract of a letter from york april 12. 1672. concerning animated horse-haires ; rectifying a vulgar errour . sir. i cannot discover any thing new and rare in natural philosophy , but i must forthwith make you participate of my good fortune ; and i assure you , the relation , i am about to make you , is of a thing very surprising . it hath been credibly reported , that horse-hairs thrown into water will be animated ; and yet i shall shew you by an unquestionable observation , that such things as are vulgarly thought animated hairs are very insects , nourished within the bodies of other insects , even as ichneumons are within the bodies of caterpillars . i will premise the particulars concerning this ainmal , as i find them collected by the industry of aldorvaudus , and save you the trouble of that voluminous author . this insect ( saith he ) seems to have been unknown to the ancients ; as it is called by the moderns seta aquatica or vermis set●rius , either from the most slender figure of the body ; or because it is thought to be generated of an horse-hair putrifying in water . the germans call them by a name rendred vituli aquatici . it is bred in corrupt waters ; perhaps of horse-hair , for ( saith albertus upon his own frequent trial , as i find him quoted by aldrovandus , ) these hairs , put into standing water , move and are animated or , as he words it , vitam & spiritum accipiunt , & moventur . other have thought them to have their birth from weeds hanging down from the banks into ponds and rivers . others from locusts and grashoppers ( ex bruchis ; ) which last though it be near the matter , yet it is rejected by aldrovandus himself , as the most unlikely . they have been fouud in cold and good springs , and elsewhere , ( which is a wonder , saith aldrovandus , ) upon a leafe in a garden . and this , which was there found , was 5 or 6 fingers-breadth long ; the thickness of a bristle horse-hair , with a duskish back , and a white belly ; and the tail on every side white . i saw ( saith aldrovandus ) a black one thicker than the whitish one . other authors otherwise descibe them , as bertruius , albertus , &c. some affirming them to have been a cubit long ; others , two cubits others , 9 inches long at the least : that they are white of colour , and so hard as scarce to be crushed with ones foot : to be every where of the same thickness : that they move not as wormes move , but snake-like , and knit themselves up into knots : that their skin is one continued thing without incisures ; and therefore some would exclude them from the insect-kind : that they have no head , but swim both waies , and therefore may be called amphisbaena aquatica : that they are poyson , drunk down into the stomack , but not venom to touch . and thus much out of aldrovandus concerning the name of this insect , the place of its birth and original , the place where they are to be found , its description , different species , nature , poyson &c. our observation is this . april . 2. there was thrown up out of the ground of my garden , in digging amongst other things of this nature , a certian cole-black beetle of a midle size , and flat shape , and which i have observed elsewhere common enough . these beetles i dissected upon the account of some curiosity , wherein i had a mind to satisfy my self . but i was surprised to find in their swollen bellies of these hair-wormes , in some three , in others but one onely . these particulars we carefully noted : 1. that upon the incision they crawl'd forth of themselves . 2. that putting them into water , they lived in it many daies , and did seem to endeavour to escape by lifting up their heads out of the water , and sastning them to the side of the vessels ; very plainly drawing the rest of their body forward . 3. that they cannot be said to be amphisbaena , but do move forward only by the head , which is fairly distinguishable from the tail by a notable blackness . 4. that the three , i took out of the body of one beetle , were all of a dark hair-colour with whitish-bellies , somewhat thicker then hoggs bristles ; but i took out of the body of another beetle one that was mu●st thicker than the rest ; much lighter coloured ; and by measure just five inches and a half long ; whereas all the rest did not exceed three inches three quarters . an extract of a letter enlarging and correcting the former notes about kermes ; and withal insinuating a conjecture of cochincil's being a sort of kermes . sir , we must correct as well as enlarge our notes concerning kermes * ; and yet there will be much difficulty in resolving the question concerning the original and efficient of kermes . these things are certain . 1. that we have this year seen the very gumm of the arpicok and cherry-lawrel-trees trausudated , at least , standing in a crystal-drop upon some ( though very rarely ) of the tops of these kermes . 2. that they change colour from a yellow to a dark-brown : that they seem to be distended and to war greater , and from soft , to become brittle . 3. that they are fill'd with a sort of mites ; that small powder ( which i said to be excrement , ) being mites as well as that liquamen or softer pulp ( which i took to be bees-meat ; ) concerning both which particulars i am pretty well assur'd by my own , and also by my ingenious friend , dr. johnsou of pomsret's more accurat microscopical observations . 4. that the bee-grubbs actually feed on mites , there being no other food for them . 5. that there are other species of beesor wasps besides those by me described ; which are sometimes found to make these mites their food : dr. johnson having open'd one husk , with one only large maggot in it . 6. that there are probably different sorts of mites in these huskes , making possibly different species of kermes : for , some i have found to hold carnation-colour'd mites , enclosed in a fine white cotten , the whole husk starting from the twiggs , shrivelling up , and serving only for a cap or cover to that company of mites , other mites i have seen white , and ( which is most usual ) the husks continuing intire and not coming away from the twigg they adhere to , and but little cotton at the bottom . those of the first sort are the white cob-webbs on the vine , described by mr. hook micrograph . obs. 56. 7. that shrivell'd cap to be found upon the mites inclosed in cotton , as also the whole husk it self , if taken early in april , while so●t , will dried in the sun , shrink into the very figure of coch●●●il : whence we guess , that cochineil may be a sort of ker●●● taken thus early and sun-dried . hitherto 〈◊〉 summers ▪ 〈◊〉 ●●concerning kermes , this advantage at least we may have by 〈…〉 the ●●count , taken from m. verney by dr. 〈…〉 publish 't in one of the tran●●●● 〈…〉 is made more intelligible : the small scarlet powder , there mention'd , being to be understood of those mites ; and they to be distinguish't from the bee-grubbs ; which are chang'd into the ●●●●ping fly , that is , the bee , ( for kind at least ) by us described formerly , i am , &c. york octob. 9. 1671. a description of an odd kind of mushr●●● 〈…〉 milky juice , much hotter upon the tongue than pepper , &c. novemb , 15. 1672. the 18 of august last ▪ i passed through 〈◊〉 woods under pinno-moor in craven : in the wood● i then found an 〈◊〉 number of mushroms , some wither'd , and 〈…〉 . they were of a large 〈…〉 redgilled eatable 〈◊〉 or 〈…〉 and 〈…〉 of their shape , that is , with a perfectly found 〈◊〉 or 〈…〉 we vulgarly call it , ) thick , fleshy , not 〈…〉 and round foot stalk , of about 6 fingers breadth 〈◊〉 above ground , and ordinarily as thick as my 〈…〉 if you cut any part of this mushrom , it will bleed exceeding freely a milk-white juice , concernig which 〈◊〉 1. that this milky-juice tasts much hotter upon the tongue than pepper . 2. that it is not clammy to the touch . 3. that the 〈◊〉 not much discolour it , on the bl●de of a knife ; as is usual with most vegetable juices . 4. that it became in the glass viol , i drew it into , suddenly concret and stiff , and did in some daies dry into a 〈◊〉 cake . 5. that it then also when well dried , retain'd its fierce biting tast and white colour . fu●●er , i observ'd these mushroms , 〈◊〉 of juice , not to be endured upon our tongues , to abound with fly-maggots . also , the youngest and tendrest of them , that is , such as are most juicy , to have been very much eaten by the grey meadow naked snail , lodging themselves within the sides of the plant . concerning this kind of biting mushrom , i find in a certain late discourse of the state of russia these words ; groozshidys fungorum maximi , palmam lati , instar omasi bibuli sunt , crassi & candidi ; dum crudi sunt , succo cla●●● putà ) abundant . eos sicut tithymallum muriâ corrig●●● r●them ; aliter fances & gu●ter 〈…〉 . ipse se●el 〈…〉 assato● 〈…〉 non 〈…〉 periculo . the reference to the cuts or figures is here confused , and the description too concise , to say that ours agrees in any thing with theirs , save the great ac●imony of the juice they both yeild . i may sometime acquaint you with the medicinal uses , i have caused to 〈◊〉 made of this white 〈…〉 the mean time i shall only mind you of the great 〈…〉 hath with euphorbium . since this letter the author thereof was pleased to give us this further account in an other of decemb. 17. viz. — mr wray return'd me this answer to my letter about the biting mushrom ; at my return to midleton i found a letter from you , containing the description of a mushroms by you discover'd in marton-woods unde pinno moor . i doubt not but it is that described in joh. ba●bin 1. 40. c. 6. under the title of fungus piper at us alb●● , lacteo succo turgens . only he saith ; 1. that it doth in bigness exceed the champignon ; whereas you write , that there are few of them much bigger than that : but yet in saying so , you grant them to be bigger . 2. he saith , for their bigness they are not so thick as that ; you describe yours to be thick in flesh . in all other points the descriptions agree exactly . for the colour , of that it is white , gills and all ; for the place , that it grows in woods ; and for the tast , that its hotter than pepper . several particulars mention'd by you , are not observ'd or not mention'd by him . i cannot say , that i have as yet met with this mushrom . a futher account concerning the existence of veins in all kind of plants ; together with a discovery of the membranous substance of those veins , and of some acts in plants resembling those of sense ; as also of the agreement of the venal juice in vegetables with the blood of animals , &c. communicated in a letter of januar. 8. 1673. and exhibited to the r. society . sir , we have formerly given you certain reasons for the existance of veins , ( analogous to those in animals ) in all plants whatsoever , not mushromes excepted : to which we might add others of later notice ; as the skin of a plant may be cut sheer off with part of the spongy parenchyma , and no signs of milky juice follow , that is , no breach of a vein . again , we have stript the plant of its skin , by pulling it up by the roots , and exposing it to the wet weather , untill it became flaccid as a wet thong , without any injury to the veins , which yet upon incision would freshly bleed . these experiments , i say , make against the general opinion of one only sap loosely pervading the whole plant , like water in a sponge . and though we have made these and many other experiments to facilitate an ocular demonstration of these veins ; yet we have not been able to effect it to our mind , and subject them as nakedly to our eye as we could wish , for a through-information of their use , and a minute and accurate discovery of all the particular accidents belonging to them as such vessels . this , i say , is a work of much labour and patience ; and that which renders matters very difficult , is the infinite number , smallness and perplexity of these veins . in the transverse cuts of plants , we see as it were a certain order and number the bloody orifices of dissected veins . we observe also in a leaf , which we take to be the simplest part of a plant . 1. that the veins keep company with the ribbs and nerves ( as we vulgarly call them , ) and are distributed into all the parts of the leaf , according to the subdivisions of those nervous lineaments , and are disposed with them into a certain net-work ; whether by inosculations or bare contact only , we pretend not to determine . 2. that in a transverse cut of a leaf , the middle fibre or nerve , for example , seems to yeild one big drop of a milkie juice , springing as it were from one vein ; yet the miscroscope plainly shews us , that there are many veins which contribute to the making up of that drop . 3. that if a fibre or nerve be carefully taken out of the leaf , the veins will appear in it like so many small hairs or pipes running along and striping the nerve . 4. that those many veins are all of an equal bigness , 〈…〉 to be more certain of the ra●●ifications of the fibres , wherein those veins are , we yet are so , that those veins do any where grow less and smaller , though probably it may be so . that which makes us doubt it , is the exceeding smallness of these veins already , even where we might probably expect them to be trunk veins and of the largest size ; and being there also in very great numbers and running in direct lines along the fibre , we guess , that one or more of them may be distributed and fall off on either hand with the subdivisions of the fibres , and not suffer any diminution in their bulk . 6. that we cannot discern any where throughout the whole plant larger or more capacious veins , than those we see adhering to the fibres of the leaves ; which do also appear from comparing the bleeding orifices in a transverse cut . i have found it a difficult and laborious task , to trace and unravel them throughout the whole plant . our opinion is , that these veins do still keep company with their respective fibres . and as all the fibres of the leaf are joined in the stalk of the leaf , and that stalk explicated in cloathing the twig or stem of the plant , ( which we take to be the reason of the orderly breaking forth of the leaves . ) so do we think of the veins , their perpetual companions . and , as we have said , the fibres of the leaves are joined in the twig ; so are those of the twigs in the branches ; those of the branches in the trunk or body of the tree : the like also in an inverted order we seem to observe in the several coats and ramifications of the root . this the several circles of bleeding orifices in tranverse cuts seems to confirm . but more in the roots of plants , if a simple coat be separated and exposed betwixt your eye and the light , the veins appear to be strangly intangled and implicate , and not in the simple order , as in the leaves . the like we think of the bark of the bodies of trees , which we cannot distinguish from the roots of plants ; though there is , indeed , something ( at least at certain seasons of the year ▪ ) in the root , which is not to be found in any part of the plant besides . from what hath been said , it may well be doubted , whether there is any sinus or common trunk , into which all the veins are gathered ? but rather , each existing apart by it self . we indeed have found it very difficult so to exhaust the plant of its milkie juice , as to kill it , though we have given it very many incisions to that purpose . divers other instances there are , which favour the discontinuance of the veins , and the little relation and intercourse they have with one another ; as one branch of a tree having fair and well grown fruit , before the other branches of the same tree and fruit blossom or have leaves ; from the different situation and other circumstances of culture ; the indefinite and perpetual growth of a tree ; the cyon governing , &c. and thus far we have taken our information concerning these veins , partly by the appearance they make in transverse cuts , and partly by the help of a microscope ; which last indeed has shewed us something of their number , magnitude , order , distributions , &c. and yet neither of these helps in our hands has satisfactorily discovered to us other particulars belonging to these vessels , as external figure , coats , cavitie , &c. the substance of these veins seems to be as truly membranous , as the veins of animals : a leaf will not give way and be extended , but the veins in a leaf , if freed of all the woody fibres , will be stretched out to one third part at least , and vigorously restore themselves again , just like a vein , gut , or any other membranous ductus of an animal . again these membranous pipes are exceeding thin and transparent , because they suddainly disappear and subside after their being exhausted of their juice ; and particularly in that we see the liquor , they hold , quite through our veins , or ( in chelidonium majus , for example ) a tincture of saffron in crystalline pipes . concerning the external figure of these veins and cavitie , as well as other accidents , we thought , they would have been made more apparent to us , if it were possible to coagulate the juice they hold without much shrinking the plant . we were in hopes , freezing would have effected this ; which though it did not succeed as we promised our selves , in respect of the manifestation of these accidents ; yet it gave us some further light into the nature of the juice of these veins . in the keenest frost , which hapned the other winter , we dissected the frozen leaves of the garden spurge . here we observed , that all juice ( besides that which these veins hold ) was , indeed , frozen into hard ice , and to be expressed out in the figure of the containing pores ; but the milkie-juice was as liquid as ever , but not so brisk as in open weather . this experiment we take to be good proof of the perfection of this milkie juice , and that it hath within it self so great a degree of fermentation , that it preserves it self and consequently the whole plant from the injuries of the weather ; that is , the plant owes it life to it . thus we have seen insects ( as hexapode-worms , &c. ) ly frozen upon the snow into very lumps of ice , which did not only cause the glass to ring we struck them against , but did endanger the breaking of it : and yet , put under the glass and exposed to the warmth of the fire , they quickly recovered their legs and vigour to escape ; which we think could not be , unless the vital liquor of their veins , as in this instance of plants , had been untouched and little concerned in the frost . further , we hence also argue the different vses as well as natures of these juices , and look upon the frozen icicles or that copious dilute and limpid sap as alimental ; the milkie and not frozen juice , as as the only proper venal . as to the motion of these juices , these things are certain ; 1. that the milkie ▪ juice alwaies moves and spring● briskly upon the opening of a vein ; the limpid sap but at certain seasons , and as it were by accident , and not ( as i judge ) from any vital principle or fermentation of its own . 2. the vena● juice hath a manifest intestine motion or fermentation within it self ; witness ( besides what hath been just now said of it ) its contributing ( and the long continuance of ) that motion to the most insensible liquors ; and likewise its thick and troubled bleeding , sike the rising of yeast , which yet in a few hours after drawing falls , and the juice becomes transparent , as the gum of the virginian rhus , &c. i shall not desire any person to acquiesce wholly in a bare fermentation ; but endeavour a happy discovery of the frame of all the parts of a plant , on which perhaps this motion may much depend . in the mean time we must indeed needs think ( according to the knowledge we yet have of the parts of plants , ) that these juices move by a far different contrivance of parts from that of animals ; not yet here discovering any uniting of veins into one common trunk , no pulsation , no sensible stop by ligature , no difference in veins , &c. all which difficulties notwithstanding may , i hope , in time may be happily overcome ; and the analogie betwixt plants and animals be in all 〈…〉 opening of flowers ; the 〈…〉 of the heads of poppies from a pendulous posture , and particlarly the vermicular motion of the veins when exposed to the air . again , the veins of plants may indeed be different , though at present we cannot tell wherein they are so . the arteries within our heads are hardy to be known by the eye from the veins . further there are natural and spontaneous excretions or venting of superfluous moisture in plants , visible and constant , in the crown imperial , rorella , pinguicula , &c. as to the ligature , as it hath been hitherto applied by us , it is not to be relyed on for discovery of this motion ; the veins only of plants being the parts probably distendable . lastly we shall not omit to tell you , that either we must take that away from the other reasons given of the necessity of the circulation of the blood in animals , viz. the hindring of its breaking and clodding ; or we must grant the same motion to the venal juice in plants : we having undeniable experiments to shew , that the venal juice of plants and the blood of animals agree in this , that they both , when they are once drawn from their respective veins , do forth-with break and coagulate , and that the serum in the one as well as in the other becomes a stiff gelly by a little standing . but of the different natures of the juices of these viens in divers plants and their motion we will remain your debtor , and acquit our selves when we shall find it convenient ; at present ; only acquainting you , what variety of experiments hath taught us , that probably more useful preparations and certainly a truer analysis and 〈…〉 and parts of vegetable drugs may be 〈…〉 whilst they are bleeding and liquid , than after they are once become concrete and have lost their natural fermentation . i am &c. a letter dated may 21. 1673. in york , concerning the unalterable character of the whiteness of the chyle within the lacteal veins ; together with divers particulars observed in the guts , especially several sorts of worms found in them . — i come to your letter , where the analogy betwixt the veins in plants and the nerves in animals , hinted by dr. wallis , is a considerable notion , and i shall set my self a task e're long to examine them both again on purpose , and to give you my thoughts . in the mean time , i will entertain you , if you please , with some anatomical observations and experiments . it hath been long in my thoughts and desires to have discovered the actual passage of the chyle into the lacteal veins ; of which yet i never doubted , as i find some do at this day . the difficulty lyes in the certain and unalterable character of the chyle's whiteness , especially when received into those veins . and yet it is as certain , that in a diabetes the urine retains all the qualities of the liquor drunk . also in that famous instance of those that eat the fruit call'd the prickle-pear ( if i remember aright , ) their urine hath affrighted the eater with the colour of bloud , that is , with the not-alter'd colour of the juice of the fruit. in these instances at least we cannot doubt but the chyle , even in the lacteal veins , was qualified according to the food and drink . to effect then something to this purpose , we have formerly , and that very often , repeated the experiment of injecting highly tinged liquors into the guts of a live animal . it would be too tedious and impertinent , to write down the circumstances of many different tryals : we will only in short tell you the manner of performing it and the success . we laced the skin of the abdomen of a dog loosly for a hands breadth , and then opening it underneath the stitches , we took out either the duodenum , or any other of the tennia intestina . the gut , took out , we open'd with a very small orifice , and having ready the tinged liquor luke-warm , we injected it upward and downward : carefully stitching up the gut , and then drawing the lace , we unloosed two of the dogs feet , laying him on his side for what time we thought convenient . the tinged liquors we used , were good barbado's indigo , in fair water , and filtrated ; also lumps of indigo thrust down his throat ; good broath ( as they call it ) of a blew fat ; indigo in milk ; saffron in milk. again , we tried in some dogs fed before hand , and injected the liquors in the very hight of the chyle's distribution ; into others yet fasting , and that for a longer or shorter time . the success was so constant , that we cannot say , we ever did find the least discolouring of chyle on the other side the guts , that is , within the lacteous veins , but ever white and uniform . whence we judge it not very feasable to tinge the venal chyle in a well and sound animal . and he that would demonstrate the matter of fact to the eye , must probably do it by giving him some such thing in the food , as shall cause a diabetes , or some distemper equivalent to it . though we have observ'd many odd things in the several exercises of this nature ; yet we shall not trouble you at present with any other particulars , than what we have further observ'd in the guts , to which we shall confine our paper . of these we shall proceed to speak though possibly the the things may be better known to you already . as 1. of the glandul● miliares † of the small guts , which may also in some animals be well call'd fragiformes , from the figure of the one half of a strawberry , and which yet i take to be excretive glanduls , because conglomerate . 2. the vse of the intestinum cae●um , subservient to that of the colon and rectum ; manifest in such animals , where nature intends a certain and determinate figure to the excrements . 3. of some sorts of vermin , we found in the guts . and first of the lumbrici lati or tape worm . of these , i say , we found in the guts of one dog , perhaps more than an hundred in all . the duodenum was exceedingly stuffed out and extended with them . which also well agrees with an other observation i made in a mouse , where i found the duodenum to be far bigger than the stomach it self , by reason of the great numbers of these worms for kind , which were contained in it : for kind , i say ; for these tape-worms were of a quite different shape from those of the dog , or any that i have ever yet seen . to proceed , we found them also in the dog 's jejunum and ileon ; but not any one lower than the valv● a coli , nor any higher than the duodenum or within the pilorus . below the duodenum they lay at certain distances one from another , though sometimes by pairs or more of them twisted together . near them was constantly to be observed an excrement of their own , distinct , for colour ( the observation being made in a dog plentifully fed for other purposes ; ) just as we find in worm-eaten tracks of wood , where the coss● leave behind them the wood which hath pass'd through their bodies : these worms lay mostly with the small ends upward , as feeding upon and expecting the chyle in its descent . these lumbrici lati were none of them above one foot long , and most of them of an equal length and bigness . the one end was as broad as my little finger-nail , and pointed like a lancet ; the other end , coming small gradually for the whole length of the animal , was knoted , or ended in a small button like a pin-head . they were every-where and in all parts of them alike milk white , of a flat and thin substance like fine tape , divided into infinite rings and incisures ; each incisure having sharp angles , on both sides , looking to the broader end standing out beyond each other : else the sharp corners of the annuli would necessarily hinder the ascent of the animal ; whereas , if the contrary be true , they serve to keep it up . each ring hath also on the one side only , and that alternately , one small pro●uberance , much like the midle feet of the body of some caterpillers . after i have thus described them to you , i desire you to view the cut of tulpius in the last years edition of his medic. observat. l. 2. 42 ; where he retracts the first figure , given us in the edition of that book in the year 1652. and yet i cannot say , that all in this last is true ; for , to me , the rictus and eye in the there supposed head of the animal seem to be the meer fancies of the painter ; not to say , that probably the smaller end is the head , which , indeed , is in this cut wholly neglected . comparing our animals with that cut of tulpius , it was not very easy for me to observe , because of the great resemblance , the specifick difference of the lumbrici lati of men , and those of this animal . i was not so happy as to discover any motion in any part of them , in water or out of it , nor did they seem , if pricked or otherwise hurt , much if at all ) to contract themselves or shorten the annuli , so that they then appea'd to me as things without motion or sense . there is an other sort of lumbrici lati to be met with very ●requently also in dogs , called cucurbitini from the likeness each annulus or link hath to a cucumber seed . i have found of them about half a foot long , but more often broken into shorter pieces . the former by us discribed is undoubtedly a compleat and entire animal ; but there is great reason of suspition , that this is a chain of many animals linked together . these animals for kind have been observed to have been voided by men , and found enclosed in a gut or membrane of a prodigous length : and ( which is more notable , ) a person of great integrity and worth , mr , f. i. affirmed to me , that he once assisted at the opening of a dog , in which one of the kidneys was observed to be quite wasted and become a perfect bladder , and in that bladder they found something like an animal of a monstrous shape , which being dissected , was nothing else but a skin full of these lumbrici cucurbitini . † it were to be desired , that such as have the oppertunity of such rare phaenomena , as of snakes , lizards , beetles , catterpillers , toads and such like things , as we read of in medicinal histories to have been vomited , whether they are not the like disguises of this sort of worms , much assisted by the surprised fancies of the first observers . and because these sort of wormes are sometimes said to be found out of the guts , their most proper place , we shall conclude with a very recent observation of the last month in this city . a chirurgion brought me about 20 worms , which he had just then taken out of an ulcerated ankle of a girle of about eight years old . i had the curiosity to go my self and see it . i found the leg found all but the ankle , which was vastly swell'd , and the girle otherwise hearty and well coloured , she had been in great misery for some months ; had been sent up to london , where she was touched and dressed for the evil. sometimes after her return , her pain continuing , a young puppy was opened and applyed to the soars . the chirurgeon , who took off the puppy , found it , to his great admiration , full of worms , at least 60. in number , what those he found in the body of the puppy , and what he drew out of the soar ankle ; into which , he said , they crawled down as worms do into the ground . the same puppy was again applyed , and it was then ( at the second taking of the puppy ) that i made the visit , and saw only one worm got out into the puppy , but a very live and stirring one . many were afterwards kill'd injections . these worms i affirm , according to my best knowledg , ( and i had the oppertunity of comparing them ) were of the very species of the lumbrici teretes , which children familiarly void from the guts . they were betwixt three and four inches long ; all , about the matter , of an equal bigness , as of one brood ; something thicker than a ducks quill ; very sharp at both ends ; stiff , and exactly round ; without incisures , visible at least , and yet could move and twist themselves readily enough . all the difference was in the colour , these being much whiter than any i have seen from the guts . vid. barthol . in hist. 60. cent. 5. where neer twenty worms , as long as my finger , were found in a lady's arm , probably of this species too . i beg your pardon for my , &c. some papers written about the same time to mr. oldenburgh , in whose hands they remained unpublished . 1. paper . the passage of the chyle through the intestines , into the lacteous veins , is a thing hitherto demonstrated to the eye by none . dr. lowar ingeniously confesses the ill successe he had in trying with air or tinged spirit of wine , by neither of which he was able to force a passage . and j. wallaeus is very positive that however the chyle in the intestines may be diversly coloured , yet it is still white in the lacteal veins . ( v. epist. de mot● ) chyle . to this purpose diembroock in his late anatomie * affirmes " chylum semper album " inveniri in vasis lacteis mesenterij , & thoracic is — viridem verò rubrum alteriusve coloris in jis à nemine hactenus visum fuisse . p. 37. notwithstanding which , and my own insuccessfull tryals , i did not doubt , but some happy experiment would shew the contrary ; and a purposely coloured chyle might find admittance into the lacteal veins , though not by force , yet by the consent and introduction of nature her self . the successe of some late experiments we made to this purpose , we shall further acquaint you with . 1. experiment , i caused a dog to be fed , and after 4 hours , or therabouts ( having ready by me a cleer tincture of indigo dissolved in fair water filtred ) i opned the abdomen , and making a small incision in the jejunum , ( as was formerly discribed ) i injected one ounce or two . this done , the gut and all we stitched up again , and the dog turned upon his leggs . after one hour and one quarter we cut the stitches , where we beheld a copious distribution of chyle and turgid lacteal veins , but as white as ever ; and yet carefully searching the guts , we perceived none of the liquor injected any where . 2. experiment , an other dog which was kept fasting 40. houres , a very little flesh , without water , given him , some 5 houres before the injection of the tincture of indigo , which was done after the same manner , as before related , only the tincture was well warmed , and some 12. ounces throughn up the duodenum , and down the ileon . here were empty guts , nor the least appearance of any lacteal veins in the mesenterie . after full 3 hours the stiches were cut again ( some occasional businesse hindring me from doing of it sooner ) and carefully examining the mesenterie , we found many lacteal veins of an azure colour , and cutting some of the biggest of them asunder we did plainly see a thick blewish chyle to issue forth , and to spread it self over the transparant membrane of the mesenterie . this is a very truth , which the chirurgion , i imployed to assist me in the experiment can well witnesse , and whose eyes i used as well as my own in carefully examining these matters . whence , although it hath been doubted of by some , yet it is most evident , that the lacteal veins receive , what they carry , from within the cavitie of the intestines . as to the bunches of glandulae within the guts , i have observed them in several kinds of animals at divers times , and do therefore think them natural and not adventitious or morbous , as some were pleased to object . these glandulae protuberate , and are thereby visible in any part of the small guts , where they are to be found . in the duodenum of a dog , i have seen many clusters of them , some as broad as my nail , and all disposed in an oval figure , like the half of a strawberry , or mulberry . they are very visible in the guts of mice , where each grain seems much larger than in a dog. again the part , where these glandulae are , seems more thin than the rest of the gut , and therefore the gut slit , and held betwixt the light of your eye these grains are very conspicuous . further these glandulae ( like the rest of the conglomerate kind ) empty themselves into the guts , which is manifest by the comparison of them , and therefore serve for the excretion of some saliva-like juices , but whether they may not also introduce the chyle , i will not determine here . a second letter writ about the same time ; 1673. to the same person . i did not think of explaning my sense of the use of the caecum until i had had the leisure and opportunty of purposely examining the i●testines of most kind of animals . but because i am much mistaken by the person , who , as you tell me , is desirous to be anonimous to me , him i mean who raised the scruples you sent me , upon the second paragraph , which says , the use of the intestinum caecum to be subservient to that of the colon , and rectum ; manifest in such animals where nature intends a certain , and determinate figure to the excrements . i shall be forced to tell you , what i presume may prove , as neer the truth , as any one of the many conjectures extant in authors , about the unknown use of this part . i understand by determinate figure . first , the excrements divided into many small parts of a like shape , such as sheep , deer , conies , rats , mice , horses catterpillers , some snailes &c. doe void . secondly , in a greater latitude , i oppose figured excrements to liquid , as c. celsus in some place doth ; thus the dung of pigeons , and geese , of men , dogs , cats , &c. may be said to be figured . now the caecum , in my opinion , is subservient in some measure to the figuration of both , but most manifestly in the first kind . my meaning is that probably the use of the caecum is to keep the excrements , that passe into its cavitie ( and i believe all , or most part of them do in sound animals ) so long , until they are sufficiently drained , baked , hardned , or of a due consistence , ( as clay is temperd for the mould ) to receive the figure to be given from the colon and rectum . this use i say of the caecum , seems to me to be much more manifest in such animals , as have figured excrements of the first kind . in ratts for example , ( whose excrements are the most elegantly and constantly a like figured , of any sanguineous animal i have met with ) the caecum is more large , and capacious , than the stomack it self , and perhaps than all the small guts put togather . but its use in receiving the excrements or exhausted chyle , is not more apparent , from its large capacity ; than that other of further draining and tempering them to a stiffnesse , for the service of the colon , from the admirable contrivance , and structure , of this latter gut , which is a phaenomon that deserves further consideration : it is i say to be noted , that immediately under the value of that gut , in this animal , are certain spiral fibres , which make a kind of screw . now it seems to me , that the excrements , after they are brought to a due consistence by the necessarie stay they make in the caecum , and being carried out thence into the spiral folding , or screw of the colon , cannot descend in a perpendicular , as formerly through the small guts , but still gently glide very leisurly by the vinding of the screw ; whence arises their figure . and i am apt to believe , that if the caecum of a ratt , or any of the first kind of animals mentioned , was tyed up , or otherwise hindred from its receit , the animals would unavoidably fall into a diarrhaea : there being , i say , no reason , that i can foresee , why the yet liquid excrements or exhausted chyle , such as we constantly find it , even at the very bottom of the small gut , should slop at the entrance of the colon , and not speedly glide through the screw , in a down right descent , that is , elude the devise of nature , and make the configuration of that so curiously contrived part uselesse , we i say supposing the experiment to have taken away the necessarie diverticulum and repositarie of the unprepared excrements , in tying up the caecum . i know not , whether the observation will hold good in general terms , because i say , i have not yet purposily examined divers animals in nature , viz. that the more accurately figured the excrements of any animal are , the more capacious is the caecum , and on the contrary the lesse figured and liquid they are , the lesser the caecum , or none at all . this is true certainly that some animals , which are naturally loose have no caecum at all or very little , as the talpa , the echinus terrestris the gulo , a certian kind of voracious woolfe , mentioned by bartholine in his observations . we shall not trouble you at present with our observations concerning the different figure of excrements in the divers species of animals already by us examined , nor of the place and of their becoming so figured . also we shall passe by our thought for the present of the manner of the caecums reception and preparing the excrements . for the colon , we likewise sorbear to offer some doubts we have , concerning natures end , in the necessarie figuration of excrements in some animals , as first to prevent diarrhaeàs ; secondly to abide hunger the better ; thus snails in winter rest with full intestines ; thirdly to heighten the firmentation and digestion of the stomack and small guts . what we have hastly writ at present , being only intended for the better uuderstanding of that paragraph , and not all that this subject would incite me to say . if it shall be objected , that grant the reception of the exhausted chyle to be made in the caecum , before it passe into the colon : yet it seems that either we must give a power of choice to the caecum , or what just comes in , will first be thrown out , it still being uppermost , that is , the lesse prepared excrement . i answer , that i do not conceive , what choiee or distinction sheep , can make of the meat not ruminated , in the stomack , from that , which is but just now ruminated , and swallowed down , since all the many stomacks of a sheep are but one stomack and but one gula , that is , in that respect of ruminating the stomack and gula of a sheep or cow , is an other caecum ; and yet in ruminating nature has its aime , and chews not things oftner over , than needs must ; the like we think of the office of the caecum , which parts only with what is duly prepared , and retains the yet liquid excerment . 3 paper . some probable thoughts of the whitenesse of chyle ; and what it is after it is conveyed within the arteries : communicated much about the same time with the former . n. b. i am not altogether of the same opinion now ; yet , they were my thoughts than . 1. in digestion of meat in the stomack , there is made a separation or solution of urinous salts ; no otherwise , than in the rotting of animals , or plants . 2. the chyle is hughly impregnate with this urinous salts . 3. the whitenesse of the chyle is from the fermentation it hath from its mixture with urinous salts ; and that if desolv'd with fair water , it is wholly deprived of that colour , the firmentation ceasing . 4. the salt chyle is conveyed into the venal blood , and with it enters the heart ; and it is thence thrown out , chyle as it comes in by a continued pulsation into the artery . 5. that as oft as it enters the emulgent arteries , it there leaves behind it part of its salinous liquour or urine , and consequently abates of its colour . 6. that when sufficiently freed of its urinous salt , it becomes a lympha ; which we think nothing else , but the residue of the chyle , not yes made into the nature of blood , as not sufficiently depurate of its saline particles . 7. that probably it circulates long under the nature of a lympha ; after visiting all the parts of the body by the arteries , and returning again to the hart , partly by its own vessells , and partly by the veins . 8. that in defect of chyle ( for we cannot constantly feed ) nature continually supplys the masse of blood with the lympha , or old chyle . 9. that upon every supply of fresh chyle , much of the old stock or lympha is ( according to the necessitie of parts ) converted to this or that use : and not till than . 10. that there is ever , more lympha in the masse of blood , than there is need off for the diluting of it . the arterial blood ( be the animal never so much exhausted by hunger ) always parting with some upon extravasation and coagulation . 11. in the coagulation of extravasate blood there is no praecipitation of parts , as in curdled milk &c. for if the chyle be freshly distributed into the masse of blood , it will again separate it self , as oyl will from water ; and in like manner is it with the lympha or old chyle , neither of them being as any essential part of the blood . 12. the venal and arterial blood have probably both a like quantity of lympha to dilute them ; but the arterial in coagulating involves within its crassamentum more than the venal : the reason may be , for that the arterial is fuller of air , which rarifies and renders the arterial crassamentum more porous and capacious , of lodging the lympha : which yet as it subsides by long standing , parts with and le ts goe more and more lympha . 13. the great instrument of circulation is the systole or vibration of the heart ; which yet would not be sufficient from hindring the coagulation of the blood , without a continual supply of lympha to dilute it . an account of two uncommon mineral substances , viz. of bitumen , and a white liquor . january 7. 1674. sir , that this letter may be the more acceptable to you , i shall communicate some excerpta , taken out of the letters , which that inqusitive and learn'd gentleman mr. jessop is pleased to honour me with . i will give , ( saith he ) the best answer i can in short to the questions , you put to me in your last . 1. the fungus subterraneous , i sent you a large quantity of , was gotten in a rocky lime-stone ground , on a common about two miles distant from castleton in the peake of darby-shire , 15 or 16 yards deep , in the old man ( as they call a mine formerly wrought and stopt up ) covered with earth , that had either fallen or was thorwn in . there is no coal-bed that is knowu of within five or six miles of the place . of this fungus , by mr. jessops procurement , i received a good quantity ; and yet i am not able to say , in what form it grows . it does not seem to me to have any constant shape ; at least the pieces that i receiv'd are much like pears or turff , cut up in the high moosr , bothe in the sooty colour and inward substance ; this ouly is more clammy and tough , and dries not . and some of the fungous substance is very soft and like gel●y . in and about the more solid pieces , ( of which i have some , half a soot square , ) are many big lumps of a bituminous substance . this bitumen is very inflammable like rosin ; it is very light , it breaks firm , and shines like good aloes ; and for colour , it is not much unlike it , save that it is more dark color'd and purplish ; yet there is much of it of a dark green colour . we distill'd a parcel of it , which yielded us an acidulous limpid water ; then , a white liquor , which was , i guess , from some of the oily parts precipitate . and in the last place , a copious yellow oyl , not unlike that of succinum or pitch . in the neck of the retort we could discern no volatil salt , as in the like process upon amber . whether this ows its original to a vegetable , or is truly a concret mineral juyce and a fossil bitumen i forbear to determine . i have not read of any such fungous earth , in which bitumen naturally grows and adheres : and the finding of it in an old mine doth much favour the first opinion of being a vegetable substance ; either the very substance of the props of wood , they make use of in lining and supporting the grooves , thus alter'd , or certain fungus's growing out of them . that birch , ( of which there is great plenty and hath been vast woods all these mountanous parts of england over ) will yeild a bitumen , as limpid as the sap is which runs from it by tapping , if we now had the skill to extract it , pliny is very express , l. 16. c. 18. bitumen ex betula galli exc●quunt . and more-over it is certain , that much of that wood , if not all , which is dugg up in the high moors of craven , and which the people there call and use for candle-wood , is no other than birch , as it appears from the grain and bark ; and yet this wood kindleth flames , and exudats a rosin , which makes many pronounce it very firr-wood . whatever this bitumen is , which this fungus subterraneous yeilds , it much differs from the asphal●um of the shopps ; and you may command a specimen of it , that it may be better examin'd by more skilful naturalists . 2. there is an other mineral juyce in these parts of england , which i have much inquir'd after , and longed to see ; and now i am likely to be satisfied , as you may think by mr. jessops words : captain wain , ( saith he ) a diligent and knowing person in mines , gave me a white liquor , resembling cream both in colour and consistance , which he found in great quantities at the bottom of a coal-pit , 49 yards deep , which i reserve for you . but this is not all the information that hath been given me about this white liquor . mr. george plaxton , a curious and very intelligent person , writes thus to me from sheriff hales in shropshire : i shall trouble you with an observation , i lately met with in our iron-mines , especially that which the country people here call the white mine , which yeilds the best iron-stone . the miners do commonly , upon the breaking of a stone , meet with a great quantity of a whitish milky liquor , inclosed in the center of it ; they sometimes find a hogshead contain , d in one cavity . 't is in taste sweetish ; only it hath a vitriolick and iron-like twang with it . a description of certain stones , figured like plants , york novemb. 4th . 1673. in this paper i send you an account of some of the parts of certain stones figured like plants ; which argicola ( 5 fossilium ) calls trochitae , and the compound ones entrochi ; we in english , st. cutberds beads . agricola will have them akin for substance to the lapides judaici ; and , indeed , these are of an opaque and dark coloured sparr ; though i have of them from some parts of england of a white sparr or cawke , as our miners call it : they all break like flint , polished and shining . put into vinegar ( saith he ) they buble : atque etiam reperitur interdum qui se tanquam astroites moveat de loco . but this is true of all fossils of what figrue so ever , that vinegar will corrode and dissolve as a menstruum ; provided they be broken into indifferent small grains , and the bottom of the vessel hinder not , they will be moved from place to place by it . the figure of the trochitae is cylindrical ; the outmost round or circle ( we speak of one single joynt , which agricola calls trochites ) is in general smooth , both the flat-sides are thick drawn with fine and smal rayes , from a certain hole in the middle to the circumference . from the shooting of these rayes like antimonie , and because a large peice of this stone of many joynts resembles the bole of a tree , aldrovandus ( who yet elsewhere discourses of this stone , after agricola and gesner , under the name of trochitae and entrochi ) not improperly terms it ( musae : metallici lib. 1. pag. 188. ) stelechites stibii facie ; and there gives us a true ●igure of it . two , three , or more of these trochitae joyned together , make up that other stone , which he calls entrochos . the trochite or single joynts are so together , that the rayes of the one enter into the other furrows , as in the sutures of the skill . hitherto we agree to what agricola , gesner , boetius , aldrovandus , and wormius have said of them : we proceed upon our own observations , which go much further . the places where we find them very plentifully , are certain scarrs in braughton and stock , little villages in craven . the stones of the abovesaid described figure , as many as have yet come to my hands from those places , have afforded us these particulars . as to their bigness , i never yet met with any much above two inches about ; others there are as small as the smallest pinn , and of all magnitudes betwixt those proportions . these are all broken bodies ; some shorter pieces , some longer , and of them , indeed , trochitae , that is , but single joynts . i never fonnd one intire piece much above two inches long , and that very rarely too ; in some of which long pieces , i have reckned about 30 joynts . and as they are all broken bodies , so are they found dejected and lying confusedly in the rock , which in some places , is soft and shelly ( as they call it , ) that is , rotten and perished with the wet and air . and though in some places they are but sprinkled here and there in the rock , yet there are whole bedds of rock of vast extent , which are made up of these , and other figured stones , as bivalve , serpentine , turbinate , &c. as at braughton . as to the injuries they have received in their removal from the natural posture , if not place of their growth and formation , they are manifest . for , besides their being all broken bodies , we find many of them depressed and crushed , as if the joynt of a hollow ▪ cae should be trod under foot : these crushes being also real cracks of a stone or glass . again these stones consisting of many vertebrae or joynts , they are many of them strangely dislocated ; sometimes two , three , or more of the joynts in a piece are slipped and out of order or rank , and sometimes a whole series of joynts , as when a pack of crown pieces leans obliquely upon a table . futher , others i have that are twisted like a cord , if this possibly may be reckoned amongst the injuries . lastly , some have their joynts , indeed , even and in file , but are yet stuffed with a forrain matter , as when bricks are layed in motrer . there is great variety as to the thickness of the trochitae or single joynts : some are so thin , that they are scarce the full of the 24 th . part of an inch ; others are a full quarter of an inch thick ; of these latter i only found at stock : these , i say , are the extream proportions , as far as my observations have yet gone ; there are joynts of all measures betwixt those two extreams . this is true in divers pieces , for mostly the joynts are of an equal thickness in one and the same piece . note , that there are slender and small entrochi or pieces , which have as thick joynts , as the biggest and fairest pieces . there is also some difference in the seames or closing of the joynts : some are but seemingly joynted ; which appears by this , that if they be eaten down a while in distilled vineger , the seeming suturs will vanish , as in some i had out of stafford-shire , from about beresford upon the dove : others and all here at braughton and stock are really joynted , and the sutures indented ; which indentures being from the terminating of the rayes , they are more fair or large , according to the differenc of the rayes , but even , equal , and regular . we have said , that generally the outmost circle of each joynt is flat and smooth ; yet are there many other differences to be noted as to that part : very porbably because they are parts or pieces of different species of rock-plants . 1. that the smooth-joynted ( to say no more of them here ) are of different thicknesses as to the joynts . 2. on some entrochi betwixt , suture and suture in the middle of each joynt , are certain knots in a circle ; the joynts thus distinguished are very deep and large , and are very frequent at stock . 3. there are likewise of these with a circle of knots , which have many knots besides upon each joynt and look rugged . 4. some with much thinner joynts , which yet have a circle of knots in the middle of joynt ; and this also looks as though it was all over knotted , and these are found at braughton only , as far as i know . 5. as some have but one circle of knots , others , are knotted all over the joynt and rought ; so are there some others , which have a circle of larger knots in the middle of each joynt , and a circle of lesser on each side close adjoyning to the border or verge of the suture . this is huge pretty , and they are found at stock . 6. others betwixt suture and suture in the middle of each joynt rise with a circular edge . 7. a smooth entrochos with a large or much risen edg on the middle of one of the joynts , and a much smaller on the middle of an other joynt and that atlernatively . 8. the same alternate difference , the joynts only much rounder and blunt , and here the joynts are visibly one thicker than the other . 9. the same with alternate edges knotted . 10. a double edg in the middle of every joynt ; this makes the joynts look as though they were exceeding thin and numerous , but indeed they are not so . 11. a double edg in the middle of every joynt knotted by intervals , or as it were serrate edges . and these are some of the differences , that i have at present been able to make out . some of the pieces of most , if not all , of the differences of these entrochi are ramous , having lesser branches deduced from the greater , and that without order . some have but few branches on a piece ; others i find so thick of branches , that they resemble a ragged staff. these branches are deep inserted within the stemm , and by being separated , leave great holes in the sides of it . the rayes in the joynts of the branches run cross to the rayes of the stemm . on thick stemms , are somtimes very small branches , but mostly the bigger the stem the thicker the branches . some of these branches are branched again : yet i find not any of them above one inch intire , and yet adhering and inserted into its stock o bole , and for the most part not above a joynt or two . the branches are known from the stemm , by being a little crooked and something tapering or conic. we meet but with few pieces ( besides the branches ) that are not exactly cylindrical , setting aside the injuries above mentioned , that is , that are not as thick at one end as at the other , and perfectly round , notwithstanding that we said , that there are of them of all degrees of magnitude within the proportions above-named . and , as we said , it is rare to meet with a piece , that is not exactly cylindrical ; so amongst those few that are not so , some we find tapering at both ends , and much swelled in the middle . and this is the other species of this stone , according to the division of agricola : entrochi duae sunt species ; aut enim aequaliter teres est ; aut teres quidem , sed par● ejus media tumet , utrumque caput angustius est . but this must not be understood , as though both ends were compleat ; for these , are but broken pieces , as the rest , more swelled in the middle . others there are figured like a kind of fruit , or lapis judaicus ; but these also are truly entrochi , and are joynted notwithstanding this shape . upon a small stalk of two or three joynts is suddainly raised an oval bottom , broken off also at both ends . to these we shall add what seems to have been summitates or fastigia ; long and slender pieces with a little jointed buttom , hollow on the very top ; which top seems not to have been divided or broken off from any thing else . i must not forget , that as they are hollow in the middle ( and so it was easy to string them like beads , which gave occasion to the english name ; ) so these hollows are someetimes filled with earth , and sometimes an other entrochos is inclosed like a pair of screws , and which is ( as it were ) pith to the other . of these inward entrochi some i have which are transparent . note , that the hollows or piths are of different bores , but most are round . and yet there are of them in great plenty at stock , whose hollow in the middle is in the elegant fashion of a cinquefoil ; and the rayes of the joynts of entrochi are much deeper and fewer in number , than of any other yet observed by me . these are smooth-joynted . this is most surprising , and i know not any vegetable , whose pith is perforate in such a manner . lastly we in these rocks find rude stones , of the bigness of walnuts , which have many impressions of trochitae upon them , as though they had been the roots of them . and when these have been a little cleansed in vinegar , these impressions appear more than casual ; for , the substance that covers them ( if not the stones themselves ) is sparr , and the impressions are round holes , which , we said above , the branches made in the sides of the stock , when broken out from them . agricola makes mention of these also : saepenumero lapis informis reperitur unà cum trochite & entrocho , rotae in se continens figuram ; quae in eo quasi quaedam radix , trochitis jam abruptis , remansit . although there are indeed certain lapides informes , which may with some colour be thought to have been the roots , from whence some entrochi have been broken ; yet are not all such lumps of stone , on which we discern the vestigia of entrochi to be called lapides informes , some of them being most elegantly figured . one or two of them , which i found intire and compleat at stock , amongst very many others strangely shattered and defaced , i shall describe to you . 1. the first is in the fashion of a pine apple or cone , with a hollow bottom : on the very top is the round figure of an entrochos broken off ; round about the bottom or basis are five single feet at equal distances , in the figure of crescents . this stone is incrustate or made up of angular plates ; viz. the bottom is composed of five plates , which we call feet ; the middle of the stone of five other plates , all of a sexangular figure ; and the top stone . all other plates are smooth on the outside . 2. the sccond is a large stone of the bigness of a walnut , much after the pyramidal fashion of the other ; the bottom convex , about one inch and a quarter over ; on the top is the lively impression of an entrochos broken off , or rather a trochites yet remaining ; round the basis are five double points or feet at equal distances , all broken of somewhat in the figure of crescents . this stone also is incrustate or covered with sex-angular plates , which are rough . i can compare the inc●ustating of these stones to nothing so well , as to the skins of the piscis tringularis , which margravius describes : cujus cutis ( nam caret squamis ) figuris trigonis , tetragonis , pentagonis , hexagonisque mire distinguitur & notatur . of these figured plates i find so great variety in the rocks , both as to the number of angles and other beautiful ornaments , that it has caused in me great admiration . and it will not be amiss ▪ since they manifestly belong , as parts , to the above described stones , to enumerate them , at least , as many as have yet come to my hands . some of these angular plates , i said , are yet visible in their natural place and posture in the described stones : but i find the greatest part of them broken up and heaped together in great confusion in the rocks . and it will be as hard to set them together , as to skill to tell you , what the figure of an intire entrochos ( or the stone to which all the above described parts seem to belong ) is : but we will omit no part , that we can justly say belongs unto it . we shall begin with pentagonous plates . 1. the first is a pentagonous stone , as broad as my thumb-nail ( we speak of the fairest of them , ) hollow on the one side , like a dish ; convex on the other side , where are certain eminent knots , about the bigness of small pinn-heads , set iu a kind of square order : this plate is somewhat thinn at the edges and yet blunt . 2. the second is also pentagonous , and not much narrower than the other : it is , indeed , somewhat convex above , but not hollow underneath ; it is smooth on both sides , at least without those eminent knots , which are so remarkable in the other plate : the edges of these are as thinn as of a knife , and sharp . 3. the third pentagonous plate is not near so broad , as either of the former ; yet one i found amongst a 100 of this sort , that is full as any of the above described : these are all convex on the one side and somewhat hollow on the other ; thick edged ; one of the 5 sides only is indented ; the indented side is ever the thinnest , and the stone is most sloped towards that side . note , that there are many amongst these last indented sorts of plates , which are channelled on the concave side and otherwise notched . 4. all these pentagonous plates are to be found plentifully at braughton or stock . but i shall not omit in this place the mentioning of one , i by chance espied amongst certain figured stons , which i had out of the quarrie near wansford-bridg in northamptonshire , and it probably belongs to these kind of plates i am now in hand with . it has one of the five sides thick indented ; the convex part has in the middle a raised vmbo , like some antient shields , and round about the sides list of smaller studds . we have since had some plates much like this from bugthorp under the woolds in york-shire . we proceed to remarke some differences in the sexangular plates . 5. all these stones are but small , save here and there one : the first of them is but little hollow on the one side , and convex-side most elegantly wrought with raised or embossed work , that is , with an equilateral triangle bestriding each corner , and a single right line in the midst ; or , if you will , two triangles one within another . these we found at ●raughton-fear only . 6. that plate-stone which is most common in these rocks , there being a 1000 of these to be found for one of the other , is sexangular , a little hollow on the one side and convex side or scabrous only ; some are much thicker than others ; some being as thick as broad , but most are plate-like ; the sides are very unequal , as in crystals ; sometimes five broader sides and one very small ; again two sides broad and four much narrower , and infinite other differences as to the inequality of sides . words are but the arbitrary symboles of things , and perhaps i have not used them to the best advantage . good design ( and such is that i send you , done by that ingenious young gentleman and excellent artist , my very good friend , mr. william lodge . ) or the things themselves , which i have all by me , would make these particulars much more intelligible and plain to you . the explication of the figures . see tab. i. 1. a trochites or single joynt with very fine and small rayes . 2. a trochites or single joynt with the pith bored through , in the fashion of cinquefoil . 3. a trochites or single joynt , of an oval figure , the rayes scarce apparent and a very small point in the place of the pith . 4. a single joynt or two of a middle size , with the pith exceeding large . 5. a pack of single joynts dislocated , and yet adhering in their natural order . 6. a very long entrochos or a piece of many smooth joynts with the branches broken off . 7. an entrochos with smooth joynts not branched . 8. the biggest entrochos i have yet seen , with stumps of branches . 9. a smooth entrochos with very thin and numerous joynts . 10. the largest or deepest joynted entrochos , save the oval one noted in the third figure . 11. an entrochos with very many disorderly knots in each joynt . 12. an entrochos with one only single circle of knots in the middle of each joynt . 13. an entrochos with three circles of knots . 14. a smooth entrochos , with a large and much risen edge in the middle of each joynt . 15. alternate joynts round or blunt . 16. a double edg in the middle of each joynt . 17. alternate joynts , edged . 18. 19. 20. certain other differences noted in the paper , but not pefectly exprest in the design . 21. an entrochos with a branch of a good length . 22. a branch of an entrochos knocked off . 23. an entrochos fruit-like . 24. a fastigium or summitas . 25. a radix of an entrochos in prospective : where a is a joynt or trochites yet remaining , whence an entrochos was broken off . c. e. f. d. are four of the double feet ; the 5 th . being hid . 26. the same radix to be seen at the best advantage : a the trochites or basis : c. b. d. e. f. the five double feet . note also the sex-angular rough plates , which incrustate the stone or cover it all over . 27. a smaller radix with smooth plates and five single feet : h. the top stone . i. one of the five feet . k. one of the five angular plates which incurstate the middle of the stone . g. the basis , also the same stone in prospective . g. the same with the hollow bottom upwards . figures of plates supposed to incurstate divers roots . 28. a pentagonous plate knotted . 29. a thinn edged smooth pentagonous plate . 30. an indented pentagonous plate . 31. the northamptonshire pentagonous plate . 32. a large pentagonous smooth plate . 33. an hexagonous plate imbossed with angles 34. an hexagonous plate , as deep as broad . 35. 37. odd figured plates . 36. a quadrangular plate ribbed and indented . a letter concerning snails , with tables about that sort of insects . york . march. 12. 1673. i herewith send you the first part of our tables of snails , and some quaere's upon that subject , i reserve by me the sea-shells and rock-stones . that part , i send you at present , being at a stand with me , these other increase upon my hands daily ; which though that be not a sign of perfection ( for there is undoubted work for many ages , ) yet it is of good advancement and progress ; this other of the copiousness of the subject . again , in that part of the tables , you have from me , authors are very little concern'd ; in the others of sea-shells and stone-like shells there are many authors , which are to be consulted and taken in , if possibly we can understand them treating of the same species . as for rcok-shells in particular , they come in to me in greater numbers , than i could ever have imagined . and i can assure you , that of near 30 species , i have now by me , found in this county alone , not any one can be sampled by any sea , fresh-water or land-snail , that i have , or ever saw . so that you see , i have still good reason to doubt of their original , besides many other arguments that my observations about fossils do afford , and which you may possibly one day see . and that there are the elegant representations of even bivalve-shells , which never ow'd their original to any animal , i can demonstrate ; and think none , that hath considered the thing with me , yet hath denyed : of which hereafter . but whether all be so or no , i choose this method , as the most convincing , viz. to give a comparati e view . some general quaere's concerning land and fresh-water snails . 1. whether there are other shell-snails at land , than turbinate ; 2. whether this kind of insect are truly androgyna , and equally participate of both sexes , as mr. ray first obseru'd ; and whether both them two , which shall be found in the act of venery , do accordingly spawn , or lay those perfectly round and clear eggs so frequently to be met with in the surface of the earth and in the water too ; and the circumstances of those eggs hatching ? 3. whether the way of fatting snails , in use amongst the romans , that is , to make little paved places incircled with water , be not also very expedient in order to the true noting the manner of their generation ? 4. what light the anatomy of this kind of insect may give to the rest ? 5. whether the black spots , observable in the horns of some snails , are eyes , as some authors affirm , and not rather parts equivalent to the antennae of other insect ; as the flat and exceeding thin shape , also the branched horns , in other species of snails seem to confirm ? 6. whether the coccinea snails , which some of our water-snails freely and plentifully yield , be not a saliva rather than an extravasated blood : the like may be thought of the juyce of the purple-fish , now out of use , since the great plenty of cochineil ? 7. in what sort of snails are the stones , mentioned by the antients , to be found ? and whether they are not to be found ( in such as yield them ) at certain times of the year ? and whether they are a cure for a quartan ; or what other real vertues they have ? 8. what medicinal vertues snails may have , as restorative to hectic persons ; and what credit the romans may deserve , counting them , especially the necks of them , highly venereal ; celsus also particularly commending them to be boni succi , and stomacho aptas . 9. also inquire concerning the mechanical uses of the saliva of these animals , as in dying , whitening of wax , hair , &c. cochlearum angliae tabula . cochleae fluviatiles testaceae , seu testis contectae . turbina●ae breviore figurâ , testae apertura clausa operculo è saliva confecto , tantùm ad hyemem . num. iv. operculo testaceo num. i. longiore figurâ , sive buccina , convolutae à dextrâ versus sinistram . num. iv. à sinistrâ versus dextram . num. ii. compressae num. iii. nudae , limaces quibusdam dictae . num. iii. terrestres turbinatae validiore testa , operculo testaceo clausa . num. iii. tenui , pellucid â , semper aperta ; convolutae à siextrâ in sinistram . num. iv. à finistrâ dextram versus . num. i. compressâ testâ , coccum sundentes . n. iii. bivalves , musculi quibusdam dict . num. iii. univalvis , patella dicta . num. i. some observations and experiments made , and in a letter communicated to the publisher , for the r. society . philosophical transactions , n. 10. i shall venture to entertain you at present with a few loose notes , which you will be pleas'd to take in good part , and dispose of them as you think fitting . i. of the efforescence of certain mineral glebes . i keep by me certain big pieces of crude allom-mine , such as it was taken out of the rock . i had also in the same cabinet like peices of the ordinary fire-stone or marcasite of the coal-pits , which here we call brass lumps . in process of time both these glebes shot forth tufts of long and slender fibres or threads ; some of them half an inch long , bended and curled like hairs . in both these glebes , these tufts were in some measure transparnt and crystalline . these tufts did as often repullulate , as they were struck and wiped clean off . herein these fibres differ'd in tast ; the all●minous very allomy and pleasantly pungent ; the vitriolick stiptique and odious . again , the allom-ones , being dissolv'd in fair water , raised a small ebullition ; whereas the vitriolick fibres dissolved quietly . the allom-fibres were generally smaller , and more opaque , snow-like ; the vitriolick larger , many fibres equalling an horse-hair in thickness , and more crystalline . the water , wherein the allom-fibres were dissolv'd did give no red tincture with gall ; not by all the means i could devise to assist them ; whatever hath ( and that with great confidence ) been said to the contrary , by some of the writers of our york-shire spaws : the vitriolick did immediately give a purple tincture with gall. having laid pieces of the same marcasite in a cellar , they were in a few moneths cover'd over with green copperas , which was these fibres shot and perhapps again dissolved by the moist air , clodder'd and run together . exposing other pieces of the same vitriolick glebe in my window , where the sun came , they were cover'd over with a white farinaceous matter , that is , with these fibres calcined by the rays of the sun and warm air , beating upon them . of what figure these fibres were , whether round or angular , i could not well discern . but i take these fibrous and thread-like shootings of allom and vitriol to be most genuine and natural ; and their angular shootings , after solution , into cubes and rhomboides , to be forc't and accidental ; salts of very different natures , as well vegetable as fossile , by a like process in crystallizing of them , being observ'd to shoot into like figures . but this is not my purpose at this time . ii. of an odd figured iris . i have not observ'd any rock or sort of stone , whether metalline or more vulgar , which hath not its different sort of sparr , shot in some part or other of its bed or seams . and these sparrs differ not only in their colours and other accidents , but eminently too in their figure . to pass by divers , which i have collected , i shall describe one of a very curious figure , and which ( though very common in our blew-lime-stone rocks , out of which plently of lead-ore is got , ) yet is not , that i know of , mention'd by any author . these crystals are mostly of a black water , like the black flint in chawk-hills ; but there are of them , which have a purplish or amethystine colour ; and there are as clear as crystal . they adhere to the seams of the rock , be it betwixt bed and bed , or where-ever there are cross and oblique veins through the very substance of the bed . the smaller the veins , the less the iris. you will find of them as small as wheat-corns , and others an hundred times bigger . they shoot from both sides the the seam , and mutually receive one the other . they are figured thus , viz. a column consists of three quin-angular plains , very little rais'd in the middle : these plains too are very unequal . let them hug one another , or be any ways straightned and compressed in their shooting ; yet the number of plains meution'd , both of the column and top , is most certain . the places , where infinite of them may be had , are rainsborough scarr upon the rible ; also in a stone-quarry near eshton tarne in craven . iii. glossopetra tricuspis non-serrata . mr. ray in his travels hath these words concerning the glossopetrae , pag. 115. of the glossopetrae ( saith he ) i have not yet heard , that there have been any found in england ; which i do not a little wonder at , there being sharks frequently taken upon our coasts . i have had out of the isle of shepy in the river of thames , very sharks teeth dug up there ; which could not be said to be petrifi'd ; though , at our first receiving them ; but they were white , and in a short time came to their natural colour . in the stone-quarries in hinderskels-park near malton , i had this stone ( the scheme whereof i send you ; ) the greatest rarity of this kind i ever met with , and which i took out of the rock there my self . it is a fair glossopetra with 3 points , of a black liver-colour , and smooth ; its edges are not serreate ; its basis is ( like the true teeth ) of a rugged substance ; it is carved round , the basis with imbossed work : it hath certain emiuent ridges or lines like rays drawn from the basis to each point . iv. of certain dactili idaei , or the true lapides judaici , for kind found with us . the stones call'd dactili idaei and lapides judaici , are brought over to us from beyond seas in divers shapes ; and some of them are described in authors . we have plenty of them for kind in these parts , as in the stone-qurries at newton near hemsley , and at hellingley by malton . there is some variety in the figure of them here also ; but the most common one in these rocks is after the fashion of a date-stone , round and long , about an inch , and sometime longer . they are a little swelled in the middle , and narrower towards each end : they are channelled the length-way , and upon the ridges knotted or purled all over with small knots , set in a quincunx-order . the inward substance is a white opaque sparr , and breaks smooth like a flint ; not at all hollow in the middle , as are the belemnites : v. of the electrical power of stones in relation to a vegetable rosin . it so hapned , that having occasion in july to view certain fossils , which i had dispos'd of into divers drawers in a cabinet made of barmoudos cedar , i observ'd many of the stones to be thick-cover'd over with a liquid rosin like venice turpentine . examining further , there was not a drawer , wherein there was not some more some fewer stones thus drenched . that this could be no mistake , as from dropping , the bottoms of the drawers are of oak . again , many stones , which were lapped up in papers , were yet wholly infected and cover'd with this rosin . besides , after diligent search there appear'd no manner of exudation in any part of the cabinet . two thing , i thoughts very remarkable : 1. that of the many sorts of stones i therein had , divers escaped , but not any of the haematites-kind ; having therein manganes , scistos , botryides , &c. which were all deeply concern'd . 2. that amongst perhaps 500 pieces , of the astroites here and there one or two in an appartment , and sometimes more , were seised , and the rest dry ; as it fares with people in the time of the plague in one and the same house . i further observed , that stones of a soft and open grain , as well as those of a hard and polish't supeficies , were concern'd in a manner alike . 't is certain , that the whole body of the turpentine of the cedar-wood was carried forth into the air , and floating therein was again condensed into its own proper form upon these stones . this makes it more than probable , that odoriserous bodies emit and spend their very substante . thus camphir is said , if not well secured , totally to fly away . again , it is hence evident , that there is great difference betwixt the distillation of vegetable juyces , and the emission of effluviums or this natural distillation ; that really separating and dividing the substance into different parts ; but this carrying out the whole entirely and un-alter'd in its nature . vi. of the flowers and seed of mushroms . the general received opinion of botanists concerning mushroms is that , which caspar bauhinus in his pinax expresses in these few words , viz. fungi neque plantae , neque radices , neque flores , neque semina sunt ; sed nihil aliud quàm terrae , arborum , lignorum putridorum , aliarumqe , putrilaginum humiditates superfluae . i am of the opinion , that they are plants of their owu kind , and have more than a chance original . we will instance b. the texture of the gills is like a paper prickt full of pin-holes . in august this is very frequent under hedges ▪ and in the middle of the moors in many places of this country . it seems to me ( and , no doubt , it will to any person that shall well examine it , ( that the gills of this mushrom , are the very slower and seeds of this plant. when it is ripe , the gills here are easily seperated from the rest of the head : eech seed is distinct from other , and hath its impression in the head of the mushrom , just as the seeds of an artichoak hath in the bottom of it . the bigger end of the seed is full and round ; and they are disposed in a spiral order just as those of the artichoak . the like we do think of all other mushroms , however differently figured . and if it shall happen to him that shall sow them , that these will not produce their kind , but be steril ; it is no strange thing amongst plants , there being whole genus's of plants that come up , and flower , and seed , and yet their seed was never known to produce plants of their kind , being naturally steril , and a volatil dust , as all the orchides or bee-flowers . we shall not here omit to tell you futher concerning this mushrom , that , when fresh gather'd , it is of a buff-colour inside outside ; and yet , cut through the middle , it will in a moment change from a pale-yellow to a deep purple or blew , and stain linnen accordingly . a drop of the juyce , leisurely squeezed out , will change , holding it betwixt your eye and the light , through all the colours of the rainbow , in the time of its falling , and fix in a purple , as it doth in the springing out of its veins . vii . of the speedy vitrifying of the whole body of antimony by cawk . the several vitrifications of antimony are either opaque or transparent . to the first kind i shall add one , which is in it self very curious , and hath these advantages above the rest , that it is done with great ease and speed ; and by it i have performed some things upon minerals and mettals , which with crude antimony alone i could not effect . take of antimony one pound ; flux it clear : have an ounce or two of the cawk-stone ( by and by to be discribed ) in a lump red-hot in readiness . put it into the crucible to the antimony ; contiune the flux a few minutes ; cast it into a clean and not greased mortar , decanting the melted liquor from the cawk . this process gives us above 15 ounces of vitrum of antimony , like polish't steel , and as bright as the most refined quicksilver . the cawk seems not to be diminish't in its weight , but rather increased ; nor will be brought incorporate with the antimony , though flux't in a strong blast . this cawk-stone is a very odd mineral , and i always looked upon it to be much a kin to the white milky mineral juyces , i formerly sent you a specimen of : and this experiment is demonstrative , that i was not mistaken ; for , the milky juyce of the lead-mines vitrifies the whole body of antimony in like manner . that this vitrification is from the proper nature of cawk , i little doubt ; for , i could never light upon any one mineral substance , which had any such effect upon antimony ; and i have tryed very many lapis calaminars , stone-sulphur ; or sulphur vivum , galactites , sulphur marcasite , allom-glebe , divers sparrs , &c. cawk is a ponderous white stone , found in the lead-mines ; it will draw a white line like chawk or the galactites : and though it be so free yet it is more firm , and hath a smooth and shining grain , sparr-like , yet not at all transparent . of the spirit , it yields by distillation , and the use that may be made of it , for casting of speculums without other mixture , another time . i am , york , novemb. 20. 1674. sir , your , &c. of the astroites , or star-stones jan. 19 1673. sir , you are pleased to tell me , that my notes concerning certain stones figured like plants , found in the mountains of carven , were well received * . this encourages me to give you the trouble of what i have observ'd of the astroites ; which are stones also jointed like the other , but not found , that i know of , in the same rocks . and we must cross the plain country , and seek for them hard under the york-shire woolds : for , what store i could porcure of them , were brought me from bugthorp and leppington . at the fromer place , my self have seen them dugg out of a certain blew clay on the banks a of smal rivulet , betwixt the town and the woolds . there are plenty of them washed into the brook ; but the most fair and solid are those we get out of the clay . i pretend not , to discover to you their original , no more than i did of the entrochi ; but having used some diligence in causing the places , where they are found , to be a little more searched than is usual , i was by that means furnish't with a good quantity of them ; which gave me the opportunity to make the following observations . what light may be hence had , i leave to more judicious persons , acknowledging my self at persent not to be able to demonstrate ( if they are not stones of their own kind , ) what they have been before petrification . it is very little and inconsiderable , what any author , that i have yet seen , hath said of them ; save a very brief description of them in gesner , and the like in wormius ; in the rest , all is transcribed . the matter and substance of these stones , if broken , is flint-like of a dark shining politure ; but much softer , and easily corroded by an acid menstrum . † ( a ) vinegar indeed , makes them creep ; but a stronger spirit , as of niter , tosses them . i doubt not , but they will readily calci●e , as the belemnites , to a very strong and white lime . these stones ( as we now find them ) are all fragments ; as we have noted of the entrochi : either one single joint , or 2 , 3 , or more joints set together , making a pentagonous cylindrical figure or five-sided column . and i have not yet had any piece much above one inch long , which consisted of 18 joints ; but i have seen one piece , somewhat shorter than the former , which had 25 joints . these last thin-jointed pieces are quite of a different make , as to all circumstances , from the other , as will appear . every joint consists of 5 angles , which are either drawn out and sharp , and consquently the sides of these pieces , made up of such joints , are deep-channeled ; ( and this is the condition of some of the thick-jointed pieces , as well as of all the thin-jointed ones ; ) or the angles are blunt and round , and the sides plain or very little hollowed . there are as big , and as smal pieces of this sort , as of any other more sharp-angled ; and therefore i account them a 3d. species of star-stones . and of this sort was , i guess , that piece which wormius describes ; which therefore , he saith , is more like the blown flower of pentaphyllum , than a star. besides , the manner of the engraving of the joints in every one of the 3 respective species is also very different , as will be declared . where the joints are thin or deep , they are so equally throughout the whole piece ; yet there are some , but very few , exceptions to this also , of pieces which consist of joints of the unequal thickness . many of thick-jointed pieces have certain joints a thought broader , or a very litle standing out at the angles , and thereby the joints are distinguish't into certain conjugations of 2 , 3 , or more joints : and these conjugations are very observable in the thin-jointed stones , and are marked out with a sett of wyers ; of which by and by . the thickest piece , which hath yet come to my hands , is not above one inch and a half about , and those very rare too : from which size to that of a smal pin , i have all the intermediat proportions ; and these so exceeding smal pieces are as exactly shaped , as the greatest . most peices , if not all , of any considerable length , are not straight , but visibly bent and inclining . all the pieces of any sort are much of an equal thickness , or but litle tapering ; yet one of the ends , by reason of a top-joint , is visibly the thickest . this top joint hath 5 blunt angles , and is not hatched or engraven , or but very faintly , on the outside . every joint else of a piece ( save the top joint ) is an intaglia , and deedly engraven on both sides alike ; and will accordingly serve for a seal . the middle of each angle is hollow , and the edges of the angles are thick furowed : the terminations of these hatchings are the indented futures , by which the joints are set together ; the ridges of one joint being alternately let into the furrows of the other next it . the hatchings of the flat-sided pieces are in circular lines ; but of the other two species , they are straight lines , or near the matter . in the very center of the 5 angles is a smal hole , conspicuous in most joints . note also , that in the middle of each joint , betwixt angle and angle ; in very future , is another such like smal pin-hole very apparent , if the stones be first well scoured . besides all the former particulars , there may be observ'd , in the deep-jointed pieces , just under the top-joint , above discribed , the vestigia of certain wyers rather than branches ; and sometimes 2 , 3 , or more of the joints of the wyers yet adhering . these wyers are ever five in number , viz. one in the middle or hollow part betwixt angle and angle . again in thin-jointed pieces there are ever five of these wyers , or a sett of them inserted into every conjugation of joints ; so that it were some representation of the thing , to imagine the stalk of asperula or equisetum . also i have seen , but that very rarely , ( not in one peice amongst 500 , ) a sett of wyers in the middle of a deep-jointed piece . one thin-jointed piece i have by me , where a wyer of 20 joints and upwards ( and how much longer they may be , i know not , ) lyes double within the hollow side , and by that accident was preserved in its natural place . further , some lumps of quarry i have from the same place above-nam'd , where the wyers as well as the stones themselves are seen in long pieces . it is no wonder , that these wyers are knocked off , and but very rarely found adhering to the stones they belong to , being very small and slender , of a round figure and smooth-jointed , being sett together per harmoniam and not indented future . nothing that i can think of , is so like these wyers , as the antennae of lobsters . lastly , some of these wyers are knotted , and others of them farely subdivided or branched . i have , by the assistance of mr. lodge , illustrated all these particulars with figures : of which this is the explication ; 1. the top-joint of an astroites , figur'd on both sides ; on the one it is deep engraven , on the other the hatches are scarce visible . also the ends of the 5 angles are very blunt . 2. a second or sharp-angled joint with fair hatchings on both sides . 3. a piece with very narrow and sharp angles . also the top-joint designed , as it naturally appears smooth and without hatchings . 4. a round-angled joint . 5. a flat-sided piece ; where the hatchings are somewhat circular . 6. a thin-jointed piece : where note also , that the angles are much narrower , and of a protracted oval figure . 7. the biggest piece i have yet seen . note also its bending . 8. the smallest piece i have yet met with . 9. the longest piece ; where every 4th joint is a thought bigger or more prominent than the rest ; as in the 7th fig. also is well designed . 10. a large and round-angled or flat-sided piece ; to which belongs that single joint noted fig. 4. 11. a flat or not hollow-sided piece ; of which sort also is the 5th figure : the 10th and 4th not much differing . 12. a thin-jointed piece ; where the conjugations are marked out by the vestigia of the several sets of wyers or branches . 13. a piece where the joints are un-equal in thickness . 14. a piece with some part of the wyers yet adhering in their natural order at the biggest end of the piece . 15. a thin-jointed ; where note on the left side a single wyer accidentally preserved in its natural place , though snapt asunder . 16. a thick-jointed piece with a set of wyrs in the middle of it . 17. a good long piece of a wyer , and a single joint thereof . † ( a ) i have said the same thing above of the entrochi , and it is true of all other stones in small fragments , which vinegar , or a stronger spirit will dissolve : but i neither s●y here nor there ( phi : tran. num. 100 ) that any sort of stone whatsoever will make an ebullition with vinegar , as dr. grew ( musae . r.s. p : 273 ) would have me , and i admire how he could fancy such a thing from my words , which are as plain and fairly limited , as can possiblie be writ : i appeal to the passage . of the vomiting of strange worms , philosophical transactions . numb . 117. a son of mr b. living not far from rippon , about nine years of age , in the month of february ●ast was afflicted with great pain in his stomach , and continual , 〈◊〉 . a powder was given , wherein 〈◊〉 a small quantity of 〈…〉 . he thereupon 〈◊〉 up several strange worms , two of which were brought to me at york , the one dead , the other alive , and which lived many daies after it came to my hands , and might have lived longer , but that i put it into spirit of wine , to preserve in it its true shape . these worms were very catterpillar with fourteen legs , viz. six small pointed , the eight middle stumps , and the thickness of a ducks-quill , thin haired or rather naked , with brown annuli , and a black head . the very same for kind that i have many times seen on plants , and no doubt , these ( as those others ) would in due time ( if the place had not hindered ) have shrunk into chrysalis's , and changed into moths . a letter containing an account of antiquities , &c. philosophical collections . numb . 4. in turning over my papers , i found notes of something i formerly writ to mr. oldenburg , and which i believed was lost ; it being sent much about the time of his death ▪ they relate to certain antiquities , which have , for ought i know , escaped the more curious antiquaries of this and the last age , when that study was much more in credit : but we shall treat of them here only in the relation they may have to the advancement of natural philosophy and arts. 1. roman vrnes are found in very many places throughout the whole kingdom ; but the different workmanship of these vessels , their composition , and places where they made them , have been little that i know of taken notice of by any . i have observed what follows of these matters : here then are found at york , in the road or roman-street without mickle-gate ; and likewise by the river side , where the brick kilns now are , urnes of three different tempers , viz. 1. of a bluish grey colour , having a great quantity of course sand wrought in with the clay . 2. others of the same colour , having either a very fine sand mixt with it full of mica , or catsilver , or made of clay naturally sandy . 3. red urnes of fine clay , with little or no sand in it . these pots are quite throughout of a red colour like fine bole. also many of these red pots are elegantly adorned with figures in basso relievo , and usually the workmans name , which i think others have mistaken [ burtons c. ant. it. p. 183 , 230. ] for the persons name buried therein , upon the bottom or cover ; as januarius and such like ; but that very name i have seen upon several red pots , found both here and at aldborough . after all , these are glazed inside and outside with a kind of varnish of a bright coral colour . the composition of the first sort of pots , did first give me occasion to discover the places where they were made : the one about the midway betwixt wilbersosse and barnbie on the more , six miles from york in the sand-hills , or rising grounds , where now the warren is . the other roman pottery on the sand-hills at santon , not far off brigg in lincolnshire , in the first place i have found widely up and down broken pieces of urnes , slagg , and cinders . at the latter place there are yet remaining , ( though it is a moveable sand , and burried every way by the wind , and has by that means covered the places all over ) some of the very furnaces ; whose ruins i take to be some of those metae or sandy hillocks . besides here are many pieces of pots and urnes of different shapes , and much slagg and cinders ; this potterie having taken up much ground , as to one that shall diligently view the place , it will appear . 't is remarkable , that both the above mentioned potteries are within less than a mile of the roman road , or military-high-way . nothing is remembred in either of those places , of any pottery that was known in those parts , nor indeed could i learn where any good clay for that purpose was to be had near those sands : which yet our modern potteries chiefly seek after , which has made them to be forgotten and disused ; the materials of our modern pots being much altered , and consequently the places . the roman urns above discribed differ in these particulars , from what pots are now usually made amongst us . ( 1 ) that they are without all manner of glazing with lead , which perhaps is a modern invention . ( 2. ) that a far greater quantity of sand is used than clay , which thing alone made it worth their while , to bring their clay to the sand-hills . ( 3 ) that they were baked either with more leisure after long and through drying , or immoderate contact of the flames : which i am induced to believe , because there seem to be fragments of such things to be found . 't is certain the natural colour of the clay is not altered by burning : so that both the degrees of heat and manner of burning might be different . and one of these potsherds as i have tried , baked over again in our ovens , will become red . as to the two last kind of urns , its likely the first of them with their particles of mica in it , were made of a sandy blue clay , of which nature there is good plenty among the western mountains of yorkshire , and particularly at carleton in oatley parish not far off ickley a roman station . the red urns seem to have been their master-piece , wherein they shewed the greatest art , and seemed to glory most , and to eternize their names on them . i have seen great varieties of embossed work on them . and lastly for the elegant manner of glazing , it is far ●eater indeed , and more durable than our modern way of leading , which is apt to crack and crase , both with wet and heat : and at the fire is certainly unwholsome , by reason of the fumes lead usually emits , being a quick vaporable metal . this ancient glazing seems to have been done by the brush , or dipping ; for both inside as well as outside of the urn are glazed , and that before the baking . and something of the materials of it seems to be remembred by pliny lib. 36. c. 19. fictilia ex bitumine inscripta non delentur . the painting of pots with bitumen is indelible . and again , tingi solidas exbi●umine statuas . lib. 35. c. 15. the bitumen he sayes sinks into the very stones and pots , which is something more tha● glazing . the great plenty of these urns found in many parts of england seems to argue them also of english manufacture , but where i cannot guess , unless wrought at the bole mines ( of which clay alone they seem to be made ) in cleveland ; for that that barren tract of land , called blackmoor , was well known to the romans , the jet rings taken up withthese vrns doth sufficiently testifie . now bole and jet are no where that i know of to be found with us in england but in that tract ; beings fossils peculiar to those mountains . of these jet rings some are plain , and others wrought , but all of them of an extraordinary bigness , being at least three inches diameter , and yet the inward bore is not above an inch and an half , which makes them too little for the wrists of any man , as they are much too big for the fingers , so that probably they were never worn either as armilla or anuli . one of each sort i have by me , which i carefully redeemed of the workman , besides many others which were broken , found about a sort of urns in york fields . and since we are upon the subject of plasticks , or the roman clay-work , we cannot but take notice of the opinion of cambden ; who will have the obelisks at burrow-briggs in this county artificial , when in truth they are nothing less , being made of a course rag , or milstone-grit ; but without doubt , the bigness of the stone surprized him , either not thinking them portable , or perhaps not any english rock , fit to yield natural stones of that magnitude : but roman monuments i suppose none doubt them , because pitched here by a very remarkable and known roman station , isurium . also two roman alters i have seen of this stone ; one the original of that at ickley mentioned in cambden ; another in the possession of that ingenious antiquary mr. thirsby late of leeds . and this i think sufficient to disprove that mistake of cambden , that the stones at burrow-briggs are artificial . there is but one only instance that i ever yet met with of the romans ever having used in these parts of england any other sort of stone ; yet is it not the common lime stone , but a certain stone had from the quarries about malton , because of the lapides judaici , by me formerly described to be seen in the texture of it . it is small but elegant alter with figures in basso relievo , of sacrificing instruments , &c. it has suffered an unlucky accident by the stupid ignorance of the masons , who were ordered by the late lord fairfax to place it upon a pedestal in the court of his house at york . yet the inscription which they had miserably defaced , was by chance preserved . i. o. m. dis . deabus que hospitalibus . pe natibus que ob conservatam salvtem suam . suorvm que p. ael . marcian us . praef . coh aram. sac . f. nc . d. an account of a monstrous animal cast out of the stomach by vomit ; phi : coll. num. 6. sir , i send you ( here inclosed ) the true and exact shape of a worm , which a man vomited up here the last week . i found it my self in the blood , which came up with it , having caused it to be washt for the more careful examination of it , much of the blood , being clods of a kind of skinny and fleshy substance , haud alitèr , quàm in mulierum molis excernendis accidere solet . of this kind of blood there was about two pound weight saved in the washing , and this odd animal amongst it ; which was easily discovered by me , being of a dark green colour like a horse-leech , and spotted not unlike some of them . i could perceive ( when i fouud it ) no life or motion it had ; the girle that washed the blood having almost beaten off a finn , and part of one of the forks of the tail ; and burst the belly of it ; yet it was curiously and regularly shaped in all its members , as is fully exprest by the pains of a most excellent artist , who limmed it by the thing it self , not two hours after i had it under my eye , that nothing might be added , but what was very true and natural . the spirit of wine in which i put it , has altogether changed it as to its colour : but yet it still remains perfect enough to satisfie any curious person . this honest man , a baker , imagined he drank it the last summer in pond water ; of which he was used to drink after sore labour in his calling . this is certain , he had about his stomach and right side a most exquisite and tormenting pain , for at least four months last past ; which many times threw him into horrours and chillness , ague-like ; and indeed when he vomited this up , he was the sickest-man i ever saw not to dye : he also voided blood by stool several dayes also , and now i do believe , he will recover , although his pains are not wholly ceased . to say what this creature is , i dare scarce venture . you know how long i have made it my diversion to search into the nature of in●ects , and it is no small progress i have made therein , yet i am at a loss where to place this animal ; for that it is not like any thing i ever yet saw in nature : however it makes me give more credit than i did to several stories of a like nature which we frequently meet with in medical history , and those recorded as very truths by sober , learned and industrious persons . but though i now believe there was much truth in most of them , yet i fear little care was taken to describe exactly the animals , otherwise than by memory , either in respect of the words or painting , which has gone a great way in rendring all such stories useless and and ridiculous . this animal was about four inches long , and in the thickest place three inches about ; it had three finns of a side , all near the head , and the upper pair most exactly and elegantly figured , as is described ; all these finns were thick and fleshy : but the forked tail was finny and transparent , and to be extended ; it was placed horizontally , not as that of most , ( if not all ) small fish , and even neuts and tadpoles or froggs in disguise , in which particular it differs from them all , as well as in the fleshiness of the finns . besides this odd animal i found the head of another of a different shape , as is exprest ; but of a dark green colour also as the other : the body of it had not been lost , or this other so ill treated , if i had expected to have found , what we never looked for . but what shall we say this monster was ? give me leave to speak my mind without prejudice , and with submission to the better sentiments of the honourable and learned society : i am apt to think ( and i believe few will deny it me ) that we often drink and eat what is alive ; and it is certain some things will live on in our stomacks in despight of concoction ; not to instance in the many sorts of gut-worms natural to us , and which are bred with us , perhaps in some children even before they are born ; these worms i say , do freely wander up and down the guts and stomach at pleasure , and receive no prejudice from the concoctive faculty of them : and for this reason we see insectivorous birds so solicitous to kill worms and all other sorts of insects , by drawing them again and again through their bills as canes through a sugar-mill , that they may be verliy dead before they swallowed them , and instinct is the great wisdom of undebauched nature : again , admirable instances there are of animals living within animals ; of which in the insect kind , the royal society shall ere long receive some notes of mine upon godartius . and yet i am of the mind that what was accidentally swallowed by us alive , and that shall have the power to live on within us , ( especially if it shall be young and tender , and yet growing ) may have its designed form and shape monstrously perverted , so as to appear to us quite another thing than naturally and really it is ; and this i take to be the case of this odd creature , the present subject of our discourse : and so this might have been the spawn or embryo of a toad or neut . but we must also account for the much fleshy substance or shinny lumps of blood vomited up with it , which i think easily intelligible thus ; that that spawn or embryo of a toad or neut might well venome the stomach or gut , in which part soever or wrinkle thereof it chanced first to rest or stick , and cause an inflammation there , and so have it self swelled aud closed up within a tumour of its own making , which in process of time might gather to this bigness , and at length burst in pieces and come up together . familiar and infinite instances of this nature , we see in by-fruits or wens which insects raise upon vegetables ; which by natural instinct know how to invenome a plant , and so compondiously to provide both food and housing for their young . york , march 1681. an account of a roman monument found in the bishoprick of durham , and of some roman antiquities at york , phil. tran. n. 145. i have with much trouble got into my hands a piece of roman antiquity , which was but a very few years ago discovered upon the south bank of the river tine , near the sheilds in bishoprick . it is a very large and fair roman alter of one entire stone . but after all my cost and pains , i am sorry to find the inscription very ill defaced , that much of it is not legible . and i believe it hath been mis-handled by those who endeavoured to read it ; whereas if the remainder of the letters had been exactly measured , and the face blackt and lightly washt off again , as in prints , some things more might have been spelled . as to the nature of the stone it self , it is of a course rag , the same of that with that of the pyramids at burrow-briggs . it is 4 foot high , and was ascended to by steps , which appeareth , in that all the sides , but the front , have two square holes neare the bottome , which let-in the irons that joyn'd it to the steps . i have carefully described it in all it's sides , and have given the plane of the top also ; which if you please we will survey in order . 1. the back-side , opposite to the inscription ; on which is ingraven in basse-reliefe , a flower pot furnished , i suppose with what pleased the stone-cutter , for these men need not to be more curious than the priests themselves , who were wont to make use of the herbs next hand to adorne the alters . and therefore verbenae is put for any kind of herb. yet if we will have it resemble any thing with us , i think it is most like , if not truly nymphaea , a known and common river plant. 2. one of the sides , which is somewhat narrower than the front or back : on this are engraved in bass-relieve , the cutting-knife ( cesespita ) and the ax ( securis ) . the knife is exactly the same with that on the other alter formerly by me mentioned in the philosophical collections of mr. hook ; but the ax is different ; for here it is headed with a long and crooked point , and there the head of the ax is divided into 3 points . 3. the other side ; on which are engraved after the same manner an eure ( vrceolus ) and a ladle , which serve for a sympullum . this i call rather a ladle , than a mallet , it being perfectly dish-wise and hollow in the middle , altho camden is of an other opinion in that elegant sculpt of the cumberland alter , and the very same utensil i have seen and noted on the ickley altar , which is yet extant at middleton grange near that town ; but the stone which cambden saies supports a pair of stairs there ( as at this day it does in the very road ) is but an ill copy of it , and not the original . 4. the plane of the top ; which is cut in the figure of a bason ( discus or lanx , ) with ansae on each side , consisting of a pair of links of a chain , which rest upon , and fall over two rowles ; and this was the harth . 5. the front ; which hath an inscription of nine lines in roman letters , each letter a very little more than two inches deep of our measure ; now remaining as in the prefixt sculpture , fig. 5. which i would read thus , dis deabusque matribus pro salute m. aurelii antonini augusti imperatoris — votum solvit lubens meritò ob reditum . the deae matres are well interpretted by selden . it is much his safety and return both vowed , should be so seperated in the inscription ; but i have not gr●er by me to compare this with the like . caracalla say the historians * after his fathers death at york , took upon him the command of the army alone , and the whole empire ; he went alone against the enemie , who were the caledonij inhabiting beyond the wall , which his father had built , he made peace with them , received their hostages , slighted their fortified places , and returned . and this seems to be confirmed by the inscription ; for undoubtedly upon this his last expedition of him alone , without his brother geta and mother , was this altar erected to him alone , at a place about two stations on this side the wall. so that the vow might be as well understood of his return from this expedition , as for his safetie and return to rome ; which mi-thinks should be true , or his mother and brother geta would scarce have been left out , at least so early . for yet the army declared for them both , according to their fathers will. further , it seems also to have been erected by those who flatter'd him , and who were afterwards killed by him ; and for this reason the persons names , who dedicated it , seem to me to be purposely defaced , the 6 and 7th lines of the inscription being designedly cut away by the hollowness of them , and there not being the least sign of any letter remaining , and this i suppose might be part of their disgrace , as it was usual to deface and break the statutes and monuments of persons executed , of which this monster made strange havoc . but since worn inscriptions admit of various readings , because some letters are worn out , and some more legible , whereby not prejudiced people may conceive them diversly , i will therefore tell you an other reading of part of the two first lines , which i do not disallow , but that it will agree well enough with the history of severus , tho his apotheosis , or solemn deification , was not performed till he came to rome , in the manner of which funeral pomp herodian is very large ; it was of that excellent antiquarie dr. johnson of pomfret conservato ri. b. pros &c. the rest as follows in mine , which shews the hight of flattery of those times . so that they paid their vowes to the lately dead father the conservator of britain , for the safety of the son ; and the story tells us how gladly he would have had him made a god long before , even with his own hand . i think it not amiss , if i give you the rest of my observations concerning these matters , which i have met with in this city . 1. a large pedestal of the same sort of stone , found deep in the ground , on the west side of the river , which by the stone , and its mouldings , was undoubtedly roman , and must have been for a pillar in some large building . 2. a broken inscription in the church-wall in all-saints north-street , with the figure of a naked woman in bass-relieve on the left side of it . the letters ( as many of them as remain ) are exceeding fairly cut , beyond any thing i have yet seen of roman antiquities in england , and the stone of a finer grain than ordinary . it is a monument of conjugal affection . --- -- ae ❧ an - s ❧ sec ❧ -- ene - i ❧ a o - co vgi the first stroak is the out-side of a great m , and is part of the dis manibus . the three last lines may be read thus , benè merenti antonio conjugi : yet it is hard to say , whether it was for the husband or wife , for it may be read antoniae . the points also betwixt the words are here very singular , but this was the caprice of the stone-cutter , who sometimes also use a leaf , hanging or erect , a hand , a feather , or such odd fancy for points . 2. a relation of a man biten with a mad dog , and dying of the disease called hydrophobia : philosophical trausactions . n. 147. i have formerly entertained the r. s. with odd cases in phisick ; as the stone cut from under the tongue of a man ; of lumbrici teretes found in the ancle of a child ; of a monsterous worm vomited , &c. and i therefore think by the kind acceptance of those , this i am about to relate of a man bit with a mad dog , and dying of the disease called hydraphobia , will be wellcome . it is by gods providence that it is a rare case , for gallen calls it omnium morborum pessimus : and since it is in that great physitians opinion the worst of diseases , it is an extraordinary blessing to mankind that it happens so rarely ; especially if we consider how infinitly fond we are of so poisonous a creature , and what vast numbrs we keep out of meer wantonness and pleasure more then any real use or service they can do us . james corton , a very strong and well built youg man , was bit with a mad dog in the right hand , the wound heal'd of it self , and the thing was forgotten by himself and wife ; but as he said ( after the disease of aquae pauor had seiz'd him , and that it was given him by me as a reason of his not drinking ) he told his wife he wondred why the dog , which used to be so familiar mith him , should then bite him . but this was all forgot ; and after about five or six weeks he complains of pain all over his bones , but especially his back and round about his stomack , looks very pale , hollow eyed , &c. the third day after this complaint , viz , sunday in the evening march 11 th . 1682 , he called for burnt brandy , drank it , went to bed , and vomited it up ; after this he had a restless night , and in the morning found himself very ill , with a strange rising in his stomack , and though no thirst , yet an impotence to drink , and even to swallow his spittle , which was death to him as he often said . diascordium and a bottle of cordial water was brought to him by an apothecary that morning , the diascordium he took , but was not able to drink of the cordial one spooufull . this on munday morning ; about one a clock that day i first saw him , and found him upon this bed , his pulse very slow , and sometimes unequal , but not unless frighted from the rising of his stomack ; his flesh cold , his tongue not dry , but flexable and moist , a little white . i caused him to rise off the bed , and set him full in the light ; and then because he mightily complained of i know not what sickness about his stomack , i offered him of the cordial , but he started , and trembled at the approch of it . this i exceedingly admired , whereof i called for a glass of wine or water , and a tumbler of water was brovght me up , which i gave him to drink ; but he vehemently startled at it , and his stomack swell'd and rise , after i knew not what odd and strange manner ; and i could then find his pulse very trembling and disturbed . i still urged him to drink ; but as i put it forwards to his mouth , he the more affrighted drew back his head , and sighed , and eyed it with a most gashly look , not without screeking and noise . this i most mightily admired , and was at a great loss what should be the cause of this strange symtom , when at length it providentially came into my minde , that this was aquae pavor ; and then i tryed him again and again to drink ; and found him more disordered at the sight , especially at the drink . wherefore i ask't his mother in law and the maid , who stood about him , where the wound was he last had had ; at which question they seemed concerned , and replyed , they wondred what i meant . i then told them he had been bitten by a dog ; it is true ( he said all in a fright , ) i was bit by such a neighbour's dog , about five or six weeks ago , here in my hand , but it has been long well . i then bid him lye down , and so left him , calling his wife and mother and friends to me below stares , and telling them that he would certainly dye , that there was but small hopes of his recovery , it being too late ; that none should be suffered to go to him but keepers , some strong man or two , &c. i forthwith ordred a vein to be opened in the arm which was bit , caused the wound to be scarified and drawn with vesicatories , and the same plaister to be applyed unto the neck and leggs and the inside of the arms ; i ordered the usual and famed antidotes to be given him as of theriaca , cinis cancorum , ruta , agaricus , &c. in bolus's . for it is to be noted , that solid things in a spoon he could take , but yet not without much trembling , and fear , and caution , and an earnest request that no body would suddenly offer them to him , but give them into his hand gently ; and then he would by degrees steal his hand softly towards his mouth , and of a suddain chop the spoon in and swallow what was in it , velut canis ad offam ; and this he did more greedily and readily then any other man could do . of these antidotes in bolus he took a dram every hour , and alwayes in this manner , for at least a dozen times taking ; and every like drink was profferred him in the night , but he could not see it without horrour , and the same motions from his stomack . nay he did affirm that as oft as he by chance swallowed any spittle it went to his heart , even as tho he should dy that very moment . this night passed wholy without any sleep or rest . tuesday morning i viewed his blood , which was both to the serum and cake well coloured , and in such proportion as is usual in healthful persons , and of good consistance . he had now a violent feavour upon him , and a very quick pulse . water was offered him by my order , but in vaine ; he begging he might dye unmolested , nothing being such a terror to him as the approach of any drink ; and that none might come suddenly upon him , or offer him any thing more , for all things frighted him ; and that he found he must shortly dye , for that his heart began to faile him ; and indeed he look'd exceeding pale and hollow and thin visag'd . i then with much difficulty perswaded him to cast himself cross the bed upon his belly ( for he had his cloaths loosely about him ) hanging his head over the other side ; perswading my self that this posture might be advantagious to his drinking , since that in the erect posture of a man he could not so much as endure the approach of liquor . in this posture then of a dog , he suffered a large bowl filled with small beer to be brought under his head , and imbracing it with raptures of joy , he declared he was infinitely refreshed with the smell of it ; that he now saw it with delight , and assured us he should be able soon to drink it all off . and he that now thought himself a dying man talked pleasantly , and said many passionate things to his brother , wife , &c. wonderfully extolling this invention , and thanking me for it . he endeavoured with great earnestness to put down his head to it , but could not ; his stomack rise as often as he opened his lips ; at length he put out his tongue and made towards it as tho he would lap ; but ever as his tongue never so little touched the surface of the beer , he started back affrighted . and yet all this while was pleased with the thoughts of drinking ; and would not suffer the maid servant to take it away from nuder his head ; and if she did a little withdraw it , he said he followed it by the smell with delight , snuffing with his nostrils . after a long time being mightily foiled , he alleadged that the faint smell of the small beer hindered him from drinking , and therefore desired a bowl of ale ; which was brought him ; but after much striving , and exerting his tongue a thousand times , he could not drink of it ; and lapping with great affrights , as oft as his tongue touched it he started back with his head , bringing it down again gently to the bowl a hundred times , but all in vain . and in this posture , what upon his belly and what upon his hands and knees , he kept himself at least an hour thus tantilizing himself ; but it was not in his power to drink . we than gave him a quill which consisted of two or three joints , the one end in his mouth and the other in the liquor ; but he could not manage it , nor suck no more than a dog. i perswaded him to give all over and lye down ; which he did ; and not long after my going away , he fell into a convulsion fit , bit and snarl'd and catch'd at every body , and foamed at the mouth . after this was over he took an elleborism in a bolus , which was taken like the rest , and very willingly by him ; it wrought about 3 or 4 times very plentifully , and he declared himself wonderfully at ease by it ; but yet now and then fell convulsed , and then always insensible . after four hours i returned to him again , and found the minister with him ; he talked very sensibly to him , prayed very earnestly with him , saying the prayers after him , and desired the sacrament , which in these cirumstances could not be given . he was again solicited to drink , and he now readily enough put himself into the former posture , and with as much earnestness as ever used all the little shifts to drink , while the bowl was under his head ; but all in vain . he had a little silver tumbler fill'd with drink put into his hands , which suddainly , when he had as it were stolen it near his mouth , he would have thrown it into his throat , as he did the bolus's , but it hit against his teeth & fell into the bowl . i cannot say he ever went to stool or made water all this time , and therefore had a glyster given him ; but upon parting with it , which he did immediatly almost as soon as given , he died convulsed : but his not making water , as well as a troublesome priapisme which he complained of , when upon his knees , might proceed from the blistering plaisters , as well as from his disease . that nothing may be omitted which relates to this case ; the day after his interment i accidentlly met with his cozen mrs. s. who told me that her daughter was in fear , for just that very day fornight before his death she had been at his house , and he would go home with her to her mothers ; that she remembred his hand trembled and his body shake'd , that he was in a cold sweat , and in a great disorder , so that she asked him what he ail'd : he told her , that after his work ( for he was an upholster ) it had been of late usual with him : and which was remarkable the very dog which bit him came at that time along with him to her mothers house ; and was alive and well at the mans death . to this we add that mr. widdow a mercer doth affirm , that about the very time that mr. corton was thought to be bit with suttons dog , a black dog , which he verily believes to be the same , came and bit a whelp of his in his shop . the next day the whelp ran mad up and down the house , and bit both him and the maid ; him in the hand , and the maid in the leg , and dyed that very day . about a month after he was bit he found himself not well , and was troubled with a pain at his heart , and had a fearfulness and trembling upon him , and got no rest for three nights , upon which he had had himself blooded , and found himself better ; his maid doth not yet complain of any harm . thus far for matter of fact , delivered with care in all circumstances that came to my knowledge . it is very hard to give a probable reason of this aquae pavor : what galen ( de theriaca ) says of their much coveting water , because of the intollerable thirst upon them , agrees not with our case . for this man was neither thirsty nor distracted , as he would have them ; he was all the time in his witts , did very well consider , and rationally discourse of the thing , and exceedingly admired at the impossibility of his drinking : was well satisfied with the minister who told him of his incapacity of the receiving the cup in the sacrament ; and did often say he was not thirsty , which appeared by the moisture and flexibility of his tongue , ( even after his taking many hot and piperate antidotes , ) for this was by me even to the last carefully viewed . besides , those who are very thirsty , and distracted in the most violent feavers , do not only drink readily enough without dread ; but on the contrary have an exceeding greedy appetite to it . nor can i well understand what julius palmarius ( de morbis contagiosis ) means by the third paroxism of an hydrophobia , before which he would have his never failing antidote to be given , which our dispensatory calls pulvis antilissus ; i suspect he took the disease , as he ownes he did the medicine , upon trust ; indeed it seems to me not to have many things in it of the nature of antidotes . this our man certainly had the disease of aquae pavor upon him continually from the first moment to his death , which was near 48 hours without any intermission ; for as oft as drink was shewed him , or he swallowed his own spittle , his disturbance was most grievous and terrible . dioscorides in this ( as in all things else he treats of ) is most sober , and to be credited ; quidam , qui jam aquae metum sentirent , sumpto helleboro , simul ac primum morbi impetum experirentur , sanati sunt : nam & jam vitio tentatos nemo unquam servare potest . this very well agrees with out case ; the latter person who had a sense of the evil , had it prevented by bleeding ; but our man which had the evil ; that is the aquae pavor upon him , not bleeding , or the most famed antidotes , or even hellebore could in the least save , tho not very untimely given him . the case indeed rarely occurs , and therefore cannot well be observed in all due circumstances in order to its clearer understanding , and consequently cure ; we shall venter however to lay down some few things to salve it by . first , that j. corton had some of the organic parts of his body transformed into , or affected after the nature of a dog , especially the gula , tongue so that what was offer'd to him in the erect posture of a man was very frightful , as well as difficult for him to take , because against his new nature , as much as it would be for us to get a dog to drink standing upon his hinder legs . but yet this is not all , for when he was turned upon his belly , and would have acted the dog , he yet could not drink ; and tho' he frequently put out his tongue and lapt , yet he could not endure to take any thing into his mouth of liquor , as tho something had hindred him within . therefore we may imagine he was also convulsed in those parts , or swelled : but this we cannot grant , for the contrary does plainly appear , because he could cast any thing into his mouth and swallow it ; as he did very many times stif bolus's , more nimbly , as to the swallow , then any man reasonably could be supposed to do , that was so weakened : for i saw no difference betwixt those he swallowed an hour or two before his death , and the very first he took . secondly , that his spittle was envenomed ; for as oft as he swallowed it , ( his stomack vehemently abhorring it ) it went to his heart ( as we say ) , and was even present death to him ; and so liquid things coming nearer to the consistance of spittle might the rather movere salivam , and therefore gave him a greater terror and difficulty to swallow , then solid things . and that his spittle chiefly was infected with the venome of the dog , seems also . 1. because the dog bit him , whose spittle alone to be venomous to the touch a there are many credible instances in medical history . 2. he was most like a dog in the mouth , viz. where are the proper organs of the saliva . 3. the bite of a man so bitten is alike in●●ctions ; but otherwise innocent . but it may be askt how comes it to infect his spittle , and not other humors and the blood . i answer , the blood in part was undoubtedly affected , as the symptoms arising before the aquae pavor ( which yet is the onely true pathogmonick ●f the disease ) demonstrate . again the blood is not one liquor ( as is generally thought ) , but many distinct liquors circulated together in one set of common vessels ; and so it might infect that liquor , which it was most a kin to , as the saliva of a dog to the saliva of a man. concerning the truth of that proposition , i have formerly writ some things to you ; and more i intend to entertain you with ; you will excuse me at present if i do not think it convenient to anticipate my papers . york , march 26. 1683. an account of part of a wall , built in the romans time. i carefully viewing the antiquities of york , and particularly what might relate to the roman empire ; of which this place had been a seat , and the dwelling of at the least two of the emperors , severus and constantine , i found a part of a wall , yet standing , which is undoutedly of that time ; it is the south wall of the mint-yard , being formerly an hospitall of s t. lowrance , looking towards the river ; it consists of a multangular tower , which did lead to bootham-bar , and about — yards of wall , which ran the length of conning-street : as he who shall attentively view it on both sides may discerne . but the outside towards the river is most worth taking notice of , it is faced with a very small saxum quadratum of about four inches thick , and laid in levells like our moderne brick-work : this sort of building vitruvius ( lib. 2. cap. 9. ) calls after the greekes , iso domum , cum omnia coria aequá crassitudine fuerint , structa ; but the length of the stones is not observed , but are as they fell out in hewing ; from the foundation twenty courses of this small squared stone are layd ; and over them five courses of roman bricks ; these bricks some of them are layed length-waies , and some end-waies in the wall ; and were called lateres diatoni . after these five courses of bricks , other twenty two courses of small square stones , as before described , are laid , which raise the wall 3 foot higher ; and then five more courses of the same roman brick are over laide ; beyond which the wall is imperfect and capt with modern building . note that in all this height there is no casement or loopehole , but one intire and uniforme wall ; from which we guess the wall to have been built some courses higher after the same order . the reason of this order of brick-worke intermixt with stone the same vitruius gives , and in this particular the romans after his time , and upon his admonition , and recommendation , in all probability , did imitate the greeks . longitudines coriorum ( saies he ) alternis coagmentis in crassitudinem instruentes , and a little further ; inter ponunt singulos perpetua crassitudine utraque parte frontatos ( latcres ) quos diatonos appellant , qui maximè religando confirmant parietum soliditatem ; these bricks were to be as throughs , or as it were so many new foundations to that which was to be superstructed ; and to bind the two sides together firmly ; for the wall it self is only faced with small square stones ; and the middle thereof filled with morter and pebles ; frentibus serviunt ( saith the same author ) & medio farciunt ; which vitruvius discomends in the romans of his time ; and therefore the later romans ( the builders of our wall ) did , as i said , correct this errour , and the greeks . and least it should seem strange , that bricks should give a firmness to stone buildings , the same vitruvius testifies , and therefore commends brick building before stone ( our men indeed , for wholesomeness , which also is true , and to be much considered in a cold and moist climate ) even for the duration ; and therefore in rome abatement was ever made for the use of sone building , none for that of brick , provide it kept its level and stood upright upon its foundation ; and therefore to excuse it he at large gives a relation why the romans , suffered not brick buildings to be made within the city of rome ; as a thing not of choice , but necessity . those brick buildings being certainly in that great architects opinion to be preferred , the law ( sayes he ) suffers not a wall to be made to the street ward ( for so give me leave to interpret communi loco ) above a foot and a halfe thick , and partition walls the same , least they should take up too much rome . now brick walls of a foot and a halfe thick , ( unless they were diplinthij , or triplinthij ) , cannot bear up above one story ; but in so vast and majestic a city ( as old rome ) there ought to be innumerable habitations ; therefore when a plain area , or building of one story could not receive such a multitude to dwell in the city , therefore the thing it self did compell them to it , that the houses might be raised higher , and therefore they had strange contrivances of out jetting , and over hanging stories , and belconies , &c. which reasons if rightly considered are great mistakes ; our men at this day have taught the world better things ; and have demonstrated that a firm building may be raised to many stories heighth upon a foot and a half thick wall . the oversight of the romans was the vast bigness of their bricks ; for the lesser the brick the firmer the worke , there being much greater firmness in a multitude of angles , as must be produced by small brick , then in a right line ; and this is the reason of the strength of butresses , and mult-angular towers , &c. these bricks are about 17 inches of our measure long and about 11 inches broad , and two inches and a half thick . this , ( hauing caused severall of them to be carefully measured ) i give in round numbers , and do find them very well to agree with the notion of the roman foot , which the learned antiquary greaves has left us , viz. of its being of halfe an inch less then ours ; they seem to have shrunk in the baking more in the bredth then in the length ; which is but reasonable , because of its easier yeelding that way ; and so , for the same reason , more in the thickness , for we suppose them to have been designed in the mould for three roman inches . now that this was properly the roman brick , we have the testimony of vitruvius , and pliny : of vitruvius , " fiunt laterum tria genera ; unum quod grece didoron appellatur , quo nostri utuntur , &c. " and of pliny ; " genera eorum tria didoron , quo vtimur longum sesquipede , latum pede ; " but we are to note , that the coppy of vitruvius , where it describes the measure of the didoron is vicious . and is to be corrected by pliny ; and had not vitruvius's commentatour been more a friend to his author , than to truth , he had not perswaded the contrary ; for the bricks themselves do demonstrate at this day plinie's measures to be right and not that of vitruvius , as they are extant : which makes me much wonder at the confidence of daniel barbarus affirming the bricks , now to be found are all according to vitruvius and not plinte's measures ; for all that i have yet seen with us in england , are of plinie's measures ; as at leister in the rome ruine there , called the jews walls ; at s t. albons , as i remember ; and here with us at york . and to goe no farther for arguments , than that chap. of vitruvius , the diplinthij parietes in rome were against law , and the single brick-wall was only allowed as standards ; viz. a foot and a halfe thick wall , or one roman brick a length , as was above noted . pliny , lived some time after vitruvius , and being a professed transcriber , and , as it appears from this very place , having taken the whole business of brick verbatim out of him and not differing in any one thing in the whole chapter , but in this ; viz. in the measure of the didoron ; and the bricks demonstrating the truth of that differance , it is but reasonable we should make vitru●ius's longum pede , latum semipede , a fault of vitruvius's coppiers . i shall conclude this differance with this remark : that proportion and a plaine uniformitie , even in the minutest parts of building , is to be observed , as this miseserable ruin of roman workman-ship shews : in our gothic buildings there is a totall neglect of the measure and proportion of the courses , as tho that was not much materiall to the beauty of the whole , whereas , indeed , in natures works , it is from the symmetrie of the very graine , whence ariseth much of the beauty of the thing . indeed , if i was never to come nearer a building , and to view it alwayes at such a distance , this might be excused as to me ; and so in artificiall things , as in pictures , and carvings to be seen on high : but yet in my opinion 't is but an excuse of laziness to tell me such and such rude dashes will have a marvelous effect at a distance ; as though things painted or carved to addorn our comparatively low roomes were distanced . and this noble art , in my opinion , has of late in nothing suffered so much with us as in admitting of this vile ( not to say impudent ) excuse , whereas indeed , what is well done and most exactly finished in the most minute parts of a thing painted ? i am sure if it pleaseth me near the eye , it will never displease me at a distance . 25 cochlea terrestris turbinata et striata fab col. 14. buccinum exiguum fasciatum et radiatum . gall nar . aldernensi insula . a. wallia floid . 39 buccinum exiguum pullum duodecim orbium . 46. cochlea cinereo rufescens fasciata leuiter umbilicata . pomatia gesneri cochlen pomatia , edulis gesneri . 47 cochlea hortensis nostra , fusca , maculata , et fasciata . 43 cochlea maculala , unica fascia fusca , per medium orbem insignita . 54. cochlea interdum unicolor , interdum uariegata , item uarijs fascijs depicta . 68. cochlea nostras umbilicata pulla . 78. cochlea compressa , umbilicata , fasciata compestris . 79. cochlea subfusca umbilicata , clauicula modicè producta . a a gall. nar. 56. cochlea alba leuiter umbilicata pluribus fascis circumdata , clauicula productiore . hisp gall. narb . cochleae nudae terrestres limaces quibusdam dicta ' . 101. limax paruus , cineteus 102. limax ater , 103. limax subrufus . 104. limax uanegatus , siue fascialus , cellarius . limax , succini colore , albidis maculis insignitus . 26. cochlea vivipara fasciata . fluviatilis . 32. cochlea papua , pellucida , operculo testacco ; cochleatoque clausa . an idem cum 21. 21. buccinum subflauum , pellucidum , sex orbium , clauicula admodum tenui , productiore . 22. buccinum subflauum pellucidum quatuor orbium , ore amplisimo mucrone acuto . 23. buccinum subflauum , pellucidum , trium orbium purpurae lacustres coccum fundentes . 41 cochlea pulla quatuor orbium . 42. cochlea fusca limbo circum scripta . 43. cochlea exigua , quinque orbium . 38. nerites fluviatilis è. coeruleo uirescens , maculalus , operculo subcroceo aculeatoque donatus . 39 patella fluviatilis , exigua subflaua , uertice mueronato inflexoque . sectio . 1. musculis ●luviatilibus . cardine dentato . à danubio 1. musculus ex slauo uiridescens medio dorso leuiter radiaius , admodum crassus . musculus fluviatilis è fluvio tamesi ad battersey . an uitium 2. 2. musculus angustior● ▪ ex flauo uiridescens medio dorso leuiter radiatus cardinis pinna siue denticulo birido . 3. musculus angustus . subflauus siue cirriaus . 4. musculus niger omnium longè crassissimus . conchae longae species gesn . aldrou . ● . musculus latus maxims et tenuissimtus è coeruleo iuridescens , ferè palustri : sectio . 2. de musculis cardine laevi 8. musculus tenuis minor subfuscus , latiusculus . 14. pectunculus subiuridis par●●●s . subglobosus . 15 pectunculus perpusillus , rostratus . virgin sectio . 1. cap 1 de pectinibus . exutraque parte aequaliter auritis , striatis . anglie 1. pecten magnus , albidus , circiter duodeoem strijs . multis minut i●que incienris exasperalis donatus . 9. pecten minor ex croco uariegatus asper et fere sinuosus et inequalis leuiter et admodum crebrò steiatus . 17. pecten sub●ufus strijs uiginti quatuor ad minimum donatus . 18. ●●em cum superiore 〈◊〉 17 23. pecten paruus ex croco uariegatus , tenuiter ad●modum striatue alteris ferè strys paulo minoribus . 27. pecten me●iecris latus , ex rufo uariegatus , circiter uiginti strys admodum striatis distuictus . 28. ●dem cum denticulis sub aure ; et non nisi altera et infima ualua est . sectio . 2 cap i. de ostreis a●op●vsi planà ●onga , recuruâ angulo acuto desinente . sulenta 〈◊〉 qualiter utrinque ad cardinem denticulata . 31 〈◊〉 altera ualua pla●●a . denticulata . sectio 2 cap 2 de ostracis apop●ysi breui , subter et quasi in occulto posita 36. ●estrea fere circinata , , subuiridis leuiter striata . 37. eadem supina . ostrea syluestris rondeleti 39. ostrea laeuis subpurpurea uel subaurea instar margaritae intùs et extrà resplendens . a j garnsey 69. pectunculus exiguus , albus , admodum tenuiter striatus . chama glycymeris bellonij . a. j. garnsey . 82. pectunculus ingens , u●riegalus ex rufo . 87. pectunculus cra●●iusculus , albidus . 88 pectunculus latus , admodum planus , tenuis , albidus . 100. pectunculus tenuis , leuiter purpurascens , radiatus , an idem cum superiore ? mare mediter : à. d. e. floid 105. pectunculus , superiore paulo planior . 108. pectunculus maximus subfuscus ▪ ualdè grauis . 120 pectunculus fuscus densè fa●ciatus elegatiti quadam pictura undulata insignitus . 122. pectunculus omnium crassissimus fascijs ex latere bullatis donatus . mar meciterr . 126. pectunculus rostro productiore capillaceis . fascy : donatus . 154 pectunculus exiguus , subfuscus . 161. pectunculus orbiculari● , fuscus strijs medijs ●u●ricatis . marc adrintico . 169 pectunculus subfuscus strys 〈…〉 171. pectunculus capite minore , rotundiore , et magis cequali niargin●● . 127. pectunculus dense fasciatus 〈◊〉 rubro uar●●egatus , et undatus . j. garnsey . 129. pectunculus subfuscus , tenuitèr admodùm fasciatus . 136. pectunculus planus cra●sus , ex rufo radi●tus . j garnsey 200. musculus subcoeruleus . ferè uirgatus . mytulus rondel 201. musculus paruus , subcoerulcus latus , rostro tenui , adunco 202 musculus paruus , albidus , tenuis , angu●tior , rostro tenui , recuruo . 217. tellina subfusca angustior , intus purpurascens . 218. an eadem cum superiore . 11. 216● menis 219. tellina purpurascens margine sinuoso . jamaic 232 tellina lata albida ex rubro radita . j. garnsey . 241. tellina ex rufo 〈…〉 exasperata 247 tellina fasciata , 〈◊〉 rubro ueriegata . j garnsey 248. tellina fasciata angustior intus lut●scens , extra radiata 249. tellina fasciata 〈◊〉 subaurca radiata . 250. tellina parua ▪ 〈◊〉 rubra ad alterum latus sinuosa 251. tellina leuis nitu● et extra rubra ad latus sinucsa . sectio . 9 solenis i. d. est . conchae tenuibus longissimisque . ab utraque parte naturalitèr hiantibus 255. solen major subfuscus ▪ rictus solen 〈◊〉 259. chama fusca , lata , planior . 264. chama subfusca augusti●●●na , ad solenes quodam ▪ mede acceden● . 271 chama fusca strys te●●sir●is donata 〈…〉 . sect. 1● cap. 2. chamae : pholad●bus 269. chamoe pholas , latus , ex alter● parte obfusus . scaber siue rugosus . 270. chamoe pholas fasciatus , ex altera parte intus ui●lacca . pholos striatus sinuatus ex a alterà parte . pholas latus , rugorus ex dimidio dorso et asper . pholas paruus , asper . pholadum tertia t●sta , aliarum cardin● superinjecta . saxum pheladibus foratum . sectio 2 conchis quinque testarum , anatifer●s plerisque dictis . 280 concha ana●●fe ra subrotunda bartholini . 〈◊〉 mediter 282 concha a natifera , margine muricata . 287 salanas paruus , striatus . notes, typically marginal, from the original text notes for div a48704-e210 * when this was written , malpigius de bombyee was not not publisht . * of both which , see this observers experiments formerly communicated , no. 68. p. 2067 , 2608. * see no 68. p. 2●68 . * see the ground for this distinction in the same numb . 68. p. 2067. 2●● , . * march 17. 1671. i find in my notes ( saith he ) that some years ago i gather'd off our english oak round worm-husks very like kermes-berries , but i then made no tryal of them . again , i have often observed on plumb trees and cherry-trees ; also on the vine and cherry-laurel certain patellae or flat husks containing wo●ms , which ( or at least the husks ; for them only i had oppertunity of making the experiment on ) will strike a carnation ly and stand . * see numb . 50. 1011. aist. nat. lib. i. c. 27. lib. 3. c. 9. arist. hist. nat. ib. 5. cap. 20. arist. hist. nat. lib. 9. cap. 39. nu. 50. p. 795. * of which latter ▪ see numb . 72. p. 2176. 2177. † see more of this in my notes upon goedartious * see numb ▪ 74. p. 2221. coehlitz , or petrified shells examined . see numb . 75. p. 2254. * see above in this very tract . * see of two or three more musk-insects num 74. p. 2220. and numb . 76. p. 2281. * of which see numb . 74. p. 2220. and n. 76. p. 2281. * of which see numb . 75. p. 2254. * this learned and accurate philesspher hath already presented to the r. society , in a very obliging manner , his manuscript , containing the s●m of his observations and labours about the structure of plants ; and he hath also very generously engaged himself , that , upon the approbation of that illustrious body , he will enlarge his papers , illustrate all the particulars , therein contained , with scheams ▪ and the● publish the whole . * see numb , 70. p , 2122 , & 2123. * this stone is now in the custody of the r , society , to whom it was presented afterwards . * compare herewith , what was publish't in no ▪ p. 71. 2165 no , 72 , p. 2177 especially no. 73. p. 2196. see numb . 20. p. 362. † n. b. peyer●● did not publish his book of these glandul● til the year 1677. viz. more then 4 years after my discovery of them and publication in the philosophical transactions . † v. kerkring●● spic . anat. obs. 59. 79. * see n. 100. of these tracts . * xiphilinus herodianus &c. a gal. de locis affec . lib. 6. irelands naturall history being a true and ample description of its situation, greatness, shape, and nature, of its hills, woods, heaths, bogs, of its fruitfull parts, and profitable grounds : with the severall ways of manuring and improving the same : with its heads or promontories, harbours, roads, and bays, of its springs, and fountains, brooks, rivers, loghs, of its metalls, mineralls, free-stone, marble, sea-coal, turf, and other things that are taken out of the ground : and lastly of the nature and temperature of its air and season, and what diseases it is free from or subject unto : conducing to the advancement of navigation, husbandry, and other profitable arts and professions / written by gerald boate ; and now published by samuell hartlib for the common good of ireland and more especially for the benefit of the adventurers and planters therein. boate, gerard, 1604-1650. 1657 approx. 309 kb of xml-encoded text transcribed from 104 1-bit group-iv tiff page images. text creation partnership, ann arbor, mi ; oxford (uk) : 2007-10 (eebo-tcp phase 1). a28496 wing b3373 estc r27215 09721903 ocm 09721903 44031 this keyboarded and encoded edition of the work described above is co-owned by the institutions providing financial support to the early english books online text creation partnership. this phase i text is available for reuse, according to the terms of creative commons 0 1.0 universal . the text can be copied, modified, distributed and performed, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. early english books online. (eebo-tcp ; phase 1, no. a28496) transcribed from: (early english books online ; image set 44031) images scanned from microfilm: (early english books, 1641-1700 ; 1350:5) irelands naturall history being a true and ample description of its situation, greatness, shape, and nature, of its hills, woods, heaths, bogs, of its fruitfull parts, and profitable grounds : with the severall ways of manuring and improving the same : with its heads or promontories, harbours, roads, and bays, of its springs, and fountains, brooks, rivers, loghs, of its metalls, mineralls, free-stone, marble, sea-coal, turf, and other things that are taken out of the ground : and lastly of the nature and temperature of its air and season, and what diseases it is free from or subject unto : conducing to the advancement of navigation, husbandry, and other profitable arts and professions / written by gerald boate ; and now published by samuell hartlib for the common good of ireland and more especially for the benefit of the adventurers and planters therein. boate, gerard, 1604-1650. hartlib, samuel, d. 1662. [13], 186, [5] p. imprinted for john wright, london : 1657. reproduction of original in the university of illinois (urbana-champaign campus). library. created by converting tcp files to tei p5 using tcp2tei.xsl, tei @ oxford. re-processed by university of nebraska-lincoln and northwestern, with changes to facilitate morpho-syntactic tagging. gap elements of known extent have been transformed into placeholder characters or elements to simplify the filling in of gaps by user contributors. eebo-tcp is a partnership between the universities of michigan and oxford and the publisher proquest to create accurately transcribed and encoded texts based on the image sets published by proquest via their early english books online (eebo) database (http://eebo.chadwyck.com). the general aim of eebo-tcp is to encode one copy (usually the first edition) of every monographic english-language title published between 1473 and 1700 available in eebo. eebo-tcp aimed to produce large quantities of textual data within the usual project restraints of time and funding, and therefore chose to create diplomatic transcriptions (as opposed to critical editions) with light-touch, mainly structural encoding based on the text encoding initiative (http://www.tei-c.org). the eebo-tcp project was divided into two phases. the 25,363 texts created during phase 1 of the project have been released into the public domain as of 1 january 2015. anyone can now take and use these texts for their own purposes, but we respectfully request that due credit and attribution is given to their original source. users should be aware of the process of creating the tcp texts, and therefore of any assumptions that can be made about the data. text selection was based on the new cambridge bibliography of english literature (ncbel). if an author (or for an anonymous work, the title) appears in ncbel, then their works are eligible for inclusion. selection was intended to range over a wide variety of subject areas, to reflect the true nature of the print record of the period. in general, first editions of a works in english were prioritized, although there are a number of works in other languages, notably latin and welsh, included and sometimes a second or later edition of a work was chosen if there was a compelling reason to do so. image sets were sent to external keying companies for transcription and basic encoding. quality assurance was then carried out by editorial teams in oxford and michigan. 5% (or 5 pages, whichever is the greater) of each text was proofread for accuracy and those which did not meet qa standards were returned to the keyers to be redone. after proofreading, the encoding was enhanced and/or corrected and characters marked as illegible were corrected where possible up to a limit of 100 instances per text. any remaining illegibles were encoded as <gap>s. understanding these processes should make clear that, while the overall quality of tcp data is very good, some errors will remain and some readable characters will be marked as illegible. users should bear in mind that in all likelihood such instances will never have been looked at by a tcp editor. the texts were encoded and linked to page images in accordance with level 4 of the tei in libraries guidelines. copies of the texts have been issued variously as sgml (tcp schema; ascii text with mnemonic sdata character entities); displayable xml (tcp schema; characters represented either as utf-8 unicode or text strings within braces); or lossless xml (tei p5, characters represented either as utf-8 unicode or tei g elements). keying and markup guidelines are available at the text creation partnership web site . eng natural history -ireland. ireland -description and travel. 2003-03 tcp assigned for keying and markup 2005-12 spi global keyed and coded from proquest page images 2006-11 ali jakobson sampled and proofread 2006-11 ali jakobson text and markup reviewed and edited 2007-02 pfs batch review (qc) and xml conversion irelands naturall history . being a true and ample description of its situation , greatness , shape , and nature ▪ of its hills , woods , heaths , bogs ; of its fruitfull parts and profitable grounds , with the severall ways of manuring and improving the same : with its heads or promontories , harbours , roads and bays ; of its springs and fountains , brooks , rivers , loghs ; of its metalls , mineralls , free-stone , marble , sea-coal , turf , and other things that are taken out of the ground . and lastly , of the nature and temperature of its air and season , and what diseases it is free from , or subject unto . conducing to the advancement of navigation , husbandry , and other profitable arts and professions . written by gerard boate , late doctor of physick to the state in ireland . and now published by samuell hartlib , esq for the common good of ireland , and more especially , for the benefit of the adventurers and planters therein . imprinted at london for iohn wright at the kings head in the old baily , 1657. to his excellency oliver cromwel , captain generall of the common-wealths army in england , scotland and ireland , and chancellor of the university of oxford . and to the right honorable charles fleetwood , commander in chief ( under the lord generall cromwell ) of all the forces in ireland . right honorable , it is a very great and signal truth , that all the works of god are both wonderfull and precious , much sought out by all those that love him : and it is the guilt of the wicked , that as they regard not the lord , so they consider not the operation of his hands ; for the lord hath revealed his truth , even his godhead and his eternall power by his workes , that such as respect him not , in the creation of the world , and in the wayes of his providence , may be without excuse : now it se●ms to mee , that the end for which god hath not left himself without a testimony in nature , is not onely , that we should in our spirit glorifie him as god and be thankfull , but that also our outward man should bee made sensible of his goodness , and partake of that supply of life , which by his appointment the creature can yeeld unto us , if happily wee may feel after him and find him therein . so that such as respect him not in his wayes of nature , being careless to seek them out , do make themselves also incapable of the blessings of nature through their ignorance and neglect of the good things which god hath provided for them thereby : for all things are ours , things present and things to come ; and godliness hath the promise of the life that now is aswell as of that which is to come : for as by the act of faith we are made capable of the good things of the life to come , because by the truth of god , as it is the object of our faith , they have a spirituall being and subsistence in us ▪ so by the act of reason rightly ordered we are made partakers of the benefit of this life , because by the effect of gods wisedom and power in nature , as they are the objects of our reasonable facultie , they have a bodily being and subsistence in us : and as the wisdom of god doth many wayes manifest it self , not only in spirituall , but also in outward and bodily things , so there are many parts of humane learning ▪ some wherof are subservient to the private life of a single man , some to the comforts and publick use of a societie , and amongst all these parts of learning , which relate to a society , i can conceive none more profitable in nature , than that of husbandry . for whether we reflect upon the first settlement of a plantation , to prosper it , or upon the wealth of a natiō that is planted , to increase it , this is the head spring of al the native commerce & trading which may bee set afoot therein by any way whatsoever . now to advance husbandry either in the production and perfectiō of earthly benefits , or in the management thereof by way of trading , i know nothing more usefull , than to have the knowledg of the natural history of each nation advanced & perfected : for as it is evident , that except the benefits which god by nature hath bestowed upon each country bee known , there can be no industrie used towards the improvement and husbandry thereof ; so except husbandry be improved , the industrie of trading , whereof a nation is capable , can neither be advanced or profitably upheld . there is a twofold body , and a twofold life in man , which god hath created , the one is naturall , the other spiritual , & the apostle tells us , that the spirituall is not first , but the naturall , and afterward that which is spirituall ; as the bodies and lives of men are ordered by god , so we must conceive of the frames of their societies , that the naturall is before that which is spirituall , & that in gods aime it is a preparatory thereunto ; although in the use which men make thereof , this aime is not obtained : for seeing in the wisdom of god , the world by wisdome hath not known god ; therefore god is pleased by another way which to the world doth seem foolishness , to manifest his power and his wisdome unto salvation , namely by the preaching of the gospel in the name of iesus christ , and him crucified ; and although hitherto , since the death of christ , the dispensation of wisdome hath not yet opened the conduit pipes of natural knowledge to cause the souls of men flow forth & partake of the life of god therein , by reason of the prevalencie of sensuall inclinations , & of the want of due reflection upon christ , in whom alone the perfect use of nature is brought home to the glory of the father , by the spirit , yet when the time of the restauration of all things , shall come from the presence of him , who will come shortly and will not tarry , then the works of the devill , whereby he hath brought us , & the whole creation , under the bondage of corruption , shall be destroied , & when the nature & right use of the creature by his meanes obscured , shall be revealed , then also the properties and application of the creature in the glorious liberty of the sonnes of god , shall be subjected unto grace . these great and mighty changes , which god is making in the earth , do tend to break the yokes of vanity , and to weaken the power , which hath wreathed the same upon the necks of the nations , these changes seem to me to presage the neer approaches of this liberty , and the advancement of the ways of learning , whereby the intellectuall cabinets of nature are opened , and the effects therof discovered , more fully to us , than to former ages , seem in like manner to prepare a plainer address unto the right use thereof for us than our forefathers have had : which will be effectuall to the manifestation of gods wisdome , power , and goodness , when the great promises shall be accomplished , that the earth shall be filled with the knowledge of the lord , as the waters cover the sea , & that we shall be taught of god , from the least to the greatest : and although the father hath reserved in his own hand the times and seasons , wherin these promises are to be fulfilled , yet as by the dawning of the day we can know that the sun is neer rising , so by the breaking of yoakes & the breaking forth of the meanes of more perfect knowledge , both in natural and spiritual things , wee may see the drawing neer of the promises , which will in their own times constitute the day of salvation unto all the earth , wherein all flesh shall see the glory of the lord together . the expectation of this day is the hope of israel ; and those that wait for the lord , and his appearance therein , shall find a plentious redemption ; namely such as having this hope purifie themselves that they may be found in peace at his appearing , and such as being solicitous to bestow their talents in their way and generation , to the advancement of his approaching kingdom , shall approve themselves as faithfull servants to him in that day . of this number i am perswaded your honours are in these nations as leading men ; therefore i have made bold thus to address my self unto you , and to inscribe this work unto your names , that it may see the light under your joint patronage . god hath made you very eminent instruments to set forward one part of the preparatives of his great work , the breaking of our yokes , the other part , which is the advancement of spirituall and natural sanctified knowledge , your zeal , i am sure will carry you to countenance by the wayes which providence shall open unto you. therefore i hope it wil not be without acceptance , what in this kind ( though but a mean beginning ) i have here offered . your influence upon it , to set forward learned endeavours of this nature for a publick good may be a blessing unto posteritie , and your relations of eminent note , unto ireland , to watch for the good therof , and to the universities of oxford and dublin , to countenance all the meanes of profitable learning , have encouraged me to make this dedication ; besides the expressions of your honours willingness , to favour me in my undertakings , which i knew no way so well to resent , as by offering to your generous inclinations , the objects , which are worthy of being considered and set forward in order to a common good . i lookt also somewhat upon the hopefull appearance of replanting ireland shortly , not only by the adventurers , but happily by the calling in of exiled bohemians and other protestants also , and happily by the invitation of some well affected out of the low countries , which to advance are thoughts suitable to your noble genius , and to further the setlement thereof , the naturall history of that countrie will not bee unfit , but very subservient . thus beseeching the lord to prosper all your undertakings to the glory of the kingdom of christ , i take my leave , and rest unfeignedly your honours most humble servant samuel hartlib . to the reader . gentle reader , some particulars there are concerning this following work , of which i think it sit you should be advertised : and for as much as i can tell you no more of them than what was written to me by the authors most loving and learned brother , give me leave in stead of mine own words to present you with his said letter on that subject , being such as doth follow . sir , i am very glad to understand by you , that my brothers work of the naturall history of ireland , is not only not lost , as i greatly feared i● was , and that you have found it in perusing those books and papers of his , which he had left behind him at london ; but that you are a going to print it , and have already contracted about it : by the doing whereof i am fully perswaded , that you will gain both credit and contentment , and that those shall no wayes be losers , who will bee at the charges of doing the same . for though i say it , the work is excellent in it's kind , as not only full of truth and certainty , but written with much judgment , order , & exactness ; so as it is to be preferred before most naturall histories of particular countries , and may well be equalled to the very best , for as much as there is done of it . for to make it a compleat naturall history , there should be joyned to that which my brother hath gone through , two books more , the one of all kind of plants , and the other of all sorts of living creatures ; which also might have been expected of him if god had given him longer life . for he intended , assoon as he had published this part , to have fallen also to the rest , if he had found that he had not lost his labour on what was done already , & that it had met with a gratefull acceptance abroad , such as might have incouraged him to take further paines ●bout the perfecting of it : in which case he was resolved to have also joined a fourth book to those other three , concerning the natives of ireland , and their old fashions , lawes , and customes ; as likewise the great paines taken by the english , ever since the conquest , for to civilize them , and to improve the countrie . you say you wonder , & others may justly concurre with you in that your wonderment , how a countrie could bee so accurately described by one , who never was in it . for although my brother hath been in ireland , and that he hath ended his dayes there , yet he had both begun and finished this first book of his naturall history of ireland , some yeares before he went thither , or had any thoughts of doing so : seeing that he begun to write that work in the beginning of the year of our lord 1645. and made an end of it long before the end of the same year ! wheras he went not to ireland untill the latter end of the year 1649. & dyed at dublin within a very short while after he was arrived there , viz. on the 19th of ianuary 16 ●0 / 49. now to answer that difficulty moved by you , be pleased to know , that i being come from dublin to london in the beginning of may 1644. and having stayed there untill the latter end of october , great part of that conversation , which he and i had together during those six months , was spent in reasoning about ireland , and about all manner of particulars concerning the morall and civill , but chiesly the naturall history of the same : my brother beeing very carefull to inform himself of me , about all things appertaining thereunto . for besides that his curiositie , which was very great for to enrich his mind with all manner of laudable knowledge , was of it self alone capable enough for to make him inquisitive in that kind ; he was there-besides led thereto by his own interest , having ventured great part of his estate upon the escheated lands there , according to the severall acts made by the king and parliament in that behalf . and having set down in writing what he had so heard of me , he conferred afterwards about the same with severall of those gentlemen , whom the bloody combustions of ireland had driven away thence , and made to resort to london ; he beeing very well acquainted with them , especially with sir william parsons , and sir richard parsons , which two having above all others a very perfect insight into that land , & into all matters ' belonging to the same , were wonderfull well able to satisfie any of those questions , which from time to time he propounded unto them , either about those things that he had already learned of me , or about such others , of which hee had forgot to speak to me , or on which i had not been able fully to inform him . in this maner he brought that work together , the which to accomplish yet further , he sent to me still as much as he had finished , desiring me to review it diligently , and to adde , put out , or alter , what i should see cause : wherein also , as in the first informations , i was not wanting to contribute what ever was necessary , as far forth as my knowledge did reach unto , and according to those observations , unto which i had very studiously and with singular delight applied my self during those eight yeares that i lived in that iland : whereunto i had so much the more opportunity , because that as my constant abode was in dublin , so i made very many journeys into the countrie , & by meanes therof saw great part of it , especially of the provinces of leinster and ulster , and by reason thereof also it would be an easie matter for me , to make-up those parts of this work , which are still wanting . thus i beleeve to have fully taken away the forementioned objection , and to have given you as perfect an account about the grounds & the manner of the writing of this naturall history , as was expected by you . and having nothing else to trouble you with all at the present , i shall end these with my most hearty wishes , that notwithstanding any discouragements , or any want of incouragement , you would still goe on in that most commendable purpose , of furthering as much as in you lieth all manner of reall and profitable knowledge : the which indeed hitherto you have done so largely on very many occasions , as must needs greatly redound to the generall good of mankind , and make your memory precious to them in all future ages . your most affectionate and humble servant arnold boate . paris 10 / 20 aug. irelands natvrall history . chap. i. of the situation , shape , and greatness of ireland : it 's division into provinces and counties : of the english pale : the principall towns of that nation . sect. 1. situation of ireland . ireland , by the irish themselves called erin , and by their neighbours the welsh yverdon , lyeth in the north-west ocean , having on the west-side no land nearer than america , or the west-indi●s , and thereof that part , which above nova francia and canada running north-ward , hath of the english received the name of new-britain , but of other nations before of terra laboratoris . the next land over against it on the south is galicia , one of the kingdomes of spain , from which it lyeth divided some dayes sayling . northwards it hath the scotish ilands , by the geographers called hebrides or hebudes ; the principall of which are eust , lewis , skye , ila , & mula . on the east-side is great-brittain , and all the three parts of it , to wit part of scotland , the whole west coast of england , and all wales . sect. 2. distance betwixt ireland and severall places upon the coast of great-britain . the sea , which parteth ireland from great-britain , being of a very unequall breadth , is more narrow in the north-end , less in the south-end , but broad in the midst , as farre as it washeth the the english coast , being the full length of the two counties of cumberland and lancashire , opposite against which are situated in ireland the counties of down , lowth , and dublin . the sea which is inclosed betwixt these counties , & compriseth in its middle the i le of man , is wel neer of an equall and uniform breadth every where , not beeing in any place much broader or much narrower , than it is betwixt the havens of dublin & leverpoole , the distance betwixt which two is reckoned by the english pilots to be of fortie leagues , or sixscore english miles . but wales in two or three places commeth a great deal neerer to ireland , and in some as neer again . for holy-head , being the most westerly corner of the northerliest part of wales , called anglesey , lyeth just half way between dublin & lerpoole or chester , being twenty leagues , or three score miles , from dublin , and ten or twelve houres sayl with a reasonable good wind ; which distance is no greater , than what the eye may very very well reach : for a man whose sight is but of an ordinary goodness , may at any time in clea● weather with ease discern the high and mountainous coast of wales from the top of the dublin mountaines . and about the same distance , as is betwixt dublin and holy-head , is also betwixt st. davis-head , a promontory of pembrookshire ( which shire is situated in the most south-west part of wales ) and the irish promontory in the county of wexford , which the natives call cancarne , and the english sea-men tuskard-point . also the promontory of carnarvan in wales , called brachipult-point , and lying betwixt holy-head and st. davis , is well neer at the same distance from the next irish shore , as either of those other welsh promontories . but between brachipult-point and saint davis-head the sea doth much inlarge it self ( although nothing so much as betwixt ireland and england ) making a great inlet on the coast of wales , the which here retireth it self a great way backwards : whereas to the contrary the irish shore , which lyeth opposite to it , extendeth it self in an equall manner without any great bayes or inlets . as for the north part , where ireland & scotland are neighbours , there this sea groweth very narrow ; insomuch as galloway , a county in that part of scotland , is distant with its most westerlie shoare from the ardes ( a little country and demy-island so named in the most northerlie part of the county of down in ireland ) not above five leagues ; which space the open boats , wherein they ordinarily here doe pass from the one kingdome into the other , use to sail in three or four houres time : and cantire , another foreland on the west shore of scotland , more to the north than galloway , is neerer yet unto ireland : so that in these two places the one nation may perfectly bee seen and discerned out of the other at all times , whensoever it is no very dark gloomie weather . sect. 3. shape and bigness of ireland . the shape of this iland is long-waies square , but not fully : for to say nothing of severall corners and forelands , which run out a great way into the sea , nor of divers great bayes and inlets , which the sea maketh here and there , in the three other parts of this iland ; the fourth part , called munster , doth greatly alter that figure ; for in lieu of stretching it self fi●st from the north to the south , & then from the south to the west , it runneth altogether sloping from the north-east to the south-west ; and there besides it stretcheth it self much further into the sea with its western shores , than any other part of ireland on the same west-side . as for the bigness thereof , questionless it is to be reckoned among the chief ilands of the whole world ; and of europe the principalest of all , except only great-britain , the which is more than twice as big : for being as long again , as it is broad , it is at the narrowest ( which is just in the middle , where dublin is situated ) no less than an hundred miles broad ; seeing that atlone , which lyeth just half way betwixt the two seas , is fifty miles distant from dublin ; and in vlster , where ireland is at its broadest , it is in most places ten , or twelve , and in some twenty miles broader . in the length , if from the middle of the northern coast one doe go directly southward , one shall find it to be about two hundred miles . but if you shape your course more to the east , the length will be found less by some miles , because the cost of munster runneth so sloping , as we have said before : and to the contrary , if one measure the length of ireland more to the west , it will be found to bee a great deal more than two hundred miles . and if the measure were taken not through the inland-parts , as now we have framed it , but all along the sea-shore , the length would amount to a great deal more than what now we have declared ( as well on the east as on the west side ) in regard of the inequality of the coast , and of the great bayes and fore-lands , which make it in most places very much run out to the seaward , or into the landward : for which same reason the circuit of the whole iland , taken alongst the shoare , is by far greater , than otherwise the proportion of its length and breadth would seem to require . the miles here mentioned must bee understood not of the cōmon english ones , three wherof make one league , or holland mile ▪ but of the irish , the which are about one fifth part bigger , so as five irish miles doe amount to about six english. sect. 4. division of ireland into provinces and counties . this iland is divided into four principall parts , called provinces , viz. vlster , leinster , connaught , and munster : of which the first and the last extend themselves from the one sea to the other , vlster in the north , and munster in the south . leinster & connaught , lying betwixt those two forenamed provinces , have the sea only on one side , connaught on the west , and leinster on the east . to these four most writers and records add a fifth , called meath ; but that is really a part of leinster , and ordinarily now is held to be such . each of these provinces is again divided into divers counties . vlster hath eleven , whereof six on the sea-side , viz. fermanagh , doneghall alias tirconnel , colraine , antrim , down , lowth ; and five within the land , viz. cavan , monaghan , armahg , nether-tirone , & upper-tirone . leinster comprehendeth likewise eleven counties , dublin , wickloe , and wexford on the sea-side , east-meath , and catherlogh or carlo within the land , but with a little nook reaching unto the sea ; west-meath , kildare , kilkenny , kings-county , queenes-county , and longford altogether within the land . munster is divided into six counties , two within the land , viz. tipperary and limmerick ; and the other four , waterford , cork , desmond , and kerry , situated on the sea-side , but stretching themselves a great way into the land . in connaught there be six counties , viz. clare alias tomond , galloway , majo , and sleigo , situated on the sea , and roscomen , and letcim within the land sect. 5. of the english pale . there is yet another division of ireland , whereby the whole land is divided into two parts , the english pale , and the land of the meer irish. the english pale comprehendeth onlie four counties , one whereof is in vlster , viz. louth , and the other three in leinster , to wit meath , dublin , and kildare : the originall of which division is this . the english at the first conquest , under the reign of henry the second , having within a litle time conquered great part of ireland , did afterwards , in the space of not very many yeares , make themselves masters of almost all the rest , having expelled the natives ( called the wild irish , because that in all manner of wildness they may bee compared with the most barbarous nations of the earth ) into the desart woods and mountains . but afterwards being falln at ods among themselves , and making severall great warres the one upon the other , the irish thereby got the opportunitie to recover now this , and then that part of the land ; whereby , and through the degenerating of a great many from time to time , who joining themselves with the irish , took upon them their wild fashions and their language , the english in length of time came to bee so much weakened , that at last nothing remained to them of the whole kingdome , worth the speaking of , but the great cities , and the forenamed four counties ; to whom the name of pale was given , because that the authority and government of the kings of england , and the english colonies or plantations , which before had been spread over the whole land , now were reduced to so small a compass , and as it were impaled within the same . and although since the beginning of this present age , and since king iames his comming to the crown of england , the whole iland was reduced under the obedience and government of the english lawes , and replenished with english and scotch colonies ; nevertheless the name of english pale , which in the old signification was now out of season , remained in use , and is so still , even since this last bloody rebellion , wherein the inhabitants of almost all the pale , although all of them of english descent , have conspired with the native irish , for to shake off the government of the crown of england , and utterly to extinguish the reformed religion , with all the professors thereof , and quite to root them out of ireland . sect. 6. cities and chief townes of ireland . this iland hath in it severall cities , among which dublin is the principall , beeing the chief city of the whole commonwealth , the residence of the governour , the counsell of state , all the great officers , the exchequer , iudges , and courts of iustice ; beeing also adorned with an vniversitie , the onely in all ireland . it is situated in the province of leinster , about the middle of the length of ireland ( as already hath been mentioned ) not far from the sea , an inlet whereof maketh a harbour for this city ; which harbour , although none of the best of ireland , ( whereof in the next chapter but one shall bee spoken more at large ) is neverthelesse frequented with more ships , and hath greater importation of all things , than any other haven in the kingdome ; by reason that all sorts of commodities are much more readily & in greater plenty vented here than any where else , what in the city it selfe , beeing great and populous , what into the country , for in the time of peace almost all leinster and and vlster were wont to furnish themselves from dublin of all kinds of provisions and necessaries , such as were brought in out of forrein countries . next to dublin is galloway , the head-citie of the province of connaught , to bee reckoned , as well for bigness and faireness , as for riches ; for the streets are wide , and handsomely ordered , the houses for the most part built of free stone ; and the inhabitants much addicted to trafick , doe greatly trade into other countries , especially into spain , from whence they used to fetch great store of wines and other wa●es every year . in the third place commeth waterford , situated in the province of munster ; and in the fourth limmerick , the head-city of the said province , both towns of trafick , situated on goodly havens , and of reasonable bigness and handsomness . cork , in the province of munster , and london-derrie , in the province of vlster , are less than any of the formentioned , but otherwise handsome places , well built , & very fitly situated for trafick and navigation , as standing upon very good havens . as for the rest of the townes , drogheda , kilkenny , and bandonbridge are passable and worthy of some regard both for bigness and handsomeness : but colrain , knockfergus , belfast , dundalk , wexford , youghall , and kinsale are of small moment , the best of all these being hardly comparable to any of those fair market-townes , which are to be found in almost all parts of england . and as for cassel , rosse , lismore , clonmell , and kilmallock in munster ; sleigo and atlone in connaught ; molingar , trimme , kels , navan , aboy , nace , carlo , arklo , and wicklo in leinster ; carlingford , ardee , and down in vlster , all of them walled townes , they are scarce worth the mentioning , because there are few market townes in england , even of the meanest , which are not as good or better , than the best of them all . we could give a more perfect relation of this particular : but because this serveth little to our purpose , and properly doth not concern the naturall history , wee have thought it best to touch it but briefly . chap. ii. of the principall havens of ireland . sect. 1. waterford haven . the havens of ireland are so many in number , and for the most part so fair and large , that in this particular hardly any land in the whole world may be compared with this , as will easily appear by the particular rehearsall thereof , which we are now to make , first of the best and chiefest in this chapter , and of the others in the next . we shall begin with waterford haven , the which being situated on the confines of leinster and munster , runneth some seven or eight miles into the land , not winding or crooked , nor with any great nookes or inlets , but almost in a straight line , ( extending in it self north and north by west ) and in most parts of an equall breadth , all the way deep and clear , having no roks or sands , but onely two or three little ones , which lying not across nor in the midst , but by the sides , may be shunned very easily . without the harbour it is eleven and twelve fathoms deep , in the mouth seven and more , inwards six fathoms . within the easterly corner is a good road , in four or five fathoms ; and on the other or westerly side , five or six miles from the mouth , is another good road , very commodious as well for them who goe forth , as those that will sail upward to waterford . upon the east-side , about halfe-way the length , lyeth a very strong castle called duncannon , which so commandeth this harbour , as no ships can go up or down against the will of those in the fort , without running extreme hazard . this haven in the end divideth it self into two armes , both a great deal inferiour to the principall harbour in breath and depth , but yet such as are capable of ships of a good big port , especially the left , which runneth westward to the city of waterford , whereof this whole haven beareth the name , being situated some four or five miles from that division , and a little below the place where the river shure falleth into this harbour . the right arm being the mouth of the river barrow , and extending it self straight along , goeth up to ross , ( a town in former times famous for trade ) the which is much about the same distance from this division , as the division is from the mouth of the harbour . sect. 2. carlingford haven . on the whole coast of leinster there is not one fair large harbour , so as the next good haven from waterford northwards is that of carlingford ; which two harbours , in sayling straight along the coast , are above an hundred mils distant . this haven is some three or four miles long , and nigh of the same breath , being every where very deep , so as the biggest ships may come there to an anchor ; and so environed with high land and mountaines on all sides , that the ships doe lie defended off all winds ; so that this would bee one of the best havens of the world , if it were not for the difficultie and the danger of the entrance , the mouth being full of rocks , both blind ones and others , betwixt which the passages are very narrow : whereby it commeth that this harbour is very little frequented by any great ships , the rather because there is no trafick at all , nor any good town seated on this haven . for the town of carlingford , whose name it beareth , is a very poor place , hardly worth the speaking of . about eight miles from the mouth of the harbour is the nurie , a fine little town , untill in this late bloody rebellion it was for the greatest part destroyed by the irish : by which town passeth a little river , called the nurie-water , which discharging it self into the harbour some four or five miles below the nurie , is not portable but of very little barkes and boats , and that onely when the tide is in . sect. 3. strangford-haven , and that of knockfergus . about thirtie miles northwards from carlingford-haven is the haven of strang-ford , the which in its entrance is almost as much encumbred with rocks of both kinds , as that of carlingford . it is some five or six miles long , and beareth north-westward , being the mouth of a great lough , called loch cone ; the which being but two or three miles broad in the most places , but some fifteen or sixteen long , doth ebb & flow untill the utmost ends of it : so that there goeth a very strong tide in this harbour , which makes the same the unsafer , especially in great stormes and high winds , for which there is no great defence here . on this haven , and on the neighbouring lough , there lyeth never a good town , strangford beeing more inconsiderable yet than carlingford . the next great harbour upon this coast , and about twenty miles more to the north , is that of knocfergus , being a great wide bay , the which in its mouth , betwixt the southern & the northern point , is no less than ten or twelve miles broad , growing narrower by degrees , the farther it goeth into the land , the which it doth for the space of fifteen miles , as far as to the town of belfast , where a little river called lagon ( not portable but of small boates ) falleth into this harbour . in this bay is a reasonable good road before the town of knockfergus ( seated about nine miles within the land , ) where it is good anchoring in three fathoms , and three and a halfe . on the north side of the bay , somewhat neer the sea , under a castle called mouse-hill , is a sand-bay , where it is good anchoring for all sorts of ships , aswell great as small ones , for the north and north-west winds : but bad riding for the south-west . sect. 4. sheeps haven , lough suillie , and lough foile . the three fore-mentioned havens of carlingford , strangford , knockfergus , are all in the province of vlster , on the east-side thereof . the said province hath also three good havens on its northern coast , not very far distant the one from the other , viz. sheep haven , lough suillie , and lough foile . every one of these is a lough ( which the very name of the second and third sufficiently testifieth ) opening it self into the sea : of the which sheeps haven and lough suillie although they bee fair large harbours , as well as lough foile , and that ships may ride there defended off all winds , lough suillie beeing also of sufficient bigness to contain a thousand great vessels , yet are they very litle frequented , because there is not any trade nor trafick , nor any good town placed upon or neer them . lough foile is of a great bignes , at least twelve miles long , and in most places five or six miles broad , beeing almost every where of an equall breadth , except at the two ends , where it groweth narrow , beeing of an ovall figure . for at the mouth , betwixt magilions point and greencastle , it is hardly a mile and a half broad : and at the other end it is much narrower yet , running from thence with a long arm some miles into the countrie , beeing liker to a broad river , than to a lough . vpon this arm , three or four miles from the great lough , is the town of london-derrie , in a place where that arm turneth and windeth it self in that manner , as it environeth the town on three sides . it is nothing big , consisting only of two long streets , the which cut one nother cross-wayes in the midst ; but it is very handsome , the streets beeing broad and well paved , the houses some stories high , & built for the most of free-stone , with a handsome church , market place , and key : and is inclosed with a thick and very strong stone wall , being one of the principall fortresses of ireland . it is but few yeares old , having been built up from the ground by a company of london adventurers under the reign of king iames. before the mouth of this lough lyeth a great sand , called the touns ( upon which it burneth greatly , when the wind bloweth from the sea ) but so as a fair broad and deep channell remaineth betwixt the said sand and the west-side of the land , where there is at all times fourteen and fifteen fathoms of water , as in the mouth it self some eight or ten . entring into the lough , there are very great sands on the left hand , from the one end to the other , which are some miles broad from off the land ; and of the right hand are some little sands or shelves here , lying close to the land . betwixt these runneth a broad channell in most parts three and four fathoms deep : and in that arm , whereon london-derry standeth , it is deeper yet , in some places no less than ten or twelve , and before the town four and five fathoms : so as this is one of the best and most commodious harbours of all the land. sect. 5. kilbeg and dungall haven . the country of tirconnell , the which taketh up the whole west-side of the province of ulster , runneth a great way into the sea with its southern part , on the south side of which foreland there are two very fair havens , the one not far from the other , viz. kilbeg and dungall-haven . kilbeg is a fair round bay , where the greatest ships that goe upon the seas , may at all times with their full lading enter and come to an anchor ; being distant about twelve miles from cape de tellin , the outmost or most western point of that forenamed foreland of tirconnell . the entrance is very narrow , so as unto them who are comming to it , there seemeth to be no opening there , untill they are very neer , but it is very clean , as well in the mouth , as in the bay it self , and nothing that can hurt the ships either comming in or going forth , beeing entred , one may anchor where one will , in five , six , seven , eight fathomes , or more . three or four miles to the south from kilbeg is a cape , called st. iohns point , and six or seaven miles eastward from the said cape is dungal-haven , wide and deep enough , but in the entrance greatly incumbred with shelves , sands , & rocks , so as great care & circumspection is requisit , to enter or goe forth safely . these two havens have their names of villages seated on them , which are very small and no wayes considerable . sect. 6. broad-haven , akill-haven , and galloway-haven . the province of connaught , extending her self betwixt vlster and munster , taketh up the greatest part of the westside of ireland , it hath also some good ports , as namely broad-haven : an other to the north of akill head ; and a third , situated between the main , and the north and east side of akill iland , in which one may ride in seven and eight fathomes , and be defended off all winds ; although it be rather a sound , than an inclosed harbour : for the ships which are come into it , need not to goe forth the same way again , but sailing on betwixt the main and the iland , may at the south end of the i le come again to the open sea . these havens are nothing famous , beeing very seldome resorted unto by any great ships , except such as by tempests and foul weather , or some other accident , are necessitated to shelter themselves in the same . but the famousest port of this province is that of galloway , beeing a very great bay , some miles broad , and many more long , having in the mouth three iland● , ( named the iles of aran ) the which lye north and south by the side one of the other , there remaining three chanels for to come out of the sea into this bay. one chanel runneth betwixt the land and the northern iland , called therefore north-sound : the second between the the same northern iland and the middlemost ; which channel , beeing the most usuall of the three , is commonly stiled st gregories sound : and the third between the southernmost iland and the main , named south sound : the channel betwixt the southern and the middlemost iland not beeing passable by reason of the sands and shelves , wherefore the name of false-sound hath been given to it . the whole north-side of this bay is very foul with sands and rocks , so as one may not approach the shoar in a great way : at the end of which sand , and in the innermost part of the bay , lyeth a litle iland , called in english mutton-iland , and by the irish enis kerrigh , which hath the same signification ; at the east side whereof one may anchor in five or six fathomes of water ; but from thence northwards untill the citty of galloway , which is the space of two or three miles , none but litle vessels and barks can goe , the citie standing not on the bay itself , but on a broad water like a river , the which not farre above galloway comming out of a great lake , called lough corbes , dischargeth it self into the bay a litle above mutton i le . sect. 7. the havens of limmerick , smerwick , dingle-bay , ventrie , and dingle-icoush . the next great haven on the west side of ireland , to the south of galloway , is that of limmerick , which haven divideth the province of connaught from munster , beeing of a huge length , no less than fifty miles : for so far it is from the mouth of the haven untill the citty of limmerick , to whose walls great vessels may goe up , without meeting with any thing els in all that way , save a many little iles , but not any f●ul places , rocks , or sands . this harbour is nothing els but a great lough ( halfe way its length growing somewhat narrow , but immediatly enlarging it self again into a great breadth ) whereinto the river shanon , ( upon whose bank limmerick is situated ) dischargeth it self a litle way below the said city ; although the english and the irish both call it the shanon all the way untill the sea , as it were not a lough into which the river falleth , but the river it self thus enlarged . comming out of this harbour , the land on the left hand shooteth a huge way westwards into the sea , on the side of which fore-land , ten o● twelve miles at this side of the uttermost point ( betwixt which and the iles of blaskes passeth the sound of the same name ) is the haven of smerwick , not very great , deep , but clean , and well inclosed . at the other side of this fore-land , and to the north-east from the blaskes , is a fair and very large bay called dingle-bay , the which goeth very many miles into the land , having in it divers good havens , one whereof , called ventry , is four or five miles from the sound of blaskes eastwards ; and three or four miles further is dingle-icoush , before the mouth of which harbour , and at the west-side of it , lyeth a rock , called the crow , round about the which one may sail without danger , it being alwayes above water , but at spring tides , at which time the sea doth overflow it . sect. 8. maire , bantrie , and beer-haven . against the south-east corner of dingle-bay lyeth a great iland , called valentia , betwixt which and the main is a very fair and safe road. and a litle way beyond that iland goeth in another huge bay , called maire , which shooteth into the land a great deal further than dingle-bay : and somewhat further is a third bay , called bantrie , which equalleth maire both in breadth and length ; in both which , as well as in dingle-bay , there be severall good harbours and roads . maire hath in the mouth some fifty or five-and-forty fathomes of water ; entring in further , there be six and twenty , twenty , and eighteen ; afterwards you come to ten , and to six , and in the innermost parts to three and two fathomes ; beeing throughout very clean , and free from all kind of rocks and sands , except in very few places . as you enter into bantrie , side-ward upon the left hand lyeth a reasonable big i le , called the iland of beer-haven , betwixt which and the main there goeth in a fair sound , being a great musket shot broad ; the which in its whole length , from where it beginneth untill the place where it endeth at the further part of the iland , being the space of some miles , se●veth for a very good and safe port , wherefore also it beareth the name of a hav●n , being called beer-haven . a good way within the mouth●ly some rocks in the midst of the chanel , the which at high water are overflown , & you may sail of either side of them : & at the other side of this sound , where the same commeth out into the bantrie , there ly two great rocks just in the mouth , betwixt which the ships may pass , as also betwixt the same and the land of either side . all the rest of this harbour or sound is every where very clean and clear , and very good anchor-ground , ten , twelve , and thirteen fathoms deep . sect. 9. whiddie-haven and langerf . in the innermost of the bantrie lyeth an iland about three miles long , called whiddie , betwixt which and the main is a very fair wide bay , ( being the uttermost end of the great bay bantrie ) where you may every where come to an anchor in three , four , five , or six fathomes , in as much or as litle water as you will , according as you have a mind to ride neer the shore or further from it , being every where clean ground . ships may enter into this bay or sound in two severall places , at both ends of the iland . but the entrance at the south-end is very dangerous , because that there betwixt the iland whiddie and the main land it is in most places foul and rockie : but in the other entrance , at the northern end of the iland , is both room and depth enough , it being much broader than that at the south-end , and eight and nine fathomes deep ; and there is nothing that can doe hurt , except only a row of rocks a litle musket shot from the shoar , the which being covered at high water , doe not begin to appear but at half ●bb . right against this iland , at the other side of bantrie , is a haven called langerf , in which is every where good anchoring and good ground ; only at the one side , on the right hand close to the mouth , ly some foul grounds , the which fall dry at the ebb of a springtide . from beerhaven to the northern corner of the iland whiddie the bantrie tendeth east-north-east and north-east , eighteen or twenty miles in length . over against beerhaven , in the midst of the fair water , it is deep forty , six and thirty , and thirty fathoms ; beyond the iland fifteen and sixteen ; but further in , approaching the i le of whiddie , it is again twenty and five and twenty fathoms deep . sect. 10. downams bay , baltimore-bay and baltimore-haven . next to the bantrie , and only by a narrow neck of land divided from it , is downams bay , being great and wide ( although no wayes comparable to any of those three already described ) a very commodious road to save ships in , and good anchor ground every where . the land to the east of this bay shooteth out very far to the sea-ward ; the uttermost point thereof , called messan-head , being the southermost cape of all ireland . for cape de clare , being about twenty miles further to the east , and somewhat more southerly , is not on the main , but in an iland . beyond messan-head is another bay , far greater than any of those three forenamed , but nothing like the same in shape , nor in the same manner running with a long arm a huge way into the land , but rather approaching to the figure of a half moon . in this bay is crook-haven , school-haven , and severall other great havens , not only on the main land , but also in some of the ilands , whereof there is a great number in this bay. the most easterly of all these ilands is baltimore , the which surpassing all the others in bigness , giveth its name unto the bay. that part of the bay which lyeth betwixt this iland and the main , having a narrow entrance , but within of a great largenes , is a marvellous good road , where ships may come to an anchor on either side , & lye defended off all winds . it is five and six fathoms deep on the sides , & six and 7. in the midst . in the mouth of the harbour , next to the east-side , lyeth a blind rock ; & in the midst of it another rock , which appeareth at low water . there is nothing els that can do hurt . this haven , being far the principallest of all this bay , hath its name , as wel as the bay it self of the iland , being called baltimore-haven . to the north of that iland lieth another ●land , called spain-iland , where one may pass betwixt these two ilands to the west , and so out of baltimore-haven goe into the sea. but onely with smaller vessells , because half flood there is not aboue 12. or thiteen feet of water in all that channell . sect. 11 castle-haven , rosse-haven , clandore haven with the havens of kinsale and cork . some miles beyond baltimore-bay is castle-haven , where ships may come to an anchor in twelve fathoms of water , being of a reasonable bigness , and very clear and clean , as well in the entrance as within . between castle-haven and kinsale are two other good havens , to wit that of rosse , and of clandore , in which there is water enough , and very clean ground . the haven of kinsale is one of the famousest of all ireland ; ships may sail into it , keeping in the midst of the channell , without any danger either without or in the mouth of the harbour , except a blind rock close to the east point . within the haven , on the west-side , lyeth a great shelf , which shooteth a great way off from the land , but leaving a very large passage along by the side of it , in which , as in all the rest of the harbour , it is many fathomes deep . this haven for some miles goeth in north-north-east , but afterwards turneth west-ward untill the kay of kinsale , where ships may ride in eight or nine fathoms of water , being defended off all winds . ten or twelve miles to the east of kinsale is cork-haven , the which goeth in north-north-east , being within large and wide , running a great way into the land : for the town of cork , untill whose kay this haven is very clean and deep , is seated many miles from the sea , and from the mouth of the harbour . chap. iii. of the lesser havens , and the barred havens of ireland , also of the roads and anchor-places upon the coast , and in the little ilands near the coast . sect. 1. wexford-haven . after the description of the principal havens of ireland , we shall come to them of less moment , in which number we put all those , which either in their entrance , or within , have not water enough for the bigher sort of vessels ; as likewise those , the which being deep enough , are but very little , and of a small pourprise ; and in this description we shall observe the same order as in the former , beginning with wexford , and so going north-ward , then west , afterwards south-ward , and lastly east and north-eastward , untill wee have gone about the whole iland . the haven of wexford runneth in west , and by north , and with her innermost part altogether northward . just before this haven lye two great shelves of sands by the side one of the other , of which that on the south-side is called hanemans-path , and the other north-grounds . there goeth a chanel betwixt hanemans-path and the land on the south-side of the haven , and another betwixt the north-side and the north-grounds ; but this last hath but six feet of water at full flood , and in the other eight feet with the flood of ordinary tides , and ten at spring-tides . the chief chanel is that which goeth in betwixt the two sands , being four and five fathom deep . besides these sands there is another shelf in the mouth of the harbour it self ; which kind of sandy-banks lying across in the mouth of harbours and rivers , are usually called bars ; and the havens which have them , bared-havens ▪ with a high flood there is about sixteen feet of water . being past the bar , you have for some way three fathoms of water , three and a half , and four ; but afterwards for a great way but ten feet , and ten a half , with a high flood ; although under the castle where the ships come to an anchor , you have four fathoms , and before the town three ; but because of the forementioned shallows , no vessels can go to wexford , that draw more than ten feet of water , but must unlade and lade in a creek near the mouth of the haven on the south-side , about three miles from the town , where is water enough , but no shelter for the south-west winds , the which do come over the land to this place . sect. 2. dublin-haven . dublin haven hath a bar in the mouth , upon which at high-flood and spring-tide there is fifteen and eighteen feet of water , but at the ebbe and nep●-tide but six . with an ordinary tide you cannot go to the key of dublin with a ship that draws five feet of water , but with a spring-tide you may go up with ships that draw seven and eight feet . those that go deeper cannot go nearer dublin than the rings-end , a place three miles distant from the bar , and one from dublin . this haven almost all over falleth dry with the ebbe , as well below rings-end as above it , so as you may go dry-foot round about the ships which lye at an anchor there , except in two places , one at the north-side , half way betwixt dublin and the bar , and the other at the south-side not far from it . in these two little creeks ( whereof the one is called the pool of clantarf , and the other poolebeg ) it never falleth dry , but the ships which ride at an anchor remain ever afloat ; because at low water you have nine or ten feet of water there . this haven , besides its shallownes , hath yet another great incommodity , that the ships have hardly any shelter there for any winds , not only such as come out of the sea , but also those which come off from the land , especially out of the south-west ; so as with a great south-west storm the ships run great hazard to be carried away from their anchors , and driven into the sea ; which more than once hath come to pass , and particularly in the beginning of november , anno 1637 , when in one night ten or twelve barks had that misfortune befaln them , of the most part whereof never no news hath been heard since . sect. 3. the havens of drogheda and dundalk . the haven of drogheda , or , as the word is pronounced in common use , tredagh , is very troublesom to be got into , as having not only a bar lying across before its mouth , over the which vessels cannot pass but at high water , but also very narrow in the mouth : this haven not being an arm or bay of the sea , but onely a river which keepeth her own bigness untill the end , without receiving any notable enlargement of the sea about her mouth , as other rivers use to do . upon this bar is as much water as upon that of dublin ; and the ships which can pass the bar , may go up to the key of tredagh ; which town is seated about two miles from the month of this river , which is called the boine . sixteen miles to the north of tredagh standeth dundalk , where a wide open bay ( made by the giving back and retiring of the coast ) growing narrow , and receiving a little river , which above dundalk is but a small brook , maketh a kind of haven , where never is much water , and with the ebbe may be passed over a foot ; wherefore , and because there is not any shelter for the windes comming from the sea , nor any usuall trafique , this road is very little fr●quented . sect. 4. the havens o● dondrom , arglas , oldfleet , belletree , and the band. a few miles on this side of strongford , are the havens of dondrom and arglas , the one not far from the other , both little , and not very deep , but safe : and a little way beyond the northern point of the bay of knockfergus , is oldfleet-haven , a harbour of the same sort as those two last mentioned . port belletree , six or seven miles to the west of fair-foreland ( the north-easterliest point of ireland ) is as little as any of those three , less defended of the winds , and the ground sharp and foul . some miles further is the haven of colrain , called band-haven , the which is nothing else but the mouth of the river band , the which here falleth into the sea , keeping her own narrowness untill the end , in the same manner as we said above of the haven of tredagh . this river passing through lough neaugh , the greatest lake of all ireland ( the which receiving severall rivers , hath no other out-let into the sea but the band ) carrieth a mighty deal of water , the which being inclosed in a narrow chanel , powreth it self into the sea with great violence : for which reason , and because of the narrowness of the mouth , this haven is very hard to enter , having also but little depth , so as vessels which draw eight feet of water , must at least have three quarters of the flood before they can enter . sect. 5. tellin-haven , mackswins-bay , the havens of balleshanon , slego , endrigo , moy , and niffadoy . upon the west coast of ulster , about half way between cape tellin and kilbeg , is tellin-haven , a round bay , with good sand ground , which will contain about thirty ships : west , and south-west winds blow directly into it , but off all other winds one is there defended . two or three miles eastwards from kilbeg is mackswins bay , where a ship may ride safe without cable and anchor : but the entrance being every where beset with rocks , it is dangerous to go into it . some miles to the south-west of dungal-haven , is balleshanon , being the mouth of that short river , by which lough-earn , one of the greatest lakes of ireland , dischargeth it self into the sea ; which river runneth just on the borders of the two provinces of ulster and connaught , dividing the same ; this having a bar before it , by reason whereof no bigger vessels than of thirty or forty tuns can enter into it . slego and endrigo are two little harbours , situated near the one to the other , in the north part of connaught , very much encumbred with rocks and sands in the entrance , but otherwise reasonably deep ; for a ship of two hundred tunnes may come and ride before the town of slego . about half way between slego and broad-haven is moy , being the innermost of a great bay , divided from the rest by a little iland somewhat long , the which lyeth cross in that manner , that onely one chanel remaineth , whereby to go out of the great bay into the lesser , or the haven , which chanel is twelve feet deep ; but in the haven it self , being nothing else but two little creeks , divided asunder by some sands lying betwixt them , it is about fifteen or sixteen feet deep ; but in the little channel which passeth into the inmost creek , being nearest to the village moy , there is but nine feet of water at full flood with an ordinary tide . some miles to the south-east of sline-head , ( a famous cape in connaught , and situated about half way the length of that province ) is port niffadoy , a reasonable good harbour , but very dangerous to get into , the sea there round abouts being full of rocks both blind ones and others . sect. 6. the havens of trailie , youghall , and dungarvan : item of wickloe , arckloe , malahide , &c. at trailie , half way between smerwick and the mouth of the haven of limmerick , is a fair haven but none of the biggest . about the middle way between cork and waterford is the haven of youghall , before the which lyeth a bar , not to be passed but at high water . twelve miles eastwards from youghall , is dungarvan , being a narrow tide-haven , whose mouth is full of rocks , many of which do not appear , and so more dangerous , and at low water it falleth dry , so as one must go into it at high flood , and pass amidst the rocks . as for the havens of arckloe ( where with high water it is but six feet deep ) of wickloe ( where at ful flood you have but ten feet of water ) malahide , a little to the north of the bay of dublin ; coldach-haven , and red-haven , the first betwixt loughsoile and loughsuillie , and the other betwixt loughsuillie and sheeps-haven ; milk-haven , not far from slego ; mablin-haven , betwixt waterford and wexford ; and some others of the same nature : they are so little , that they will hardly serve for other than fisherboates , and therefore scarce merit the name of havens . sect. 7. roads upon the coast of ireland , from waterford to fair-foreland . be●ides this great number of havens in ireland , there are many good roads , where ships at need may save themselves , and commodiously come to an anchor , not only upon the coast of the main land , but also in the most part of the litle ilands , which ly round about ireland . to begin with those on the main . from the point of waterford to carnarord , being the space of about twenty miles , the coast is full of bayes , where one may come to an anchor . under carnarord ships anchor in six and nine fathomes . in st margarets bay , three miles from carnarord it is good anckoring in five and six fathomes , sand ground . a litle further is the bay of grenore , where you may anchor as neer the land as you will , in six , five , four , or three fathomes . some miles from wexford to the point of glasearick , from which place to the bay of dublin , being about fifty miles , the coast is full of inlets , where it is very good anchoring , in good sand ground , especially to the north of arkloe-head ( in a fair sand bay every where in eight , seven , or five fathomes ) and between arkloe and missen-head , being the space of six or seaven miles . in the mouth of the bay of dublin , at this side of the bar , is good anchoring , as well on the south side , before the village dalkee ( which place is known by the name of berton road ) as on the north-side , round about that great cape , named the head of houth . between strangford-haven and the bay of knockfergus are divers good anchoring-places ; but all that coast is very foul with rocks , and blind rocks . to the north of knockfergus are divers inlets , where one may come to an anchor ; there are some rocks , but they all stand above the water , so as easily they may be shunned . sect. 8. the rest of the roads upon the coast of ireland . to the west of fair-foreland the coast is flat and clean , so as there ships may anchor every where in eight and nine fathoms . under the point of eniston on the west-side one may anchor for easterly winds , or to stop the tide . between loughsuille and sheeps-haven is an inlet where ships may come to an anchor ; but the ground is somwhat foul . on the west-side of cape-horn ships may ride at anchor for easterly winds : and along the whole coast between cape-horn and the iles of aran is every where good anchor-ground ; as also upon the west-coast between st. johns-point and dungal-haven , being the space of five or six miles . in the sound of blaskets it is good anchoring on the south-side of the point for northern and western , and on the north-side for the contrary windes . on both sides of the old-head of kinsal● , by the dutch mariners called cape velho , ships may anchor as deep or shallow as they will. there is also a good inlet for to anchor in a few miles beyond the haven of cork ; and on the east-side of ardimore-head is a bay , where it is good riding for westerly winds in seven or eight fathoms . there is also a good anchoring place or two betwixt dungarvan and the haven of waterford . sect. 9. roads in the ilands of salters , dalkee , irelands-eye , and lambay . as for the roads in the ilands ; about half way betwix waterford haven and carnarord lie two litle ilands , a mile or two from the land , called salters : the southmost whereof , which lyeth furthest from the land , is much bigger than the other : ships may passe between these two ilands in five , six , and seven fathoms . on the east-side of the lesser iland is a good road to come to an anchor in seven or eight fathoms , where ships may ride in safety for south-west , west , and north-west winds : and on the north-west-side of the bigger iland ships may anchor in seven , eight , or nine fathoms , the road being defended off south-south-east , and east-south-east winds . close by the south point of dublin-bay lyeth a small iland , called dalkee , betwixt which and the main land passeth a sound seven , eight , and nine fathoms deep , in which you may anchor under the iland . on the north-side of the head of houth lyeth another small iland , scarce half a mile in compas ( where-in , as also in dalkee , no body inhabiteth , both serving only for to feed cattell ) having a decayed ●hapell on the west-side , over against which ships may come to an anchor . three or four miles beyond irelands ey lyeth the i le of lambry , belonging to sir william vsher of dublin , who hath there a fine litle castle of free stone , and close by it a village , wherein dwell divers families , of fishers and husband-men , who plow part of this iland , and upon the the rest seed cattell and sheep . the whole iland , being about three miles in compas , is high land , wherefore it may be seen a great way off . on the north-side of this iland ships may anchor in twelve and thirteen fathoms for a southerly wind . for a sea-wind the ships must ride on the west-side , over against the castle : but that road is not very good , because alwayes in that sound , being about three miles broad , goeth a great sea. sect. 10. roads in the rest of the litle ilands about ireland . right against the promontory of fair-foreland lyeth the iland raghleens , where ships may sail round about , as well at the out side , as betwixt it and the land , according as the wind and tide serve . on the south-west side is a fair bay with very fine sand-ground , where ships may ride defended off all winds . a litle way on this side and to the east of brandhaven lyeth skires portrush , a rockie iland , the which on the south-side hath a fair bay , very good sand-ground , where ships may anchor in six or seven fathoms , being sheltred of all winds , except the east-north-east wind , the which along the coast doth directly blow upon it . there is a good road on the south-east-side of the i le of aran , situated on the north-west-side of ireland : and betwixt this iland and the main there lye three or four small iles , where ships may anchor in divers places , and be secured off all winds . there is also a good road for some winds under eneskie iland ; the middlemost of the three ilands situated betwixt akill head and sline-head , called boche , where is good anchoring in four fathoms ; under the northern-most iland of those three lying in the mouth of the bay of galloway ; under enis morrow , one of the blaskees ; under dorses i le , lying betwixt the bayes of maire and bantree , in the sound which passeth betwixt the same i le and the main land . ten or twelve miles to the east of cork-haven lyeth an iland called balle-cotton , where ships may anchor in five or six fathoms for westerly and southerly winds . there is also a good road on the east-side of capel-iland , a little i le , lying three or four miles from the mouth of the haven of youghall . chap. iv. quality and fashion of the irish coast or shoares . item , a brief description of the principall promontories or heads of ireland . sect. 1. of the low and strandie shoares of ireland . the irish coast is not every where alike , but of severall sorts : in some places the land along the sea is low and flat , having a broad sandy strand , with a row of sandy hills , the which doth part the land from the strand , in the same maner as it is upon all the coast of holland and flaunders ( where these kind of hils are called duynen or downes ) only with this difference , that they are not so large nor high , as in the low-countries , and that the rowes of them take up but a little space in breadth . this kind of strand is in most parts of fingall ( being a portion of the countie of dublin northwards towards tredagh , and a good way beyond that , and els where . in other places ly no downes or sandy hills , nor any other heights , betwixt the strand and the land , it being only defended from the overflowing of the sea by an unsensible rising ▪ sect. 2. of the high and hilly shoares of ireland . in other places the land is high and hilly on the sea-side ; part whereof doth descend by degrees towards the sea , having a strand below ; but elswhere the land is high and steep , being washed underneath by the deep sea , so as ships of a great burthen may sayl close by it ; the which may be observed not onely in the heads or capes , the most part whereof are thus fashioned , but in many other places , & in great extents of the coast . for as concerning the saying of giraldus , that ireland every where upon the coast is very low , est per omnia sui latera a marináque littora terra valdè demissa , that is evidently repugnant to the truth . some of these high shoars are bare naked rocks , covered with very little or no earth , so as scarce any thing groweth upon them but dry grass and heath ; others are stony within , but have at the top a reasonable deep mould , and all over cloathed with good grass ; some of them being so exceeding steep towards the sea-side , that it is imposible for man or beast , being come to the further end , to go one step further , without falling down and being lost . so as it hath happened , that cattle and sheep feeding in those places , when they were come to the top , and following the grass , suddenly tumbled down , falling head-long into the sea , or upon the hard sharp rocks standing at the bottom . sect. 3. capes on the east-side of ireland . the heads or capes of ireland are in great number , and many of them very observable , to the great commodity of the sea-faring men . in the south-easterliest point of ireland is the cape of greenore , five or six miles to the south of the bay of wexford , being not very high , but steep , and flat at the top : and three or four miles to the south-west from it is the point of carnarord . betwixt wexford and dublin there bee five heads : that of glascarick , which the dutch mariners call the blew-point , and the steeppoint , twelve miles to the north of the bay of wexford , being of no great height . that of glaskermen or arklo being we●-near at the same distance from the head of glascarick , as that is from the bar of wexford . missan head , some nine or ten miles further to the north. the head of wickloe , six miles beyond missan-head , being steep and rocky , divided at the top into two little hillocks . and the fifth and last of all , that of bray , about fifteen miles beyond wickloe , and five or six miles to the south of the bay of dublin , being a great and high cape , shooting a good way into the sea , and so steep , that it is ten fathomes deep there close under the land . on the north-side of dublin-bay is the head of houth , a great high mountain , three or four miles compass in the bottom , having the sea on all sides , except the west-side , where with a long narrow neck it is joyned to the land ; which neck being low ground , one may from either side see the sea over it , so that afar off it seemeth as if it were an iland . this head may be seen a great way off at sea ; for even upon the land one may very perfectly see it , not only upon the key of dublin , which is six miles from thence , but nine or ten miles further westward . upon all the coast from the head of houth to dondrom , being the space of about threescore miles , is none considerable . but some miles beyond dondrom , and three or four miles at this side the haven of arglas , is st. johns-point , a head and fore-land which shooteth a good way into the sea. the next head beyond st. johns , is the point at the north-side of the haven of strangford , which the dutch mariners by a notable mistake call the point of arglas . all these capes lye on the east-side of ireland , whose utmost point northward is the promontory of fair-foreland . sect. 4. capes on the north-side of ireland . about fifty miles to the west of fair-foreland , and well near the middle of the north-coast , is the head of enyston , which with the land next adjoyning lyeth much more northward , and runneth further out into the sea than any other land upon this coast , being of a great height , so as it may easily bee known by any that once have seen it . some forty miles more westward beyond this promontory lyeth the cape which is known by the name of horn-head , being a hill with two hommocks at the top , in fashion somewhat like unto two horns , from whence it hath received its denomination . sect. 5. capes on the west-side of ireland . upon the west-side of the irish coast are four principal heads , viz. tellin-head , lying about thirty miles to the south-west of the iles of aran , the which are situated over against the north-westerlyest point of ireland . akil-head , some miles to the south of broad-haven , being not on the main , but in an iland . sline-head , which by the sea-faring men is called twelve-pence , because the land sheweth it self in twelve round hommocks , being situated well near in the middle of the west-coast : and lupis-head , which is the northern-point of the haven of limmerick . as for the other heads upon the same west-side , namely those three betwixt the haven of slego and broad-haven , by the irish pilots called can-moin , can-killaloy , and can-jores , ( can in irish betokeneth a head in all sorts of significations ) renilira and clegan , between akil-head , and sline-head ( which last the irish call can-leme ) brain and calew , situated to the south of the bay of galloway ; and can-sanan , being the south-point of the bay of limmerick ; those are less considerable . sect. 6. heads on the southern coasts of ireland . upon the south-west-side of ireland , the principall heads are cape-dorses ( situated in an iland of the same name , betwixt the two great bays of maire and bantree ) and messan-head , situated betwixt the bayes of bantree and baltimore ; being the same , in camdens opinion , which ptolomie calleth notium , that is southern , it being the most southerly point of all ireland . upon the south-east-side is the head of clare , standing in an iland on the east-side of the bay of baltimore ; and a great way from thence , the old head of kinsale , called cape velho by the dutch mariners ; which head , to those that come sayling along the land afar off , seemeth to be an iland , being a point which shooteth a great way into the sea , whose utmost , or most southerly end is very high and steep . upon the same side standeth the head of ardimore , which runneth a great way into the sea from the land on both sides , and because of its height may be seen many miles off . chap. v. of the sands or grounds , blind-rocks , and other rocks in the irish sea . sect. 1. of the grounds before the coast betwixt dublin and vvexford . the sea which invironeth ireland , is as free from shelves , sands , or grounds , as any in all the world , not alone upon the other sides , where the same is wide and open , far distant from all other lands , but upon the east-side , where the same is inclosed betwixt ireland and great-britain , in which whole space it hath not any other sands than those situated along the coast between dublin and wexford . these indeed are of a huge extent , but not turning and winding as most part of the grounds in other places , but in a streight line , north-north-east , & south-south-west , being farthest from the land with their north-end ; and as they go southward , so they do come nearer to the land ; and near the tuskar , a rock right against the point of greenore , in which place they end , they are not much more than two miles distant from the land ; whereas the distance betwixt the north-end , near the iland dalkee ( which iland , as before we have shewed , lyeth at the entrance of dublin-bay , about threescore miles from the tuskar ) is above eight miles . they are all of a stoney-ground , in some places but one fathom deep , and a fathom and a half ; but in the north-end two fathoms and a half , and three fathoms . betwixt these grounds and the land lye two or three little sands , besides those which lye in , and before the mouth of the bay of wexford : one betwixt the south-end and greenore ; another to the south of the head of glascarick , a good mile from the land , called rush and ram ; and a third one mile to the south of arcklohead , called glaskermen , somewhat more than half a mile from the land , and about two miles long . sect. 2. of the chanel betwixt the land and the forenamed grounds . the chanel betwixt the great grounds and the land is very deep all over , so that the biggest vessels may pass through it from dublin to wexford , and from wexford to dublin , taking care only that they doe not come too neer the grounds , the which being very steep on the inside ( as they are also without , or on the east-side , where ships may not come neerer to them than in 24. and 25. fathoms , because that in twenty fathomes one is close by them ) it is requisite not to goe further off from the land , than in seven or eight fathoms , in which depth ships may within a cabels length sail all along the coast , the which here every where is very clean , and free from all danger . and even between the land and the forenamed small grounds , glaskermen and rush and ram , the sea is very clean and deep , so as most ships doe passe betwixt them and the land , and not about by the out side of them . these sands in four severall places are cut thorough with fair broad and deep chanells , whereof the one is over against the bay of wexford ; the other against glascarick , beeing no less than fifteen or sixteen fathoms deep ; the third right against arckloe , in which chanel it is about seven or eight fathoms deep ; and the fourth is directly against wickloe . sect. 3. blind rocks upon the coast of ireland from the saltees unto wickloe . there are some blind rock in this sea , but lye for the most part close under the land , or neer some of the litle ilands or high rocks , so as they may easily be shunned , the rather , because most of them doe at low water appear either in part or altogether . to speak a litle of these in order : the saltees , two litle ilands situated half way between the haven of waterford and and the head of carnarord of the which hath been spoken heretofore ) have both at the north-side some blind rocks ; whereof those which ly neer the bigger and southermost iland , fall dry at low water . about three miles to the south of the same bigger iland lyeth a blind rock called kinmore , of the bignes of a ship , at half ebbe it cometh above water , and is so steep , that with the side of a ship one may ly close against it , and have fourteen fathomes of water , so as without any danger one may sail very close by it . to the south-east of the fore named bigger iland doe also lye some blind rocks , called the frailes , the which may be seen at low water , and ships may passe through the midst of them . about half a mile from blackrock ( a noted rock , whereof shall be spoken anon ) lyeth a blind rock , called the barrell , of the which one must take heed very carefully . a little to the west of carnarord lyeth a small rocky foul , close under the land . betwixt carnarord and st margarets bay it is foul and rocky , but the foul grounds doe not reach far into the sea. south-south-east from st margarets bay lyeth a blind rock , called caliogh , the which at low water falleth dry . from the point of greenore a riffe of blind rocks and stones runneth almost the length of a mile into the sea , the which at low water falleth dry a good way from the land . at the north-side of the head of arcklo lyeth a litle stony row , the which is shunned very carefully by the ships , not daring to come neerer to it than in five fathoms of water . sect. 4. the rest of the blind rocks upon the coast of ireland . iust to the south of the head of wickloe , a little way from the land , lyeth a rocky sand called horse-shoe ; betwixt which and the land ships may sail thorough , if need be : but that being full of danger , it is done very seldome ; and a little further to the south lyeth a little blind rock close by the land , called the wolfe , the which at half ebb cometh above water ; betwixt which and the land fishers boats doe passe . the like blind rocks & rockie sands lye upon the coast betwixt tredagh and dundalk , as also betwixt dundalk and carlingford , in both places close under the land : at both the points of the havens of carlingford & strangford ▪ under st iohns point , situated half way between those two havens : on both sides of those two great rocks , a litle way beyond strangford haven , called southrock and northrock : between the ilands of copland iles and the land , at the south-point of the bay of knockfergus : round about those great rocks over against oldfleet , called the nine maids : to the west of the little iland called sheeps-iland : betwixt port belletree and skires portrush , which rocks are called the chickens : half-way betwixt lough-suillie and sheeps-haven , a mile or two from the land , which rocks the flood doth cover , but at ebbe they come above water ; & in severall other places upon the west-coast & the south-coast the which it would be tedious all to particularise : wherfore we will conclude this rehearsall of the blind rocks with that which to the west of st iohns point ( a point situated three or four mile southwards from kilbeg-haven ) doth lye somwhat more than a mile off from the land , upon which the sea breaketh with great noise , and nevertheless one may freely and without any danger sail between the same and the land . sect. 5. rocks in the irish sea , upon the east-side and the north-side of the coast . there be also divers rocks that alwayes stand above water , the which as they are dangerous in the dark night , and in misty weather , so at other times they are rather profitable than hurtful , forasmuch as they serve the sea-faring men for sea-marks , and help them to discern the situation and distances of the coasts ; wherefore also the most part of them have received peculiar and proper names . the principall of this whole number is the tuskar , a great black smooth rock , of fashion like unto a ship turned the upside downwards , but as big again , lying south-eastwards from the point of greenore the space of three miles . to the south west of the tuskar a great way , and about a mile and a half from the bigger of the saltees , is the rock kinbeg . to the north-east of the saltees stand two rocks not far the one from the other , of which the one of its situation is called north-rock , & the southermost the tuns . to the east of these two , and about three miles from the point of carnarord , lyeth black-rock , being clean of all sides , so as ships may freely sail round about it without any fear or danger . a mile or two to the north of lambry lyeth a great rock called rock abill , about which ships may sail of all sides . two miles beyond the north-point of the haven of strangford are two great rocks , the one called north-rock , and the other , distant two miles from it to the south , south-rock : the north-rock is a number of rocks lying close together , divers whereof are covered at high-water . from the end of these two shoot out riffes of foul and rocky-ground ; but betwixt them goeth a broad , clean , and deep chanel , through which all manner of ships , even the biggest , may pass . six or seven miles to the north of the bay of knockfergus , and three miles from the land , are the nine mayds , being great rocks that lye but a little above the water , or low rocky-iles , with a great number of blind rocks about the same , so as ships may come no nearer to them than within five or six mile . of the same kind of low rocks , or little rocky-ilands , are also those who are called eneste●hull-ilands , being situated before the most northerly-point of ireland , betwixt lough-foile and lough-suillie . sect. 6. rocks in the irish-sea upon the western and the southern-coast . near the ilands of aran upon the north-west-coast of ireland , lye severall high rocks , called the stags of aran ; and such other rocks , called the stags of broad-haven , lye three or four miles from the northern-point of broad-haven . three miles to the north-west of akill-head lyeth black-rock , a great high and black rock , with severall other rocks near unto it . on the north-side and west-side of the ilands blaskes , lying over against the most westerly-point of ireland , are severall great rocks , some whereof are called the horses , and others the bucks . seven or eight leagues to the south of blaskes lye three great rocks , called the skellighs , the easterliest about three miles , and the westerliest six or seven miles from the land ; the which , to those that come from the south , when first they begin to see them , resemble the sails of ships . without the head of dorses lye three other great rocks , whereof the uttermost , or the most westerly , is called the bull , the middlemost the cow , and the third the calf , being clean round about , so as without any danger one may sail between them . five or six miles west and by south of the head of clare lyeth a high steep rock alone in the sea , called fastney , the which at the first appearing looketh like the sayl of a ship . two or three miles to the east of baltimore , and a mile or two from the land , lye five or six high steep rocks called the stags , as those of aran and broad-haven , to those that come from the east along the land , when first they begin to have them in sight , they resemble some spires or pointed-steeples standing together . two miles eastwards from the mouth of the haven of kinsale , lye two great black rocks , the one somwhat farther from the land than the other . there lie also severall rocks neer the little ilands of dalkee and irelands-eye , the one situated before the north-point , and the other before the south-point of the bay of dublin , as heretofore we have shewed : likewise on both ends of the i le of lambey , half way betwixt the same iland and tredagh-haven , close by the land ; near the iland ranghlins , near skires portrush , and in severall other places , but the principal and most considerable are those whereof we have spoken . chap. vi. of the nature of the irish-sea , and of the tides which go in the same . sect. 1. the irish-sea not so tempestuous as it is bruited to be . that part of the irish-sea which divideth ireland from great-britain , is very much defamed both by antient and modern writers , in regard of its boysterousness and tempestuousness , as if it were more subject to storms and raging weather than any other , and consequently not to be passed without very great danger : mare quod hiberniam & britanniam interluit , undosum inquietumque , toto in anno non nisi paucis diebus est navigabile : that is , the sea which passeth betwixt ireland and britain , is boysterous and restless , so as but few dayes in the year ships can go upon it ; saith solinus : with whom giraldus ( who several times went to and fro betwixt england and ireland ) fully agreeth , writing in this manner , hibernicum mare concurrentibus fluctibus undosissimum , fere semper est inquietum , it a ut vix etiam aestivo tempore paucis diebus se navigantibus tranquillum praebeat : that is , the irish-sea being very boysterous through the concourse of the waves , is almost alwayes restless , so as even in the summer-time it is hardly for a few dayes quiet enough to be sayled upon likewise also camden and speed give unto this sea the surnames of boysterous and tempestuous . yea it is a common proverb in england , as unquiet as the irish-sea . nevertheless it is nothing so bad as they make it ; and the words of stanyhurst , in his annotations upon giraldus , mare hibernicum satis tranquillum est , nisi ventorum vi agit●tur , & non solum aestate , sed etiam summa hyem● vectores ultro citroque navigant : the irish-sea is quiet enough , except when by high windes it is stirred , so as not only in the summer , but even in the midst of winter people do pass it to & fro , are altogether true , & confirmed by dayly experience . true it is that some ships do perish upon this , but the same happeneth as well upon other seas , who are all subject to the disaster of tempests and shipwracks . sect. 2. causes of the loss of such ships as perish upon this sea . the common cause of the casting away of ships upon this sea , and upon the east-coast of ireland , is this , that in the long dark winter-nights ( when this disaster is more frequent than at other times of the year ) some furious storm arising , the ships are dashed against the rocks , against the rocky shoares , or against those grounds which extend themselves betwixt the tuskar and the bay of dublin , whilst the steer-men and pilots by reason of the darkness not being able to discern the land , or any of their wonted marks , do not know which way to steer to shun those dangerous places , and to keep themselves in the open sea . sect. 3. nature of the ground of the irish-sea . the ground of the irish-sea , as well in the midst , as under the land , is almost every where clear sand ; but in some places black and muddy or oasi●-earth : in very few places rough and sharp ; and scarce any where else but in the bay of wickloe , so hard and stifly compacted , that the anchors can take no hold of it . sect. 4. of the tides in the irish-sea . what concerneth the ebbing and flowing in this sea , which invironeth ireland : upon all the west-side it floweth against the land , and the ebbe falleth back from it into the sea ; the flood from , and the ebbe towards the west ; for which reason very great tides , as well of ebbe as flood go upon all this coast , not onely the open shoares , but in the bayes and inlets ( even those which go a great way into the land , as the haven of limmerick ) so as those , who have been at galloway , do assure us , that it doth so mightily ebbe and flow there , that at high-water great vessels may sayl over those rocks , the which with the ebbe come above water . upon the other side of ireland it ebbeth and floweth along the land ; for upon the north-side of ireland the ebbe and flood falleth in the same manner as upon the west-side , flowing from , and ebbing towards the west . but upon the east-side , from fair-foreland unto carlingford , the flood commeth from , and the ebbe falleth to the north : as upon the rest of this east-side , to wit from carlingford to carnarord , it floweth from the south , and ebbeth from the north. for although upon all this side the flood runneth along the land , yet doth it not take its beginning from one and the same , but two contrary points ; the which two floods comming the one out of the main-sea in the north , and the other out of the main-sea in the south , do meet and stop one another before the haven of carlingford . from tuskar and carnarord as far as to the head of clare , being the whole south-eastcoast of munster , the flood falleth along the coast east-north-east , and the ebbe west-south-west . but upon the rest of the coast of munster , beyond the head of clare westward , which coast lyeth west and by south , the flood falleth east-ward , and the ebbe to the west . sect. 5. strong tides in the sounds . strange proprietie of the bay of wexford in the matter of tides . that which the sea-faring men do witness , that in the sound of blaskes , of dalkee , and in that of lambey , as also in some other narrow chanels of this sea , there goeth a very strong tide , as well of the ebbe as flood , is no other than may be observed almost every where else in places of the like nature . but it is much to be wondered , what the same do relate of the chanel , or entrance of the haven of wexford , to wit , that it ebbeth and floweth there three houres sooner than without in the open sea ; so as when it is high water in the chanel of that haven , and upon the bar of the same , the flood doth still for half a tide , or three hours after , strongly run by it to the north ; whereby it cometh to pass that the end of hanemans-path ( a great sand lying just before the haven of vvexford ) is cast up more and more to the north ; and that the chanel which passeth by the north-side of that sand , being the entrance of the haven , is now more to the north than it hath been formerly . and as it floweth three houres longer in the open sea than upon the bar and in the chanel of this haven , in the like manner also , the ebbe in the sea falleth to the south three houres after that it is low water in the same place , but not so strongly as the flood . sect. 6. some other strange particulars about the tides in the i●ish-sea , related by giraldus , but found not to be true . more strange it is what giraldus writeth of the havens of wickloe and arckloe , to wit , that in vvickloe-haven it ever floweth , when in the sea it ebbeth ; and that it ebbeth there when it floweth in the sea . and that in the same river ( this haven being nothing else but the mouth of a little river ) the water is salt as well when the ebbe is at the lowest , as at the flowing and high-water : and that to the contrary in that riveler , which at arcklo dischargeth it self into the sea , the water keepeth its sweetness at all times ( never receiving the mixture of any saltness ) as well with the flood and high-water , as with the ebbe . but experience sheweth these things to be repugnant to the truth ; as also what he writeth of a rock not far from arcklo , at the one side wherof he saith that it alwayes ebbeth , when it doth flow on the other ; and to the contrary . also that in milford-haven ( situated in the southernmost part of wales , in a manner over against waterford ) and upon the next coasts , it ebbeth and floweth at quite contrary times to what it doth at dublin , and the coast thereabouts ; so that it should begin to ebbe in milford-haven , when in the bay of dublin it beginneth to flow , and to flow in milford-haven when it beginneth to ebbe at dublin : which how untrue it is , all those can witnes , who having bin in both places , have had the curiosity to observe the times and houres , at what age of the moon soever , wherein it doth begin to ebbe and to flow there . chap. vii . of the springs and fountains , item of the brooks and rivelets of ireland . sect. 1. of the springs and fountains . having sufficiently spoke of the sea wherin ireland lyeth , and of whatsoever belongeth thereunto ; we shall now , before we come to treat of the land it self , speak of the waters within the land ; first of the springs and brooks , afterwards of the rivers , and lastly of the loughs or lakes . as for the first , to wit fountains and springs , ireland is very full of them every where , not only in the mountainous and hilly parts , but even in the flat and champain countries : which springs for the most part are all of one and the same fashion , being like unto a small pit full of water up to the brim ; at the lower ●ide whereof the water doth run forth , without making any noise or bubling . for that kind of fountains which forcibly burst out of the side of a rock , or spout their water on high , are very rarely to be found in this kingdom . the water of these well-springs is for the most part cool , clear , and pure ; free from all strange smell and tast : in which properties nevertheless , and in the wholsomness of the water , the same differences are found , and for the same causes , as in other countries . for those which spring out of a gravelly or sandy ground are purer than those that spring out of earth or clay ; those that rise out of a stony or rocky ground , cooler than any of the former ; those that are exposed to the sun , and freely receive the bea●● thereof , especially of the morning sun , have lighter and wholsomer water , although less cool than those which are contrarily seated ; and so for the rest . sect. 2. spaes and holy-wels in ireland . a few yeares since some fountains have been discovered in ireland , some of them not far from dublin , and others in other parts , whose veines running through certain minerals , and washing off the vertue of the same , yeeld a medicinall water , apt to open the obstructions of mans body , and to cure other accidents thereof ; which kind of fountains are commonly called spaes , a name borrowed of a certain village in the country of liege , in which there is a spring of that sort , absolutely the principallest , and the most effectuall of all those of the same kind , and therefore of very great renown in near and in far countries . besides these spaes there are also a great number of other fountains throughout all the land , called holy-wels by the inhabitants , whose water not differing from that of other wels , in smell , tast , or in any other sensible quality , neverthelese is beleeved to be effectuall for the curing of severall diseases . but experience doth shew , that those vertues are not found in the springs themselves , but onely in the vain imagination of the superstitious people ; the which also having dedicated every one of those to some particular saint , do expect the supposed vertue rather from the power of them , than from any naturall efficaciousness inherent in the water it self . sect. 3. of the fabulous fountains of giraldus cambrensis . as for those wonderfull springs mentioned by giraldus cambrensis , one in munster , whose water presently maketh them gray that wash their head or beard therewith ; one in ulster , of quite contrary vertue , so that the persons washed therewith never come to be gray ; one in connaught , whose water good and commodious for the drinking , and other uses of men , is hurtfull , yea deadly to cattle , sheep , horses , and all other sorts of beasts ; and yet another in the same province , the which being on the top of a high hill , far from the sea side , ebbeth and floweth twice a day , in the same manner as the sea , i could not hitherto come to the speech of any , who in our times had seen those fountains , or observed any such thing in them : which maketh mee doubt , that that good man hath been deceived herein by his credulity , as in innumerable other things , the which being evidently untrue and fictitious , are by him related for certain truths . as in this matter who seeth not the idleness of that fiction concerning a certain fountain in munster , whereof he writeth , that as soon as any body doth touch it , or but look at it , it beginneth presently to rain most heavily over all the province , and continueth so to do , untill a certain priest , appointed for that purpose , and who hath never lost his maiden-head , do appease the fountain , in singing a mass in a chappel standing not far from thence , and built expresly for that end ; and in be sprinkling the same fountain with holy-water , and with the milk of a cow of one colour . sect. 4. of the brooks in ireland . no country in the world is fuller of brooks , than ireland , where the same be numberless & water all the parts of the land on all sides . they take their beginning three severall manner of waies . some have their source of fountains , the which for the most part are very small , not only those who carry the water but of one spring ( most of which are rather like unto a gutter , than a brook ) but even those into which the water of severall fountains doth flow together . others rise out of bogs , the which besides their own universall wetness being full of springs , and by reason thereof gathering in them more water than they are able to drink in or contain , doe necessarily send out the same in convenient places , and so give a beginning unto rivelets and brooks . the third sort take their beginning out of certain small loughs , which brooks ordinarily are of a reasonable bignes , and farre surpasse the other two sorts ; although there doe not want some , even of this kind , which are very little . and there is very few of any of these kinds , who come to any notable bignes , as long as they continue to be solitary , and untill having received the water of severall other brooks , doe thereby grow more considerable than they were in their first originall . these brooks , besids the great good they do the land in watering the same , & besides the commodity they afford of drenching the cattle & other beasts ; do also greatly serve the inhabitants for another good use , to wit the grinding of their corn , wherunto the windmils are very little used in ireland , because they have the conveniency , through the great number of brooks , to erect watermills in every quarter where it is necessary : which bring a great profit to the owners , being kept and maintained with less cost and labour . sect. 5. of the swelling and overflowing of the brooks . some of the brooks doe flow in an equall bigness all the year long , without receiving any notable increase or diminishing : but far the major part doe change according to the wet or dry seasons of the ye●r , and as many of them as come out of the mountaines , or run thorough hilly countries , swell so excessively , when any great rain doth fall , that they not only overflow the next low grounds , doing many times great damage in them , but also bring the wafering men into great distresse ; for it cometh to passe very oft , that a brook , which ordinarily is very shallow and still , riseth so mightily through the multitude of the rain water , which from the next mountains and hills descendeth into it , that a good horse cannot passe without swimming , where at other times a child easily may wade over : and with that adundance of water is commonly joined so strong and impetuous a current , that man and horse are often caried away with it , to their extreme danger ; and what soever wee say here-in of the brooks , is much more to bee understood of the rivers , the which otherwise in convenient places or foards may be passed over ; wherein the aforesaid danger is greater yet : so that few yeares passe in ireland , in the which some persons are not drowned in that fashion . sect. 6. strange invention of a man to pass a brook , greatly risen by the abundance of rain . it shall not be improper to insert here a particular observed by a very credible and reverend person , theophilus buckwort , bishop of dremore , the which he hath severall times related to my brother and others , being this ; the lagon , a little river or brook which passeth by the town of dremore , upon a certain time being greatly risen through a great and lasting rain , and having carryed away the woodden-bridge , whereby the same used to be passed at that town ; a country fellow who was travelling that way , having stayed three dayes in hope that the water would fall , and seeing that the rain continued , grew impatient of staying longer , and resolved to pass the brook whatever the danger was ; but to doe it with the less perill , and the more steadiness , he took a great heavy stone upon his shoulders , whose weight giving him some firmness against the violence of the water , he passed the same without harm , and came safe to the other side , to the wonderment of many people , who had been looking on , and given him all for a lost person . sect. 7. of the brooks of dromconran and rafernam by dublin . of these dangerous brooks there are two hard by dublin , both running into the haven somewhat more than a mile from the citie , the one at the north-side thereof , a little below the village dromconran , which is seated upon the high-way from dublin to drogheda ; and the other at the south-side , close by the rings-end . this called rafernam-water of the village by which it passeth two miles from the sea , and the same distance from dublin , is far the worst of the two , as taking its beginning out of those great mountains south-wards from dublin , from whence after any great rain such abundance of water is descending to it , that the same , which at other times is of very little depth , groweth thereby so deep , and exceeding violent , that many persons have lost their lives therein ; amongst others mr. iohn vsher , father to sir william vsher that now is , who was carryed by the current , no body being able to succour him , although many persons , and of his nearest friends , both afoot and horsback were by on both the sides . since that time a stone bridge hath been built over that brook ( as over dromconran-water there hath been one from antient times ) upon the way betwixt dublin and rings-end ; which was hardly well accomplished , when the brook in one of those furious risings quite altered its chanel for a good way , so as it did not pass under the bridge as before , but just before the foot of it , letting the same stand upon the dry land , and consequently making it altogether useless : in which perverse course it continued , untill perforce it was constrained to return to its old chanel , and to keep within the same . to go from dublin to rafernam , one passeth this river upon a woodden-bridge ; the which although it be high and strong , nevertheless hath severall times been quite broke , and carryed away through the violence of sudden floods ; although at other times , and when that brook doth onely carry its ordinary water , a child of five yeares may easily and without danger wade through it ; and a tall man on horsback riding underneath it , not being able to reach it ; in the great floods the water many times riseth so high , as that it doth not onely touch , but floweth quite over the bridge . chap. viii . of the rivers of ireland . sect. 1. of the shanon . besides the excessive number of brooks wherwith ireland is watered , it hath a good many rivers , the which being broader and deeper than the brooks , are consequently navigable ; although the major part are not portable of any great ships nor barks , but only of small vessels and boats . the principallest of all is the shanon , who taking his originall out of lough-allen , and in his course dividing the province of connaught from leinster , and afterwards also from munster , passeth through two other great loughs , to wit lough-ree , whereout she cometh just above atlone ( a mean market-town , but adorned with a stately and strong castle , the ordinary residence of the presidents of connaught ) and lough-dergh , about half way betwixt atlone and limmerick , and a little below the said town shee dischargeth her self again into another lough , by far the biggest of all , the which extending it self from limmerick unto the sea , and above fifty miles long , it is held by the irish as well as the english not for a lough , but for the shanon it self , and consequently called with that name ; whereof hath been spoken in the second chapter . this river is wide and deep every where , so as she would be navigable in her whole length , not only with boats of all sorts , but with reasonable big ships , to the great commodity of them that inhabit near it , were it not for the impediment of a certain rock , some six miles above limmerick , the which standing across in the chanel , and the river with great violence falling downwards over it , all communication of navigation betwixt the upper and the lower parts of it is thereby absolutely hindred . sir thomas wentworth , lord wentworth , and afterwards earl of strafford , he that in in the beginning of this present parliament was beheaded , having been governour of ireland many yeares , first in the quality of lord deputy , and afterwards of lord lieutenant , had a design to take away that let , in causing of a new channel to be digged for a little way , whereby the river being made to alter her course , should have avoyded that rock ; and to that purpose sent certain skilfull men thither to view those parts , and carefully to examine whether it were feasible , who made report that it might be done , and would not cost above seven or eight thousand pounds sterling , a sum not very considerable in comparison of the great profit which afterwards would have been reaped from that work : nevertheless it was never taken in hand , the intents of publick utility having been diverted and smothered by those of private profit , as commonly it falleth out . sect. 2. the rivers suck , sure , oure , broad-water , barrow , and slane . there are several other rivers in the province of connaught , but none of them is any waye comparable with the shanon for length , bredth , or depth , and little to be said of them , but that the suck , the which falleth into the shanon a little way below atlone , is the principallest of all . the two chief rivers of munster are sure and broad-water , the city of waterford being situated upon the first of those two , the which close by it dischargeth her self into that arm of the sea which is known by the name of waterford-haven . the other passeth by lismore , and falleth into the sea by youghall , where it maketh a tide-haven . next to those two is the river of cork , and then that of kinsale , the which is but of small moment , as also are the rest of the rivers of this province . in leinster is the nure or oure , the barrow , the slane , the liffie , and the boine , besides some others of less moment . the oure and barrow do mingle their waters at the town of ross , from whence having past a little way together , they discharge themselves into the right arm of the haven of waterford , and so in a manner doe meet the sure , who falleth into the other arm : for which consideration these three rivers were wont to be called the three sisters , as giraldus witnesseth . both the oure and the barrow are portable many miles into the country ; the oure onely with little boats , and with cots ( they call in ireland cots things like boats , but very unshapely , being nothing but square peeces of timber made hollow ) but the barrow with good big boats. the slane falleth into the haven of vvexford , being like unto the oure for length and bigness . sect. 3. of the liffie and the boine . the liffie is the princess of the irish-rivers , not for her bigness ( for not only the shanon , but the boine , barrow , and severall others , do far surpass her therein ) but because dublin , the chief city of all ireland , is seated upon her banks ; a mile below which city , at a place called rings-end , she loseth her self in a bay of the sea , which is called dublin-haven . with the help of the flood , ships of fifty and threescore tuns can make a shift to come up to the key of dublin , but when the tide is out , and at the lowest , the smallest boats find hardly water enough to go between dublin and rings-end , because the chanel being very broad there , the water spreadeth it self too much , and by reason thereof groweth very shallow . but in the city it self , where she is inclosed betwixt the keys on both sides , and from the bridge of dublin untill the bridge of kilmanan , and a little further , being somewhat more than a mile ( in which space she runneth between her own banks ) great boates may goe upon her at any time . she would be navigable with boats some three or four miles further ; but the weres , made in her a little way above the bridge of kilmanan , doe hinder that . this river taketh her beginning in the mountaines lying to the south of dublin , not above ten miles from it ; but fetcheth such a compass ( bending her coast first to the west , afterwards to the north , and lastly , for seven or eight miles , eastward ) that from her originall to her mouth is the space of no less than forty or fifty miles . the boine the river where-on tredagh is seated , hath her beginning in kings county , close by the originall of the barrow , although the place where the barrow falleth into the haven of waterford , is above fourscore miles distant from the mouth of the boine . this river is almost of an equall bigness in farre the greatest part of her course , and would be portable of good bigg boates very many miles into the land , if that were not hindred by the weres . sect. 4. of the band and blackwater . the principall river in vlster of those that fall directly into the sea , is the band , the which as in her mouth , she is incumbred with severall inconvenients , as wee have declared above in the third chapter , so she is portable but a few miles from the sea , because of a certain rock , the which running across the chanel from the one bank to the other , stoppeth all manner of passage , not only of bigger vessels and barks , but of the smallest boates , which dare not come neer the same rock , because it being somewhat high , and the water from it falling downwards with great violence , it goeth for some space with a mighty current . this rock or cataract , called vulgarly the salmon-leap ( for a reason hereafter to be declared ) and the fall , because of the falling down of the water , is not above four miles from the sea , hindring all manner of communication between the same and lough neaugh , from the which this cataract is distant about three miles : whereas otherwise , if the passage of this river from the sea to the lough were open , ships might by that meanes goe a great way into the land , not only the whole length and breadth of lough neaugh ( which every where is very deep , and navigable even for great ships ) but even a good many miles farther ( with good big boates ) by meanes of some rivers that fall into it , especially the black-water , which is the principallest of them all . for the band , although she giveth the name to the river going out of the lough , is not comparable to the black-water for breadth nor depth , beeing rather a brook than a river , the which being very shallow at other times , doth rise so excessively upon the falling of much rain , that it is one of the most dangerous and terrible brookes of all ireland , in the which therefore from time to time many men and horses have been drowned at the passing of it . sect. 5. of the lagon and nury-water : tide-rivers . besides the band and the black-water , there is scarce any other river in vlster , but that which passing by strebane and london-derrie , dischargeth it self into lough-foile . for the lagon , hereto●ore mentioned by us , which by belfast falleth into the sea ; the nury-water ▪ whereof wee have spoken in the description of carlingford-haven ; and some others of that nature , are properly brooks , and not portable by reason of their own water , but of that which out of the sea floweth into them ; as appeareth clearly when the tide is out . for then they are as small , and as little portable in those places , where the boates and bigger vessels doe pass at high water , as are they at all times in those places unto which the tide doth never reach : which kind of tide-rivers or brooks , which only by the comming in of the tide are made navigable for a little way , are to be found in all the provinces of ireland . sect. 6. of the cataracts in the irish rivers . besides that the navigable rivers are but rare in ireland , and that the most part of them are only portable of very small vessels and boats , not of any bigger ships or barks , as appeareth by the former relation , there be very few rivers , who have not some impediment or other in them , whereby it commeth that they are not portable so farre , as otherwise they would be . these impediments are chiefly three in number , cataracts , weres , and foards ; whereof the last two doe only concern the lesser rivers . the first , to wit the cataracts , are incident to the greatest rivers as well as to others , as may appear by what wee have said concerning them in the description of the shanon and the band ; whereby also fully may be conceived the manner and nature of the said cataracts , so as it is needless here again to delineate them . such a cataract or fall there is found in the liffie , seven miles from dublin , and about a quarter of a mile above the village and castle of leslip , the description of which as holding it not improper for this place , wee shall here set down as it came to our hands from those who have observed it very exactly . the said river running there abouts along a narrow and deep valley , being hemmed in at both sides with high hils of a long continuance , hath a very rockie chanel , and besides that the bottom is overspread in severall parts with great massie stones , there is in two or three places , at no great distance , a contin●all rocky bulk reaching from one side to the other , leaving but one or two narrow passages , through which the stream runneth with a very strong current , and a mighty noise , but the third and last bulk , like a cataract hath the chanel close to it , a great deal lower ( by far more than the other , at least by seven or eight feet ) which is the cause that the stream doth not so much run swift here , or passeth with a current through narrow channels , as in the two first bulks , but as soon as it is got over the rock it falleth steep down with great violence , the space of three or four paces in breadth ; where as the remainder of the main chanel is altogether stopped by the said rock . in winter and other very rainy seasons , when the water doth increase much , it passeth over all the said rockes smoothly and without noise , where the same is exceding great , those times , when the liffie runneth with a small streame . there is also a cataract in a small tide river in the county of cork in munster , the which falleth into the innermost corner of the great bay bantrie , and one in the haven of balle-shanon , which haven being in effect nothing els but the mouth of lough-earne , commonly is counted for a river , and called by the name of trowis sect. 7. of the foards in the rivers of ireland a second impediment of their navigableness . concerning the foardes ; it is to be observed , that not every where , where the high-wayes meet with great brooks or small rivers , bridges are found for to pass them , but that in very many places one is constrained to ride through the water it self , the which could not be done , if the rivers kept themselves every where inclosed between their bancks ; wherefore they are not only suffered in such places , to spread themselves abroad , but men help there to as much as they can , to make the water so much the shallower and consequently the easier to be passed : whereby it commeth many times to pass , that a river which above and below the foard is deep enough to be portable of great boates , through the shallowness of the foards lying between ▪ will bear none but of the very smallest ; or where otherwise the same would carry small boats is not portable at all ; this in most places might easily be remedied , in raising of dikes or artificiall banks , where the naturall ones failing doe minister opportunitie unto the rivers fo● to spread themselves ; and making bridges to pass over . some foards , do not greatly impair the chanel of the rivers , but leave the same almost in her full depth , especially in the midst ; but the same , as they are more incommodious for the traveller , so they are not very frequent , but in far less number than the others . sect. 8. of the weres , a third impediment of the navigableness of the rivers in ireland . the weres , a third ●et of the navigation of the irish rivers , are thus ordered : they set up very big stones in the river , close together from the one side of the river to the other , leaving only one hole , either in the midst , or near one of the sides , before which hole a basket being layd , they take therein a great quantity of fish ; for comming to the weres , and finding their way stopt by the stones , they take their course to that place where they find an opening . these rows of stones doe not directly cross the river from the one side to the other , but doe go very much floaping , that the stream with less force may beat against them : and the same also doe stand but very little above the water , to the end that when the flouds come the water may find a ready passage over them , without which they would not be able to subsist against the force thereof , but easily be thrown down and scattered . some weres are set up , not so much for the taking of fish , as for mils , and that the course of the water thereby being in part stopped in the main chanel , may be made to go into some little by-chanel , cut expresly for to conveigh the water to the mill : many weres serving for both these uses jointly . some rivers have onely one of these impediments , as the shanon and the band , each a fall or cataract : the boine , weres ; having onely foards , many miles from the sea . the grea●●st number have weres and foards , and commonly each of them in severall places . some have all three , as the liffie by name , which hath not only weres and foards in severall places , but also a cataract or salmon-leap , as hath been mentioned above . chap. ix . of the lakes or loughs in ireland . sect. 1. of the little loughs . loughs there is a very great number in ireland , especially in the provinces of ulster and connaught , we may distinguish them into three severall sorts , great , middle-sort , and the least . under this last we comprehend all such whose parts discover it self to the eye all over at one time . this sort of loughs are found in severall places of the other provinces , but nothing near so many as in ulster . every one of these commonly sends forth a brook , and some more than one , being all of them very deep ( the very least not excepted ) and well-stored with fish : so as they are not only delightfull , especially such as are situated in some dale or valley , or environed round about , or on some sides with pleasant little hils ( as it falleth out in the greatest part of them ) but also commodious and profitable , affording good opportunity to build houses and castles upon their borders , which was done in ●any places by the english and scotch , who had made severall fair plantations , and would have done more , if it had not been hindered by that horrible rebellion of the bloody irish ; in the beginning of which many of them which were already built have been destroyed by those barbarians . many of these little loughs have a little lland in the midst , which is both commodious and pleasant . some wherein little llands doe float , not keeping long any certain place , but removing to and fro as the force of the wind doth drive them . sect. 2. of the middle-sort of loughs . the middle-sort of loughs we understand to be such as far exceeding the fore-mentioned in bigness , nevertheless are not to be compared with the biggest sort , of which we shall speak presently : of this kind are lough-fin and lough-dirg in the county of donegal in ulster , lough-mugkney in the county of monaghan , and lough sillon in the county of cavan , both in the same province ; lough-ranmore in eastmeath : besides several others in other counties of leinster , especially in queens-county , longford , and westmeath , having little or nothing worthy of observation . sect. 3. of the great loughs , and first of those of salt-water . the great loughs are of two sorts , either of sweet-water , as all the former ; and some of salt-water ; these last being such through the mixture of the sea ; the which finding an open entrance , and twice a day with the tide fully flowing into them , maketh the water so salt . and it would be no great error to take all those loughs wherein that happeneth , ( viz. lough cone , in the county of down ; lough-foile , in the county of colrain ; lough-suille , in tirconnell ; and the lough of cork ) rather for inlets of the sea than for lakes , although the inhabitants hold them all to be loughs , and give them the name of loughs : and in this number is also to be put that great lough betwixt limmerick and the sea , through which the shanon dischargeth it self into the sea ; of the which we have already spoke once or twice heretofore . sect. 4. of lough-earne , lough-neaugh , and the rest of the great loughs . amongst the great loughs of sweet-water , are far the principallest lough-earne & lough-neaugh , the first of which is situated in the confines of ulster and connaught , being in effect two different loughs , joyned together onely by a short and narrow chanel ; of which two , that which lyeth farthest within the land , doth extend it self in a manner directly north and south ; but the second , which is next to the sea , doth lye east and west ; so that both together they have the fashion of a bended elbow , being both very broad in the midst , growing by degrees narrower towards both the ends . lough-neaugh lyeth in the north-easterly part of ulster , bordering upon the counties of tirone , armagh , down , antrim , and colrain , being of a round , or rather somwhat ovall figure . next in bigness to these two is lough-corbes , the same on whose neather-end the city galloway is seated : the two loughs thorough which the shanon passeth , lough-ree , and lough-dirg : item lough-fingarrow in connaught , betwixt the counties of maio and roscomen . in the last place , as the least of this sort , are lough-allen , out of which the shanon taketh his originall , being nine miles long , and three miles broad : lough-me●ke , situated betwixt lough-fingarrow and the lough of galloway ; and lough-larne , in the county of kerry in munster , not far from the upper-end of those two famous bayes dingle and maire . the least of these is some miles long and broad , and many miles in circuit ; but the biggest are of so vast a compass , that they are more like a sea than a lough . sect. 5. of the ilands in the loughs . most of these great loughs are very full of little ilands , and above all lough-earne , in which the same are numberless . in lough-cone also there is so great a number , that those who inhabit about it , affirm them to bee two hundred and threescore . lough-ree , and lough-dirg are likewise very full of them : and there is also a good many in lough-fingarrow , lough-larne , and suille . but lough-foile is very free from them , and in the lough of cork there is not above one or two , as likewise in lough-neaugh , in which they lye near to the ●ides , leaving the midst altogether free . very few of these ilands are inhabited or planted ; but the most part being plentifully cloathed with very sweet grass , serve for pastures to sheep and other cattle , the which doe thrive wonderfully well in them , and the same befalleth also in the middle sort of loughs , amongst which likewise there be very few that have not some of these little ilands in them . in some few of these ilands , especially of lough-earne and lough-ree , are some dwellings , whereunto persons who love solitariness were wont to retire themselves , and might live there with much contentment , as finding there not only privacy and quietness , with opportunity for studies and contemplations , but there besides great delightfulness in the place it self , with variety of very sweet pastimes in fowling , fishing , planting , and gardening . in one of the greatest ilands of lough-earne , sir henry spotteswood had a fine seat , with goodly buildings , gardens , orchards , and a pretty little village , with a church and steeple belonging to it , which whither it is in being yet , or destroyed by the barbarians and bloody rebels , i am not informed . in lough sillon in the county of cavan in a iland not far from the bank where the river nanne● runneth into it , is a castle built of form four square , which covereth the whole i le , much after the manner of the fort eneskellin in lough-earne , and so many more to long to be rehearsed . sect. 6. of st patriks purgatory . one of these little ilands situated in lough-dirg ( one of the middle-sort of loughs ) hath been very famous , for the space of some ages , over almost all christendome ; because the world was made to beleeve , that there was the suburbs of purgatorie , into which whoso had the courage to goe , and remaine there the appointed time , did see and suffer very strange and terrible things : which perswasion having lasted untill our times , the matter hath been discovered with in these few yeares , and found to be a meer illusion . this discoverie was made during the goverment of richard boile , earle of cork , and adam lostus , vicount of elie , and lord chancellour of ireland : which two being lords iustices of that kingdome in the last yeares of king iames , & desirous to know the truth of the business , sent some persons of qualitie to the place , to inquire exactly into the truth of the whole matter . these did find , that that miraculous and fearfull cave , descending down to the very purgatorie and hell , was nothing els but a little cell , digged or hewen out of the rockie ground , without any windowes or holes , so as the doore beeing shut one could not see a jot within it ; beeing of so little depth , that a tall man could but just stand upright in it , and of no greater capacity , than to contain six or seven persons . now when that any person desirous to goe that pilgrimage to purgatory , was come into the iland , the friars , some small number whereof made their constant aboad there for that purpose , made him watch and fast excessively : whereby , and through the recounting of strange and horrible apparitions and ●antasmes , which he would meet withall in that subterranean pilgrimage , being well preepared , they did shut him up in that little dark hole : and beeing drawn out again from thence after some houres , altogether astonished and in a maze , he would be a good while before he came again to himself ; and afterwards the poor man would tell wonderfull stories , as if in very deed he had gone a great way under the ground , and seen and suffered all those things , which his weak imagination , altogether corrupted by the concurrence and sequel of so many causes to weaken the braine , did figure unto him . to prevent this delusion in future times , the said lords iustices caused the friars to depart from thence , their dwelling quite to be demolished , and the hole or cell to be broke open , and altogether exposed to the open aire , in which state it hath lyen ever since : whereby that pilgrimage to purgatory is quite come to nothing , and never hath bin undertaken since by any . to beget the greater reputation to this sictitious purgatory , the people was made to beleeve , that st patrick , by whome the irish were converted to the christian-faith about four hundred yeares after the nativity of christ , had caused the same , and obtained it of god by his prayers , to convince the unbeleevers of of the immortality of the soul , and of the torments which after this life are prepared for the wicked persons ; wherefore also they gave it the name of st patricks purgatorie . but it is very certain , that nothing of it was known in ireland during the life of that holy person , nor in a huge while after , it having been devised some ages after his death , when that the general darkness of the times ministred a great opportunity of such like inventions , to those kind of men that knew how to abuse the blind devotion of ignorant and superstitious people to their own profit and filthy lucre . sect. 7. of the property of lough-neaugh , of turning wood into stone . before we make an end of this chapter , we must say something of the wonderful property which generally is ascribed to lough-neaugh , of turning wood into stone ; whereunto some do adde , to double the wonder , that the wood is turned not only into stone , but into iron ; and that a branch or pole being stuck into the ground somewhere by the side , where it is not too deep , after a certain space of time one shall find that peece of the stick which stuck in the ground , turned into iron , and the middle , as far as it was in the water , into stone ; the upper-end , which remained above the water , keeping its former nature . but this part of the history i beleeve to be a fable : for my brother , who hath been several times in places not far distant from that lough , and who of the english there abouts inhabiting hath enquired this business with singular diligence , doth assure me , that he never could learn any such thing ; but that the turning of wood into stone was by every one beleeved for certain , as having been tryed divers times by severall persons : saying moreover to have understood of them , that the water hath this vertue onely at the sides , and that not every where , but onely in some few places , especially about that part where the river blackwater dischargeth her self into the lough . he could never come to speak with any persons , who themselves had tryed this matter ; but with severall , who affirmed , that to their knowledge it had certainly been done by others of their acquaintance . for further confirmation of this particular ( which in it self is credible enough , seeing that in many parts of the world there are found waters indued with that vertue ) serveth , that here and there upon the borders of that lough are found little stones of a pretty length , some of them round in their compass , others flat , or flattish , and some angulous , the which being looked on , as well near as from afar off , seem to be nothing else but wood , and by every one are taken for such , untill one come to touch and handle them : for then by their coldness , hardness , and weight , it appeareth that they are not wood but stone : whereby it may probably be conjectured , that the same formerly having been wood indeed , and so having kept their old shape and fashion , in length of time have been turned into a stony substance by the vertue of that water , wherinto they were fallen through the one accident or other . giraldus writeth , to have heard of a well or fountain in the north-quarters of ulster , the which in seven years space turneth into stone the wood cast into it : but seeing that no body now adayes knoweth of any such well , and that with all my enquires i could never come to hear any news of it , i will beleeve , that giraldus hath been mis-informed , and that they have told him that of a well which was proper unto this lough . chap. x. of the nature and condition of the land , both for the outward shape , and for the internall qualities and fruitfulness . sect. 1. distinction of ireland into champain-lands , hils , and mountains . the lands of this iland , as of most all other countryes , are of a various kind & fashion : for some parts are goodly plain champain , others are hilly , some mountainous , and others are composed of two of these sorts , or of all three together , and that with great variety , the which also is very great , in those three un-compounded sorts . sect. 2. a necessary observation about the use of the words hill and mountain . to avoyd all ambiguity , and make our selves cleerly understood in what wee have sayd , and are further to say upon this subject , wee think it necessary to forewarn our reader , that we do use the word hill in a narrower signification , than what is given to it in the ordinary use of speech . for whereas all , or most other languages , both those which are now in vulgar use , and those which are only preserved in books , have two severall words for to signifie those observable heights which appear above the ground , calling the bigger sort by one name , and the lesser sort by another : the english language useth one and the same word for both , calling hils aswell the one as the other , without any other distinction , but that sometimes the word small or great is added . now because this word so indifferently used would cause some confusion in the matter we treat of , that hath made us restrain it to one of the sorts , and to call hils onely the lesser sort , called in latin collis , in french colline , in dutch heuvel , and in irish knock . as for the other and bigger sort , whose name in the aforesayd four languages is mons , mountain , berg , slew , we call them mountains : which word mountains , although it be good english , yet in common speech it is seldom made use of in that sense whereunto we apply it , but only to signifie a country wholly consisting of those great hils , especially when the soyl thereof is lean and unfruitfull . sect. 3. of the mountains of ireland , and first of the lower sort . the difference betwixt hils and mountaines consisting in bigness , is of two sorts ; for in the number of mountains are counted not only those which lift up themselves very high into the air so as they may be seen many miles off , but also those , the which take up the more in length and breadth , what is wanting to them in height , ascending slopinly by degrees . the mountainous parts of ireland do for the most part consist of this second part of mountains , most of them in one quarter being much-what of the same height , so as sometimes one shall ride some houres together , through the mountainous country , without meeting with any one mountain that greatly excelleth in height above the rest : the which in particular may be observed in the mountainous country of the fuse , betwixt dundalk and armagh ; in that of mourne , betwixt the nurie and dondrom ( each of those two being above twelve miles long ) in all that space which is betwixt kelles , a walled-town in the county of eastmeath , and kilacollie , alias bailieborrough , in the county of cavan , vvhich being ten miles long , is almost nothing else but a continuance of hils of no great bigness , all very fruitfull land both pasture and arable . in the county of westmeath , from lough-crevv to lough-sillon , and beyond it , as far as ballaneach , vvhere mr william fleving had built a fair house and farm ten yeares before the late detestable massacre and bloody rebellion of the irish. these hils are for the most part lovv and small , yet some of a good height and bigness ; the ground lean , in many places very stony , in some rocky , not of any one continuall rock , but-by peecemeals here and there rising and appearing . yet are these hils in severall places wet and moorish , aswell in the rockie as other parts . these hills serve only for pasture of sheep . in the major part of the mountainous country of wickloe , the which beginning five miles to the south of dublin , doth extend it self above fiftie miles in length ; and in severall other parts . it hath bin observed in many parts of ireland , but chieflie in the county of meath , and further north-ward , that upon the top of the great hills and mountaines , not onely at the side and foot of them , to this day the ground is uneven as if it had been plowed in former times . the inhabitants doe affirm , that their fore-fathers being much given to tillage , contrarie to what they are now , used to turn all to plow-land . others say that it was done for want of arable , because the champain was most every where beset and over spread with woods , which by degrees are destroyed by the warres . they say further , that in those times , in places where nothing now is to be seen , but great loggs of a vast extent , there were thick woods , which they collect from hence , that now & then trees are digged out there being for the most part some yards long , and some of a very great bignes and length . sect. 4. of the higher sort of mountaines in ireland . as for those other mountains , the which with an excessive height rise up towards the skies , they are not very common in ireland ; and yet some there be , which although not comparable with the pyrenaei , lying between france and spain , with the alpes , which divide italy from france and germany , or with other mountains of the like vast height , nevertheless may iustly be counted among the lostie mountains . of this number are the mountains of carlingford , betwixt dundalke and carlingford , the which in a clear day may easily be seen from the mountains to the south of dublin , the which are more than fortie miles distant from them ; the mountains about lough suillie , in the north-parts of vlster , the which may be seen many miles off in the sea ; the curlews , that sever the counties of slego and roscoman in connaught ; the twelve mountains in the north-quarter of the county of tipperary in munster , the which farre exceding the rest of the mountains there , are knowne by the name of the twelve hils of phelim●ghe madona ; knock-patrick , in the west part of the county of limmerick , not farre from the bay of limmerick , which mountain can be se●n by the ships , which are a huge-way from the land yet ; the mountains of brandon hills , in the county of kerry , to the east of the haven of smerwick , the which are discovered by the sea-faring men , when they are above fifty miles from the land ; in the north-west quarter of the county of waterford , called slew-boine ; that in the mountainous country of wickloe , which for it's fashions sake is commonly called the sugarloaf , and may be seen very many miles off , not only by those that are upon the sea , but even into the land . sect. 5. nature of the ground in ireland , and of the fruitfull grounds . next to the fore-going division of ireland taken from the fashion and outward form of the land , commeth to be considered that which consisteth in the nature of the soil or ground ; some parts of the countrie beeing fruitfull , and others barren . the fertile soil is in some places a blackish earth , in others clay , and in many parts mixt of both together : as likewise there be sundry places , where the ground is mixt of earth and sand , sand and clay , gravell and clay , or earth ; but the chalke-ground and red earth , which both are very plentifull and common in many parts of england , are no where to be found in ireland . these grounds differ among themselves in goodness and fatness , not only according to the different nature of the soil whereof they consist , but also according to the depth of the mold or uppermost good crust , & the nature of the ground which lyeth next to it underneath : for the best and richest soil , if but half a foot or a foot deep , and if lying upon a stiffie clay or hard stone , is not so fertile , as a leaner soil of greater depth , and lying upon sand or gravell , through which the superfluous moisture may descend , and not standing still , as upon the clay or stone , make cold the roots of the grasse , of corn , and so hurt the whole . there be indeed some countries in ireland , where the ground underneath being nothing but stone , and the good mold upon it but very thin , it is nevertheless very fruitfull in corn , and bringeth sweet grass in great plenty , so as sheep & other cattle do wonderful wel thrive there ; which kind of land is very common in the county of galloway , and in some other counties of connaught , as also in sundry parts of the other provinces . but the reason thereof is in those parts , because the stone whereon the mould doth lye so thinly , is not free-stone , or any such cold material , but lime-stone , which doth so warm the ground , and giveth it so much strength , that what it wants in depth , is thereby largely recompensed . sect. 6. causes hindering the fruitfulness of the ground , where the soyl otherwise is not bad . except in the case now by us declared , neither corn nor grass will grow kindly , where the ground , though otherwise good , is not deep enough , as also where it hath a bad crust underneath : from whence it commeth , that in many places , where the grass doth grow very thick and high , the same nevertheless is so unfit for the food of beasts , that cows and sheep will hardly touch it ( especially if they have been kept in better pastures first ) except that by extreme famine they be compelled thereto ; and that by reason of the coarsness and sowerness of the grass , caused by the standing still of the water , the which through the unfitness of the neather crust , finding not a free passage downwards , maketh cold the good mold , and the crop and grass degenerate from its natural goodness . for the same reason the land in many parts , where otherwise the soyl in it self would be fit enough to produce good wheat or barley , will hardly bear any thing else but oats , or rye , and that none of the best : as in other parts , the fault is in the soyl it self , and by the leanness thereof it commeth , that nothing else but coarse grass , and the worst kinds of grains will grow there . and unto these causes may be joyned another yet , the overshaddowing of high and steep mountains and hills , whereby the sides thereof , and the lands lying close under them , being deprived of the free and seasonable access of the sun-beams , and so wanting convenient warmness , cannot afford to the things growing thereon such good and well-concocted nourishment , as unto the producing of the best and richest sorts of grains and grass is requisite . sect. 7. ireland a very fruitfull country , especially for grasse . these defects are not peculiar to ireland , but common to other countries , and nowise generall in it , but only here and there in distant parts ; & where they are , they may be amended by the meanes fit & usuall for that purpose , whereof by-and-by wee shall speak particularly : therefore they cannot hi●der , that ireland should not justly be counted among the fruitfullest countries of the world . and although orosius , who preferreth it even before england in this particular ( hibernia soli coelique temperie magis utilis britanniâ , are his words ) goeth too far , yet fullie true is the saying of stanyhurst , in the preface of his irish chronicle , cum hibernia , coeli salubritate , agrorum fertilitate , ubertate frugum , pastionis magnitudine , armentorum gregibus , conferre paucas , anteferre nullas valeas : that is , with irelond for wholesomness of air , fruitfulness of lands , great store of corn , abundance of pastures , and numerousnes of cattle , few countries may be compared , none preferred : as also that of giraldus , gleba praepingui uberique frugum pr●ventu faelix est terra , et foecunda frugibus arva , peccore montes : that is , this country is happy in very rich ground , and plentifull increase of graines , the fields beeing fertill in corn , and the mountains full of cattell . but although ireland almost in every part , where the industry of the husbandman applieth it self thereto , bringeth good corn plentifully , nevertheless hath it a more naturall aptness for grasse , the which in most places it produceth very good and plentifull of it self , or with little help : the which also hath been wel observed by giraldus , who of this matter writeth thus : pascuis tamen quam frugibus , gramine guam grano foecundior est insula , this iland is fruitfuller in grasse and pastures , than in corn an● graines . and buchanan in the second book of his history of scotland calleth the pasture-ground of ireland pascua fere totius europae uberrima , the fruitfullest pasture ground of most all europe . sect. 8. more of the plenty and goodness . of the irish pastures . the aboundance and greatness of pastures in ireland , doth appear by the numberless number of all sorts of cattle , especially of kine and sheep , wherewith this country in time of peace doth swarm on all sides , whereof in another place shall be spoken more at large : and the goodness of the same is hereby sufficiently witnessed , that all kind of cattle doth thrive here as well in ireland , and give as good milk , butter , & cheese ( with good handling ) as in any other country . it is true , that the irish kine , sheep , and horses , are of a very small size : but that that doth not come by reason of the nourishment and grass , but through other more hidden causes , may easily be demonstrated by the goodly beasts of the forenamed kind , that are brought thither out of england , the which not only in themselaes , but in all their breed , doe fully keep their first largenes and goodnes , without any the least diminution in any respect , so that before this last bloody rebellion the whole land , in all parts where the english did dwell , or had any thing to doe , was filled with as goodly beasts , both cowes and sheep , as any in england , holland , or other the best countries of europe : the greatest part whereof hath been destroyed by those barbarians , the naturall inhabitants of ireland , who not content to have murthered or expelled their english neighbours ( upon whom with an unheard of and treacherous cruelty they fell in the midst of a deep peace , without any the least provocation ) endeavoured quite to extinguish the memory of them , and of all the civility and good things by them introduced amongst that wild nation ; and consequently in most places they did not only demolish the houses built by the english , the gardens and enclosures made by them , the orchards and hedges by them planted , but destroyed whole droves and flocks at once of english cowes and sheep , so as they were not able with all their unsatiable gluttony to devour the tenth part thereof , but let the rest lye rotting and stinking in the fields . the goodness of the pastures in ireland doth further appear by this , that both beef and mutton there , as well that of the small irish , as that of the large english breed , in sweetness and savouriness doth surpass the meat of england it self as ( all those , who have tried that , must confess ) although england in this particular doth surpass almost all the countries of the world . nevertheless the saying of pomponius mela , that the grass here is so rank and sweet , that the cattle doe burst , if they be suffered to feed too iong , wherefore they be fain every day to drive them betimes out of the pastures , iuverna adeo luxuriosa herbis , non lae●is modo , sed etiam dulcibus , ut se exigua parte diei pecora impleant , & nisi pabulo prohibeantur , diu●ius pasta dissiliant : the which also hath been repeated by solinus , hibernia ita pabulosa , ut pecua ibi , nisi interdum à pascuis arceantur , in periculum agat satias : that is , ireland hath such excellent pastures , that cattle there are brought into danger of their lives by over-feeding , except now and then they be driven out of the fields ; is a meer fable , no wayes agreeable to the truth : for all kinds of cattle here , as in other countries , are continually left in the pastures day and night : neither doe they through their continuall feeding ever burst , or come into any danger of bursting . chap. xi . of the severall manners of manuring and inriching the ground practised in ireland . sect. 1. in some part of ireland the ground never needs dunging . to amend the lean and fau●ty grounds , to enrich both them and the good ones , and to keep both the one and the other in heart , in preserving them from being exhausted , the dunging of the ground is usuall in ireland , as in other countries . it is true , that as approved authors assure us , in the iland of zealand , part of the kingdom of denmark , the naturall richness of the ground is such , and so lasting , as it needeth not the succour of any artificial helps , but is very fruitfull , and aye preserveth its fertility , without putting the husbandman to the labour and costs of dunging . that likewise there is some part in the province of munster in ireland , where very credible person● have assured me , of their own knowledge , that the land never needeth any dunging ; so as the inhabitants thereof never trouble themselves to keep the dung of their beasts , but from time to time fling it into a river which runneth by them . but this happiness and richness of soil as it is very rare over all the world , so in ireland too , being confined to very narrow bounds , all the rest of the kingdom is necessitated , for the ends aforesaid , to help and improve their lands by dunging ; the which they do severall manner of wayes . sect. 2. of sheeps-dung . the commonest sort of manuring the lands in ireland , is that which is done with the dung of beasts , especially of cows and oxen , and also of horses mixed with a great quantity of straw , and having lyen a long while to rot and incorporate well together : whereof , as of a matter every where known and usuall , it is needless to speak further . onely thus much seemeth good to us not to pass over in silence , that if sheep here , as in other countries , were housed and kept up in stables for any long time together , their excrements would make better dung , than that of any other four-footed creatures . for the land on which sheep have fed for two or three yeares together , or longer , is so greatly enriched thereby , that when it commeth to bee plowed , it bringeth a much fairer and plentifuller crop , than if from the beginning it had been made arable , and dunged after the ordinary manner . wherefore also great sheep-masters may set their land , where the sheep have been feeding some yeares together , as dear again by the acre , than what at the first they could have got for it of any body . wherefore also it is an usuall thing in ireland , as well as in england , to drive the sheep upon the fallow , and to keep them there untill all the hearbs which may minister any food unto the sheep be by them consumed ; which doth the ground a great deal of good , and giveth it heart to bring afterwards the better increase . and the same also helpeth greatly for to make good grass grow upon the arable , when the same is turned into pasture and meddow ; a thing ordinarily used in sundry parts of ireland , and many times necessary for to keep the lands in heart : for ground being plowed , and the sheep driven thither as soon as any herbs grow upon it , they do not only consume the thistles , and other useless herbs , but cause good grass to grow up in lieu thereof , and that speedily . for in all places where their dung lighteth , of the best and sweetest sorts of grass do grow , and that within the first year , which otherwise would not have come in much longer time , and that nothing near so good generally . sect. 3. an usefull observation about cows-dung . there is a notable difference betwixt sheeps-dung and that of other cattle , as in the goodness and richness it self , so in the particular last mentioned by them . for that of oxen and cows is no wayes fit for dunging untill it is grown old , and hath lyen a soaking with straw a great while : dayly experience shewing in ireland , as in england and other countryes , that in those places of the pastures where the fresh cow-dung falleth and remaineth , the grass the next year doth grow ranker and higher than in the rest of the same fields , but so sowre and unpleasing , that the beasts will not offer to touch it ; so as ordinarily you shall see these tufts of grass standing whole and undiminished in the midst of pastures , that every where else are eaten bare and to the very ground . the which as in part it may bee imputed to the quantity of the dung , the which being greater than the earth can well digest , and conveniently unite with it self , cannot be turned into so good and sweet nourishment ; so doth it also without doubt come in part through the very nature of the dung , the which of it self , and without a long preparation and alteration , is not so fit to nourish the ground , as that of sheep . sect. 4. of pigeons-dung . pigeons-dung also is very convenient for the improvement of the ground ; and i know some in ireland , who having tryed that , have found a wonderfull deal of good in it , incomparably more than in that of any four-footed beasts , and of sheep themselves . but the pigeon-houses no where in ireland being so big as to afford any considerable quantity , and never having heard of any body there who could dung more than an acre or two with all the pigeons-dung which had been gathering the space of a whole twelve-moneth , it cannot well be reckoned among the common sorts . sect. 5. of ashes and mud. besides the dung of beasts there are usuall in ireland , or were before this rebellion , five or six other sorts for to manure and improve the ground , whereof some are as good as the dung consisting of the excrements of beasts , and others do far surpass it ▪ one of these sorts is ashes , and mud another . as for the first , i have understood of englishmen , who had lived many years in ireland , and all that while had exercised husbandry , that they had used to gather all their ashes of their hearths , bake-houses , and brew-houses , being wood-ashes , and to lay them of a heap somewhere in the open air , from whence at convenient times they would carry them upon their grounds , and there spread them in the same manner as other dung , but nothing near in so great a quantity ; wherein they affirmed to have found as much and more good than in any dung of beasts . and i know several other english , who living in ireland , did use to take the scouring of their ditches , together with other mud digged out of the bogs , and having let it lye a good while a rotting in great heaps , did afterwards carry it upon their lands in lieu of dung : the which they found very good and usefull for that purpose . these two sorts were never yet brought into common use , but onely practised by some few persons , especially that of the ashes , although in other countries they have been known long since ; so as pliny , who lived about fifteen hundred years ago , writeth in the ninth chapter of the seventeenth book of his natural history , that in his time in that part of italy which is situated between the alpes and the river po ( comprehending those countries which now are known by the names of piemont and lombardy ) ashes were more used and commended for the manuring of the grounds , than the dung of beasts . as concerning the burning of the heath , and other dry herbs standing upon the ground , for to manure the land with the ashes thereof , that not properly belonging to this place , shall be spoke of more at large in some of the ensuing chapters . sect. 6. of lime . the english living in queens-county in leinster , having seen that in sundry parts of england and wales , especially in pembrookshire , lime was used by the inhabitants for the manuring and inriching of their grounds , begun some years since to practise the same , and found themselves so well thereby , that in a short time the use thereof grew very common amongst them , so as many of ●hem ever after used no other kind of dung . the manner of it was thus ▪ having first plowed their fields , they carryed the lime on them , and layd it in many small heaps , leaving a convenient distance between , in the same manner as useth to be done with the dung of beasts ; and having let them lye for some moneths , they plowed the land again to convey the lime into the ground . this made it so rich , that in a great while after nothing else needed to be done to it , but to let the land at a certain revolution of time lye fallow , no other manuring at all being requisite for some yeares after : and all that while the land was very fruitfull , more than it could have been made with any ordinary dung , and very free of al sorts of bad herbs and weeds ( especially for the first yeares ) bringing corn with much thinner huskes than that growing upon other lands . they found that the lime carryed upon the land hot out of the kiln , did more good in all the fore-mentioned particulars , than when they let it grow cold first . and this they could doe very easily , because lime-stone is very plentifull in that county , especially in the town of monrath , where there is a whole hill of that stone , of that bigness , that if all the adjacent country did continually fetch it from thence for the forenamed use , it would for ever hold out sufficiently . the land thus manured and improved by lime , shewed its fruitfulness not only in the following yeares , but even in the first , except the lime had been layd on in undue proportion , and in greater quantity than was requisite ; for in that case the lime burnt the corn , and the first years crop was thereby spoyled . in some places where the land was not cold and moyst enough to bee able to endure meer lime , they mixed the lime with earth digged out of pits , and let that stuff lye a mellowing in great heaps for some moneths together , and afterwards carryed it on the land , and manured that therewith . sect. 7. a remarkable historie concerning the excellencie of lime for the inricheng of the ground . how incredibly the land was inriched by this kind of manuring , may be gathered by the ensuing particular , the whole lordship of mounrath was thirty yeares agoe set by one mr. downings ( whose it was , and who afterwards sold it to sir charles coot ) for fifty pounds sterling by the year , and nevertheless after a while the farmers surrendred it unto him , complaining that they could not live by it but were quite impoverished : where as they who farmed it next after them ( beeing people newly come out of england ) & gave an hundred and fifty pounds sterling a year st●rling for it , did not only live very freely upon it , yea grew rich and wealthie , but withall did so farre forth improve the land , partly indeed with building , plauting , hedging , and the like , but chiefly by this kind of manuing that ●t the time when this last horrible rebellion broke forth , the same lordship , if it had been to let out then , mighe have been let for five hundred pounds sterling a year : as it hath been assured me by some , who themselves had been farmers of that land . sect. 8. another history , shewing the ●fficacy of lime in this particular . before we give over this discours of lime , we shall adde to what hath been said already , that in some other parts of ireland , where this manuring with lime was not used nor known , the vertue of lime in this particular hath been found out by meer chance . for some persons known to me , who lived but a few miles from dublin , having understood that the crowes ( wherewith they were much plagued , and who did use to make very great spoil of their grains ) would not touch the corn wherewith the lime was mixed , did cause unsl●ked lime to be mingled with water , making it as thinne as if it had been for the whitening of walls , and very well bespringled the corn therewith , before it was carried to the fields to be sowen , and that after this manner , the corn lying on a heap , one turned it with both hands , whilest another sprinkled on the fore-said stuff , doing so untill the whole heap was thoroughly besprinkled ▪ at other times they mingled dry lime with the corn , and afterwards besprinkled the whole heap with fair water through and through , for the same purpose , and hereby they did not only obtain the aforesaid end , of preserving the corn from the crowes , but had thereby a fairer and better crop , than ever before their land had produced . sect. 9. of sea-sand . lime is much used in the province of munster , as in other parts of ireland , so for to manure the ground withall , where the sea-sand likewise is greatly used to the same end , not only in places lying on the seaside , but even ten , twelve , and fifteen miles into the land , whether it was carried in some places by boats , and in others upon carts , the charges being sufficiently recompensed by the pro●it comming from it . for they used it for the most part only upō very poor land , consisting of cold clay , and that above half a foot deep : which land having been three or f●ur times plowed & harrowed ( in the same manner as is usuall to be done with fallow ) the sand is strawed all over very thinly , a little before the sowing time : the which beeing done , that land bringeth very good corn of all sorts , not only rye and oates , but even barley and wheat , three yeares one after another ; and having lyen fallow the fourth year , for many years after it produceth very clean and sweet grass ; whereas formerly , and before it was thus manured , it produced nothing but moss , heath , and short low furze : which herbs are fired upon the ground , and the ground stubbed , before it be plowed the first time it is not any peculiar sort of sea-sand , nor out of any particular places , which is used for this purpose , but that which every where lyeth on the strands . and this manner of manu●ing the land with sea-sand is very common in the two most westerly shires of england , cornwall and devonshire , from whence those , who first practised it in ireland , seem to have learned it . sect. 10. of brine or pickle . the goodness of the sea-sand consisteth chiefly in its saltness , for which reason pickle it self is very good for this purpose : it beeing very well known to severall english dwelling about the band and colrain , that were farmers of the salmon-fishing there , who used every year carefully to keep the soul pikle , comming of the salmons at their repacking ; and having powred it among the ordinary dung of cattle and straw they did let them ly a good while a mellow●ng together . hereby it was greatly strengthened and enriched , so that the land being dunged with it , did bear much better and richer crops than that which was manured onely with common dung without the mixture of it . chap. xii . sect. 1. of the marle in ireland , and the manner of marling the land there . marle is a certain sort of fat and clayish stuff , being as the grease of the earth ; it hath from antient times on greatly used for manuring of land both in france and england , as may appear out of pliny in the sixth , seventh , and eighth chapters of his seventeenth book . the same also is stil very usual in sundry parts of england , being of an incomparable goodness : the which caused the english , who out of some of those places where marle was used were come to live in ireland , to make diligent search for it , and that with good success at last ; it having been found out by them within these few years , in severall places ; first in the kings-county , not far from the shanon , where being of a gray colour , it is digged out of the bogs ; and in the county of wexford , where the use of it was grown very common before this rebellion , especially in the parts lying near the sea ; where it stood them in very good steed , the land of it self being nothing fruitfull . for although the ground ( for the most part ) is a good black earth , yet the same being but one foot deep , and having underneath a crust of stiff yellow clay of half a foot , is thereby greatly impaired in its own goodness . in this depth of a foot and a half next under the clay , lyeth the marle , the which reacheth so far downwards , that yet no where they are come to the bottom of it . it is of a blew colour , and very fat ( which as in other ground , so in this , is chiefly perceived when it is wet ) but brittle and dusty when it is dry . sect. 2. the manner , charges , and profit of marling the ground . the marle is layd upon the land in heaps , by some before it is plowed , by others after , many letting it lye several moneths ere they plow it again , that the rain may equally divide and mixe it ; the sun , moon , and air mellow and incorporate it with the earth . one thousand cart-loads of this goeth to one english acre of ground ; it being very chargeable , for even to those who dig it out of their own ground , so as they are at no other expences but the hire of the labourers , every acre cometh to stand in three pounds sterling . but these great expences are sufficiently recompenced by the great fruitfulness which it causeth , being such , as may seem incredible ; for the marled-land , even the very first year , fully quitteth all the cost bestowed on it . there besides it is sufficient once to marle , whereas the ordinary dunging must be renewed oftentimes . sect. 3. the usage of the marled-land , practised by them of the county of wexford . the good usage of the marled-land , to keep it in heart for ever after , doth consist , in the opinion and practise of some , in letting it ly fallow at convenient times , but the ordinary manner , commonly practised by the inhabitants of the county of wexford , and counted the best by them , is , that having sowed it five or six years together , with the richest sorts of corn , to wit , wheat and barley ( especially that sort which in some parts of england , and generally in ireland , is peculiarly called bear , being a much richer grain than the ordinary barley ) it being afterwards turned to pasture , whereunto it is very fit , forasmuch as it bringeth very sweet grass in great abundance : for the marle is also used on meddows at the first , with very good success , improving the same most wonderfully . if the marled-land be thus used , and by turns kept under corn , and grass , it keeps its fruitfulness for ever ; where to the contrary , if year after year it be sowed till the heart be drawn out , it 's quite spoyled , so as afterwards it is not possible to bring it again to any passable condition by any kind of dunging , or marling . this would ordinarily be done in the space of ten yeares ; for so long together the marled-land may be sowed , and bring every year a rich crop of the best corn. nevertheless this is not generall , but taketh place onely in the worser kind of ground ▪ for where the land of it self is better and richer , there after marling , wheat and other corn may be sowed , not only for ten yeares together , but longer : for very credible persons have assured me , that some parts of the county of wexford having bo●n very good corn for thirteen yeares together , and afterwards being turned to pasture , it was as good and fertile as other marled-grounds that had been under corn but five or six years . sect. 4. of the marle in connaught . the province of connaught ( by what hath been discovered ) is much more plentifull in marle , than leinster , as in other counties , so in those of roscoman , slego , and galloway , almost in every part of it . it is there of three several colours , some being white as chalk , other gray , and some black ; but none blew , as that in the county of wexford . it lyeth nothing deep under the upper-ground , or surface of the earth , commonly not above half a foot ; but it s own depth is so great , that never any body yet digged to the bottom of it . the land which they intend to marle in this province , is commonly plowed in the beginning of may , and lying five or six weeks ( untill it be sufficiently dryed and mellowed by the sun and wind ) they harrow it , and then having brought the marle upon it , five or six weeks after it is plowed again , and a third time about september : after which third plowing they sow it with wheat or barley , whereof they have a very rich crop the next year . sect. 5. property and usage of the marled-lands in connaught . land marled in that manner as we have said , may be sowed ten or twelve yeares together ; the first eight or nine-with wheat , and bear , or barley , and the remaining three or four years with oates , afterwards the land is turned to pasture , and having served some years in that kind , it may be marled anew , and made as good for corn as at the first . for the observation of those of the county of wexford , that land may not be marled more than once , doth not take place in connaught , where it is an ordinary thing , having some space of years to make it again . i know some gentlemen who have caused some parcels of land to be marled thrice in the space of twenty yeares , and have found very good profit by it . but whether this be caused by the difference of the ground and marle ( appearing also hereby , that in connaught they scarce lay the fourth part of the quantity of marle on the ground of what they doe in the county of wexford ) or by the carelesness or want of experience of those of that county , i am not yet fully informed . but thus much is known as well in connaught as other parts , that those who sow the marled-land untill it can bear no more , and be quite out of heart , wil find it exceeding difficult , if not altogether impossible ever to amend or improve the same again by any means whatsoever . chap. xiii . of the heaths and moores , or bogs in ireland . sect. 1. of the moory , or boggy-heaths . having spoke of the fruitfull lands of ireland , it followeth that we treat of those which are neither fit for the bringing of corn , or feeding of cattle ; some being such for want of good soyl , and others through superfluous moysture . of the first sort are those places where the ground consisting of meer rock , sand , or earth , naturally unfruitful hath no good mold at the top sufficient for corn or grass to root , and to draw convenient nourishment out of it , the ground being bare , or over-grown onely with moss , heath , furze , brakes , thorns , rushes , and the like . the places whose ground is bare , are nothing frequent , nor of any great bigness in ireland , and rather on the sea-side than within the land . but the other are very common throughout the whole kingdom , not only in the mountains ( many whereof do for the most part consist of nothing else ) but also in the hilly-quarters , the plain-countries , and in many places of great extent , taking up some miles in length and breadth . most of these wasts in the plain-countries and valleys , as also some on the mountains and hils , are moory and boggy , fit for to dig turf out , to the great commodity of the inhabitants , in places where other fuel is wanting . so that these parts of land , although barren and producing no kind of thing for the food of man or beasts , may not be reckoned in the number of those which are altogether unprofitable , being of good use in the parts far distant from the sea , where they can have no sea-coales , and where woods are wanting , nor well live . some of these dry , or red bogs , as commonly they are called ( the first , in comparison of those whereof presently shall be spoken , the other , because the earth in them for the most part is reddish , and over-grown with mos● of the same colour ) are in some parts of a vast extent ; instance that by the shanon-side , beginning hard by atlone , and following the course of the river down towards limmerick , which being two or three miles broad in most parts , is said to be upwards of fifty miles in length . sect. 2. of the dry heaths . there are some dry heaths in ireland , for the most part on the mountains , and very few in the plain countries ; to the contrary of england , where , as well as in netherland , germany , and other countries , those heaths on plain ground are very common in sundrie parts of the land , and many of them of a great extent , having very many miles in compass ; and where any such dry heaths are in ireland , the land for the most part is not altogether barren , but gra●sy between and at the bottome of the heath ; so as the heath being burnt ( a thing much used in ireland both by the english and irish ) the land bringeth reasonable good and sweet grass , fit for sheep to feed on ; and with a little extraordinary labour and costs brought to bear corn . others of these heaths are grassie , having the grass growing not all over among the heath , but in spaces by it self : as upon the heath between the town of kildare and the liffie ; which is famous over all ireland by the name of the currogh of kildare , being a hilly ground , at its highest neer the said town , from thence towards the liffie descending by degrees , about three miles long , and two or three broad , divided into rowes , of heath and grass ; which being of no great breadth , and many in number , doe ly by the ●ide one of another throughout the whole earth , each of those rowes extending it self in length from the one end of the currogh to the other , the rowes of heath are about a stone cast over in some places , in some more , in others less : but those of grass a good deal narrower than the others , being alwayes alike green and dry , in the winter as well as the summer , and clothed with short grass , but very sweet and good , very convenient for sheep to feed on ; of the which alwaies in time of peace , a very great number is grazing here , the whole currogh being a commons . sect. 3. of the wet bogs the places barren through superfluous moisture , are bogs called by the irish moones , whereof ireland is full . there is three or four different sorts of them ; grassy , watery , muddy , and hassocky , as appeareth more largely by the following description . but the english irish have given the name of bogs , not only to the wet , of which we are now to treat , but aswell to the turf moores of all sorts , not excepting the red bog , which in most places is firm enough to bear a man , or unshod nagge going over it , but is not for any great weight . but we shall in the following chapters speak in order of the four sorts of wet bggs , which above wee have mentioned , and afterwards in its due place treat of the turf and red moores , as occasion shall require . sect. 4. of the grassie bogs the grassy bogs are all over covered with grass , looking fair and pleasant , as if they were dry ground and goodly meadowes ; whereby many , who not knowing the nature of those places , and because of the greeness suspecting no evill , goe into them to their great trouble , and many times to the extreme danger of their lives , for the earth being very spongy can bear no weight , but as well men as beast , assoon as they set foot on it doe sink to the ground , some knee deep , others to the wast , and many over head and ears : for all or most bogs in ireland having underneath a hard and firm gravell are not of an equall depth , which in some is only of two or three feet , in others five , six or more , in somuch that those who fall into the deepest places of these bogs , can hardly escape , but for the most part doe perish , being pittifully smothered . some of these bogs , doe so dry up in the summer that they may be passed without danger ; the which in particular falleth out in the great mountaines in munster in the county of kerry , called slew-logher , upon which all kind of cattle doe grase the summer long being every where full of good and sweet grass , knee deep in most places ; whereof not the tenth part being eaten ( for if all the cattle of that province were driven thither and left all the summer upon the place it would hardly be consumed ) the rest is spoyled when the wet weather cometh in , and stayeth the rain-water from descending ; through which the ground rotteth in that manner , that all winter long it is unpassable for men and beasts . but the deepest bogs are unpassable in the summer as well as in the winter , yet most of them have firm places , in narrow paths , & in some larger parcels ; by the meanes whereof those , unto whom they are known , can cross them from one side to another , where others who are not used to them doe not know in what part to set one step ; in which nimble trick , called commonly treading of the bogs , most irish are very expert , as having been trained up in it from their infancy . the firm places in passing , or but lightly shaking them , tremble for a great way , which hath given them the name of shaking-bogs ; and where they are but of a small compass , quagmires . sect. 5. of the watery-bogs , and of the miry-bogs . the watery-bogs are likewise clothed with grass , but the water doth not sink altogether into them , as into the former , but remaineth in part standing on the top ( in the same manner as in some of the grassie-bogs , and in all the low pastures and meddows of holland ) by reason whereof these bogs are not dangerous ; for every one at the first sight may easily discern them from the firm ground . these two sorts are in many parts found apart , and in others mixt and interlaced ; and likewise parcels both of the one and the other are found up and down in the moory-heaths and red-bogs . both these sorts , as well the watery as the green-bogs , yeeld for the most part very good turf , much better than the red-bogs , whereof more shall be spoken hereafter . the miry-bogs do consist of meer mud and mire , with very little or no grass upon them . these are commonly of a very small compass , whereas most part of the other two are of a notable extent , and some of several miles in length and breadth . sect. 6. of the hassockie-bogs . hassockie-bogs we call those , whose ground being miry and muddy is covered over with water a foot or two deep , in some places more , in others less ; so as one would sooner take them for loughs , were it not that they are very thick over-spread with little tufts or ilets , the which consisting of reeds , rushes , high sower grass , and sometimes with little shrubs , for the most part are very small , and have but a few feet in compass ; some of them being of the bigness of a reasonable big chamber . these little ilets or tufts being so many in number , and spread over all the bog , there remaineth nothing between them but great plashes of water ( in regard whereof these bogs might well be called plashy-bogs ) in some places wider , in others narrower , so as from the one men may well step or leap to the other ; that which those who are expert in it know how to do very nimble , and so to run from one part of the bog to another : for the roots of the rushes , reeds , and other things growing on those tufts , are so interwoven , that they can easily bear a man who lightly treadeth upon them , although they have very little earth , and are wondrous spungy ; so as they , when the water being drained , the bog is dried round about , may easily be plucked from the ground . the english inhabiting in ireland have given these tufts the name of hassocks , and this sort of bogs , hassocky-bogs : of which bogs munster and other provinces are not altogether free , but most of them are found in leinster , especially in kings and queens-county , where also the othtr sorts of bogs are very common ; whereas otherwise connaught is generally fuller of bogs than any of the other provinces . chap. xiv originall of the bogs in ireland ; and the manner of draining them , practised there by the english inhabitants . sect. 1. of the originall of bogs in this countrie . very few of the wet-bogs in ireland are such by any naturall property , or primitive constitution , but through the superfluous moysture that in length of time hath been gathered therein , whether it have its originall within the place it self , or be come thither from without . the first of these two cases taketh place in the most part of the grassie-bogs , which ordinarily are occasioned by springs ; the which arising in great number out of some parcel of ground , and finding no issue , do by degrers soak through , and bring it to that rottenness and spunginess , which nevertheless is not a little increased through the rain water comming to that of the springs . but the two other sorts , viz. the waterie and hassockie-bogs , are in some places caused by the rain-water onely , as in others through brooks and rivelets running into them , and in some through both together ; whereunto many times also cometh the cause of the grassi-bogs , to wit the store of springs within the very ground : and all this in places , where or through the situation of them , and by reason of their even plainness or hollowness , or through some other impediment , the water hath no free passage away , but remaineth within them , and so by degrees turneth them into bogs . sect. 2. retchlesness of the irish , cause of most of the bogs . of trees found in bogs . so that it may easily be comprehended , that whoso could drain the water , and for the future prevent the gathering thereof , might reduce most of the bogs in ireland to firm land , and preserve them in that condition . but this hath never been known to the irish , or if it was , they never went about it , but to the contrarie let daily more & more of their good land grow boggy through their carelesness , whereby also most of the bogs at first were caused . this being otherwise evident enough , may further be confirmed by the whole bodies of trees , which ordinarily are found by the turf-diggers very deep in the ground , as well of other trees , as of hasels : likewise they meet sometimes with , the very nuts themselves in great quantity , the which looking very fair and whole at the outside , as if they came but newly 〈…〉 have no kernell within the same , through the great length of time beeing consumed and turned into filth . and it is worthie of observation , that trees , & truncks of trees , are in this manner found not only in the wet bogs , but even in the heathy ones or red bogs , as by name in that by the shanon-side , wherof hath been spoken above : in which bog the turf diggers many times doe find whole firr-trees deep in the ground ; whether it be that those trees , being fallen , are by degrees sunk deeper and deeper ( the earth of that bog almost every where being very loose and spungy , as it is in all such bogs ) or that the earth in length of time bee grown over them . sect. 3. draining of the bogs practised by the english in ireland . but as the irish have been extreme careless in this , so the english , introducers of all good things in ireland ( for which that brutish nation from time to time hath rewarded them with unthankfulnes , hatred , and envy , and lately with a horrible and bloody conspiracie , tending to their utter destruction ) have set their industrie at work for to remedy it , and having considered the nature of the bogs , and how possible it was to reduce many of them unto good land , did some yeares since begin to goe about it all over the land , and that with very good success ; so as i know gentlemen , who turned into firm land three or four hundred acres of bog , and in case that this detestable rebellion had not come between , in a few yeares there would scarce have been left one acre of bog , of what was in the lands and possessiion of the english ; except onely those places whose situation is altogether repugnant to draining , because that the water either through the hollowness of the place , as in the inclosed valleyes and deep dales between the hils and mountaines , or through the too great evenness & plainness of the ground , not inclining to any one part more than another , cannot be drawn away at all ; and except such parcels as needs must have been kept for turf , and red bogs who are very unfit for draining , for the trenches being made , the earth on both sides will sink into them again , and choak them up . sect. 4. profit reaped by the draining of bogs . this draining of the bogs as it tended not a little to the generall good of the whole land , by amending of the air ( wherof we shall have occasion to say more in some other place ) and otherwise , so it brought great profit unto the authors , for the land or soil of the bogs being in most places good of it self , and there besides greatly enriched by the lying still and the soaking in of the water for the space of so many yeares , the same being dryed through the draining of the water , is found to be very sit either to have corn sowed upon , or to be turned into pastures ; making also excellent meadowes : so as those , who have tried that , doe affirm , that the meadowes gained out of the bogs might be compared with the very best of their other meadowes , yea many times surpassed the same in goodness : & this took place chiefly in the grassie bogs or shakking bogs , whose fruitfulness in this particular , & in the plentifull production of very sweet and deep grass , after the draining off the water , was very wonderfull ; and all this without any other trouble or costs bestowed upon these meddows , than that they dunged them the first year , to warm them the better , and the sooner , and more thoroughly to amend the remainders of that coldness and rawness contracted through that long and constant continuance of the water upon them ; after which once dunging , afterwards for a good many yeares nothing else needed to be done to them . sect. 5. the manner of draining the bogs . this draining of the bogs was performed in the manner following . on that side of the bog , where the ground was somewhat sloaping , they cut a broad deep trench , beginning it in the firm ground , and advancing it unto the entrance of the bog , into which trench the water would sink out of the next parts of the bog in great abundance , and that many times so suddenly , as if a great sluce had been opened , so as the labourers were constrained to run out of it with all speed , lest the ●orce of the water should overwhelm and carry them away . some part of the bog being by this meanes grown reasonable dry within a short space of time , opportunity thereby was ministred to advance the trench further into the bog ; and so by little and little they went on with it untill at last they carryed it quite across the bog , from the one side to the other : and having done this , they made a great many lesser trenches out of the main one , on both sides of the same ; the which bringing the water from all the parts of the bog unto the main trench , did in a little while empty the bog of all its superfluous moysture , and turn it into good and firm ground . sect. 6. observation about the falling and setling of the bogs at their draining . the green or grassie-bogs , the which having all their moysture and water inwardly , are thereby wonderfully swelled and pust up , use by means of this draining to fall very much , and to grow a great deal lower , and that not only apparently , so that the ground which before the drayning was five or six feet high , commeth at last to be not above two or three feet high ; but sometimes also suddenly , and within the space of four and twenty , or eight and forty houres ; whereas ordinarily that useth to come to pass in greater length of time ; and although the ground by falling in this manner , may seem thereby to have been subject to return to its former boggy condition on the least occasion ; nevertheless there was no danger of that , as long as the trenches were kept open , and thereby the passage kept free for the water , which from time to time would from all parts of the drayned bog be sinking into them . this water , as at the first draining , so ever after , was by the main trench carryed unto some brook , river , or lough , according as one or other of them was next at hand , and the situation of the land would give opportunity . chap. xv. of the woods in ireland . sect. 1. woods in ireland are reckoned among the barren lands , and the reason thereof . amongst the barren parts of ireland the woods must also be counted , according to the usuall division of the lands of that kingdom , whereby reckoning for fruitfull onely the meddows , arable-grounds , and pastures , they count all the rest for barren , comprehending them under these three generall heads , bogs , barren-mountains , and woods . which division as it is in the mouth of all them that have any insight into the matters of that land , and do , or have lived there , so it is further confirmed by a number of writings and monuments , both of ancienter times , and late ones , in the which it is very common and familiar : as for instance may appear by those several acts , which since this last rebellion of the irish have been made by the parliament of england in the behalf of the adventurers who have layd out their monyes for the reconquering of the revolted parts of that kingdom . for although the land which the woods doe take up , is in it self very good in most places , and apt to bear both corn and grass plentifully ( whereof more shall be sayd by and by ) yet as long as the woods remain standing , it is unfit not only to be made either arable or meddow ( as in it self is most evident ) but even for pasture , by reason of the overmuch moysture , the roots of the trees staying the rain-water , so as it hath not the liberty to pass away readily , and their stems and branches hindering the free access of the wind and sun , whereunto cometh in many parts the grounds own wateriness , occasioned by springs there arising , and by its situation apt for the gathering and keeping of water , which maketh them for the most part so muddy and boggy , that cattle cannot conveniently feed in them . sect. 2. woods much diminished in ireland since the first comming in of the english. in antient times , and as long as the land was in the full possession of the irish themselves , all ireland was very full of woods on every side , as evidently appeareth by the writings of giraldus cambrensis , who came into ireland upon the first conquest , in the company of henry the second , king of england , in the year of our saviour a eleven hundred seventy and one . but the english having setled themselves in the land , did by degrees greatly diminish the woods in all the places where they were masters , partly to deprive the theeves and rogues , who used to lurk in the woods in great numbers , of their refuge and starting-holes , and partly to gain the greater scope of profitable lands . for the trees being cut down , the roots stubbed up , and the land used and tilled according to exigency , the woods in most part of ireland may be reduced not only to very good pastures , but also to excellent arable and meddow . through these two causes it is come to pass in the space of many years , yea of some ages , that a great part of the woods , which the english found in ireland at their first arrival there , are quite destroyed , so as nothing at all remaineth of them at this time . sect. 3. diminishing of the woods during the last peace . and even since the subduing of the last great rebellion of the irish before this , under the conduct of the earl of tirone ( overthrown in the last yeares of queen elizabeth by her viceroy sir charles blunt , lord mountjoy , and afterwards earl of devonshire ) and during this last peace of about forty years ( the longest that ireland ever enjoyed , both before and since the comming in of the english ) the remaining woods have very much been diminished , and in sundry places quite destroyed , partly for the reason last mentioned , and partly for the wood and timber it self , not for the ordinary uses of building and firing ( the which ever having been afoot , are not very considerable in regard of what now we speak of ) but to make merchandise of , and for the making of charcoal for the iron-works . as for the first , i have not heard that great timber hath ever been used to be sent out of ireland in any great quantity , nor in any ordinary way of traffick ; but onely pipe-staves , and the like , of which good store hath been used to be made , and sent out of the land , even in former times , but never in that vast quantity , nor so constantly as of late years , and during the last peace , wherein it was grown one of the ordinary merchandable commodities of the country , so as a mighty trade was driven in them , and whole ship-loads sent into forrein countries yearly ; which as it brought great profit to the proprietaries , so the felling of so many thousands of trees every year as were employed that way , did make a great destruction of the woods in tract of time . as for the charcoal , it is incredible what quantity thereof is consumed by one iron-work in a year : and whereas there was never an iron-work in ireland before , there hath been a very great number of them erected since the last peace in sundry parts of every province ; the which to furnish constantly with charcoales , it was necessary from time to time to fell an infinite number of trees , all the lopings and windfals being not sufficient for it in the least manner . sect. 4. great part of ireland very bare of woods at this time . through the aforesayd causes ireland hath been made so bare of woods in many parts , that the inhabitants do not onely want wood for firing ( being therefore constrained to make shift with turf , or sea-coal , where they are not too far from the sea ) but even timber for building , so as they are necessitated to fetch it a good way off , to their great charges , especially in places where it must be brought by land : and in some parts you many travell whole dayes long without seeing any woods or trees except a few about gentlemens houses ; as namely from dublin , and from places that are some miles further to the south of it , to tredagh , dundalk , the nurie , and as far as dremore ; in which whole extent of land , being above threescore miles , one doth not come near any woods worth the speaking of , and in some parts thereof you shall not see so much as one tree in many miles . for the great woods which the maps doe represent unto us upon the mountains between dundalk and the nury , are quite vanished , there being nothing left of them these many years since , but one only tree , standing close by the highway , at the very top of one of the mountains , so as it may be seen a great way off , and therefore serveth travellers for a mark . section . 5. many great woods still left in ireland . yet notwithstanding the great destruction of the woods in ireland , occasioned by the aforesayd causes , there are still sundry great woods remaining , and that not onely in the other provinces , but even in leinster it self . for the county of wickloe , kings-county , and queens-county , all three in that province , are throughout full of woods , some whereof are many miles long and broad . and part of the counties of wexford and carloe are likewise greatly furnished with them . in ulster there be great forrests in the county of donegall , and in the north-part of tirone , in the country called glankankin . also in the county of fermanagh , along lough-earne ; in the county of antrim ; and in the north-part of the county of down ; in the two countries called killulta and kilwarlin ; besides severall other lesser woods in sundry parts of that province . but the county of louth , and far the greatest part of the countys of down , armagh , monaghan , and cavan ( all in the same province of ulster ) are almost every where bare , not onely of woods , but of all sorts of trees , even in places which in the beginning of this present age , in the war with tirone , were encumbred with great and thick forrests . in munster where the english , especially the earl of cork , have made great havock of the woods during the last peace , there be still sundry great forests remaining in the counties of kerry , and of tipperary ; and even in the county of cork , where the greatest destruction therof hath bin made , some great woods are yet remaining , there being also store of scattered woods both in that county , and all the province over . connaught is well stored with trees in most parts , but hath very few forests or great woods , except in the counties of maio and sligo . chap. xvi . of the mines in ireland , and in particular of the iron-mines . sect. 1. all the mines in ireland discovered by the new-english . the old-english in ireland , that is , those who are come in from the time of the first conquest , untill the beginning of queen elizabeths reign , have been so plagued with wars from time to time , one while intestine among themselves , and another while with the irish , that they could scarce ever find the opportunity of seeking for mines , and searching out the metals hidden in the bowels of the earth . and the irish themselves , as being one of the most barbarous nations of the whole earth , have at all times been so far from seeking out any , that even in these last years , and since the english have begun to discover some , none of them all , great nor small , at any time hath applyed himself to that business , or in the least manner furthered it . so that all the mines which to this day are found out in ireland , have been discovered ( at least as for to make any use of them ) by the new-english , that is , such as are come in during , and since the reign of queen elizabeth . severall whereof having begun to give their minds to it during the last peace , have in a few years found out a great many iron-mines in sundry parts of the kingdom , and also some of lead and silver ; which greatly confirmeth the opinion of many knowing persons , who hold that the mountains of ireland are full of metals , and that if the same industry and diligence had been used by the inhabitants of that country in former ages , as there hath been since the beginning of the present , many more mines might have been discovered , not only of the same minerals as have been found out hitherto , but of others also , and perhaps even of gold it self . sect. 2. grounds to beleeve that there are gold-mines in ireland . i beleeve many will think it very unlikely , that there should be any gold-mines in ireland ; but a credible person hath given me to understand , that one of his acquaintance had severall times assured him , that out of a certain rivelet in the county of nether-tirone , called miola ( the which rising in the mountains slew-galen , and passing by the village maharry , falleth into the north-west corner of lough-neaugh , close by the place where the river band commeth out of it ) hee had gathered about one dram of pure gold ; concluding thereby , that in the aforesaid mountains rich gold-mines doe lye hidden . for it is an ordinary thing for rivers , which take their originall in gold-bearing mountains , to carry gold mixt with their sand ; the which may bee confirmed by many instances , and to say nothing of severall rivers of that kind , mentioned by staabo , pliny , & other old geographers and historians , nor of pactolus and hermus in lydia , and tagus in spain , whereof all the old poets are full ; it is certain , that in our very times severall rivers in germanie , as the elbe , schwarts , sala , and others , doe carrie gold , and have it mixed with their sands ; out of the which by the industry of man it is collected . sect. 3. three sorts of iron-mines in ireland : and first of the first sort , bog-mine . but to let alone uncertain conjectures , and to content our selves with the mines that are already discovered , we will in order speak of them , and begin with the iron-mines . of them there are three sorts in ireland , for in some places the oar of the iron is drawn out of moores and bogs , in others it is hewen out of rocks , and in others it is digged out of mountains : of which three sorts the first is called bog-mine , the other rock-mine , and the third with severall names white-mine , pin-mine , and shel-mine . the first sort , as wee have said , and as the name it self doth shew , is found in low and boggie places , out of the which it is raised with very little charge , as lying not deep at all , commonly on the superficies of the earth , and about a foot in thickness . this oar is very rich of metall , and that very good and tough , nevertheless in the melting it must be mingled with some of the mine or oar of some of the other sorts : for else it is too harsh , and keeping the furnace too hot , it melteth too suddenly , and stoppeth the mouth of the furnace , or , to use the workmens own expression choaketh the furnace . whilest this oar is new , it is of a yellowish colour , and the substance of it somewhat like unto clay , but if you let it lye any long time in the open air , it groweth not only very dry , as the clay useth to doe , but moldereth and dissolveth of it self , and falleth quite to dust or sand , and that of a blackish or black-brown colour . sect. 4. of the second sort of iron-mine , called rock-mine . the second sort , that which is taken out of rocks , being a hard and meer stony substance , of a dark and rustie colour , doth not lye scattered in severall places , but is a piece of the very rock , of the which it is hewen : which rock being covered over with earth , is within equallie every where of the same substance ; so as the whole rock , and every parcell thereof , is oar of iron . this mine , as well as the former , is raised with little trouble , for the iron-rock being full of joints , is with pick-axes easily divided and broken into pieces of what bigness one will : which by reason of the same joints , whereof they are full every where , may easily be broke into other lesser pieces ; as that is necessary , before they be put into the furnace . this mine or oar is not altogether so rich as the bog-mine , and yeeldeth very brittle iron , hardly fit for any thing else , but to make plow-shares of it ( from whence the name of colt-share iron is given unto it ) and therefore is seldom melted alone , but mixed with the first or the third sort . of this kind hitherto there hath but two mines been discovered in ireland , the one in munster , neer the town of tallo , by the earl of cork his iron works ; the other in leinster , in kings county , in a place called desert land , belonging to one serjeant major piggot , which rock is of so great a compass , that before this rebellion it furnished divers great iron-works , and could have furnished many more , without any notable diminution ; seeing the deepest pits that had been yet made in it , were not above two yards deep . the land , under which this rock lyeth , is very good and fruitfull , as much as any other land thereabouts , the mold being generallie two feet and two and a half , and in many places three feet deep . sect. 5. of the third sort of iron-mine . the third sort of iron-mine is digged out of the mountains , in severall parts of the kingdome ; in vlster , in the county of fermanagh , upon lough earne ; in the county of cavan , in a place called douballie , in a drie mountain ; and in the county of nether-tirone , by the side of the rivelet lishan , not farre from lough neaugh ; at the foot of the mountains slew-galen mentioned by us upon an other occasion , in the beginning at this chapter : in leinster ▪ in kings-countie , hard by mountmelick ; and in queens-countie , two miles from mountrath : in connaught ; in tomound or the county of clare , six miles from limmerick ; in the county of roscomen , by the side of lough allen ; and in the county of letrim , on the east-side of the said lough , where the mountains are so full of this metall , that thereof it hath got in irish the name of slew neren , that is , mountains of iron : and in the province of munster also in sundry places . this sort is of a whitish or gray colour , like that of ashes ; and one needs not take much pains for to find it out , for the mountaines which doe contain it within themselves , doe commonly shew it of their own accord , so as one may see the veins thereof at the very outside in the sides of the mohntains , beeing not very broad , but of great length , and commonly divers in one place , five or six ridges the one above the other , with ridges of earth between them . these veins or ridges are vulgarly called pins , from whence the mine hath the name of pin-mine ; being also called white-mine , because of its whitish colour ; and shel-mine , for the following reason : for this stuff or oar being neither loose or soft as earth or clay , neither firm and hard as stone , is of a middle substance between both , somewhat like unto slate , composed of shels or scales , the which do lye one upon another , and may be separated and taken asunder very easily , without any great force or trouble . this stuff is digged out of the ground in lumps of the bigness of a mans head , bigger , or less , according as the vein assordeth opportunitie . within every one of these lumps , when the mine is very rich and of the best sort ( for all the oar of this kind is not of equall goodness , some yeelding more and better iron than other ) lyeth a small kernell , which hath the name of hony-comb given to it , because it is full of little holes , in the same manner as that substance whereof it borroweth its appellation . the iron comming of this oar is not brittle , as that of the rock-mine , but tough , and in many places as good as any spanish iron . sect. 6. iron-works erected by the english. the english having discovered these mines , endeavoured to improve the same , & to make profit of them , and consequently severall iron-works were erected by them in sundry pats of the land , ●s namely by the earl of cork in divers places in munster ; by sr coarles coot in the counties of roscomen and letrim , in connaught , and in leinster by mountrath , in queens-county ; by the earl of london-derry at ballonakill , in the sayd county ; by the lord chancelour sir adam loftus , vicount of ely , at mount-melik , in kings-county ; by sir iohn dunbar in fermanagh , in ulster ; and another in the same county , by the side of lough-earne , by sir leonard bleverhasset ; in the county of tomond , in connaught , by some london-merchants ; besides some other works in other places , whose first erectors have not come to my knowledge . in imitation of these have also been erected divers iron-works in sundry parts of the sea-coast of ulster and munster , by persons , who having no mines upon or near their own lands , had the oare brought unto them by sea out of england ; the which they found better cheap than if they had caused it to be fetched by land from some of the mines within the land . and all this by english , whose industry herein the irish have been so far from imitating , as since the beginning of this rebellion they have broke down and quite demolished almost all the fore-mentioned iron-works , as well those of the one as of the other sort . chap. xvii . of the iron-works ▪ their fashion , charges of erecting and maintaining th●m , and profit comming of them : with an exact description of the manner of melting the iron in them . sect. 1. the fashion of the iron-works . the fashion of the iron-works , of whose erection we have spoke in the end of the foregoing chapter , is such as followeth . at the end of a great barn standeth a huge furnace , being of the height of a pike and a half , or more , and four-square in figure , but after the manner of a mault-kiln , that is , narrow below , and by degrees growing wider towards the top , so as the compass of the mouth or the top is of many fathoms . this mouth is not covered , but open all over ; so that the flame , when the furnace is kindled , rising through the same without any hindrance , may be seen a great way off in the night , and in the midst of the darkness maketh a terrible shew to travellers , who do not know what it is . these ovens are not kindled with wood , nor with sea-coal , but meerly vvith char-coal , whereof therefore they consume a huge quantity : for the furnace being once kindled , is never suffered to go out , but is continually kept a burning from the one end of the year to the other : and the proportion of the coals to the oare is very great : for the mine would not melt without an exceeding hot fire ; the which that it may be the more quick and violent , it is continually blown day and night without ceasing by two vast pair of bellow● , the which resting upon main peeces of timber , and with their pipes placed into one of the sides of the furnace , are perpetually kept in action by the meanes of a great wheel , which being driven about by a little brook or water-course , maketh them rise and fall by turns , so that whilst the one pair of bellows doth swell and fill it self with wind , the other doth blow the same forth into the furnace . sect. 2. of the lesser iron-works , called bloomeries : of the hammer-works : and of the casting works . there is another and lesser sort of iron-works , much different from the former : for instead of a furnace they use a hearth therein , altogether of the fashion of a smiths hearth , whereon the oare being layd in a great heap , it is covered over with abundance of charcoal , the which being kindled , is continually blown by bellows that are moved by wheeles and water-courses , in the same manner as in the other works . these works , commonly called bloomeries , are in use , or were so before this rebellion in sundry places of the north-parts of ulster . besides these two sorts of works , where the iron-mine is melted , there is a third sort , where the iron after the first melting is hammered out into bars , of which we shall have occasion to speak more in the latter end of this present chapter . there were also in some parts of ireland yet another kind of iron-works , differing from all the former , where the iron was cast into ordnance , pots , small round furnaces , and other things ; of which works mr christopher wandsworth , master of the rolls of ireland , and in his latter dayes lord deputy of the same kingdom under the earl of strafford , then lord lieutenant thereof , had one upon his lands by idough in the county of carloe ; whereof we cannot give the reader any particulars , because we have not yet been informed thereof . sect. 3. conveniencies requisite to the erecting of an iron-work . in the erecting of these works men seek to make them as near to the mine as may be , to get the more profit by them : for the greater the distance is , the greater are the charges in having the oare brought from the mine to the furnace , especially where all must be carried by land , the which doth fall out so in far the most places . but many times one is necessitated to make the works a good way further from the mine , than otherwise one would , because of the water-courses , the which being of very great consequence in the well-settling of a work , and absolutely necessary ( the wheels being all moved by water ) those places must be made choice of , where one may have the conveniency of water-courses . and besides all this , regard must be had to the nearness of the woods , partly by reason of the timber , a great deal whereof is necessary for the erecting of one of these workes , and chiefly for the charcoales sake , of which a vast quantity continually is requisite , as before we have shewed . sect. 4. the charges of erecting and maintaining an iron-work . it is to be observed , that although there be wood enough upon ones land , and that not very far from the mine , together with the conveniences of water-courses , so as the water needeth not to be brought from very far off , nevertheless the charge is very great , both of erecting and stocking one of the iron-works , and of maintaining it and keeping it afoot , and that by reason of the great number of workmen ▪ and labourers of severall sorts , which thereunto is requisite ; a list of whose names and offices here followeth : wood-cutters , who fell the timber ; sawyers , to saw the timber ; carpenters , smiths , masons , and bellow-makers , to erect the iron-works , with all the appurtenances thereof , and to repair them from time to time ; water-leaders , or water-course-keepers , to steer the water-courses , and to look to them constantly ; basket-makers , to make baskets for to carry the oare and other materials ; boat-men , and boat-wrights to make the boats , and to go in them ; diggers , who work in the mine , and dig the same ; carriers , who carry the oare from the mine ; colliers , who make the char-coal ; corders , who bring the char-coal to the work ; fillers , whose work it is from time to time to put the mine and the coales into the furnace ; keepers of the furnace , who look to the main work , rake out the ashes and cinders , and let out the molten metall at convenient times ; finers , who look to the works where the iron is hammered ; hammerers , whose work it is to see the iron hammered out : besides severall other labourers , who having no particular task , must help to put their hand to every thing : of all which sorts of men sir charles coot the elder , that zealous and famous warriour in this present warre against the irish rebells ( wherein having done many memorable exploits , he lost his life in the first year thereof ) did continually keep at work some five-and-twenty or six-and-twenty hundred , at his iron-works , being three in number . wherby may easily be gathered the greatness of the expences in erecting & maintaining of iron-works : and for all this the owners thereof did greatly gain thereby , ordinarily no less than forty in the hundred per annum . sect. 5. of the profit of the iron-works instanced in those of sir charles coot by mountrath to speak somewhat more particularlie both of the charges and the profits of these iron-works , we shal instance the matter in one of the works of the said sr charles coot , namely that which he had in the lordship of mountrath , in queens-county . at that work the tun ( that is twenty hundred weight ) of rock-mine at the furnace head came in all to stand in five shillings six pence sterling , and the tun of white-mine , which hee had brought him from a place two miles further off in seven shillings . these two were mixed in that proportion , that to one part of rock-mine were taken two parts of white-mine : for if more of the rock-mine had bin taken , the iron would not have bin so good , and too brittle ; and being thus mixed , they yeelded one third part of iron : that is to say , of two tuns of white-mine , and one of rock-mine , being mingled and melted together , they had one tun of good iron , such as is called merchants-iron , being not of the first , but second melting , and hammered out into barres , and consequently fit for all kinds of use this iron he sent down the river oure ( by others called the nure ) to rosse and waterford in that kind of irish boates which are called cots in that countrie , being made of one piece of timber : which kind of ill-favoured boats ( mentioned also by us above ) are very common throughout all ireland , both for to pass rivers in , and to carry goods from one place to another ; and not only upon shallow waters , such as the aforenamed river is in the greatest part of its course , but even upon the great rivers and loughs . at waterford the iron was put aboard of ships going for london , where it was sold for sixteen , otherwhiles for seventeen pounds stering , and sometimes for seventeen and a half ; whereas it did not stand sir charles coot in more than betwixt tenne and eleven pounds sterling , all charges reckoned , as well of digging , melting , fining , as of carrying , boat-hire , and freight , even the custome also comprehended in it . sect. 6. some other particulars about the same subiect , of the prosit of the iron-workes . in most of the other places did a tun of the iron-mine or oar come to stand in five , five and a half , and six shillings sterling at the furnace head ; and it was an ordinary thing , as well where they used white-wine , as where they mixed rock-mine with it , to have a tun of good iron out of three tuns of oar : in some places , where the mine was richer , they would have a tun of iron out of only two tuns and a half of oar. nevertheless few of them gained more or as much as sir charles coot , because they had not the same conveniencie of transportation : and he himselfe did not gain so much by his iron works in connaught , as by that neer mountrath , although the mines there afforded a richer oar , and that the tun thereof did cost him but three shillings at the furnace , because that lough-allen , whereunto the same mines and works are contiguons , gave him the opportunitie of carrying the oar by water from the mine unto the work , and that in boates of forty tuns . the earl of cork whose iron-works being seated in munster , afforded unto him very good opportunitie of sending his iron out of the land by shipping , did in this particular surpass all others , so as he hath gained great treasures thereby : and knowing persons , who have had a particular insight into his affaires , doe assure me , that he hath profited above one hundred thousand pounds clear gain by his said iron-works . sect. 7. the manner of melting the iron-oar . the manner of melting the iron , usuall in ireland , is thus . the furnace is not filled to the top , but some space is left emptie ; and to put new stuff into it they doe not stay untill the former be quite consumed , but only untill it be somewhat descended , and then they cast into it some charges or basketfuls of coales , and at the top of them the same quantity of mine : and thus they doe from time to time , so as the furnace is in ● manner alwaie● in one and the same estate ; where is to be observed , that in most furnaces they adde unto the oar and coales some quantity of iron-cinders , and in others of lime-stone , whereby the melting of the iron is greatly furthered , and the furnace made to work more mildly . within the barn , at the bottome of the furnace , stand constantly two men , one of each side , the which with long iron hooks , through holes left for the purpose , doe every quarter of an hour draw out the unburnt coales , ashes , and cinders ; which cinders are great lumps of a firm substance , but brittle , of a blackish colour , shining , but not transparent ; being nothing else but the remainder of the iron-oar , after that the iron which was contained in it , is melted out on 't the iron it self descendeth to the lowest part of the furnace , called the hearth ; the which being filled , ( so that , if one stayed longer , the iron would begin to swim over through the aforesaid holes ) they unstop the hearth , and open the mouth thereof ( or the timpas the arts-men call it ) taking away a little door , of fashion like unto that of a bakers oven , wherewith the same was shut up very close . the floor of the barn hath a mold of sand upon it , where-in , before they open the furnace , a furrow is made , of sufficient breadth and depth , through the whole length of the barn , from the bottom of the furnace until the barns door : into which furrow , as soon as the furnace is opened , the molten iron runneth very suddenly and forcibly , being to look on like unto a stream or current of fire . it remaineth a long time hot , but doth presently loose its liquidness and redness , turning into a hard and stiff mass , which mas●es are called sowes by the workmen . sect. 8. of the different bigness of the iron sowes these masses or sowes of iron are not alwaies of one and the same weight and bigness , but there is them of all sizes , from one hundred weight untill thirtie hundred : which difference doth chiefly depend on the different bigness of the furnace and hearth , and partly on the will and discretion of the workmaster or founder , and according as he either stayeth untill the hearth be full , or letteth out the iron sooner ; but ordinarily they doe not use to cast , or to open the hearth , under less than twelve houres , nor to stay much longer than four-and-twenty . and here is to be observed , that even in furnaces of the same biguess , yea in the self-same furnaces , the same quantity of iron is not alwaies cast in the same space of time : but that varieth both according to the nature of the oar , and according to the different seasons of the year . for within the same compasse of time you shall cast a greater quantitie of iron out of a rich mine or oar , than out of a lean one ; and in the summer time , when the coales come in dry and fresh , than in the winter . sect. 9. of the refining of the sow-iron , and the hammering it into barres . the sowe● are with teams of oxen drawn to the hammer-works , where being put into the fire again , they melt them into the finerie , the finer turning the melted stuff to and fro , till it come to be a solid body , then he carrieth it under the hammer , where it is hammered out into such flat narrow and thin bars , as are to be seen every where : the hammers being huge big ones , and never ceasing from knocking day nor night , as being kept at work by the means of certain wheels , turned about by water-courses in the same manner as the wheels of the bellows . by means of this second melting , and of that mighty hammering , the iron is freed from a mighty deal of dross and dregs which it kept sticking to it , thorough its whole substance , in the first melting ; and so of impure called sow-iron , becometh to be usefull , such as is accustomed to be delivered unto merchants , being therefore called merchants-iron ; one tun whereof is usually had out of a tun and a half of sow-iron ; but if that be of the best sort , and cast of the best oare , two hundred pounds , less of it will yeeld the aforesayd quantity of a tun of merchants-iron . chap. xviii . of the mines of silver and lead in ireland : and occasionally of the pestiferous damps and vapours within the earth . sect. 1. of the severall mines of silver and lead , and in particular that of tipperary ▪ mines of lead and s●lver in ireland have to this day been found out , three in number ; one in ulster , in the county of antrim , very rich , forasmuch as with every thirty pounds of lead it yeeldeth a pound of pure silver ; another in connaught , upon the very harbour-mouth of sligo , in a little demy-iland commonly called conny-iland ; and a third in munster . the first two having been discovered but a few years before this present rebellion , were through several impediments never taken in hand yet ; wherefore we shall speak only of the third . this mine standeth in the county of tipperary , in the barony of upper-ormond , in the parish of kilmore , upon the lands of one iohn mac-dermot o-kennedy , not far from the castle of downallie , twelve miles from limmerick , and threescore from dublin . the land where the mine is , is mountainous and barren ; but the bottoms , and the lands adjoyning , are very good for pasture , and partly arable ; of each whereof the miners had part , to the value of twenty pounds sterling per annum every one . it was found out not above forty years agoe , but understood at the first onely as a lead-mine , and accordingly given notice of to donogh earl of thomond , then lord president of munster , who made use of some of the lead for to cover the house which he then was building at bunrattie : but afterwards it hath been found , that with the lead of this mine there was mixed some silver . sect. 2. the manner of digging this mine : the nature of the oare , and what proportions of silver and lead it yeelds . the veins of this mine did commonly rise within three or four spits of the superficies , and they digged deeper as those veines went , digging open pits very far into the ground , many fathoms deep , yea castle-deep ; the pits not being steep , but of that fashion as people might go in and out with wheel-barrows , being the onely way used by them for to carry out the mine or oare . the water did seldom much offend them ; for when either by the falling of much rain , or by the discovering of some spring or water-source , they found themselves annoyed by it , they did by conduits carry it away to a brook adjoyning , the mountain being so situate , as that might be done easily . this mine yeelds two different sorts of oare ; of which the one , and that the most in quantitie , is of a reddish colour , hard , and glistering ; the other is like a marle , somthing bl●wish , and more soft than the red ; and this was counted the best , producing most silver , whereas the other , or glistering sort , was very barren , and went most away into litteridge or dross . the oar yeelded one with another three pound weight of silver out of each tun , but a great quantity of lead , so as that was counted the best profit to the farmer . besides the lead and silver the mine produced also some quicksilver , but not any alome , vitriol , or antimony , that i could hear of . sect. 3. profits of this mine . it hach been destroyed by the irish rebels . the silver of this mine was very fine , so as the farmers sold it at dublin for five shillings two pence sterling the ounce ; as for the lead , that they sold on the place for eleven pounds sterling the tun , and for twelve pounds at the city of limmerick . the king had the sixt part of the silver for his share , and the tenth part of the lead , the rest remaining to the farmers , whose clear profit was estimated to be worth two thousand pounds sterling yearly . all the mil● , melting-houses , refining-houses , and other necessary work-houses , stood within one quarter of a mile at the furthest from the place where the mine was digged , every one of them having been very conveniently and sufficiently built and accommodated by the officers and substitutes of sir william russell , sir basill brook , and sir george hamilton , which three persons successively had this mine in farm from the king , but in the beginning of this present rebellion all this hath been destroyed by the irish under the conduct of hugh o-kennedy , brother of iohn mac-dermot o-kennedy , on whose lands the mine was situated : which rebels not content to lay wast the mine , and to demolish all the works thereunto belonging , did accompany this their barbarousness with bloody cruelty against the poor workmen , such as were imployed about the melting and refining of the oar , and in all offices thereunto belonging ▪ the which some of them being english , and the rest dutch ( because the irish having no skill at all in any of those things , had never been imployed in this mine otherwise than to digg it , and to doe other labours ) were all put to the sword by them , except a very few , who by flight escaped their hands . sect. 4. this mine free from deadly vapours , the which otherwise in ireland are bred within the earth , as well as in other c●untries , as is instanced in a very remarkable history . i have not heard that any of the miners hath been stifled in this mine , a thing ordinary enough in other countries : the reason whereof i conceive to be , because the work was done in wide and open pits , wherein the like noxious vapours can neither be so easily engendred , and when they arise find a free passage into the open air , to the contrary of those close and narrow vaults usuall in the most part of other mines . for else that the earth of ireland is subject , as well as that of other countries , to breed dangerous damps within her self , is undoubted , as evidently it appeared in the year sixteen hundred thirty seven , by this following accident . a maulter living in the suburbs of dublin in st francis-street caused a well to be digged three yards deep , which yeelding but little water , and that not very sweet nor clear , resolved to have it made deeper ; and injoyned a servant of his , to work at it at spare times , which he doing , and having digged a yard and half lower , the water of it begun the 24 of august to bubble up in a strange manner , making great noise ; which having continued two dayes , without any notable increase , hardly comming half-way the knees ; he went down again into the well , to digge there according to his custome . but having wrought but a little while , and being taken with a sudden giddiness in his head , and faintness at his heart , made hast to get out , and being revived , returned to fetch away his spade and other instruments ; but comming to the bottom he fell into a deadly sown , which being s●en by those that were present , one of them went down to help him up ; unto whom the same accident happened . all the spectators being greatly astonished , and their tumult having drawn-on a great concourse of people , the place were the well was being an open yard , looking into the main street ; a certaine man , newly come to town , and casually passing by that way , not affrighted by the example of those two , had the courage to goe down to fetch the former out , but with as ill success as they themselves . the wonder and amazement being hereby increased among the people , there was nevertheless a butcher ( a bold robustuous man ) who having drunk somewhat liberally , would notwithstanding these sad accidents goe in , which at the first not being suffered , and he continuing in his resolution , was at last permitted on condition that he let a strong cord be tyed about his wast to pull him out , if he found himself ill ; the which to signifie he was to hold up his right hand . but being come to the bottome , and suddenly taken with a deadly faintness , that he had neither time nor power to give the appointed sign , falling from the ladder ; and being haled out with all possible speed , found to be in a deep trance , but with perfect signes of life : wherefore being carried to his own house , put into his bed , and care taken of him , it was nevertheless 24 houres before he came to himself . the dead bodies being drawn out of the well it was filled with earth by order of the magistrat of the said city . sect. 5. relation of an accident like the former happened at london . the like accidents have at severall times been seen in other countries , whereof wee could allege many instances , but passing by all other we shall make mention of one lately befaln here at london . without aldesgate , there is a little court called carpenters-yard , in the midst of which there stood a pump ; the water whereof not being good for to dress meat , was used by the neighbours only for the washing and cleaning of their houses , and the like . but in length of time being grown so thick and muddy that no use could be made out , it was resolved that the well , whereout the pump drew its water , should be made clean , to which purpose the pump being taken down , in the latter end of iuly anno sixteen hundred fourtie four , a laborer was let down with a cord into the well , being little and narrow , to take out the mud by pailes full , which assoon as he came to the bottome presently fell stark dead . those that had let him down , seeing this , and suspecting nothing else , but that a suddain faintness had overcome him , let down another to see what he ayled , and to bring him out . but he sped no better than the first , which when the people perceived , no more went into the well ▪ untill three or four houres after , in which middle-space of time a great iron pan or plate , heaped up with burning charcoal , had been let down into the well , and severall times as the fire did slaken , renewed , that through the heat thereof that mortiferous vapour might bee overcome and dispersed , the which accordingly fell out ; so that the person aferwards went down to fetch away the dead bodies , got no hurt at all . a great covered or vaulted gutter , whereby the ordures of the streets are under ground conveyed into the city ditch , passeth under the yard where-in the said well , ( dammed up since this sad accident ) did stand ; so as it may bee probably beleeved that that deadly infection of the air within the same well had partly been caused through the neerness of the same sewer . chap. xix . of the free-stone , marble , flints , slate , and seacoles which are found in ireland sect. 1. of the free-stone , having in the precedent chapters treated of the metals and minerals , which are found in ireland , we shall now go on to speak of severall other substances , raised out of the ground there , of a less noble nature , but nevertheless profitable and serving for severall good uses . to begin with free-stone , there is two sorts of it , the one being gray or ash-coloured , and the other blew ; which both for the most part lying in the uppermost parts of the ground , covered over with very little earth , are raised with small labour and charge , whereas in most other countries it is as much labour to digge free-stone as the metalls themselves , the blew free-stone is not very abundant , and as little in request , as unfit for great buildings ; it lying for the most part in small unshapely peeces ; and when they are bigger commonly broke in the raising and hewing , partly through the unskilfullness of the workmen there , and chiefly because they are exceeding hard , and cannot well endure the iron . the gray free-stone which is found very abundantly in most parts of the land is of a contrary nature ; and may easily be cut out into stones of all bigness or fashion , wherefore also this sort hath been used by the english , to all the churches , castles , and edifices , which since the conquest have been builded by them ; for the irish themselves , never had the skill nor industry to erect any considerable buildings of free-stone , brick , or other the like materials , their dwellings being very poor and contemptible cottages . true it is , that the english at their first comming found several maritine-townes in ireland with stone-walls and houses , the churches also , not onely in those , but in many other towns being of the same . but built by strangers , who being come out of the northern parts of germany , and other neighbouring countries , had setled themselves there , inhabiting severall parts of the sea-coasts , some ages before the english-conquest ; which people called themselves oastmans , or easterlings ; all those countries of the which they were come being situated to the east of ireland . sect. 2. certain evill properties of the irish free-stone . this sort of gray fre●-stone in ireland hath a bad qualitie , that it draweth the moysture of the air continually to it , and so becommeth dank and wet both in and out-side , especially in times of much rain . to mend this inconvenience the english did wainscot those walls with oak or other boards , or line them with a thin crust of brick . sect ▪ 3. of the marble . besides the free-stone , which is almost in every part of the land , there is marble found in many places of severall sorts ; one is red , straked with white and other colours , such as with a peculiar name is called porphyre ; other black , very curiously straked with white , and some all of one colour . the first two sorts are found but in smal quantity , especially the second . but the last is very abundant in some places , but most about kilkenny , where not onely many houses are built of the same , but whole streets are paved with it . sect. 4. description of the marble-quarrie at kilkenny . the quarrie out of which they have their marble at kilkenney , is not above a quarter of a mile distant from the town , and belongeth to no body in particular , lying in common for all the townsmen , who at any time may fetch as much out of it , as seemeth good unto them , without paying any thing for it : it is in fashion like unto quarries of free-stone , to wit , a wide open pit , whereout stones and pillars of great thickness and height may be digged . this marble , whilst it is rude , and as it cometh out of the ground , looketh grayish , but being polished it getteth a fine blewish colour , drawing somwhat towards the black . sect. 5. of the flint . although flints are not digged from under the ground , yet shall we give them a place next to the free-stone and marble , because of the affinity which they have with them . they are found in every part of ireland in great abundance near the sea-side , within the land , upon the hils and mountains , and in the rivers , many of which have not onely their banks covered with them , but also the bottom of their chanels , and that for great spaces togeth●r , which as they are o● all sizes and fashions , so of very different colours . sect. 6. of the slate . in sundry parts of ireland slate is found in great abundance , and that nothing deep within the ground , just in the same manner as the free-stone , so as it may be raised with little charge and labour ; wherefore at all times it hath been much used by the english inhabitants for the covering of their houses and other buildings . nevertheless some years since in places near the sea , especially at dublin , that kind of holland tiles , which by them are called pannen begun to be used generally , the merchants causing them to be brought in from thence in great abundance , because in ireland they had neither convenient stuff to make them of , nor work-men skilfull in that business : although the common tiles usual in many parts of england and other countries , were made and used in several places within the land . besides these there was another kind of covering in use , both for churches and houses , to wit , a certain sort of woodden tiles , vulgarly called shingles ; the which are thight enough at the first , but do not many yeares continue so , it being necessary to change them often : which thing properly not appertaining to this chapter , we nevertheless for affinities sake have thought not amiss here to mention . some yeares ago another kind of slate hath been discovered in ireland , which for the colours-sake is called black-slate , being of a blackish colour , which is come into great esteem , not so much for the ordinary use of covering houses , for which they are no better than common slate , but because it hath been found by experience , very good and medicinall against severall diseases , especially to stay all kind of bleeding , and to hinder that after falls and bruises the blood do not congeal within the body . sect. 7. of the sea-coal . the trees and woods having been so much destroyed in ireland , as heretofore we have shewed , and consequently wood for firing being very dear in great part of the land , the inhabitants are necessitated to make use of other fuel , viz. of turf , and of sea-coals . of the turf we shall speak in the next chapter . as for sea-coals , they are the ordinary firing in dublin & in other places lying near the sea , where the same in time of peace are brought in out of england , wales , and scotland , in great abundance , and therefore reasonable cheap ; which is the reason , that the less care hath been taken to find out coal-mines in ireland it self , whereas otherwise it is the opinion of persons knowing in these matters , that if diligent search were made for them , in sundry parts of the land good coal-mines would be discovered . this opinion is the more probable , because that already one coal ▪ mine hath bin found out in ireland , a few yeares since , by meer hazard , and without having been sought for . the mine is in the province of leinster , in the county of carlo , seven miles from idof , in the same hill where the iron-mine was of mr. christopher wandsworth , of whom hath been spoken above . in that iron-mine , after that for a great while they had drawn iron-oar out of it , and that by degrees they were gone deeper , at last in lieu of oar they met with sea-coal , so as ever since all the people dwelling in those parts have used it for their firing , finding it very cheap ; for the load of an irish-car , drawn by one garron , did stand them , besides the charges of bringing it , in nine pence only , three pence to the digger , and six pence to the owner . there be coals enough in this mine for to furnish a whole country ; nevertheless there is no use made of them further than among the neighbouring inhabitants ; because the mine being situated far from rivers , the transportation is too chargeable by land . these coals are very heavy , and burn with little flame , but lye like char-coal , and continue so the space of seven or eight hours , casting a very great and violent heat . in the place where this mine standeth , do lye little smith-coals above the ground , dispersed every where in great quantity , from whence the smiths dwelling in the parts round about did use to come and fetch them even before the mine was discovered . chap. xx. of the turf , lime , and brick , and the manner of making those things in ireland ; item of the glass made in ireland . sect. 1. of the two sorts of irish-turf . turf being very much used throughout all the land ( as we have sayd before ) is of two sor●s , according to the difference of the bog● out of the which it is taken . that which is taken out of the dry-bogs , or red-bogs , is light , spungy , of a reddish colour , kindleth easily , and burneth very clear , but doth not last . the other to the contrary , which is raised out of the green or wet bogs , is heavy , firm , black , doth not burn so soon , nor with so great a flame , but lasteth a great while , and maketh a very hot fire , and leaveth foul yellowish ashes . it is the observation of women , that the linnen which is dryed by a fire made of this last sort of turf , getteth a foul colour , be it never so white washed and bleeched , and groweth yellowish in that manner as that it can hardly be got out again . sect. 2. the manner of making the turf . the first sort of turf costeth but little paines in the making ; for being digged , and having ●yen some dayes a drying ( first spread out thin and single upon the ground , and afterwards piled up in little heaps ) it is brought into the barn. but black turf cannot be made without more trouble . first they mark out convenient places ; for onely those are fit for it to which some paths do lead , and which in themselves are not too mirie , and too deep , but have a firm & sandy ground underneath , within the space of four or five feet , or thereabouts . having found out such a place , if it be too watery , they make some trenches , into which the water descending out of that part of the bog wherein they intend to work , may by them be carried to some place fit for to receive it ; to the end that the bog being thereby grown somewhat dryer and firmer , may the better bear the labourers without s●nking too deep into it . then they fall to the business , dividing it so among the labourers , that one part of them do dig out the earth , or rather the mud ( for all the earth whereof this turf is made , is thin and muddy ) and by spade●-full cast it on a heap , either by the ●ide of the pit , or some where within the same , where others stand , who very well work it , turning it to and fro , and then with their shovels fill it into certain woodden trayes , amongst the english in ireland peculiarly called lossels ; the which being full , another part of the labourers draw the same , with great cords fastened to them , to some dry place within the bog , or by the side thereof , where having poured out the mud , they go back to fetch more , and so go to and fro all day long . on that dry place where the mud is poured forth , sit certain women upon their knees , who mold the mud , using nothing else to it but their hands ; between the which taking a part of it , they press them together in that manner , that their hands meeting above , the turf is fashioned flat and broad beneath , growing narrower towards the top ; which being done , the turf is let lye upon the ground the space of a week or more , according as the weather is , and being reasonably well dryed , it is piled up in little heaps , leaving every where empty spaces between , that the air and the wind passing through them , they may dry the sooner . sect. 3. the charges of making turf . ireland is so full of bogs , that every man almost hath bog enough upon his own land to make turf for his family and for all his tenants ; so that the turf doth cost most men no more than the hire of the labourers who are employed about it . those that begun early in the year , whilst the labourers had but little employment , gave ordinarily , besides meat and drink , three pence sterling a day to every man , and two pence to every woman ; four pence a day being the ordinary price , and when it was was at the dearest , five pence . twenty men made in two or three dayes as much turf as was sufficient for the whole years firing of a great family ; of which number five men did dig and cast up the mud , five wrought it and filled it into the trays , and ten were busied in drawing the trays to the place where the turf was molded by the women ; who went so nimbly to work with it , that onely two of them were sufficient to keep twenty men at work . sect. 4. of the lime , and the manner of making it of lime-stone . all the lime in ireland is made not of the shels of all sorts of shel-fish , as in holland , and some other countries , but onely of stone ; and the gray free-stone , whereof we have spoken in the precedent chapter , is very fit for it , especially when it is not newly come out of the quarrie , but taken off old buildings . but a peculiar sort of stone properly called lime-stone , is best for it . this stone is of a gray colour , tending to a dark blew , which being broke , a white dust out of it doth fly abroad ; and it is very common throughout all ireland , but especially in the provinces of munster and connaught , lying not deep within the ground , but very near to the surface of it , and in many places above ground . the manner of burning it into lime , usual over all ireland , is this ; in the side of some little height they make a great pit , round or square according as conveniencie is offered ; of that bignes as may hold forty or fifty barrels , & of that fashion that being many feet wide at the top , it doth by degrees grow narrower towards the bottom , in the same manner as the furnaces of the iron-works . the inside of this pit they line round about with a wall built of lime and stone , at whose outside near the bottom a hole or door is left , by which to take out the ashes ; and above that an iron-grate is laid , which cometh close to the wall round about : upon this they lay a lay of lime-stone ( being first knockt asunder with a great iron hammer , and broke into peeces of the bigness of a f●st , or thereabouts ) and upon that a lay of wood or turf , or a certain sort of sea-coal , the which being wonderfull small , and peculiarly called comb , is hardly used for any other purpose . upon that they lay another of lime-stone , and so by turns , untill the whole kiln be filled , ever observing that the outmost lay be of wood , turf , or comb , and not of lime-stone : which being done , the kiln is set afire until all be burnt . sect. 5. another manner of burning lime used in ireland . there is another manner of burning lime used in ireland , in kilns built altogether above ground , and incomparably bigger than the others , insomuch as to the quantity of three hundred barrels of lime at once is made in them . in these kilns they burn whole stones , without breaking them into peeces as the others , and that onely with wood ( turf or comb not being fit for it ) whereof they consume a huge deal , it being necessary from time to time to put new wood into them , to which end three or four men day and night do stand by the kiln to keep the fire from decaying or slackning . these ( called french-kilns , because the us● of them was first received from thence ) have ever their walls made of lime-stone , the which in the same manner are turned into lime , so as there remaineth nothing standing of these kilns after that the work is accomplished , and the lime taken away . now albeit that in these kilnes a very great quantity of lime is made at a time , nevertheless it hath been found by experience , that they are much more unprofitable than the others , because they consume much more firing in proportion , through the continuall renewing of the fire , and require the constant labour of severall men all the while they are burning , which commonly is the space of three dayes and nights . for these reasons was the use of these kilnes , which never had been very generall in ireland , more and more left off in these last yeares , and the others almost only made use of ; in the which the lime came to stand them , who burnt it , in no more then four pence the barrell at the most , all manner of expences being reckoned ; & but three to them who had the best conveniences . sect. 6. of the brick . in every part of ireland there is found a kind of clay very fit for to make bricks , and all sorts of potters-ware , although the irish never had the wit or industrie to make use of it for either of these two ends ; yea they have ever been so farre from making any earthen vessels , that even the use thereof hath been very rare amongst them , and to the most part unknown , not only before the comming in of the english , but also since , yea even untill these very last times ; although a great number of english potters in severall parts of the land had set up their trade , so as all kind of earthen ware was very common , and to be had at very easie rates . and as for the brick , they have been little used in ireland even among the english themselves for a great while ; but of late years they begun to be very common , as well in the countrie , as in the cities , especially dublin , where all the new buildings ( the which not only in handsomness , but also in number , doe surpass the old ) are all made of brick . but that which is made in ireland , for the most part is not so good , as that of other countries , not so much for any unfitness in the clay it self , as for want of handling and preparing it aright ; as may easily be conceived by the following description of the manner they use to make it . sect. 7. the manner how they make their brick in ireland . they dig a great square pit , taking away all the uppermost earth , untill they come to a good clay ( which commonly lyeth one or two spits deep ) this they digge up throughout the whole pit , and having broke it very small with the spade , they doe by degrees powre a great deal of water amongst it , working and labouring it together with the spade and their feet , till the whole mass become uniform , firm and tough like stiff dough ; the which then in wheel barrowes is carried out of the pit to a place where certain long tables are set up , to each of which tables is allotted one man , one woman , & one boy . the woman taketh up the clay by handfulls , from the heap lying upon the ground , and reacheth it unto the man , who thrusteth it into a little wodden form without bottom , strawing now and then some sand upon the table , that the clay may not stick to it : and so having given them their due fashion , the boy doth carry them from thence to a place , where he layeth them all upon the ground , not under any covert , but in the open air . after they have lyen some dayes , and are somewhat dryed , they are piled up in small heaps , twenty or thirty in a heap , making the heapes transparent in the same manner , as we have shewed above of the turf , some dayes after those little piles are made into greater , which are many feet long , and five or six feet high , but not above two feet , or two and a half broad ( making the layes transparent , with some empty space between brick and brick , even so as in the small piles ) the which at the top are covered over with straw , laying upon the straw broad green sods , to keep off the rain . having lyen so untill they be quite dry , they make great ovens or kilnes of them , filling them within with the same , strawing betwixt them of that small sort of sea-caol , whereof wee have spoke heretofore , called comb or coome , and having covered over the kiln with the same clay , whereof the bricks are made , the thickness of two hand-broads or there-abouts , they set it afire with wood underneath , and continue the fire untill not only all the bricks piled within the kiln , but all the walls quite through , and at the out-side as well as at the in-side , be perfectly burnt , and turned into good brick : wherein oftentimes , through the unskilfulness or neglect of those who make & fill these kilns , and of those that govern the fire , there is great loss , and that two manner of ways . for sometimes great part of the bricks is found not to be sufficiently nor uniformly burnt ; and on the other side it falleth out oftentimes , that great quantities are reduced into one , beeing burnt , or half-burnt into great unshapely masses or lumps , which are good for nothing . they do commonly burn in those kilns two or three hundred thousand bricks at a time ; the which for the most part , all charges being reckoned , come to stand betwixt six and eight shillings sterling the thousand . sect. 8. of the glass made in ireland . we shall conclude this chapter with the glass , there having been severall glass-houses set up by the english in ireland , none in dublin or other cities , but all of them in the countrie ; amongst which the principall was that of birre , a market-town , otherwise called parsons-town , after one sir laurence parsons , who having purchased that lordship , built a goodly house upon it ; his son william parsons having succeeded him in the possession of it ; which town is situate in queens county , about fifty miles to the south-west of dublin , upon the borders of the two provinces of leinster and munster : from this place dublin was furnished with all sorts of vvindovv and drinking-glasses , and such other as commonly are in use . one part of the materials , viz. the sand , they had out of england ; the other , to vvit the ashes , they made in the place of ash-tree , and used no other . the chiefest difficulty vvas , to get the clay for the pots to melt the materials in ; this they had out of the north. chap. xxi . of the temperature and qualities of the air , and seasons in ireland , as for heat , cold , and moisture . sect. 1. of the cold weather , and the frosts . although the climate of ireland is somewhat northerly , the land extending it self from the beginning of the one and fiftieth degree of latitude , until the end of the five and fiftieth , nevertheless is the air there very temperate , and nothing subject to violent colds ( not onely in munster , leinster , and connaught , but even in the most northern-part , to wit the province of ulster ) much less than any other land lying in the same height or latitude , yea than many countries of a much more southerly-climate . true it is , that the cold-weather doth commonly begin here somewhat soon , namely in the beginning of october , and sometimes in the middle or latter end of september , continuing ordinarily the space of five or six moneths , until the midst or latter end of march , and sometimes also good part of april ; during which whole space of time all such persons as are chilly and cold of nature , and do sit still much , can hardly be any long while without a fire . but again on the other side , it is very seldom violently cold there , and freezeth but little : there are commonly three or four frosts in one winter ; but they are very short , seldom lasting longer than three or four days together , & withall at their very worst nothing near so violent as in most other countries ; so that some all winter long hardly come near a fire once in a day ; and that not only in the ordinary cold weather , but even whilst it is a freezing . yea many times the cold is so slack even in the midst of the winter-moneths , that by walking onely , or doing some other moderate exercise , you shall find your self as warm , and the air as sweet and pleasant , as if it were in the moneth of may. there hath been some winters , wherein it hath frozen ten or twelve dayes together , so as the liffie , and other the like rivers were quite frozen , and might be gone upon by men and beasts : but those are altogether extraordinary , and do come very seldom , hardly once in the space of ten or twelve years . but how mild they ordinarily be , and how little subject to excessive cold , may appear hereby , that all kind of beasts and cattle , as cows , horses , and sheep , do there all winter long remain abroad , and do ●eed in the fields , where they are left in the night-time as well as in the day , and that many herbs , which in england and netherland do● dye every winter , here continue all the year long . sect. 2. of the warm-weather . and as the cold in winter is very moderate and tolerable , so is also the heat in summer ; the which is seldom so great , even in the hottest times of the year , as to be greatly troublesome . and it falleth out oft enough in the very summer-moneths , that the weather is more inclinable to cold than to heat , so as one may very well endure to come near a good fire . and this cometh to pass only during the wet-weather , for else , and whilst it is fair , it is very warm all summer long , albeit seldom over-hot : and so it is many times also even on the rainie dayes , whereas for the most part it is very cool in them , and the heat much less than the season doth require . sect. 3. of the rain and we●-weather . the rain is very ordinary in ireland , and it raineth there very much all the year long , in the summer as well as in the winter . commonly in the spring of the year it is very fair weather , with clear sun-shine from morning till night , for the space of five or six weeks together , with very little or no interruption ; which fair weather beginneth commonly in the mon●th of march , some years in the beginning , other yeares in the midst , and sometimes in the latter end of it . but the same being once past , it raineth afterwards very much all the summer long , so as it is a rare thing to see a whole week pass without it ; and many summers it is never dry weather two or three dayes together . which inconstancy and wetness of the weather is not only troublesome to men , but also hurtfull to all things growing out of the ground for mans behoof . for the heat never being very great , and there besides often interrupted by the intervention of the foul weather , hath neither time nor strength enough to ripen them so well and so soon , as otherwise it would ; whereby it cometh to pass , that as well the fruits of trees , as the corn and grass , here commonly much ●ater do come to perfection , than in the most part of other neighbouring countries . and as the ripeness of the fruits and other increase of the earth is greatly retarded by the abundance of unseasonable rain ; so it doth also fall out oftentimes , that the same being come to ripeness , it is difficult to get them in , by reason of the exceeding store of rain which doth come down during the hay-time and the harvest . wherefore it behoveth one here to be wonderfull diligent , and not to lose any part of the fair weather : for else one would run great hazard to sustain great losses , and to have all spoyled . but those that are vigilant and carefull , and that lose no occasion at all , do commonly in the end get in their increase well enough , notwithstanding all those great hinderances ; so that there be as few years of dearth in ireland , as in any other country of christendom ; and most years there is not only corn enough got for the sustenance of the inhabitants , but a great deal over and above , for the sending out of great quantities of grains into other countries . sect. 4. of the fair weather in the latter end of autumn . in the foul weather the nights are often fair . in the latter end of autumn weather is commonly fair again for some weeks together , in the same manner as in the spring , but not so long ; which as it doth serve for to dry up , and to get in the corn and hay , which till then hath remained in the fields ▪ the too much wet having hindered it from being brought away sooner ; so it giveth the opportunity of plowing the ground , and sowing the winter-corn ; the which otherwise would very hardly be done . for that season being once past , you have very little dry weather the rest of the autumn , and during all winter . and although it doth seldom rain continually for many dayes together , yet is the wetness very great , and few weeks doe pass , wherein are not two or three rainy dayes . and it is to be observed , that ordinarily it raineth in ireland much more by day than by night ; and that many times when it doth rain two or three dayes together , the nights between are very clear and fair ; the which also many times falleth out in other foul weather , and when all day long the skie is overcast with clouds and mists . sect. 5. some dry summers in ireland , but hardly ever any too dry . but although it is ordinarily thus in ireland ; yet the same inconstancy and variablenes of years and seasons , which is observed in most other countries , doth also here occur , and that more in regard of the summers & dry weather , than of the winters and cold . for it is marvellous seldom to have there a hard winter and long ●rost ; but summers have been which were ful of very dry , and fair , and pleasant weather . but as winters cruelly cold , so likewise over-dry summers do in this iland hardly come once in an age ; and it is a common saying in ireland , that the very dryest summers there never hurt the land : for although the corn and grass upon the high and dry grounds may get harm , nevertheless the country in generall gets more good than hurt by it : and when any dearths fall out to be in ireland , they are not caused through immoderate heat and drought , as in most other countries , but through too much wet , and excessive rain . sect. 6. amendment of the wet air in ireland how to be expected . so that the irish-air is greatly defectuous in this part , and too much subject to wet and rainy weather ; wherein if it were of somewhat a better temperature , and as free from too much wet , as it is from excessive cold , it would be one of the sweetest and pleasantest in the whole world , and very few countries could be named , that might be compared with ireland for agreeable temperateness . and although it is unlikely , that any revolution of times will produce any considerable alteration in this ( the which indeed in some other countries hath caused wonderfull changes ) because that those who many ages ago have written of this iland , doe witness the self same things of it in this particular , as wee doe find in our time : there is nevertheless great probability that this defect may in part be amended by the industry of men , if the country being once inhabited throughout by a civill nation , care were taken every where to diminish and take away the superfluous and excessive wetness of the ground , in all the watery and boggy places , whereby this too great moystness of the air is greatly increased , and partly also occasiond this opinion is not grounded upon some uncertain speculation , but upon assured experience ; for severall knowing and credible persons have affirmed to me , that already some yeares since good beginnings have been seen of it ; and that in some parts of the land well inhabited with english , and where great extents of bogs have been drained and reduced to dry land , it hath been found by the observation of some years one after another , that they have had a dryer air , and much less troubled with rain , than in former times . herewith agreeth what we read in that famous writer pliny , in the fourth chapter of the seventeenth book of his naturall history , concerning that part of macedonie , wherein the city philippi was seated ; where the air formerly having been very rainie , was greatly amended by the altering the wetness of the ground : his words are these , circa philippos cultura siccata regio , mutavit coeli habitum : that is , word for word , the country about philippi being dryed up through tillage , hath altered the quality of the air. chap. xxii . of the dew , mist , snow , hail , hoar-frost , thunder and lightning , earthquake and winds . sect. 1. of the dew . the naturalists and geographers do assure us , that it deweth exceedingly in the hot and dry countries , and that the less it useth to rain in a country , the dew doth fall there the more ●bundantly ; whereby it should seem to follow , that in the wet climate it deweth very little , and consequently that in ireland , where it raineth so very much , the dew must be very scanty . but there is as much dew there , as in other countries that are a great deal hotter and dryer . onely thus much experience doth shew in ireland ( and it may be as well in other countries , whereof i have not yet informed my self ) that when it is towards any great rain , little or no dew doth fall ; so as in those times going forth early in the morning into the green fields , you will finde them altogether dry , and that even in that season , wherein the dew in ireland , as in other neighbouring countries , useth to fall more abundantly , than in any other time of the year , to wit in the moneths of may and june : this is a certain sign to the inhabitants , that great rain is to fall suddenly ; and commonly after such a dry and dewless night it useth to rain two or three days together . but the preceding rain doth not hinder the dew in that manner , as that which is imminent ; and it is found ordinarily , that in a clear night follovving a rainy day ( the which is very ordinary , as we have sayd in the preceding chapter ) the dew commeth down as liberally as if it had not rained the day before . sect. 2. of may-dew , and the manner of gathering , and preserving it . the english women , and gentlewomen in ireland , as in england , did use in the beginning of the summer to gather good store of dew , to keep it by them all the year after for several good uses both of physick and otherwise , wherein by experience they have learnt it to be very available . their manner of collecting and keeping it was this . in the moneth of may especially , and also in part of the moneth of june , they would go forth betimes in the morning , and before sun-rising , into a green field , and there either with their hands strike off the dew from the tops of the herbs into a dish , or else throwing clean linnen clothes upon the ground , take off the dew from the herbs into them , and afterwards wring it out into dishes ; and thus they continue their work untill they have got a sufficient quantity of dew according to their intentions . that which is gotten from the grass will serve , but they chuse rather to have it from the green corn , especially wheat , if they can have the conveniency to do so , as being perswaded that this dew hath more vertues , and is better for all purposes , than that which hath been collected from the grass or other herbs . the dew thus gathered they put into a glass bottle , and so set it in a place where it may have the warm sun-shine all day long , keeping it there all the summer ; after some dayes rest some dregs and dirt will settle to the bottom ; the which when they perceive , they pour off all the clear dew into another vessel , and fling away those setlings . this they doe often , because the dew doth not purge it self perfectly in a few dayes , but by degrees , so as new dregs ( severed from the purer parts by the working of the dew , helped on by the sun-beams ) do settle again ; of the which as often as those good women see any notable quantity , they st●ll powre off the clear dew from them : doing thus all summer long , untill it be clear to the bottom . the dew thus thoroughly purified looketh whitish , and kepeth good for a year or two after . sect. 4. of the mists and fogs . we have shewed how much ireland is subject to rain , and so it is likewise to dark weather , and overcasting of the air even when it raineth not , which continueth sometimes many dayes together , especially in winter-time . but as for the fogs & mists , ireland is no more troubled with them than other regions , especially in the plain countrie , for in the mountaines they are much more frequent , so that oftentimes they are covered with them for a great way , the space of some houres together , when at the same time there is none in the neighbouring plain countrie ; and in the high mountaines it commeth many times to pass that in a fair day the top thereof for a long time together is covered over with a thick mist , when not only the adjacent country , but even the lower part of those mountains doe njoy a clear sun-shine . and sometimes it befalleth the tops as well as the lower parts beeing free from them , the middle parts are quite covered there-with : as my brother in his travels hath many times observed in severall parts , especially upon those high mountaines between dundalke and carlingford , as well in the midst of the summer , as at other times of the year . and in many places it is found by experience that the like fogs upon the tops of the mountaines is a fore-runner of rain in the next conntry : whereof all those who have lived any time at dublin , may have good knowledge . for seldom a mist appeareth upon the top of the wickloe-mountains , situated some five or six miles to the south of dublin , or of the head of both , without beeing followed with rain at dublin and the adjacent parts within 24. houres : wherein is observable , that a fog quite covering those mountaines all over is not so sure a signe of rain , as when it is only upon the top : and that those generall mists upon the mountains are often seen without any following rain , the which very seldom or never happeneth in the others . there be two sorts of mists or fogs in ireland : the one is uniform and constant , quite filling the air of all sides , whereby all manner of prospect is taken away , and continuing after the same fashion , untill it vanish by degrees , either ascending up into the air , or falling to the ground ; whereofhere , as in other countries , the first is commonly followed with rain , and the second with fair weather in the other sort are great parcells or flakes of foggie vapours scattered up and down the air , with clear spaces betwixt : the which flakes doe not keep one place , but fly to and fro , according as they are driven by the wind , and that sometimes very swiftly ; this kind of fog doth arise not only upon the seaside , but also within the land , and upon the mountaines : oftentimes turning into a generall mist. sect. 4. of the snow , hail , and hoar-frost . for the most part there falleth no great store of snow in ireland , and some yeares none at all , especially in the plain countries . in the mountaines there is commonly greater plenty of snow , than in other parts , so that all kind of cattle , doe all winter ●ong remain there abroad , being seldome troubled with very great frost or snow , and doe feed in the fields night and day , as wee have related more amply above ; yet it hath happened that in a winter , one of many , abundance of snow hath fallen , instance that of the year 1635 where about the latter end of ianuary and the beginning of february great store of snow did fall to the great damage of the cat●le , chiefly in the northern parts ( where it did snow most excedingly ) so as the people were put to hard shif●s to bring their cattle in safety to their folds and other covered places , one history among the rest by reason of the strangeness of it , i thinke will not be improper to relate as it hath been asser●ed to me by very credible persons , a gentleman living about ballaneah in the countie of cavan , took great pains to save his sheep , yet missed eleven of them ; some dayes after being come forth to course , his man saw from a ●arre off upon a hill , in a hollow place of a rock , part of it being covered with the top hangging over it , something alive and stirring , they thought it had been a hare or a fox , but comming neer they found it was the lost sheep , the which had sheer eaten away all the wool ●rom one anothers back ( being destitute of all other food , all ●ound about being covered with deep snow ) and which is more wonderfull one of them being dead , the rest did eat her flesh , leaving nothing but the bar bones . it doth also longer contiune there : so as it is and ordinary thing in those by dublin , and all other high mountaines throughout the land , to see the snow lying upon the tops of them many dayes , yea weekes , after that in the nether parts and plain countrie it is thawed and quite vanished . it haileth there but seldome , and in thinne short shoures , the hail-stones also being very little . as for the hoar-frost , that is as common here , as in other countri●s , and that not only in the coldest months , and during the frost , but even in the spring : so as commonly during all the fair weather of that season , of some weeks togethet , whereof wee have spoke heretofore , every morning all the green herbs of the gardens and fields are quite covered over with it . sect. 5. of the thunder , lightning , and earthquakes . ireland is as litle subject to thunder and lightning , as any other countrie in the world , for it is a common thing , to see whole yeares pass wi●hout them , and in those yeares , where-in any are , one shall seldome have them above once or twice in a summer , and that with so weak noise of the thunder , and so feeble a shining of the lightning , that even the most fearfull persons are hardly frightned at all there-by , much less any harm done to men or beasts . from earthquakes this iland is not altogether exempt ; but withall they are so seldom , that they hardly come once in an age : and it is so long agoe since the last of all was , that it is as much as the most aged persons now alive can even remember . sect. 6. of the winds . with winds it is in this countrie almost as with rain , ireland not only having its share in them , as other countries , but being very much subject to them , more than most other parts of the world . for the winds blow very much at all times of the year , especially in the winter months , when also there are many stormes , which sometimes doe continue severall dayes together . and it is worth the observation , that not only storm-winds , but others also , do in ireland much seldomer blow out of the east , than out of the west , especiall in the winter ; so that commonly there is no need of a wind to be wafted over into england : where to the contrary , those , who out of england will come over into ireland , very ordinarily are constrained to wait two or three weeks , and sometimes five or six weeks , yea it hath faln out so more than once , that in two whole months , and longer , there hath not been somuch east-wind , as to carry ships out of england into ireland : notable instances whereof the history of the first conquest of ireland , and that of the lord mountjoy , subbuer of tirone's rebellion , doth afford . but in the summer-time , and chiefly in the spring , and in the months of march , aprill , and may , one is not so much subject to that incommodity , as in the other times of the year . and as the west-winds are much more common in ireland , especially upon this coast lying over against great-britain , than the east ; so likewise the south winds are much more ordinary there , than the north : which two winds there doe seldome blow alone , but for the most part doe accompany one of the two other , especially the north-wind , the which also doth oftner join it self with the east than with the west-wind . chap. xxiii . of the healthfullness of ireland , and what sicknesses it is free from , and subject unto . sect. 1. many old and healthfull people in ireland . although ireland is obnoxious to excessive wetness , nevertheless it is very wholsome for the habitation of men , as clearly doth appear by that there are as few sickly persons , and as many people live to a great age , as in any of the neighbouring countries : for both men and women , setting those aside who through idleness and intemperance do shorten their dayes , attain here for the most part to a fair age , very many living to be very old , and to pass not only the age of fourscore , but of fourscore and ten ; and severall there are found at all times , who doe very near reach an hundred yea●es , some out-living and passing them . and the most part of those aged persons are in very good disposition , injoying not only their health , but also the use of their limbs , senses , and understanding , even to their utmost yeares . among the women there are severall found , who do retain not only their customary purgations , but even their fruitfullness , above the age of fifty yeares , and some untill that of sixty : my brother hath known some , who being above three-score yeares old , have not only conceived , and brought forth children , but nursed them , and brought them up with their own milk , being wonderfull rare and almost unheard-of in other countries . sect. 2. ireland free from severall diseases . irelands healthfullness doth further appear by this particular , that severall diseases , very common in other countries , are here very rare , and partly altogether unknown . for the scurvy , an evill so generall in all other northerly countries consining upon the sea , is untill this day utterly unknown in ireland . so is the quartan ague , the which is ordinary in england , and in severall parts of it doth very much reign at all times . as for the tertian ague , it was heretofore as litle known in ireland as the quartan : but some yeares since , i know not through what secret change , it hath found access into this iland , so that at this time some are taken with it , but nothing neer so ordinarily as in other countries . the plague , which so often and so cruelly infecteth england , to say nothing of remotes countries , is wonderfull rare in ireland , and hardly seen once in an age . sect. 3. the immunity from certain diseases consisteth in the air , not in the bodies of the people . it is observable concerning the fore-mentioned particular , that this privilege , of being free from severall diseases , doth not consist in any peculiar quality of the bodies of men , but proceedeth from some hidden property of the land and the air it self . this is made manifest two manner of wayes , first , in that strangers comming into ireland , doe partake of this same exemption ; and as long as they continue there , are as free of those evills , from which that climat is exempt , as the irish themselves . secondly , in that the natives , born and brought up in ireland , comming into other countries , are found to be subject unto those diseases as well as other people , and i have known severall of them , who being come hither into england , have fallen into the quartan ague , and have as long and as badly been troubled with it , as ordinarily any englishman useth to be . and credible persons have affirmed unto me the same of scotland , namely that the quartan ague never having been seen there , the scotchmen nevertheless in other countries are as obnoxious to it , as people of any other nation . sect. 4. the most part of all kind of diseases are found in ireland as in other countries . true it is , notwithstanding that privilege of being exempt from certain evills , that the most part of diseases and infirmities , whereunto mans body is subject in othe● countries , are also found in ireland , as wel outward as inward ; and in the number of the inward not only the suddain ones , and those that in a few dayes or weeks come to an end , beeing called morbi acuti by the physicians , as namely feavers , casting of blood , apoplexies , and others of that nature ; but also those of long continuance , as the falling-sickness , the pal●ie , all sorts-of gout , coughs , the consumption of the lungs , the stone of the kidneys and of the bladder , the colick , the laundis , the dropsie , the grief of the spleen , and severall sorts of loosnesses , with all which evills it is here as in other countries , some of them being very common here , and others happening but seldom , and in few persons : the more particular relation whereof wee will leave for the books of physick , and for those observa●ions , which perhaps my brother some time or other will publish , of what he hath found concerning the●e matters , in an ample and flourishing practice of eight yeares , which he hath lived in dublin . chap. xxiiii . of the diseases reigning in ireland , and whereunto that country is peculiarly subject . sect. 1. of the irish agues . as ireland is subject to most diseases in common with other countries , so there are some , whereunto it is peculiarly obnoxious , being at all times so rife there , that they may justly be reputed for irelands endemii morbi or reigning diseases , as indeed they are generally reputed for such . of this number is a certain sort of malignant feavers , vulgarly in ireland called irish agues , because that at all times they are so common in ireland , as well among the inhabitants and the natives , as among those who are newly come thither from other countries . this feaver commonly accompanied with a great pain in the head a●d in all the bones , great weakness , drought , losse of all manner of appetite , and want of sleep , and for the most part idleness or raving , and restlesness or tossings , but no very great nor constant heat , is hard to be cured , for those that understand the disease , and seek to overcome it , do it not by purging , which cannot be used at any time without great and present danger ; for the fermentation of the humors which causeth the disease , is hereby mightily increased , and the patient weakned ; and hardly with bleeding , which seldom is used with success otherwise than in the very beginning ; but with strengthning medicines and good cordials : in which case , and if all necessary prescriptious be well observed , very few persons doe lose their lives ; except when some extraordinary and pestilent malignity commeth to it , as it befalleth in some yeares , with so great violence , that notwithstanding all good helps , some are thereby carried to their graves ; the same doth ordinarily come to pass , that it proveth deadly , if the sick doe fall into unskilfull hands , or neglect all help , or do not observe good directions ; in which cases many do perish : and others , who come off with their lives through robustuousness of nature , or hidden causes , are forced to keep their beds a long time in extreme weakness , being a great while before they can r●cover their perfect health and strength . sect. 2. of the loosness . the loosness doth also greatly reign in ireland , as well among those of the countrie as among the strangers , wherfore the english inhabitants have given it the name of the country-disease . many are a great while troubled with it , and yet get no other harm : and those that betimes doe make use of good medicines , are without any great difficulty cured of it . but they that let the loosness take its course , do commonly after some dayes get the bleeding with it , whereby the disease doth not only grow much more troublesome and painfull , but a great deal harde● to be cured ; & at last it useth to turn to the bloody flux , the which in some persons , having lasted a great while , leaveth them of it self ; but in farre the greatest number is very dangerous , and killeth the most part of the sick , except they be carefully assisted with good remedies . that this disease , as also the other , viz. the malignant feavers , are so rife in ireland , doth partly come through the peculiar disposition and excessive wetness of the air ; but partly also through the errours which people do commit in eating and drinking , and other particulars : as manifestly doth appear by that a very great number , not only of the natives , but also of the strangers comming thi● her , who t●ke carefull heed to themselves in abstaining from hurtfull things , never are troubled with either of these infirmities . sect. 3. of the rickets . among the reigning diseases of ireland the rickets also may with good reason be reckoned , a disease peculiar to young children , and so well known to every body in england , as it is needless to give any description of it ; and yet to this day never any physician , either english or of any other nation , made any the least mention of it , no not in those works which are expresly written of all manner of diseases and accidents of litle children . in ireland this disease is wonderfull rife now , but it hath nothing neer been so long known there as in england , either through th● unski●fullness or neglect of the physicians ( the most part wherof in both kingdomes to this day are ignorant not onely of the manner how to cure it , but even of the nature and property thereof ) or that really it is new there , and never before having been in ireland , hath got footing in it only within these few yeares , through some strange revolution or constellation , or gods immediat sending : which kind of changes severall times have befaln in divers countries , and in ireland it self wee have alreadie shewed some such matter in another sickness , namely the tertian-ague . this evill being altogether incurable , when it is gon too farre , is hard enough to be cured even in the beginning , except it be very carefully looked unto , and use made of the best remedies ; nevertheless this grief , as well as mo●● others , hath its peculiar medicines , the which being applied betimes , and with convenient care , do with gods blessing for the most part produce the effect desired . sect. 4. of the lepros●e the rickets are of late very rife in ireland , where few yeares agoe unknown ; so on the contra●y it hath been almost quite freed from another disease , one of the very worst & miserablest in the world , namely the leprosie , which in former times used to bee very common there , especially in the province of munster ; the which therefore was filled with hospitals , expresly built for to receive & keep the leprous persons . but many yeares since ireland hath been almost quite freed from this horrible and loathsome disease , and as few leprous persons are now found there , as in any other countrie in the world ; so that be hospitals erected for their use , having stood empty a long time , at length are quite decayed & come to nothing . the cause of th●s change is not so obscure nor unknown , as it is in most other changes of that nature . for that this sickness was so generall in ireland , did not come by any peculiar defect in the land or in the air , but meerly through the fault & foul gluttony of the inhabitants , in the excessive d●vouring of unwholesome salmons . the common report in ireland is , that boiled salmons eaten hot out of the kettle in great quantity , bring this disease , and used to be the cause why it was so common : and some famous authors have not stuck to relate as much for a truth . but that is a fable , and salm●ns have not that evill quality , which way soever they be eaten and prepared , but when they are out of season ▪ which is in the latter end of the year , after they have cast their spawn : upon which they doe not onely grow very weak and flaggie , but so unwholesome , that over their whole body they break out in very filthy spots , just like a scalled mans head , so as it would loath any man to see them ; nevertheless the irish , a nation extremely barbarous in all the parts of their life , did use to take them in that very season , as well as at any other time of the year , and to eat them in very great abundance , as easily they might , every river and rivelet in most parts being very full of them , and by that meanes that horrible disease came to be so common amongst them . but the english having once gotten the command of the whole countrie into ●heir hands , made very severe laws against the taking of salmons in that unwholesome season , and saw them carefully observed ; whereby hindering those barbarians against their will to feed on that poysonous meat , they were the cause that that woefull sickness , which used so mightily to reign amongst them , hath in time been almost quite abolished : which great benefit , with so many others , that hatefull people hath rewarded with seeking utterly to exterminate their benefactors . sect. 5. of the league●-sicknesses . in the english a●mies , which since this bloody rebellion went ov●r into ireland to fight against that murdering nation , were not only the loosness and the malignant feaver , whereof wee have spoke above as of irelands reigning diseases , very common , but there-besides severall other infirmities , viz. violent coughs and of lo●g continuance , stopping of the breath , called in latin dispnoea , lameness of the thighs or sciatica , painfull stranguries , all which griefes seized on so many persons , that they might well have been taken for sicknesses reigning in that land ; as i have many times understood of my brother , who at that time not only dwelling and practising at dublin , but being physician generall of the english forces , had but too much occasion to know that perfectly . but withall he hath assured me , that those diseases had their originall not from any defect of the climate , but of the cold , & other hardship , which the soldiers suffered in their marches ; for they many times going to the fields in cold and foul weather , and sometimes marching whole dayes long , yea severall dayes together , in very dirty and wet wayes , where their feet and legs were continually cold and wet , besides that they were sometimes constrained to pass through the water up as high as the knees and waste , and after all that hardship endured in the day-time , to lye in the night upon the wet ground in the open air , this caused the aforenamed diseases , and severall others amongst them , in so great number , it being to be wondred at , that many more did not fall into them . and without doubt in any other countrie of the world , where all the same causes did concurre , and where an armie indured the like hard-ship , the same effects , if not worse , would follow : so that in this behalf the land it self i● not at all to be blamed . a table of the principal heads contained in this book . chap. i. of the situation , shape , and greatness of ireland : its division into provinces and counties : of the english pale : the principall townes of that nation . pag. 1. chap. ii. of the principall havens of ireland . pag. 10. chap. iii. of the lesser havens , and the barred havens of ireland , also of the roads and anchor-places upon the coast , and in the little ilands near the coast . p. 24. chap. iv. quality and fashion of the irish coast or shoares ; item , a brief description of the principall promontories or heads of ireland p. 35. chap. v. of the sands or grounds , blind-rocks , and other rocks in the irish sea. p. 40. chap. vi. of the nature of the irish sea , and of the tides which goe in the same . p. 48. chap. vii . of the springs and fountaines ; item of the brooks and rivelets of ireland . p. 54. chap. viii . of the rivers of ireland . p. 61. chap. ix . of the lakes or loughs in ireland . p. 71. chap. x. of the nature and condition of the land , both for the outward shape , and for the internall qualities and fruitfulness . p. 78. chap. xi . of the severall manners of manuring and inriching the ground practised in ireland . p. 91. chap. xii . of the marle in ireland , and the manner of marling the land there . p. 100. chap. xiii . of the heaths , moores , or bogs in ireland . p. 105. chap. xiv . originall of the bogs in ireland , and the manner of dra●ning them , practiced there by the english inhabitants . p. 112. chap. xv. of the woods in ireland . p. 118. chap. xvi . of the mines in ireland , and in partic●lar of the iron-mines . p. 123. chap. xvii . of the iron-works , their fashion , charges of erecting and maintaining them , and profit comming of them : with an exact description of the manner of melting the iron in them . p. 131. chap. xviii . of the mines of silver and lead in ireland : and occasionally of the pestiferous damps and vapours within the earth . pag. p. 141. chap. xix . of the free-stone , marble , flint , slate , and sea-coles which are found in ireland . pag. 148. chap. xx. of the turf , lime , and brick , and the manner of making those things in ireland ; item of the glass made in ireland . p. 154 chap. xxi . of the temperature and qualities of the air , and seasons in ireland , as for heat , cold , and moysture . p. 163. chap. xxii . of the dew , mist , snow , hail , hoar-frost , thunder and ligthning , earthquake and wind. p. 169. chap. xxiii . of the hea●thfulness of ireland , and what sicknesses it is free from , and subject unto . p. 177. chap. xxiv . of the diseases reigning in ireland , and whereunto that country is perculiarly subject . p . 180. finis . errata . pag. 5. l. 6. r. coas● . p. 12. l. 1. r. miles . l. 3. r. breadth . p. 31 ▪ l. 9. r. is the. p. 99. l. 11. dele s● . p. 128. l. 11. r. of this . p. 137. l. 8. r. white mine . notes, typically marginal, from the original text notes for div a28496-e160 rom. 1.20 act. 14 . 1● act. 17.27 1 cor. 15.46 . 1 cor. 1. &c. isa. 11.9 . he●● 8.11 . isa. 40 5. an essay toward a natural history of the earth and terrestrial bodies, especially minerals : as also of the sea, rivers, and springs : with an account of the universal deluge : and of the effects that it had upon the earth / by john woodward ... woodward, john, 1665-1728. 1695 approx. 348 kb of xml-encoded text transcribed from 148 1-bit group-iv tiff page images. text creation partnership, ann arbor, mi ; 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(eebo-tcp ; phase 1, no. a67007) transcribed from: (early english books online ; image set 99549) images scanned from microfilm: (early english books, 1641-1700 ; 481:9) an essay toward a natural history of the earth and terrestrial bodies, especially minerals : as also of the sea, rivers, and springs : with an account of the universal deluge : and of the effects that it had upon the earth / by john woodward ... woodward, john, 1665-1728. [16], 277 p. printed for ric. wilkin ..., london : 1695. reproduction of original in cambridge university library. created by converting tcp files to tei p5 using tcp2tei.xsl, tei @ oxford. re-processed by university of nebraska-lincoln and northwestern, with changes to facilitate morpho-syntactic tagging. gap elements of known extent have been transformed into placeholder characters or elements to simplify the filling in of gaps by user contributors. eebo-tcp is a partnership between the universities of michigan and oxford and the publisher proquest to create accurately transcribed and encoded texts based on the image sets published by proquest via their early english books online (eebo) database (http://eebo.chadwyck.com). the general aim of eebo-tcp is to encode one copy (usually the first edition) of every monographic english-language title published between 1473 and 1700 available in eebo. eebo-tcp aimed to produce large quantities of textual data within the usual project restraints of time and funding, and therefore chose to create diplomatic transcriptions (as opposed to critical editions) with light-touch, mainly structural encoding based on the text encoding initiative (http://www.tei-c.org). the eebo-tcp project was divided into two phases. the 25,363 texts created during phase 1 of the project have been released into the public domain as of 1 january 2015. anyone can now take and use these texts for their own purposes, but we respectfully request that due credit and attribution is given to their original source. users should be aware of the process of creating the tcp texts, and therefore of any assumptions that can be made about the data. text selection was based on the new cambridge bibliography of english literature (ncbel). if an author (or for an anonymous work, the title) appears in ncbel, then their works are eligible for inclusion. selection was intended to range over a wide variety of subject areas, to reflect the true nature of the print record of the period. in general, first editions of a works in english were prioritized, although there are a number of works in other languages, notably latin and welsh, included and sometimes a second or later edition of a work was chosen if there was a compelling reason to do so. image sets were sent to external keying companies for transcription and basic encoding. quality assurance was then carried out by editorial teams in oxford and michigan. 5% (or 5 pages, whichever is the greater) of each text was proofread for accuracy and those which did not meet qa standards were returned to the keyers to be redone. after proofreading, the encoding was enhanced and/or corrected and characters marked as illegible were corrected where possible up to a limit of 100 instances per text. any remaining illegibles were encoded as <gap>s. understanding these processes should make clear that, while the overall quality of tcp data is very good, some errors will remain and some readable characters will be marked as illegible. users should bear in mind that in all likelihood such instances will never have been looked at by a tcp editor. the texts were encoded and linked to page images in accordance with level 4 of the tei in libraries guidelines. copies of the texts have been issued variously as sgml (tcp schema; ascii text with mnemonic sdata character entities); displayable xml (tcp schema; characters represented either as utf-8 unicode or text strings within braces); or lossless xml (tei p5, characters represented either as utf-8 unicode or tei g elements). keying and markup guidelines are available at the text creation partnership web site . eng natural history -pre-linnean works. 2003-09 tcp assigned for keying and markup 2003-10 spi global keyed and coded from proquest page images 2003-11 john latta sampled and proofread 2003-11 john latta text and markup reviewed and edited 2003-12 pfs batch review (qc) and xml conversion imprimatur . ian. 3. 1694 / 5. iohn hoskyns , v.p.r.s. an essay toward a natural history of the earth : and terrestrial bodies , especially minerals : as also of the sea , rivers , and springs . with an account of the universal deluge : and of the effects that it had upon the earth . by iohn woodward , m.d. professor of physick in gresham-college , and fellow of the royal society . london : printed for ric. wilkin at the kings-head in st. paul's church-yard , 1695. to the honourable sir robert southwell , knight , president of the royal society . sir , the subject of these following papers being philosophical , and so not foreign to the conversations you frequent , i could not direct them better than to the person whom the royal society have so often made choice of to fill their chair . for tho' your business hath been much in the open world , yet am i well assured that things of this nature have always been your recreation and delight . the truth is , your attention to hear me discourse of my travels under ground , and the uses i proposed of what there i found , gave me no small encouragement to expose my observations to the publick view : and 't is my hope , that those things may find pardon from others , which have had approbation with you . i am very truly , sir , your most humble servant , i. woodward . preface . having in the essay it self given some intimation both of the design of it , and the reasons which induced me to make it publick , i shall not here keep the reader in suspense much longer than only while i acquaint him that , proposing to draw a considerable number of materials into so narrow a compass that they might all be contained in this small volume , i was obliged to be very brief and concise . and therefore , as pieces of miniature , sculpture , or other workmanship in little , must be allowed a closer inspection , so this ●reatise will require some care and application in the perusal . not but that i have endeavoured , as far as was practicable in so little room , so to dispose and order things , by interweaving with the assertions some of the proofs whereon they depend , and occasionally scattering several of the more important observations throughout the work , that it will be no very hard task for any one to discover the main grounds whereon all that i here advance is founded . that this may be the more clearly apprehended , i shall beg leave to illustrate it by one or two instances . it will perhaps at first sight seem very strange , and almost shock an ordinary reader to find me asserting , as i do , that the whole terrestrial globe was taken all to pieces and dissolved at the deluge ▪ the particles of stone , marble , and all other solid fossils dissevered , taken up into the water , and there sustained together with sea-shells and other animal and vegetable bodies : and that the present earth consists , and was formed out of that promiscuous mass of sand , earth , shells , and the rest , falling down again , and subsiding from the water . but whoever shall duely attend to what i elsewhere lay down , viz. that there are vast multitudes of shells , and other marine bodies , found at this day incorporated with and lodged in all sorts of stone , in marble , in chalk , and to be short , in all the other ordinary matter of the globe which is close and compact enough to preserve them : that these are found thus reposited amongst this terrestrial matter from near the surface of the earth downwards to the greatest depth we ever dig or lay it open , and this in all parts of it quite round the globe : that the said terrestrial matter is disposed into strata or layers , placed one upon another , in like manner as any earthy sediment , setling down from a fluid in great quantity , will naturally be : that these marine bodies are now found lodged in those strata according to the order of their gravity , those which are heaviest lying deepest in the earth , and the lighter sorts ( when there are any such in the same place ) shallower or nearer to the surface : and both those and these amongst terrestrial matter which is of the same specifick gravity that they are , the heavier shells in stone , the lighter in chalk , and so of the rest ; i say , whoever shall but rightly weigh all this , he 'll have no need to go further for proof that the earth was actually so dissolved , and afterwards framed a-new , in such manner as i have set forth . and if to this he shall think fit to add the other arguments of the same thing which he will meet with in their place , they also will i hope not fail of doing their part in convincing him still more of the truth and certainty of this matter . the other instance i make choice of shall be of the universality of the deluge , which is another proposition that i insist upon . and for this , let but the reader please to consider , what i deliver from authentick relations , that the marine bodies aforesaid are found in all parts of the known world , as well in europe , africa , and america , as in asia , and this even to the very tops of the highest mountains ; and then i think he cannot reasonably doubt of the proposition : but more especially if hereunto he shall joyn what i offer concerning the great abyss , and thence learns that there is at this day resident , in that huge conceptacle , water enough to effect such a deluge , to drown the whole globe , and lay all , even the highest mountains under water . but if he should be at a loss to know how i got such notice of that subterranean reservatory , as to enable me to make a computation of the quantity of water now conceal'd therein , if he carefully peruse the propositions concerning earthquakes , and some others in the third part , he cannot but discover at least some of the ways whereby i got light thereinto : and at the same time find why it is that i am so particular in relating the phaenomena of earthquakes , and dwell so long upon that subject in this shorter work. these i intend for example and direction to the reader how he may satisfie himself in any of the other heads . 't is impossible for me to foresee the difficulties and haesitations of every one : they will be more or fewer , according to the capacity of each peruser , and as his penetration and insight into nature is greater or less . they who have attention enough to take in the intire platform as here laid down : who see the chain which runs through the whole : and can pick up and bear in mind the observations and proofs here and there as they lie , and then confer them with the propositions , will discern ( in great measure ) how these propositions flow from them : but they who cannot so easily do this must be intreated to have a little patience , untill the thing be further unfolded , and more amply and plainly made out . a few advances there are in the following papers , tending to assert the superintendence and agency of providence in the natural world : as also to evince the fidelity and exactness of the mosaick narrative of the creation , and of the deluge . which 't is not improbable but some may be apt to stumble at , and think strange that in a physical discourse as this is , i should intermeddle with matters of that kind . but i may very safely say , that , as to the former , i have not entered farther into it than meerly i was lead by the necessity of my subject : nor could i have done less than i have , without the most apparent injury and injustice to truth . and for moses , he having given an account of some things which i here treat of , i was bound to allow him the same plea that i do other writers , and to consider what he hath delivered . in order to this i set aside every thing that might byass my mind , over-awe , or mislead me in the scrutiny , and therefore have regard to him here only as an historian . i freely bring what he hath related to the test , comparing it with things as now they stand : and finding his account to be p●nctually true , i fairly declare what i find ; wherein i do him but simply right , and only the same that i would to a common historian , to berosus or manetho , to herodotus or livy , on like occasion . the contents . an account of the observations upon which this discourse is founded . p. 1. a dissertation concerning shells and other marine bodies , found at land ; proving that they were originally generated and formed at sea : that they are the real spoils of once living animals : and not stones , or natural fossils , as some learned men have thought . p. 15. part i. an examination of the opinions of former writers on this subject . the means whereby they thought these marine bodies brought out upon the earth . of certain changes of sea and land , and other alterations in the terraqueons globe , which they suppose to have happened . p. 34. part ii. concerning the universal deluge . that these marine bodies were then left at land. the effects it had upon the earth . p. 71. part iii. concerning the fluids of the globe . sect. i. of the great abyss . of the ocean . concerning the origin of springs , and rivers . of vapours , and of rain . p. 115. sect. ii. of the vniversality of the deluge . of the water which effected it . together with some further particulars concerning it . p. 157. part iv. of the origin and formation of metalls and minerals . p. 170. part v. of the alterations which the terraqueous globe hath undergone since the time of the deluge . p. 226 part vi. concerning the state of the earth , and the productions of it before the deluge . p. 242 errata . page 19. line 6 after buccin● add ( ▪ ) p. 32. l. 3. for crustaneous read crustaceous p. 61. l. 23. after . firm add ( , ) p. 75. l. 14. after precipitated add ( , ) p. 94. l. 6. after been add given . p. 168. l. 25. f. alargatis ● . a●arg●tis . p. 173. l. 10. ( in the margin ) f. it r. the said stone . p. 184. l. 13. f. c●chitae r. conchitae . p. 243 ▪ l. ● r. f. the r. that . p. 270. l. ● . f. frigitive r. fugitive . p. 275. l. 12. ( in the margin ) f. the r. that . an account of the observations upon which this discourse is founded . from a long train of experience , the world is at length convinc'd , that observations are the only sure grounds whereon to build a lasting and substantial philosophy . all parties are so far agreed upon this matter , that it seems to be now the common sense of mankind . for which reason , i shall in the work before me , give my self up to be guided wholly by matter of fact ; as intending to steer that course which is thus agreed of all hands to be the best and surest : and not to offer any thing but what hath due warrant from observations ; and those both carefully made , and faithfully related . and that each reader may the better inform himself , not only of what sort my present observations are , but see in what manner also , and with what kind of accuracy they were made , 't will be convenient to give some light into that matter , and to begin with an account of them ; whereby he may be enabled to judge how far they may be relyed upon , and what measure of assent the propositions which i draw from them may claim . but before i go any farther , i ought to put in a caution , that an ample and prolix relation either of the observations themselves , or of the deductions from them , is not to be expected here . i design this but for a sample of what i hope , in good time , more fully to discuss and make out : proposing no more in this treatise , than only , in a few plain words , to deliver my sentiments on certain heads of natural history , with some of the reasons and grounds of them , in order to give somewhat of present satisfaction to the curiosity and demands of some of my friends . the observations i speak of were all made in england ; the far greatest part whereof i travelled over on purpose to make them : professedly searching all places as i pass'd along , and taking a careful and exact view of things on all hands as they presented , in order to inform my self of the present condition of the earth , and all bodies contained in it , as far as either grotto's , or other natural caverns , or mines , quarries , colepits , and the like , let me into it , and displayed to sight the interiour parts of it ; not neglecting , in the mean time , the exteriour or surface , and such productions of it as any where occurred , plants , insects , sea , river , and land shells ; and , in a word , whatever either the vegetable or animal world afforded . nor did i confine these observations to land , or the terrestrial parts of the globe only , but extended them to the fluids of it likewise , as well those within it , the water of mines , of grotto's , and other such like recesses , as those upon the surface of it , the sea , rivers , and springs . my principal intention indeed was to get as compleat and satisfactory information of the whole mineral kingdom as i could possibly obtain . to which end , i made strict enquiry wherever i came , and laid out for intelligence of all places where the entrails of the earth were laid open , either by nature ( if i may so say ) or by art , and humane industry . and wheresoever i had notice of any considerable natural spelunca or grotto ; any digging for wells of water , or for earths , clays , marle , sand , gravel , chalk , cole , stone , marble , ores of metals , or the like ; i forthwith had recourse thereunto : and taking a just account of every observable circumstance of the earth , stone , metal , or other matter , from the surface quite down to the bottom of the pit , i entered it carefully into a journal , which i carry'd along with me for that purpose . and so passing on from place to place , i noted whatever i found memorable in each particular pit , quarry , or mine : and 't is out of these notes that my observations are compiled . after i had finish'd these observations , and was returned back to this city , such were the commotions which had then so unhappily invaded europe , that i saw i must necessarily desist here , and sit down ( for the present at least ) with what i had already done ; having little prospect of an opportunity of carrying on these observations any farther , or of going beyond seas , to consider the state of the earth , and of all sorts of fossils , in more distant countries . but to supply , as far as possible , that defect , i made application to persons who had already travelled , and i knew were of such integrity , that they would not impose uncertain or false relations upon me : as also of so much curiosity as to be likely to give me some tolerable insight into the condition of these things in foreign regions . i likewise drew up a list of quaeries upon this subject ; which i dispatch'd into all parts of the world , far and near , wherever either i my self , or any of my acquaintance , had any friend resident to transmit those quaeries unto . the result of this was , that in time i was abundantly assured , that the circumstances of these things in remoter countries were much the same with those of ours here : that the stone , and other terrestrial matter , in france , flanders , holland , spain , italy , germany , denmark , norway , and sweden , was distinguished into strata , or layers , as it is in england : that those strata were divided by parallel fissures : that there were enclosed in the stone , and all the other denser kinds of terrestrial matter , great numbers of shells , and other productions of the sea , in the same manner as in that of this island . to be short , by the same means i got sufficient intelligence that these things were found in like manner in barbary , in egypt , in guiney , and other parts of africa ; in arabia , syria , persia , malabar , china , and other asiatick provinces ; in iamaica , barbadoes , virginia , new-england , brasil , peru , and other parts of america . but i reserve the more particular relation hereof to its proper place . so that though my own observations were confined to england , yet by this means i was made acquainted with the state of these bodies in other countries ; even in almost all parts of the world wherewith the english maintain any commerce or correspondence : and learn'd from all hands , that the state of them there was conformable to that of ours here , in the main , and as far as i shall lay any stress upon it in my conclusions ; which indeed are not built upon any niceties , or solitary and uncommon appearances , but on the most simple and obvious circumstances of these terrestrial bodies . as to the certainty and accurateness of my observations , thus much may modestly and very truly be said , that i do not offer any one before i had first thoroughly and clearly informed my self in all material circumstances of it , and had opportunity of observing it in more places than one , that i might be satisfied there was nothing casual or contingent in any of those circumstances . this will not be thought an over-great exactness , or any thing more than was needful , by those who have noted how much philosophy hath suffered by the neglect and oversight of some naturalists in this respect . a transient and perfunctory examination of things , frequently leads men into considerable mistakes , which a more correct and rigorous scrutiny would have detected and avoided . the truth is , i have been the more scrupulous and wary in regard the inferences drawn from these observations are of some importance : 't was but necessary that the foundation should be firm , when a superstructure of bulk and weight was to be raised upon it . and therefore i advance nothing from any observation that was not made with this caution , and that any man may not , as well as my self , without any great pains , inform himself of the truth of : and as long as the next cole-pit , or mine , the next quarry , or chalk-pit , will give abundant attestation to what i write , these are so ready and obvious in almost all places , that i need not be any where far to seek for a compurgator ; and to these i may very safely appeal . concerning the observations themselves therefore , there cannot well arise any doubt but what may be easily satisfied : and what i propose in this essay being founded upon these observations , every reader will be judge of the truth and probability of it , and whether that which i do so propose naturally follows from them or not . i shall distribute them into two general classes or sections , whereof the former will comprehend my observations upon all the terrestrial matter that is naturally disposed into layers , or strata ; such as our common sand-stone , marble , cole , chalk , all sorts of earth , marle , clay , sand , gravel , with some others . of this various matter , thus formed into strata , the far greatest part of the terrestrial globe consists , from its surface downwards to the greatest depth we ever dig or mine . and it is upon my observations on this that i have grounded all my general conclusions concerning the earth ; all that relate to its form ; all that relate to the vniversal and other deluges ; in a word , all that relate to the several vicissitudes and alterations that it hath yet undergone . nay , upon the same observations i have also founded several conclusions touching metalls , spar , and other minerals , which are found lodged either in these strata , amongst the sand , chalk , earth , and the rest ; or in the perpendicular intervals of the strata of stone , marble , or other solid matter . for upon the particular observations on the said metallick and mineral bodies , ( which are the subjects of the second section , ) i have not founded any thing but what purely and immediately concerns the natural history of those bodies . to proceed therefore to the account of my observations upon sand-stone . and in these , though i do not neglect to note the several kinds or varieties of it : free-stone , ragg-stone , lime-stone , and the rest : the different hardness , or solidity , of each : as also its colour , texture , and the peculiar matter which constitutes it : yet i confine my self more strictly to consider the manner how 't is disposed in the earth : the strata , into which , by means of horizontal ‖ and parallel fissures , it is divided : the order and number of these strata : their situation in respect of the horizon : the thickness , depth , and other circumstances of each : the interruptions of the strata , i mean the perpendicular ‖ fissures , which intersect the horizontal ones : the different capacity or largeness of these perpendicular intervals : their distances from each other : and the spar , and other mineral and metallick matter , usually contained in them . but , because i saw that deductions of considerable import and consequence might be drawn from them , i have with great care and intention observed the condition of such heterogeneous bodies , which i found immersed and included in the mass of this sand-stone ; particularly the shells of oysters , muscles , scallopes , cockles , periwinkles , and very many other marine productions . i have , i say , very diligently noted all circumstances of these shells : the vast numbers of them ; the several kinds that are thus lodged in the substance of the stone : the order and manner of their position in it : the several depths at which they are found : the matter which they contain in them , and wherewith their cavities are usually filled . these observations about stone are succeeded by others , of like nature , concerning marble , cole , and chalk : their fissures : the situation of their strata : the shells , and other heterogeneous bodies lodged therein . in the next place , those which concern marle , clay , the several kinds of earth , sand , gravel , and some other fossils : the shells and other like bodies , lodged in their strata : the position of those strata : their order ; their distinctions from each other , by the difference of the matter of each , and by its different consistence and colour ; the strata of these laxer kinds of matter being not ordinarily divided from each other by interposition of horizontal fissures ; as those of stone , and such other solid matter , constantly are . and lastly , those which relate to the upper or outmost stratum of all : i mean that blackish layer of earth or mould which is called by some garden-earth , by others vnder-turf earth , wherewith the terrestrial globe is almost every where invested , unless it be disturbed , or flung off by rains , digging , plowing , or some other external force ; insomuch , that whatsoever lies deeper , or underneath , whether stone , marble , chalk , gravel , or whatever else , this stratum is still expanded at top of all ; serving , as it were , for a common integument to the rest : and being ( as shall be shewn in due place ) the seminary or promptuary that furnisheth forth matter for the formation and increment of animal and vegetable bodies ; and into which all of them successively are again finally returned . the observations being thus dispatch'd , my next step should have been to have proposed the deductions from them ; to have determined how these sea-shells were brought to land , and how they became interr'd in the bowels of the earth , in the manner described in those observations . but before i could proceed any farther towards that , i found my self necessarily obliged to take off a difficulty not long since started ' by some learned men , who suspect that these shells are not real ; that they were never bred at sea ; but are all of terrestial original , being meer stones , though they bear a resemblance of shells , and formed , in the places where they are now found , by a kind of lusus of nature , in imitation of shells . how nearly i am concerned to remove this obstacle , before i pass on any farther to the prosecution of my design , any one may presently see . for to go about to enquire at what time , and by what means these shells were conveyed out of the sea to dry land , when a doubt hath been moved whether they are shells or not , or ever belonged to the sea , without first clearing this matter , and putting it quite out of doubt ; would be senseless and absurd . in order therefore unto this , i premise a dissertation concerning shells and other marine bodies , found at land ; proving that they were originally generated and formed at sea : that they are the real spoils of once living animals : and not stones , or natural fossils , as some late learned men have thought . i shall be the more brief and sparing in my extract of this dissertation , in regard that coming on thus in order before the other parts of this work , it will it self , of course , see the light somewhat sooner than they , any of them will. for which reason , i shall at present only say thus much of it in general ; that therein i first fairly lay before the reader the arguments that have been urged by these gentlemen to perswade us that these bodies are mere mineral substances ; and having detected the insufficiency of them , by evincing from the most plain and simple reason , how far they are from being conclusive , and how much they fall short of proving what they are alledged for ; i then proceed to lay down my own , and offer those reasons which have induced me to believe that these are the very exuviae of animals , and all owing to the sea. i would not be thought to insinuate that the opinion of these gentlemen carries no shew of truth , nor umbrage of reason of its side . 't is not to be supposed , that persons of their learning and abilities would ever have espoused it , were it not in some measure plausible : and had not at least a fair appearance of probability . the very finding these bodies included in stone , and lodged in the earth together with minerals , was alone enough to move a suspicion that these were minerals too : the finding them even to the very bottom of quarries and mines : in the most retired and inward parts of the most firm and solid rocks : in the deepest bowels of the earth , as well as upon the surface of it : upon the tops of even the highest hills and mountains , as well as in the valleys and plains : and this not in this or that province only , not only in one or two fields , but almost every-where : in all countries and quarters of the globe , wherever there is any digging for marble , for stone , for chalk , or any other terrestrial matter that is so compact as to fence off external injuries , and shield them from decay and rottenness . this , together with their being lodged in company of the belemnites , selenites , marchasits , flints , and other like bodies , which were incontestibly natural fossils , and , as they supposed , in the place of their formation , was enough to stagger a spectator , and make him ready to entertain a belief that these were so too . 't is a phoenomenon so surprizing and extraordinary , that 't is not strange that a man should scarcely credit his very senses in the case : that he should more readily incline to believe that they were minerals , as the belemnites , and the others recited , are : or indeed almost any thing else rather than sea-shells ; especially in such multitudes , and in places so unlikely : so deep in the earth , and far from the sea , as these are commonly found . nor was this , as indeed they tell us , the only difficulty these worthy persons had to surmount ; they found , together with these , certain bodies that bore the shape and resemblance of cockles , muscles , and other shells , which yet were not really such ; but consisted intirely , some of them , of sand-stone : others of flint , and others of spar : or some other kind of mineral matter . nay , they met with some , that were in all appearance shells : that were of the same bigness , figure , and texture , with the common echini , scallops , and perewinkles ; but had notwithstanding flint , native-vitriol , spar , iron-ore , or other metallick or mineral matter , either adhering firmly in lumps to the outsides of them , or insinuated into their substance , into their pores , and inner parts , so as to disguise them very much , and give them a face and mien extremely unlike to that of those shells which are at this day found at sea. they observed also , that amongst the shells , that were fair , unaltered , and free from such mineral insinuations , there were some which could not be match'd by any species of shell-fish now found upon the sea-shores . and that on the contrary , there were several shells found commonly upon the said shores , such as the larger shells of the buccina of the conchae veneris ; of crabs , lobsters , and others , both of the crustaceous and testaceous kind , which yet we never met with at land , or in our quarries . nay there were some other difficulties which they have urged , and which ( though they be of lesser weight ) shall all of them be recounted and considered more particularly in the differtation it self . upon the whole therefore 't is very plain , that these authors did not espouse this opinion without some grounds : without some countenance of probability : and that they have charged the opposite with a large crowd of difficulties . yea , so far are they from being destitute of an handsome apology , that they very well deserve the thanks of the world for what they have done . for although they have not succeeded in their attempts about the origin of these bodies , yet they have made discoveries in other respects concerning them , and in other parts of nature likewise , of that moment and consequence , as to have thereby laid a great and lasting obligation upon the intelligent and discerning part of mankind . but that they have failed notwithstanding in this enterprize , 't is , i think , not over difficult to prove . and this is the subject of the present discourse . wherein i hope clearly to make out , that the sea gave birth to these bodies : that they are so far from being formed in the earth , or in the places where they are now found , that i shall evince , † that even the belemnites , selenites , marchasits , flints , and other natural minerals , which are lodged in the earth , together with these shells , were not formed there , but had being before ever they came thither : and were fully formed and finished before they were reposed in that manner . that the above-mentioned bodies which consist of stone , of spar , flint , and the like , and yet carry a resemblance of cockles , muscles , and other shells , were originally formed in the cavities of shells of those kinds which they so resemble ; these shells having served as matrices or moulds to them ; the sand , sparry and flinty matter being then lost , or in a state of solution , and so , susceptible of any form , when it was thus introduced into these shelly-moulds : and that it consolidated , or became hard afterwards . * that for the metallick and mineral matter which sometimes adheres to the surfaces of these shells , or is intruded into their pores , and lodged in the interstices of their fibres , 't is all manifestly adventitious † ; the mineral particles being plainly to be distinguished from the testaceous ones , or the texture and substance of the shell , by good glasses , if not by the naked eye . that though the thing had been so that this accretion had not been thus discernible , and consequently the alteration of these shells could not have been accounted for , so that we had been perfectly in the dark as to the origin of the bodies thus altered , and that nothing at all could have been determined concerning them ; yet this would not have been any the least impediment or objection against that which i insist upon ; there being so very few of these in comparison of those which have undergone no such alteration . there being , i say , besides these , such vast multitudes of shells contained in stone , &c. which are intire , fair , and absolutely free from any such mineral contagion : which are to be match'd by others at this day found upon our shores , and which do not differ in any respect from them : being of the same size that those are of , and the same shape precisely : of the same substance and texture ; as consisting of the same peculiar matter , and this constituted and disposed in the same manner , as is that of their respective fellow-kinds at sea : the tendency of the fibres and striae the same : the composition of the lamellae , constituted by these fibres , alike in both : the same vestigia of tendons ( by means whereof the animal is fastned and joyned to the shell ) in each : the same papillae : the same sutures , and every thing else , whether within or without the shell , in its cavity or upon its convexity , in the substance , or upon the surface of it . besides ; these fossil shells are attended with the ordinary accidents of the marine ones , ex . gr . they sometimes grow to one another , the lesser shells being fix'd to the larger : they have balani , tubuli vermiculares , pearls , coral , and the like , still actually growing upon them . and which is very considerable , they are most exactly of the same specifick gravity with their fellow-kinds now upon the shores . nay farther , they answer all chymical tryals in like manner as the sea-shells do : their parts when dissolved have the same appearance to view , the same smell and taste : they have the same vires and effects in medicine , when inwardly administrated to animal bodies : aqua fortis , oyl of vitriol , and other like menstrua , have the very same effects upon both . in one word , so exactly conformable to the marine ones are these shells , teeth , and bones , which are digged up out of the earth , that though several hundreds of them , which i now keep by me , have been nicely and critically examined by very many learned men , who are skill'd in all parts of natural history , and who have been particularly curious in , and conversant with , shells , and other marine productions , yet never any man of them went away dissatisfied , or doubting whether these are really the very exuviae of sea-fishes or not . nay , which is much more to my purpose , some of the most eminent of those very gentlemen who formerly were doubtful in this matter , and rather inclinable to believe that these were natural minerals , and who had wrote in defence of that opinion , do notwithstanding upon strict and repeated inspection of these bodies in my collection , and upon farther enquiry , and procuration of plain and unalter'd shells from several parts of this island , fully assent to me herein , and are now convinced that these are the spoils and remains of sea-animals . and , being thus satisfied , such is the ingenuity of these worthy persons , and so great their affection to truth , when , where , and by whomsoever manifested , that they have personally requested me to publish my thoughts in order to the fuller clearing of this matter . but to proceed . that although i can pair , with sea-shells , several of these fossil ones that these gentlemen have pronounc'd altogether unlike any thing that the salt-water produceth ; yet 't is indeed very true , that there are found some shells at land , in stone , and in chalk , which cannot probably be match'd by any species of shells now appearing upon our shores. but notwithstanding this , i cannot but affirm that these , even the most strange and enormous of them , have all the essential notes and characters of sea-shells , and shew as near a relation to some now extant upon the shores , as the different species of those themselves do to one another : that they are of the very same specifick gravity with those to which they are so generically allied : and of the same texture and constitution of parts ; the substance of these being as plaintly testaceous , as that of those is ; insomuch that any man that compares them , can no more doubt of the reality of the one than of the other ; whence it must needs follow , that there were such shell-fish once in being ; which is enough for my purpose ; i being no ways concerned to make out that there are of the same kinds still actually living in the ocean . though if i was , 't would be no very hard task ; it being evident from the relations of dyvers , and fishers for pearls , that there are many kinds of shell-fish which lye perpetually concealed in the deep , skreen'd from our eyes by that vast world of water , and which have their continual abode at the bottom of the ocean , without ever approaching near the shores , it being as unnatural for these to desert this their native station , as 't is for those that are the inhabitants of the shores , to quit theirs , and retire into the deep : that for this reason these are called by naturalists 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and pelagiae , as the others , that reside nearer to the shores , are by them called littorales . now the shells which we find exposed upon our shores , are only those which are cast up and stranded by tides and by storms ; and consequently are all of them exuvi● of those kinds that live near the shores , and not of those that inhabit the main , or the deeper and remoter parts of the ocean ; it being certain from the relations also of dyvers , that the tides and storms , even the most tempestuous and turbulent , affect only the superficial parts of the ocean , the shallows , and shores , but never reach the greater depths , or disturb the bottom of the main : these are as quiet , and free from commotion in the midst of storms , as in the greatest calm ; so that the shell-fish , which are resident in these places , live and dye there , and are never dislodged or removed by storms , nor cast upon the shores , which the littorales usually are . when therefore i shall have proved more at large , that those which we find at land , that are not matchable with any upon our shores , are many of them of those very kinds which the forecited relations particularly assure us are found no where but in the deeper parts of the sea : and that as well those which we can match , as those we cannot , are all remains of the universal deluge , when the water of the ocean , being boisterously turned out upon the earth , bore along with it , fishes of all sorts , shells , and the like moveable bodies , which it left behind at its return back again to its chanel , it will not , i presume , be thought strange , that amongst the rest , it left some of the pelagiae , or those kinds of shells which naturally have their abode at main-sea , and which therefore are now never flung up upon the shores : and it may very reasonably be concluded , that all these strange shells , which we cannot so match , are of these pelagiae : that the several kinds of them are at this day living in the huge bosom of the ocean : and that there is not any one intire species of shell-fish , formerly in being , now perish'd and lost . that it is also very true that there are some shells , such as those of the larger buccinae , and conchae veneris , of lobsters , crabs , and others of the crustaceous kind , that are very rarely found at land ; so rarely , that some of these gentlemen have asserted that they are never found ; but that i shall shew to be a mistake , all the shells in their whole list having been found in the earth in one place or other . but that these are very seldom found any where , i most readily grant ; and this is so far from being an argument against what i am going to advance , that 't is as full and substantial a proof of the truth of it as i could possibly wish . for the shells in this list are all lighter than stone , marble , and the other ordinary terrestrial matter . now both these and all other sorts of shells that are so light , occur very seldom at land , or in the earth , in comparison of the shells of cockles , perewinkles , and the rest which are more ponderous , so as to equal the stone , and the other terrestrial matter in gravity . the reason of which will be very plain , when i shall have shewn * that at the time of the deluge ( when these shells were brought out upon the earth , and reposed therein in the manner we now find them ) stone , and all other solid minerals , lost their solidity : and that the sever'd particles thereof , together with those of the earth , chalk , and the rest , as also shells , and all other animal and vegetable bodies , were taken up into , and sustained in , the water : that at length all these subsided † again promiscuously , and without any other order than that of the different specifick gravity of the several bodies in this confused mass , those which had the greatest degree of gravity sinking down first , and so setling lowest ; then those bodies which had a lesser degree of gravity fell next , and settled so as to make a stratum upon the former ; and so on , in their several turns , to the lightest of all , which subsiding last , settled at the surface , and covered all the r●st : that this very various miscellany of bodies being determined to subsidence in this order meerly by their different specifick gravities , all those which had the same degree of gravity subsided at the same time , fell into , and composed , the same stratum ; so that those shells , and other bodies , that were of the same specifick gravity with sand , sunk down together with it , and so became inclosed in the strata of stone , which that sand formed or constituted : those which were lighter , and of but the same specifick gravity with chalk ( in such places of the mass where any chalk was ) fell to the bottom at the same time that the chalky particles did , and so were entombed in the strata of chalk ; and in like manner all the rest : that accordingly we now find in the sand-stone of all countries ( the specifick gravity of the several sorts whereof is very little different , being generally to water as 2½ or 2 9 / 16 to 1 ) only those co●shae , pectines , cochle● , and other shells that are nearly of the same gravity , ( viz. 2 ½ or 2 ⅝ to 1 ) but these are ordinarily found enclosed in it in prodigious numbers ; whereas of oyster-shells , ( which are in gravity but as about 2 ⅓ to 1 ) of echini ( which are but as 2 or 2⅛ to 1 ) or the other lighter kinds of shells , scarce one ever appears therein ; but , on the contrary , in chalk ( which is lighter than stone , being but as about 2 1 / 10 to 1 ) there are only found echini , and the other lighter sorts of shells ; it being extreamly unusual to meet with so much as one single shell of any of all the heavier kinds amongst chalk ; but for the said echini , and other the lighter sorts of shells , they are very numerous and frequent , in all the chalk-pits of kent , surrey , essex , hartfordshire , barkshire , oxfordshire , and all others that i have search'd ; being found indifferently in the beds of chalk from the top quite down to the bottom of the pit ; i having my self commonly observed them to the very bottom of all , in pits that were an hundred foot deep , and in wells much deeper . to conclude , those shells , and other bodies , that were still lighter than these , and consequently lighter than stone , chalk , and the other common matter of the earth , such as the shells of lobsters ( which are but as 1 ⅓ to 1 ) of crabs , ( 1 ¾ to 1 ) and the rest of the crustaneous kind : the teeth and bones of the cartilaginous and squammose fishes , and many other bodies , would subside last of all , and so , falling above the rest , be lodged near , if not upon the surface ; where being continually exposed to weather , and other injuries , they must in tract of time needs decay and rot , and at last quite vanish and disappear ; and 't is not to me any great wonder , that at this distance of four thousand years , we find so very few of them remaining . so that i think i may now safely appeal to any ingenuous and impartial looker on , whether this , that we find all those kinds of shells ( now extant upon our shores ) which have nearly the same gravity with stone , and the other ordinary matter of our earth , that is so tight and compact as to preserve them , enclosed in great plenty therein , and only those , the rest which are lighter being so very rarely found , can reasonably be supposed to have happened by meer chance , with this constancy and certainty , and that in so many and distant places : as also , whether this be any objection against my hypothesis ; or rather be not the strongest accessary confirmation of it that could well be expected , or even desired . to this dissertation i shall subjoyn an appendix , which will consist of several sections , touching the bodies called vnicorn● fossile , lapis iudaicus , entrochus , asteria , or the star-stone-columns : with some farther reflections upon the bufonites , glossopetra , and cornu ammonis : proving that these , and several more , which have been ( for many ages ) reputed gemms , and meer stones , are really nothing else but the teeth , bones , and other parts of sea-animals , and ( as the rest were ) left behind by the universal deluge . part i. an examination of the opinions of former writers on this subject . the means whereby they thought these marine bodies brought out upon the earth . of certain changes of sea and land , and other alterations in the terraqueous globe , which they suppose to have happened . this so considerable a point being thus gained : the legitimacy or reality of these marine bodies vindicated and asserted : and my way so far effectually cleared by the foregoing dissertation ; i now re-assume my original design , and pass on to enquire by what means they were hurried out of the ocean , the place of their native abode , to dry land , and even to countries very remote from any seas . and this is a question of great antiquity ; and which hath , for many ages , given no small fatigue to learned men. nor hath the present been less inquisitive into this affair than the former ages were . we have seen several hands employed herein ; and many of them very excellent ones too . the great number of the undertakers : the worth of some of them : and their zeal to bring the matter to a decision , are sure arguments of the dignity and importance of it : and that it is not hitherto decided , is as certain a proof of its difficulty . some were of opinion , that these shells were fetch'd from sea , by the ancient inhabitants of those countries where they are now found ; who , after they had used the included fishes for food , flinging forth the shells , many of them became petrified , as they speak ; being thereby preserved down to our times , and are the same which we at this day find in our fields and quarries . others rather thought that they were only reliques of some former great inundations of the sea ; which , furiously rushing forth , and overflowing the adjacent territories , bore these bodies out upon the earth along with it : but returning at length more leisurely and calmly back again , it left them all behind . many were of opinion , that the sea frequently flitted and changed its place : that several parts of the globe which are now dry land , and habitable , lay heretofore at the bottom of the sea , and were covered by it : that particularly the very countries , which present us with these spoils of it , were anciently in its possession ; being then an habitation of sharks and other fishes : of oysters , cockles , and the like ; but the sea , in tract of time , retreating thence , and betaking it self into new quarters : gaining as much ground on the opposite coasts , as it lost upon those , left these shells there as marks of its ancient bounds and seat . amongst the rest there were indeed some who believed these to be remains of the general deluge , and so many monuments of that calamitous and fatal irruption . these last assuredly were in the right ; but the far greater part of them rather asserted than proved this : rather deliver'd it as their opinion , than offered any rational arguments to induce others to the same belief : and for the rest , who did offer any , so unhappy were they in the choice , and unsuccessful in the management of them , by reason of the shortness of their observations , and their not having duely informed themselves of the state of these things , that none of the other partizans appeared with less applause : none less strenuously maintained their ground , than these did . the truth is , as matters were ordered amongst them , no man could receive much light or satisfaction from what was advanced by any of them . they little more than clashed with one another : each could demolish the others work with ease enough , but not a man of them tolerably defend his own ; which was sure never to outstand the first assault that was made . yea upon so equal terms did they all stand , that no one could well lay claim to a larger share of truth for his side : no one had a fairer pretence of right , than the rest ; and it being impossible to imagine that all could be in the right ; some ▪ learned men began to suspect that none of them were so . these thereupon laid out on all hands for some new expedient to solve and put an end to the perplexity ; and 't was this last effort that brought forth the opinion , that these bodies are not what they seem to be ; that they are no shells , but meer sportings of active nature in this subterraneous kingdom ; and only semblances or imitations of shells ; they imagining that this shortned the difficulty , because it spared them the trouble of accounting for their conveyance from sea ; which was what had so severely exercised all the former ; though in reality , this only heightened and enhansed it , and render'd it still more intricate ; as will appear more at large when i shall have published the preliminary dissertation , whereof i have already given some account above . and this was the most received and prevalent opinion when i first brought my collection of these things up to london . there have been , besides these recited , some other conjectures proposed about the removal of these bodies to land : which i choose , rather than trouble the reader with a detail of them here , to deferr to their proper place , that i may proceed directly onwards in my design . now the more effectually to smooth my way , and that this very great diversity of opinions may not be any longer an amusement to the world , 't will be very convenient that i look into the reasons and pretensions of each , and shew upon what ground 't is that i embrace that of the deluge , and set aside all the rest . why i adhere to them who suppose these marine productions brought out by the universal deluge , will be best learn'd from the succeeding part of this essay , which is wholly dedicated to that purpose : and whereunto i shall prefix , an historical account of the labours of fab. columna , nic ▪ steno , p. boccone , iac. grandius , mr. iohn ray , and other learned men , on this subject : shewing what they have already done in it , wherein they failed , and what remains still to be done . why i reject all the other conjectures , falls under our present consideration ; and to make as short of the matter as possible , 't is because they will none of them abide the test : because they have not due warrant from observation , but are clearly repugnant thereunto : in a word , because the present circumstances of these marine bodies do not square with those opinions , but exhibit phaenomena that thwart them , and that give plain indications that they could never have been put into the condition we now find them by any such short and partial agents as those they propose . now in regard that the said circumstances are impartially related in my observations , we need only have recourse to them to put an end to this business . for , as mathematicians say of a streight line , that 't is as well an index of its own rectitude , as of the obliquity of a crooked one ; so these may serve indifferently to detect the erroneous ways , and to point forth the true ; and it is from these observations : from the number , order , variety , situation , depth , distance from the sea , and other accidents of these bodies , that i shall shew that they were not brought from sea to the parts where they are now found , by men , the ancient inhabitants of those parts , as some authors have been of opinion ; they presuming that these shells were at first only slung out upon the surface of the earth ; and that those which we now find buried in it , were , in tract of time , covered , either by that terrestrial matter which falls down along with rain , or by the earth which is wash'd from off the hills by land floods . that they were not carry'd together with the water , which some suppose to pass continually from the bottom of the sea , to the heads of springs and rivers , through certain subterranean conduits or chanels , untill they were by some glut , stop , or other means arrested in their passage , and so detained in the bowels of the earth ; as others have rather inclined to believe . that they were not born forth of the sea , and laid upon the land by particular inundations ; such as were the ogygean , the deucalion●an , and others of fresher date : such as are those which usually attend ▪ earthquakes : or those which are sometimes occasioned by very high tides , by impetuous winds , and the like ; as other writers have thought . that they were not left behind at the beginning of the world , when the sea overspread the whole globe , till its retreat into its assigned chanel , and that the waters were gathered together unto one place , the third day from the commencement of the creation ; which others believed . that they were not left by the seas being constrained to withdraw from off certain tracts of land , which lay till then at the bottom of it , but being raised to an higher pitch , so as to surmount the level of the seas surface , they , by that means , became islands and habitable : the said tracts being thus elevated by earthquakes , or the like subterraneous explosions ; in such manner as rhodes , thera , therasia , and many other islands were supposed to have been raised ; which is the conjecture of others . that they were not left by the seas changing its place , receding from the parts it anciently possest , and betaking it self to new quarters : this change being occasion'd by some accidental emotion or transposition of the common center of gravity in the terraqueous globe ; and thereupon the fluids of it , the sea , and the rest , immediately shifting likewise , as being the more easily moveable parts of the mass , and coming to another aequilibrium ; that they might thereby the better accommodate themselves to their new center . as others . that they were not left upon the seas being protruded forwards , and constrained to fall off from certain coasts , which it formerly possessed , by the mud or earth which is discharged into it by rivers ; the said mud being reposed along the shores near the ostia of those rivers , and by that means making continual additions to the land , thereby excluding the sea , daily invading and gaining upon it , and preserving these shells as trophies and signs of its new acquests and encroachments ; which others have imagined : they concluding that the islands echinades , the lower egypt , thessaly , and many other countries , were thus raised out of the mud brought down by achelous , the nile , peneus , and other rivers . lastly . that they were not left by the seas continual flitting and shifting its chanel : this progression being occasioned by the seas wearing and gaining upon one shore , and flinging up mud , and , together with it , these shells , upon the other , or opposite coasts , thereby making perpetual additions unto them ; which is the opinion of other authors . these propositions ( which are no other than so many consectaries drawn from the observations ) are , we see , all negative ; as being directed against the mistakes of some who have formerly engaged in this research . the ways they have taken to account for the conveyance of these marine bodies to land , are very many , as well as different from each other . for so eager and sollicitous hath the inquisitive and better part of mankind been to bring this matter to a fair issue and determination , that no stone hath been left unturned , no way , whereby these things could ever possibly have been brought forth of the sea , but one or other of them hath pitch'd upon it . so that by this refutation of all these , i might prove my own ( which is the only one remaining ) by induction ; but this kind of proof is not needful , where more cogent and positive arguments are not wanting . and thus much of this part i get over by the sole guidance of my senses . a view of the present state of these bodies alone convinced me sufficiently that the means , proposed by these authors , were not the true ones : that they were both levelled wide , and fell all short of the mark. now though this was enough for my present purpose ; and when i had evinced that , although such alterations , as those which these gentlemen suppose : transitions , and migrations of the center of gravity : elevations of new islands : whole countries gained from the sea : and other like changes had actually happened , yet these shells could never possibly have been reposed thereby in the manner we now find them : i say , when i had proved this , i was not immediately concerned to enquire whether such alterations had really ever happened or not ; yet partly for a fuller and more effectual disproof of the recited opinions : and partly because i am more especially obliged by my general design to look into all pretences of changes in the globe we inhabit , and i saw very well , that scarce any , of all these alledged , had the least countenance either from the present face of the earth , or any credible and authentick records of the ancient state of it , i resolved to pursue this matter somewhat farther , and to shew that , although there do indeed happen some alterations in the globe , yet they are very slight and almost imperceptible , * and such as tend rather to the benefit and conservation of the earth and its productions , than to the disorder and destruction both of the one and the other , as all these supposititious ones most manifestly would do , were there really any such ; but from clear and incontestible monuments of antiquity : from history and geography : and from attentive consideration of the present state of those countries where these changes were supposed to have been wrought , i prove that they are imaginary and groundless , and that such in earnest never happened ; but that the bounds of sea and land have been more fix'd and permanent : and in short , that the terraqueous globe is to this day nearly in the same condition that the universal deluge left it : being also like to continue so till the time of its final ruin and dissolution , preserved to the same end for which 't was first formed , and by the same power which hath secured it hitherto . but , with respect to my present design , i more particularly make out , that although rain-water be indeed ( as these writers suppose ) very plentifully saturated with terrestrial matter , and ( as i shall make appear ) that peculiar matter out of which the bodies of vegetables , and consequently of animals , are formed , nourished , and augmented , water being the common vehicle and distributer of it to the parts of those bodies , and all water ( especially that of rain ) being , more or less , stored with this , it being light in comparison of the common mineral earthy matter , and therefore easily assumed into water , and moved along with it ; yet that this matter being all originally derived from the surface of the earth , either by the vapour that continually issues out , and ascends from all parts of it , † or wash'd off by land-floods , and conveyed into rivers and the sea , and thence elevated up , together with the vapour , which , as the former , constitutes the rain that falls : i say , it being thus originally all rais'd from the earth , when restored back again thereunto , 't is but where it was before , and does not enlarge the dimensions of the globe , or augment the surface of the earth , and only lye idly and unserviceably there , but part of it is introduced into the plants which grow thereon , for their nutrition and increment , and the rest , which is superfluous , either remounts again , with the ascending vapour , as before , or is wash'd down into rivers , and transmitted into the sea , and does not make any sensible addition to the earth , as some have believed . that the terrestrial matter , which is thus carried by rivers down into the sea , is sustained therein , partly by the greater crass●tude and gravity of the sea-water , and partly by its constant agitation , occasioned by the tides , and by its other motions , and is not permitted to sink to the bottom ; or , if any of it do , 't is raised up again by the next storm , and being supported in the mass of water , together with the rest , 't is by degrees exhaled , mounted up with the rain that rises thence , and returned back again to the earth in fruitful showers . that by this perpetual circulation a vast many things in the system of nature are transacted : and two main intentions of providence constantly promoted ; the one a dispensation of water promiscuously and indifferently to all parts of the earth ; this being the immediate agent that both bears the constituent matter to all formed bodies , and , when brought to them , insinuates it in , and distributes it unto the several parts of those bodies , for their preservation and growth : the other , the keeping a just aequilibrium ( if i may so say ) betwixt the sea and land ; the water , that was raised out of the sea , for a vehicle to this matter , being by this means refunded back again into it : and the matter it self restored to its original fund and promptuary , the earth ; whereby each is restrained , and kept to due bounds ; so that the sea may not encroach upon the earth , nor the earth gain ground of the sea. that there never were any islands , or other considerable parcels of land , amassed or heap'd up : nor any enlargement , or addition of earth made to the continent , by the mud that is carried down into the sea by rivers . that although the ancients were almost unanimously of opinion that those parts , where egypt now is , were formerly sea : and that a very considerable portion of that country was recent , and formed out of the mud discharged into the neighbouring sea by the nile ; that yet this tract of land had no such rise , out is as old , and of as long a standing , as any upon all the whole continent of africa : and hath been in much the same natural condition , that it is at this day , ever since the time of the deluge ; its shores being neither advanced one jot further into the sea for this three or four thousand years , nor its surface raised by additional mud deposed upon it by the yearly inundations of the nile . that neither the palus maeotis , nor the euxine , nor any other seas , fill up , or by degrees grow shallower . that salmydessus , themiscyra , sidene , and the adjacent countries , upon the coasts of the euxine sea , were not formed out of the mud brought down by the ister , thermodon , iris , and the other rivers which discharge themselves into that sea. that thessaly was not raised out of the mud born down by the river peneus : the islands echinades , or curzolari , out of that brought by the river achelous : cilicia , by the river pyramus : mysia , lydia , ionia , and other countries of anatolia , by the caicus , hermus , cayster , and the other rivers which pass through them . to be short , that no island or country in the whole world was ever raised by this means , notwithstanding that very many authors , and some of considerable note , have believed that all the abovementioned countries were so raised ; nay , to so strange a height of extravagance do some , otherwise learned and curious , persons run , when they indulge fancy too far , and rely wholly upon probabilities and conjectures , there is hardly any one single island or country all round the globe , that one writer or other hath not thought to have been formed after this manner , or at least , some very large part of it . that there is no authentick instance of any considerable tract of land that was thrown up from the bottom of the sea , by an earthquake , or other subterranean explosion , so as to become an island , and be render'd habitable . that rhodus , thera , therasia , and several other islands , which were supposed by the ancients , and , upon their authority , by later authors , to have been thus raised , had really no such original , but have stood out above water as long as the rest of their fellow islands , and stand now just as the universal deluge left them . that as to that affection of bodies which is called their gravity , it clearly ●urpasses all the powers of meer nature , and all the mechanism of matter . that as any one body , or part of matter , cannot be the cause of its own gravity : so no more can it ever possibly be the cause of the gravity of another body , or part of matter . that neither the earth's diurnal revolution upon its axis : nor any magnetick effluvia of the earth : nor the air , or atmosphere which environs the earth : nor the aether , or materia subtilis of the cartesians , in what manner soever moved or agitated : ( all which have been proposed by several learned men as the causes of gravity ) nor any other fluid or matter whatever , can of it self produce such an effect as is that of the gravity of bodies . that it does not proceed from the efficiency of any such contingent and unstable agents , but stands on a basis more firm and stedfast , being intirely owing to the direct concourse of the power of the author of nature , immediately in his hand , and the main engine whereby this stupendous fabrick of the universe is managed and supported : the prime hinge whereon the whole frame of nature moves : and is principally concerned , if not the sole efficient in the most remarkable phoenomena of the natural world ; which , should gravity once cease , or be withdrawn , would instantly shiver into millions of atoms , and relapse into its primitive confusion . that the common center of gravity in the terraqueous globe is steady , immovable , and not liable to any accidental transposition , nor hath it ever shifted or changed its station . and that there is no declination of latitude : nor variation of the elevation of the pole ; notwithstanding what some learned men have asserted . what concerns the raising of new mountains : deterrations , or the devolution of earth down upon the valleys , from the hills and higher grounds : and islands torn off from the main continent by earthquakes , or by the furious and impetuous insults of the sea ; these , i say , will fall more properly under our consideration on another occasion * . and for the mutations of lesser moment , which some have fancied to have happened within this interval , i mean , for the last four thousand years since the deluge , i chuse rather to pass them over at present , than to crowd and encumber this short tract with the account of them . i must needs freely own , that when i first directed my thoughts this way , 't was matter of real admiration to me , to find that a belief of so many , and such great alterations in the earth , had gained so large footing , and made good its ground so many ages , in the world ; there being not the least signs nor footsteps of any such thing upon the face of the whole earth : no tolerable foundation for such a belief either in nature or history . but i soon saw very well , that the moderns generally entertained it meerly upon the credit and tradition of the ancients , and that without due examination , or enquiry into the truth and probability of it ; and 't was not long e're i discovered what it was that so generally misled the ancients into these mistakes . but of that more by and by . those ancient pagan writers were indeed very much excusable as to this matter . philosophy was then again in its infancy : there remaining but few marks of the old tradition , and those much obliterated and defaced by time ; so that they had only dark and faint idea's , narrow and scanty conceptions , of providence : and were ignorant of its intentions , and of the methods of its conduct in the government and preservation of the natural world. they wanted a longer experience of these things : a larger stock of observations , and records of the state of the earth before their times ; having , as things then stood , nothing to assist them in their enquiries besides their own guesses and fancy . for their progenitors , and those who had lived in the earlier ages , were almost entirely taken up with business of another kind . that fatal calamity , the deluge , had wrought such a change , * that they beheld every where a new face of things : and the earth did not then teem forth its encrease , as formerly , of its own accord , but required culture , and the assistance of their hands , much more than before it did . the provision of bread for food : clothing to ward off the injury and inclemency of the air : and other like employs for the comfort and support of life , being of indispensible necessity , were to be first look'd after ; and these employs , being then for the most part new to them , and such as they were unskill'd in , were alone enough to take up the greatest part of their time . the methods they used of agriculture , and other arts of like importance , were so aukward and tedious , as to afford them little leisure for works of the brain , for history , or contemplations of that nature . and till better experience had led their posterity to the improvements of arts : till the plow , and other useful instruments , were found out : and they had learn'd more compendious and expeditious ways of dispatching those affairs , whereby they shortned their labours , and so gained time , there was no shew of learning , or matters of speculation among them ; and we hear little or nothing of writing , nay 't was a very considerable time before letters themselves were found out . i know very well , there are some who talk of letters before the deluge ; but that is a matter of meer conjecture , and i think nothing can be peremptorily determined either the one way or the other ; though i shall shew , that 't is highly probable they had none . be that how it will , i shall plainly make out , that the ages which next succeeded the deluge had none ; so far from it , that they knew nothing at all of them ; and the first writing they used was only the simple pictures , and gravings of the things they would represent , beasts , birds , and the like ; which way of expression was afterwards called hieroglyphick . but this fell into disuse , when letters were afterwards discovered ; they being , in all respects , a far more excellent and noble invention . we see therefore that there were several reasons why those early ages could not transmit accounts of the state of the earth and of these marine bodies , in their times , down to the succeeding generations . so that these having little more to trust to than their own imagination , and no surer a guide in their reasonings about these things than bare conjecture , 't was no wonder that they fell into gross and palpable mistakes concerning them . nor much more wonder is it that an epicurus : one who could ever espouse a notion so enormously absurd and senseless , as that the world was framed by chance : that this vast , regular , and most stupendous pile was owing to no higher a principle than a fortuitous congress of atoms : and that either there was no god at all , or , which is much the same thing , that he was an impotent and lazy being , and wholly without concern for the affairs of this lower world : i say , 't is in no wise strange that such a one should believe , as he did , that things were blindly shuffled and hurled about in the world : that the elements were at constant strife and war with each other : that in some places , the sea invaded the land : in others , the land got ground of the sea : that all nature was in an hurry and tumult : and that as the world was first made , so should it be again dissolved and destroyed , by chance : that it had alreaready made large advances that way , being infirm and worn with age , shattered and crazy , and would in time dwindle and fall back again into its original chaos . did gravity , the inclination of bodies towards the same common center , to which inclination they owe their respective order , and site in regard of each other , very many of their motions and actions , and in a great measure , their present constitution : did this , i say , happen from so contingent , precarious , and inconstant causes as many have believed : or did it stand upon so ●icklish and tottering a foundation as some mens fancy hath placed it , 't would be no wonder should it frequently vary : its center swerve and shift , upon every turn : and that there should ensue thereupon , not only such motions and alterations of the bounds of the sea as they imagine ; but likewise many other , and not less pernicious , perturbations of the course of even universal nature . or was the universe left to its own conduct and management : the whole mass of created matter to its proper disposition and tendency : were there no restraint of bounds to the earth , nor curb to the fury of the ocean : was there not one who had set bars and doors to it , and said hitherto shalt thou come , but no farther , and here shall thy proud waves be staid ; then indeed might we well expect such vicissitudes and confusions of things : such justlings and clashings in nature : such depredations , and changes of sea and land. but if the same mighty power , which in the beginning produced this vast system of bodies out of nothing , and disposed and ranged them into the most excellent and beautiful order we now behold : which at first framed an earth of a constitution sutable to the innocent state of its primitive inhabitants : and afterwards when man had degenerated , and quitted that innocence , altered that constitution of the earth , by means of the deluge * , and reduced it to the condition 't is now in , thereby adapting it more nearly to the present exigencies of things , to the laps'd and frail state of humane nature : if that same power be yet at the helm : if it preside in the government of the natural world : and hath still the same peculiar care of mankind , and , for their sake , of the earth , as heretofore , ( all which shall be evidently made out : ) then may we very reasonably conclude 't will also continue to preserve this earth , to be a convenient habitation for the future races of mankind , and to furnish forth all things necessary for their use , animals , vegetables , and minerals , as long as mankind it self shall endure ; that is , till the design and reason of its preservation shall cease ; and till then , so steady are the purposes of almighty wisdom , so firm establish'd , and constant the laws , whereby it supports and rules the universe ; the earth , sea , and all natural things will continue in the state wherein they now are , without the least senescence or decay , without jarring , disorder , or invasion of one another , without inversion or variation of the ordinary periods , revolutions , and successions of things : and we have the highest security imaginable , that while the earth remaineth , seed-time and harvest , and cold and heat , and summer and winter , and day and night shall not cease . and whatever may be urged in behalf of the ancients , i cannot well see , i confess , what can be said for the later authors , who have embrac'd the same tenets , more than that these learned men took up those tenets on trust , their over-great deference to the dictates of antiquity betraying them into a persuasion of such changes in the earth . i have given my reasons above why i cannot think the ancients competent judges in this case . we have , at this time of day , better and more certain means of information than they had ; and therefore it were to have been wish'd , that these gentlemen had not thus obsequiously followed them , but gone another way to work . it would certainly have been much better , had they taken the pains to have look'd a little into matter of fact : had they consulted history and geography , in order duely to acquaint themselves with the past and present state of the terraqueous globe ; and not to have pass'd sentence till they had first compared the most ancient descriptions of countries with the countries themselves as now they stand . nay , had they but read and attended to the accounts which the very authors , from whom they borrow these opinions , have left us , they might have discovered , even from them , the errors and oversights of their authors : and have learn'd , that the face of sea and land is the very same at this day that it was when those accounts were compiled : and that the globe hath not sustained any considerable alterations , either in the whole , or any of its parts , in all this time . those who can content themselves with a superficial view of things : who are satisfied with contemplating them in gross : and can acquiesce in a general , and less nice examination of them : whose thoughts are narrow and bounded : and their prospects of nature scanty , and by piecemeal , must needs make very short and defective judgments , and , oftentimes very erroneous , and wide of truth . some fanciful men have expected nothing but confusion and ruin from those very means whereby both that and this is most effectually prevented and avoided . one imagines that the terrestrial matter , which is showered down along with rain , enlarges the bulk of the earth , and that it will in time bury , and lay all things under ground . another , on the contrary , fancies that the earth will ere long all be wash'd away by rains , and borne down into the sea by rivers ; and , its chanel being thereby quite filled up , the waters of the ocean turned forth to overwhelm the dry land. whereas by this distribution of matter , continual provision is every where made for the supply of bodies : the just state of sea and land preserved , and the bounds of each secured ; quite contrary to the preposterous reasonings of those men , who expected so different a result of these things . and should this circulation ( from which they dreaded those dismal consequences ) once cease , the formation of bodies would be immediately at an end : and nature at a perfect stand . but i am aware that i transgress : and that this is a prolixity not allowable in a treatise of this nature ; wherefore i shall conclude , after i have performed my promise of discovering what it was which led the ancient historians , geographers , and others , so generally into a belief of these frequent changes betwixt sea and land ; and 't was this . they observed , almost wherever they cast their eyes , vast multitudes of sea-shells , at land , in their fields , and even at very great distance from any sea. this , eratasthenes , herodotus , xanthus lydus , strabo , pausanias , pomponius mela , theophrastus , strato the philosopher , plutarch , and others of them assure us . they found them upon the hills , as well as in the valleys and plains : they observed that they were immersed in the mass of the stone of their rocks , quarries , and mines , in the same manner as they are at this day found in all known parts of the world. nay in those elder times , and which were so much nearer to the deluge than ours are , they found these marine bodies more frequently , and in much greater plenty than we now do ; and most , if not all of them , fresh , entire , and firm . the whole crustaceous kind , and the lighter ones of the testaceous , which together would be a vast number , subsiding last , fell upon the surface of the earth ; * whilst the heavier , which settled down before , were entombed in the bowels of it . those therefore must then lye every-where strewed upon the ground ; whereas now very few , if any , of them appear ; † the shells which we find at present upon the face of the earth being principally of the heavier sorts , which were at first lodged within it , and since disclosed and turned out , by what means we shall see herea●●er ‖ and indeed , 't is not conceivable how the generality of them could endure ●o many hundreds of years as have since pa●t : how they could lye so long exposed to the air , weather , and other injuries , without vast numbers of them , and especially the siner and tenderer species , being , long e're this , perish'd and rotten , some of them quite dissolved and vanish'd , and the rest so damaged , many of them , and altered by time , as not to appear the things they then were , and so create a doubt amongst some of us whether they are really shells or not . this was a scruple that never entered into their heads . the shells , being then fair , sound , and free from decay , were so exactly like those they saw lying upon their shores , that they never made any question but that they were the exuviae of shell-fish , and that they once belonged all to the sea. but the difficulty was how they came thither , and by what means they could ever arrive to places oftentimes so remote from the ocean . the ages that went before knew well enough how these marine bodies were brought thither . but such were the anxieties and distresses of the then again infant world : so incessant their occupations about provision for food , rayment , and the like , that ( even after letters were discovered ) there was little leisure to commit any thing to writing ; and , for want thereof , the memory of this extraordinary accident was in great measure worn out and lost . 't is true there was a general and loud rumour amongst them of a mighty deluge of water that had drowned all mankind except only a very few persons . but there had also happened very terrible inundations of later date , and which were nearer to the times when these authors lived . such was that which overflowed attica in the days of ogyges : and that which drowned thessaly in deucalion's time . these made cruel havock and devastation amongst them : their own native country , greece , was the theatre whereon these tragedies were acted : and their progenitors had seen and felt their fury . and these happening nearer home , and their effects being fresh , and in all mens mouths , they made so sensible and lasting impressions upon their minds , that the old great deluge was eclipsed by that means , its tradition mightily obscured , and the circumstances of it so interwoven and confounded with those of these later deluges , that 't was e'en dwindled into nothing , and almost buried in the relations of those inundations . in their enquiries therefore into this matter , scarcely a man of them thought , or so much as dream'd , of the universal deluge . they concluded indeed unanimously , that the sea had been there , wherever they met with any of these shells , and that it had left them behind . and so far they were in the right : this was an inference rational and natural enough . but when they began to reason about the means how the sea got thither , and a way back again , there they were perfectly in the dark ; and , both tradition and philosophy failing them , they had recourse to shifts , and to the best conjectures they could think of ; concluding that it was either forced forth , as in particular inundations , such as those lately mentioned : or that those parts , where they found the shells , had been formerly in the possession of the sea , and the place of its natural residence , which it had since quitted and deserted . upon this they began to seek out by what means , most probably , the sea might have been dispossest of those parts , and constrained to move into other quarters . and if 't was an island where they found the shells , they straitways concluded that the whole island lay originally at the bottom of the sea : and that 't was either hoisted up by some vapour from beneath : or that the water of the sea , which formerly cover'd it , was in time exhaled , and dryed up by the sun , the land thereby laid bare , and these shells brought to light . but if 't was in any part of the continent where they found the shells , they concluded that the sea had been extruded and driven off by the mud that was continually brought down by the rivers of those parts . that i may not be over-tedious here , i will only add , that i shall clearly shew , from plain passages of their own writings yet extant , that 't was meerly the finding these sea-shells at land that occasioned this stir , and raised all this dust amongst the ancients ; and upon which principally they grounded their belief of the vicissitudes and changes of sea and land , wherewith their writings are so filled . but how little reason they had for it : and how far those have been over-seen who have followed them herein , hath been intimated already , and will appear farther from the following part of this essay , to the account of which i now hasten . part ii. concerning the universal deluge . that these marine bodies were then left at land. the effects it had upon the earth . the consectaries of the former part of this discourse are all negative ; that being only introductory , and serving but to clear the way to this second part : to free the enquiry from the perplexities that some undertakers have encumber'd it withall : and to set aside the false lights they used in quest of the agent which transposed these sea-shells to land. having therefore discharged my hands of that task , and , from observation of the present state of the earth , and of the site and condition of the marine bodies which are lodged within and upon it , shewn that they could not possibly be reposed in that manner by particular inundations : by the seas receding and shifting from place to place : nor by any of the other means there proposed : i pass next on to search out the true means : and to discover the agent that did actually bring them forth , and disposed them into the method and order wherein we now find them . to which purpose i have recourse again to the observations ; for by their assistance this matter may be rightly and fully adjusted . so that i shall only proceed , as hitherto , to make inferences from them ; which inferences , in this part are all affirmative . of these , the first is , that these marine bodies were born forth * of the sea by the universal deluge : and that , upon the ret●●n of the water back again from off the earth , they were left behind at land. this is a proposition of some weight and consequence ; upon which account i shall be somewhat prolix and particular in the establishment of it : careful and exact in conferring every circumstance of these marine bodies , to see how they square with it : and shall not dismiss it till i have evinced that those which i prest , in the precedent part , as objections against the several ways there propounded , all fall in here , and are the clearest and most convincing arguments of the truth hereof : that this , and this alone , does naturally and easily account for all those circumstances : and fairly takes off all difficulties . which difficulties i propose at large , and particularly those which have of late been urged , by some learned men , as proofs that these bodies were not left behind by the deluge ; shewing of how little validity they are . which being dispatch'd , i return back to my observations ; and proceed upon them to represent the effects that the deluge had upon the earth , and the alterations that it wrought in the globe ; some whereof were indeed very extraordinary . these i distribute into two classes ; the first of which will contain those that are only probable , and of which we have some reasonable intimations , but not an absolute and demonstrative certainty , the proofs whereon they depend being more remote . and these i shall wholly wave at present , and not crowd this shorter treatise with the relation of them , reserving that room for those of the second class , which are those whereof we have a plain and undeniable certainty : those which flow directly and immediately from the observations : and which are so evident , that 't is impossible these marine bodies could have been any ways lodged in such manner , and to so great depths , in the beds of stone , marble , chalk , and the rest , had not these alterations all happened . namely , that during the time of the deluge , whilst the water was out upon , and covered the terrestrial globe , all the stone and marble of the antediluvian earth : all the metalls of it : all mineral concretions : and , in a word , all fossils whatever that had befor● obtained any solidity , were totally dissolved , and their constituent corpuscles all disjoyned , their cohaesion perfectly ceasing . that the said corpuscles of these solid fossils , together with the corpuscles of those which were not before solid , such as sand , earth , and the like : as also all animal bodies , and parts of animals , bones , teeth , shells : vegetables , and parts of vegetables , trees , shrubs , herbs : and , to be short , all bodies whatsoever that were either upon the earth , or that constituted the mass of it , if not quite down to the abyss * , yet at least to the greatest depth we ever dig : i say all these were assumed up promiscuously into the water , and sustained in it , in such manner that the water , and bodies in it , together made up one common confused mass. that at length all the mass that was thus borne up in the water , was again precipitated and subsided towards the bottom . that this subsidence happened generally , and as near as possibly could be expected in so great a confusion , according to the laws of gravity † : that matter , body , or bodies , which had the greatest quantity or degree of gravity , subsiding first in order , and falling lowest : that which had the next , or a still lesser degree of gravity , subsiding next after , and ●ettling upon the precedent : and so on in their several courses ; that which had the least gravity sinking not down till last of all , settling at the surface of the sediment , and covering all the rest . that the matter , subsiding thus , formed the strata of stone , of marble , of cole , of earth , and the rest ; of which strata , lying one upon another , the terrestrial globe , or at least as much of it as is ever displayed to view , doth mainly consist . that the strata being arranged in this order meerly by the disparity of the matter , of which each consisted , as to gravity , that matter which was heaviest descending first , and all that had the same degree of gravity subsiding at the same time : and ihere being bodies of quite different kinds , natures , and constitutions , that are nearly of the same specifick gravity , it thence happened that bodies of quite different kinds subsided at the same instant , fell together into , and composed the same stratum . that for this reason the shells of those cockles , escalops , perewinkles , and the rest , which have a greater degree of gravity , were enclosed and lodged in the strata of stone , marble , and the heavier kinds of terrestrial matter : the lighter shells not sinking down till afterwards , and so falling amongst the lighter matter , such as chalk , and the like , in all such parts of the mass where there happened to be any considerable quantity of chalk , or other matter lighter than stone ; but where there was none , the said shells fell upon , or near unto , the surface : and that accordingly we now find the lighter kinds of shells , such as those of the echini , and the like , very plentifully in chalk , but of the heavier kinds scarcely one ever appears ; these subsiding sooner , and so settling deeper , and beneath the strata of chalk . that humane bodies , the bodies of quadrupeds , and other land-animals , of birds , of fishes , both of the cartilaginous , squamose , and crustaceous kinds ; the bones , teeth , horns , and other parts of beasts , and of fishes : the shells of land-snails : and the shells of those river and sea shell-fish that were lighter than chalk &c. trees , shrubs , and all other vegetables , and the seeds of them : and that peculiar terrestrial matter whereof these consist , and out of which they are all formed : i say all these ( except some mineral or metallick matter happened to have been affix'd to any of them * , whilst they were sustained together in the water , so as to augment the weight of them ) being , bulk for bulk , lighter than sand , marl , chalk , or the other ordinary matter of the globe , were not precipitated till the last , and so lay above all the former , constituting the supreme or outmost stratum of the globe . that ●hese being thus lodged upon the rest , and consequently more nearly exposed to the air , weather , and other injuries ; the bodies of the animals would suddenly corrupt and rot : the bones , teeth , and shells , would likewise all rot in time , except those which were secured by the extraordinary strength and firmness of their parts , or which happened to be lodged in such places where there was great plenty of bituminous or other like matter to preserve , and , as it were , embalm them : that the trees would in time also decay and rot , unless such as chanced to be reposed in , and secured by the same kind of matter : that the other more tender vegetables , shrubs , and herbs , would rot likewise and decay : but the seeds of all kinds of vegetables , being by this means reposed , and , as it were , planted near the surface of the earth , in a convenient and natural soil , amongst matter proper for the formation of vegetables , would germinate , grow up , and replenish the face of the earth : and that vegetative terrestrial matter , that fell , along with these , into this uppermost stratum , and of which principally it consists , hath been ever since , and will continue to be , the standing fund and promptuary out of which is derived the matter of all animal and vegetable bodies , and whereinto , at the dissolution of those bodies , that matter is restored back again successively for the constitution and formation of others . that the strata of marble , of stone , and of all other solid matter , attained their solidity , as soon as the sand , or other matter whereof they consist , was arrived at the bottom , and well settled there : and that all those strata which are solid at this day , have been so ever since that time . that the said strata ; whether of stone , of chalk , of cole , of earth , or whatever other matter they consisted of , lying thus each upon other , were all originally parallel : that they were plain , eaven , and regular ; and the surface of the earth likewise eaven and spherical : that they were continuous , and not interrupted , or broken : and that the whole mass of the water lay then above them all , and constituted a fluid sphere environing the globe . that after some time the strata were broken , on all sides of the globe : that they were dislocated , and their situation varied , being elevated in some places , and depressed in others . that the agent , or force , which effected this disruption and dislocation of the strata , was seated within the earth . that all the irregularities and inequalities of the terrestrial globe were caused by this means : date their original from this disruption , and are all entirely owing unto it . that the natural grotto's in rocks , and those intervals of the strata , which , in my observations , i call the perpendicular fissures , are nothing but these interruptions or breaches of the strata . that the more eminent parts of the earth , mountains and rocks , are only the elevations of the strata ; these , wherever they were solid , rearing against and supporting each other in the posture whereinto they were put by the bursting or breaking up of the sphere of earth ‖ : and not falling down again , nor returning to their former and more level site , as did the strata of earth , and other matter that was not solid , and had no strata of stone , or other consistent matter , interposed , amongst their strata , underneath , to uphold them in the posture they were then raised into . for which reason'tis , that countries which abound with stone , marble , or other solid matter , are uneaven and mountainous : and that those which afford none of these , but consist of clay , gravel , and the like , without any stone &c. interposed , are more champaign , plain , and level . that the lower parts of the earth , vallies , the chanel of the sea , and the rest , are nothing but depressions of the strata . that islands were formed and distinguished by the depression or sinking down of the strata lying betwixt each of them , and betwixt them and the continent . in one word , that the whole terraqueous globe was , by this means , at the time of the deluge , put into the condition that we now behold . here was , we see , a mighty revolution : and that attended with accidents very strange and amazing : the most horrible and portentous catastrophe that nature ever yet saw : an elegant , orderly , and habitable earth quite unhinged , shattered all to pieces , and turned into an heap of ruins : convulsions so exorbitant and unruly : a change so exceeding great and violent , that the very representation alone is enough to startle and shock a man. in truth the thing , at first , appeared so wonderful and surprizing to me , that i must confess i was for some time at a stand ; nor could i bring over my reason to assent , untill , by a deliberate and careful examination of all circumstances of these marine bodies , i was abundantly convinced that they could not have come into those circumstances by any other means than such a dissolution of the earth , and confusion of things . and were it not that the observations , made in so many , and those so distant , places , and repeated so often with the most scrupulous and diffident circumspection , did so establish and ascertain the thing , as not to leave any room for contest or doubt , i could scarcely ever have credited it . and though the whole series of this extraordinary turn may seem at first view to exhibit nothing but tumult and disorder : nothing but hurry , jarring , and distraction of things : though it may carry along with it some slight shew that 't was managed blindly and at random : yet if we draw somewhat nearer , and take a closer prospect of it : if we look into its retired movements , and more secret and latent springs , we may there trace out a steady hand , producing good out of evil : the most consummate and absolute order and beauty , out of the highest confusion and deformity : acting with the most exquisite contrivance and wisdom : attending vigilantly throughout the whole course of this grand affair , and directing all the several steps and periods of it to an end , and that a most noble and excellent one ; no less than the happiness of the whole race of mankind : the benefit , and universal good , of all the many generations of men which were to come after : which were to inhabit this earth , thus moduled anew , thus suited to their present condition and necessities . but the presidence of that mighty power in this revolution : its particular agency and concern therein : and its purpose and design in the several accidents of it , will more evidently appear , when i shall have proved , that , altho' one intention of the deluge was to inflict a deserved punishment upon that race of men , yet it was not solely levelled against mankind , but principally against the earth that then was ; with design to destroy and alter that constitution of it , which was apparently calculated and contrived for a state of innocence : to fashion it afresh , and give it a constitution more nearly accommodated to the present frailties of its inhabitants . that the said earth , though not indifferently and alike fertil in all parts of it , was yet generally much more fertil than ours is . that the exteriour stratum or surface of it , consisted entirely of a kind of terrestrial matter proper for the nourishment and formation of plants , and this in great plenty and purity ; being little , or not at all , entangled with an intermixture of meer mineral matter that was unfit for vegetation . that its soil was more luxuriant , and teemed forth its productions in far greater plenty and abundance than the present earth does . that the plough was then of no use , and not invented till after the deluge ; that earth requiring little or no care or culture ; but yeilding its encrease freely , and without any considerable labour and toil , or assistance of humane industry ; by this means allowing mankind that time , which must otherwise have been spent in agriculture , plowing , sowing , and the like , to far more divine and noble uses : to purposes more agreeable to the design of their creation ; there being no hazard , whilst they continued in that state of perfection , of their abusing this plenty , or perverting it to any other end than the sustenance of nature , and the necessary support of life . that when man was fallen , and had abandoned his primitive innocence , the cafe was much altered , and a far different scene of things presented ; that generous vertue , masculine bravery , and prudent circumspection which he was before master of , now deserted him , together with that innocence which was the basis and support of all : and a strange imbecility immediately seized and laid hold of him : he became pusillanimous , and was easily ruffled with every little passion within : supine , and as openly exposed to any temptation or assault from without . and now these exuberant productions of the earth became a continual decoy and snare unto him : they only excited and fomented his lusts , and ministred plentiful fewel to his vices and luxury ; and the earth requiring little or no tillage , there was little occasion for labour ; so that almost his whole time lay upon his hands , and gave him leisure to contrive , and full swing to pursue his follies ; by which means he was laid open to all manner of pravity , corruption , and enormity ; and we need not be much surprized to hear that the wickedness of man was great in the earth , and that every imagination of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually : no● more , that that generation of men was more particularly addicted to intemperance , sensuality , and unchastity : that they spent their time in gluttony , in eating and drinking , in lust and wantonness , or , as the sacred writer cleanly and modestly expresses it , in marrying , and giving in marriage ‖ , and this without discretion or decency : without regard to age or affinity : but promiscuously , and with no better a guide than the impulses of a brutal appetite , they took them wives of all which they chose * ; plenty and abundance , idleness and ease , so naturally cherishing and promoting those particular vices : nor lastly , that the apostacy was so great , the infection so universal : that the earth was filled with violence , and that all flesh had corrupted his way † ; the cause of this corruption , the fertility of that earth , being so universal , so diffusive and epidemical . and indeed , 't would be very hard to assign any other single cause , besides this , that could ever possibly have had so spreading and general an effect as this had . the pravity of humane nature is not , i fear , less than it was then : the passions of men are yet as exorbitant , and their inclinations as vicious : men have been wicked since the deluge : they are so still : and will be so , but not universally ; there are now bounds set to the contagion , and 't is restrained by removing the main cause of it ; but there , the venom manifested it self on all hands : spread far and near : and scarcely stop'd till 't was insinuated into the whole mass of mankind , and the world was little better than a common fold of phrenticks and bedlams . that to reclaim and retrieve the world out of this wretched and forlorn state , the common father and benefactor of mankind seasonably interposed his hand : and rescued miserable man out of the gross stupidity and sensuality whereinto he was thus unfortunately plunged . and this he did partly by tying up his hands , and shortning the power of sinning : checking him , in the career of his follies , by diseases and pains : and setting death , the king of terrors , which before stood aloof off , and at the long distance of eight or nine hundred years , now much nearer to his view , ordaining * that his days shall be but an hundred and twenty years † : and partly by removing the temptation , and cause of the sin : by destroying * that earth which had furnish'd forth maintenance in such store unto it : by changing that constitution of it , and rendring it more agreeable to the laps'd and frail state of mankind . that this change was not wrought by altering either the form of the earth , or its position in respect of the sun , as was not long ago surmised by a very learned man † , but by dissolving ‖ it : by reducing all the matter of it to its first constituent principles : by mingling , and confounding them : the vegetative with mineral matter , and the different kinds of mineral matter with each other ** : and by retrenching a considerable quantity of the vegetable matter , ( which lay in such plenty and purity at the surface of the antediluvian earth , and rendred it so exuberantly fruitful ) and precipitating it , ( at the time of the subsidence ‖ of the general mass of earth and other bodies , which were before raised up into the water ) to such a depth as to bury it , leaving only so much of it near the surface as might just sufficiently satisfie the wants of humane nature , but little or no more ; and even that not pure , not free from the inter-mixture of meer steril mineral matter , and such as is in no wise fit for the nutrition of vegetables ; but so that it should require industry and labour to excite it , and not yeild a competent crop without tillage and manure . that by this means , a great part of that time , which the inhabitants of the former earth had to spare , and whereof they made so ill use , was employed , and taken up in digging and plowing , in making provision for bread , and for the necessities of life : and the excess of fertility , which contributed so much to their miscarriages , was retracted and cut off . that had the deluge been aimed only at mankind : and its utmost design meerly to punish that generation , and thereby to deterr posterity from the like offences ; this might have been brought about by means much more compendious , and obvious too , and yet equally terrifying and exemplary . mankind , i say , might have been taken off at a far cheaper rate : without this ransacking of nature , and turning all things topsie-turvy : without this battering of the earth , and unhinging the whole frame of the globe . the business might have been done as effectually by wars ; the heart of every man of them was in the hand of god , and he could easily have made them executioners of his wrath upon one another . he had the command of famine , of pestilence , and a thousand other disasters , whereby he could have carried them off by sholes , yea swept them all clear away . besides , he had the whole artillery of the sky in his power , and might presently have thunder struck them all , or destroyed them by fire from heaven . but none of all these were used , though 't is most apparent that any of them would have been as fatal and pernicious to man as the deluge was , for the design lay a great deal deeper , and these would have fallen short of it : these would never have reach'd the earth , nor affected that in the least : they could never have touch'd the head , or stop'd the source of these unhappy misdemeanours , for which the punishment was sent . that was what nothing but a deluge could reach ; and as long as the cause remained : as long as the old temptation was still behind , every age would have lain under fresh inducements to the same crimes : and there would have been a new necessity to punish and reclaim the world : to depopulate the earth , and reduce it again to a vast solitude , as constantly as there succeeded a new age and race of men. for the terror of the calamity would not have extended it self much farther than the men which suffered under the weight of it : and a few years would have worn out , in great measure , the impressions it made . this we see even from the example of the deluge it self . as formidable as this was to those who lived at , or near , the time of it : who saw the prodigious devastations it made : the horrible methods by which 't was brought about : and the reason why 't was inflicted ; and to their posterity , for a few generations ; yet the fright was not lasting : 't was not long e're the sting of it was worn out . and though the elder ages knew full well that there had been such a deluge : and had some tradition of the cruel desolation it made ; yet by degrees the particulars of it were drop'd , and the most frightful passages bore the least share in the relation ; being probably so strange as to be hardly credible ; and carrying rather an appearance of figment and invention , in those that handed down the memory of it , than of truth and reality . so that upon the whole 't is very plain that the deluge was not sent only as an executioner to mankind : but that its prime errand was to reform and new-mold the earth . that therefore as much harshness and cruelty as this great destruction of mankind seemingly carries along with it : as wild and extravagant a thing as that dissolution of the primitive earth appeared at first sight , yet all the severity lay in the punishment of that generation , ( which yet was no more than what was highly just , yea and necessary too : ) and the whole of the tragedy terminated there . for the destruction of the earth was not only an act of the profoundest wisdom and forecast , but the most monumental proof that could ever possibly have been , of goodness , compassion , and tenderness , in the author of our being ; and this so liberal too and extensive , as to reach all the succeeding ages of mankind : all the posterity of noah : all that should dwell upon the thus renewed earth to the end of the world ; by this means removing the old charm : the bait that had so long bewildred and deluded unhappy man : setting him once more upon his legs : reducing him from the most abject and stupid ferity , to his senses , and to sober reason : from the most deplorable misery and slavery , to a capacity of being happy . that notwithstanding that this remedy struck as deep at the intellectuals , as at the morals of mankind : that ignorance and rudeness would be as necessary a consequence of it , as reformation of life : and that this so general employ and expence of their time would as assuredly curtail and retrench the ordinary means of knowledge and erudition * , as 't would shorten the opportunities of vice : and so accordingly it fell out ; an universal rusticity presently took place , spread on all hands , and stop'd not till it had over-run the whole stock of mankind . those first ages of the new world were simple , and illiterate to admiration ; and 't was a long time e're the cloud was withdrawn : e're the least spark of learning ( i had almost said of humanity ) broke forth , or any man betook himself to the promotion of science . nay the effects of it are visible to this hour : a general darkness yet prevails , and hangs over whole nations , yea the far greater part of the world is still barbarous and savage . i say , tho 't was most evident that this remedy must needs have this consequence also as well as the other , yet it was not suspended or chang'd upon that account ; an egregious and pregnant instance how far vertue surpasses ingenuity : how much an honest simplicity , probity of mind , integrity and incorruptness of manners , is preferable to fine parts , profound knowledge , and subtile speculations . i would not have this interpreted an invective against humane learning , or a decrying any commendable accomplishments either of body or mind , ( that is what no man will , i hope , suspect me of ) but only an intimation that these are not of any solid use , or real advantage , unless when aiding and serviceable to the other . nor does this grand catastrophe only present us with demonstrations of the goodness , but also of the wisdom and contrivance of its author . there runs a long train of providence thro● the whole : and shines brightly forth of all the various accidents of it . the consolidation of the marble , and of the stone , immediately after their settlement to the bottom : the disruption of the strata afterwards : their dislocation , the elevation of some , and depression of others of them , did not fall out at random , or by chance , but were managed and directed by a more steady and discerning principle ; for proof whereof , this is indeed the proper place : but , in regard that there are some things advanced in the succeeding , or third , part of this discourse , which give some farther light to this matter , i shall beg leave to break off here , and to deferr it a while , untill i have first proposed them . thus have i drawn up a brief scheme of what befell the earth at the deluge : and of the change that it then underwent . i have , by comparing its antediluvian * with its present state , found where chiefly the difference lay ; viz. in degree of fertility . i have endeavour'd also to discover the reason why this change was made in it . for since that the process of it was so solemn and extraordinary : that there were so many , and those so strange things done : that the first earth was perfectly unmade again , taken all to pieces , and framed a-new ; and indeed , the very same method that was used in the original formation of it , used likewise in this renovation ; our earth standing the first step after its dissolution , in the same posture that the primitive earth did the first step after its rise out of nothing ; which the reader will easily find by conferring the fifth proposition of this part with gen. i. v. 2. and 9 : since likewise there was so mighty an hand † concerned , and which does not act without great and weighty reasons , there could be no doubt but that there was some real and very necessary cause for the making that alteration . nor was such a cause very hard to be found out . the first earth was suited to the first state of mankind ; who were the inhabitants of it , and for whose use 't was made . but when humane nature had , by the fall , suffer'd so great a change , 't was but necessary that the earth should undergo a change too , the better to accommodate it to the condition that mankind was then in : and such a change the deluge brought to pass . but least that the br●vity which i have above used , and which indeed i am tied up to , in my representation of this matter , should render it liable to misconstruction : or that any one should suspect , that what i have delivered concerning the fertility of that earth , does not well square with the mosaick description of it , i must beg leave to make a digression here , that i may explain my self a little more upon that head. and that the reader may himself be judge in the case , i shall fairly lay down moses's sense of it in his own words . ver. 17. and unto adam he said , because thou hast hearkned unto the voice of thy wife , and hast eaten of the tree of which i commanded thee , saying , thou shalt not eat of it : cursed is the ground for thy sake ; in sorrow shalt thou eat of it all the days of thy life . ver. 18. thorns also and thistles shall it bring forth to thee : and thou shalt eat the herb of the field . ver. 19. in the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread , till thou return unto the ground ; for out of it wast thou taken : for dust thou art , and unto dust shalt thou return . ver. 23. therefore the lord god sent him forth from the garden of eden , to till the ground from whence he was taken . ver. 2. cain was a tiller of the ground . all which may be well reduced to two plain and short propositions , 1. that adam's revolt drew down a curse upon the earth . 2. that there was some sort of agriculture used before the deluge . as to the former , the curse upon the earth , i shall not in the least go about to extenuate the latitude of it : or to stint it only to the production of weeds , of thorns , thistles , and other the less useful kinds of plants : but shall give it its full scope , and grant that no less than an universal restraint and diminution of the primitive fruitfulness of the earth was intended by it ; this indeed seeming to be the plain and genuine meaning of the words . but the question is , whether this curse was presently inflicted or not : whether it was succeeded with an universal sterility , and the earth's native and original exuberance all straitways check'd , and turn'd to as general a desolation and barrenness . and here i entreat it may be taken notice , that this was but one , and that much the lesser , part of the sentence past upon adam . the other was death * ; which , 't is most certain , was not immediately inflicted . and yet this was pronounc'd at the same time and with the same breath , that the other was : unto dust shalt thou return . nay and much more emphatically a little before ‖ , in the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely dye . this was exceedingly peremptory : and the very day fix'd likewise . notwithstanding , through the clemency and goodness of god , execution was delayed for a long time ; adam being reprieved for eight or nine hundred years † . the dominion of death over him commenc'd indeed not only the same day that sentence was past , but the very minute that he tasted the forbidden fruit : and mortality went hand in hand with the transgression : but 't was a long time before it had raised any trophies , or made a final and absolute conquest . why therefore may we not as well suppose the other part of the sentence , the sterilizing the earth , was also suspended for some time , and deferr'd till the deluge happened , and became the executioner of it ? 't is certainly very hard to imagine that god should destroy the work of his hands almost as soon as he had finish'd it : that all things should be unhinged again by such time as they were well ranged and put in order : and that the fragrancy and lovely verdure which then appeared every where , and which had but just shewed it self , should be nip'd in the bud , and blasted all of a sudden . to be short , 't is , i think , most apparent , that as on the other part mortality did presently enter and take place , but got not full possession of many ages after : so here , thorns , thistles , and other the like consequences of this curse , immediately sprung out of the ground , and manifested themselves on every side , but it had not its full effect , nor was the earth impoverish'd , or its fertility , sensibly curb'd , till the deluge . and for proof of this i appeal to the remains of that earth : the animal and vegetable productions of it still preserved ; the vast and incredible numbers whereof notoriously testifie the extreme luxuriance and foecundity of it ; and i need but produce these as evidences that at the time that the deluge came , the earth was so loaded with herbage , and throng'd with animals , that such an expedient was even wanting to ease it of the burden , and to make room for a succession of its productions . for this also i appeal to moses himself , who openly acknowledgeth that this curse did not take place effectually till the deluge . for he tells us , that , after the deluge was over , and noah and his family come forth of the ark , he builded an altar unto the lord , and offered burnt-offerings on the altar : and the ●ord smelled a sweet savour , and the lord said in his heart , i will not again curse the ground any more , neither will i again smite any more every thing living as i have done * . wherein he plainly refers to the curse denounc'd above , at the apostacy of adam : implying that it was not fulfilled till the deluge . and a little after he as plainly intimates , that the fulfilling of it lay in the destruction of the earth then wrought . for , speaking again of the same thing , instead of the expression [ curse the ground ] here used , he makes use of [ destroy the earth ] the whole passage runs thus ; and i will establish my covenant with you , neither shall all flesh be cut off any more by the waters of a flood : neither shall there any more be a flood to destroy the earth * . nor is it indeed in any wise strange that this curse had not it's effect sooner : especially since 't was not limited to any time . there are so many presidents on record in holy writ of this way of proceeding , that no one can be well ignorant of them ; so that i shall not need to charge this place with more than one , and that shall be the case of ham , for which we are likewise beholden to the same author , moses . this person , by his indiscreet and unnatural irrision and exposing of his father , incurrs his indignation , and curse . but , which is very remarkable , noah does not lay the curse upon ham , who was actually guilty of the crime , whether out of greater tenderness ▪ he being of the two nearer allied unto him , or for what other reason i shall not here enquire , but transferrs it to canaan : cursed be canaan , a servant of servants shall he be to his brethren : ‖ to shem and to iaphet . nay , which is still more , this was never inflicted upon canaan in person , but upon his posterity ; and that not till many generations afterwards , at such time as the israelites returning out of egypt , possest themselves of the country of the canaanites , and made them their servants . the story is so well known , that i shall not need to point it out to the reader , who may peruse it at his leisure . 't was well onwards of a thousand years before ever this curse began to take effect : before the canaanites were brought under servitude by the israelites , who were descended from shem : and a great many more before 't was finally accomplished , and they subjected unto the posterity of iaphet . to conclude , 't was really a longer time before this , than it was before the other , the curse upon the earth , was fully brought about . to proceed therefore to the other point , the tillage of the earth before the deluge . that there was tillage bestowed upon it moses does indeed intimate in general and at large : but whether it was bestowed on all , or only upon some parts of that earth : as also what sort of tillage that was , and what labour it cost , is not exprest ; so that for all this we are at liberty , and may use our discretion . for the present i must pass by the enquiry : but in due place i hope to give some satisfaction in it , and to shew that their agriculture was nothing near so laborious , and troublesome , nor did it take up so much time as ours doth . that 's a consequence of the proof of the greater fertility of that earth ; it being plain that the more it exerted that fertility , the less need there was of manure , of culture , or humane industry to excite and promote it . nor can any man reasonably suspect , because of this mention of tillage , that the curse upon the ground was come on , or that the primitive exuberance of the earth was lessened and abridged , before the deluge ; for moses makes mention of tillage before ever adam was created : there was not , says he † , a man to till the ground : and consequently , there would have been requisite such a tillage as this which he speaks of in these three chapters , tho' the curse had never been denounc'd , or man had not fallen . but 't is highly probable that upon adam's disobedience , almighty god chased him out of paradise , the fairest and most delicious part of that earth , into some other the most barren and unpleasant of all the whole globe ; the more effectually to signifie his displeasure , and to convince that unhappy man how great a misfortune and forfeiture he had incurred by his late offence . and here , above all other parts of the earth , there would be work and employ for him , and for his son cain . and thus much may serve for the present , to shew that my account of the antediluvian earth is so far from interfereing with that which moses hath given us , that it holds forth a natural and unforc'd interpretation of his sense on this subject . there are a few other passages in the same author which may require some explication : but they are none of them such that a reader of moderate understanding may not easily clear them , without my assistance , so that i shall not crowd this piece with them ; for i fear 't will be thought that i have already taken too great a liberty . the compass that i am confined unto , by the rules of this kind of writing , is so narrow , that i am forced to pass over many things in silence , and can but just touch upon others . to lay down every thing at length , and in its full light , so as to obviate all exceptions , and remove every difficulty , would carry me out too far beyond the measures allowed to a tract of this nature . that 's the business of the larger work , of which this is only the module or platform . in that work i hope to make amends for these omissions , and particularly shall consider ▪ what was the immediate instrument or means whereby the stone , and other solid matter of the antediluvian earth was dissolved , and reduced to the condition mentioned consect . 2. of this part. why the shells , teeth , bones , and other parts of animal bodies : as also the trunks , roots , and other parts of vegetables , were not dissolved , as well as the stone , and other mineral solids of that earth . of this i shall assign a plain and physical reason , taken meerly from the cause of the solidity of these mineral bodies ; which i shew to be quite different from that , whereunto vegetables and animals owe the cohaesion of their parts : and that this was suspended , and ceased , at the time that the water of the deluge came forth ; which the other ( i mean the cause of the cohaesion of the parts of animals and vegetables ) did not ; with the reason of this . what was the reason that ( in case the terrestrial globe was entirely dissolved , and there be now , and was then , a space or cavity , in the central parts of it , so large as to give reception to that mighty mass of water which covered the earth at the deluge * ) the terrestrial matter which first subsided , ( as in consect . 3. supra ) did not fill the said cavity , and descend quite down to the center , but stop'd at that distance from it , forming an arched expansum , or rather a sphere around it ; which is now the lowest stratum , and boundary of that vast conceptacle of water . as also how this water was raised at the deluge ; by what issues or outlets it came forth : what succeeded into the room of it , whilst absent : and which way it returned back again . by what means the strata of stone , and marble , acquired such a solidity , as soon as the matter , whereof they consist , had subsided , and was well settled to the bottom , as in consect . 4. of this part. what was the immediate agent which effected that disruption of the strata , and their dislocation afterwards ; whereof in consect . 6. of this part. and because there have been some conjectures formerly started by learned men about the formation of sand-stone , the origin of mountains , and of islands , that are repugnant to what i have here advanc'd upon those subjects , i am obliged to look a little into the reasons of them ; and , that they may not remain as obstacles to those who are less skilfull in these things , i shall weigh their arguments , detect the invalidity of them , and prove , against them , that the sand-stone now in being is not as old as the earth it self : nor hath it been consolidated ever since the creation of the world , as some authors have believed . that sand-stone does not now grow by iuxtaposition , as they speak ; that is by continual addition of new matter ; in like manner as the bodies of animals and of vegetables grow , and are augmented ; as others were of opinion . that sand-stone does not still consolidate : i.e. that matter which was , a few years ago , lax , incoherent , and in form of earth , or of sand , does not become daily more hard and consistent , and by little and little acquire a perfect solidity , and so turn to stone ; as others have asserted . that the mountains of our earth have not had being ever since the creation : and stood as long as the earth it self ; as some writers have thought . that the said mountains were not raised successively , and at several times , being flung up or elevated by earthquakes , some at one time , and some at another , as those earthquakes happened . that these are so far from raising mountains , that they overturn and fling down , some of those which were before standing ; and undermine others , sinking them into the abyss underneath † . that of all the mountains of the whole globe , which are very numerous , and many of them extremely large , and consequently cannot be supposed to have been all thus raised without the notice of mankind , yet there is not any authentick instance , in all history , of so much as one single mountain that was heaved up by an earthquake . that the new mountain in the lucrine lake , not far from pozzuolo in italy , called monte di cinere , which is alledged by the fautors of this opinion , as an instance in behalf of it , was not raised thus ; the relators of that accident , as well those who were then living , as they who wrote since , unanimously agreeing that this tumulus , or hill , is no other than an huge heap of stones , cinders , earth , and ashes , which were spued up out of the bowels of the earth , by the eruption of a volcano , which happened there , in the year 1538. and though this eruption was preceded by several earthquakes ( the country all round having been frequently shaken for almost the space of two years before ) as those of aetna , vesuvius , and hecla usually are , yet this hill was not elevated or heaved up by any of those earthquakes , but the matter , whereof 't is compiled , discharged out of the volcano , as af●●●said ; in like manner as aetna , vesuvius , and the rest , fling forth stones , cinders , &c. upon any extraordinary eruption of them . that there have not been any islands of note , or considerable extent , torn and cast off from the continent by earthquakes , or severed from it by the boisterous allision of the sea. that sicily , cyprus , the negropont , and many more , which have been supposed by some to be only dismembered parcels of the main-land , and anciently parted from it by one or other of these means , yet really never were so ; but have been islands ever since the time of the noetick deluge . unto this second part i shall annex , a discourse concerning the trees , which are commonly called subterranean trees , or fossil wood , and which are found in great plenty buried amongst other vegetable bodies in mosses * ▪ fens , or bogs , not only in several parts of england , but likewise in many foreign countries ; wherein i shall shew , from observations made upon the places where these trees are digg'd up : upon the trees themselves : their position in the earth , and other circumstances , that they were lodged thus by the deluge , and have lain here ever since . that there are found great numbers of these trees , and many of them very large , so buried in several islands where no trees at all do , or will , now grow : the winds being so fierce , and the weather so severe , as not to suffer any thing to prosper or thrive beyond the height of a shrub , in any of all those islands , unless it be protected by walls , as in gardens , or other like coverture . that the said trees are in some places found enclosed in the stone of quarries and of rocks : buried amongst marle , and other kinds of earth , as well as in this peat or moss●earth . that they were originally lodged indifferently amongst all sorts of earth , or other matter , which lay near the surface of the earth † : and that they are at this day found very seldom unless in this peat-earth , is meerly accidental ; this earth being of a bituminous and mild nature ; so that the trees lay all this while , as it were , embalmed in it , and were by that means preserved down to our times ; whilst those which chanced to be lodged in other earth , that was more lax and pervious , decayed in tract of time , and rotted at length , and therefore do not now appear at all , when we dig and search into those earths ; or if any thing of them do appear , 't is only the ruins , or some slight remains of them ; there being very rarely found any trunks of trees , in these laxer earths , that are intire , or tolerably firm and sound . to conclude , from several of the aforesaid circumstances i shall evince that these trees could never possibly have been reposed thus by any other means than the deluge : neither by men : nor by inundations : nor by deterations * : nor by violent and impetuous winds : nor by earthquakes ; which are the several ways whereby learned men have thought they were thus buried . part iii. concerning the fluids of the globe . sect . i. of the great abyss . of the ocean . concerning the origine of springs , and rivers . of vapours , and of rain . having thus done with the more bulky and corpulent parts of the globe , the next place in course is due unto metalls and minerals , which are the only remaining part of the terrestrial matter of it not yet treated of and accordingly i should now pass on to these ; but the present oeconomy and disposal of some of them being wholly owing to the motion and passage of water in the interiour parts of the earth , i have for that reason chosen rather , that i may be as brief as possible , and avoid all needless repetitions , to wave them for a while , till i have first offered what i have to say about that . the water therefore of the globe , as well that resident in it , as that which floats upon it , is the subject which i purpose here to prosecute . in order whereunto , i shall sub-divide this third part into two sections ; the former whereof will comprehend what relates to the present and natural state of the fluids in and upon the earth : the other , what concerns that extraordinary change of this state which happened at the deluge , and how that change was wrought . at the head of the first of these sections i prefix a new set of observations touching the fluids of the terraqueous globe : the sea , rivers , and springs : the water of mines , of cole-pits : of caves , grotts , and the like recesses : as also concerning vapours , rain , hail , and snow . and because this is a subject of that vast latitude that the strength of one single man will scarcely be reckoned sufficient effectually to cultivate and carry it on , i have taken in the joint assistance of other hands , and superadded , to my own , all such relations as i could procure from persons whose judgment and fidelity might safely be relyed upon , about the sea , lakes , rivers , springs , and rain , not only of this island , but many other parts of the world besides . nor do i neglect those which are already extant in the published discourses of diligent and inquisitive men. from all which observations , joyned with those made by my self , i prove , that there is a mighty collection of water inclosed in the bowels of the earth , constituting an huge orb in the interiour or central parts of it ; upon the surface of which orb of water the terrestrial strata are expanded . that this is the same which moses calls the great deep , or abyss : the ancient gentile writers , erebus , and tartarus . that the water of this orb communicates with that of the ocean , by means of certain hiatus's or chasmes passing betwixt it and the bottom of the ocean . that they have the same common center , around which the water of both of them is compiled and arranged ; but in such manner , that the ordinary surface of this orb is not level with that of the ocean , nor at so great a distance from the center as that is , it being for the most part restrained and depressed by the strata of earth lying upon it ; but wherever those strata are broken , or so lax and porose that water can pervade them , there the water of the said orb does ascend : fills up all the fissures whereinto it can get admission or entrance : and saturates all the interstices and pores of the earth , stone , or other matter , all round the globe , quite up to the level of the surface of the ocean . that there is a perpetual and incessant circulation of water in the atmosphere : it arising from the globe in form of vapour , and falling down again in rain , dew , hail , and snow . that the quantity of water thus rising and falling is equal ; as much returning back in rain , &c. to the whole terraqueous globe , as was exhaled from it in vapours : and reciprocally as much mounting up again in vapour as was discharged down in rain . that tho' the quantity of water thus rising and falling be nearly certain and constant as to the whole , yet it varies in the several parts of the globe ; by reason that the vapours float in the atmosphere , sailing in clouds from place to place , and are not restored down again in a perpendicular upon the same precise tract of land , or sea , or both together , from which originally they arose , but any other indifferently ; so that some regions receive back more in rain than they send up in vapour : as , on the contrary , others send up more in vapour than they receive in rain : nay , the very same region at one season sends up more in vapours than it receives in rain , and at another receives more in rain than it sends up in vapour ; but the excesses of one region and season compensating the defects of the others , the quantity rising and falling upon the whole globe is equal , however different it may be in the several parts of it . that the rain which falls upon the surface of the earth partly runs off into rivers , and thence into the sea : and partly sinks down into the earth , insinuating it self into the interstices of the sand , gravel , or other matter of the exteriour or uppermost strata ; whence some of it passes on into wells , and into grotts , and stagnates there , till 't is by degrees again exhaled : some of it glides into the perpendicular intervalls of the solid strata ; where , if there be no outlet or passage to the surface , it stagnates , as the other : but if there be such outlets , 't is by them refunded forth together with the ordinary water of springs and rivers : and the rest , which , by reason of the compactness of the terrestrial matter underneath , cannot make its way to wells , the perpendicular fissures , or the like exits , only saturates the uppermost strata : and in time remounts up again in vapour into the atmosphere . that although rains do thus fall into , and augment springs and rivers , yet neither the one nor the other do derive the water , which they ordinaririly refund , from rains ; notwithstanding what very many learned men have believed . that springs and rivers do not proceed from vapours raised out of the sea by the sun , borne thence by winds unto mountains , and there condensed , as a modern ingenious writer is of opinion . that the abovementioned great subterranean magazine the abyss , with its partner the ocean , is the standing fund and promptuary which supplies water to the surface of the earth : as well springs and rivers , as vapours and rain . that there is a nearly uniform and constant fire or heat † disseminated throughout the body of the earth , and especially the interiour parts of it ; the bottoms of the deeper mines being very sultry , and the stone and ores there very sensibly hot even in winter , and the colder seasons . that 't is this heat which evaporates and elevates the water of the abyss , buoying it up indifferently on every side , and towards all parts of the surface of the globe : pervading not only the fissures and intervals of the strata , but the very bodies of the strata themselves , permeating the interstices of the sand , earth , or other matter , whereof they consist : yea even the most firm and dense marble and sand-stone ; for these give admission to it , though in lesser quantity , and are always found saturated with it ; which is the reason that they are softer , and cut much more easily , when first taken out of their beds and quarries , than afterwards , when they have lain some time exposed to the air , and that humidity is evaporated . that this vapour proceeds up directly towards the surface of the globe on all sides , and , as near as possible , in right lines , unless impeded and diverted by the interposition of strata of marble , the denser sorts of stone , or other like matter , which is so close and compact that it can admit it only in smaller quantity , and this very slowly and leisurely too . that when it is thus intercepted in its passage , the vapour , which cannot penetrate the stratum diametrically , some of it glides along the lower surface of it , permeating the horizontal interval which is betwixt the said dense stratum and that which lies underneath it : the rest passing the interstices of the mass of the subjacent strata , whether they be of laxer stone , of sand , of marle , or the like , with a direction parallel to the site of those strata , till it arrives at their perpendicular intervalls . that the water being thus approach'd to these intervalls , in case the strata , whereby the ascending vapour was collected and condensed into water ( as we usually speak ) in like manner as by an alembick , happen to be raised above the level of the earth's ordinary surface , as those strata are whereof mountains consist , then the water , being likewise got above the said level , flows forth of those intervalls or apertures , and , if there be no obstacle without , forms brooks and rivers : but where the strata , which so condense it , are not higher than the mean surface of the earth , it stagnates at the apertures , and only forms standing springs . that though the supply from this great receptacle below be continual , and nearly the same at all seasons , and alike to all parts of the globe , yet when it arrives at or near the surface of the earth , where the heat ( the agent which evaporates and bears it up ) is not so constant and uniform as is that resident within the globe , but is subject to vicissitudes and alterations , being at certain seasons greater than at others : being also greater in some climates and parts of the earth than in others : it thence happens that the quantity of water at the surface of the earth , though sent up from the abyss with an almost constant equality , is various and uncertain , as is the heat there ; at some seasons , and in some countries , the surface abounding , and being even drowned with the plenty of it , the springs full , and the rivers high : at other seasons , and in other countries both springs and rivers exceeding low , yea sometimes totally failing . that when the heat in the exteriour parts of the earth , and in the ambient air , is as intense as that in the interiour parts of it , all that water which passes the strata directly , mounting up in separate parcels , or in form of vapour , does not stop at the surface , because the heat there is equal both in quantity and power to that underneath , which brought it out of the abyss . this heat therefore takes it here , and bears it up , part of it immediately out at the surface of the earth : the rest , through the tubes and vessels of the vegetables which grow thereon , herbs , shrubs , and trees , and along with it a sort of vegetative terrestrial matter , which it detaches from out the uppermost stratum wherein these are planted ; this it deposes in them , for their nutriment , as it passes through them † ; and issuing out at the tops and extremities of them , it marches still on , and is elevated up into the atmosphere to such height that , the heat being there less , it becomes condensed , unites and combines into small masses or drops , and at length falls down again in rain , dew , hail , or snow . and for the other part of the water , which was condensed at the surface of the earth , and sent forth collectively into standing-springs and rivers , this also sustains a diminution from the heat above , being evaporated , more or less , in proportion to the greater or lesser intenseness of the heat , and the greater or lesser extent of the surface of the water so sent forth . that as these evaporations are at some times greater , according to the greater heat of the sun , fo wherever they alight again in rain ; 't is as much superiour in quantity to the rain of colder seasons , as the suns power is then superiour to its power in those seasons . this is apparent even in these northern climes , where the suns power is never very great , our rains in iune , iuly , and august , being much greater than those of the colder months : the drops larger , and consequently heavier : falling thicker , faster , and with greater force : striking the ground , at their fall , with violence , and making a mighty noise : beating down the fruit from the trees , prostrating and laying corn growing in the fields : and sometimes so filling the rivers as to make them out-swell their banks , and lay the neighbouring grounds under water . but much more apparent is it in the more southern regions : in abassinia , nigritia , guinea : in the east-indies : in brasil , paraguay , and other countries of south america , to instance in no more . in these the sun shews a much greater force : and their rains ( which are periodical , happening always much about the same time , and lasting several months ) fall in such quantities as to be more like rivers descending , than showers ; and by these are caused those mighty periodical inundations of the nile , the niger , the rio da volta : the ganges : the rio de las amazonas , the rio de la plata , and other rivers of those countries ; to which inundations egypt , through which the nile flows , the indies , and the rest , owe their extraordinary fertility , and those mighty crops they produce after these waters are withdrawn from off their fields ; rain-water , as we have already noted * , carrying along with it a sort of terrestrial matter that fertilizes the land , as being proper for the formation of vegetables . that when the heat in the exteriour parts of the earth , and in the ambient air , is less than that in the interiour , the evaporations are likewise less ; and the springs and rivers thereupon do not only cease to be diminished † , proportionably to the relaxation of the heat , but are much augmented ; a great part of the water , which ascends to the surface of the earth in vapour , stopping there , for want of heat to ●ount it thence up into the atmosphere , and saturating the superficial or uppermost strata with water ; which by degrees drains down into wells , springs , and rivers , and so makes an addition unto them . and this is the reason that these abound with water in the colder season so much more than they do in the hotter . that the water , which is thus dispens'd to the earth and atmosphere by the great abyss , being carried down by rains and by rivers into the ocean , which , as we have said , communicates , and stands at an aequilibrium with that subterranean conservatory , is by that means restored back to the abyss ; whence it returns again , in a continual circulation , to the surface of the earth , in vapours , and springs . that the final cause of this distribution of water , in such quantity , to all parts of the earth indifferently in springs , rivers , and rain : and of this perpetual circulation and motion of it , is the propagation of bodies , animals , vegetables , and minerals , in a continued succession . that for animals , they either feed upon vegetables immediately : or , which comes to the same at last , upon other animals which have fed upon them ; so that vegetables are the first and main fund , and fit matter being supplied unto these , provision is thereby made for the nourishment of animals ; these vegetables being no other than so many machines serving to derive that matter from the earth , to digest and prepare it , for their food , leisurely and by little and little , as they can admit and dispose of it , and as it is brought to them by the ministration of this fluid . that vegetables being naturally fix'd and tyed al●ays to the same place , and so not able ( as animals are ) to shift , and seek out after matter proper for their increment , 't was indispensably necessary that it should be brought to them : and that there should be some agent , thus ready and at hand in all places , to do them that office , and so carry on this great and important work. for this matter being impotent , sluggish , and inactive , hath no more power to stir , or move it self to these bodies , than they themselves have to move unto it ; and therefore it must have lain eternally confined to its beds of earth , and then none of these bodies could ever have been formed , were there not this , or the like , agent to educe it thence , and bear it unto them . nor does the water , thus hurried about from place to place , serve only to carry the matter unto these bodies , but the parts of it being very voluble and lubricous , as well as fine and small , it easily insinuates it self into , and placidly distends the tubes and vessels of vegetables , and by that means introduces into them the matter it bears along with it , conveying it to the several parts of them ; where each part , by a particular mechanism in the structure of it , detaches and assumes those particles of the mass so conveyed which are proper for the nutrition and augmentation of that part , incorporating these with it , and letting all the rest pass on with the fluid ; those particles which are either superfluous , and more than the parts of the plant can admit and manage at one time : or that are not suitable and proper for the nourishment of any of the parts of a plant of that kind , passing out at the extremities of it along with the water * and this latter office it does likewise to animals ; water , and other fluids , serving to convey the matter , whereby they are nourished , from their stomachs and guts , through the lacteals and other finer vessels , to the several parts of their bodies . but the formation of animals and vegetables , being a thing somewhat foreign to my present purpose , i shall adjourn the fuller consideration of it to another occasion . how far water is concerned in the formation of minerals , will appear more at large in the succeeding part of this work. that 't is this vapour , or subtile fluid , that ascending thus incessantly out of the abyss , and pervading the strata of gravel , sand , earth , stone , and the rest , by degrees rots and decays the bones , shells , teeth , and other parts of animals : as also the trees , and other vegetables , which were lodged in those strata at the deluge † ; this fluid , by its continual attrition as it passes successively by them , fretting the said bodies , by little and little wearing off and dissipating their constituent corpuscles , and at length quite dissolving and destroying their texture . that yet it hath not this effect indifferently upon all of them ; those which happened to be reposed in the firmer and compacter strata , e.g. of marble , the closer kinds of sand-stone , chalk , and the like , being thereby protected in great measure from its attacks ; it passing through these only in lesser quantity , and that slowly and with difficulty * ; so that its motion here being more feeble and languid , the shells and other bodies enclosed in these are usually found very firm and entire , many of them retaining even their natural colours to this day , though they have lain thus above four thousand years ; and may doubtless endure much longer , even as long as those strata , to which they owe their preservation , shall themselves endure , and continue entire and undisturbed : whilst those which were lodged in marle , sand , gravel , and the like , more loose and pervious matter , are so rotted and decayed , that they are now not at all , or very difficultly , distinguishable from the marle , or other matter in which they lye . not but that there are sometimes found , even in these laxer strata , shells , teeth , and other bodies that are still tolerably firm , and that have escaped pretty safe ; but these are only such as are of a more than ordinary robust and durable constitution , whereby they were enabled the better to withstand the repeated assaults of the permeating fluid , and to maintain their integrity , whilst the other tenderer kinds perish'd and were destroyed . that this same subtile fluid exerts the same power upon the surface of the earth , that it does in the bowels of it : and as it is instrumental to the formation of bodies here * , so is it likewise ( by a different operation , which i have not room to describe in this place ) of the destruction of them ; and that corrosion and dissolution of bodies , even the most solid and durable , which is vulgarly ascrib'd to the air , is caused meerly by the action of this matter upon them ; the air being so far from injuring and preying upon the bodies it environs , that it contributes to their security and preservation , by impeding and obstructing the action of this matter : and were it not for the interposition of the air , they could never be able to make so long and vigorous resistance as now they do . that this subterranean heat or fire , which thus elevates the water out of the abyss , being in any part of the earth , stop'd , and so diverted from its ordinary course , by some accidental glut or obstruction in the pores or passages through which it used to ascend to the surface : and being by that means preternaturally assembled , in greater quantity than usual , into one place , it causes a great rarifaction and intumescence of the water of the abyss , putting it into very great commotions and disorders : and at the same time making the like effort upon the earth , which is expanded upon the face of the abyss , it occasions that agitation and concussion of it , which we call an earthquake . that this effort is in some earthquakes so vehement that it splits and tears the earth , making cracks or chasmes in it some miles in length , which open at the instants of the shocks , and close again in the intervalls betwixt them : nay , 't is sometimes so extremely violent , that it plainly forces the superincumbent strata : breaks them all throughout , and thereby perfectly undermines and ruins the foundations of them ; so that these failing , the whole tract , assoon as ever the shock is over , sinks down to rights into the abyss underneath , and is swallowed up by it , the water thereof immediately rising up , and forming a lake in the place where the said tract before was . that several considerable tracts of land , and some with cities and towns standing upon them : as also whole mountains , many of them very large , and of a great height , have been thus totally swallowed up . that this effort being made in ad directions indifferently : upwards , downwards , and on every side ; the fire dilating and expanding on all hands , and endeavouring , proportionably to the quantity and strength of it , to get room , and make its way through all obstacles , falls as foul upon the water of the abyss beneath , as upon the earth above ; forcing it forth which way soever it can find vent or passage : as well through its ordinary exits , wells , springs , and the outlets of rivers : as through the chasmes then newly opened : through the camini or spiracles of aetna , or other near vulcanoes : and those hiatus's at the bottom of the sea † , whereby the abyss below opens into it , and communicates with it . that as the water resident in the abyss is , in all parts of it , stored with a considerable quantity of heat , and more especially in those where these extraordinary aggregations of this fire happen , so likewise is the water which is thus forced out of it ; insomuch that , when thrown forth , and mix'd with the waters of wells , of springs , of rivers , and the sea , it renders them very sensibly hot . that it is usually expelled forth in vast quantities , and with great impetuosity ; insomuch that it hath been seen to spout up out of deep wells , and fly forth , at the tops of them , upon the face of the ground . with like rapidity comes it out of the sources of rivers , filling them so of a sudden as to make them run over their banks , and overflow the neighbouring territories , without so much as one drop of rain falling into them , or any other concurrent water to raise and augment them . that it spues out of the chasmes , opened by the earthquake , in great abundance : mounting up , in mighty streams , to an incredible height in the air , and this oftentimes at many miles distance from any sea. that it likewise flies forth of the volcanoes in vast floods , and with wonderful violence . that 't is forced through the hiatus's at the bottom of the sea with such vehemence , that it puts the sea immediately into the most horrible disorder and perturbation imaginable , even when there is not the least breath of wind stirring , but all , till then , calm and still : making it rage and roar with a most hideous and amazing noise : raising its surface into prodigious waves , and tossing and rowling them about in a very strange and furious manner : over-setting ships in the harbours , and sinking them to the bottom ; with many other like outrages . that 't is refunded out of these hiatus's in such quantity also that it makes a vast addition to the water of the sea : raising it many fathoms higher than ever it flows in the highest tides , so as to pour it forth far beyond its usual bounds , and make it overwhelm the adjacent country ; by this means ruining and destroying towns and cities : drowning both men and cattel : breaking the cables of ships , driving them from their anchors , bearing them along with the inundation several miles up into the country , and there running them a-ground : stranding whales likewise , and other great fishes , and leaving them , at its return , upon dry land. that these phoenomena are not new , or peculiar to the earthquakes which have happened in our times , but have been observed in all ages , and particularly these exorbitant commotions of the water of the globe . this we may learn abundantly from the histories of former times : and 't was for this reason that many of the ancients concluded , rightly enough , that they were caused by the impulses and fluctuation of water in the bowels of the earth ; and therefore they very frequently called neptune 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , as also 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ; by all which epithets they denoted his power of shaking the earth . they supposed that he presided over all water whatever , as well that within the earth , as the sea , and the rest upon it : and that the earth was supported by water , its foundations being laid thereon ; on which account it was that they bestowed upon him the cognomen 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or supporter of the earth , and that of 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or the sustainer of its foundations . they likewise believed that he , having a full sway and command over the water , had power to still and compose it , as well as to move and disturb it , and the earth , by means of it ; and therefore they also gave him the name of 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or the establisher ; under which name several temples were consecrated to him , and sacrifices offered whenever an earthquake happened , to pacifie and to appease him ; requesting that he would allay the commotions of the water , secure the foundations of the earth , and put an end to the earthquake . that the fire it self , which , being thus assembled and pent up , is the cause of all these perturbations , makes its own way also forth , by what passages soever it can get vent : through the spiracles of the next vulcano ‖ : through the cracks and openings of the earth above-mentioned : through the apertures of springs , especially those of the thermae † : or any other way that it can either find or make ; and being thus discharged , the earthquake ceaseth , till the cause returns again , and a fresh collection of this fire commits the same outrages as before . that there is sometimes in commotion a portion of the abyss of that vast extent , as to shake the earth incumbent upon it for so very large a part of the globe together , that the shock is felt the same minute precisely in countries that are many hundreds of miles distant from each other , and this even though they happen to be parted by the sea lying betwixt them : nay , there want not instances of such an universal concussion of the whole globe as must needs imply an agitation of the whole abyss . that though the abyss be liable to these commotions in all parts of it , and therefore no country can be wholly exempted from the effects of them ; yet these effects are no where very remarkable , nor are there usually any great damages done by earthquakes , except only in those countries which are mountainous , and consequently stoney , and cavernous underneath * ; and especially where the disposition of the strata is such that those caverns open into the abyss , and so freely admit and entertain the fire , which assembling therein , is the cause of the shock ; it naturally steering its course that way where it finds the readiest reception , which is towards these caverns ; this being indeed much the case of damps in mines , whereof more by and by . besides that those parts of the earth which abound with strata of stone , or marble , making the strongest opposition to this effort , are the most furiously shattered , and suffer much more by it than those which consist of gravel , sand , and the like laxer matter , which more easily give way , and make not so great resistance ; an event observable not only in this , but all other explosions whatever . but , above all , those countries , which yeild great store of sulphur and nitre , are by far the most injured and incommoded by earthquakes ; these minerals constituting in the earth a kind of natural gunpowder , which , taking fire , upon this assembly and approach of it , occasions that murmuring noise , that subterranean thunder ( if i may so speak ) which is heard rumbling in the bowels of the earth during earthquakes , and , by the assistance of its explosive power , renders the shock much greater , so as sometimes to make miserable havock and destruction . and 't is for this reason that italy , sicily , anatolia , and some parts of greece have been so long and so often alarmed and harassed by earthquakes ; these countries being all mountainous , and cavernous , abounding with stone and marble , and affording sulphur and nitre in great plenty . but for a more particular history of the several phaenomena which precede , which accompany , and which follow after earthquakes : for the causes of those phaenomena : and for a more exact account of the origine , and the oeconomy of this subterranean fire , i must beg the reader 's patience till the larger work be made publick . that aetna , vesavius , hecla , and the other volcanoes , are only so many spiracles , serving for the discharge of this subterranean fire , when 't is thus preternaturally assembled . that where there happens to be such a structure and conformation of the interiour parts of the earth as that the fire may pass freely and without impediment from the caverns , wherein it assembles , unto these spiracles , it then readily and easily gets out , from time to time , without shaking or disturbing the earth ; but where such communication is wanting , or the passages not sufficiently large and open , so that it cannot come at the said spiracles without first forcing and removing all obstacles , it heaves up and shocks the earth , with greater or lesser impetuosity , according as the quantity of the fire thus assembled is greater or less , till it hath made its way to the mouth of the vulcano ; where it rusheth forth , sometimes in mighty flames , with great velocity , and a terrible bellowing noise . that therefore there are scarcely any countries , that are much annoyed with earthquakes , that have not one of these fiery vents ; and these are constantly all in flames whenever any earthquake happens ; they disgorging that fire , which , whilst underneath , was the cause of the disaster ; and were it not for these diverticula , whereby it thus gains an exit , 't would rage in the bowels of the earth much more furiously , and make greater havock than now it doth . so that though those countries , where there are such vulcano's , are usually , more or less , troubled with earthquakes ; yet , were these vulcano's wanting , they would be much more troubled with them than now they are : yea in all probability to that degree , as to render the earth , for a vast space around them , perfectly uninhabitable . in one word , so beneficial are these to the territories where they are , that there do not want instances of some which have been rescued and wholly delivered from earthquakes by the breaking forth of a new vulcano there ; this continually discharging that matter , which , being till then barricaded up , and imprisoned in the bowels of the earth , was the occasion of very great and frequent calamities . that most of these spiracles perpetually and at all seasons send forth fire , more or less ; and though it be sometimes so little that the eye cannot discern it , yet even then , by a nearer approach of the body , may be discovered a copious and very sensible heat continually issuing out . that the thermae , natural baths , or hot springs , do not owe their heat to any colluctation or effervescence of the minerals in them , as some naturalists have believed : but to the before-mention'd subterranean heat or fire . that these baths continually emit a manifest and very sensible heat : n●y some of them have been observed at some times to send forth an actual and visible flame . that not only these , but all other springs whatever , have in them some degree of heat * , ( none of them ever freezing , no not in the longest and severest frosts ) but more especially those which arise where there is such a site and disposition of the strata within the earth as gives free and easie admission to this heat , and favours its ascent to the surface ; where perspiring forth at the same outlets with the water of the spring , it by that means heats it , more or less , as it chanceth to be dispensed forth in greater or lesser quantity . that as the heat of all springs is owing to this subterraneous fire , so wherever there are any extraordinary discharges of this fire , there also are the neighbouring springs hotter than ordinary ; witness the many hot-springs near aetna , vesuvius , hecla , and all other vulcanoes . that the heat of the thermae is not constant , and always alike ; the same spring suffering at some times a very manifest failure and remission of its heat : at others as manifest an addition and encrease of it ; yea sometimes to that excess as to make it boil and bubble with extream heat , like water when boyling over a common fire . that particularly during earthquakes , and eruptions of vulcano's † , when there is a more copious accession of this subterraneous fire , the thermae all thereabouts become much hotter than before : yeilding also a far greater supply of water than they were wont to do : and a murmuring noise is usually heard , below them , in the bowels of the earth ; all which is occasioned meerly by the then rapid motion , and ascent of the fire , in greater plenty than before , to the apertures of these springs . i have now finish'd the account of this section : and was just going to take off my hand here ; but recollecting that in the foregoing part of this work ‖ i promised some further proofs of contrivance in the structure of the globe we dwell upon : and such too as may satisfie any fair and unbyass'd spectator that the framing and composition of it out of the materials of the former earth was a work of counsel and sagacity : a work apparently above the highest reaches of chance , or the powers of nature ; and this being a proper place wherein to produce those proofs , i shall give such hints of them as the brevity i am tyed up to will permit me , and then conclude . i am indeed well aware that the author of the theory of the earth * differs very much from me in opinion as to this matter . he will not allow that there are any such signs of art and skill in the make of the present globe as are here mentioned : or that there was so great care , and such exact measures taken in the re-sitting of it up again at the del●uge . he reckons it no other than an huge disorderly pile of raines and rubbisb : and is very unwilling to believe that it was the product of any reasoning or designing agent . the chanel of the ocean appears to him the most ghastly thing in nature , and he cannot at all admire its beauty or elegancy : for 't is , in his judgment , as deformed and irregular as it is great . and for the caverns of the earth , the fissures and breaches of the strata , he cannot fancy that they were formed by any work of nature , nor by any immediate action of god , seeing there is neither use , that he can discover , nor beauty in this kind of construction . then for the mountains , these , he says , are placed in no order one with another , that can either respect vse or beauty , and do not consist of any proportion of parts that is referable to any design , or that hath the least footsteps of art or counsel . in fine , he thinks there are several things in the terraqueous globe that are rude and unseemly : and many that are superfluous . he looks upon it as incommodious , and as a broken and confused heap of bodies , placed in no order to one another , nor with any correspondency or regularity of parts : and it seems to him nothing better than a rude lump , and a little dirty planet . i have given his opinion in his own words , though i have upon all like occasions taken a shorter course , and contented my self with giving only the sense of others ; but this i have done here , least any man should suspect that i mistake the author's sentiments , or do not represent them fairly . now though it were really so , that there were some such eye-sores in our earth as are here suggested : and that we could not presently find out all the gayeities and embelishments that we might seek for in it , the matter would not be great : and we might very well be contented to take it as we find it . but after all the thing is in truth quite otherwise , and there are none of all these wanting : nor any such deformities as are here imagined ; but , on the contrary , so very many real graces and beauties , that 't is no easie thing to overlook them all . even this very variety of sea and land , of hill and dale , which is here reputed so inelegant and unbecoming , is indeed extreamly charming and agreeable . nor do i offer this as any private fancy of my own , but as the common sense of mankind , who are the true and proper judges in the case , both the ancients and moderns , giving their suffrages unanimously herein ; and even the heathens themselves , have esteemed this variety not only ornamental to the earth , but a proof of the wisdom of the creator of it , and alledged it as such ; whereof more in due place . and , as i cannot admit that there is any thing unhandsome or irregular : so much less can i grant that there is any thing incommodious and artless , or useless and superfluous , in the globe . were i at full liberty to do it here , 't would be no hard thing to make appear that there are no real grounds for any such charge . for how easie were it , by taking a minute and distinct survey of the globe , and of the very many and various limbs and parts of it , to shew that all these are ordered and digested with infinite exactness and artifice ; each in such manner as may best serve to its own proper end , and to the use of the whole ? how easie were it to shew , that the rocks , the mountains , and the caverns , against which these exceptions are made , are of indispensible use and necessity , as well to the earth , as to man and other animals , and even to all the rest of its productions ? that there are no such blemishes , no defects : nothing that might have been altered for the better : nothing superfluous : nothing useless , in all the whole composition ? and so finally trace out the numerous footsteps and marks of the presence and interposition of a most wise and intelligent architect throughout all this stupendous fabrick ? but i must reserve this for the larger work , and content my self for the present with only giving some brief hints of it in the following propositions . namely , that 't was absolutely necessary for the well-being both of the earth it self , and of all terrestrial bodies , that some of the strata should consolidate , as they did , immediately after the subsidence of their matter at the deluge : that these should afterwards be broken in certain places : and lastly , that they should be dislocated , some of them elevated , and others depressed . that had not the strata of stone and marble become solid * , but the sand , or other matter whereof they consist , continued lax and incoherent , and they consequently been as previous as those of marle , gravel , and the like , the water which rises out of the abyss , for the supply of springs and rivers , would not have stop'd at the surface of the earth , but march'd directly , and without impediment , up into the atmosphere , in all parts of the globe wherever there was heat enough in the air to continue its ascent , and buoy it up ; so that there then must needs have been an universal failure and want of springs and rivers all the summer-season , in the colder climes : and all the year round in the hotter and those that are near the aequator , where there is much the greatest need of both the one and the other ; and this meerly for want of the interposition of such dense and solid strata , to arrest the ascending vapour to stop it at the surface of the earth : and to collect and condense it there . that though the strata had become solid , so as to have condensed the rising vapour , yet if they had not been broken also , ‖ the water must have lain eternally underneath those strata , without ever coming forth ; so that there then could have been neither springs nor rivers for a very considerable part , or indeed , almost the whole earth ; the water , which supplies these , proceeding out at those breaches * . this water therefore would have been wholly intercepted , all lock'd up within the earth , and its egress utterly debarr'd , had the strata of stone and marble remained continuous , and without such fissures and interruptions . that these fissures have a still further use , and serve for receptacles of metalls , and of several sorts of minerals ; which are arrested by the water in its passage thither through the strata wherein the single corpuscles of those metalls and minerals were lodged † , and borne along with it into these fissures ; where , being by this means collected , they are kept in store for the use of mankind . that though there had been both solid strata to have condens'd the ascending vapour : and those so broken too as to have given free vent and issue to the water so condensed ; yet had not the said strata been dislocated likewise ‖ : some of them elevated , and others depress'd , there would have been no cavity or chanel to give reception to the water of the sea : no rocks , mountains , or other inequalities in the globe ; and without these , the water , which now arises out of it , must have all stagnated at the surface , and could never possibly have been refunded forth upon the earth : nor would there have been any rivers , or running streams , upon the face of the whole globe , had not the strata been thus raised up , and the hills exalted above the neighbouring valleys and plains ; whereby the heads and sources of rivers , which are in those hills , were also borne up above the ordinary level of the earth , so as that they may flow upon a descent , or an inclining plane , without which they could not flow at all † . that this affair was not transacted unadvisedly , casually , or at random : but with due conduct , and just measures . that the quantity of matter consolidated : the number , capacity , and distances of the fissures : the situation , magnitude , and number of the hills , for the condensing , and discharging forth the water ; and , in a word , all other things were so ordered as that they might best conduce to the end whereunto they were designed and ordained : and such provision made that a country should not want so many springs and rivers as were convenient and requisite for it : nor , on the other hand , be over-run with them , and afford little or nothing else ; but a supply every where ready , suitable to the necessities and expences of each climate and region of the globe . for example , those countries which lye in the torrid zone , and under or near the line , where the heat is very great , are furnished with mountains answerable : mountains which both for bigness and number surpass those of colder countries as much as the heat there surpasses that of those countries . witness the ande● , that prodigious chain of mountains in south america : atlas in africa : taurus in asia : the alpes and pyrenees of europe , to mention no more : by these is collected and dispensed forth a quantity of water proportionable to the heat of those parts ; so that although , by reason of the excess of this heat there , the evaporations from the springs and rivers are very great , yet they , being , by these larger supplies , continually stock'd with an excess of water as great , yeild a mass of it for the use of mankind , the inhabitants of those parts , of the other animals , and of vegetables , not much , if at all , inferiour to the springs and rivers of colder climates . that besides this , the waters thus evaporated and mounted up into the air , thicken and cool it , and , by their interposition betwixt the earth , and the sun , skreen and fence off the ardent heat of it , which would be otherwise unsupportable : and are at last returned down again in copious and fruitful showers to the scorched earth ; which , were it not for this remarkably providential contrivance of things , would have been there perfectly uninhabitable : laboured under an eternal drought : and have been continually parched and burnt . to this former section i shall add , by way of appendix , a dissertation concerning the flux and reflux of the sea : and it s other natural motions ; with an account of the gause of those motions : as also of the end and vse of them : and an enquiry touching the cause of the ebbing and flowing , and some other uncommon phaenomena of certain springs . a discourse concerning the saltness of the sea. a discourse concerning wind : the origin , and use of it in the natural world. part iii. sect . ii. of the universality of the deluge . of the water which effected it . together with some further particulars concerning it . in the precedent section i consider the present and natural state of the fluids of the globe . i ransack the several caverns of the earth : and search into the storehouses of water ; and this principally in order to find out where that mighty mass of water which overflowed the whole earth in the days of noah , is now bestowed and concealed : as also which way 't is at this time useful to the earth and its productions , and serviceable to the present purposes of almighty providence . such a deluge as that which moses represents , whereby all the high hills that were under the whole heaven were covered † , would require a portentous quantity of water ; and men of curiosity , in all ages , have been very , much to seek what was become of it , or where i● could ever find a reservatory capable of containing it . 't is true there have been several who have gone about to inform them , and set them to rights in this matter ; but for want of that knowledge of the present system of nature : and that insight into the structure and constitution of the terraqueous globe , which was necessary for such an undertaking , they have not given the satisfaction that was expected . so far from it that the greatest part of these , seeing no where wa●er ●nough to effect a general deluge , were forced at last to mince the matter , and make only a partial one of it ; restraining it to one single country : to asia , or some lesser portion of land ; than which , nothing can be more contrary to the mosaick narrative . for the rest , they had recourse to shifts which were not much better ; and rather evaded than solved the difficulty ; some of them imagining that a quantity of water , sufficient to make such a deluge , was created upon that occasion , and , when the business was done , all disbanded again and annihilated . others supposed a conversion of the air and atmosphere into water , to serve the turn . many of them were for fetching down i know not what supercoelestial waters for the purpose . others concluded that the deluge rose only fifteen cubits above the level of the earth's ordinary surface , covering the valleys and plains , but not the mountains : all equally wide of truth , and of the mind of the sacred writer . one of the last undertakers of all seeing this , began to think the cause desperate ; and therefore , in effect , gives it up . for considering how unsuccessful the attempts of those who were gone before him had proved : and having himself ‖ also employed his l●st and utmost endeavours to find out waters for the vulgar deluge : having mustered up all the forces he could think of , and all too little : the clouds above , and the deeps below , and in the bowels of the earth ; and these , says he , are all the stores we have for water , and moses directs us to no other for the causes of the deluge : he prepares for a surrender , asserting , from a mistaken and defective computation , that all these will not come up to near the quantity requisite : and that in any known parts of the vniverse , to find water sufficient for this effect , as it is generally explained and understood , is , he thinks , impossible : that is , sufficient to cause a deluge , to use his own words , overflowing the whole earth , the whole circuit , and whole extent of it , burying all in water , even the greatest mountains : which is , in plain terms , such a one as was explained and understood by moses , and the generality of writers since . having therefore thus over-hastily concluded that such a deluge was impossible : and that all nature could not afford water enough to drown the whole globe , if of the circuit and extent that now it is : he flies to a new expedient to solve the matter , and supposes an earth of a make and frame much like that imaginary one of the famous monsieur des cartes ‖ which he makes to fall all to pieces , at the deluge , and to contract it self into a lesser room , that the water might the better surround and encompass it . the sober and better sort of the standers-by , and those who were well-wishers to moses , began to be under some concern and uneasiness to see him thus set aside only to make way for a new hypothesis : and so serious and weighty a matter , as is this tradition of the universal deluge , plac'd after all upon so very unsteady a bottom . but that concern encreas'd when they further heard him so zealously decrying all former notions of a deluge : refusing to grant one upon any terms but his own : and so peremptorily declaring , that all other ways assigned for the explication of noah's flood are false or impossible . this was to reduce the thing to a very great streight : and surely an exposing and venturing of it a little too far . for if all the other ways be false and impossible , should this , the only one left , prove at last so likewise , the opinion of a deluge would be left very precarious and defenceless , and we might either believe or disbelieve it at pleasure ; nay the negative part would of the two have much the advantage , there being no reasonable foundation to believe that the deluge did come to pass this way . some men there are who have made a very untoward use of this , and such a one that i am willing to persuade my self he never intended they should ; yet it were to have been wish'd that he had been somewhat more wary . these cryed up this computation of the water as indisputable and infallible : and then boldly gave out that such a deluge as that described by moses was altogether incredible , and that there never was nor could be any such thing . nothing was talk'd of amongst them under mathematical demonstrations of the falshood of it ; which they vented with all imaginable triumph , and would needs have it that they had here sprung a fresh and unanswerable argument against the authentickness of the mosaick writings ; which indeed is what they drive at , and a point they very fain would gain . for my part , my subject does not necessarily oblige me to look after this water : or to point forth the place whereinto 't is now retreated . for when , from the sea-shells , and other remains of the deluge , i shall have given undeniable evidence that it did actually cover all parts of the earth , it must needs follow that there was then water enough to do it , wherever it may be now hid , or whether it be still in being or not . yet the more effectually to put a stop to the insults and detractions of these vain men , i resolved to enter a little farther into the examination of this matter ; and that produced the former section of this 3d part ; wherein i enquire what proportion the water of the globe bears to the earthy matter of it ; and upon a moderate estimate and calculation of the quantity of water now actually contained in the abyss , i found that this alone was full enough , if brought out upon the surface of the earth , to cover the whole globe to the height assigned by moses ; which is , fifteen cubits above the tops of the highest mountains * ; the particulars of which calculation , shall be laid before the reader at length in the larger work ; for any one will easily see that there is so great an apparatus of things only previous , which must needs be adjusted before i can come to the calculation it self , that to descend to particulars here , further than i have already ‖ done , would not only carry this discourse out beyond all reasonable bounds , and make the parts of it disproportionate to each other , but , which is not less to be thought of , would be an anticipation of the other work. this done , i again set aside the observations about the fluids of the globe , introduced upon this occasion in the other section , as now of no further use : and reassume the thread of the other observations which i propose at the beginning of this work ; and from them i shew , that the del●ge was universal , and laid the whole earth under water : covering all , even the highest , mountains , quite round the globe . that at the time of the deluge the water of the ocean was first born forth upon the earth : that it was immediately succeeded by that of the abyss ; which likewise was brought out upon the surface of the globe . that upon the disruption of the strata : and the elevation of some , and depression of others of them , which followed after that disruption , towards the latter end of the deluge † , this mass of water fell back again into the deprest and lower parts of the earth : into lakes and other cavities : into the alveus of the ocean : and through the fissures whereby this communicates with the ocean * , into the abyss ; which it filled till it came to an aequilibrium with the ocean . that there must have pass'd a considerable number of years betwixt the creation and the deluge : and most probably about so many as moses hath assigned . that the deluge commenc'd in the spring-season : the water coming forth upon the earth in the month which we call may † . that not only men , quadrupeds , birds , serpents , and insects ; the inhabitants of the earth and air : but the far greatest part of all kinds of fish likewise , the inhabitants of the sea , of lakes , and of rivers , suffered under the fury of the deluge , and were killed and destroyed by it . that the deluge did not happen from an accidental concourse of natural causes as the author above-cited is of opinion ‖ . that very many things were then certainly done , which never possibly could have been done without the assistance of a supernatural power . that the said power acted in this matter with design , and with the highest wisdom . and that , as the system of nature was then , and is still , supported and established , a deluge neither could then , nor can now , happen naturally . i close up this section with two additional discourses . the first concerning the migration of nations : with the several steps whereby the world was re-peopled after the deluge by the posterity of noah , and particularly that mighty tract of america . wherein i shall make out , 1. who they were that first peopled it . 2. when they departed thitherwards . 3. what course they took : and by what means both men and beasts , as well serpents and the other noxious and more intractible kinds of them , as the more innocent and useful , got thither . 4. whether there remain any certain vestigia of a tradition , in the writings of the ancients , about these americans : and what country they intended under the name of atlantis . 5. whether the phaenicians , or any other nation of the old world , maintained anciently any commerce or correspondence with them . 6. how it happened that both the inhabitants of that , and of our world , lost all memory of their commigration hence . 7. whence came the difference in person , or in the external shape and lineaments of the body : in language : in dyet , and manner of living : in clothing : in arts and sciences : in customs religious , civil , and military , betwixt these americans , and their old relations in asia , europe , and africa . with animadversions on the writings of grotious , de laet , hornius , and others , upon this subject . the second concerning the unanimous ▪ tradition of an universal deluge amongst all the most ancient gentile nations : particularly the scythians , the persians , and babylonians : the bithynians , ph●ygians , lydians , cilicians , and other people of asia minor : the hierapolitans , phaenicians , and other inhabitants of syria : the egyptians , carthaginians , and other african nations : the most ancient inhabitants of the several parts of greece : and of the other countries of europe : the old germans : the gauls : the romans : the ancient inhabitants of spain , and even the britains themselves , the first inhabiters of this island : proving that the great devastation and havock the deluge made , both of the earth it self , of the generality of mankind , of brutes , and all animals , had wrought a deep and very sensible impression upon the minds of these ancient nations , who lived nearer to the time of it . that they had not only a memory and tradition of it in general and at large : but even of several the most remarkable particular accidents of it likewise ; which they handed downwards , to the succeeding ages , for some time , with notes of the greatest terror , amazement , and consternation expressible . that it was commemorated chiefly by certain religious rites and ceremonies used by them in the worship of the earth : which superstitious adoration was first instituted upon this occasion in those simple and ignorant ages † , and address'd to the earth , not only expresly and by name , but also under the feigned and borrowed names of alargatis , derceto , astarte , dea syria , herthus , isis , magna mater , cybele , and rhea , with several more ; by all which , they intended the earth . that at length the tradition , for want of letters , which were not then invented , or some other like means to preserve it , wearing out , and the reason of the institution of this worship being by degrees forgot , the after-ages perverted it to a somewhat different sense and intention : supposing that this was only a reverential duty and gratitude paid to the earth as the common parent of mankind , and because both man , and all other creatures proceed out of it ; by which means the true notion of the institution being lost , the tradition of the deluge , which was couched under it , was also thereupon at length suspended and lost ; none of all these many nations , in the latter ages of the world , having any memory or knowledge of it , besides what they afterwards recovered from the jews and ancient christians , who had it from the writings of moses . in greece indeed there were some other accidents which perplex'd and impeded the tradition of it in that country , whereof i have already † given such hints as this discourse will bear . part iv. of the origin and formation of metalls and minerals . what i can advance , with competent certainty , about the fluids of the globe : the sea , springs , rivers , and rain , i propose in the immediately foregoing , or third part of this essay : as in the second part of it i dispatch the solids : stone , marble , gravel , and all the other terrestrial matter of it , which is digested into strata . that part therefore comprehends the far greater share of that matter ; and indeed all , excepting only metalls and minerals ; which are found much more sparingly and in lesser parcels ; being either enclosed in those strata ( lying amongst the sand , earth , or other matter whereof they consist ) or contained in their perpendicular fissures . and these remaining still to be considered , i have allotted this fourth part to that purpose . to write of metalls and minerals intelligibly and with tolerable p●rspicuity , is a task much more difficult than to write of either animals or vegetables . for these carry along with them such plain and evident notes and characters either of disagreement , or affinity with one another , that the several kinds of them , and the subordinate species of each , are easily known and distinguish'd , even at first sight ; the eye alone being fully capable of judging and determining their mutual relations , as well as their differences . but in the mineral kingdom the matter is quite otherwise . here is nothing regular , whatever some may have pretended : nothing constant or certain : insomuch that a man had need to have all his senses about him : to use repeated tryals and inspections , and that with all imaginable care and wariness , truly and rightly to discern and distinguish things , and all little enough too . here is such a vast variety of phoenomena , and those , many of them , so delusive , that 't is very hard to escape imposition and mistake . colour , or outward appearance , is not at all to be trusted . a common marcasite or pyrites shall have the colour of gold most exactly : and shine with all the brightness of it , and yet upon tryal , after all , yield nothing of worth , but vitriol , and a little sulphur : whilst another body , that hath only the resemblance of an ordinary peble , shall yield a considerable quantity of metallick and valuable matter . so likewise a mass , which , to the eye , appears to be nothing but meer simple earth , shall , to the smell or taste , discover a plentiful admixture of sulphur , alum , or some other mineral . nor may we with much better security rely upon figure , or external form. nothing more uncertain and varying . 't is usual to meet with the very same metall or mineral , naturally shot into quite different figures : as 't is to find quite different kinds of them all of the same figure . and a body , that has the shape and appearance of a diamond , may prove , upon ▪ examination , to be nothing but crystal , or selenitis : nay perhaps only common salt , or alum , naturally crystallized and shot into that form. so likewise if we look into their situation , and place in the earth ; sometimes we find them in the perpendicular intervalls : sometimes in the bodies of the strata , being interspers'd amongst the matter whereof they consist : and sometimes in both ; even the gemmeous matter it self , ( if i may so speak ) with this only difference , that those gemms , e. g. topazes , am●thysts , or emeralds , which grow in the fissures , are ordinarily crystallized , or shot into angulated figures : whereas in the strata they are found in rude lumps , and only like so many yellow , purple , and green pebles . not but that even these that are thus lodged in the strata are also sometimes found crystallized † , and in form of cubes , rhombs , and the like * . or if we have respect to the terrestrial matter wherein they lye in those strata , here we shall meet with the same metall or mineral embodied in stone , or lodged in cole , that elsewhere we found in marle , in clay , or in chalk ‖ . as much inconstancy and confusion is there in their mixtures with each other , or their combinations amongst themselves ; for 't is rare to find any of them pure , simple , and unmixt : but copper and iron together in the same mass : copper and gold : silver and lead : tin and lead : yea sometimes all the six promiscuously in one lump . 't is the same also in minerals ; nitre with vitriol : common salt with alum : sulphur with vitriol : and sometimes all five together . nor do metalls only sort and herd with metalls in the earth : and minerals with minerals : but both indifferently and in common together : iron with vitriol , with alum , with sulphur : copper with sulphur , with vitriol , &c. yea iron , copper , lead , nitre , sulphur , vitriol , and perhaps some more in one and the same mass. in a word , the only standing test , and discriminative characteristick of any metall or mineral must be sought for in the constituent matter of it : and it must be first brought down to that before any certain judgment can be given . and when that is once done , and the several kinds separated and extracted each from the other , an homogeneous mass of one kind is easily distinguishable from any other : gold from iron : sulphur from alum : and so of the rest . but without this , so various are their intermixtures , and so different the face and appearance of each , because of that variety , that scarcely any thing can be certainly determined of the particular contents of any single mass of ore by meer inspection . i know that by experience and conversation with these bodies , in any place or mine , a man may be enabled to give a near conjecture at the metallick or mineral ingredients of any mass commonly found there ; but this meerly because he hath before made tryal of other like masses , and thereby learned what it is they contain . but if he remove to another place , though perhaps very little distant , 't is ten to one but he meets with so different a face of things , that he 'll be there as far to seek in his conjectures as one who never before saw a native ore , untill he hath here made his tryals as before , and so further informed himself in the matter . metalls being so very useful and serviceable to mankind , great care and pains hath been taken , in all ages , in searching after them , and in separating and refining of them . for which reason 't is that these have been accurately enough distinguish'd , and reduced to six kinds , which are all well enough known . but the like pains hath not been taken in minerals ; and therefore the knowledge of them is somewhat more confused and obscure . these have not yet been well reduced , or the number of the simple original ones rightly fixt ; some , which are only compounds , the matter of two or more kinds being mix'd together , and , by the different proportion and modulation of that matter , variously disguised and diversifyed , having been reputed all different kinds of minerals , and thereby the number of them unnecessarily multiplied . of this we have an instance in the gemm-kind ; where , of all the many sorts reckoned up by lapidaries ▪ there are not above three or four that are original ; their diversities , as to lustre , colour , and hardness , arising from the different admixture of other adventitious mineral matter . but the farther and clearer adjustment of this affair i am constrained to adjourn to the larger treatise . in the mean time 't is sufficient for my present ▪ design , to remark in general , that those minerals and ores of metalls which are reposited in the bodies of the strata , are either found in grains , or small particles , dispersedly intermix'd with the corpuscles of earth , sand , or other matter of those strata : or else they are amass'd into balls , lumps , or nodules . which nodules are either of an irregular and uncertain figure , such as are the common pyritoe : flints , agat●s , onyx's : pebles , cornelions , iaspers , and the like : or of a figure somewhat more regular and observable , such as the belemnites : the several sorts of mineral coral , of the stelechites , and of the lapis mycetoides ‖ : the astroites , or starry-stone , as well that sort with the prominent , as that with the conc●ve stars : the selenites : the echi●ated crystalline balls , with many more analogous bodies . those which are contained in the perpendicular intervalls of the strata are , either such as are there accumulated into a rude heap , without any particular form or order , being only included betwixt the two opposite walls or sides of the said intervalls , which they wholly or partly fill , as there is a greater or less quantity of them ; in which manner spar is usually found here in ; and other minerals , as also the common ores of lead , tin , iron , and other metals : or else such as ●re of some observable figure ; of which sort are the sparry stiri● , or iceycle● called stalactit● * : the native saline ic●ycles , or sal stalacticum : the vitriolum s●at●cticum nativum : the vitriolum capillare : the alumen stalacti●um , and capillare : minera ferri stalac●ica , which , when several of the cylindri●k stirlae are contiguous , and grow together into one sheaf , is called br●sh ▪ iron ▪ ore : argentum arboresce●● , & capillare● ▪ as also the crystallized ore● and miner●ls , e. g. the iron-rhombs , the tin grain● ▪ the m●ndick-grains : cryst●lli●ed native s●lt , alum , vitri●l , and sulp●●● : of which sort likewise are the gemms or stones that are here shot into cubes , into pyramidal forms , or into angulated columns , consisting of six sides , and mucronated or terminating in a point : being either opake , or pellucid : or partly pellucid , and partly opake , and coloured , black , white , grey , red , purple , blue , yellow , or green : e. g. crystall , the pseud●-adamantes , the cor●is●-stones , the bristow-stones , crystallized sparrs ▪ the iris , the amethyst , the saphire , the topaz , the em●rauld , and several others ▪ my business here is to enquire into the origin and production of these metallick and mineral bodies : to enquire how they came into this condition , and attained these figures . and as my observations have been the light whereby i have hitherto steered my course , so i here betake my self unto them again ; and 't is from them that i prove , that as the more gross and massive parts of the terrestrial globe : the strata of stone , marble , earth , and the rest , owe their present frame and order to the deluge * : so likewise do metalls and minerals too ; the far greater part of them , i mean all those which we now find lodged in those strata amongst the sand , earth , &c. being actually reposed therein during the time that the water covered the earth : and the earth it self then put into such a condition that the rest , i mean those we now find in the perpendicular intervalls , should be collected thither by degrees , and be formed almost of course , meerly by the ordinary motion of the water , and its passage to and fro in the earth * that whilst the corpuscles of metalls and minerals ▪ together with those of stone , marble , cole , chalk , and the like courser matter : as also the shells , teeth , and other parts of animals and vegetables : were sustained in the water , at the deluge † ; after some time , that the violence of the hurry and commotion was over , and the water come to a state somewhat more calm and sedate , such of those corpuscles , as happened to occurr or meet together , affix'd to each other : and , many of them convening , uniting , and combining into one mass , formed the metallick and mineral balls or nodules which we now find . that all metallick and mineral nodules whatever : as well those which are in rude lumps , such as the common pyritae , flints , agates , onyxes , pebles , jaspers , cornelions , and the like : as those which are of a more regular and observable shape , such as the selenites , belemnites , stelechites , mineral coral : and , in one word , all others whatsoever , were formed at this time and by this means . that in such parts of the water where the corpuscles so sustained chanced to be all of the same kind * ▪ or , at least , where there were fewer kinds or varieties of them , the nodules , which were thus formed out of them , were more simple , pure , and homogeneous , as are the selenites , and some kinds of pebles and flints , to name no more : but where ( as indeed it generally fell out ) there happened to be a greater variety of corpuscles , as suppose of sulphur , of vitriol , of alum , of iron , of copper , or whatever else , sustained promiscuously together , there the nodules , formed out of them , were mixt , and consisted of a greater variety of matter confusedly associated into the same lump . of this the pyrit● may serve for an example ; whereof some yield iron , sulphur , and vitriol : others copper and alum : yea some of them contain all these , and several more , in the same nodule . that the bones , teeth , shells , and other like bodies , being sustained in the water together with these metallick and mineral corpuscles ‖ , and the said corpuscles meeting with , and hitting upon those bodies , they affix'd unto them , and became conjoyned with them : some of them ( though this very rarely ) passing into their pores and interstices : others adhering in lumps , or masses , to their out-sides , and indeed oftentimes combining in such numbers upon the exteriour surface of the shell , tooth , &c. as wholly to cover and involve it in the mass they together constituted : and others of them entering into the cavities of the echini , cochleae , conchae , and other shells , till they had quite filled them up ; those shells , by that means , serving as proplasmes , o● moulds , to the matter which so filled them , limiting and determining both the dimensions and figure of it . that accordingly we at this day find some few of these fossil shells , and other animal substan●es , with iron-ore , spar , vitriol , sulphur , and the like , intruded into their pores : but far greater numbers of them with lumps of flint , ores of metalls , and minerals , growing firmly to the out-sides of them , and oftentimes in such quantity as that the shell or tooth is wholly covered by those minerals , being immers'd or included in the mass they constitute ; insomuch that 't is very usual , upon breaking flints , pyrit● , &c to find pectines , conchae , and the like , enclosed , even in the very middle of them . as common is it to find echini , cochleae , conchae , and other shells , having their cavities fill'd up with ores of metalls , flint , spar , native vitriol , sulphur , and other minerals . not but that these minerals many times survive the shells which gave them their forms , and are found even after they are rotted and disappeared ; for though , when lodged in chalk , or the like close matter , which preserves and secures them against external injuries , these shells are constantly found upon , and actually investing the flint , spar , or other mineral , and are commonly as fair and entire as any of their fellow shells at sea : yet when they happened to be lodged amongst sand , gravel , or the like laxer matter , the shells are usually perish'd and gone * , and so the flint , spar , &c. left uncover'd . in which case the said flint , spar , or other mineral , is of a constant , regular , and specifick shape , as is the shell whence it borrows both that shape , and indeed its name ; these being the bodies which are called , by naturalists , echinitae , cochlitae , and cochitae ‖ , as resembli●g the shells of those names : and truly many of them very nearly , they having taken the impresses of the insides of these shells with that exquisite niceness as to express even the smallest and finest lineaments of them : insomuch that no metall , when melted and cast in a mould , can ever possibly represent the concavity of that mould with greater exactness than these flints , and other minerals , do the concavities of the shells wherein they were thus moulded . that at length all this metallick and mineral matter , both that which continued asunder , and in single corpuseles , and that which was amass'd and concreted into nodules , subsided down to the bottom : at the same time that did the shells , teeth , and other like bodies , as also the sand , cole , marle , and other matter whereof the s●rata of sand-stone , cole , marle , and the rest are for the most part composed † , and so were included in , and lodged amongst , that matter . that in regard that both the ordinary terrestrial matter , and the mineral and metallick matter which was assumed up into the fluid was different in different parts of it , being in some places all chiefly of one kind , suppose sand : in others of a different kind , e.g. chalk : and in others of several kinds together , as sand , chalk , and many more : and there being no other place or apartment in the globe assigned to any of this matter than that whereinto it s own natural gravity bore it , which was only directly downwards , whereby it obtained that place in the globe which was just underneath that part of the fluid where it was sustained when the subsidence began ; it thence happened that the strata , which were afterwards constituted by this matter thus subsiding , are also different in different places : in some all , or most of them , of sand-stone : in others of chalk : and in others of both sand-stone and chalk , and perhaps many more , lying each upon other . and the case of metalls and minerals being the same , 't is for that reason that in some places we now get iron , or vitriol ; but no copper , or alum : in others we find these , but not those : and in others both these , and those , and perhaps many more . that the place , both of the several sorts of terrestrial matter , and of metalls and minerals , whilst sustained in the fluid , being thus contingent and uncertain , their intermixtures with each other , and with the terrestrial matter , in the sediment , or strata , which subsiding they together composed , must consequently be uncertain likewise ; that metall or mineral , of whatever kind it chanced to be , which was sustained in any part of the fluid , setling only directly downwards , was lodged amongst the terrestrial matter which chanced to be sustained together with it in the same part , of what kind soever that matter was . and accordingly we now find them uncertainly mixt : the same metall or mineral lodged , in some places , in stone : in others , in cole : and in others , in clay , marle , or any other matter indifferently † . and as we find the same metall or mineral lodged amongst different sorts of the common terrestrial matter , so do we , for still the same reason , also find different kinds of metalls and minerals , copper , iron , and sulphur , tin , lead , and vitriol , with several more , lodged all confusedly together in the very same fort of terrestrial matter ‖ . that the quantity of the metallick or mineral matter taken up into the fluid was various and uncertain : there being in some parts little or perhaps none of it : in others a very great abundance . and so we at this day find it ; in some places , little , or none : in others , in such plenty as to exceed even the ordinary terrestrial matter , and of it self to compose whole strata , without any considerable admixture of sand , clay , or other common matter . thus we sometimes see whole strata compiled of metallick and mineral pyrite : others of pebles , and of flints , without the interposition of any other matter : that finer matter commonly found amongst these , and vulgarly called sand , being really no other than very small pebles ; as may appear to any one who shall carefully examine ▪ and observe it , especially with a good microscope . thus likewise we find strata consisting almost entirely of common salt : others of ochre : and others of several metalls and minerals , tin , lead , vitriol , nitre , and sulphur , promiscuously , without any considerable intermixture of coarser terrestrial matter . that the metallick and mineral matter , which is now found in the perpendicular intervalls of the strata , was all of it originally , and at the time of the deluge , lodged in the bodies of those strata : being interspersed or scattered in single corpuscles , amongst the sand , or other matter , whereof the said strata mainly consist . that it was educed thence , and transmitted into these intervalls , since that time ; the intervalls themselves not existing till the strata were formed , and the metallick and mineral matter actually lodged in them ; they being only breaches of the strata , and not made till the very conclusion of the catastrophe , the water thereupon immediately withdrawing again from off the earth * . that the water which ascends up out of the abyss , on all sides of the globe , towards the surface of the earth † , incessantly pervading the pores of the strata , i mean the interstices of the sand or other matter whereof they consist , detaches and bears along with it all such metallick , mineral , and other corpuscles which lye loose in its way , and are withal so small as to be able to pass those interstices : forcing them along with it into the perpendicular intervalls ; to which it naturally directs its course , as finding there a ready exit and discharge ‖ , being partly exhaled thence up into the atmosphere , and partly flowing forth upon the surface of the earth , and forming springs and rivers . that the water which falls upon the surface of the earth in rain , bears also some , though a lesser , share in this action ; this , soaking into the strata which lye near the surface , straining through the pores of them , and advancing on towards their perpendicular intervalls * , bears thither along with it all such moveable matter as occurrs in those pores , in much the same manner as does the water which arises out of the abyss ; with this only difference , that this passes and pervades none but the superficial and uppermost strata , whereas the other permeates also those which lye lower and deeper . that the metallick and mineral corpuscles , being thus conveyed into these intervalls ; and the water there having more room and freer passage than before , whilst it only penetrated the pores of the stone , it deserts the said corpuscles , leaving them in these intervalls ; unless it flow forth with a very rapid and precipitate motion ; for then it hurries them out along with it , till its motion becomes more languid and remiss , when it quits and abandons them † . that by the water , thus passing through the stone to its perpendicular intervalls , was brought thither all the metallick and mineral matter which is now lodged therein : as well that which lyes only in an indigested and confused pile ‖ , in which manner the far greatest part of it is found , and particularly the common ores of metalls , iron , tin , lead , and the rest , as also spar , alum , vitriol , sulphur , and other minerals ●punc ; as that which is disposed and formed into some observable figure , such as the metallick and mineral stalactita , the angulated or crystallized metalls and minerals * , and , to be short , all others whatever . that there is not , whatever some men may have fancied , any thing very strange or extraordinary in the production of the said formed metalls and minerals , which are found in these intervalls : nor other plastick vertue concerned in shaping them into those figures than meerly the configurations of the particles whereof they consist , and the simple motion of the water to bring those particles together . that particularly the common stalactites , lapis stillatitius , or dropstone , which consists principally of spar , and is frequently found , in form of an icycle , hanging down from the tops and sides of grotto's , and of the lesser perpendicular intervalls , was formed by the water which continually is passing through the strata into these their interv●lls ; this taking the sparry particles as they lay dispersedly mingled with the sand , or other matter whereof those strata consist , and bearing them on with it to the said intervalls ; where issuing leisurely out of the strata , and having now free passage , it deserts these particles , falling down from the tops and sides of the grotto's , to which the particles affixing by little and little , incrust them over with a sparry cover , and also from these stalactitae , from which the water is continually falling and distilling drop by drop ; which gave occasion to that mistake of those who suppose these bodies to be only water petrified , as they speak , or converted into these sparry or stony iceycles , in the same manner as it is by frost congealed into the icy ones which hang down from the eaves of houses , from pipes , or other conveyances of water . that the iron , and other metallick stalactitae : the aluminous , and the vitriolick stalactitae : the saline ones , or those which consist of common salt , and all others , are found suspended in the same manner , and their matter conducted out of the strata to their fissures by the same means . that the iron-rhombs , tin-grains , and other ores of metalls , which are found in these intervalls naturally formed into cubick , pyramidal , or other figures : as likewise the minerals which are there shot into the like figures , such as the mundick-grains , crystallized native salt , alum , vitriol , and sulphur : the gemms also which are thus figured , e. g. crystal , the pseud-adamantes , the amethyst , emerauld , and the rest : i say these , and all other natural metallick and mineral crystallizations , were effected by the water , which first brought the particles whereof each consists out from amongst the matter of the strata , into these their intervalls , in much the same manner that the common , or artificial , crystallizations of alum , vitriol , and the like , are now effected in the water wherein they were before dissolved : and as are the chymical crystallizations of other minerals and metalls in their several menstrua ; whereof more in its place . that the corpuscles of metalls and of minerals being smaller than those of sand and of the other common terrestrial matter , and consequently the pores of the strata which consist mainly , or at least contain in them a considerable quantity of these * , being lesser and narrower than those of the strata of sand-stone , and the like common and crasser matter , the water which ascends from beneath towards the surface of the earth is admitted into them , if at all , only in lesser quantity , passes them slowly and difficultly , and therefore hath not scope and power sufficient to dislodge the corpuscles , and bear them off with it into the perpendicular intervalls , as it does in those strata which consist chiefly of stone , and the like grosser matter , where the metallick and mineral corpuscles lye thinner , and so the pores are more wide and open . that , for this reason , in the intervalls of those strata which abound plentifully with iron , tin , spar , common salt , alum , or the like , we ordinarily find a lesser quantity of these metalls and minerals resident , than we do in the intervalls of some other strata which now shew little , or perhaps nothing in the bodies of them besides sand and such like coarser matter ; there being so admirable a contrivance in this affair , that the water does not disturb and remove that metallick or mineral matter which lves in the strata in great plenty , and so is there ready collected to the hand of man : but only that which needs such an agent to collect it : that which is so sparingly and dispersedly intermix'd with the common terrestrial matter , as not to be discoverable by humane industry , or , if discoverable , so diffused and scattered amongst the crasser and more unprofitable matter , that 't would never be possible to separate and extract it : or , if 't was , it would not defray the charge and labour of the extraction , and therefore must needs have been all irretrievably lost , and useless to mankind , was it not here by this means collected and brought into one mass. that therefore the metalls and minerals which are lodged in the perpendicular intervalls of the strata , do still grow , ( to speak in the mineralists phrase ) or receive additional encrease from the corpuscles which are yet daily born along with the water into them : and have grown so ever since the time of the deluge , in all such places where those intervalls are not already so filled , that they cannot receive any more ; or where the stock of metallick and mineral corpuscles , originally lodged in the strata , is not quite exhausted , and all borne thither already . that yet this encrease is not now any where very great ; the corpuscles , which were capable of being stirred and removed , being , by the continual passage of the water for so many ages , in most places exhausted , educed forth of the strata , and transmitted into these their fissures . that the metallick and mineral matter which lyes in the bodies of the strata does not now grow : nor hath it ever received any addition since 't was first reposed in those strata at the time of the universal deluge : but , on the contrary , hath been diminished and lessened by so much as hath been conveyed into their perpendicular intervalls , and as hath been brought forth upon the surface of the earth by springs , rivers * , and exhalations † from the abyss , ever since that time . that notwithstanding there have , and do still , happen , transitions and removes of it , in the solid strata , from one part of the same stratum to another part of it , occasioned by the motion of the vapour towards the perpendicular intervalls of these * : and , in the laxer strata , such as those of sand , clay , and the like , from the lower ones to those which lye above them , and even to the very surface of the earth , occasioned by the motion of the vapour directly towards the surface , it pervading these looser strata diametrically † . but of this i have not room to enlarge more particularly in this place . that the bitumen which is found in lumps , or coagulated masses , in some springs ; and which is , in others , found floating in form of an oyl upon the surface of the water ; when 't is called by naturalists naphtha , and petroleum : the salt wherewith the salinae , or salt-springs , abound : the vitriol , alum , nitre , sulphur , spar , and other minerals , wherewith the acidulae , or medicinal-springs are saturated : i say , all these minerals were originally lodged in the strata of stone , cole , earth , or the like : that they were educed thence , and conveyed into these springs , by the water pervading those strata in its passage from the abyss towards the said springs ‖ . that when the water of rivers issues out of the apertures of them with more than ordinary agitation and rapidity , it usually bears forth along with it such particles of spar , argilla , or other loose and moveable matter as it met with in its passage through the stone , marble , or other solid strata : that it sustains these particles , and carries them on together with it'till such time as its motion begins to remit and be less rapid than it was at , and near its source ; when by degrees it lowers them , and lets them fall , deposing and affixing them upon any thing which occurrs in the way , as stones , shells , sticks , or other like bodies ; especially those which lye in the sinus's or creeks of those rivers where the motion of the water is more sluggish and languid than in the stream , or middle of the chanel . that some rivers do thus bring forth spar , and other mineral matter in great quantity , so as to cover and incrust the stones , sticks , and other bodies lying therein , to a very considerable thickness . that sometimes the water of standing-springs does the same : precipitating the mineral matter which it brought forth of the strata , upon the stones at the bottoms and sides of the said springs : and affixing it upon sticks , straws , and other bodies , and upon the moss , or other plants which happen to grow therein , incrusting them over , in like manner as does the above-mentioned water of rivers . that when the heat at , and upon , the surface of the earth is great , it not only mounts up the water sent from beneath , and , along with it , the lighter terrestrial vegetative matter * , but likewise the very mineral matter it self , sulphur , nitre , vitriol , and the like ; the atoms , or single corpuscles whereof being detach'd from their respective beds in the earth , it bears quite to the surface of it , and the light and more active sorts of them up into the atmosphere , ( together with the vapour , which , when condensed , falls down again in rain ) in greater or lesser plenty , and to a greater or lesser height , answerably to the greater or lesser quantity or intenseness of the heat . that wherever there happen to be any extraordinary discharges of the subterranean heat : either vulcano's , or lesser spiracles , such as those about naples , pozzuolo , and in other parts of the world : thermae , or hot-springs : or fiery eructations , such as burst forth of the earth during earthquakes : i say wherever there are such or the like discharges of this subterranean fire , there likewise is mineral matter , more or less , hurried up along with it . that even the heat of the sun , and indeed any other , though but an accidental heat , hath the same effect , and contributes to the raising of mineral matter out of the earth . that aetna , vesuvius , and the other vulcano's discharge forth , together with the fire , not only metallick and mineral matter in great quantity , but sand likewise , and huge stones , tossing them up sometimes to a very great height in the air. that the heat , which arises out of the lesser spiracles , also brings forth along with it mineral matter , and particularly nitre , and sulphur ; some of which it affixes to the tops and sides of the grotto's as it passes , which grotto's are usually so hot as to serve for natural stoves , or sweating-vaults : some it deposes near unto , and even upon , the surface of the earth ; insomuch that in some places the flores sulphuris are gathered in considerable plenty near these spiracles : some it bears in steams up into the air , and this in such quantity too as to be manifest to the smell , especially the sulphur , that mineral so particularly affecting this sense . that the heat which is continually passing up towards the thermae , brings thither along with it particles of spar , alum , sulphur , nitre , and other minerals in such quantity , that these ordinarily as much exceed the common acidulae * in plenty of this mineral matter as they do in heat . that this heat , ascending out of the thermae , bears up with it not only water , in form of vapour , but likewise mineral matter ; some whereof it affixes to the sides and arches of the grotto's , where these thermae arise in such : or , if they be covered with buildings , to the walls and roofs of those buildings : to the pipes through which the water is conveyed , or the like . that sulphur is in some places collected very plentifully adhering to the stone of these grotts , and buildings : yea sometimes spar , and other crasser minerals , are thus mounted up , and affix to the walls and roofs , incrust them over , and , being stop'd and reverberated thereby , form stalactitae , or sparry iceycles hanging down from the arches of the grotto's , from the capitals of the pillars , and roofs of the buildings . that where these thermae are not thus covered and vaulted over , so that the mineral matter is not stop'd and hinder'd in its ascent , a great part of it advances directly up into the atmosphere . that the heat which is discharged out of the earth at the time of earthquakes ‖ brings forth nirre , sulphur , and other mineral matter along with it . that the water also which is at the same time spued out * , through the cracks or chasmes opened by the earthquake , and through the apertures of springs and rivers , is turbid and stinking , as being highly saturated with mineral matter . that the acidulae , or medical springs emit then likewise a greater quantity of their minerals than usual : and even the ordinary springs , which were before clear , fresh , and limpid , become thick and turbid , and are impregnated with sulphur and other ▪ minerals as long as the earthquake lasts . that these minerals do not issue out only at these larger exits , but steam forth likewise through the pores of the earth , occasioning those sulphureous and other offensive stenches which usually attend earthquakes , and are the cause of the fevers and other malignant dis●empers which commonly succeed them : bringing on oftentimes great mortalities , not only amongst men , but even the very beasts and fishes . that these mineral eructations arise in such quantity up into the atmosphere as to thicken , discolour , and darken it sometimes to a very great degree . that any heat whatsoever , even an accidental one , such as is that which proceeds from the bodies of animals , and from their excrements , promotes the ascent of mineral matter , but more especially of that which is subtile , light , and active , and is consequently moveable more easily , and with a lesser power . that by this means nitre ( wherever there happens to be any in the earth underneath ) is raised in stables , pigeon-houses , and other like receptacles of animals : and in those places where their dung lyes heap'd up . that 't was this which occasioned , in some , an opinion that nitre proceeds forth of those animals , and their excrements ; whereas it is found raised up , and convened or collected indifferently and as well in buildings where animals rarely or never come , as in those they ordinarily frequent ; not to mention that which is found sometimes in considerable plenty at great depths in the earth : in the water of springs , of rivers , of lakes , and , in some parts , even of the sea it self ; whereof more largely hereafter . that , in such places where the earth contains nitre within it , though there be no such adventitious heat , if that heat which is almost continually steaming out of the earth be but preserved , its dissipation prevented , and the cold kept off by some building or other like coverture , this alone is ordinarily sufficient to raise up the nitre , and bear it out at the surface of the earth , ( unless its egress be impeded by pavements , or the like obstructions ) and mount it up into the air , as far as those buildings will permit . for , the cielings and walls stopping it in its ascent , it usually affixes , unto them , and settles there . and accordingly 't is frequently found thus affix'd to the walls and cielings of ground-rooms , cellars , and vaults ; and this sometimes in such quantities as to form nitrose stalactitae † , hanging down from them in form of iceycles , especially from the tops and arches of cellars and vaults . that the heat of the sun in the hotter seasons being very intense , and penetrating the exteriour or superficial parts of the earth , it thereby-excites and stirs up those mineral exhalations , in subterraneous caverns , in mines , and in cole-pits , which are commonly called damps . that it is for this reason that these seldom or never happen but in the summer time ; when , the hotter the weather is , the greater and more frequent are the damps . that besides this of the sun , they are also sometimes raised by the accession of other heat , and particularly by the fires which the miners use in the grooves , for breaking the rocks , and for other ends. that the quantity of mineral matter thus raised is according as there is more or less of it in those mines , especially of sulphur , nitre , and the like subtile and easily moveable minerals : and as the heat is there more or less intense . that this mineral matter being sustained in the air there , and floating about in the mines , and pits , it hits upon , and affixes it self unto , the workmens tools , to their cloaths , candles , or any other bodies that occurr . that where there is any considerable quantity of sulphur in the exhalation thus floating too and again , it takes fire at the candles , burns with a blue flame , and emits a strong sulphureous smell . that these damps differ in their effects according to the different minerals that are the cause of them ; ours in england being generally reducible to two kinds ; whereof one is called the suffocating , the other the fulminating damp. that the former of these extinguisheth the candles , makes the workmen faint , and vertiginous , and , when very great , suffocates , and kills them . the fulminating damp will take fire at a candle , or other flame , and , upon its accension , gives a crack or report like the discharge of a gun , and makes likewise an explosion so forcible as sometimes to kill the miners , break their limbs , shake the earth , and force coles , stones , and other bodies , even though they be of very great weight and bulk , from the bottom of the pit or mine , up through the shaft , discharging them out at the top or mouth of it , sometimes striking off the turn which stands thereon , and mounting all up to a great height in the air ; this being succeeded by a smoak , which both in smell , and all other respects , resembles that of fired gunpowder ; and is , as may appear from these and other phaenomena of it , nothing but an exhalation of nitre and sulphur , which are the principal ingredients of that composition we call gunpowder . that as these damps are caused by heat , so they are remedied by withdrawing that heat , and by conveying forth the mineral steams ; which the miners effect by perflations with large bellows : by letting down tubes , and sinking new shafts ; whereby they give free passage and motion to the air , which ventilates and cools the mines , purges and frees them from these mineral exhalations . that at such time as the sun's power is so great as thus to penetrate the exteriour parts of the earth : to disturb these mineral particles : and raise them from out the strata wherein they lay , it does not only sustain them in the air of grotto's , mines , and other caverns under ground , but likewise bears them out through the mouths of those caverns , and through the ordinary cracks and pores of the earth , mounting them up , along with the watery exhalations , into the atmosphere † , especially sulphur , nitre , and the other more light and active minerals ; where they form meteors ; and are particularly the cause of thunder , and of lightning . that , this mineral matter requiring a considerable degree of heat to raise it , the most northern climes , and the winter seasons are , for that reason , little or not at all troubled with thunder ; it seldom happening , in any great measure , but in the hotter months , and in the southern countries , as in congo , guinea , and other parts of africa , and in the southern parts of asia and america ; where 't is , during the season of their great rains ‖ , horribly loud and astonishing , and as much exceeds the thunder of these northern climes , as the heat there exceeds that of these climes . that the mineral matter which is discharged forth of vulcano's , and other like spiracles : and out of the thermae , ascends up into the air , and contributes to the formation of these meteors . that likewise the nitre and sulphur , which are belch'd forth of the earth at the time of earthquakes ( the countries which are most obnoxious to this malady abounding , as i have already intimated † , with these two minerals particularly ; ) in such plenty as to thicken and darken the air , constitute there a kind of aerial gunpowder , and are the cause of that dismal and terrible thunder and lightning which commonly , if not always , attend earthquakes ; even when all was till then calm and clear , and not the least sign or presage of any such thing before the earthquake began . that as the mineral eruptions which happen during earthquakes * : and the steams and damps of mines ‖ are detrimental to health , hurtful and injurious to the bodies of men and other animals , so likewise are the mineral exhalations which are thus raised by the sun out of the body of the earth up into the atmosphere : but more especially in those parts of it where there are arsenical , or other like noxious minerals lodged underneath . that these mingling with , and being disseminated in , the air , and passing together with it into the lungs in respiration , are by them transmitted into the body , where they infect the mass of blood , create perturbations and disorderly motions therein , and lay the foundation of pestilential fevers , and other malignant distempers . that 't is for this reason that the southern countries are more frequently molested and incommoded by these distempers than the northern are : and that they are more rise and stirring in the hotter months , in iuly and august , than in the colder , december , ianuary , and the rest . that 't is indeed true , that in september and october , which are none of the hottest months , these diseases are oftentimes as epidemical as in the precedent and warmer season : and do not abate and remit in proportion to the remission of the sun's heat in those months ; but this is purely accidental , and happens meerly because the heat within the surface of the earth is not liable to so sudden vicissitudes , or so quickly spent and dispersed , as is that which is upon it , and in the air. this therefore , the pores of the earth remaining still as free , and open , as ever , continues to send out the mineral steams as before , but in lesser and lesser quantity , answerably to the gradual diminution of this heat . which steams , though now sent up to the surface of the earth only in lesser plenty , may be much more offensive and mischievous than in the hotter months when it came forth in far greater . for the sun's power being in those months also greater , it then straitways hurries these steams up into the atmosphere : whereas in the colder , its power being lessened , it cannot bear it up so fast ; so that it stays and stagnates near the surface of the earth , swimming and floating about in that region of the air wherein we breath ; where it must needs be much more pernicious than when born up to a greater height , and so farther out of the way . and this is indeed much the case of foggs : particularly of those which we frequently observe after sun-setting , even in our hottest months . these being nothing but a vapour , consisting of water , and of such mineral matter as this met with in its passage , and could well bring up along with it . which vapour was sent up in greater quantity all the foregoing day , than now in the evening ; but the sun , then being above the horizon , taking it at the surface of the earth , and rapidly mounting it up into the atmosphere , it was not discernible , as now it is ; because , the sun being now gone off , the vapour stagnates at and near the earth , and saturates the air till 't is so thick as to be easily visible therein . and when at length the heat there is somewhat further spent , which is usually about the middle of the night , it falls down again in a dew , alighting upon herbs and other vegetables , which i● cherishes , cools , and refreshes , after the scorching heat of the foregoing day . but if it happens , as sometimes it does , that this vapour bears up along with it any noxious mineral steams , it then blasts vegetables , especially those which are more young and tender : blights corn and fruits : and is sometimes injurious even to men who chance to be then abroad in the fields . 't is also the case of water at the surface of the earth * ; where the springs and rivers are very low , yea some of them cease to yield any water at all , in the summer months , because the sun's power is then so great as easily and speedily to bear up into the atmosphere , in small and invisible parcels , and in form of an extremely fine and thin vapour , a very great part of the water which is sent up out of the abyss : whereas in the winter-time the sun is withdrawn farther off , and its power lessened , so that it cannot then buoy it up as before ; for which reason 't is that so much more of it then stands at the surface of the earth , and stagnates there . so likewise for rain ; we learn from experiment that there commonly falls in england , in france , and some other countries , more rain in iune and iuly , than in december and ianuary ; but it makes a much greater shew upon the earth in these months than in those , because it lyes longer upon it ; the sun now wanting power to exhale and bear it up so quickly and plentifully as then it did . 't is also the case of the halitus emitted forth of the lungs of men and other animals . in a physiological treatise , which i have by me , concerning the structure and vse of the parts of animals , discoursing of the lungs , i shew that they are the grand emunctory of the body : that the main end of respiration is continually to discharge and expell an excrementitious fluid out of the mass of blood : and prove from several experiments that there passes out of the body a greater quantity of fluid matter this way , i mean upwards , and through the lungs , than there does of urine , by the kidneys , downwards . now the fluid , which is thus secreted , and expired forth along with the air , goes off with it in insensible parcels , in the summer season , when the ambient air contains heat enough to bear it quickly away , and so disperse it . but in the winter , when the heat without is less , it oftentimes becomes so far condensed as to be visible , flowing out of the mouth in form of a fume , or crasser vapour ▪ and may , by proper vessels , set in a strong freezing mixture , the better to condense this vapour , be collected in considerable quantity . but to return . that 't is not without a very extraordinary providence that there so constantly happens , in the month of september ( the time when chiefly these mineral steams stagnate thus at and near the surface of the earth ) a very nipping and severe season of cold , far beyond what might , from the sun's height and power , be then expected : beyond that of october and november : and sometimes equal to that of ianuary and the coldest months : as also that there then so constantly happens very blustering and turbulent winds ; the cold serving to check and put a stop to the ascent of this mineral matter : and the wind to dissipate and convey away that which was before raised out of the earth ; which , was it not thus carried off , would be infinitely more fatal and pernicious to man and other animals than now it is . but i must be contented here to give only short hints of these , as of other , things : and to write but obscurely and reservedly , untill i have opportunity to express my sentiments of them with greater copiousness , freedom , and perspicuity . thus much of the scheme of my design in this part have i run over : and lead my reader a long and tedious jaunt in tracing out these metallick and mineral bodies : in pursuing them through their several mazes and retreats : through the earth , the water , and the air. and yet , long as it is , we are not got much further than the borders of the mineral kingdom , and have done little more yet than settled and adjusted preliminaries ; so very ample is this kingdom , so various and manifold its productions . for the foregoing conclusions relate only to the origin and growth of these bodies ; the natural history of each particular metall and mineral , with the observations whereon that history is grounded , being still to come . but i must be forced wholly to wave and supersede the detail of these ; for i perceive , do what i can , this abstract will swell much beyond the bounds which i at first designed . this fourth part will be followed by several treatises , serving to confirm , and to illustrate some passages in it : whereof i shall at present only mention the four following . 1. rules and directions for the discovery of metalls and minerals la●ent in the earth : with an enquiry why these lye sometimes so near the surface , and did not , ( because of their greater gravity ) at the general subsidence in the deluge † , fall to a much greater depth than we now find them : even to such a depth as to have lain quite out of humane reach , and so have been all buried , and irrecoverably lost . 2. an examination of the common doctrine about the generation of metalls and minerals : and particularly that of the chymists ; with an appendix , relating to the transmutation of metalls : detecting the impostures and elusions of those who have pretended to it : and evincing the impossibility of it from the most plain , simple , and physical reasons : proving likewise that there are no such natural gradations , and conversions of one metall and mineral into another , in the earth , as many have fancied . as also an account of the mineral iuyces in the earth , which some writers have imagined to be i know not what seeds of minerals , shewing that they are , for the far greatest part , nothing but water strongly impregnated with mineral matter , which it derives from the strata as it passes through them ‖ . 3. relations , obtained from several hands , concerning the state of metalls and minerals in foreign countries : in divers parts of asia , africa , and america , as well as in hungary , germany , sweden , and other parts of europe : and particularly of those which are not found in england ; shewing that the condition of these bodies in those remoter regions is exactly conformable to that of ours here : and that they were all put into this condition by the very same means † . 4. observations concerning english amber : and relations from abroad , about the amber of prussia and other distant places : with a discourse founded upon them , proving that amber is not a gummons or resinous substance drawn out of trees by the sun's heat ; and coagulated and hardened by falling down into rivers , or the sea , as the ancients generally believed : but is a natural fossil , as pebles , flints , pyritae , and the like , are : formed at the same time , and by the same means that they were : and all of it originally reposed in the strata of earth , sand , &c. together with them . that it is indeed found in some places lying upon the shores of the sea , and of rivers : but 't is also found at land , and dug up ( sometimes at very great depths ) in the earth ; and this as well in places very remote from any sea , or river , as in those which are nearer unto them . that 't is digged out of even the highest mountains , and indeed all other parts of the earth contingently and indifferently , as the pyritae , agates , jaspers , pebles , and the rest , are . that wherever 't is found upon the sea-shores , there also is it as certainly found at land , up in the neighbouring country : and particularly in prussia , upon whose shores so great a quantity of amber is yearly collected , 't is dug up almost all over the country . that even that which now lyes loose upon the sea-shores , was all of it originally lodged in the earth : in the strata of sand , marle , clay , and the like , whereof the neighbouring land , and the cliffs adjacent to those shores , do consist ; and wherever 't is so found scattered upon the shores , there is it as constantly found lodged in the cliffs thereabouts . that when the sea , at high-water , comes up unto , and bears hard upon , the said cliffs , and is agitated by winds and storms , it frequently beats down huge pieces of earth from them ; which earth , falling into the water , is , by its continued agitation and motion dissolved , and borne by degrees down into the sea , being loose , and light , and so easily reduced into lesser parcels , dissolved , and wash'd away : but the pebles , pyritae , amber , or other like nodules , which happened to be reposed in those cliffs , amongst the earth so beaten down , being hard , and not so dissoluble , and likewise more bulky and ponderous , are left behind upon the shores , being impeded , and secured , by that their bulk and weight , from being born along with the terrestrial matter into the sea. that therefore the sea is no ways concerned in the formation of these bodies : no more in the formation of amber , than of the pyritae , flints , and other mineral masses that are found together with it : but only dislodges and discovers them , bears away the earth wherein they were buried , washes off the soil and sordes wherein they were involved and concealed , and thereby renders them more conspicuous , apparent , and easie to be found . that this is so known and experienced amongst the people who are employed to gather the amber , that they always run down to the sea-side after a storm , for that purpose ; and , if it hath been so great as to beat down part of the cliffs there , they assuredly find amber , more or less , upon the seas ebb and retirement , and after every retreat of the sea for some tides after ; the sea not bearing down the earth immediately and all at once , but washing it off by little and little , and so discovering the amber by degrees , some after one tide , and some after another . that particularly the amber , vitriolick pyritae , and other like bodies , that are found upon the shores of kent , essex , hampshire , and elsewhere , all came first from the bordering cliffs , and were dislodged by this means ; and are found in the earth , as well as upon the shores , whenever 't is laid open , as in sinking wells , pits , and the like . that not only the sea , but rivers and rains also , are instrumental to the detection of amber ; and other fossils , by washing away the earth and dirt that before covered and concealed them . thus the golden pyritae , or , as they are commonly called , gold-grains , amethystine pebles , amber , and other stones of worth , are uncovered by such rivers as chance to run through the grounds which contain those bodies in them . thus likewise rains , by their washing the earth down from off the hills * , clear , and disclose such pyritae , selenitae , or other bodies that happen to be lodged , near the surface of the earth , in those hills : and 't is by this means chiefly that the grain-gold , upon all the golden coast ( as 't is called ) in guinea , is displayed ; the rains falling there in great abundance , and with incredible force , thereby the more powerfully beating off the earth . this the negrues , natives of those parts , know full well ; and therefore do not expect to find much of it unless after the season of their rains * ; when they never fail to find of it , no more than the amber-gatherers fail of finding that upon the sea-coasts after a storm . and if those persons who are curious in collecting either minerals , or the shells , teeth , or other parts of animal bodies that have been buried in the earth , do but search the hills after rains , and the sea-shores after storms , i dare undertake they will not lose their labour . but to return . that amber is not only lodged in the strata of earth , and of sand together with the other mineral nodules , but is sometimes found actually growing unto , and combined into the same mass ‖ with the pyrites , and others of them . that it likewise sometimes contains in it pieces of straws , flies , shells , and other heterogeneous bodies , in like manner as the pyritae , flints , and all other analogous fossils do † . that although amber be most commonly of a yellowish colour , and therefore not unlike some kinds of gums , yet there is found of it also of several other colours , as black , white , brown , green , blue , and purple , to name no more . yea the very same lump is frequently of different colours . that these colours are all accidental , even the yellow it self , and owing to the intermixture of foreign matter , which concreted into the same mass with the proper matter of this stone , and with the heterogeneous bodies which are included in it , at the time of its coalition † . that this is the case of agates , of cornelians , of topazes , and many other coloured stones ; the colours of several whereof , and even that of amber it self , may by a very easie process , be in great measure , if not wholly , extracted , and taken from them : and the bodies of these stones rendered almost , if not quite , as pellucid as crystal , without sensibly damaging the texture of them . that even the most obvious and ordinary minerals are not free from this contagion of adventitious matter : common salt it self , when found naturally crystallized amongst other minerals and metalls , in the perpendicular intervalls of the strata of stone , being , not only pellucid , as it naturally is when pure and simple , but white also , and like the white crystallized spar : yellow , and nearly resembling the topaz : blue , and not unlike the saphire ; and yet these specious bodies , and gemms as to outward shew , upon tryal , yield nothing but meer salt , with an extremely small admixture of other matter , which gave them their tincture . which may serve for a further instance of the confused state of minerals in the earth : and of the uncertainty of their colours and figures † . part v. of the alterations which the terraqueous globe hath undergone since the time of the deluge . it now remains that we take a view of the postdiluvian state of this our globe : that we examine how it hath stood for this last four thousand years : that we enquire what accidents have befallen it , and what alterations it hath suffered since that wonderful change it underwent at the deluge . there have been some who have made a mighty outcry about changes and alterations in the terraqueous globe . the pretences and pleas of each i consider in the first part of this essay : shewing that they are without any just ground : and that there are no signs or footsteps , in all the whole globe , of any such alterations . and indeed 't is well for the world that there are not ; for the alterations which they have fancied are such as turn all the wrong way : such as are without use , and have no end at all , or , which is worse than none , a bad one : and tend to the damage and detriment of the earth and its productions . notwithstanding , some alterations there are which it hath , and doth still undergo . this is what we may pronounce with certainty : and there want not instances enough sufficiently to vouch and attest it . but these alterations are of a quite different strain : these are as amicable and benificent to the earth and terrestrial bodies , as the other , were there really any such , would be pernicious and destructive to both . i have already * given some intimations of the changes which happen in the interiour parts of the earth , i mean the transitions and removes of metalls and minerals there : and shewn of what use and advantage those changes are to the world † . so that i may now pass freely on to consider those which befall the exteriour ▪ or surface of it . and these are brought about silently and insensibly ; and , which is the constant method of nature , with all imaginable benignity and gentleness . here is none of the hurry and precipitation : none of the blustering and violence : no more than any of the direful and ruinous effects , which must needs have attended those supposititious changes . and as these alterations are not great , so neither are they numerous . i have made careful search on all hands , and canvass'd the matter with all possible diligence , and yet there are none that i can advance from my own observations , but that the upper or outermost stratum of earth : that stratum whereon men and other animals tread , and vegetables grow , is in a perpetual flux and change ; this being the common fund and promptuary that supplies and sends forth matter for the formation of bodies upon the face of the earth . that all animals , and particularly mankind , as well as all vegetables , which have had being since the creation of the world , derived all the constituent matter of their bodies , successively , in all ages , out of this fund . that the matter which is thus drawn out of this stratum for the formation of these bodies , is at length laid down again in it , and restored back unto it , upon the dissolution of them ; where it lies ready to be again assumed , and educed thence for the fitting forth of other like bodies in a continual succession . that the constituent matter of any one body being proper , and turning thus naturally , when again refunded into this stratum , to the constitution of another like body , there is a kind of revolution or circulation of it ; so that the stock or fund can never possibly be exhausted , nor the flux and alteration sensible . that as the bodies which arise out of this fund are various , differing very much , not only from one another , but the members , organs , or parts of each individual amongst themselves : so likewise is the matter of this fund whereof they all consist . for though when confusedly blended and mingled , as it is whilst lying in this stratum , it may put on a face never so uniform and alike , yet it is in reality very different , and consists of several ranks , sets , or kinds of corpuscles . that all the corpuscles that are of the same set , or kind , agree in every thing , and are most exactly like unto each other in all respects : but those that are of diverse kinds , differ from one another , as well in matter or substance , in specifick gravity , in hardness , in flexibility , and several other ways , as in bigness and figure . that from the various composures and combinations of these corpusoles together , happen all the varieties of the bodies formed out of them : all their differences in colour and outward appearance , in taste , in smell , in hardness , in specifick gravity , and all other regards ; in much the same manner as that vast variety we see of words arises from the various order and composition of the twenty four letters of the alphabet . but of this matter , and of the process and method of nature in the formation of bodies out of it , i shall treat more at large in the discourse it self : wherein i shall also consider the opinions of others , particularly the ancients , and , amongst the rest , of thales and pythagoras , about the elements or principles of natural things : for i now hasten to propose the other alterations that happen in the terraqueous globe . that rocks , mountains , and the other elevations of the earth ( especially those whose surfaces are yearly stirr'd and disturbed by digging , plowing , or the like ) suffer a continual decrement , and grow lower and lower ; the superficial parts of them being by little and little wash'd away by rains , and born down upon the subjacent plains and valleys . that even the stone it self ( whether naked and uncovered as in rocks , or invested with a stratum of earth as is that in our ordinary hills ) is not , by its solidity , priviledg'd and secured against them , but is dissolved by degrees , and wash'd also down , in its turn , as well as the looser earth . that the matter which thus devolves from the hills down upon the lower grounds , does not considerably raise and augment them ; a great part of it , viz the vegetative and lighter terrestrial matter , being either mounted up into the atmosphere by the ascending vapour * , or carried along with the rain-water into rivers , and , by them , into the sea † ; whence 't is returned back again to the earth dispersedly by rain † , and serves for the nutriment and formation of the plants which grow thereon : and the rest of it , being more crass and ponderous , does not move far , but lodges in the clefts , craggs , and sides of the rocks or mountains , and at or near the roots or bottoms of them . that the stone of rocks and mountains being by degrees in this manner dissolved , and the sand born off , the shells , and other marine bodies which were originally included therein * , are by that means let loose , turned out , and exposed upon the surface of the earth . that 't is for this reason that these marine bodies are now most commonly found upon hills , and the higher grounds ; those few which are found below and at the bottoms of them , being for the most part only such as have fallen down from above , and from the tops of them ; those which were , at the time of the deluge , reposed upon the surface of the earth , being most of them perish'd and gone ‖ : and indeed these , which are yet existent , only accidentally preserved by their being at first enclosed in the strata of stone , and so secured by it as long as it was it self secure , i mean , untill it was thus dissolved , and so could not any longer contribute any thing to their preservation . that these shells and other bodies , being thus turned out of the stone , and exposed loose upon the surface of the earth , to the injuries of weather , and of the plough , to be trod upon by horses and other cattel , and to many other external accidents , are , in tract of time , worn , fretted , and broken to pieces . that the shells being so broken , struck off , and gone , the stone included in them is thereby disclosed and set at liberty ; which stone consists of the sand wherewith the cavities of those shells were filled when they were sustained together with it in the water at the deluge ‖ , and which at length subsided in them , and was lodged with them in the strata of sand-stone ; the sand contained within the shell becoming solid and consistent at the same time that the ambient , or that of the stratum without it , did † . that therefore the shells served as plasms or moulds to this sand ; which , when consolidated , and afterwards in tract of time by this means freed from its investient shell , is of the same shape and size as is the cavity of the shell , of what kind soever that shell happened to be . that this is the true origin of those stones ( consisting of sand * ) which are called , by authors , cochlitae , conchitae , m●it● , ostracitae , ctenitae ‖ , &c. and which are of constant , regular , and specifick figures ; as are the cochleae , conchae , and the other shells in which they were moulded , and from which , by reason of their so near resemblance of the insides of them , they borrow their several denominations . that these formed stones being by this means despoiled of their shells , and exposed naked , upon the surface of the ground , to the injuries before recited , do also themselves in time decay , wear , and moulder away , and are frequently found defaced and broken to pieces : in like manner as the strata of stone wherein they were originally lodged first did : and afterwards the shells wherein these stones were enclosed and formed . this deterration , as 't is called , or devolution of earth and sand from the mountains and higher grounds , is not in equal quantity and alike in all places , but varies according to the different height of those mountains , and to the extent of the plane at top of them : to the different consistence and durableness of the strata whereof they consist : and according as they are more or less disturbed by showers † , ploughing , or other accidents . nay this deterration varies in different parts of even the same mountain ; those which lye nearer to the brink or margin of it suffering a quicker and greater decrement than those which are more remote therefrom , and towards the middle of it . but though this devolution be thus different , 't is no● any where , even where greatest , very considerable ; and therefore does not make any great alteration in the face of the earth . this i have learn'd from observations purposely made in several parts of england ; and when i shall , in the larger work , propose the standard whereby i give judgment of it , any one may presently and easily inform himself of the quantity and measure of it , either here , or in any other part of the world. there are indeed some other casualties that the globe is obnoxious unto ; such as earthquakes , and the burning mountains , or vulcanoes . but of these , i thank god , and the good constitution of this happy island , i have not had any opportunity of observation . yet something i have to offer concerning these , and the causes of them , from the observations of others . not that the thing is so very material , or that they make such havock of , and alterations in , the globe as some men fancy . we have assurance from history , that aetna and vesuvius have sent forth flames , by fits , for this two or three thousand years , and no doubt but they have done so much longer ; and yet we see both sicily and campania , the countries wherein those two mountains stand , are still where they were : nay the very mountains themselves are yet in being , and have not suffered any considerable diminution or consumption , but are at this day the two highest mountains in those countries . what they have really suffered : by what means both these , and earthquakes , are occasioned : and what are their effects upon the globe , shall be fully and carefully considered in due place ; from which considerations it will appear , that even these have their uses : and that , although they do make some lesser alterations in some few parts of the earth , and sometimes molest and incommode the inhabitants of those parts , yet the agent , whereby both the one and the other is effected , is of that indispensible necessity and vse both to the earth it self , to mankind , and to all other the productions of it , that they could not subsist without it . i have already given some brief intimations that winds and hurricanes at land * , tempests and storms at sea † , ( things that have always been look'd upon with as evil an eye as earthquakes , and pointed at as only disastrous and mischievous to the world ) are yet not without a very necessary and excellent use : the same have i also done concerning vulcano's ‖ ; but i must not dwell upon these things too long , wherefore i shall only now dispatch what is further necessary to be hinted here about this decrement of mountains , and then conclude this part. and this , as it does not make any great alteration , so neither doth that , which it really does make , any ways end●mage or disorder the globe : nor is it any the least detriment or disadvantage to the productions of it , to vegetables , to animals , and particularly to mankind : nor does it thwart and interfere with the grand design of providence , viz. the conservation of the globe , and the propagation of bodies upon it , for the use of man. so far from this , that it is very highly beneficial and serviceable to both ; which will further appear if we consider , that in the first ages after the deluge , when the number of mankind , of quadrupeds , and of the other animals was but small , the vallies and plains were more than sufficient for their habitation and use. and , by such time as that stock of them was enlarged , that they were further spread and multiplied , and thereby the earth so far peopled and replenish'd that the hills and higher grounds began to be needed ; those rocks and mountains which in the first ages were high , steep , and craggy , and consequently then inconvenient and unfit for habitation ; were by this continual deterration brought to a lower pitch , rendered more plain and even , and reduced nearer to the ordinary level of the earth ; by which means they were made habitable by such time as there was occasion for them , fit for tillage , for the production of vegetables , of corn , and other necessaries , for the use of their inhabitants . that although the principal intention in the precipitation of the vegetative terrestrial matter * , at the deluge , and the burying it in the strata underneath amongst the sand , and other mineral matter , was to retrench and abridge the luxury and superabundance of the productions of the earth , which had been so ingratefully and scandalously abused by its former inhabitants , and to cause it to deal them forth for the future more frugally and sparingly ; yet there was a still further design in that precipitation : and the matter so buried was to be brought up upon the stage once more ; being only reserved in store for the benefit of posterity , and to be , by this deterration , fetch'd out to light again to supply the wants of the latter ages of the world. for had these strata of stone , and other mineral matter , which lay then underneath , been altogether destitute of this vegetative intermixture , and had not contained some , though a smaller and more parsimonious supply of it in them : had there not been also vast numbers of shells , teeth , bones , and the like , lodged in them , which are , when rotted and dissolved , ‖ a proper and natural manure to the earth , as all parts whatsoever of animals , as well as vegetables , are ; they consisting of such matter as the upper and vegetative stratum it self contains , and therefore such as is fit for the constitution of plants and of animals * ; i say , had it not been for this , when the upper and vegetative stratum was once wash'd off , and born down by rains , the hills would have become all perfectly barren , the strata below yielding only meer steril and mineral matter , such as was wholly inept and improper for the formation of vegetables . nay , the inconvenience would not have stop'd there , but have spread it self much further . for , the vegetative stratum being carried off , and the devolution still continuing , the matter of the lower or mineral strata being likewise by degrees borne down successively to the roots and bottoms of the hills , and upon the neighbouring parts of the valleys and plains , it would , as far as it reach'd , have cover'd and buried the upper and vegetative stratum that was expanded over those valleys and plains , and render'd as much of them as it so covered also frustrate , steril , and unfruitful . so that by this means , in the latter ages of the world , when the earth should be fully peopled , and all quarters and corners of it stock'd with inhabitants , and when consequently there would be the greatest need and occasion for its productions every where , for supply of the necessities of these its numerous inhabitants , there would have been then much less than ever , a great part of the earth being rendered entirely barren ; so that they might have e'en starved , had it not been for this providential reserve : this hoord , if i may so say , that was stowed in the strata underneath , and now seasonably disclosed and brought forth . part vi. concerning the state of the earth , and the productions of it , before the deluge . the thread of this discourse draws now near to an end ; and i have reason to fear that , by this time , the reader , as well as my self , thinks it high time that it were quite spun out . for which reason i shall not any longer presume upon his patience farther than needs i must . in the five foregoing parts of this essay i lay down what i have to propose relating to the condition of the earth during the time of the deluge , and ever since that time . and here i am to make a stand : to look a great way back : and make some reflections upon the posture of things before the deluge . the method i take may perhaps be censured by some as preposterous , because i thus treat last of the antediluvian earth , which was first in order of nature . but they will , i hope , let fall that censure , when they are acquainted that 't is a thing of constraint , and not of choice : and that 't was for want of footing , and good ground to go upon , that i did not take that earth under consideration sooner . the truth is , there was no way for me to come to any competent knowledge of it , or to give any sure judgment concerning it , but meerly by induction : and by contemplation of the shells , bones , and other remains of it , which are still in being . now before i could inferr any thing from these , it lay upon me to make out that they all belonged to the earth , and were the genuine products of it : to shew likewise how they became buried and disposed in the manner we now find them : and by what means they were preserved till now . and that is what i have been hitherto about ; so that this is indeed but the proper place for this disquisition concerning the antediluvian earth : and it could not well have been brought in before . had there not been still remaining a great many animal and vegetable bodies that were the legitimate off-springs of that earth , 't would have been an extravagant and impracticable undertaking to have gone about to have determined any thing concerning it ; and the more so because the earth it self was dissolved and destroyed * . but i prove that there are such remains of it , enclosed in great plenty in the marble , stone , and the other compacter strata of the present earth ; whereby they have been preserved , through so many ages , quite down to our times : and are like to endure , many of them , much longer ; even as long as the strata themselves continue in the condition they now are ; and so will be a sure and lasting monument and witness of the truth of that extraordinary accident ( the destruction of the earth and of mankind by the deluge ) to posterity , quite down to the end of the world. now because the observations which i make use of in the former parts of this work give an account of the said productions thus preserved , i proceed upon those observations , as hitherto , and , by inferences which easily , clearly , and naturally flow from them , shew what was the condition and state of that earth , and wherein it differ'd from this we now inhabit . and in regard that , from a theory which , how much soever it may relish of wit and invention , hath no real foundation either in nature or history , the author so often mentioned already hath set forth an imaginary and fictitious earth : whose posture to the sun he supposes to have been much different from that which the earth at present obtains , and such that there could be no alteration of heat and cold , summer and winter , as now there is , but a constant uniformity of weather and equality of seasons † : an earth without any sea : without mountains , or other inequalities ‖ : and without either metalls or minerals * : in few words , one perfectly unlike what the antediluvian earth was in truth and reality : and perfectly unlike that which moses hath represented ; i shall therefore interpose some consectaries which would have been otherwise needless and superfluous : which are directly levelled against these mistakes : and evince that where-ever he hath receded from the mosaick account of that earth , he hath at the same time also receded from nature , and matter of fact ; and this purely from the aforesaid observations ; from which i shall prove , that the face of the earth , before the deluge , was not smooth , eaven , and uniform : but unequal , and distinguish'd with mountains , valleys , and plains : also with sea , lakes , and rivers . that the quantity of water upon the surface of the globe was nearly the same as now : the ocean of the same extent , and possest an equal share of the globe ; intermixing with the land so as to checquer it into earth and water , and to make much the same diversities of sea and land that we behold at present . that the water of the sea was saturated with salt , in like manner as now it is : that it was agitated with tides , or a flux and reflux : with storms , and other commotions . that the sea was very abundantly replenished with fish of all kinds : as well of the cartilaginous and squammose , as of the testaceous and crustaceous kinds : and that the lakes and rivers were as plentifully furnish'd with lake and river-fish of all sorts . that the earth was very exuberantly beset with trees , shrubs , and herbs : and stock'd with animals of all sorts , quadrupeds , insects , and fowls : and this on all sides , and in all parts of it , quite round the globe . that the animal and vegetable productions of the antediluvian earth did not in any wise differ from those of the present earth . that there were then the very same kinds of animals and vegetables , and the same subordinate species under each kind that now there is . that they were of the same stature and size , as well as of the same shape : their parts of the same fabrick , texture , constitution , and colour , as are those of the animals and vegetables at this day in being . that there were both metalls and minerals in the antediluvian earth . that the terraqueous globe had the same site and position in respect of the sun that it now hath . that its axis was not parallel to that of the ecliptick , but inclined in like manner as it is at present : and that there were the same successions of heat and cold , wet and dry : the same vicissitudes of seasons , spring , summer , autumn and winter , that now there is . it hath been already noted , that these propositions are founded on observations made upon the animal and vegetable remains of the antediluvian earth . from those remains we may judge what sort of earth that was : and see that it was not much different from this we now inhabit * . now though 't is not to be expected that i here formally lay down those observations , that being not the business of this tract , yet untill i have opportunity both of doing so , and of shewing in what manner the foregoing propositions flow from them , it may be very convenient that i give some short directions how the reader , for his present satisfaction , may , of himself , and without my assistance , make out the principal articles of these propositions from the observations already delivered in the several parts of this discourse , and from one or two more that i shall add upon this occasion . and that he may at one view discover how consonant the account which moses hath left us of the primitive earth , is to this which we have from nature , and how much the late theory of the earth differs from both , i will set down that writer's sense of the matter under each head as we pass along . to begin therefore with the sea ; that there was one before the deluge , there needs not , i think , any other proof than the productions of it yet in being : the shells , the teeth , and bones of sea-fishes ‖ . and for moses , he is not at all averse hereto ; but as expresly asserts that there was then a sea , as the theory does , that there was none . take it in his own words . † and god said , let the waters under the heaven be gathered together unto one place , and let the dry-land appear : and it was so . and god called the dry-land earth , and the gathering together of the waters called he seas : and god saw that it was good . and though the theorist flatly denies that there was then any such thing , yet he does not go about to dispute the translation of this passage , but readily owns * , that moses hath here used a word that was common and known to signifie the sea. according to him therefore , we see the sea was formed at the beginning of the world , and after its formation approved of as good● that is , very necessary and serviceable to the ends of providence in the kingdom of nature ; and this indeed it is so many ways , that it must needs be granted that that would have been a very wild world had it been without any sea. the separating of the sea and land , and determining the set bounds of each , is here † reckoned part of the work of the third day : as the stocking of the sea with whales and other fishes , is ‖ of the fifth . and god created great whales , &c. and blessed them , saying , be fruitful and multiply , and fill the waters in the seas . and when on the sixth day the finishing hand was set to the work , and man created , god gives him dominion over the fish of the sea * . 't would have been but a scanty and narrow dominion , and adam a very mean prince , had there then been neither any fish existent nor sea to contain them . nay , this had been little better than a downright illusion and abusing of him : and what is more , that world had been so far from excelling ●●rs in the abundance of its productions , which is what the theorist contends for on another occasion , that 't would have fallen far short of it : have wanted a very noble and large share of the creation which we enjoy : been deprived of a most excellent and wholsome fare , and very many delicious dishes that we have the use and benefit of . but the case was really much otherwise : and we have as good proof as could be wish'd that there were not any of all these wanting . the things many of them yet extant speak aloud for themselves : and are back'd with an early and general tradition . for moses is so far from being singular in thus relating that the sea is of as old a date and standing as the earth it self is , that he hath all , even the first and remotest antiquity of his side ; the gentil account of the creation making the ocean to arise out of the chaos almost as soon as any thing besides . but we have in store a yet further testimony that will be granted to be beyond all exception . 't is from the mouth of god himself , being part of the law promulgated by him in a most solemn and extraordinary manner . exod. 20.11 . in six days the lord made heaven and earth , the sea , and all that in them is . 't is very hard to think the theorist should not know this : and as hard that , knowing it , he should so openly dissent from it . then for the dimensions of the sea ; that it was as large , and of as great extent as now it is , may be inferr'd from the vast ▪ multitudes of those marine bodies which are still found in all parts of the known world † . had these been found in only one or two places : or did we meet with but some few species of them , and such as are the products of one climate or country , it might have been suspected that the sea was then , what the caspian is , only a great pond or lake , and confined to one part of the globe . but seeing they are dug up at land almost every where , 〈◊〉 at least as great variety and plenty as they are observed at sea : since likewise the fossil shells are many of them of the same kinds with those that now appear upon the neighbouring shores , and the rest such as may well be presumed to be living at the bottom , or in the interiour and deeper parts of the adjacent seas † , but never any that are peculiar to remoter seas or to the shores of distant countries , we may reasonably conclude , not only that the sea was of the same bigness and capacity before the deluge , but that it was of much the same form also , and interwoven with the earth in like manner as at this time : that there was sea in or near the very same places or parts of the globe : that each sea had its peculiar shells , and those of the same kinds that now it hath : that there was the same diversity of climates , here warmer and more agreeable to the southern shells , there colder and better suited to the northern ones : the same variation of soils , this tract affording such a terrestrial matter as is proper for the formation and nourishment of one sort of shell-fish , that of another : in few words , much the same appearance of nature , and face of things that we behold in the present earth . but of this more by and by . that the water of the sea was salt , as now it is , may be made out likewise from those shells and other the productions of it ; they being of the same constitution , and consisting of the same sort of matter that do the shells at this day found upon our shores * . now the salt wherewith the sea-water is saturated , is part of the food of the shell-fish residing therein , and a main ingredient in the make of their bodies ; they living upon this , and upon the mud and other earthy matter there . and that the sea ebbed and flowed before the deluge , may be inferr'd , not so moch from the necessity of that motion , and the many and great uses of it in the natural world † , as from certain effects that it had upon the shells , and other like bodies yet preserved . 't is known that the sea , by this access and recess , shuffling the empty shells , or whatever else lies exposed upon the shores , and bearing them along with it backward and forward upon the sand there , frets and wears them away by little and little , in tract of time reducing those that are concave and gibbose to a flat , and at length grinding them away almost to nothing . and there are , not uncommonly , found shells so worn enclosed , amongst others , in stone . as the sea-shells afford us a sure argument of a sea , so do the river-ones of rivers in the antediluvian earth . and if there were rivers , there must needs also have been mountains ; for they will not flow unless upon a declivity , and their sources be raised above the earth's ordinary surface , so that they may run upon a descent ‖ ; the swiftness of their current , and the quantity of water refunded by them , being proportioned generally to the height of their sources , and the bigness of the mountains out of which they arise . mountains being proved , nothing need be said concerning valleys ; they necessarily following from that proof , as being nothing but the intervalls betwixt the mountains . but let us see what moses hath on this subject * . and the waters ( he is treating of the deluge ) prevailed exceedingly upon the earth ; and all the high hills that were under the whole heaven were covered . fifteen cubits upwards did the waters prevail ; and the movntains were covered . and all flesh dyed : — all in whose nostrils was the breath of life . the theorist averrs , that there were no mountains in the first earth . i am not willing to suppose that he charges a falshood or mistake upon the passage , but rather that he would have this to be understood of those mountains which were raised afterwards . which yet cannot be ; for the historian here plainly makes these mountains the standards and measures of the rise of the water ; which they could never have been had they not been standing when it did so rise and overpour the earth . his intention in the whole is to acquaint us that all land-creatures whatever , both men , quadrupeds , birds , and insects , perish'd and were destroyed by the water , noah only excepted , and they that were with him in the ark. and at the same time , to let us see the truth and probability of the thing : to convince us that there was no way for any to escape , and particularly that none could save themselves by climbing up to the tops of the mountains that then were , he assures us that they , even the highest of them , were all covered and buried under water . now to say that there were then no mountains : and that this is meant of mountains that were not formed till afterwards , makes it not intelligible , and indeed hardly common sense . the extreme fertility of both sea and land before the deluge , appears sufficiently from the vast and almost incredible numbers of their productions yet extant * ; not to insist upon those which are long ago rotted and gone † . nor need we much wonder at this their abundant fruitfulness , when we know from what source it proceeded ; which our historian hath opened to us in very significant words ‖ . and god said , let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life , &c. — and god blessed them , saying , be fruitful and multiply , and fill the waters in the seas : and let fowl multiply in the earth , &c. here was we see a blessing , handed out with the first pairs of animals at the moment of their creation , very liberal and extensive ; and it had effect with a witness , a man that does but behold the mighty sholes of shells , to take them for an instance , that are still remaining , and that lye bedded and cumulated in many places heap upon heap , amongst the ordinary matter of the earth , will scarcely be able to believe his eyes , or conceive which way these could ever live or subsist one by another . but yet subsist they did : and , as they themselves testifie , well too ; an argument that that earth did not deal out their nourishment with an over-sparing or illiberal hand . that these productions of the original earth , differ not from those of the present , either in figure , in magnitude , in texture , or any other respect , is easily learn'd by comparing of them . the exact agreement betwixt the marine bodies i have shewn already * : and shall in due place shew the same of the terrestrial ones . and as there were such great numbers of animals and vegetables in the primitive earth , so that there were also metalls and minerals , and these in no less plenty than in ours , is very clear from what hath been delivered in the fourth part of this essay , which need not be repeated here . nor is moses defective in this point † . and zillah , she also bare tubal-cain , an instructer of every artificer in brass and iron . the theorist , quite contrary , says , as for subterraneous things , metalls and minerals , i believe they had none in the first earth ; and the happier they ; no gold , nor silver , nor coarser metalls . amongst these coarser metalls are copper , or brass , and iron . now if there were none of these , 't is a great mystery to me , i confess , how tubal-cain , who certainly died either before or at the deluge ‖ , could ever have taught the workmanship and use of them . and yet if this theory be true , there neither was nor could be any within their reach , or that they could ever possibly come at . for the truth of the theory i am in no wise concerned : the composer of it must look to that ; but that there were really both metalls and minerals before the deluge , is most certain . for besides the testimony that we have of the thing from nature , and the passage already alledged out of moses , there is another for which we are also obliged to the same author , that acquaints us there were both even in paradise it self . 't is in his second chapter * . the name of the first river is pison : that is it which compasseth the whole land of havilah , where there is gold. and the gold of that land is good : there is bdellium and the onyx-stone . he speaks here , i grant , only in the present tense , there is gold : but must mean not only that there was gold and gemms there in his time , but that there was so likewise from the beginning of the world , of which he is giving an account in these two chapters , or , with submission , i conceive 't would not be any thing to his purpose . he is here speaking of paradise ; which he represents as a most charming and delightful place : besett with every tree that is pleasant to the sight , and good for food ‖ : watered with refreshing streams and excellent rivers : and abounding with things not only useful and convenient , but even the most rare and valuable , the most costly and desirable : particularly gold , precious stones , and perfumes ; which were all much esteemed and admired by the jews , to whom he wrote this . nor is it any paradox , notwithstanding that dissolution of the earth which happened at the deluge * , to suppose there was this or that metall or mineral in the same part of the globe afterwards where it was before that happened . the water of the abyss indeed changed its place , during the time : so did the sea , and bore the bodies it contained , many of them , out along with it . but for the terrestrial parts of the globe , metalls , minerals , marble , stone , and the rest , they , though dissolved , and assumed up into the water , did not flitt or move far , but , at the general subsidence , settled down again in or near the same place from which they were before taken up . for the water was all out upon the face of the earth before ever these stirr'd , or were fetch'd up out of their native beds : and they were all sunk down into the same beds again , before the water began to shift away back to its old quarters ; so that it could not contribute any thing to the removal of them . even the very vegetables , and their seeds , which were many of them naturally lighter than the water , assisted by the heavier terrestrial matter that had in this jumble and confusion fasten'd and stuck to them , fell all to the bottom : and the water was in great measure clear , and disengaged from the earthy mass , before it went off . and 't was well it was so ; for had the mineral matter of the globe not been held to its former station , but hurried about and transposed from place to place , 't is scarcely to be conceived how many and great inconveniences it would have occasioned . the same likewise for vegetables . had the seeds of the pepper plant , the nutmeg , the clove , or the cinnamon trees , been born from iava , banda , the moluccoes , and ceylon , to these northern countries , they must all have starved for want of sun : or had the seeds of our colder plants shifted thither , they wou'd have been burnt up and spoil'd by it . but things generally kept to their proper places : to their old natural soil and climate ; which had they not done , all would have been confounded and destroyed . 't is true , the vegetables , being comparatively lighter than the ordinary terrestrial matter of the globe , subsided last † ; and consequently lying many of them upon the surface of the earth , those which were of considerable bulk , as the bigger sorts of trees , which had large and spreading heads , would lye with their branches stretch'd up to a great height in the water , ( and , when that was withdrawn in the air ‖ , ) and so being very much in the waters way , when it began to depart and retire back again , would be apt to be removed and driven forward along with it , especially those which lay in such places where the current happened to run strong . accordingly we now find of these trees in islands , and the other bleaker and colder parts of the earth , where none now do , or perhaps ever did , grow * . and there they are of mighty use to the inhabitants , affording them a supply of timber which their own country doth not yield , and which they employ not only for fewel , which yet is much needed in those cold countries , but for building likewise , and many other purposes ; whereas in the places whence they were thus driven they would have been useless , yea but an incumberance , and might be easily spared , for as long as the seeds remained behind , lodged in a natural and agreeable soil , all was safe enough : they would soon vegetate , and send forth a new sett of trees there , so that 't was not much matter what became of the old ones . but to the parts whereunto they were thus removed , they are of great advantage . and , which is in truth very remarkable , and an argument that there was something more than meer chance in this affair , there are hardly any countries that are destitute of timber of their own growth , which have not a very large supply of these stray-trees , if i may so call them . but to proceed . after that the terrestrial matter was once sunk down into its several beds , and well settled there , the mountains were cast up , and the springs and rivers burst forth , in such numbers , and at such distances from one another , in all parts of the globe , as best answered the necessities and expences of each : and therefore undoubtedly in much the same places that they were before the deluge . all things were so contrived and ordered in the re-sitting up the globe at this time , that they might best execute and perform each their several ends and offices . there were the same measures taken , and the same process used in this re-formation of it , that were when 't was first built : and much such an earth arose out of the deluge , as at the creation , sprung out of nothing ‖ . but the reader will more clearly discover all this , with the reasons of it , if he give but himself the trouble to compare part 2. cons. 2. & seq . part 3. sect. 1. pag. 154. & seq . & sect. 2. cons. 2 , 3 , & 7. part 4. cons. 3. & part 6. cons. 9. this premised , 't would be , i think , not strange should we find paradise at this day where adam left it : the same rivers : the same face of the ground : the same metalls and minerals , that then there were . and i the rather note this , because i see there are some so earnest in quest of it . learned men have been now a long time a searching after the happy country from which our first parents were exiled . if they can find it , with all my heart : and there have been some that have sought it with that industry that i think they deserve it for their pains whenever they make the discovery . to deal freely , i am of opinion there 's no part of the present earth that does come up fully to the mosaick description of paradise . the country about babylon , or bagdet , bids fairest for it : and i am persuaded that it was thereabouts . but if so , whoever shall compare this country , as now it stands , with that description , will find that it sustained some alterations from the deluge , perhaps more than any part of the earth besides . and there 's an obvious reason why it should . there was a paradise before , but was to be none after the deluge . the case was altered , and the reason of the thing ceased . so that all that denominated it paradise , and that distinguish'd it from the rest of the globe , was lop'd off by the deluge , and that only left which it enjoyed in common with its neighbour countries . upon the whole , 't is , i think , apparent that what i offer in this discourse is so far from doing any diskindness to the cause these gentlemen are , and have been so long , engaged in , that it does them a real service , and helps them out with the main thing whereat they stuck : fairly solving all difficulties in the mosaick relation of paradise . wherefore now to proceed to the last head to be discuss'd , the vicissitude of seasons , summer and winter , hot and cold , in the antediluvian world. and that there really was such a vicissitude we need not go any further for proof than to the aforesaid animal and vegetable bodies still preserved ; the general tenour of them speaking it out so plainly as to leave no room for doubt . there are , we know , some sorts of vegetables which consist of particles very fine , light , and active : and which therefore require only a smaller degree of heat to raise them * from out the earth up into the seeds , roots , or bodies of those vegetables , for their growth and nourishment . so that for the raising of these , the suns power , when only lesser , is sufficient . and therefore they begin to appear in the earlyer months , in february and march ; when they first peep forth of the ground : after a while they display themselves , shewing their whole tire of leaves : then their flowers : next their seeds : and lastly when , in the following months , april and may , the sun is further advanc'd , and ( to speak in the phrase of the vulgar , which i choose all along for the sake of plainness ) hath gained a greater strength , the heat becomes too powerful and boisterous for them ; it now mounting up the terrestrial matter with such force and rapidity , that the plants cannot assume that part of it which is proper for their nourishment , as it passeth through them , nor incorporate it with them , as before they were wont when it pass'd more gently and leisurely . nay the heat at length grows so great , that it again dissipates and bears off those very corpuscles which before it brought ; the parts of these plants being very tender , as consisting of corpuscles which are extremely small and light , and therefore the more easily dissipable . so that then these plants dye away , shrink down again into the earth , and all , save only their roots and seeds , vanish and disappear . but when the sun's heat is thus far advanc'd , 't is but just come up to the pitch of another sett of vegetables ; and but great enough to excite and bear up the terrestrial particles , which are more crass and ponderous . and therefore those plants which consist of such , begin then to shoot forth , and display themselves . so that the months of april and may present us with another crop and order of plants . for the same reason also , iune , iuly , and august go farther , and exhibit a still different shew of vegetables , and face of things . but when , in the months of september and october , the sun's power is again diminish'd , and its heat but about equivalent to that of march and april , it again suits the plants which were then in season , so that they many of them spring up afresh in these months , and flourish over a-new , in like manner as before they did in those ; till being check'd by the cold of the succeeding winter , the sun being gone0off , and having now no longer power great enough to bring up and supply them with fresh matter , they presently begin to decline for want thereof , and at length quite dwindle away and disappear , untill the arrival of the spring season , when they take their turns over again as formerly . yea the more tender and frigitive parts , the leaves , and the like , of many of the more sturdy and vigorous vegetables , shrubs , and trees , suffer the same fate , and fall off for want of the supply from beneath ; those only which are more tenacious , consistent , and hardy , enduring the brunt , and making a shift to subsist for the time without such recruit and reparation . 't is therefore , we see , most apparent that this succession of things upon the face of the earth , is purely the result and effect of the vicissitude of seasons : and is as constant and certain as is the cause of that vicissitude , the sun's declination : so certain , that were a man kept for some time blindfold , in such manner that he could have no notice how the year pass'd on , and were at length turn'd forth into the next field or garden , he would not need any other almanack to inform him what season of the year it then was . but if instead of this variation of heat , we suppose that there was an equality or constant temperature of it before the deluge , which is what the theorist contends for , the case would be very much altered , and that altogether for the worse . a man can hardly at first imagine what a train of ill consequences would follow from such a condition and posture of things ; of which 't would not be the least that such a mediocrity of heat would deprive the world of the most beautiful and the most useful parts of all the whole creation : and would be so far from exalting the earth to a more happy and paradisiacal state , which is what he brought it in for , that 't would turn it to a general desolation , and a meer barren wilderness , to say no worse . such an heat would be too little for some sorts of vegetables , and too great for others . the more fine and tender plants , those which will not bear a degree of heat beyond that of april , would be all burnt up , and destroyed by it : whilst it could never reach the more lofty and robust , nor would there be near heat enough to ripen their fruits and bring them to perfection . nothing would suit and hit ▪ all , and answer every end of nature , but such a gradual increase and decrease of heat as now there is . i must not descend to the animal world , where the inconveniences would be as many and as great as in the vegetable : and such a situation of the sun and earth as that which the theorist supposes , is so far from being preferable to this which at present obtains , that this hath infinitely the advantage of it in all respects . be that how it will , for i have no need to insist upon it , but may take the thing in his way , and suppose that such a temperature would have all the happy effects that he expects from it ; yet there is one very considerable phaenomenon of the vegetable remains of that earth , which affords us a sure and plain indication that there was not then any such temperature . from these it clearly appears that there was the same order and succession of things upon the face of the earth that there is at this time . now this succession being , as we have seen , caused meerly by the variation of the sun's heat , it must needs follow , that there was then the same variations of it , and consequently the same alternations of seasons , that now there is . had there been an equality of heat , if we grant that it could have produced all the plants in nature , which 't is impossible it ever should , it must have done it indifferently and uncertainly . there could be no reason why they should flourish at any one set time rather than another ; that 's peculiarly the effect of the sun's variation . so that they must needs have been all in confusion , and this succession of things would have been quite overturned . the plants which now appear in the most different and distant seasons , would have been all in prime , and flourishing together at the same time : so that they would have had february and may , iuly and september , all in one scene . nay , the several individuals of the same kind must have been as greatly at odds : one arrived to seed , and that fully ripe , and ready to shed , whilst another was not so much as come to flower , but in as differing a state and hue as can be . in brief , there would have been all the diversity , uncertainty , and disorder , in the vegetable kingdom that can well be conceived . which indeed is no more than what he freely owns : telling us that then every season was a seed-time to nature , and every season an harvest . this is what he does , and must grant : and this is as much as is needful for the overturning his hypothesis . for the vegetable remains of that earth say no such thing : they give not any the least countenance to these conjectures , but the quite contrary : and these , being many of them enclosed in very fine and close stone , are preserved to this day very curiously and entire to admiration . by them we may easily judge how things then stood . and there is so great an uniformity , and general consent amongst them , that from it i was enabled to discover what time of the year it was that the deluge began † ; the whole tenour of these bodies thus preserved clearly pointing forth the month of may ‖ ; nor have i ever met with so much as one single plant , or other body , amongst all those vast multitudes which i have carefully viewed , that is peculiar to any other season of the year : or any thing that happens earlier or later : any of them short , or any further advanc'd in growth , seed , or the like , than they now usually are in that month ; which surely i must needs have done , had there really been such an equality of seasons , and constant temperature of heat as is imagined by the theorist . there are some phaenomena of the animal remains of that earth which afford us more arguments to the same purpose , and those not less concluding than the others ; but these i shall wholly wave for the present , there being indeed no occasion to make use of them here . i shall now only look a little into the mosaick archives , to observe what they furnish us with upon this subject , and i have done ; for i perceive i have , before i am aware , much exceeded the measures i design'd , which on so copious a subject 't was hard not to do . gen. 1.14 . and god said , let there be lights in the firmament of the heaven , to divide the day from the night : and let them be for signs , and for seasons , and for days and years . this passage , we see , does not at all favour the opinion that there was no variation of seasons before the deluge : so far from it , that should a man go about with never so set study and design to describe such a natural form of the year as is that which is at present establish'd , he could scarcely ever do it in so few words again that were so fit and proper , so full and express ; especially if , by signs , in this place , months are intended , for then we have here first the year : and that subdivided into its usual parts , the four quarters or seasons , the twelve signs or months , and days ; nay at the same time , from the 19th verse , we learn that this establishment is , within four days , as old as the world. but further , gen. viii . 21 , 22. and the lord said in his heart , i will not again curse the ground , — neither will i again smite any more every thing living as i have done . while the earth remaineth , seed-time and harvest , and cold and heat , and summer and winter , and day and night , shall not cease . this was pronounc'd upon noah's sacrificing , at his coming forth of the ark , after the deluge was over : and implies , that there had indeed then lately been a mighty confusion of things , for the time : an interruption and perturbation of the ordinary course of them : and a cessation and suspension of the laws of nature : but withall gives security and assurance that there should never be the like any more to the end of the world : that for the future they should all run again in their old chanel : and that particularly there should be the same vicissitudes of seasons , and alternations of heat and cold that were before the del●ge . finis . books printed for richard wilkin at the king's-head in s. paul's church-yard . letters concerning the love of god , between the author of the proposal to the ladies , and mr. iohn norris ; wherein his late discourse , shewing that it ought to be entire and exclusive of all other loves , is farther clear'd and justified , octavo . a proposal to the ladies for the advancement of their true and greatest interest . by a lover of her sex. twelves . the second edition . a vindication of the truth of christian religion against the objections of all modern opposers . by iames abbadie , d. d. octavo . a second part of the enquiry into several remarkable texts of the old and new testament , which contain some difficulty in them : with a probable resolution of them . the second edition . octavo . a discourse concerning the authority , style , and perfection of the books of the old and new testament ; with a continued illustration of several difficult texts of scripture throughout the whole work . both by iohn edwards , b. d. sometime fellow of st. iohn's college in cambridge . octavo . the glorious epiphany , with the devout christians love to it . the second edition . octavo . search the scriptures . a treatise shewing that all christians ought to read the holy books ; with directions to them therein . a discourse concerning prayer , especially of frequenting the daily publick prayers . all three by the reverend sim. patrick , d. d. the old religion demonstrated in the principles , and described in the life and practice thereof . by i. goodman , d. d. the second edition . twelves . notes, typically marginal, from the original text notes for div a67007-e1380 ‖ i call those fissures , which distinguish the st●ne into strata , horizontal ones ; and those which intersect these perpendicular : not so much with respect to the present site of the strata , which ( as i shall shew ) is altered in many places , as to its original situation ; concerning which , see part 2. consect . 5. † part 4. consect . 2. * concerning these conchitae , cochlitae , &c. see part 4. cons. 2. and part 5. cons. 5. † part 4. conf. 2. * vid. part 2. cons. 2. † vid. part 2. cons. 3. notes for div a67007-e3690 * part 5. cons. 1. &c. † part 3. sect. 1. cons. 8. * part 2. and part 5. * part 2. * part 2. cons. 2. &c. * pag. 29 , &c. supra , and part 2. cons. 3. † cons. pag. 28. and part 2. cons. 3. ‖ part 5. cons. 4. * confer . part 3. sect. 2. cons. 2 , 3. * vid. part 3. sect. 1. consect . 1. † confer . p. 29 . &c. * part 4. cons●ct . 2. ‖ conf. conf. 5. supra . g●n . vi . 5. ‖ matth. xxiv . 38. * gen. vi . 2. † gen. vi . 11 , 12. * confer . part 6. dis. 3. † gen. 6.3 . * gen. vi . 13 . and behold i will destroy them with the earth . and again , at the covenant made with noah , after the deluge , more distinctly gen. ix . 11 . neither shall all flesh be cut off any more by the waters of a flood : neither shall there any more be a flood to destroy the earth ; the latter part whereof is render'd somewhat more expresly by the septuagint 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 i.e. and there shall not be any more a-deluge of water to destroy the whole earth . and the vulg . lat. neque erit deinceps diluvium dissipans terram , i. e. neither shall there be hereafter a deluge to dissipate [ or dissolve ] the earth . and of this dissolution of the earth there was a tradition amongst the ancients , both iews and gentiles . † dr. burnet . theory of the earth . ‖ vid. cons. 2. supra . ** part 4. cons. 3. ‖ vid. cons. 3. supra . * confen . p. 55. & seq . * conf. part 6. † conf. part 3. sect. 2. con● . 7. gen. iii. gen. iv . * conf. rom. v. 12. and 1 cor. xv . 21 , 22. ‖ gen. ii . 17. † gen. v. 5. * gen. viii . 20 , 21. * gen. ix . 11. ‖ gen ix . 25 , 26 , 27. † gen. ii . 5 . * vid. part 3. sect. 1. consect . 1. and sect. 2. cons. 2 , 3 † confer . part 3. sect. 1. cons. 12. * moss is the name used all over the north of england instead of fen. † conf. cons. 3. sup●a . * confer . part 5. consect . 2. † heat and fire differ but in degree : and heat is fire only in lesser quantity . fire i shall shew to be a fluid consisting of parts extremely small and light , and consequently very subtile , active , and susceptive of motion . an aggregate of these parts in such number as to be visible to the eye , is what we call flame and fire : a lesser , thinner , and more dispers'd collection , heat and warmth . † vid. cons. 10. infra . * pag. 47. † conf. pag. 12● . * confer . pag. 125. † part 2 , cons. 3. * vid. cons. 8. supra . * conser . cons. 10. supra . † vid. cons. 2. supra . ‖ conf. consect . 13. infra . † vid. cons. 14. infra . * vid. part 2. cons. 8. * it is ind●e● by this very heat that their water is borne unto them from our the abyss . vid. cens. 8. supra . † vid. cons. 12. and 13. supra . ‖ pag. 96. * lib. 1. c. 9. to 12. * aspart 2. cons. 4. ‖ as part 2. cons. 6. * cons. 8. supra . † part 4. cons. 5. ‖ part 2. cons. 6 , 7 , 8. † conf. cons. 8. supra . † gen. 7. 19. ‖ theory of earth , l. 1. c. 2. ‖ princ. pbilos . 1. 4. * gen. vii . 20. ‖ conf. sect. 1. cons. 12. † part 2. cons. 6. * sect. 1. supra . cons. 2. † confer . part 6. sub finem . ‖ theory of the earth . l. 1.c.6.8 . &c. † vi● . pag. 55. & seq . ut & pag. 95. † part 1. pag. 68. † the crystallized bodies found in the perpendicular intervalls are easily known from those which are lodged in the strata , even by one who did not take them thence , or observe ▪ them there . the former have always their root , ( as the iewellers call it ) which 〈◊〉 only the abruptness at that end of the body whereby it adhered to the stone , or sides of the intervalls , which abruptn●ss is caused by its being broke off from it . those which are found in the strata of earth , sand , or the like , ( having lain loose therein ) are intire , ●●d want that mark of adhesion : but those which are inclosed in stone , marble , or such other solid matter , being difficulty separable from it , because of its adhesion to all sides of them , have commonly some of that matter still adhering to them , or at least marks of its abruption from them , on all their sides ; wherein these differ from those found in the perpendicular intervalls , they adhering , 〈◊〉 we have noted , by only one end . vid. cons. 6 . &c. infra . * vid. cons. 2. infra . ‖ vid. consect . 3. infra . ‖ vulgarly call'd fungites . * or rather stagonitae . * vid. part 2. * vid. cons. 4. and 5. infra . † part 2. consect . 2. * vid. part 5. cons. 1. ‖ part 2. cons. 2. * vid. part 3. sect. 1. cons. 11. ‖ conf. part 5. cons. 5. † conf. part 2. cons. 3. † vid. pag. 174 supra . ‖ vid. pag. 174. supra . * conf. part 2. cons. 3. & 6. and part 3. sect. 2. cons. 3. uti & part 4. cons. 3. † part 3. sect. 1. cons. 8. ‖ ibid. * part 3. sect. 1. cons. 4. † conf. cons. 12. & 13. infra . ‖ vid. pag. 178. supra . * vid. pag. 178. supra . * confer . consect . 3. pag. 188. supra . * vid. cons. 12. infra . † vid. cons. 14. infra . * part 3. cons. 8. † ibid. ‖ conf. part 3. sect. 1. cons. 8. and part 4. cons. 5. * part 1. pag. 47. and part 3. sect. 1. cons. 8. * vid. cons. 12. supra . ‖ part 3. sect. 1. cons. 12. pag. 139. & 141. supra . * ib. pag. 135. † confer . pag. 202. supra . † vid. part 3. sect. 1. cons. 8. ‖ vid. pag. 126. supra . † vid. pag. 141. supra . * vid. pag. 203. supra . ‖ vid. pag. 206. supra . * conf. part 3. sect. 1. cons. 8. † part 2. cons. 3. & part 4. cons. 3. ‖ cons. 5. &c. supra . † conf. cons. 1. supra . * part 5. cons. 2. * vid. part 3. sect. 1. cons. 8. pag. 126. ‖ vid. cons. 2. supra . † ibid. † ibid. † conf. pag. 172. & pag. 174. * part 4. cons. 4. † ibid. cons. 9. * vid. part 3. sect. 1. cons. 8. † confer . pag. 47. & seq . u●i & pag. 128. & seq . † confer . pag. 47. & seq . u●i & pag. 128. & seq . * part 2. cons. 3. ‖ vid. pag. 65. & 66. supra . ‖ part 2. cons. 2. & 3. † part 2. cons. 4. * those which consist of spar , flint , &c. i have considered above , part 4. cons. 2. ‖ vulgarly pectinitae . † which are much more violent in some countries than in others . vid. part 3. cons. 8. * part 4. cons. 14. pag. 215. † part 1. pag. 49. ‖ part 3. sect. 1. cons. 13. * part 2. pag. 89 , 90. ‖ vid. consect . 5. supra . * confer . cons. 1. supra . * part 2. cons. 2. † theory of the earth , l. 1. c. 6. & l. 2. c. 3. ‖ l. 1. c. 5. * ibid. l. 2. c. 6. * conf. pag. 84. & seq . ‖ conf. part 2. † gen. 1.9 , 10. * l. 1. c. 7. † vers. 13. ‖ vers. 21 , 22. * vers. 28. † conf. pag. 6. & part 2. † conf. pag. 26. supra . * vid. pag. 22. & 23. supra . † conf. pag. 48. & 156. ‖ part 3. sect. 1. pag. 153. & 154. the theorist , i know , supposes both the antediluvian and the present earth to be of an oval figure , and protended towards the poles , as thinking that such a figure would afford him a plane so much inclined towards the aequator , that the rivers might flow upon it though there were no mountains . but 't is plain they could not . nor are there any the least grounds to believe that the first earth was of that figure . if he had had any thing that had look'd like a proof of it , he had done well to have produced it . but 't is manifest though we imagine the earth formed that way he proposes , it would not have fallen into any such figure . and for the present earth , 't is of a figure as different from that which he assigns as it well could be ; it being a sphaeroides prolatus , as appears from the late discoveries concerning it . * gen. vii . 19. & seq . * vid. part 2. † conf. pag. 32.66.77 . & part 3. sect. 2. cons. 11. ‖ gen. i. 20. & seq . * pag. 22 , 23. conf. gen. i. 11 , 12 , 21 , 24 , 25. & vi . 20. † gen. iv . 22. ‖ con●er . gen. vii . 23. & 1 pet. iii. 20. * gen. ii . 11 , 12. ‖ vers. 9. * part 2. † confer . p●r● 2. c●ns●ct . 3. ‖ in which posture 't is probable the olive-tree lay from which the dove pluck'd off the leaf that she brought unto noah , gen. viii . 11. * conf. pag. 113. supra . ‖ vid. pag. 97. supra . * vid. par● 3. sect. 1. cons. 8. pag. 125. † gen. vii . 11. in the second month , the seventeenth day of the month , — were all the fountains of the great deep broken up , and the windows of heaven were opened . moses ▪ writing to the jews his ▪ country-men , makes use of the form of the year then received amongst them , which was indeed the first and most ancient , but had been disused during the time of their abode in egypt , and but newly re-establish'd when this was wrote [ exod. xii . 2. ] in this , nisan , or ; as 't was also call'd , adib was the first month : and ijar the second , upon the 17th day whereof thé waters of the deluge came forth , according to this relation . and truly the time ( which is not d little remarkable ) falls within the compass here chalk'd out by nature so very punctually , that one can scarcely forbear concluding that th●se strokes and lines of nature , and those of that relation , came both from the same hand ; but this only by the by . the particulars of the computation i here use shall be given at fall elsewhere , they being too bulky for this place . ‖ conf. part 3. sect. 2. conf. 5. a free enquiry into the vulgarly receiv'd notion of nature made in an essay address'd to a friend / by r.b., fellow of the royal society. boyle, robert, 1627-1691. 1686 approx. 438 kb of xml-encoded text transcribed from 221 1-bit group-iv tiff page images. text creation partnership, ann arbor, mi ; oxford (uk) : 2004-03 (eebo-tcp phase 1). a28982 wing b3979 estc r11778 11688005 ocm 11688005 48184 this keyboarded and encoded edition of the work described above is co-owned by the institutions providing financial support to the early english books online text creation partnership. this phase i text is available for reuse, according to the terms of creative commons 0 1.0 universal . the text can be copied, modified, distributed and performed, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. early english books online. (eebo-tcp ; phase 1, no. a28982) transcribed from: (early english books online ; image set 48184) images scanned from microfilm: (early english books, 1641-1700 ; 15:11) a free enquiry into the vulgarly receiv'd notion of nature made in an essay address'd to a friend / by r.b., fellow of the royal society. boyle, robert, 1627-1691. [24], 412, [4] p. printed by h. clark for john taylor ..., london : 1685/6 [i.e. 1686] reproduction of original in library of congress. created by converting tcp files to tei p5 using tcp2tei.xsl, tei @ oxford. re-processed by university of nebraska-lincoln and northwestern, with changes to facilitate morpho-syntactic tagging. gap elements of known extent have been transformed into placeholder characters or elements to simplify the filling in of gaps by user contributors. eebo-tcp is a partnership between the universities of michigan and oxford and the publisher proquest to create accurately transcribed and encoded texts based on the image sets published by proquest via their early english books online (eebo) database (http://eebo.chadwyck.com). the general aim of eebo-tcp is to encode one copy (usually the first edition) of every monographic english-language title published between 1473 and 1700 available in eebo. eebo-tcp aimed to produce large quantities of textual data within the usual project restraints of time and funding, and therefore chose to create diplomatic transcriptions (as opposed to critical editions) with light-touch, mainly structural encoding based on the text encoding initiative (http://www.tei-c.org). the eebo-tcp project was divided into two phases. the 25,363 texts created during phase 1 of the project have been released into the public domain as of 1 january 2015. anyone can now take and use these texts for their own purposes, but we respectfully request that due credit and attribution is given to their original source. users should be aware of the process of creating the tcp texts, and therefore of any assumptions that can be made about the data. text selection was based on the new cambridge bibliography of english literature (ncbel). if an author (or for an anonymous work, the title) appears in ncbel, then their works are eligible for inclusion. selection was intended to range over a wide variety of subject areas, to reflect the true nature of the print record of the period. in general, first editions of a works in english were prioritized, although there are a number of works in other languages, notably latin and welsh, included and sometimes a second or later edition of a work was chosen if there was a compelling reason to do so. image sets were sent to external keying companies for transcription and basic encoding. quality assurance was then carried out by editorial teams in oxford and michigan. 5% (or 5 pages, whichever is the greater) of each text was proofread for accuracy and those which did not meet qa standards were returned to the keyers to be redone. after proofreading, the encoding was enhanced and/or corrected and characters marked as illegible were corrected where possible up to a limit of 100 instances per text. any remaining illegibles were encoded as <gap>s. understanding these processes should make clear that, while the overall quality of tcp data is very good, some errors will remain and some readable characters will be marked as illegible. users should bear in mind that in all likelihood such instances will never have been looked at by a tcp editor. the texts were encoded and linked to page images in accordance with level 4 of the tei in libraries guidelines. copies of the texts have been issued variously as sgml (tcp schema; ascii text with mnemonic sdata character entities); displayable xml (tcp schema; characters represented either as utf-8 unicode or text strings within braces); or lossless xml (tei p5, characters represented either as utf-8 unicode or tei g elements). keying and markup guidelines are available at the text creation partnership web site . eng nature -early works to 1800. natural history -pre-linnean works. 2003-09 tcp assigned for keying and markup 2003-09 aptara keyed and coded from proquest page images 2003-10 jonathan blaney sampled and proofread 2003-10 jonathan blaney text and markup reviewed and edited 2003-12 pfs batch review (qc) and xml conversion a free enquiry into the vulgarly receiv'd notion of nature ; made in an essay , address'd to a friend . by r. b. fellow of the royal society . audendum est , & veritas investiganda ; quam etiamsi non assequamur , omnino tamen propius , quam nunc sumus , ad eam perveniemus . galenus . imprimatur . carolus alston , r. p. d. hen. episc. lond. à sacris , jan. 29. 1685. london , printed by h. clark , for iohn taylor at the globe in st. paul's church-yard , 1685 / 6. the preface . i have often wonder'd , that , in so inquisitive an age as this , among those many learned men , that have with much freedom , as well as acuteness , written of the works of nature , ( as they call them , ) and some of them of the principles too , i have not met with any , that has made it his business to write of nature herself . this will perhaps hereafter be thought such an omission , as if , in giving an account of the political estate of a kingdom , one should treat largely of the civil judges , military officers , and other subordinate magistrates , and of the particular ranks and orders of inferior subjects and plebeians , but should be silent of the prerogatives and ways of administration of the king ; or , ( to use a comparison more suitable to the subject , ) as if one should particularly treat of the barrel , wheels , string , ballance , index , and other parts of a watch , without examining the nature of the spring , that sets all these a moving . when i say this , i do not forget , that the word nature is every where to be met with in the writings of physiologers . but , though they frequently employ the word , they seem not to have much consider'd , what notion ought to be fram'd of the thing , which they suppose and admire , and upon occasion celebrate , but do not call in question or discuss . weighing therefore with my self , of what great moment the framing a right or a wrong idea of nature must be , in reference both to the speculative and practical part of physiology ; i judg'd it very well worth the while , to make , with philosophical freedom , a serious enquiry into the vulgarly receiv'd notion of nature ; that , if it appeared well-grounded , i might have the rational satisfaction of not having acquiesc'd in it , till , after a previous examen ; if i should find it confus'd and ambiguous , i might endeavour to remedy that inconvenience , by distinguishing the acceptions of the word ; if i found it dubious as to its truth , i might be shy in trusting too much to a distrusted principle ; and , if i found erroneous , i might avoid the raising superstructures of my own , or relying on those of others , that must owe their stability to an unsound and deceitful foundation . and , because many atheists ascribe so much to nature , that they think it needless to have recourse to a deity , for the giving an account of the phaenomena of the universe : and , on the other side , very many theists seem to think the commonly received notion of nature , little less , than necessary to the proof of the existence and providence of god ; i , who differ from both these parties , and yet think every true theist , and much more every true christian , ought to be much concerned for truths , that have so powerful an influence on religion , thought my self , for its sake , oblig'd to consider this matter , both with the more attention and with regard to religion . and yet , being to write this treatise as a physiologer , not a christian , i could not rationally build any positive doctrine upon mere revelation , which would have been judg'd a foreign principle in this enquiry . only , since the person , i intentionally address'd my thoughts to , under the name of eleutherius , was a good christian , i held it not impertinent , now and then , upon the by , to intimate something to prevent or remove some scruples , that i thought he might have , on the score ( i say not of natural theology , for that is almost directly pertinent , but ) of the christian faith. but these passages are very few , and but transiently touch'd upon . since the reader will be told by and by both that , and why the papers , that make up the following treatise , were not written in one continued series of times , but many years were interpos'd between the writing of some of them , and that of those which precede and follow them : i hope it will be thought but a venial fault , if the contexture of the whole discourse do not appear so uniform , nor all the connections of its parts so apt and close , as , if no papers had been lost and supply'd , might reasonably be look'd for . i expect the novelty of divers of the sentiments and reasonings , propos'd in the following discourse , will be surprising , and encline many to look upon the author as a bold man , and much addicted to paradoxes . but , having formerly , in a distinct essay , deliver'd my thoughts about paradoxes in general , i shall not now ingage in that subject , but confine my self to what concerns the ensuing paper . i say then , in short , that in an opinion , i look upon its being new or antient , and its being singular or commonly receiv'd , as things that are but extrinsical to its being true or false . and , as i would never reject a truth , for being generaly known or receiv'd , so will i not conclude an opinion to be a truth , merely because great numbers have thought it to be so ; nor think an opinion erroneous , because 't is not yet known to many , or because it opposes a tenent embrac'd by many . for i am wont to judge of opinions , as of coins : i consider much less in any one , that i am to receive , whose inscription it bears , than what metal 't is made of . 't is indifferent enough to me , whether 't was stamp'd many years or ages since , or came but yesterday from the mint . nor do i regard through how many , or how few , hands it has pass'd for current , provided i know by the touch-stone , or any sure tryal , purposely made , whether or no it be genuine , and does or does not deserve to have been currant . for , if upon due proof it appears to be good , its having been long and by many receiv'd for such , will not tempt me to refuse it . but , if i find it counterfeit , neither the princes image or inscription , nor its date ( how antient soever , ) nor the multitude of hands , through which it has pass'd unsuspected , will engage me to receive it. and one disfavouring tryal , well made , will much more discredit it with me , than all those specious things , i have nam'd , can recommend it. by this declaration of my sentiments about paradoxes in general , i hope it will be thought , that the motive i had to question that notion of nature , which i dissent from , was not , that this notion is vulgarly receiv'd . and i have this to say , to make it probable , that i was not ingag'd in this controversie , by any ambition of appearing in print an heresiarch in philosophy , by being the author of a strange doctrine , that the following discourse was written about the year 1666. ( that is , some lustres ago , ) and that not long after , the youth , to whom i dictated it , having been inveigled to steal away , unknown to me or his parents , into the indies , ( whence we never heard of him since , ) left the loose sheets , wherein ( and not in a book ) my thoughts had been committed to paper , very incoherent , by the omission of divers necessary passages . upon which account , and my unwillingness to take the pains to supply what was wanting , those papers lay by me many years together neglected , and almost forgotten ; 'till the curiosity of some philosophical heads , that were pleas'd to think they deserv'd another fate , oblig'd me to tack them together , and make up the gaps that remain'd between their parts , by retrieving , as well as , after so many years , my bad memory was able to do , the thoughts i sometimes had , pertinent to those purposes . and indeed , when i consider'd of how vast importance it is in philosophy , and the practice of physick too , to have a right notion of nature ; and how little the authority of the generality of men ought , in so nice and intricate a subject , to sway a free and impartial spirit ; as i at first thought myself oblig'd , since others had not sav'd me the labour , to make a free enquiry into this noble and difficult subject , so i was afterwards the more easily prevail'd with , by those that press'd the publication of it . with what success i have made this attempt , i must leave others to judg . but if i be not much flatter'd , whatever becomes of the main attempt , there will be found suggested here and there , in the following discourse , some reflections and explications , that will at least oblige the zealous assertors of the vulgar notion of nature , to clear up the doctrine , and speak more distinctly and correctly about things that relate to it , than hitherto has been usual . and that will be fruit enough to recompense the labour , and justifie the title , of a free enquiry . in prosecution of which , since i have been oblig'd to travel in an untrodden way , without a guide , 't will be thought , i hope , more pardonable than strange , if , in attempting to discover divers general mistakes , i be not so happy as to escape falling into some particular ones myself . and , if among these , i have been so unhappy , as to make any that is injurious to religion , as i did not at all intend it , so , as soon as ever i shall discover it , i shall freely disown it myself , and pray that it may never mislead others . what my performance has been , i have already acknowledg'd that i may be unfit to judg ; but , for my intentions , i may make bold to say , they were , to keep the glory of the divine author of things from being usurp'd or intrench'd ▪ upon by his creatures , and to make his works more throughly and solidly understood , by the philosophical studiers of them. i do not pretend , and i need not , that every one of the arguments , i employ in the following tract , is cogent , especially if consider'd as single . for demonstrative arguments would be unsuitable to the very title of my attempt ; since , if about the receiv'd notion of nature , i were furnish'd with unanswerable reasons , my discourse ought to be styl'd , not a free enquiry into the vulgar notion of nature , i consider , but a confutation of it. and a heap of bare probabilities may suffice to justifie a doubt of the truth of an opinion , which they cannot clearly evince to be false . and therefore , if any man shall think fit to criticize upon the less principal or less necessary parts of this treatise , perhaps i shall not think my self oblig'd to be concern'd at it. and even , if the main body of the discourse itself shall be attack'd from the press ; i , who am neither young nor healthy , nor ever made divinity , philosophy , or physick , my profession , am not like to oppose him in the same way : since , as i ought not to wish , that any errors of mine ( if this essay teach any such , ) should prevail ; so , if the things i have deliver'd be true for the main , i need not despair but that , in such a free and inquisitive age as ours , there will be found generous spirits , that will not suffer weighty truths to be oppress'd , tho' the proposers of them should , by averseness from contention , or by want of time or health , be themselves kept from defending them . which i have thought fit to take notice of in this place , that the truth ( if i have been so happy , as to have found and taught it , ) may not suffer by my silence ; nor any reader surmize , that , if i shall leave a book unanswered , i thereby acknowledg it to be unanswerable . but this regards only the main substance of our essay , not the order or disposition of the parts : since , if any shall censure that , i shall not quarrel with him about it. for indeed , considering in how preposterous an order the papers , i have here tack'd together , came to hand ; and how many things are upon that score unduly plac'd , i shall not only be content , but must desire , to have this rhapsody , of my own loose papers , look'd upon but as an apparatus , or collection of materials , in order to [ what i well know this maim'd and confus'd essay is not , ] a compleat and regular discourse . yet ( to conclude , ) i thought , that the affording even of a little light , in a subject so dark and so very important , might keep an essay from being useless ; and that to fall short of demonstration would prove a pardonable fault , in a discourse , that pretends not to dogmatize , but only to make an enquiry . sept. 29 , 1682. a free enquiry into the received notion of nature . sect . i. i know not whether or no it be a prerogative in the human soul , that , as 't is itself a true and positive being , so 't is apt to conceive all other things , as true and positive beings also . but , whether or no this propensity , to frame such kind of idea's , suppose an excellency , i fear it occasions mistakes ; and makes us think and speak , after the manner of true and positive beings , of such things , as are but chimerical , and some of them negations or privations themselves ; as death , ignorance , blindness , and the like . it concerns us therefore , to stand very carefully upon our guard , that we be not insensibly misled by such an innate and unheeded temptation to error , as we bring into the world with us . and consequently i may be allowed to consider , whether , among other particulars , in which this deluding propensity of our minds has too great , though unsuspected , an influence upon us ; it may not have impos'd on us , in the notion we are wont to frame concerning nature . for this being the fruitful parent of other notions , as nature herself is said to be of the creatures of the universe ; the notion is so general in its applications , and so important in its influence ; that we had need be jealously careful , of not over-easily admitting a notion , than which there can scarce be any that more deserves to be warily examin'd , before it be throughly entertain'd . let me therefore make bold to enquire freely , whether that , of which we affirm such great things , and to which we ascribe so many feats , be that almost divine thing , whose works among others we are ; or a notional thing , that in some sense is rather to be reckon'd among our works ; as owing its being to human intellects . i know , most men will be forestall'd with no mean prejudices against so venturous an attempt ; but i will not do eleutherius the injury , to measure him by the prepossess'd generality of men ; yet there are two scruples which i think it not amiss to take notice of , to clear the way for what shall be presented you in the following discourse . and first , it may seem an ingrateful and unfilial thing , to dispute against nature , that is taken by mankind for the common parent of us all . but though it be an undutiful thing , to express a want of respect for an acknowledg'd parent , yet i know not , why it may not be allowable to question one , that a man looks upon but as a pretended one , or at least does upon probable grounds doubt , whether she be so or no ; and , 'till it appear to me that she is so , i think it my duty to pay my gratitude , not to i know not what , but to that deity , whose wisdom and goodness , not only design'd to make me a man , and enjoy what i am here bless'd with , but contriv'd the world so , that even those creatures of his , who by their inanimate condition are not capable of intending to gratifie me , should be as serviceable and useful to me , as they would be , if they could and did design the being so ; and you may be pleas'd to remember , that , as men may now accuse such an enquirer , as i am , of impiety and ingratitude towards nature : so the persians , and other worshipers of the coelestial bodies , accus'd several of the ancient philosophers , and all the primitive christians , of the like crimes , in reference to the sun ; whose existence , and whose being a benefactor to mankind , was far more unquestionable , than that there is such a semi-deity as men call nature : and it can be no great disparagement to me , to suffer on the like account with 〈◊〉 good company , especially , when several of the considerations that justifie them , may also apologize for me . i might add , that , it not being half so evident to me , that what is called nature is my parent , as that all men are my brothers , by being the off-spring of god ; ( for the 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 of aratus is adopted by st. paul ) i may justly prefer the doing of them a service , by disabusing them , to the paying of her a ceremonial respect . but setting allegories aside , i have sometimes seriously doubted , whether the vulgar notion of nature has not been both injurious to the glory of god , and a great impediment to the solid and useful discovery of his works . and first , it seems to detract from the honour of the great author and governor of the world ; that men should ascribe most of the admirable things that are to be met with in it , not to him , but to a certain nature , which themselves do not well know what to make of . ●tis true that many confess , that this nature is a thing of his establishing , and subordinate to him ; but , though many confess it when they are ask'd , whether they do or no ? yet , besides that many seldom or never lifted up their eyes to any higher cause , he that takes notice of their way of ascribing things to nature , may easily discern , that , whatever their words sometimes be , the agency of god is little taken notice of in their thoughts : and however , it does not a little darken the excellency of the divine management of things , that , when a strange thing is to be effected or accounted for , men so often have recourse to nature , and think she must extraordinarily interpose to bring such things about : whereas it much more tends to the illustration of god's wisdom , to have so fram'd things at first , that there can seldom or never need any extraordinary interposition of his power . and , as it more recommends the skill of an engineer , to contrive an elaborate engine , so as that there should need nothing to reach his ends in it , but the contrivance of parts devoid of understanding ; than if it were necessary , that ever and anon a discreet servant should be employ'd , to concur notably to the operations of this or that part , or to hinder the engine from being out of order : so it more sets off the wisdom of god in the fabrick of the universe , that he can make so vast a machine , perform all those many things which he design'd it should , by the meer contrivance of brute matter , managed by certain laws of local motion , and upheld by his ordinary and general concourse ; than if he imployed from time to time an intelligent overseer , such as nature is fancied to be , to regulate , assist , and controul the motions of the parts . in confirmation of which , you may remember , that the later poets justly reprehended their predecessors , for want of skill , in laying the plots of their plays , because they often suffered things to be reduced to that pass , that they were fain to bring some deity 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 upon the stage , to help them out . ( nec deus intersit , nisi dignus vindice nodus , ) &c. and let me tell you freely , that , though i will not say , that aristotle meant the mischief his doctrine did , yet i am apt to think , that the grand enemy of god's glory made great use of aristotle's authority and errors , to detract from it . for as aristotle , by introducing the opinion of the eternity of the world , ( whereof he owns himself to have been the first broacher ) did , at least in almost all mens opinion , openly deny god the production of the world : so , by ascribing the admirable works of god , to what he calls nature , he tacitly denies him the government of the world. which suspicion , if you judg severe , i shall not , at more leisure , refuse to acquaint you , ( in a distinct paper ) why i take divers of aristotle's opinions relating to religion , to be more unfriendly , not to say pernicious , to it , than those of several other heathen philosophers . and here give me leave to prevent an objection , that some may make , as if , to deny the receiv'd notion of nature , a man must also deny providence ; of which nature is the grand instrument . for in the first place , my opinion hinders me not at all from acknowledging god to be the author of the universe , and the continual preserver and upholder of it ; which is much more than the peripatetick hypothesis , which ( as we were saying ) makes the world eternal , will allow its embracers to admit ; and those things which the school-philosophers ascribe to the agency of nature , interposing according to emergencies , i ascribe to the wisdom of god in the first fabrick of the universe ; which he so admirably contrived , that , if he but continue his ordinary and general concourse , there will be no necessity of extraordinary interpositions , which may reduce him , to seem as it were to play after-games ; all those exigencies , upon whose account philosophers and physicians seem to have devis'd what they call nature , being foreseen and provided for in the first fabrick of the world ; so that meer matter , so ordered , shall in such and such conjunctures of circumstances , do all that philosophers ascribe on such occasions to their almost omniscient nature , without any knowledg of what it does , or acting otherwise than according to the catholick laws of motion . and methinks the difference betwixt their opinion of god's agency in the world , and that which i would propose , may be somewhat adumbrated , by saying , that they seem to imagine the world to be after the nature of a puppet , whose contrivance indeed may be very artificial , but yet is such , that almost every particular motion the artificer is fain ( by drawing sometimes one wire or string , sometimes another ) to guide , and oftentimes over-rule , the actions of the engine ; whereas , according to us , 't is like a rare clock , such as may be that at strasbourg , where all things are so skilfully contriv'd , that the engine being once set a moving , all things proceed according to the artificers first design , and the motions of the little statues , that at such hours perform these or those things , do not require , like those of puppets , the peculiar interposing of the artificer , or any intelligent agent imployed by him , but perform their functions upon particular occasions , by vertue of the general and primitive contrivance of the whole engine . the modern aristotelians and other philosophers would not be tax'd as injurious to providence , though they now ascribe to the ordinary course of nature , those regular motions of the planets , that aristotle and most of his followers ( and among them the christian school-men ) did formerly ascribe to the particular guidance of intelligent and immaterial beings , which they assign'd to be the movers of the coelestial orbs. and when i consider , how many things , that seem anomalies to us , do frequently enough happen in the world , i think it is more consonant to the respect we owe to divine providence , to conceive , that as god is a most free , as well as a most wise agent , and may in many things have ends unknown to us : he very well foresaw , and thought fit , that such seeming anomalies should come to pass , since he made them ( as is evident in the eclipses of the sun and moon ) the genuine consequences of the order , he was pleas'd to settle in the world ; by whose laws the grand agents in the universe were impower'd and determin'd , to act according to the respective natures he had given them ; and the course of things was allowed to run on , though that would infer the happening of seeming anomalies , and things really repugnant to the good or welfare of divers particular portions of the universe . this , i say , i think to be a notion more respectful to divine providence , than to imagine , as we commonly do , that god has appointed an intelligent and powerful being , called nature , to be as his vice-gerent , continually watchful for the good of the universe in general , and of the particular bodies that compose it ; whilst in the mean time , this being appears not to have the skill , or the power , to prevent such anomalies , which oftentimes prove destructive to multitudes of animals , and other noble creatures , ( as in plagues , &c. ) and sometimes prejudicial to greater portions of the universe , ( as in earth-quakes of a large spread , eclipses of the luminaries , great and lasting spots on the sun , eruptions of vulcan , great comets or new stars that pass from one region of heaven to another . ) and i am the more tender of admitting such a lieutenant to divine providence , as nature is fancied to be , because i shall hereafter give you some instances , in which it seems , that , if there were such a thing , she must be said to act too blindly and impotently , to discharge well the part she is said to be trusted with . i shall add , that the doctrine , i plead for , does much better than its rival comply with what religion teaches us , about the extraordinary and supernatural interpositions of divine providence . for when it pleases god to over-rule , or controul , the establish'd course of things in the world , by his own omnipotent hand , what is thus perform'd may be much easier discern'd and acknowledg'd to be miraculous , by them that admit , in the ordinary course of corporeal things , nothing but matter and motion , whose powers men may well judg of ; than by those who think there is besides , a certain semi-deity , which they call nature , whose skill and power they acknowledg to be exceeding great , and yet have no sure way of estimating how great they are , and how far they may extend . and give me leave to take notice to you , on this occasion , that i observe the miracles of our saviour and his apostles , pleaded by christians on the behalf of their religion , to have been very differingly look'd on by epicurean and other corpuscularian infidels , and by those other unbelievers who admit of a soul of the world , or spirits in the stars , or , in a word , think the universe to be governed by intellectual beings , distinct from the supream being we call god. for this later sort of infidels have often admitted those matters of fact , which we christians call miracles ; and yet have endeavour'd to solve them by astral operations , and other ways not here to be specified : whereas the epicureàn enemies of christianity have thought themselves oblig'd , resolutely to deny the matters of fact themselves ; as well discerning , that the things , said to be perform'd , exceeded the mechanical powers of matter and motion , ( as they were managed by those , that wrought the miracles , ) and consequently must either be deny'd to have been done , or be confess'd to have been truly miraculous . but there may hereafter be occasion , both to improve the things already said , and add others , to satisfie theological scruples about our hypothesis . i formerly told you , that 't was not only to the glory of god , ( as that results from his wisdom , power , an● goodness , express'd in the world ) that i suspected the notion of nature , that i am examining , to be prejudicial , but also to the discovery of his works . and you will make no great difficulty to believe me , if you consider , that , whilst men allow themselves so general and easie a way , or rendring accounts of things that are difficult , as to attribute them to nature ; shame will not reduce them to a more industrious scrutiny into the reasons of things , and curiosity itself will move them to it the more faintly : of which we have a clear and eminent example , in the ascension of water in pumps , and in other phaenomena's of that kind , whose true physical causes had never been found out , if the moderns had acquiesced , as their predecessors did , in that imaginary one , that the world was govern'd by a watchful being , call'd nature , and that she abhors a vacuum , and consequently is still in a readiness , to do irresistibly whatever is necessary to prevent it : nor must we expect any great progress , in the discovery of the true causes of natural effects , whilst we are content to sit down with other , than the particular and immediate ones . 't is not that i deny , that there are divers things , as the number and situation of the stars , the shapes and sizes of animals , &c. about which , even a philosopher being ask'd can say little , but that it pleased the author of the universe to make them so ; but when we give such general answers , we pretend not to give the particular physical reasons of the things propos'd , but do in effect confess we do not know them . to this i add , that the veneration , wherewith men are imbued for what they call nature , has been a discouraging impediment to the empire of man over the inferior creatures of god. for many have not only look'd upon it , as an impossible thing to compass , but as something of impious to attempt , the removing of those boundaries which nature seems to have put and setled among her productions . and whilst they look upon her as such a venerable thing , some make a kind of scruple of conscience , to endeavour so to emulate any of her works , as to excel them . i have staid so long , about removing the first of the two scruples i formerly propos'd against my present attempt , that , not to tire your patience , i shall in few words dispatch the second , which is , that i venture to contradict the sense of the generality of mankind : to which i answer , that in philosophical inquiries , it becomes not a naturalist to be so solicitous , what has been , or is believ'd , as what ought to be so ; and i have also elsewhere , on another occasion , shew'd , how little the sense of the generality of men , ought to sway us in some questions : but that which i shall at present more directly reply , is , first , that 't is no wonder , men should be generally prepossest with such a notion of nature , as i call in question , since education ( especially in the schools ) has imbued them with it from their infancy , and even in their maturer years they find it taken for granted , and imployed not only by the most but by the learnedst writers , and never hear it call'd in question by any ; and then it exceedingly complies with our innate propensity , to think that we know more than we do , and to appear to do so . for to vouch nature for a cause , is an expedient , that can scarce be wanting to any man , upon any occasion , to seem to know what he can indeed render no good reason of . and to this first part of my answer , i shall subjoin this second . that the general custom of mankind , to talk of a thing as a real and positive being , and attribute great matters to it , does but little weigh with me ; when i consider , that , though fortune be not any physical thing , but a certain loose & undetermin'd notion , which a modern meta-physician would refer to the classis of his non entia , yet not only the gentiles made it a goddess , ( nos te facimus , fortuna , deam , coeloque locamus , ) which many of them seriously worship'd , but eminent writers , in verse and in prose , ethnick and christian , ancient and modern , and all sorts of men , in their common discourse do seriously talk of it , as if it were a kind of antichrist , that usurped a great share in the government of the world ; and ascribe little less to it , than they do to nature . and not to speak of what poets , moralists and divines tell us of the powers of ignorance and vice , which are but moral defects : let us consider what things are not only by these men , but by the generality of mankind seriously attributed to death , to which so great and fatal a dominion is assign'd ; and then if we consider too , that this death , which is said to do so many and such wonderful things , is neither a substance , nor a positive entity , but a meer privation ; we shall , i trust , the less believe , that the feats ascribed to nature do infer , that there is really such a physical agent as is suppos'd . and now having , as i presume , clear'd our enquiry , as far as 't is yet necessary , [ and 't will be further done hereafter ] from those prejudices , that might make the attempt be censur'd before it be examin'd , i proceed to the inquiry it self ; wherein i shall endeavour ( but with the brevity my want of leisure exacts ) to do these six things . first , to give you a short account of the great ambiguity of the word nature , arising from its various acceptions . secondly , to shew you , that the definition also , that aristotle himself gives of nature , does not afford a clear or satisfactory notion of it . thirdly , to gather from the several things , that are wont to be affirmed of , or attributed to , nature , the received notion of it , which cannot be well gathered from the name , because of its great ambiguity . fourthly , i will mention some of those reasons , that dissuade me from admitting this notion of nature . fifthly , i shall endeavour to answer severally the chief things , upon which men seem to have taken up the idea of nature , that i disallow . and , sixthly , i shall propose some of the chief effata or axioms , that are wont to be made use of , concerning nature in general , and shall shew , how far , and in what sense i may admit them . and here it may be opportune , to prevent both mistakes and the necessity of interrupting the series of our discourse , to set down two or three advertisements . 1. when any where in this tract i speak of the opinions of aristotle and the peripateticks , as i would not be thought to impute to him all the sentiments of those that will be thought his followers , some of which seem to me to have much mistaken his true meaning ; so ( on the other side ) i did not conceive , that my design oblig'd me to inquire anxiously into his true sentiments , whether about the origine of the universe , ( as whether or no it were self-existent , as well as eternal ) or about less important points : since , besides that his expressions are oftentimes dark and ambiguous enough , and the things he delivers in several passages do not seem always very consistent ; it suffic'd for my purpose , which was to question vulgar notions , to examine those opinions , that are by the generality of scholars taken for the aristotelian and peripatetick doctrines , by which , if he be mis-represented , the blame ought to light upon his commentators and followers . 2. the rational soul or mind of man , as it is distinct from the sensitive soul , being an immaterial spirit ; is a substance of so heteroclite a kind , in reference to things so vastly differing from it as mere bodies are , that since i could neither , without injuring it , treat of it promiscuously with the corporeal works of god , nor speak worthily of it , without frequently interrupting and disordering my discourse by exceptions , that would either make it appear intricate , or would be very troublesome to you or any other that you may think fit to make my reader ; i thought i might , for others ease and my own , be allow'd to set aside the considerations of it in the present treatise : and the rather , because all other parts of the universe being , according to the receiv'd opinion , the works of nature , we shall not want in them subjects more than sufficiently numerous , whereon to make our examen . though i shall here consider the world but as the great system of things corporeal , as it once really was , towards the close of the sixth day of the creation , when god had finish'd all his material works , but had not yet created man. sect . ii. i. a considering person may well be tempted to suspect , that men have generally had but imperfect and confused notions concerning nature ; if he but observes , that they apply that name to several things , and those too such , as have some of them very little dependance on , or connexion with , such others . and i remember that in aristotle's metaphysicks , i met with a whole chapter expresly written , to enumerate the various acceptions of the greek word , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , commonly render'd nature ; of which , if i mistake not , he there reckons up six . in english also we have not fewer , but rather more numerous significations of that term. for sometimes we use the word nature , for that author of nature , whom the school-men , harshly enough , call natura naturans ; as when 't is said , that nature hath made man partly corporeal , and partly immaterial . sometimes we mean by the nature of a thing , the essence , or that which the school-men scruple not to call the quiddity of a thing , namely , the attribute or attributes , on whose score it is , what it is ; whether the thing be corporeal or not ; as , when we attempt to define the nature of an angle , or of a triangle , or of a fluid body as such . sometimes we confound that which a man has by nature , with what accrues to him by birth ; as , when we say , that such a man is noble by nature , or such a child naturally forward , or sickly , or frightful . sometimes we take nature for an internal principle of motion ; as , when we say , that a stone let fall in the air , is by nature carried towards the centre of the earth ; and , on the contrary , that fire or flame does naturally move upwards towards heaven . sometimes we understand by nature , the establish'd course of things , as , when we say , that nature makes the night succeed the day : nature hath made respiration necessary to the life of men. sometimes we take nature for an aggregate of powers belonging to a body , especially a living one ; as , when physicians say , that nature is strong , or weak , or spent ; or that in such or such diseases , nature left to her self , will do the cure. sometimes we take nature for the universe , or system of the corporeal works of god ; as , when 't is said of a phoenix , or a chimera , that there is no such thing in nature , ( i. e. ) in the world. and sometimes too , and that most commonly , we would express by the word nature , a semi-deity , or other strange kind of being , such as this discourse examines the notion of . and besides these more absolute acceptions , if i may so call them , of the word nature ; it has divers others ( more relative ) as nature is wont to be set in opposition or contradistinction to other things ; as , when we say of a stone when it falls downwards , that it does it by a natural motion ; but that if it be thrown upwards , its motion that way is violent . so chymists distinguish vitriol into natural and fictitious , or made by art , ( i. e. ) by the intervention of human power or skill ; so 't is said , that water kept suspended in a sucking pump , is not in its natural place , as that is , which is stagnant in the well . we say also , that wicked men are still in the state of nature ; but the regenerate , in a state of grace : that cures wrought by medicines , are natural operations ; but the miraculous ones , wrought by christ and his apostles , were supernatural . nor are these the only forms of speech , that a more diligent collector , than i think it necessary i should here be , might instance in , to manifest the ambiguity of the word nature , by the many and various things 't is applied to signifie ; tho' some of those already mentioned , should be judged too near to be co-incident . among latin writers i found the acceptions of the word nature to be so many , that i remember , one author reckons up no less than fourteen or fifteen . from all which 't is not difficult to gather , how easie 't is for the generality of men , without excepting those that write of natural things , to impose upon others and themselves , in the use of a word so apt to be mis-imploy'd . on this occasion i can scarce forbear to tell you , that i have often look'd upon it as an unhappy thing , and prejudicial both to philosophy and physick ; that the word nature hath been so frequently , and yet so unskilfully imploy'd , both in books and in discourse , by all sorts of men , learned and illiterate . for the very great ambiguity of this term , and the promiscuous use men are wont to make of it , without sufficiently attending to its different significations , makes many of the expressions wherein they imploy it , ( and think they do it well and truly ) to be either not intelligible , or not proper , or not true : which observation , tho' it be not heeded , may , with the help of a little attention , be easily verified ; especially because the term nature is so often used , that you shall scarce meet with any man , who , if he have occasion to discourse any thing long of either natural or medicinal subjects , would not find himself at a great loss , if he were prohibited the use of the word nature , and of those phrases whereof it makes the principal part . and i confess i could heartily wish , that philosophers , and other learned men ( whom the rest in time would follow ) would by common ( tho' perhaps tacite ) consent , introduce some more significant , and less ambiguous terms and expressions in the room of the too licenciously abused word nature , and the forms of speech that depend on it . or would , at least , decline the use of it , as much as conveniently they can ; and where they think they must imploy it , would ▪ add a word or two , to declare in what clear and determinate sense they use it . for without somewhat of this kind be done , men will very hardly avoid being led into divers mistakes , both of things , and of one another ; & such wranglings about words and names , will be ( if not continually multiplied ) still kept on foot , as are wont to be manag'd with much heat , tho' little use , and no necessity . and here i must take leave to complain , in my own excuse , of the scarce superable difficulty of the task , that the design of a free inquiry puts me upon . for 't is far more difficult than any one that hath not try'd , ( and i do not know that any man hath , ) would imagine , to discourse long of the corporeal works of god , and especially of the operations and phaenomena's that are attributed to nature , and yet decline making oftentimes use of that term , or forms of speech whereof 't is a main part ; without much more frequent , and perhaps tedious , circumlocutions ; than i am willing to trouble you with . and therefore i hope you will easily excuse me , if , partly to shun these , and to avoid using often the same words too near one another , and partly out of unwillingness to imploy vulgar terms , likely to occasion or countenance vulgar errors ; i have several times been fain to use paraphrases or other expressions , less short than those commonly received : and sometimes for one or other of these reasons , or out of inadvertence , miss'd of avoiding the terms used by those , that admit and applaud the vulgar notion of nature : whom , i must here advertise you , that partly because they do so , and partly for brevity's sake , i shall hereafter many times call , naturists : which appellation i rather chuse than that of naturalists ; because , many , even of the learned among them , as logicians , orators , lawyers , arithmeticians , &c. are not physiologers . but if on this occasion you should be very urgent to know , what course i would think expedient , if i were to propose any , for the avoiding the inconvenient use of so ambiguous a word , as nature : i should first put you in mind , that , having but very lately declar'd , that i thought it very difficult , in physiological discourses especially , to decline the frequent of that term ; you are not to expect from me the satisfaction you may desire in an answer . and then i would add , that yet my unwillingness to be altogether silent , when you require me to say somewhat , makes me content to try , whether the mischief complain'd of , may not be in some measure either obviated or lessen'd , by looking back upon the ( eight ) various significations , that were not long since deliver'd of the word nature , and by endeavouring to express them in other terms , or forms of speech . 1. instead then of the word nature taken in the first sense , [ for natura naturans , ] we may make use of the term 't is put to signifie , namely , god ; wholly discarding an expression , which , besides that 't is harsh and needless , and in use only among the school-men , seems not to me very suitable to the profound reverence we owe the divine majesty ; since it seems to make the creator differ too little by far from a created ( not to say an imaginary ) being . 2. instead of nature in the second sense , [ for , that on whose account a thing is what it is , and is so call'd , ] we may imploy the word essence , which is of great affinity to it , if not of an adequate import . and sometimes also we may make use of the word quiddity , which , though a somewhat barbarous term , is yet frequently imploy'd , and well enough understood , in the schools ; and , which is more considerable , is very comprehensive , and yet free enough from ambiguity . 3. what is meant by the word nature taken in the third sense of it , [ for , what belongs to a living creature at its nativity , or accrues to it by its birth , ] may be express'd sometimes , by saying , that a man or other animal is born so ; and sometimes by saying , that a thing has been generated such ; and sometimes also , that 't is thus or thus qualifi'd by its original temperament and constitution . 4. instead of the word nature taken in the fourth acception [ for , an internal principle of local motion ] we may say sometimes , that this or that body moves as it were , or else that it seems to move , spontaneously ( or of its own accord ) upwards , downwards , &c. or , that 't is put into this or that motion , or determin'd to this or that action , by the concourse of such or such ( proper ) causes . 5. for nature in the fifth signification , [ for , the establish'd course of things corporeal ] 't is easie to substitute what it denotes , the establish'd order , or the setled course of things . 6. instead of nature in the sixth sense of the word [ for , as aggregate of the powers belonging to a body , especially a living one ] we may imploy the constitution , temperament , or the mechanism , or the complex of the essential properties or qualities , and sometimes the condition , the structure , or the texture of that body . and if we speak of the greater portions of the world , we may make use of one or other of these terms , fabrick of the world , system of the vniverse , cosmical mechanism , or the like . 7. where men are wont to imploy the word nature in the seventh sense [ for , the vniverse , or the systeme of the corporeal works of god ] 't is easie , and as short , to make use of the word world or vniverse ; and instead of the phaenomena of nature to substitute the phaenomena of the vniverse , or of the world. 8. and , as for the word nature taken in the eighth and last of the fore-mention'd acceptions [ for , either ( as some pagans styl'd her ) a goddess , or a kind of semi-deity ] the best way is not to imploy it in that sense at all ; or at least as seldom as may be , and that for divers reasons , which may in due place be met with in several parts of this essay . but though the foregoing diversity of terms and phrases may be much increas'd , yet i confess it makes but a part of the remedy , i propose , against the future mischiefs of the confus'd acception of the word nature , and the phrases grounded on it . for besides the synonymous words , and more literal interpretations lately propos'd , a dextrous writer may oftentimes be able to give such a form ( or , as the modern frenchmen speak , such a tour ) to his many-ways variable expressions , as to avoid the necessity of making use of the word nature ; or sometimes so much as of those shorter terms , that have been lately substituted in its place . and to all this i must add , that though one or two of the eight fore-mention'd terms or phrases , as quiddity and cosmical mechanism , be barbarous or ungenteel ; and some other expressions be less short than the word nature : yet 't is more the interest of philosophy to tolerate a harsh term , that has been long received in the schools in a determinate sense , and bear with some paraphrastical expressions , than not to avoid an ambiguity that is liable to such great inconveniences as have been lately , or may be hereafter , represented . there are , i know , some learned men , who , ( perhaps being startled to find nature usually spoken of so much like a kind of goddess , ) will have the nature of every thing , to be only the law that it receives from the creator , and according to which it acts on all occasions . and this opinion seems much of kin to , if not the same with , that of the famous helmont , who justly rejecting the aristotelian tenent of the contrariety or hostility of the elements , will have every body , without any such respect , to act that which 't is commanded to act . and indeed this opinion about nature , though neither clear nor comprehensive enough , seems capable of a fair construction . and there is oftentimes some resemblance between the orderly and regular motions of inanimate bodies , and the actions of agents , that , in what they do act , conformably to laws . and even i sometimes scruple not , to speak of the laws of motion and rest , that god has establish'd among things corporeal , and now and then , ( for brevities sake , or out of custom ) to call them , as men are wont to do , the laws of nature : having in due place declar'd , in what sense i understand and imploy these expressions . but to speak strictly , ( as becomes philosophers in so weighty a matter ) to say that the nature of this or that body , is but the law of god prescrib'd to it , is but an improper and figurative expression . for , besides that this gives us but a very defective idea of nature , since it omits the general fabrick of the world , and the contrivances of particular bodies , which yet are as well necessary as local motion itself , to the production of particular effects and phaenomena's ; besides this , i say , and other imperfections of this notion of nature , that i shall not here insist on , i must freely observe , that , to speak properly , a law being but a notional rule of acting according to the declar'd will of a superior , 't is plain , that nothing but an intellectual being can be properly capable of receiving and acting by a law. for if it does not understand , it cannot know what the will of the legislator is ; nor can it have any intention to accomplish it , nor can it act with regard to it ; or know , when it does , in acting , either conform to it or deviate from it . and 't is intelligible to me , that god should at the beginning impress determinate motions upon the parts of matter , and guide them , as he thought requisite , for the primordial constitution of things : and that ever since he should , by his ordinary and general concourse , maintain those powers , which he gave the parts of matter , to transmit their motion thus and thus to one another . but i cannot conceive , how a body , devoid of understanding and sense , truly so call'd , can moderate and determine its own motions ; especially so , as to make them conformable to laws , that it has no knowledg or apprehension of . and that inanimate bodies , how strictly soever call'd natural , do properly act by laws , cannot be evinc'd by their sometimes acting regularly , and , as men think , in order to determinate ends : since in artificial things we see many motions very orderly perform'd , and with a manifest tendency to particular and pre-design'd ends ; as in a watch , the motions of the spring , wheels and other parts , are so contemperated and regulated , that the hand upon the dyal moves with a great uniformity , and seems to moderate its motion , so as not to arrive at the points , that denote the time of the day , either a minute sooner , or a minute later , than it should do , to declare the hour . and when a man shoots an arrow at a mark , so as to hit it , though the arrow moves towards the mark , as it would if it could and did design to strike it , yet none will say , that this arrow moves by a law , but by an external , tho' well directed , impulse . sect . iii. ii. but possibly the definition of a philosopher may exempt us from the perplexities , to which the ambiguous expressions of common writers expose us . i therefore thought fit to to consider , with a somewhat more than ordinary attention , the famous definition of nature that is left us by aristotle , which i shall recite rather in latin than in english , not only because 't is very familiarly known among scholars , in that language , but because there is somewhat in it , that i confess seems difficult to me , to be without circumlocution render'd intelligibly in english : natura ( says he ) est principium & causa motus & quietis ejus , in quo inest , primo per se , & non secundum accidens . but though when i consider'd that according to aristotle , the whole world is but a system of the works of nature ; i thought it might well be expected , that the definition of a thing , the most important in natural philosophy , should be clearly and accurately deliver'd ; yet to me this celebrated definition seem'd so dark , that i cannot brag of any assistance i received from it , towards the framing of a clear and satisfactory notion of nature . for i dare not hope , that what , as to me , is not itself intelligible , should make me understand what is to be declared or explicated by it . and when i consulted some of aristotle's interpreters upon the sense of this definition , i found the more considerate of them so puzzled with it , that their discourses of it seem'd to tend , rather to free the maker of it from tautology and self-contradiction , than to manifect that the definition itself is good and instructive , and such as affords a fair account of the thing defin'd . and indeed , though the immoderate veneration they cherish for their master , engages them to make the best they can of the definition given by him , even when they cannot justifie it without strain'd interpretations , yet what every one seems to defend in gross , almost every one of them censures in parcels ; this man attacking one part of the definition , and that man another , with objections so weighty , ( not to call some of them so unanswerable ) that if i had no other arguments to urge against it , i might borrow enough from the commentators on it , to justifie my dislike of it . however , we may hereafter have occasion to consider some of the main parts of this definition , and in the mean while , it may suffice that we observe , that several things are commonly receiv'd as belonging to the idea , or notion of nature , that are not manifestly or not at all comprehended in this aristotelian definition , which doth not declare , whether the principle or cause ( which expression already makes the sense doubtful ) here mention'd is a substance , or an accident ; and if a substance , whether corporeal or immaterial , nor is it clearly contain'd in this definition , that nature does all things most wisely , and still acts by the most compendious ways without ever missing of her end , and that she watches against a vacuum for the welfare of the universe , to omit divers other things , that you will find ascrib'd to her in the following section : to which i now proceed . that the great shortness of this third section may not make it too disproportionate in length , to the others , this tract consists of ; i shall in this place , though i doubt it be not the most proper that could be chosen , endeavour to remove betimes the prejudice , that some divines and other pious men may perhaps entertain , upon the account , as they think , of religion , against the care i take , to decline the frequent use of that word nature , in the vulgar notion of it : reserving to another and fitter place some other things , that may relate to the theological scruples , if any occur to me , that our free inquiry may occasion . the philosophical reason that inclines me to forbear , as much as conveniently i can , the frequent use of the word nature , and the forms of speech that are deriv'd from it , is , that 't is a term of great ambiguity : on which score i have observ'd , that , being frequently and unwarily imploy'd , it has occasion'd much darkness and confusion in many mens writings and discourses . and i little doubt , but that others would make the like observations , if early prejudices and universal custom did not keep them from taking notice of it . nor do i think my self oblig'd , by the just veneration i owe and pay religion , to make use of a term so inconvenient to philosophy . for i do not find that for many ages the israelites , that then were the only people and church of god , made use of the word nature in the vulgar notion of it . moses in the whole history of the creation , where it had been so proper to bring in this first of second causes , has not a word of nature . and whereas philosophers presume , that she , by her plastick power and skill , forms plants and animals out of the universal matter ; the divine historian ascribes the formation of them to gods immediate fiat . gen. i. 11. and god said , let the earth bring forth grass , and the herb yielding seed , and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind , &c. and again , vers. 24 , god said , let the earth bring forth the living creature after its kind , &c. vers. 25 , and god ( without any mention of nature ) made the beast of the earth after his kind . and i do not remember , that in the old testament , i have met with any one hebrew word that properly signifies nature , in the sense we take it in . and it seems , that our english translators of the bible were not more fortunate in that , than i ; for , having purposely consulted a late concordance , i found not that word nature in any text of the old testament . so likewise , though iob , david and solomon , and other israelitish writers , do , on divers occasions , many times mention the corporeal works of god , yet they do not take notice of nature , which our philosophers would have his great vicegerent in what relates to them . to which , perhaps it may not be impertinent to add , that , though the late famous rabbi menasseh ben israel , has purposely written a book of numerous problems touching the creation , yet i do not remember that he imploys the word nature , in the receiv'd notion of it , to give an account of any of gods mundane creatures . and when st. paul himself , who was no stranger to the heathen learning , writing to the corinthians who were greeks , speaks of the production of corn out of seed sown , he does not attribute the produc'd body to nature , but when he had spoken of a grain of wheat , or some other seed put into the ground , he adds , that god gives it such a body as he pleaseth , and to every seed it s own body , i. e. the body belonging to its kind . and a greater than st. paul , speaking of the gaudiness of the lillies , ( or , as some will have it , tulips ) uses this expression , if god so cloath the grass of the field , &c. matt. vi . 28 , 29 , 30. the celebrations that david , iob , and other holy hebrews , mention'd in the old testament , make an occasion of the admirable works they contemplated in the universe , are address'd directly to god himself , without taking notice of nature . of this , i could multiply instances , but shall here , for brevity's sake , be contented to name a few , taken from the book of psalms alone . in the hundredth of those hymns , the penman of it makes this , that god has made us , the ground of an exhortation , to enter into his gates with thanksgiving , and into his courts with praise , psal. lxxix . 34. and in another , let the heaven and earth praise god , [ that is , give men ground and occasion to praise him ] congruously to what david elsewhere says to the great creator of the universe . all thy work 's shall praise thee , o lord , and thy saints shall bless thee , psal. cxlv . 10. and in another of the sacred hymns , the same royal poet says to his maker , thou hast cover'd me in my mothers womb . i will praise thee , for i am fearfully and wonderfully made , marvellous are thy works , and that my soul knoweth right well , psal. cxxxix . 13 , 14. i have sometimes doubted , whether one may not on this occasion add , that , if men will need takes in a being subordinate to god , for the management of the world ; it seems more consonant to the holy scripture , to depute angels to that charge , than nature . for i consider , that , as to the coelestial part of the universe , in comparison of which the sublunary is not perhaps the ten-thousandth part ; both the heathen aristotelian's , and the school philosophers among the christians , teach , the coelestial orbs to be moved or guided by intelligences , or angels . and as to the lower or sublunary world , besides that the holy writings teach us , that angels have been often imploy'd by god for the government of kingdoms , ( as is evident out of the book of daniel ) and the welfare and punishment of particular persons ; one of those glorious spirits , is , in the apocalypse , expresly styl'd the angel of the waters : which title divers learned interpreters think to be given him , because of his charge or office , to oversee and preserve the waters . and i remember , that in the same book there is mention made of an angel , that had power , authority , or iurisdiction , ( 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ) over the fire : and though the excellent grotius gives another conjecture of the title given the angel of the waters ; yet in his notes upon the next verse save one , he teaches , that there was an angel appointed to preserve the souls that were kept under the altar there-mention'd . and if we take the angel of the waters to be the guardian or conserver of them , ( perhaps as the romans ( in whose empire st. iohn wrote ) had special officers to look to their aqueducts and other waters ; ) it may not be amiss to observe ( upon the by ) that he is introduc'd praising his and his fellow-spirits great creator : which is an act of religion , that , for ought i know , none of the naturists , whether pagan or even christians , ever mention'd their nature to have perform'd . i know it may on this occasion be alledg'd , that subordinata non pugnant , and nature being god's vicegerent , her works are indeed his . but that he has such a vicegerent , it is one of the main businesses of this discourse to call in question , and till the affirmative be solidly prov'd , ( nay , and tho' it were so ) i hope i shall be excus'd , if with moses , iob , and david , i call the creatures , i admire in the visiible world , the works of god , ( not of nature ) and praise rather him than her , for the wisdom and goodness displayed in them : since among the israelites , till they were over-run and corrupted by idolatrous nations , there was for many ages a deep silence of such a being , as we now call nature . and i think it much more safe and fit , to speak as did those , who for so long a time were the peculiar people of god , than which the heathen poets and philosophers , who were very prone to ascribe divinity to his creatures , and sometimes even to their own . i mention these things , not with design to ingage in the controversie , about the authority or use of the scripture in physical speculations , but to obviate or remove a prejudice , that ( as i formerly intimated ) i fear may be taken up , upon the account of theology or religion , against my studiously unfrequent imploying the word nature , in the vulgar sense of it ; by shewing , that , whether or no the scriptures be not design'd to teach us higher and more necessary truths than those that concern bodies , and are discoverable by the meer light of reason ; both its expressions and its silence give more countenance to our hypothesis , than to that of the naturists . sect . iv. iii. having shewn , that the definition given of nature by aristotle himself , as great a logician as he was , has not been able to satisfie so much as his interpreters and disciples , what his own idea of nature was ; 't would be to little purpose to trouble you and my self , with enquiring into the definitions and disputes of other peripateticks , about so obscure and perplex'd a subject ; especially , since 't is not my business in this tract , solicitously to examine what aristotle thought nature to be , but what is to be thought of the vulgarly receiv'd notion of nature ; and tho' of this , the schools have been the chief propagators , for which reason it was fit to take notice of their master aristotle's definition ; yet the best way , i know , to investigate the commonly receiv'd opinion of nature , is , to consider what effata or axioms do pass for current about her ; and what titles and epithets are unanimously given her , both by philosophers and other writers , and by the generality of men that have occasion to discourse of her and her actings . of these axioms and epithets , the principal seen to be these that follow . natura est sapientissima , adeoque opus naturae est opus intelligentiae . * natura nihil facit frustra . natura fine suo nunquam excidit . † natura semper facit quod optimum est . natura semper agit per vias brevissimas . natura neque redundat in superfluis , neque deficit in necessariis . omnis natura est conservatrix sui . natura est morborum medicatrix . natura semper invigilat conservationi vniversi . natura vacuum horret . from all these particulars put together , it may appear , that the vulgar notion of nature may be conveniently enough expres'd by some such description as this . nature is a most wise being , that does nothing in vain , does not miss of her ends ; does always that which ( of the things she can do ) is best to be done ; and this she does by the most direct or compendious ways , neither employing any things superfluous , nor being wanting in things necessary ; she teaches & inclines every one of her works to preserve it self . and , as in the microcosm ( man ) 't is she that is the curer of diseases , so in the macrocosm ( the world , ) for the conservation of the universe , she abhors a vacuum , making particular bodies act contrary to their own inclinations and interests , to prevent it , for the publick good. what i think of the particulars , that make up this paneygrical description of nature , will ( god permitting ) be told you in due place ; my present work being only to make you the clearest representation i can , of what men generally ( if they understand themselves ) do , or with congruity to the axioms they admit and use , ought to conceive nature to be . 't is not unlike that you may expect , or wish , that on this occasion , i should propose some definition or description of nature , as my own . but declining ( at least at present ) to say any thing , dogmatically , about this matter , i know not whether i may not , on this occasion , confess to you , that i have sometimes been so paradoxical , or ( if you please ) so extravagant , as to entertain , as a serious doubt , what i formerly intimated , viz. whether nature be a thing , or a name ? i mean , whether it be a real existent being , or a notional entity , somewhat of kin to those fictitious terms , that men have devis'd , that they might compendiously express several things together , by one name ? as when , for instance , we speak of the concocting faculty ascrib'd to animals ; those that consider , and are careful to understand , what they say , do not mean i know not what entity , that is distinct from the human body , as 't is an engine curiously contriv'd , and made up of stable and fluid parts ; but , observing an actuating power and fitness in the teeth , tongue , spittle , fibres and membranes of the gullet and stomach , together with the natural heat , the ferment , or else the menstruum , ) and some other agents , by their co-operation , to cook or dress the aliments , and change them into chyle ; observing these things , i say , they thought it convenient , for brevity's sake , to express the complex of those causes , and the train of their actions , by the summary appellation of concocting faculty . whilst i was indulging my self , in this kind of ravings , it came into my mind , that the natuists might demand of me , how , without admitting their notion , i could give any tolerable account of those , most useful , forms of speech , which men imploy , when they say , that nature does this or that ; or , that such a thing is done by nature , or according to nature , or else happens against nature ? and this question i thought the more worth answering , because these phrases are so very frequently us'd by men of all sorts , as well learned as illiterate , that this custom hath made them be thought , not only very convenient , but necessary ; insomuch , that i look upon it as none of the least things , that has procur'd so general a reception to the vulgar notion of nature , that these ready and commodious forms of speech suppose the truth of it . it may therefore , in this place , be pertinent to add , that such phrases , as , that nature , or faculty , or faculty , or suction , doth this or that , are not the only ones , wherein i observe , that men ascribe to a notional thing , that which , indeed , is perform'd by real agents ; as , when we say , that the law punishes murder with death , that it protects the innocent , releases a debtor out of prison , when he has satisfied his creditors ( and the ministers of justice ) on which , or the like occasions , we may justly say , that 't is plain that the law , which , being in it self a dead letter , is but a notional rule , cannot , in a physical sense , be said to perform these things ; but they are really performed by judges , officers , executioners , and other men , acting according to that rule . thus , when we say , that custom does this or that , we ought to mean only , that such things are done by proper agents , acting with conformity to what is usual , ( or customary ) on such occasions . and , to give you an yet more apposite instance , do but consider , how many events are wont to be ascrib'd to fortune or chance ; and yet fortune is , in reality , no physical cause of any thing , ( for which reason probably it is , that ancienter naturalists than aristotle , as himself intimates , take no notice of it , when they treat of natural causes , ) and only denotes , that those effects , that are ascribed to it , were produc'd by their true and proper agents , without intending to produce them ; as , when a man shoots at a deer , and the arrow lightly glancing upon the beast , wounds some man that lay beyond him , unseen by the archer ; 't is plain , that the arrow is a physical agent , that acts , by virtue of its fabrick and motion , in both these effects ; and yet men will say , that the slight hurt it gave the deer , was brought to pass according to the course of nature , because the archer design'd to shoot the beast ; but the mortal wound , it gave the man , happen'd by chance ▪ because the archer intended not to shoot him , or any man else . and , whereas divers of the old atomical philosophers , pretending ( without good reason , as well as against piety ) to give an account of the origin of things , without recourse to a deity , did sometimes affirm the world to have been made by nature , and sometimes by fortune , promiscuously employing those terms : they did it , ( if i guess aright ) because they thought neither of them to denote any true and proper physical cause , but rather certain conceptions , that we men have , of the manner of acting of true and proper agents . and therefore , when the epicureans taught , the world to have been made by chance , 't is probable , that they did not look upon chance , as a true and architectonick cause of the system of the world , but believ'd all things to have been made by the atoms , considered as their conventions and concretions into the sun , stars , earth , and other bodies , were made without any design of constituting those bodies . whilst this vein of framing paradoxes yet continued , i ventur'd to proceed so far , as to question , whether one may not infer , from what hath been said , that the chief advantage a philosopher receives from what men call nature , be not , that it affords them , on divers occasions , a compendious way of expressing themselves ? since ( thought i , ) to consider things otherwise than in a popular way , when a man tells me , that nature does such a thing , he does not really help me to understand , or to explicate , how it is done . for it seems manifest enough , that whatsoever is done in the world , at least wherein the rational soul intervenes not , is really effected by corporeal causes and agents , acting in a world so fram'd as ours is , according to the laws of motion setled by the omniscient author of things . when a man knows the contrivance of a watch or clock , by viewing the several pieces of it , and seeing how , when they are duely put together , the spring or weight sets one of the wheels a work , and by that another , till by a fit conse cution of the motions of these and other parts , at length the index comes to point at the right hour of the day : the man , if he be wise , will be well enough satisfied with this knowledge of the cause of the propos'd effect , without troubling himself to examine , whether a notional philosopher will call the time-measuring instrument , an ens per se , or an ens per accidens ? and whether it performs its operations by virtue of an internal principle , such as the spring of it ought to be ? or of an external one , such as one may think the appended weight ? and , as he , that cannot , by the mechanical affections of the parts of the universal matter , explicate a phaenomenon , will not be much help'd to understand , how the effect is produc'd , by being told , that nature did it : so , if he can explain it mechanically , he has no more need to think , or ( unless for brevity's sake ) to say , that nature brought it to pass , than he , that observes the motions of a clock , has to say , that 't is not the engine , but 't is art , that shews the hour ; whereas , without considering that general and uninstructive name , he sufficiently understands how the parts , that make up the engine , are determin'd by their construction , and the series of their motions , to produce the effect that is brought to pass . when the lower end of a reed , being dipp'd , for instance , in milk or water , he that holds it , does cover the upper end with his lips , and fetches his breath , and hereupon the liquor flows into his mouth : we are told , that nature raiseth it to prevent a vacuum , and this way of raising it , is call'd suction ; but , when this is said , the word nature does but furnish us with a short term , to express a concourse of several causes ; and so does in other cases , but what the word suction does in this . for neither the one , nor the other , helps us to conceive , how this , seemingly spontaneous , ascension of a heavy liquor is effected ; which they that know , that the outward air is a heavy fluid , and gravitates , or presses , more upon the other parts of the liquor , than the air , contained in the reed , ( which is rarefy'd by the dilatation of the sucker's thorax ) does upon the included part of the surface , will readily apprehend , that the smaller pressure will be surmounted by the greater , and , consequently yield to the ascension of the liquor , which is , by the prevalent external pressure , impell'd up into the pipe , and so into the mouth , ( as i , among others , have elswhere fully made out . ) so that , according to this doctrine , without recurring to nature's care , to prevent a vacuum , one that had never heard of the peripatetick notions of nature , or of suction , might very well understand the mention'd phaenomenon . and if afterwards he should be made acquainted with the receiv'd opinions , and forms of speech , us'd on this occasion , he would think , that so to ascribe the effect to nature , is needless , if not also erroneous ; and that the common theory of suction can afford him nothing , but a compendious term , to express , at once the concourse of the agents , that make the water ascend . how far , i think , these extravagant reasonings may be admitted , you will be enabled to discern , by what you will hereafter meet with , relating to the same subjects , in the vii . section of this discourse . and therefore , returning now to the rise of this digression , namely , that 't is not unlike you may expect , i should , after the vulgar notion of nature , that i lately mention'd , without acquiescing in it , substitute some definition or description of nature , as mine : i hope you will be pleas'd to remember , that the design of this paper was , to examine the vulgar notion of nature , not propose a new one of my own . and indeed the ambiguity of the word is so great , and 't is , even by learned men , usually employ'd to signifie such different things ; that , without enumerating & distinguishing its various acceptions , 't were very unsafe to give a definition of it , if not impossible to deliver one that would not be liable to censure . i shall not therefore presume to define a thing , of which there is yet no settled and stated notion agreed on among men. and yet , that i may , as far as i dare , comply with your couriosity , i shall tell you , that if i were to propose a notion , as less unfit than any i have met with , to pass for the principal notion of nature , with regard to which , many axioms and expressions , relating to that word , may be not inconveniently understood , i should distinguish between the universal , and the particular nature of things . and , of universal nature , the notion , i would offer , should be some such as this , that nature is the aggregate of the bodies , that make up the world , framed as it is , considered as a principle , by virtue whereof , they act and suffer according to the laws of motion , prescrib'd by the author of things . which desrciption may be thus paphras'd , that nature , in general , is , the result of the vniversal matter , or corporeal substance of the vniverse , considered as it is contrived into the present structure and constitution of the world , whereby all the bodies , that compose it , are inabled to act upon , and fitted to suffer from , one another , according to the setled laws of motion . i expect , that this description will appear prolix , and require to be heedfully perus'd : but the intricateness and importance of the subject hindred me from making it shorter , and made me chuse rather to presume upon your attention , that not endeavour to express my self intelligibly and warily , about a subject of such moment . and this will make way for the other ( subordinate ) notion , that is to attend the former description : since the particular nature , of an individual body , consists in the general nature , apply'd to a distinct portion of the vniverse . or rather , supposing it to be plac'd , as it is , in a world , fram'd by god , like ours , it consists in a convention of the mechanical affections ( such as bigness , figure , order , scituation , contexture , and local motion ) of its parts , ( whether sensible or insensible ) convenient and sufficient to constitute in , or to entitle to , its particular species or denominations , the particular body they make up , as the concourse of all these is considered as the principle of motion , rest , and changes , in that body . if you will have me give to these two notions more compendious expessions , now that , by what hath been said , i presume , you apprehend my meaning ; i shall express , what i call'd general nature , by cosmical mechanism , that is , a comprisal of all the mechanical affections ( figure , size , motion , &c. ) that belong to the matter of the great system of the universe . and , to denote the nature of this or that particular body , i shall style it , the private , the particular , or ( if you please ) the individual mechanism of that body ; or , for brevity's sake , barely the mechanism of it , that is , the essential . modification , if i may so speak , by which , i mean , the comprisal of all its mechanical affections conven'd in the particular body , consider'd , as 't is determinately plac'd , in a world so constituted , as ours is . 't is like , you will think it strange , that in this description i should make the present fabrick of the vniverse , a part , as it were , of the notion i frame of nature , though the generality of philosophers , as well as other men , speak of her , as a plastick principle of all the mundane bodies , as if they were her effects ; and therefore they usually call them , the works of nature ; and the changes that are observ'd in them , the phaenomena of nature . but , for my part , i confess , i see no need to acknowledg any architectonick being , besides god , antecedent to the first formation of the world. the peripateticks , whose school either devis'd , or mainly propagated , the received notion of nature , conceiving ( not only matter , but ) the world to be eternal , might look upon it , as the province , but could not , as the work of nature , which , in their hypothesis , is its guardian , without having been its architect . the epicureans themselves , that would refer all things , that are done in the world , to nature , cannot , according to their principles , make what they now call nature , to have been antecedent to the first formation of our present world. for , according to their hypothesis , whilst their numberless atoms wildly rov'd in their infinite vacuity , they had nothing belonging to them , but bigness , figure and motion : and 't was by the coalition , or convention of these atoms , that the world had its beginning . so that , according to them , it was not nature , but chance , that fram'd the world ; though afterwards , this original fabrick of things , does , by virtue of its structure , and the innate and unloseable motive power of atoms , continue things in the same state for the main ; & this course , though casually fallen into , & continued without design , is that , which , according to their hypothesis , ought to pass for nature . and , as meer reason doth not oblige me to acknowledge such a nature , as we call in question , antecedent to the origin of the world ; so neither do i find , that any revelation , contain'd in the holy scriptures , clearly teaches , that there was then such a being . for , in the history of the creation , 't is expresly said , that in the beginning god made the heavens and the earth ; and , in the whole account that moses gives of the progress of it , there is not a word of the agency of nature ; and , at the later end , when god is introduc'd , as making a re-view of all the parts of the universe , 't is said , that god saw every thing that he had made ; and 't is soon after added , that he blessed and sanctified the seventh day , because , in it , ( or rather , just before it , as i find the hebrew particle elsewhere us'd , ) he had rested from all his works , which god created and made . and tho' there be a passage in the book of iob , that , probably enough , argues the angels ( there call'd , the sons of god ) to have existed , either at the beginning of the first day 's work , or some time before it ; yet 't is not there so much as intimated , that they were co-operators , with their maker , in the framing of the world , of which they are represented as spectators and applauders , but not so much as instruments . but since revelation , as much as i always reverence it , is , i confess , a foreign principle in this philosophical enquiry , i shall wave it here , and tell you , that , when i consult only the light of reason , i am inclin'd to apprehend the first formation of the world , after some such manner as this . i think it probable , ( for i would not dogmatize on so weighty , and so difficult a subject , ) that the great and wise author of things , did , when he first form'd the universal and undistinguish'd matter , into the world , put its parts into various motions , whereby they were necessarily divided into numberless portions of differing bulks , figures , and scituations , in respect of each other . and that , by his infinite wisdom and power , he did so guide and over-rule the motions of these parts , at the beginning of things , as that ( whether in a shorter or a longer time , reason cannot well determine ) they were finally dispos'd into that beautiful and orderly frame , we call the world ; among whose parts some were so curiously contriv'd , as to be fit to become the seeds , or seminal principles , of plants and animals . and i further conceive , that he setled such laws or rules , of local motion , among the parts of the universal matter , that by his ordinary and preserving concourse , the several parts of the universe , thus once completed , should be able to maintain the great construction , or system and oeconomy , of the mundane bodies , and propagate the species of living creatures . so that , according to this hypothesis , i suppose no other efficient of the universe , but god himself , whose almighty power , still accompanied with his infinite wisdom , did at first frame the corporeal world , according to the divine idea's , which he had , as well most freely , as most wisely , determin'd to conform them to . for , i think , it is a mistake to imagine , ( as we are wont to do ) that what is call'd , the nature of this or that body , is wholly compris'd in its own matter , and its ( i say not substantial , but ) essential form ; as if from that , or these only , all its operations must flow . for an individual body , being but a part of the world , and incompass'd with other parts of the same great automaton , needs the assistance , or concourse , of other bodies , ( which are external agents ) to perform divers of its operations , and exhibit several phaenomena's , that belong to it . this would quickly and manifestly appear , if , for instance , an animal or an herb could be remov'd into those imaginary spaces , the school-men tell us of , beyond the world ; or into such a place , as the epicureans fancy their intermundia , or empty intervals , between those numerous worlds , their master dream'd of . for , whatever the structures of these living engines be , they would as little , without the co-operations of external agents ; such as the sun , aether , air , &c. be able to exercise their functions , as the great mills , commonly us'd with us , would be to grind corn , without the assistance of wind or running water . which may be thought the more credible , if it be considered , that by the meer exclusion of the air , ( tho' not of light , or the earth's magnetical effluvia , &c. ) procur'd by the air-pump , bodies plac'd in an extraordinary large glass , will presently come into so differing a state , that warm animals cannot live in it ; nor flame ( tho' of pure spirit of wine ) burn ; nor syringes draw up water ; nor bees , or such winged insects , fly ; nor caterpillars crawl ; nay , nor fire run along a train of dryed gunpowder : all which i speak upon my own experience . according to the foregoing hypothesis , i consider the frame of the world already made , as a great , and , if i may so speak , pregnant automaton , that , like a woman with twins in her womb , or a ship furnish'd with pumps , ordnance , &c. is such an engine as comprises , or consists of , several lesser engines . and this compounded machine , in conjunction with the laws of motion , freely establish'd and still maintain'd , by god among its parts ; i look upon as a complex principle , whence results the setled order , or course , of things corporeal . and that which happens according to this course , may , generally speaking , be said to come to pass according to nature , or to be done by nature , and that which thwarts this order may be said to be preternatural , or contrary to nature . and indeed , though men talk of nature as they please , yet whatever is done among things inanimate , which make incomparably the greatest part of the universe , is really done but by particular bodies , acting on one another by local motion , modifi'd by the other mechanical affections of the agent , of the patient , and of those other bodies , that necessarily concur to the effect , or the phaenomenon produc'd . n. b. those , that do not relish the knowledg of the opinions and rights of the ancient iews and heathens , may pass on to the next or v. section , and skip the whole following excursion , compris'd between double paratheses's , which , though neither impertinent nor useless to the scope of this treatise , is not absolutely necessary to it . [ in the foregoing ( iii. ) section of this treatise , i hope i have given a sufficient reason of my backwardness to make frequent use of the word nature , and now , in this ( iv. ) section , having laid down such a description , of nature , as shews that her votaries represent her as a goddess , or at least a semi-deity : 't will not be improper in this place , to declare some of the reasons of my dissatisfaction with the notion or thing it self , as well as with the use of the name ; and to shew , why i am not willing to comply with those many , that would impose it upon us as very friendly to religion . and these reasons i shall the rather propose , because not only the generality of other learned men , ( as i just now intimated ) but that of divines themselves , for want of information , or for some other cause , seem not to have well consider'd so weighty a matter . to manifest therefore the malevolent aspect , that the vulgar notion of nature has had , and therefore possibly may have , on religion ; i think fit , in a general way , to premise , what things they are , which seem to me to have been the fundamental errors , that mis-led the heathen world , as well philosophers as others . for , if i mistake not , the looking upon meerly corporeal , and oftentimes inanimate things , as if they were endow'd with life , sense , and understanding ; and the ascribing to nature , and some other beings , ( whether real or imaginary ) things that belong but to god , have been some , ( if not the chief ) of the grand causes of the polytheism and idolatry of the gentiles . the most ancient idolatry , ( taking the word in its laxer sense ) or at least one of the earliest , seems to have been the worship of the coelestial lights , especially the sun and moon : that kind of aboda zara , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ( as the iewish writers call strange or false worships ) being the most natural , as having for its objects , glorious bodies , immortal , always regularly mov'd , and very beneficial to men. there is recorded , in the holy scripture , a passage of iob , who is probably reputed to be , at least , as antient as moses , which seems to argue , that this worship , of the two great luminaries , was practis'd in his time , and look'd upon as criminal by religious men , and , as our english version renders the hebrew words , punishable by the civil magistrate . if , says iob , i beheld the sun when it shined , or the moon walking in brightness : and my heart hath been secretly inticed , or my mouth hath kiss'd my hand , &c. iob xxxi . 26 , 27. and that this idolatry was practis'd in moses's time , may be gather'd from that passage in deuteromy . and lest thou lift up thine eyes unto heaven , & when thou seest the sun , & the moon , and the stars , even all the host of heaven . shouldst be driven to worship them , & serve them , &c. deut. 4. 19. the sabaeans , or , as many criticks call them , the zabians , are by some very learned men thought to have been the earliest idolaters : and the ablest of the iewish rabbies , maimonides , makes them to be so antient , that abraham was put to dispute against them . and their superstition had so over-spread the east , in moses's time , that the same maimonides judiciously observes , that divers of the ceremonial laws , given to the iews , were instituted in opposition to the idolatrous opinions , magical rites , and other superstititions , of these zabians . of this , he ( seconded therein by our famous selden ) gives several instances ; to which , some are added by the learned hottinger . but this only upon the by ; my purpose , in mentioning these zabians , being to observe to you , that they look'd upon the planets , and especially the sun and moon , as gods , & worshipp'd them accordingly , taking them for intelligent beings , that had a great interest in the government of the world. this may be prov'd out of some eastern writers , especially maimonides , who , in one place , asserts the zabians to have ador'd the sun and moon , and the host of heaven , ( as the scripture styles the coelestial lights ) as true gods. and this we shall the less wonder at , if we consult another place of the same learned author , where he informs the readers , that these idolaters ( the zabians or chaldaeans ) made statues of silver and gold , those for the sun , and these for the moon ; which , being consecrated by certain rites and ceremonies , did invite , and , as it were , attract the spirits of these stars into those shrines : whence they would speak to their worshippers , acquaint them with things profitable , and even predict to them things to come . and of some such sort of speaking-images , some learned criticks suppose the teraphim ( as the original text calls them ) to have been , that laban so priz'd , as to call them his gods : which 't is guess'd rachel stole from her father , lest , by consulting them , he might learn what way her husband and his company had taken in their flight . and the same great rabbi , having inform'd his readers that he saw several books of the zabian superstition , somewhere mentions one or two , that treated of speaking-images . and 't was perhaps from these zabians , or their disciples , that zeno , the founder of the stoical sect , taught , as stobaeus informs us , that the sun , moon , and the rest of the stars were indow'd with understanding and prudence . and seneca , an eminent champion of that rigid sect , * reprehends epicurus and anaxagoras , ( whose disciple he was in that opinion ) that they held the sun to be a burning stone , or an aggregate of casual fires , and any thing rather than a god. i am sorry , i could not avoid thinking the great hippocrates , to have been involv'd in the great error we are speaking of , when in his book de principiis aut carnibus , near the beginning , i met with this passage . videtur sane mihi id , quod ( 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ) calidum vocamus , immortale esse , & cuncta intelligere & videre , & audire & scire omnia , tum praesentia tum futura . according to which supposition , he presently attempts to give some such account of the origin of the world's frame , as he could in a very few lines ; and then spends the rest of the book , in giving particular accounts , how the parts of the human body come to be fram'd , wherein , though i commend the attempt in general , because , without acquiescing in i know not what faculties , he endeavours to give an intelligible and particular account , how things come to be perform'd and produc'd ; yet i cannot but look on this book , as a remarkable instance of this truth , that , without having recourse to the true god , a satisfactory account cannot be given of the original or primitive production of the greater and lesser world , since so great a naturalist as hippocrates , by the help of his idoliz'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , was unable to perform this task , with any satisfaction to an attentive and intelligent enquirer . and galen himself , who was not unacquainted with moses's writings , and liv'd where christianity was propagated thro' a great part of the world ; galen , i say , even in that admirable treatise , de usu partium , where he so excellently declares and celebrates the most wise author of things , was so far transported with the errour , which infected so many other heathen philosophers , that he phancied the earth itself , though he speaks contemptibly of it , had a certain soul or mind , imparted to it by the superior bodies , which , he saith , is so conspicuous , first in the sun , next in the moon , and afterwards in the other stars ; that by their beauty the contemplator will be induc'd to think it reasonable , that the more pure their corporeal substance is , 't is inhabited by a mind , so much the better and more perfect , than that of these terrestial bodies . and having spoken of the reasoning nature , that shin'd in plato , aristotle , hipparchus , archimedes , &c. he thus infers . si igitur in tanta colluvie ( quo enim alio nomine quis appellet id quod ex carne , sanguine , pituita , ac bile utraque est conflatum ) mens gignatur , adeo eximia & excellens ; quantam ejusdem putandum est esse excellentiam in sole , luna , allisque etiam sideribus ? ( to which he subjoins ) mihi quidem , dum haec mecum voluto , non exigua quaedam mens talis , per ipsum etiam nos aerem ambientem , esse extensa videtur . fieri enim non potest , quum lucis ipsius solis sit particeps , quin vim etiam ab ipso assumat . but this upon the by. nor did this opinion , of the divinity of the coelestial bodies , die with the zabians , or the greek philosophers . for i found , by some questions i propos'd to an inquisitive person , who , having liv'd many years in china and several of the neighbouring kingdoms , had acquired skill enough in the tongues to converse with the natives ; i found , i say , that in a solemn conference he had with some of the more eminent and philosophical doctors of the chineses religion , they frankly profest , that they believe the heavenly bodies to be truely divine , and to be worshipp'd , and that upon this particular ground , that they imparted to men such good things , as light , heat , rain , &c. and the productions and consequences of these . and this belief they declar'd , they thought more rational , than that of the europeans , who worship a deity , whose neither shape , nor colour , nor motion , nor efficacy on sublunary things , were at all visible . it agrees very well with the opinion of the ancient greeks , who , as origen relates , call'd the sun , moon , and the stars 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , conspicuous and sensible gods. and we are taught by eusebius , that the ancient aegyptian theologizers , whose religion was neer of kin to that of the chaldeans , if not borrow'd of it , look'd upon the sun and moon , whom they worshipp'd under the names of osiris and isis , not only as the chief gods , but as the makers and governours of much , if not of all , of the rest of the universe . i will not here enquire , whether these old heathen philosophers did , besides the stars and other beings , that they ador'd as gods , believe one only numen or supream deity . but that may suffice for my present purpose , which seems manifest , viz. that they ascrib'd to sensible beings , attributes peculiar to the true god ; that this was occasion'd by their thinking them intelligent and governing , and that these inferiour beings were , by far , the most usual and familiar objects both of their discourses and their worship , and that they did ( to use the phrase of the apostle of the gentiles ) worship the creature besides , or more than , ( for the greek word 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 may signifie either ) the creator , who by moses , the prophets , and the apostles , expresly declares a dislike of this worship , and even in that more specious and seemingly excuseable kind of it , which was in use among the ten tribes , that profess'd , and perhaps believ'd , their worship to be directed to the one supream god , and him the true god of israel . but this also upon the by. this belief , that the world and divers of its principal parts , as the sun , moon , stars , &c. were animated and endowed with intelligent minds , was so contagious , that , not only it help'd to seduce the emperor iulian from christianity to heathenism , ( insomuch that he gives the sun solemn thanks for his advancement to the roman monarchy ; ) but it infected very learned men among the iews and christians . of the former , i shall need to name but two ; the first being the famousest and judiciousest of the ancienter rabbins , maimonides , in whom , i confess , i wonder'd to find this assertion , that the sun and stars were animated beings , endow'd with understanding and will : and the other , being-reputed the chief and the most learned of the moderns , menasseh ben israel , ( with whom i have convers'd at amsterdam ) who in his problems , de creatione ; hath this notable passage . — quod de intelligentiis tradunt id vero mera fabula est ; nam coeli , secundum rabbi mosem , & rei veritatem , habent animas proprias rationali vita praeditas , sicut alibi à me demonstrabitur . and a greater man than maimonides , origen himself , among the christians , not only in one place adventures to say , siquidem etiam coelestes stellae animalia sunt rationalia , virtute praedit● illustrata cognitionis lumine , à s●●●entia illa quae est splendor aeterni luminis ; but in another proceeds so far , that i found ( not without surprize ) that he says , the christians sing hymns to god the lord of all , and god the word ; no otherwise than do the sun , moon , and stars , and the whole heavenly host , since all these , being a heavenly quire , do with just men celebrate the supream god , and his only begotten [ son. ] the boldness of these unjustified paradoxes i the the less wonder at , when i consider , what has for many ages been taught by the school philosophers , from aristotle ; namely , that the coelestial spheres had their peculiar intelligences , that is , rational , immortal , powerful and active beings . 't is true , that in the jews and christians , i have been speaking of ; the malignity of the error , they embrac'd , was corrected and master'd by the sound and orthodox principles they held together with it . but still 't is dangerous for those , that would be loyal to him , that styles himself a iealous god , to adopt premises that have been able to mis-lead such great persons , and from which many famous philosophers have plausibly enough drawn consequences very repugnant to true religion . nor are christians themselves so much out of danger of being seduc'd by these heathenish notions , about an intelligent world , but that ( not again to mention the apostate emperor ) even in these times there is lately sprung up a sect of men , as well professing christianity , as pretending to philosophy ; who ( if i be not mis-inform'd of their doctrine ) do very much symbolize with the ancient heathens , and talk much indeed of god , but mean such a one , as is not really distinct from the animated and intelligent universe ; but is , on that account , very differing from the true god , that we christians believe and worship . and , though i find the leaders of this sect to be look'd upon , by some more witty than knowing men , as the discoverers of unheard of mysteries in physicks and natural theology ; yet their hypothesis does not at all appear to me to be new , especially when i remember , besides the passages of the ancients , cited in this paper , some others of the same import , such as is particularly that of lucan . estque dei sedes , ubi terra , & pontus , & aer , et coelum , & virtus : superos quid quaerimus ultra ? iupiter est quodcunque vides , quocunque moveris . the great affinity between the soul of the world , so much talk'd of among the heathen philosophers , and the thing that men call nature , makes it fit for me to take notice , in this place , of the influence which the belief of that imaginary soul had upon the gentiles with reference to religion . that divers of the ancient philosophers held the world to be animated , hath been observed by more than one learned man. but that which makes more for my present purpose , is , that the same old sages did also ( at least for the most part ) believe , that this mundane soul was not barely a living , but a most intelligent and wisely active being . this may be easily enough discerned by him , that shall heedfully peruse diogenes laertius's lives of the philosophers , and particularly of zeno. but at present i shall rather make use of an author , who , though he be very seldom cited for philosophical history , seems to me to have been very well vers'd in it . the writer i mean , is the acute sceptick sextus empiricus , ( who is thought to have lived about plutarch's time , and by some , to have been his nephew ; ) who recites a long ratiocination of xenophon , which , whether it be solid or not , is at least ingenious and plausible , but too prolix to be transcrib'd in this place , where it may suffice to say , that he thus concludes : est ergo mundus mente praeditus & intelligens , &c. which assertion sextus himself thus proposes for him ; si non esset aliqua mens in mundo , neque ulla mens in te esset . est autem in te mens aliqua ; ergo est etiam in mundo . et ideo mundus est mente & intelligentia praeditus . the same sceptick introduces zeno cittiens . discoursing thus ; quod immittit semen ejus quod est particeps rationis , est ipsum quoque rationis particeps . mundus autem emittit semen ejus quod est particeps rationis ; est ergo mundus rationis particeps . to which testimonies i might add many others out of the same author , who , in the same discourse , tells us , that the stoicks held the world to be an animal . but the opinion that the old philosophers , we have been speaking of , held of the world 's being endowed with an understanding or rational soul , will be yet more evident by what i now proceed to alledge , to manifest how this opinion of theirs led them to the worship of another , than the true god. sextus empiricus , in the lately cited discourse of xenophon , infers from the worlds being an intelligent being , that it is also a divine one ; for to the lately recited conclusion , est ergo mundus mente praeditus & intelligens , he immediately subjoins this other , et ideo deus . and alittle after , repeating their discourse that defended this argumentation of xenophon against an objection , he concludes their reasoning thus ; ideo mundus est mente & intelligentia praeditus : cum sit autem mente & intelligentia praeditus , est etiam deus . quemadmodum ( says also phurnutus the philosopher , ) nos anima gubernamur , sic & mundus animam habet , quae vindicet illum ab interitu ; & haec vocatur iupiter . to which agrees that in cicero's academick questions ; mundum esse sapientem , & habere mentem , quae seipsam fabricata sit , & omnia moderatur , regat . and the reasoning of the stoicks in st. augustin is very ryclear to the same purpose ; * dicunt ( saith he , speaking of the embracers of that sect ) omnia sidera partes iovis esse , & omnia vivere atque rationales animas habere , & ideo sine controversia deos esse . and socrates is introduc'd by aristophanes , as no less than invocating the air and the aether together , in these words . o rex , o imperator , aer vaste , quae terram contines suspensam , nec non splendide aether . which brings into my mind that plain confession of the poet manilius . qua pateat , mundum divino numine verti , atque ipsum esse deum . to all these i shall add that notable and express passage of the elder pliny ; † mundum & hoc quod alio nomine coelum appellare libuit , cujus circumflexu teguntur omnia , numen esse credi par est , aeternum , immensum , neque genitum , neque interiturum unquam . sacer est , aeternus , immensus , totus in toto , vero ipse totum , finitus & infinito similis , extra , intra , cuncta complexus in se , idemque naturae opus , & rerum ipsa natura . if it be objected , that the passages , i have cited out of heathen philosophers , concern the soul of the world , and not nature ; i answer , that the affinity of these two is so great , that divers of the old sages seem to have confounded them , and not to have made account of any other vniversal nature , than the soul of the world. and however , the great and pernicious errors they were led into , by the belief that the universe itself , and many of its nobler parts , besides men , were endowed , not only with life , but understanding and providence , may suffice to make us christians very jealous of admitting such a being , as that which men venerate under the name of nature : since they ascribe to it as many wonderful powers and prerogatives , as the idolaters did to their ador'd mundane soul. but i shall give a further answer to the above propos'd objection , if i can shew , how sacrilegiously they abus'd the being we are speaking of , as well under the very name of nature , as under that of the soul of the world. on this occasion i remember a passage in * seneca , that i did not expect to meet with , where , speaking of some ethnick opinions about thunder , non iovem , ( says he ) qualem in capitolio colimus , fulmina mittere , sed custodem rectoremque vniversi , animam ac spiritum mundani hujus operis dominum & artificem , cui nomen omne convenit . to which , within a few lines after , he adds , vis illam naturam vocare ? non peccabis , est enim ex quo nata sunt omnia , cujus spiritu vivimus . vis illam vocare mundum ? non falleris , ipse enim est totum quid , totus suis partibus inditus & se sustinens vi sua . and the same author elsewhere , nihil ( says he ) natura sine deo est , nec deus sine natura , sed idem est vterque . and , in another of the roman sages , we have this passage ; natura est igitur quae continet mundum omnem , eumque tuetur , & quidem non sine sensu ac ratione . and the opinion , not of a private philosopher , but of the sect of stoicks , is thus delivered by lactantius : isti uno naturae nomine res diversissimas comprehenderunt , deum & mundum , artificem & opus , dicunique alterum sine altero nihil posse , tanquam natura sit deus mundo permistus . nam inter dum sic confundunt , ut sit deus ipsa mens mundi , & mundus sit corpus dei ; quasi vero simul esse caeperint mundus & deus . and , to let you see , that in this our free enquiry , i do not , without cause , here and there style nature sometimes a semi-deity , and sometimes a goddess , and talk of some mens idolizing her ; i shall here annex part of a hymn of orpheus's , address'd immediately to nature . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , &c. which his interpreter thus renders into latin ; o natura omnium mater dea , artificiosa admodum dea , suscitatrix honorabilis , multa creans , divina regina , omnidomans , indomita gubernatrix , ubique splendens . and after a few lines ; aetheria , terrestiis , & marina regina , &c. i know aristotle , and his commentators , do not so directly idolize nature , as did orpheus ( or whoever was the antient author of the hymns , that bear his name ; ) but yet i doubt they pass further than they can justifie , when they so freely and often assert , that natura est sapientissima , that opus naturae est opus intelligentiae , that natura fine suo nunquam excidit , that natura semper quod optimum est facit , ( to which may be added other-like axioms : ) and when they most commonly call the works of god , the works of nature , and mention him and her together , not as a creator and a creature , but as two co-ordinate governors , like the two roman consuls ; as when they say frequently , and without scruple , ( what i find to have been first by aristotle himself ) ▪ that deus & natura nihil faciunt frustra ; to which phrase may agree that expression of ovid , where , speaking of the chaos , whilst the bodies , that compos'd it , lay shuffled together , and were not yet pack'd , he says , hanc deus & melior litem natura diremit . to the recital of the irreligious errors of the ancient heathens , about the divinity of the world , and some of its principal parts , as the sun , moon , stars , aether , &c. i should add a redargution of them ; if i thought it necessary , in this place , solemnly to refute opinions , some of which are altogether precarious , and others very improbable . those greek and latin philosophers , that held the sun to be a fire , were much at a loss to find out fuel to maintain the flame . but those zabians and chaldeans that thought him indow'd , not only with a living soul , but with understanding and will , must , if they had duly consider'd things , have ben much more puzzled , to find not only food for so vast a body , ( above 160 times bigger than the terraqueous globe ) but to find in him the organs necessary to the preparation and digestion of that food , and to the other functions that belong to animal-nutrition . and , if we admit the cartesian hypothesis , the way whereby the sun , fix'd stars , and planets , are generated , will sufficiently manifest them to be neither intelligent nor living bodies . and , perhaps , i could here propose a quite other hypothesis , about the nature of the sun , and the fuel of its fire , that may be countenanc'd by some phaenomena and experiments , without making him other than an igneous , and altogether inanimate body , whose flame needs to be repair'd by fuel furnish'd to it nearer hand , than from the sea or earth . but i purposely omit such objections against the opinion i oppose , as , though drawn from the dictates of sound philosophy , about the origine of things , may be question'd without being to be clear'd in few words . 't is also without proof , that 't is presum'd and asserted , that the coelestial bodies , newly mention'd , are indow'd with understanding and prudence , especially , so as to be able to know the particular conditions and transactions of men , and hear and grant the prayers of their worshippers . and the moon , which was one of their principal deities , and by them prefer'd before all the other planets and stars , the sun excepted , is so rude and mountainous a body , that 't is a wonder that speculative men , who consider'd how many , how various , and how noble functions belong to a sensitive soul , could think , a lump or mass of matter , so very remote from being fitly organiz'd , should be animated and govern'd by a true living & sensitive soul. i know that both these deifiers of the coelestial globes , and also the heathen disciples of aristotle , besides divers of the same mind , even among the christians , say great and lofty things of the quintessential nature of the heavenly bodies , and their consequent incorruptibility ; of the regularity of their motions , and of their divine quality of light , that makes them refulgent . but the persuasion they had , of this quintessential nature of the superior part of the world , was not , if i guess aright , grounded upon any solid physical reason , but was entertain'd by them for its congruity to the opinion they had of the divinity of the coelestial bodies : of which , aristotle himself , especially in his books de coelo , speaks in such a way , as hath not a little contributed , among his followers ; to such an excessive veneration for those bodies , as is neither agreeable to true philosophy , nor friendly to true religion . he himself takes notice , that the pythagoreans held our earth to be one of the planets , and that it moved about the sun , which they plac'd in the middle of the world. and since this hypothesis , of the earths motion , was in the last age reviv'd by copernicus , not only those great men keplerus , galileo , and gassendus , but most of the best modern astronomers ; and , besides des-cartes and his sect , many other naturalists have imbrac'd this hypothesis : which , indeed , is far more agreeable to the phaenomena , not only than the doctrine of aristotle , ( who was plainly mistaken about the order and consistence of the heavens ) but than the ancient and generally received ptolomaick system . now , supposing the terraqueous globe to be a planet , he that considers , that 't is but a round mass of very heterogeneous substances , ( as appears by the differing natures of its great constituent parts , land and sea ) whose surface is very rude and uneven , and its body opacous , unless as it happens to be inlightned by the the sun , moon , and stars , and so very inorganical for so much as nutrition , that it seems wholly unfit to be a living animal , much less a rational one . i say , he that considers such things will scarce be forward to ascribe understanding and providence , much less a divine nature , to the other stars . as for instance , to the moon , which our best telescopes manifest to be a very craggy and mountainous body , consisting of parts of very differing textures , ( as appears by her brighter parts and permanent spots ) and which of herself is opacous , having no manifest light , but what she borrows from the sun , and perhaps from the earth . as for the boasted immutability of the heavenly bodies , besides that it may be very probably call'd in question by the phaenomena of some ( for i do not say every one ) of the comets , that by their parallax were found to be above the moon , and consequently in the coelestial region of the world ; besides this , i say , the incorruptibleness and immutability of the heavenly bodies is more than probably disproveable by the sudden and irregular generation , changes and destruction , of the spots of the sun : which are sometimes so suddenly destroyed , that , i remember , in the year 1660. on the 8 th of may , having left in the morning a spot , whose motions we had long observ'd through an excellent telescope , with an expectation , that it would last many days visible to us , we were surpriz'd to find , that when we came to observe it again in the evening , it was quite dissipated , though it seemed thick ; and by comparing it to the sun , we estimated the extent of its surface to be equal to that of all europe . as to the constancy of the motions of the stars ; if the earth , which we know to be inanimated , be a planet , it moves as constantly and regularly about the sun , ( in that which they call the great orb , ) as the other planets do , or as the moon doth about the earth . and i consider , that though we should suppose our globe not to be a planet , yet there would manifestly be a constant motion , and regular enough , of a great part of it : since ( bating some anomali's , that shores , winds , and some other extrinsick things , occasion , ) there is a regular ebbing and flowing twice a day , and also spring-tides twice a month , of that vast aggregate of waters , the ocean ; which perhaps is not inferior in bulk to the whole body of the moon , and whereof also vast tracts are sometimes observed to shine . and lastly , whereas a great proof of the divinity of the stars is taken from their light ; though i grant it to be the noblest of sensible qualities , yet i cannot think it a good proof of the divine , or very excellent , nature of bodies endow'd with it , whether they be coelestial or not . for whereas the zabians and chaldeans consider'd and ador'd the planets , as the chief gods , our telescopes discover to us , that , except the sun , ( if he be one , rather than a fix'd star ) they shine but by a borrow'd light ; in so much that venus , as vividly luminous as it appears to the naked eye , is sometimes seen ( as i have beheld it ) horn'd like the moon in no long time after her change. and at this rate also the earth , whether it be a planet or no , is a luminous body , being enlightned by the sun : and possibly , as a body forty times bigger , communicates more light to the moon , than it receives from her , as is probably argued from the light seen on the surface of the moon in some of her eclipses . and , though in the night , when the darkness hath widened the pupils of our eyes , and the moon shines with an unrival'd lustre , she seems exceeding bright , yet she may be , for ought i know , more opacous than the solid part of the terrestrial globe . for i remember , that i have more than once heedfully observ'd a small cloud in the west , where the moon then was , about sun-set ; and comparing them together , the little cloud , as opacous and loose a body as it was , reflected the light as strongly to my eye , as did the moon , that seem'd perhaps to be not far from it , both of them appearing like little whitish clouds , though afterwards , as the sun descended lower and lower beneath the horizon , the moon grew more and more luminous . and , speaking of light indfienitely , 't is so far from arguing a divine nature in the bodies that are endow'd with it , whether , as the planets , by participation from an external illuminant , or as the sun , from an internal principle ; that a burn'd stone , witness that of bolonia , will afford , in proportion to its bulk , incomparably more borrow'd light than one of the planets . and a light from its internal constitution may be found , not only in such abject creatures as insects , whether winged , as the cucupias of hispaniola , or creeping , as our glow-worms ; but also in bodies inanimate and corrupted , as in rotten wood , in stinking whitings , and divers other putrify'd fishes . i cannot now stay to enquire , how the zabians , and such idolaters as they , could make out the connexion , symmetry , and subordination or dependance of the several parts of the world , compos'd of so many different and distant beings , endowed not only with animal souls , but with their distinct and peculiar understandings and wills , and many of them also with divine nature . nor shall i consider , how strange a monster , rather than an animal and a deity , those many heathen philosophers and their adherents must make of the universe , who held it to be but one ; and yet were of the paradoxical opinion , that ( as hath been elsewhere noted ) is roundly profess'd by stobaeus , at the very beginning of his physical eclogues , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , &c. i. e. iupiter ( quidem ) totus mundus est : animal ex animalibus ; numen ex numinibus compositum . these , i say , and the like objections against the pagan doctrine , i must not now insist on , because i perceive that i have slipp'd into a somewhat long digression , which yet perhaps may not be altogether unseasonable or useless , ) which therefore i shall here break off , to resume and conclude the discourse , that this section was allotted to , which i might easily have enlarg'd , but i presume there is enough said in it already , to let you see , that 't is a dangerous thing to believe other creatures , than angels and men , to be intelligent and rational ; especially to afcribe to any of them an architectonick , provident and governing power . and though i readily acknowledge , that that there is no great danger , that well instructed christians should , like some heathens , worship nature as a goddess ; yet the things i formerly alledg'd , to shew it unsafe to cherish opinions , of kin to those that mis-led a multitude even of philosophers , make me fear too many , and not a few of the learned themselves , may have a veneration for what they call nature , much greater than belongs to a meer creature : if they do not , to use a scripture expresssion , worship the creature , above or besides the creator , who , and not the world , nor the soul of it , is the true god. and though i should grant , that the received notion of nature doth neither subvert , nor much endanger any principle of religion : yet that is not enough for the purpose of those naturists i reason with , since they are here supposed to make it a fault in others , not to ascribe to the nature they venerate , as much as themselves do : and they represent their own notion of it , not only as innocent , but as very useful , if not necessary to religion . ] sect . v. iv. i come now , eleutherius , to acquaint you with some of the reasons , that have made me backward to entertain such a notion of nature , as i have hitherto discours'd of . and i shall at present comprise them under the following five . i. the first whereof , is , that such a nature , as we are speaking of , seems to me to be either asserted , or assum'd without sufficient proof . and this single reason , if it be well made out , may , i think , suffice for my turn . for , in matters of philosophy , where we ought not to take up any thing upon trust , or believe it without proof , 't is enough to keep us from believing a thing , that we have no positive argument to induce us to assent to it , though we have no particular arguments against it . and , if this rule be to take place in lesser cases , sure it ought to hold in this , where we are to entertain the belief of so catholick an agent , that all the others are look'd upon but as its instruments , that act in subordination to it ; and which , being said to have an immediate agency in many of the phaenomena of the world , cannot but be suppos'd to be demonstrable by divers of them . i have yet met with no physical arguments , either demonstrative , or so much as considerably probable , to evince the existence of the nature , we examin . and , though i should admit the use , that some divines contend for , of the holy scriptures in philosophical controversies , yet i should not be persuaded of the existence of the nature , we dispute of . for , i do not remember , that the scripture any where declares to us , that there is such a thing , ( in the sense by me question'd ) though ( as i formerly noted more fully in the iv. section , ) in genesis and some other places , where the corporeal works of god are expresly treated of , ( though in order to spiritual ends ) one might probably enough expect to find some mention of god's grand vicegerent in the universe of bodies , if he had establish'd any such . but , whatever be the true cause of the scriptur's silence about this matter , the silence itself is sufficient to justifie me , for examining freely , by reason , a thing that is not impos'd on my belief by revelation . and , as for the physical arguments that may be brought in favour of the question'd notion of nature , i shall , e're long , examine the principal of them , and shew that they are not convincing . to these things may be added , as to the proof drawn from the general opinion about nature , that , being a popular , not a physical argument , it may indeed pass for currant with the vulgar , but ought not to do so with philosophers . ii. the second reason is taken from the unnecessariness of such a nature , as is pretended . for , since a great part of the work of true philosophers has been , to reduce the principles of things to the smallest number they can , without making them insufficient ; i see not , why we should take in a principle , of which we have no need . for , supposing the common matter of all bodies to have been at first divided into innumerable minute parts , by the wise author of nature , and these parts to have been so dispos'd of , as to form the world , constituted as it now is ; and especially , supposing that the vniversal laws of motion , among the parts of the matter , have been establish'd , and several conventions of particles contrived into the seminal principles of various things ; all which may be effected by the meer local motion of matter , ( not left to itself , but skilfully guided at the beginning of the world ) if ( i say ) we suppose these things , together with god's ordinary and general concourse , which we very reasonably may : i see not , why the same phaenomena , that we now observe in the world , should not be produc'd , without taking in any such powerful and intelligent being , distinct from god , as nature is represented to be . and , 'till i see some instance produc'd to the contrary , i am like to continue of this mind , and to think that the phaenomena , we observe , will genuinely follow from the meer fabrick and constitution of the world. as , supposing the sun and moon to have been put , at first , into such motions about the earth , as experience shews they have ; the determinate celerity of these motions , and the lines , wherein they are performed , will make it necessary , that the moon should be sometimes full , sometimes scarce illuminated at all to us-ward , sometimes horned , and , in a word , should exhibit such several phases as every month she doth , and that at some times she and the sun should have a trine , or a quadrate aspect , &c. and that now one , and now the other of them , should at set times suffer an eclipse : though these eclipses were by the romans and others of old , and are by many unlearn'd nations at this day , look'd upon as supernatural things ; and though also aristotle , and a multitude of his followers , fancy'd , that such regular motions could not be maintain'd without an assistent intelligence , which he and they therefore assign'd to each of the heavenly orbs. and indeed the difficulty , we find , to conceive , how so great a fabrick , as the world , can be preserved in order , and kept from running again to a chaos , seems to arise from hence , that men do not sufficiently consider the unsearchable wisdom of the divine architect or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ( as the scripture styles him ) of the world , whose piercing eyes were able to look at once quite through the universe , and take into his prospect both the beginning and end of time : so that perfectly fore-knowing , what would be the consequences of all the possible conjunctures of circumstances , into which matter , divided and mov'd according to such laws , could , in an automaton so constituted as the present world is , happen to be put ; there can nothing fall out , unless when a miracle is wrought , that shall be able to alter the course of things , or prejudice the constitution of them , any further , than he did from the beginning foresee , and think fit to allow . nor am i sure , that the received notion of nature , though it be not necessary , is at least very useful , to explicate physical phaenomena . for , besides that , i shall shew e're long , that several explications , where recourse to it is presum'd to be the most advantagious , are not to be allow'd : to give the nature of a things for the cause of this or that particular quality , or operation of it , is to leave men as ignorant as they were before ; or , at least , is to acknowledg , that a philosopher can , in such cases , assign no better particular and immediate causes of things , than a shepherd or a tradesman , that never learnt natural philosophy , can assign of the same things , and of a thousand others . and though it be true , ( as i formerly also intimated ) that , in many cases , philosophers themselves can answer no otherwise , to such questions as may be propos'd to them , than by having recourse to the nature of the thing ; yet such answerers do not declare the proper cause of a dark phaenomenon , but only that he , who imploys them , does not yet know it : and so this indefinite notion of nature , which is equally applicable to the resolving of all difficulties , is not useful to disclose the thing , but to delude the maker of the question , or hide the ignorance of the answerer . iii. my third argument is , that the nature , i question , is so dark and odd a thing , that 't is hard to know what to make of it , it being scarce , if at all , intelligibly propos'd , by them that lay most weight upon it . for it appears not clearly , whether they will have it to be a corporeal substance , or an immaterial one , or some such thing , as may seem to be betwixt both ; such as many peripateticks do represent substantial forms , and what they call real qualities , which divers school-men hold to be ( at least by miracle ) separable from all matter whatsoever . if it be merely corporeal , i confess , i understand not , how it can be so wise , and almost omniscient an agent , as they would have it pass for . besides that , if it be a body , i would gladly know , what kind of body it is , and how , since , among bodies , there can be no penetration of dimensions , this body can so intimately pervade , as they pretend nature does , all the other bodies of the world ? and to this i would add divers other questions , that would not be easily answered . ( but i shall resume this third argument in another place . ) if it be said , that nature is a semi-substantia , as some of the modernest schoolmen are pleas'd to call substantial forms , and real qualities ; i roundly answer , that i acknowledge no such chymerical and unintelligible beings , and shall only desire you to apply to them a good part of the discourse , made in certain papers , occasion'd by a chymico-physical essay about salt-petre , against the pretended origine , and inexplicable nature , of the imaginary substantial forms of the peripateticks . it remains therefore , that this nature , we speak of , if it be any thing positive , should be an immaterial substance . but to have recourse to such an one , as a physical agent , and not only a determiner , but the grand author , of the motion of bodies , and that , especially in such familiar phaenomena , as the ascension of water in pumps , the suspension of it in watering-pots for gardens , the running of it through siphons , and i know not how many others ) and to explain its casuality , as they speak , will , i think , prove a work exceeding difficult : though i shall not here spend time to shew you the farther inconveniences of such a supposition , being to do that hereafter ; and , in the mean-while , contenting myself to observe , as to many of the naturists , that , though their doctrine may favour it , they seem rather content to talk darkly , and uncertainly , of what they call nature , than by clearly-defining it , expose it to objections not easie to be answered , and who foresee the advantage , that the unsetledness of the notion gives them , to pretend knowledg , or disguise ignorance . iv. since many of the most learned amongst the naturists are christians , and not few of them divines too , it may not be improper ( which else i should , perhaps , think it would be , ) to add , in this place , that the next thing , for which i dislike the vulgar notion ( or idea ) of nature , is , that i think it dangerous to religion in general , and consequently to the christian. for this erroneous conceit defrauds the true god of divers acts of veneration and gratitude , that are due to him from men , upon the account of the visible world , and diverts them to that imaginary being they call nature , which has no title to them ; for , whilst nature is suppos'd to be an intelligent thing , that wisely and benignly administers all that is done among bodies , 't is no wonder that the generality of philosophers , and , after their example , of other men , should admire and praise her , for the wonderful , and for the useful things that they observe in the world. and , in effect , though nature , in that sense of the word i am speaking of , be never ( that i remember ) to be found in the sacred writings ; yet , nothing is to be more frequently met with ( and that adorn'd with titles and encomiums ) in the books of philosophers , than nature and her effects . and , if we consider , that , whatever has been said , by some , in excuse of aristotle himself , yet the generality of the peripateticks , from whom the vulgar notion of nature is chiefly receiv'd , made the world to be eternal , and referr'd all the transactions among the bodies it contains , to what they call'd nature . whence , 't will not be difficult to perceive , that , if they do not quite exclude god , yet , as they leave him no interest in the first formation of the universe ; so they leave him but very little in the administration of the parts it consists of , especially the sublunary ones . so that , instead of the true god , they have substituted , for us , a kind of a goddess , with the title of nature : which , as they look upon as the immediate agent and director in all excellent productions , so they ascribe to her the praise and glory of them. whether this great error , in a point of such importance , may not undermine the foundation of religion , i think it may not irrationally be suspected . for , since the most general and efficacious argument , that has persuaded philosophers , and other men , that there is a god and a consideration of the providence , is afforded by the visible world , wherein so many operations and other things are observ'd , that are manag'd ( or perform'd ) with such conduct and benignity , as cannot justly be ascrib'd but to the wisdom and goodness of a deity : they that ascribe these things to mere nature , do much weaken the force of that argument , if they do not quite take away the necessity of acknowledging a deity , by shewing , that , without any need of having recourse to him , of the administration of the world and of what is perform'd among things corporeal , an account may be given . though , when men are put upon considering the matter , and press'd to declare themselves more clearly , they are asham'd to affirm , that god and nature are the same thing , and , will confess , that she is but his vicegerent ; yet , in practise , their admiration and their praises are frequently given to nature , not to god : in like manner , as , though the sun be the fountain of light , and the moon derives all hers from the sun ; yet the sea , in its grand motions of ebbing and flowing , appears to respect the moon , and not the sun : for thus , the generality of men , though they will acknowledg that nature is inferior and subordinate to god , do yet appear to regard her more than him. to be short , nature uses to be so frequently recurr'd to , and is so magnifi'd in the writings of physiologers , that the excessive veneration men have for nature , as it has made some philosophers ( as the epicureans ) deny god , so , 't is to be fear'd , that it makes many forget him : and , perhaps , a suspicious person would venture to add , that , if other principles hindred not ( as , i know , that in many , and , think , that in most , of the christian naturists they do , ) the erroneous idea of nature would , too often , be found to have a strong tendency to shake , if not to subvert , the very foundations of all religion ; mis-leading those that are inclin'd to be its enemies , from overlooking the necessity of a god , to the questioning , if not to the denyal , of his existence . v. my fifth and last argument is taken from hence ; that i observe divers phaenomena , which do not agree with the notion or representation of nature , that i question . for , if indeed there were such an intelligent , powerful and vigilant being , as philosophers are wont to describe nature to be , divers things would not be done , which experience assures us are done . and here i shall once for all give an advertisement , which i desire may be call'd to mind , whenever there shall be occasion , in the following part of this tract , which is this ; that , because inanimate bodies are usually more simple , or less compounded , and of a slighter and less complicated or curious contrivance , than animals or plants , i thought fit to chuse most of the instances i employ , rather among lifeless bodies , whose structure and qualities are more easy to be intelligibly and with brevity discours'd of , than among living creatures , whose textures , being organical , are much more intricate and subtil . and this course i did not scruple to take , because the celebraters of nature give her a province , or rather an empire , as large as the world , and will have her care and jurisdiction reach , as well to inanimate as to living bodies ; and accordingly most of the conspicuous instances they alledge , of her providence and power , are taken from bodies destitute of life ; as when they tell us , that the ascension of water in sucking-pumps , and the sustentation of it in gardeners watering-pots , are caus'd by nature's abhorrence of a vacuum : that heavy bodies ( unhinder'd ) fall to the ground in a perpendicular line , because nature directs them the shortest way to the centre of the earth ; and that bubbles rise thro' the water , and flames ascend in the air , because nature directs these bodies to re-join themselves to their respective elements ; to omit other instances of this sort , that there will be occasion to mention hereafter : till when , these may suffice to warrant my taking most of my instances from inanimate bodies ; though i shall not confine my self to these , especially when i shall come to answer objections that are taken from living creatures . the foregoing advertisement will be , i hope , found conducive to clear the way for my fifth argument , lately propos'd , which concludes , that , if indeed there were such a being , as nature is usually represented to be , several things would be otherwise administred in the universe , than experience shews they are . to enumerate all the particulars that may be propos'd to make this good , would swell this discourse much beyond the bulk to which my haste obliges me to confine it . but , to make you amends for the paucity of instances , i shall now name , by the kind of them , i shall propose such as , for the most part , are taken from those very things , whence the wisdom and vigilancy of nature is wont to be confidently argued , which i the rather do , that by such i may make way for , and shorten the answers i am to give to the arguments e're-long to be examined . first then , whereas the great care and vigilancy of nature , for the common good of the universe , is wont to be demonstrated from the watchful care she takes , to prevent or replenish a vacuum , which would be very prejudicial to the fabrick of the world : i argue the quite contrary from the phaenomena , that occur about a vacuum . for whereas 't is alledg'd , that nature , in great pumps , and in the like cases , lifts up the heavy body of water in spight of its tendency towards the centre of the earth , to obviate , or fill up a vacuity ; and that out of a gardener's pot , or inverted pipe , stopp'd at one end , neither the water , nor even quick-silver , that is near fourteen times as heavy , will fall down , lest it should leave a vacuum behind it ; i demand how it comes to pass , that , if a glass-pipe be but a foot longer than 34 or 35 feet ; or an inverted tube , fill'd with quick-silver , be but a finger's breadth longer than 30 inches , the water in the one , and the quick-silver in the other , will subside , though the one will leave but about a foot , and the other but about an inch , of deserted space , which they call vacuum , at the top of the glass . is it possible , that nature , that in pumps is said to raise up every day so many hundred ton of water , and , if you will believe the schools , would raise it to any height , ( left there should be a vacuum ) should not have the discretion , or the power , to lift up , or sustain , as much water as would serve to fill one foot in a glass-tube , or as much quick-silver as an inch of a slender pipe will contain , to obviate or replenish the vacuum , she is said so much to abhor ? sure , at this rate , she must either have very little power , or very little knowledge of the power she has . so likewise , when a glass-bubble is blown very thin at the flame of a lamp , and hermetically seal'd whilst 't is very hot , the cause , that is rendered , why 't is apt to break , when it grows cold , is , that the inward air , which was before rarefied by the heat , coming to be condens'd by the cold , left the space deserted by the air , that thus contracts itself , should be left void , nature , with violence , breaks the glass in pieces . but , by these learned mens favour , if the glass be blown but a little stronger than ordinary , though at the flame of a lamp , the bubble , as i have often tryed , will continue unbroken , in spight of natures pretended abhorrency of a vacuum : which needs not at all to be recurr'd to in the case . for the reason , why the thin glass-bubble broke not when 't was hot , and did when it grew cold , is plainly this ; that , in the former state , the agitation of the included air , by the heat , did so strengthen the spring of it , that the glass was thereby assisted and enabled to resist the weight of the incumbent air : whereas , upon the cessation of that heat , the debilitated spring of the internal , being unable to assist the glass , as formerly , to resist the pressure of the external air , the glass itself being too thin becomes unable to support the weight or pressure of the incumbent air , the atmosphaerical pillar , that leans upon a bubble of about two inches diameter , amounting to above one hundred pound weight ; as may be manifestly concluded from a late experiment that i have try'd , and you may meet with in another paper . and the reason , why , if the bubble be blown of a due thickness , it will continue whole after it is cold , is , that the thickness of it , though but faintly assisted by the weakned spring of the included air , is sufficient to support the weight of the incumbent air , though , several times , i have observed , the pressure of the atmosphaere , and the resistence of the bubble , to have been , by accident , so near the aequipollent , that a much less outward force , than one would imagine , applyed to the glass , as , perhaps , a pound , or a less weight , gently laid on it , would enable the outward air to break it , with noise , into a multitude of pieces . and , now give me leave to consider , how ill this experiment , and the above-mentioned phaenomena , that happen in glass-pipes , wherein water and quick-silver subside , agree with the vulgar apprehension , men have of nature . for , if in case she did not hinder the falling down of the water , or the quicksilver , there would be no such vacuum produced , as she is said to abhor ; why does she seem so solicitious to hinder it ? and why does she keep three or four and thirty foot of water in perpendicular height , contrary to the nature of all heavy bodies , suspended in the tube ? and , why does she furiously break in pieces a thin seal'd bubble , such as i come from speaking of , to hinder a vacuum ? if in case she did not break it , no vacuum would ensue . and , on the other side , if we admit her endeavours , to hinder a vacuum , not to have been superfluous , and consequently foolish , we must confess , that , where these endeavours succeed not , there is really produc'd such a vacuum , as she is said to abhor . so that , as i was saying , either she must be very indiscreet to trouble herself , and to transgress her own ordinary laws , to prevent a danger she need not fear ; or her strength must be very small , that is not able to fill a vacuity , that half a pint of water , or an ounce of quick-silver , may replenish ; or break a tender glass-bubble , which , perhaps , a pound weight on it , would , with the help of so light a body as the incumbent air , crush in pieces . the other grand instance , that is given of the wisdom of nature , and her watchfulness for the good of the whole world , is , the appetite she has implanted in all heavy bodies , to descend to the centre of the earth , and in all light ones , to ascend towards heaven ; or , as some would have it , towards the element of fire , contiguous to the orb of the moon . but , for positive levity , 'till i see it better prov'd , than it hath hitherto been , i allow no such thing implanted in sublunary bodies ; the praepollent gravity of some , sufficing to give others a comparative or respective lightness . as a piece of oak , or the like wood , being let go in the air , falls down by its own gravity , or rather by virtue of the efficient of that gravity ; but if it be let go under water , it will , though it be never so great a log or piece of timber , ascend , with a considerable force , to the top of the water ; which , i hope , will not be ascribed to a positive levity , since , when it descended in the air , 't was by its gravity that it did so . but not to insist on this , nor to take notice , how wisely nature has implanted into all heavy bodies an appetite to descend to the centre of the earth , which , being but a point , is not able to contain any one of them ; not to urge these things , i say , i will only invite you to consider one of the most familiar things that occur among heavy bodies . for , if , for example , you let fall a ball upon the ground , it will rebound to a good height , proportionable to that from whence you let it fall , or , perhaps , will make several lesser rebounds , before it come to rest . it it be now ask'd , why the ball , being let out of your hand , does not fall on this or that side , or move upwards , but falls directly toward the centre of the earth , by that shortest line , ( which mechanitians call linea directionis ) which is the diameter of the earth prolong'd to the centre of gravity of the ball ? 't will be readily answer'd , that this proceeds from the balls gravity , i. e. an innate appetite , whereby it tends to the centre of the earth the nearest way . but then i demand , whence comes this rebound , i. e. this motion upwards ? for , 't is plain , 't is the genuine consequence of the motion downwards , and therefore is encreas'd according as that motion in the ball was encreas'd , by falling from a greater height : so that it seems , that nature does , in such cases , play a very odd game , since she forces a ball , against the laws of heavy bodies , to ascend divers times upwards , upon the account of that very gravity , whose office it is to carry it downwards the directest way : and , at least , she seems , in spight of the wisdom ascribed to her , to take her m●asures very ill , in making the ball move downwards with so much violence , as makes it , divers times , fly back from the place she intended it should go to . as if a ball which a child can play with , and direct as he pleases , were so unweildy a thing , that nature cannot manage it , without letting it be hurried on with far greater violence , than her design requires . the reflection , i have been making on a ball , may ( mutatis mutandis , as they speak ) be applyed to a pendulum . for , since 't is unanimously affirm'd , by all that have written of it , that it falls to the perpendicular , upon the account of its gravity : it must not be deny'd , that 't is from a motion proceeding from the same gravity , that the swinging weight passes beyond the perpendicular , and consequently ascends , and oftentimes makes a multitude of diadroms , or vibrations ; and consequently , does very frequently ascend , before it comes to rest in the perpendicular : which is the position wherein its gravity is best comply'd with , and which therefore it had been best setled in at first . i shall not here mention those grand anomalies , or exorbitances , even in the vaster bodies of the universe ; such as earth-quakes , that reach some hundreds of leagues , deluges , destructive eruptions of fire , famines of a large spread , raging pestilences , coelestial comets , spots in the sun , that are recorded to have obscured it for many months ; the sudden appearing , the dis-appearing , and the re-appearing of stars , that have been judg'd to be as high , as the region of the fix'd ones . i will not , i say , enquire how far these anomalies agree to the character wont to be given of natures watchfulness and vigilancy , because , probably , i may have hereafter a fit opportunity to do it , and must now proceed to the remaining instances i promis'd you , which are taken from what happens to animals : as soon as i shall have dispatch'd some considerations and advertisements , that seem necessary to be premis'd , to what i have to offer about that difficult subject . if the past discourse give rise to a question , whether the world , and the creatures that compose it , are as perfect as they could be made ? the question seems to me , because of the ambiguity of the terms , too intricate to be resolv'd by a single answer . but yet , because the problem is not wont to be discuss'd , and is , in my opinion , of moment , in reference to natural theology ; i shall venture briefly to intimate some of the thoughts that occurr'd to me about it : having first declar'd , that i am , with reason , very backward to be positive in a matter of this nature , the extent of the divine power and wisdom being such , that its bounds , in case it have any , are not known to me . this premis'd , i consider , that the sense of the question may be , whether god could make the material world , and the corporeal creatures it consists of , better and more perfect that they are ? speaking in a general way and absolute sense : or else , whether the particular kinds or orders of the creatures , in the world , could any of them be made more perfect or better , than they have been made ? to answer the question in the first-nam'd sense of it , i think it very unsafe to deny , that god , who is almighty and omniscient , and an owner of perfections , which , for ought we know , are participable in more different manners and degrees than we can comprehend , could not display , if it be not fitter to say adumbrate , them , by creating a work more excellent than this world. and , his immense power and unexhausted wisdom considered , it will not follow , either , that because this world of ours is an admirable piece of workmanship , the divine architect could not have better'd it ; or , because god himself is able to make a greater master-piece , this exquisitely contriv'd system is not admirably excellent . but the propos'd question , in the other sense of it , will require some more words to resolve it . for , if we look upon the several species of visible creatures , under a more absolute consideration , without respect to the great system of the universe , of which they are parts , or to the more particular designs of the creator ; it seems manifest , that many sorts of creatures might have been more perfect than they are , since they want many compleating things , that others are indow'd with ; as an oyster , that can neither hear , nor see , nor walk , nor swim , nor fly , &c. is not so perfect a creature , as an eagle , or an elephant , that have both those senses that the oyster wants , and a far more active faculty of changing places : and , of this inequality of perfection in creatures of differing kinds , the examples are too obvious to need to be enumerated . but if the question be better propos'd , and it be inquir'd , not whether god could have made more perfect creatures , than many of those he has made , for that , 't is plain , he could do , because he has done it ; but , whether the creatures were not so curiously and skilfully made , that 't was scarce possibly they could have been better made , with due regard to all the wise ends he may be suppos'd to have had in making them , it will be hard to prove a negative answer . this i shall indeavour to illustrate by a supposition . if one should come into the well-furnish'd shop of an excellent watch-maker , and should there see a plain watch , design'd barely to shew the hour of the day ; another , that strikes the hours ; a third that is also furnish'd with an alarm ; a fourth , that , besides these , shews the month current , and the day of it ; and lastly , a fifth , that , over and above all these , shews the motions of the sun , moon and planets , the tydes , and other things , which may be seen in some curious watches . in this case , i say , the spectator , supposing him judicious , would , indeed , think one of these watches far more excellent and compleat than another ; but yet he would conclude each of them to be perfect in its own own kind , and the plain watch to answer the artificer's idea and design in making it , as well as the more compounded and elaborate one did . the same thing may , in some circumstances , be further illustrated , by considering the copy of some excellent writing-master , for , though there we may find some leaves written in an italian hand , others in a secretary , and , in others , hands of other denominations ; though one of these patterns may be much fairer , and more curious than another , if they be compar'd together ; yet , if we consider their equal conformity to the respective idea's of the author , and the suitableness to the design he had of making each copy , not as curious , sightly and flourishing as he could , but as conformable to the true idea of the sort of hand he meant to exhibit , and the design he had to shew the variety , number and justness of his skill , by that of the patterns he made compleat in the respective kinds ; we shall not think , that any of them could have been better'd by him : and if he should have made a text-hand as fair as a roman-hand , by giving it more beauty and ornament , he would not have made it better in its kind , but spoil'd it , and , by a flourish of his skill , might have given a proof of his want of judgment . but , to return thither whence i began to make this excursion , perhaps , eleutherius , you will object against the examples i have produc'd before it , that the exceptions , i have taken at some of the proceedings of nature , may be as well urg'd against providence , and exclude the one as well as the other , from the government of the world. but to this i answer , that this objection is foreign to the question , which is about mens notion of nature , not god's providence ; which , if it were here my task to assert , i should establish it upon its proper and solid grounds : such , as the infinite perfections of the divine nature , which both engage and enable him to administer his dominion over all things ; his being the author and supporter of the world ; the exquisite contrivance of the bodies of animals , which could not proceed but from a stupendious wisdom ; the supernatural revelations and discoveries he has made of himself , and of his particular care of his creatures , by prophecies , apparitions , true miracles , and other ways , that transcend the power , or overthrow , or , at least , over-rule the physical laws of motion in matter : by these , i say , and the like proper means , i would evince divine providence . but being not now oblig'd to make an attempt , which deserves to be made very solemnly , and not in such haste as i now write in . i shall , at present , only observe to you , that the case is very differing between providence and nature , and therefore there is no necessity , that the objections , i have made against the later , should hold against the former . as , ( to give you a few instances of the disparity ) in the first place , it appears not , nor is it likely , that 't is the design of providence to hinder those anomalies and defects , i have been mentioning : whereas , 't is said , to be the duty and design of nature , and her only task , to keep the universe in order , and procure , in all the bodies that compose it , that things be carried on , in the best and most regular way that may be , for their advantage . secondly , nature is confess'd to be a thing inferior to god , and so but a subordinate agent , and therefore cannot , without disparagement to her power , or wisdom , or vigilancy , suffer divers things to be done , which may , without degradation to god , be permitted by him ; who is not only a self-existent and independent being , but the supream and absolute lord , and , if i may so speak , the proprietor of the whole creation : whence both melchizedec and abram style him , ( gen. xiv . 19 , 23. ) not only the most high god , but , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 koneh , possessing ( or , as our version has it , possessor of ) heaven and earth : and who , when he made the world , and established the laws of motion , gave them to matter , not to himself . and so , being obliged to none , either as his superior , or benefactor , he was not bound to make , or administer , corporeal things after the best manner , that he could , for the good of the things themselves : among which , those that are capable of gratitude , ought to praise and thank him , for having vouchsafed them so much as they have , and have no right to except against his having granted them no more . and , as being thus oblig'd to none of his works , he has a sovereign right to dispose of them ; so , he has other attributes , which he may justly exercise , and both intend and expect to be glorified for , besides his goodness to inferior creatures : and his wisdom may be better set off to men , and perhaps to angels or intelligences , by the great variety of his contrivances in his works , than by making them all of the excellentest kind : as shadows in pictures , and discords in musick , skilfully plac'd and order'd , do much recommend the painter , and the musician . perhaps it may be added , that the permitting the course of things to be somewhat violated , shews , by the mischief such exorbitances do , how good god has been in setling and preserving the orderly course of things . thirdly , as god is a most absolute and free , so he is an omniscient , being ; and , as , by his supream dominion over the works of his hands , he has a right to dispose of them , as he thinks best for his own glory , so upon the score of his unfathomable wisdom , he may have designs , and , if i may so speak , reaches , in the anomalies that happen in the world , which we men are too short-sighted to discern ; and may exercise as much wisdom , nay , and as much providence ( in reference to man , the noblest visible object of his providence ) in sometimes ( as in divine miracles ) receding from what men call the laws of nature , as he did at first in establishing them : whereas the office of nature , being but to preserve the universe in general , and particular bodies in it , after the best manner that their respective conditions will permit ; we know , what 't is she aims at , and , consequently , can better discern , when she misses of her aims , by not well acting what is presum'd to be her part. fourthly , we must consider , that , as god is an independent , free and wise , so he is also a just agent ; and therefore may very well be suppos'd to cause many irregularities and exorbitances in the world , to punish those , that men have been guilty of . and , whereas nature is but a nursing-mother to the creatures , and looks e'ne upon wicked men , not in their moral but in their physical capacities , god expresly declares , in the sacred scriptures , that , upon adam's fall , he curs'd the ground , or earth , for man's sake , gen. iii. 17 , 18. and that there is no penal evil in the city that is not deriv'd from him , amos iii. 6. he is not over-rul'd , as men are fain to say of erring nature , by the head-strong motions of the matter , but sometimes purposely over-rules the regular ones , to execute his justice ; & therefore plagues , earth-quakes , inundations , and the like destructive calamities , though they are sometimes irregularities in nature , yet , for that very reason , they are design'd by providence ; which intends , by them , to deprive wicked men of that life , or of those blessings of life , whereof their sins have render'd them unworthy . but , whil'st i mention designs , i must not forget , that mine was only to give you a tast of the considerations , by which one may shew , that such things , as manifest nature to act unsuitably to the representation that is made of her , may yet , when attributed to divine providence , be made out to have nothing inconsistent with it. and yet , somewhat further to clear this weighty matter , and particularly some things , but briefly hinted in what i have been lately discoursing , i think it fit , before i descend to the particulars , that i am to employ against the vulgar notion of nature , to premise somewhat by way of caution , that i may do some right ( though i can never do enough , ) to divine providence ; and take care betimes , that no use , injurious to it , may be made of any thing that my argument hath oblig'd me , or will oblige me , to say about that imaginary thing , vulgarly call'd nature , either in this or the vi. section , or any other part of our present enquiry . i conceive then , that the divine author of things , in making the world , and the particular creatures that compose it , had respect to several ends ; some of them knowable by us men , and others hid in the abyss of the divine wisdom and counsels . and that of those ends , which are either manifest enough to us , or , at least , discoverable by human sagacity and industry , some of the principal are , the manifestation of the glory of god , the utility of man , and the maintenance of the system of the world ; under which is comprised , the conservation of particular creatures , and , also , the propagation of some kinds of them . but this general design of god , for the welfare of man and other creatures , is not ( as i conceive ) to be understood , but with a twofold limitation . for , first , though men , and other animals , be furnish'd with faculties or powers , and other requisites , to enable them to preserve themselves , and procure what is necessary for their own welfare , yet this provision , that god has been pleas'd to make for them , is made with reference to what regularly , or what most usually , happens to beings of that species or sort that they belong to ; but not with regard to such things as may happen to them irregularly , contingently , and ( in comparison of the others , ) unfrequently . thus it is , in general , far better for mankind , that women , when they are brought to bed , should have their breasts fill'd with milk , to give suck to the new-born babe , than that they should not ; though sometimes , as , if the child die in the delivery , or presently after , and in some other cases also , the plentiful recourse of milk to the mothers breasts proves troublesome and inconvenient , and sometimes also dangerous , to her . thus a head of hair is , for the most part , useful to the person , whether man or woman , that nature has furnish'd with it , though , in some cases ( as of consumptions , and in a few other circumstances ) it happens to be prejudicial to the wearer ; and therefore physicians do often , with good success , prescribe , that it be shaven off . thus the instinct , that hens have to hatch their eggs and take care of their young , is , in general , very useful , if not necessary , for the conservation of that species of birds ; and yet it sometimes mis-guides and deludes them , when it makes them take a great deal of pains to brood upon those duck-eggs , that housewives , ( having taken a way the birds own eggs ) lay in her nest , which makes her very solicitous to hatch and take care of ducklings , instead of chickens . thus 't is an institution that ordinarily is profitable for man , that his stomach should nauseate or reject things that have a loathsome taste or smell , because the generality of those things , that are provided for his nourishment , are well , or , at least , not ill-tasted ; and yet , on some occasions of sickness , that disposition of the stomach to refuse , or vomit up , nauseous purges , and other dis-tastful medicines , ( as such remedies are usually loathsom enough ) proves very prejudicial , by being a great impediment to the recovery of health . and thus ( to be short ) the passions of the mind , such as fear , joy and grief , are given to man , for his good ; and , when rightly us'd , are very advantageous , if not absolutely necessary , to him : though , when they grow unruly , or are ill-manag'd , as it but too often happens , they frequently prove the causes of diseases , and of great mischief , as well to the passionate man himself , as to others . the second limitation ( which has a natural connexion with the former , ) is this , that the omniscient author of things , who , in his vast and boundless understanding , comprehended , at once , the whole system of his works , and every part of it , did not mainly intend the welfare of such or such particular creatures , but subordinated his care of their preservation and welfare , to his care of maintaining the universal system and primitive scheme or contrivance of his works , and especially those catholick rules of motion , and other grand laws , which he at first establish'd among the portions of the mundane matter . so that , when there happens such a concourse of circumstances , that particular bodies , fewer or more , must suffer , or else the setled frame , or the usual course of things , must be alter'd , or some general law of motion must be hinder'd from taking place : in such cases , i say , the welfare and interest of man himself ( as an animal ) and much more that of inferior animals , and of other particular creatures , must give way to the care , that providence takes of things of a more general and important nature or condition . thus ( as i formerly noted ) god establish'd the lines of motion , which the sun and the moon observe , tho' he foresaw , that , from thence , there would necessarily , from time to time , ensue eclipses of those luminaries ; which he chose rather to permit , than to alter that course , which , on several accounts , was the most convenient . thus a blown bladder , or a foot-ball , falling from a considerable height upon the ground , rebounds upwards , and so , contrary to the nature of heavy bodies , moves from the centre of the earth , lest the catholick laws of motion , whereby the springyness and reflection of bodies , in such circumstances , are established , should be violated or intrench'd upon . thus , he thought not fit to furnish sheep with paws , or tusks , or swiftness , or animosity , or craft , to defend or preserve themselves from wolves and foxes , and other beasts of prey . and tame and fearful birds , such as hens , are so ill provided for defence , that they seem designed to be the food of hawks , kites , and other rapacious ones . thus oysters , having neither eyes nor ears , are not near so well provided for , as the generality of beasts and birds , and even most other fishes . and thus silk-worms ( to name no other catterpillars , ) usually ( at least in these countries , ) live not much above half a year , being less furnish'd with the requisites of longaevity , than the generality of birds , and beasts , and fishes . i have thought fit to lay down the two foregoing limitations , partly , because they will be of use to me hereafter , and , partly , because they contain something , that may be added to what hath been lately represented on behalf of the divine providence ( as it falls under the naturalist's consideration . ) for , by these limitations , we may perceive , that 't is not just , presently to deny , or censure the providence of god , when-ever we see some creatures less compleatly furnish'd to maintain themselves ; or some cases less provided for , than we think they might be ; or seeming anomalies permitted , which we look upon as mischievous irregularities . for the welfare of men , or of this or that other particular sort of creatures , being not the only , nor , in likelihood , the principal end of god , in making the world ; it is neither to be admir'd nor reprehended , that he has not provided for the safety and conveniency of particular beings , any further , than well consists with the welfare of beings of a more considerable order , and , also , will comport with his higher ends , and with the maintenance of the more general laws and customs , setled by him among things corporeal : so that divers seeming anomalies and incongruities , whence some take occasion to question the administration of things , and to deny the agency of providence , do not only comport with it , but serve to accomplish the designs of it. i have the more expresly declar'd my mind on this occasion , because , indeed , of the two main reasons , which put me upon so difficult a work , as i foresaw this treatise would be , as one was , the love i bear to truth and philosophical freedom ; so the other was , a just concern for religion . for thinking it very probable , that , in so inquisitive an age as this , some observations , like mine , about nature itself , might come into the minds of persons ill-affected to divine providence , who would be glad and forward to wrest them , and make a perverse use of them ; i thought it better , that such notions should be candidly propos'd , by one that would take care to accompany them with those cautions , that may keep them from being injurious to religion . having premis'd the two foregoing advertisements , to obviate misconstructions ; i hope , i may now safely proceed to particulars ; whereof , for brevity's sake , i shall here mention but a few , leaving you to add to them those others , that occur in other parts of this treatise . in the first place then , i shall take notice , that there are several instances of persons that have been choak'd with a hair , which they were unable , either to cough up , or swallow down . the reason of this fatal accident , is , probably , said to be the irritation that is made , by the stay of so unusual a thing , as a hair , in the throat ; which irritation occasions very violent and disorderly , or convulsive , motions to expel it , in the organs of respiration , by which means the continual circulation of the blood , necessary to the life of man , is hinder'd , the consequence whereof is speedy death . but this agrees very ill with the vulgar supposition of such a kind and provident being , as they represent nature , which is always at hand to preserve the life of animals , and succour them in their ( physical ) dangers and distresses , as occasion requires . for since a hair is so slender a body , that it cannot stop the throat , so as to hinder , either , the free passage of meat and drink into the stomach , or , that of the air to or from the lungs ; ( as may be argued from divers no-way mortal excrescences and ulcers in the throat , ) were it not a great deal better for nature , to let the hair alone , and stay , 'till the juices of the body have resolv'd or consum'd it , or some favourable accident have remov'd it , than like a passionate and transported thing , oppose it , like a fury , with such blind violence , as , instead of ejecting the hair , expels the life of him , that was troubled with it ? how the care and wisdom of nature will be reconcil'd to so improper and disorderly a proceeding , i leave her admirers to consider . but it will appear very reconcileable to providence , if we reflect back upon the lately given advertisement . for , in regard of the use and necessity of deglutition , and in many cases of coughing and vomiting , it was , in the general , most convenient , that the parts that minister to these motions , should be irritated by the sudden sense of things that are unusual , though , perhaps , they would not be otherwise dangerous or offensive , because ( as we formerly noted , ) 't was fit , that the providence of god should , in making provision for the welfare of animals , have more regard to that , which usually and regularly befalls them , than to extraordinary cases or unfrequent accidents . though most women are offended with the stink of the smoaking wick of a candle , which is no more than men also are , yet it has been frequently observ'd , that big-bellied women have been made to miscarry , by the smell of an extinguish'd candle , which would before have indeed displeas'd , but not endanger'd , the same persons : so that it seems , nature is , in these cases , very far from being so prudent and careful , as men are wont to fancy her , since , by an odour , ( which , if calmly receiv'd , would have done no harm to the teeming woman , ) she is put into such unruly transports : and , instead of watching for the welfare of the teeming woman , whose condition needed a more than ordinary measure of her care and tenderness , she violently precipitates her poor charge into a danger , that oftentimes proves fatal , not only to the mother , but the child also . the improper , and oftentimes hurtful , courses that nature takes , in persons that are sick , some of one disease , some of another , will be , hereafter , taken notice of in opportune places ; and therefore , for the present , i shall only observe , that nature seems to do her work very weakly , or bunglingly , in the production of monsters , whose variety and numerousness is almost as great as their deformity , or their irregularity ; insomuch that several volums have been written , and many more might have been , to give the description of them . how these gross aberrations will agree with that great uniformity , and exquisite skill , that is ascrib'd to nature , in her seminal productions , i leave the naturists to make out . i know , that some of them lay the fault upon the stubbornness of the matter , that would not be obsequious to the plastick power of nature , but i can hardly admit of this account from men of such principles , as they are that give it : for 't is strange to me , they should pretend , that nature , which they make a kind of semi-deity , should not be able to mould and fashion so small , and soft , and tractable , a portion of matter , as that wherein the first model and efformation of the embrio is made ; when , at the same time , they tell us , that 't is able , in sucking-pumps , to raise , and , if need be , sustain , whole tons of water , to prevent a vacuum : and can , in mines , toss up into the air , houses , walls , and castles , and , perhaps , the rocks they are built on , to give the kindled gun-powder the expansion , that its new state requires . other arguments , that , by a light change and easie application , may be made use of and added to these , against the vulgar notion of nature , may be met with in divers parts of this treatise , and especially in the vii . section ; for which reason ( among others ) i decline lengthning this part of my discourse with the mention of them . i foresee it may be said , that , unless we admit such a being as nature , to contrive and manage things corporeal , and , in a regular and methodical way , direct them to their respective ends , there will appear no visible footsteps or proof of a divine wisdom in the corporeal world. and this argument , i confess , is so specious , that 't was one of the things that made me the longest hesitate , what i should think of the receiv'd notion of nature . but having further consider'd the matter , i saw it might be answer'd , that the curious contrivance of the universe , and many of its parts , and the orderly course of things corporeal , with a manifest tendency to determinate ends , are matters of fact , and do not depend upon the supposition of such a being , as they call nature ; but , setting aside this or that hypothesis , may be known by inspection , if those that make the inspection be attentive and impartial : as , when a man sees a humane body skilfully dissected by a dexterous anatomist , he cannot , if he be intelligent and unprejudic'd , but acknowledg , that there is a most curious and exquisite contrivance in that incomparable engine , and in the various parts of it , that are admirably fitted for distinct and determinate functions or uses . so that i do not at all , nor indeed can , suppress the manifest tokens of wisdom and design , that are to be observed in the wonderful construction and orderly operations of the world and its parts : but i endeavour to refer these indications of wisdom to the true and proper cause . and whereas , in the hypothesis of the objectors , there may be three causes assign'd of these specimens or foot-steps of wisdom , namely , god , nature , and chance ; if , according to the doctrine by me propos'd , nature be laid aside , the competition will remain only between god and chance : and sure he must be very dull , or very strongly prejudic'd , that shall think it reasonable to attribute such admirable contrivances and such regular conducts , as are observable in the corporeal world , rather to chance , ( which is a blind and senseless cause , or indeed no proper cause at all , but a kind of ens rationis ) than to a most intelligent being , from which the curiousest productions may with congruity be expected : whereas , if such a celebrated thing , as nature is commonly thought , be admitted , 't will not be near so easie to prove the wisdom ( and consequently the existence ) of god by his works , since they may have another cause , namely , that most watchful and provident being , which men call nature . and this will be especially difficult in the peripatetick hypothesis of the eternity ( not of matter only , for in that the atomists and others agreed with them , but ) of the world. for , according to this account of the universe , there appears no necessity , that god should have any thing to do with it , since he did not make this automaton , but it was always self-existent , not only as to matter , but to form too : and as for the government or administration of the bodies it consists of , that is the proper business of nature . and if it be objected , that this being is by its assertors acknowledg'd to be subordinate to god ; i shall answer , that , as , upon the reasons and authorities i elsewhere deliver , it may justly be question'd , whether many philosophers , and perhaps some sects of them who are adorers of nature , confess'd her to be but the substitute of a superior and divine being ? so , this distinction and subordination is not so easie to be prov'd against those that side with those other ancient philosophers , who either acknowledg'd no such thing , or expresly deny'd it . besides that , this objection supposes the existence and superiority of a deity , which therefore needs to be prov'd by other ways ; whereas in the hypothesis i propose , the same phaenomena that discover admirable wisdom and manifest designs in the corporeal world , do themselves afford a solid argument , both of the existence and of some of the grand attributes of god , with which the rest , that properly belong to him , have a necessary connexion . sect . vi. v. having , in the foregoing section , propos'd some of the considerations , that have dissatisfied me with the receiv'd notion of nature , it may now be justly expected , that i should also consider , what i foresee will be alledg'd in its behalf , by the more intelligent of its favourers . and i shall not deny the objections , i am going to name against my opinion , to be considerable , especially for this reason , that i am very unwilling to seem to put such an affront upon the generality as well of learned men as of others , as to maintain , that they have built a notion of so great weight and importance upon slight and inconsiderable grounds . the reasons , that i conceive may have induced philosophers to take up , and rely on , the receiv'd notion of nature , are such as these that follow . and the first argument , as one of the most obvious , may be taken from the general belief , or , as men suppose , observation , that divers bodies , as particularly earth , water , and other elements , have each of them its natural place assign'd it in the universe ; from which place , if any portion of the element , or any mixt body , wherein that element predominates , happens to be remov'd , it has a strong incessant appetite to return to it ; because , when 't is there , it ceases either to gravitate , or ( as some school-men speak ) to levitate , and is now in a place , which nature has qualifi'd to preserve it , according to the axiom , that locus conservat locatum . to this argument i answer , that i readily grant , that , there being such a quantity of very bulky bodies in the world , 't was necessary they should have places adequate to their bigness ; and 't was thought fit by the wise architect of the universe , that they should not be all blended together , but that a great portion of each of them should , at the beginning of things , be dispos'd of and lodg'd in a distinct and convenient place . but when i have granted this , i see not any necessity of granting likewise , what is asserted in the argument above-propos'd . for inanimate bodies having no sense or perception , ( which is the prerogative of animadversive beings ) it must be all one to them in what place they are , because they cannot be concern'd to be in one place rather than in another , since such a preference would require a knowledg , that inanimate things are destitute of . and , for the same reason , a portion of an element , remov'd , by force or chance , from what they call its proper place , can have no real appetite to return thither : for , who tells it 'tis in an undue place , and that it may better its condition by removing into another ? and who informs it , whether that place lies on this hand of it , or that hand of it , or above it , or beneath it ? some philosophers indeed have been somewhat aware of the weakness of the argument , drawn from the vulgarly propos'd instance ( which yet is the best that is wont to be imploy'd , ) of earthy bodies , which being let fall from the top of an house , or thrown into the air , do of themselves fall , in a direct line , towards the centre of the earth ; and therefore they have strengthned this argument , as far as might be , by pretending , that these bodies have not indeed , as former philosophers were wont to think , an appetite to descend to the centre of the earth , but to the great mass of their connatural bodies . i i will not therefore accuse these philosophers of the inconsiderate opinion of their predecessors , who would have nature make all heavy things affect to lodg themselves in the centre of the earth , which ( as was formerly noted , ) being but a point , cannot contain any one of them , ( how little soever it be ; ) but yet the hypothesis of these moderns is liable , though not to that , yet , to other weighty objections . for the first argument , i lately imploy'd , will hold good against these philosophers too , it not being conceivable , how an inanimate body should have an appetite to re-joyn homogeneous bodies , neither whose situation , nor whose distance from it , it does at all know . secondly , it does not appear that all bodies have such an appetite , as is presum'd , of joyning themselves to greater masses of connatural bodies ; as , if you file the end of an ingot or bar of silver or of gold , the filings will not stick to their own mass , though it be approach'd never so near , or made to touch them , and much less will they leap to it , when 't is at a distance from them . the like may be said almost of all consistent bodies we are acquainted with , except the loadstone and iron , and bodies that participate of one of those two . thirdly , 't is obvious to them that will observe , that , that which makes lumps of earth , or terrestrial matter , fall through the air to the earth , is some general agent , whatever that be , which , according to the wise disposition of the author of the universe , determines the motion of those bodies , we call heavy , by the shortest ways that are permitted them , towards the central part of the terraqueous globe ; whether the body , put into motion downwards , be of the same , or a like , or a quite differing nature , from the greater mass of matter , to which , when 't is aggregated , it rests there ? if , from the side of a ship , you let fall a chip of wood out of your hand , when your arm is so stretch'd out , that the perpendicular , or shortest line , between that and the water , lies never so little without the ship , that chip will fall into the sea , which is a fluid body , and quite of another nature than itself , rather than swerve in the least from the line of direction , as mechanicians call it , to rejoyn itself to the great bulk of wood , whereof the ship , though never so big , consists . and , on the other side , if a man , standing upon the shore just by the sea , shall pour out a glass of water , holding the glass just over his feet , that water will fall into the sand , where 't will be immediately soak'd up and dispersed , rather than deviate a little , to joyn itself to so great a mass of connatural body , as the ocean is . and as to what is generally believ'd , and made part of the argument that i am answering , that water does not weigh in water , because it is in its own natural place , and elementa in proprio loco non gravitant . i deny the matter of fact , and have convinc'd divers curious persons by experiment , * that water does gravitate in water , as well as out of it , though indeed it does not praegravitate , because 't is counter-ballanc'd by an equal weight of collateral water , which keeps it from descending . and lastly , for the maxim , that locus conservat locatum ; besides that , it has been prooflesly asserted , and therefore , unless it be cautiously explain'd , i do not think my self bound to admit it ; besides this , i say , i think , that either the proper place of a body cannot be inferr'd , as my adversaries would have it , from the natural tendency of a body to it ; or else it will not hold true in general , that locus conservat locatum ; as when , for instance , a poor unluky seaman falls , from the main-yard of a ship , into the water , does the sea , to which he makes such hast , preserve him or destroy him ? and when in a foul chimney , a lump of soot falls into the hearth , and presently burns up there , can we think that the wisdom of nature gave the soot an appetite to hasten to the fire , as a greater bulk of its connatural body , or a place provided by nature for its conservation . and now i speak of such an innate appetite of conjunction between bodies ; i remember , what i lately forgot to mention in a fitter place ; that bubbles themselves may overthrow the argument , i was answering . for if a bubble happens to arise from the bottom of a vessel to the upper part of it , we are told , that the haste , wherewith the air moves thorow water , proceeds from the appetite it has to quit that preternatural place , and re-joyn the element , or great mass of air , detain'd at the very surface of the water by a very thin skin of that liquor , together with which it constitutes a bubble . now i demand , how it comes to pass , that this appetite of the air , which , when it was at the bottom of the water , and also in its passage upwards , is suppos'd to have enabled it to ascend with so much eagerness and force , as to make its way thorow all the incumbent water , ( which possibly was very deep , ) should not be able , when the air is arriv'd at the very top of the water , to break thorow so thin a membrane of water , as usually serves to make a bubble , and which suffices to keep it from the beloved conjunction with the great mass of the external air ? especially since they tell us , that natural motion grows more quick , the nearer it comes to the end or place of rest ; the appetites of bodies encreasing , with their approaches to the good they aspire to ; upon which account , falling bodies , as stones , &c. are said ( though falsesly ) to encrease their swiftness , the nearer they come to the earth . but if , setting aside the imaginary appetite of the air , we attribute the ascension of bubbles to the gravity and pressure upwards of the water , 't is easie hydrostatically to explicate , why bubbles often move slower when they come near the surface of the water , and why they are detain'd there ; which last phaenomenon proceeds from this , that the pressure of the water being there incosiderable , 't is not able to make the air quite surmount the resistence made by the tenacity of the superficial part of the water . and therefore in good spirit of wine , whose tenacity and glutinousness is far less than that of water , bubbles rarely continue upon the surface of the liquor , but are presently broken and vanish . and to make this presum'd appetite , of the smaller portions of the air to unite with the great mass of it , appear the less probable ; i shall add that i have often observ'd , that water , in that state which is usually call'd its natural state , is wont to have store of aerial particles mingled with it , notwithstanding the neighbourhood of the external air , that is incumbent on the water , as may appear by putting a glass full of water into the receiver of the new pneumatical engine . for the pressure of the external air being by the pump taken off , there will , from time to time , disclose themselves in the water , a multitude of bubbles , made by the aerial particles , that lay conceal'd in that liquor . and i have further try'd , as i doubt not but some others also have done , that , by exactly inclosing , in a conveniently shap'd glass , some water , thus freed from the air , and leaving a little air at the top of the vessel , which was afterwards set by in a quiet place ; the corpuscles of that incumbent air did , one after another , insinuate themselves into the water , and remain'd lodg'd in it ; so little appetite has air , in general , to flee all association with water , and make its escape out of that liquor ; though , when sensible portions of it happen to be under water , the great inequality in gravity , between those two fluids , makes the water press up the air. but , though 't were easie to give a mechanical account of the phaenomena of mingled air and water , yet , because it cannot be done in few words , i shall not here undertake it ; the phaenomena themselves being sufficient , to render the supposition of my adversaries improbable . another argument , in favour of the received opinion of nature , may be drawn from the strong appetite , that bodies have to recover their natural state , when by any means they are put out of it , and thereby forced into a state that is called preternatural ; as we see , that air being violently compress'd in a blown bladder , as soon as the force is remov'd , will return to its first dimensions : and the blade of a sword being bent by being thrust against the floor ; as soon as the force ceases , restores itself , by its innate power , to its former straightness : and water , being made hot by the fire , when 't is removed thence , hastens to recover its former coldness . but though i take this argument to have much more weight in it , than the foregoing ; because it seems to be grounded upon such real phaenomena of nature , as those newly recited , yet i do not look upon it as cogent . in answer to it therefore , i shall represent , that it appears by the instances lately mention'd , that the proposers of the argument ground it on the affections of inanimate bodies . now , an inanimate portion of matter being confessedly devoid of knowledge and sense , i see no reason , why we should not think it uncapable of being concern'd to be in one state or constitution , rather than another , since it has no knowledge of that , which it is in at present , nor remembrance of that , from which it was forc'd ; and consequently , no appetite to forsake the former , that it may return to the latter . but every inanimate body , ( to say nothing now of plants and bruit animals , because i want time to launch into an ample discourse ) being of itself indifferent to all places and states , continues in in that place or state to which the action and resistence of other bodies , and especially contiguous ones , effectually determine it . as to the instance afforded by water , i consider , that before it be asserted , that water , being heated , returns of itself to its natural coldness , it were fit , that the assertors should determine , what degree or measure of coldness is natural to that liquor ; and this , if i mistake not , will be no easie task . 't is true indeed , that , in reference to us men , water is usually cold , because its minute parts are not so briskly agitated , as those of the blood and juices , that are to be found in our hands , or other organs of feeling . but , that water is actually cold in reference to frogs , and those fishes that live in it , whose blood is cold as to our sense , has not , that i know of , been prov'd , nor is easie to be so . and i think it yet more difficult to determine , what degree of coldness is natural to water , since this liquor perpetually varies its temperature , as to cold and heat , according to the temper of the contiguous or the neighbouring bodies , especially the ambient air. and therefore the water of an unshaded pond , for instance , though it rests in its proper and natural place , as they speak , yet in autumn , if the weather be fair , the temperature of it will much vary in the compass of the same day , and the liquor will be much hotter at noon , than early in the morning , or at midnight ; though this great diversity be the effect only of a natural agent , the sun , acting according to its regular course . and , in the depth of winter , 't is generally confess'd , that water is much colder than in the heat of summer ; which seems to be the reason of what is observ'd by watermen , as a wonderful thing , namely , that in rivers , boats equally laden will not sink so deep in winter as in summer , the cold condensing the water , and consequently making it heavier in specie , than it is in summer , when the heat of the ambient air makes it more thin . in divers parts of africk , that temperature is thought natural to the water , because 't is that which it usually has , which is far hotter than that which is thought natural to the same liquor in the frigid zone . and , i remember , on this occasion , what perhaps i have elsewhere mention'd upon another , that the russian czars chief physician inform'd me , that in some parts of siberia , ( one of the more northern provinces of that monarch's empire , water is so much more cold , not only than in the torrid zone , but than in england , that two or three foot beneath the surface of the ground , all the year long ( even in summer itself , ) it continues concreted in the form of ice , so intense is the degree of cold that there seems natural to it . this odd phaenomenon much confirms what i lately intimated , of the power of contiguous bodies , and especially of the air , to vary the degree of the coldness of water . i particularly mention the air , because , as far as i have try'd , it has more power to bring water to its own temperature , than is commonly suppos'd . for though , if , in summer-time , a man puts his hand into water , that has lain expos'd to the sun , he will usually feel it cold , and so conclude it much colder , than the ambient air ; yet , that may often happen upon another account , namely , that the water being many hundred times a more dense fluid than the air , and consisting of particles more apt to insinuate themselves into the pores of the skin , a greater part of the agitation of the blood and spirits , contained in the hand , is communicated to the water , and thereby lost by the fluids that part with it . and the minute particles of the water , which are , perhaps , more supple and flexible , insinuating themselves into the pores of the skin , which the aerial particles , by reason of their stifness , and perhaps length , cannot do ; they come to affect the somewhat more internal parts of the hand , which , being much hotter than the cuticula or scarf-skin , makes us feel them very cold ; as , when a sweating hand is plung'd into luke-warm water , the liquor will be judg'd cold by him , who , if his other hand be very cold , will with it feel the same water hot. to confirm which conjecture , i shall add , that , having sometimes purposely taken a seal'd weather-glass , whose included liquor was brought to the temperature of the ambient air , and thrust the ball of it under water , kept in the same air , there would be discover'd no such coldness in the water , as one would have expected ; the former reason of the sensible cold the hand feels , when thrust into that liquor , having here no place . to which i shall add , that having , for tryal's sake , made water very cold , by dissolving sal-armoniac in it , in summer time , it would , after a while , return to its usual degree of warmth . and , having made the same experiment in winter , it would return to such a coldness , as belong'd to it in that season : so that it did not return to any determinate degree of coldness , as natural to it , but to that greater or lesser , that had been accidentally given it by the ambient air , before the sal-armoniac had refrigerated it. as to the motion of restitution , observable upon the removal or ceasing of the force in air violently compress'd , and in the blade of a sword forcibly bent ; i confess it seems to me a very difficult thing , to assign the true mechanical cause of it. but yet , i think it far more likely , that the cause should be mechanical , than , that the effect proceeds from such a watchfulness of nature , as is pretended . for first , i question , whether we have any air here below , that is in other than a preternatural or violent state ; the lower parts of our atmospherical air being constantly compress'd by the weight of the upper parts of the same air , that lean upon them . as for the restitution of the bent blade of a sword , and such like springy bodies , when the force that bent them is remov'd ; my thoughts about the theory of springynes belong to another paper . and therefore , i shall here only , by way of argument ad hominem , consider , in answer to the objection ; that if , for example , you take a somewhat long and narrow plate of silver , that has not been hammer'd , or compress'd , or , which is surer , has been made red-hot in the fire , and suffer'd to cool leasurely , you may bend it which way you will , and it will constantly retain the last curve figure , that you gave it. but if , having again streightned this plate , you give it some smart stroaks of a hammer , it will , by that meerly mechanical change , become a springy body : so that , if with your hand you force it a little from its rectitude , as soon as you remove your hand , it will endeavour to regain its former streightness . the like may be observ'd in copper , but nothing near so much , or scarce at all , in lead . now upon these phaenomena , i demand , why , if nature be so careful to restore bodies to their former state , she does not restore the silver blade or plate to its rectitude , when it is bent this way or that way , before it be hammer'd ? and why a few stroaks of a hammer ( which , acting violently , seems likely to have put the metal into a preternatural state , ) should entitle the blade to nature's peculiar care , and make her solicitous to restore it to its rectitude , when it is forc'd from it ? and why , if the springy plate be again ignited and refrigerated of itself , nature abandons her former care of it , and suffers it quietly to continue in what crooked posture , one pleases to put it into ? not , now , to demand a reason of nature's greater partiality to silver , and copper and iron , than to lead and gold itself , in reference to the motion of restitution ; i shall add to what i was just now saying , that even in sword-blades it has been often observ'd , that though , if soon after they are bent , the force that bent them be withdrawn , they will nimbly return to their former straightness ; yet , if they ( which are not the only springy bodies , of which this has been observ'd , ) be kept too long bent , they will lose the power of recovering their former streightness , and continue in that crooked posture , though the force that put them into it cease to act : so that , it seems , nature easily forgets the care she was presum'd to take of it , at first . there is an axiom that passes for current among learned men , viz. nullum violentum durabile , that seems much to favour the opinion of the naturists , since 't is grounded upon a supposition , that what is violent , is , as such , contrary to nature , and , for that reason , cannot last long . and this trite sentence is , by the schools and even some modern philosophers , so particularly apply'd to local motion , that some of them have , not improbably , made it the characteristick token , whereby to distinguish natural motions from those that are not so ; that the former are perpetual , or at least very durable , whereas the later , being continually check'd more and more by the renitency of nature , do continually decay , and within no long time are suppress'd or extinguish'd : but , on this occasion , i must crave leave to make the following reflections . 1. it may be justly question'd , upon grounds laid down in another part of this essay , whether there be any motion , among inanimate bodies , that deserves to be call'd violent , in contradistinction to natural ; since among such , all motions , where no intelligent spirit intervenes , are made according to catholick , and almost , if not more than almost , mechanical laws . 2. methinks , the peripateticks , who are wont to be the most forward to imploy this axiom , should find but little reason to do so , if they consider how unsuitable it is to their doctrine , that the vast body of the firmament and all the planetary orbs are , by the primum mobile , with a stupendious swiftness , whirl'd about , from east to west , in four and twenty hours , contrary to their natural tendency ; and , that this violent and rapid motion , of the incomparably greater part of the universe , has lasted as long as the world itself , that is , according to aristotle , for innumerable ages . 3. we may observe here below , that the ebbing and flowing of the sea , which is generally suppos'd to proceed either from the motion of the moon , or that of the terrestrial globe , or some other external cause , has lasted for some thousands of years , and probably will do so , as long as the present system of our vortex shall continue . i consider also , that the other great ocean , the atmosphere , consists of numberless myriads of corpuscles , that are here below continually kept in a violent state ; since they are elastical bodies , whereof the lower are still compress'd by the weight of the higher . and , to make a spring of a body , it is requisite that it be forcibly bent or stretch'd , and have such a perpetual endeavour to fly open , or to shrink in , that it will not fail to do so , as soon as the external force , that hinder'd it , is remov'd . and , as for the states of inanimate bodies , i do not see , that their being or not being natural can be , with any certainty , concluded , from their being or not being very durable . for , not to mention , that leaves that wither in a few months , and even blossoms that often fade and fall off in few days , are as well natural bodies , as the solid and durable trees that bear them ; 't is obvious , that , whether we make the state of fluidity , or that of congelation , to be that which is natural to water , and the other that which is violent ; its change from one of those states into another , and even its return to its former state , is oftentimes , at some seasons , and in some places , made very speedily , perhaps in an hour or less , by causes that are acknowledg'd to be natural . and mists , hail , whirlwinds , lightning , falling-stars , to name no more , notwithstanding their being natural bodies , are far from being lasting , especially in comparison of glass , wherein the ingredients , sand and fixt salt , are brought together by great violence of fire . and the motion that a thin plate , or slender wire , of this glass can exercise , to restore itself to its former position , when forcibly bent , is ( in great part ) a lasting effect of the same violence of the fire . and so is the most durable perseverance of the indissolubleness of the alcalisate salt , that is one of the two ingredients of glass , notwithstanding its being very easily dissoluble in water and other liquors , and not uneasily e'ne in the moist air itself . there is a distinction of local motion , into natural and violent , that is so generally receiv'd and us'd , both by philosophers and physicians , that , i think , it deserves to have special notice taken of it in this section ; since it implicitely contains an argument for the existence of the thing call'd nature , by supposing it so manifest a thing , as that an important distinction may justly be grounded on it. this imply'd objection , i confess , is somewhat difficult to clear ; not for any great force , that is contained in it , but because of the ambiguity of the terms , wherein the distinction is wont to be imploy'd : for most men speak of the propos'd distinction of motion , in so obscure , or so uncertain a way , that 't is not easie to know what they mean by either of the members of it. but yet some there are , who endeavour to speak intelligibly , ( and for that are to be commended ) and define natural motion to be that , whose principle is within the moving body itself ; and violent motion , that which bodies are put into by an external agent or cause . and , in in regard these speak more clearly than , the rest , i shall here principally consider the lately mention'd distinction , in the sense they give it. i say then , that , even according to this explication , i am not satisfied with the distinction : for , whereas 't is a principle received , and frequently employ'd , by aristotle and his followers , quicquid movetur ab alio movetur ; it seems , that , according to this axiom , all motion may be called violent , since it proceedes from an external agent ; and indeed , according to the school philosophers , the motion of far the greatest part of the visible world , though this motion be most regular and lasting , must , according to the propos'd distinction , be reputed violent ; since they assert , that the immense firmament itself , and all the planetary orbs , ( in comparison of which vast coelestial part of the world , the sublunary part is little more than a physical point , ) is perpetually ( and against its native tendency , ) hurry'd about the the centre of the world , once in twenty four hours , by an external , though invisible , agent , which they therefore call the primum mobile . and as for the criterion of natural motion , that , its principle is within the moving body , it may be said , that all bodies , once in the state of actual motion , whatever cause first brought them to it , are mov'd by an internal principle : as , for instance , an arrow , that actually flies in the air towards a mark , moves by some principle or other residing within itself ; for , it does not depend on the bow 't was shot out of , since 't would continue , tho' that were broken , or even annihilated ; nor does it depend upon the medium , which more resists than assists its progress , as might be easily shewn , if it were needful ; and , if we should suppose the ambient air either to be annihilated , or ( which in our case would be aequialent , ) render'd uncapable of either furthering or hindring its progress , i see not why the motion of the arrow must necessarily cease , since in this case there remains no medium to be penetrated , and on that account oppose its progress . when in a watch that is wound up , the spring endeavours to unbend or display itself ; and when the string of a drawn bow is broken or let go , the spring of the former , and the woo●y part of the later , does each return to a less crooked line . and though these motions be occasioned by the forcible acts of external agents , yet the watch , spring , and the bow , have in themselves ( for ought appears to those i reason with , ) an inward principle , by which they are mov'd till they have attain'd their position . some , perhaps , would add , that a squib , or a rocket , though an artificial body , seems , as well as a falling star , to move from an internal principle : but i shall rather observe , that , on the other side , external agents are requisite to many motions , that are acknowledg'd to be natural , as , to omit the germination and flourishing of divers plants , as onions , leeks , potato's , &c. though hung up in the air , by the heat of the sun in the spring ; to pass by this , i say , if in the pneumatical engine or air-pump , you place divers insects , as bees , flies , catterpillars , &c. and withdraw the common air from the receiver , they will lye moveless , as if they were dead , though it be for several hours , whilst they are kept from enjoying the presence of the air : but , when the external air is permitted again to return upon them , they will presently be reviv'd , ( as i have with pleasure try'd , ) and be brought to move again , according to their respective kinds ; as if a fly , for instance , resembled a little windmill in this , that being moveless of itself , it required the action of the air to put its wings and other parts into motion . but , to insist no farther on these arguments ad hominem , we may consider , that , since motion does not essentially belong to matter , as divisibility and impenetrableness are believ'd to do ; the motions of all bodies , at least at the beginning of things , and the motions of most bodies , the causes of whose motions we can discern , were impress'd on them , either by an external immaterial agent , god ; or by other portions of matter ( which are also extrinsecal impellers ) acting on them . and this occasion invites me to observe , that , though motion be deservedly made one of the principal parts of aristotle's definition of nature , yet men are wont to call such motions natural , as are very hard to distinguish from those , they call violent . thus , when water falls down to the ground , they tell us , that this motion is natural to that liquor , as 't is a heavy body ; but when a man spurts up water out of his mouth into the air , they pronounce that motion , because of its tendency upwards , to be contrary to nature . and yet when he draws water into his mouth , by sucking it through a long pipe held perpendicularly , they will have this motion of the water , though directly upwards , to be not violent , but natural . so when a foot-ball , or blown bladder , being let fall upon a hard floor , rebounds up to a good height , the descent and ascent are both said to be natural motions , though the former tends towards the centre of the earth , and the later recedes as far as it can do from it . and so if from a considerable height you let fall a ball of some close wood , that yet is not too heavy , as oak or the like , into a deep vessel of water , it will descend a great way in that liquor , by a natural motion ; and yet its contrary motion upwards ought not to be esteem'd violent , since , according to the schools , being lighter in specie than water , 't is natural to it to affect its proper place , for which purpose it must ascend to the top of the liquor , and lye afloat there ; and yet 't is from these tendencies to opposite points , ( as the zenith and the nadir ) that men are wont to judg many motions of bodies to be natural or violent . and indeed , since it must be indifferent to a lifeless and insensible body , to what place 't is made to move , all its motions may , in some respect , be said to be natural , and in another , violent : for as very many bodies of visible bulk are set a moving by external impellents , and , on that score , their motions may be said to be violent ; so the generality of impell'd bodies do move either upwards , downwards , &c. toward any part of the world , in what line or way soever they find their motion least resisted ; which impulse and tendency , being given by vertue of what they call the general laws of nature , the motion may be said to be natural . i might here take notice , that , according to the epicurean hypothesis , it need not at all be admitted , that motion must be produc'd by such a principle , as the schoolmens nature . for , according to that great and ancient sect of philosophers , the atomists , every indivisible corpuscle has actual motion , or an incessant endeavour to change place , essentially belonging to it , as 't is an atom : insomuch that in no case it can be depriv'd of this property or power . and all sensible bodies being , according to these physiologers , but casual concretions or coalitions of atoms ; each of them needs no other principle of motion , than that unloseable endeavour of the atoms that compose it ; and happen , on the account of circumstance , to have the tendency of the more numerous , or at least the predominant , corpuscles , determin'd one way . and to these i might add some other such reflections . but i shall , in this place , say no more concerning motion , not only because , even after having consider'd the differing definitions , that aristotle , cartesius , and some other philosophers , have given of it , i take it to be too difficult a subject , to be clearly explicated in few words ; but because the only occasion i had to mention it here , was , to shew that the vulgar distinction of it into natural and violent is not so clear and well-grounded , as to oblige us to admit ( what it supposes , ) that there is such a being , as the naturists assert . i come now to consider the argument , that may be drawn in favour of the receiv'd notion of nature , from the critical evacuations which happen at certain times in diseases , and the strange shifts that nature sometimes makes use of in them , to free herself from the noxious humours that oppress'd her. this argument i willingly acknowledg to be very considerable . for we really see , that in continual feavers , especially in hotter climates , there do usually happen , at certain times of the diseases , notable and critical commotions or conflicts , after which the morbifick matter is dispos'd of and discharg'd by ways strange and surprising , to the great and speedy relief of the patient , if not to his perfect cure ; as may appear by many instances , to be met with in the observations of physcians about feavers , pleurisies , &c. upon this account , i take the argument drawn from crises's to be much the weightiest , that can be urg'd for the opinion from which i dissent , and therefore i shall employ the more words in clearing this important difficulty . in order to this , i desire it may be kept in mind , that i do not only acknowledge , but teach , that the body of a man is an incomparable engine , which the most wise author of things has so skilfully fram'd , for lasting very many years , that , if there were in it an intelligent principle of self-preservation , ( as the naturists suppose there is ) things would not , in most cases , be better or otherwise manag'd , for the conservation of the animals life , than they generally are . so that the question is not , whether there is a great deal of providence and wisdom exercis'd , in the crises's of diseases , but upon what account it is , that these apposite things are perform'd ? the universal opinion of physcians is , that 't is that intelligent principle they call nature , which , being solicitous for the welfare of the patient , and distress'd by the quantity or hurtfulness of the morbifick matter , watches her opportunity ( especially when 't is concocted ) to expel it hastily out of the body , by the most safe and convenient ways , which , in the present condition of the patient , can be taken . and i , on the other side , attribute crises's to the wisdom and ordinary providence of god , exerting itself by the mechanism , partly of that great machine , the world , and partly of that smaller engine , the human body , as 't is constituted in the patients present circumstance . and the reasons that hinder me , from acquiescing in the general opinion of physicians about crises's , are principally these . first , i observe that crises's , properly so call'd , do very seldom happen in other than feavers , and the like acute diseases ; where , according to the common course of things , the malady is terminated , in no long time , either by recovery , or death , or a change into some other disease : but chronical-sicknesses , such as coughs , dropsies , gouts , &c. unless they happen to be accompany'd with feaverish distempers , are not wont to have crises's ; which argues , that nature doth not make critical evacuations , upon the account of such care and watchfulness , as physicians ascribe them to : since she neglects to employ so salutary an expedient in diseases , that are oftentimes no less dangerous and mortal , than divers acute diseases , which she attempts to cure by crises's . next i consider , that critical evacuations may be procur'd by the bare mechanism of the body . for , by vertue of that , it will often happen , that the fibres , or motive organs of the stomach , bowels , and other parts , being distended or vellicated by the plenty or acrimony of the peccant matter , will , by that irritation , be brought to contract themselves vigorously , and to throw out the matter that offends the parts , either by the emunctories or common-shores of the body , or by whatever passages the proscrib'd matter can be , with most ease , discharg'd . thus , when some men find their stomachs burden'd with a clog of meat or drink , they use to thrust their fingers into their throats , and , by that mechanical way , provoke the stomach to disburden itself of its offensive load , without being beholden to natures watchfulness for a crisis , which probably she would not ( at least so seasonably ) attempt . and thus , whereas 't is usual enough , for crises's to be made in feavers by large haemorrhagi's at the nose , and sometimes at other parts , which is ascrib'd to natures watchful solicitude for the patients recovery ; i must take leave to add , that it hath been divers times observ'd , that , even after death , large bleedings have succeeded , at the nose and other parts of the body : which shews , that such excretions may be made by vertue of the structure of it , and the turgescence and acrimony of the humours , without any design of nature , to save the life of the patient , already dead . indeed , if it did appear by experience , that all , or almost all , the crises's of diseases , did either expel the morbifick matter , or at least notably relieve the patient , the critical attempts of nature would much favour the opinion men have conceiv'd of her vigilance and conduct : but unwelcome instances daily shew , that , as some crises's are salutary , ( as they call them ) so others prove mortal . and among those that do not directly or presently kill the patient , there are divers that leave him in a worse condition , than he was before . and therefore , i wonder not , that physicians have thought themselves oblig'd to lay down several circumstances , as necessary requisites of a laudable crisis , if any of which be wanting , 't is not thought of the best kind ; and if the contrary to some of them happen , 't is to be judg'd either pernicious , or at least hurtful . for , whereas there are two general ways , suppos'd to be employ'd by nature in making crises's , the one by expulsion of the peccant matter out of the body , and the other by the setling of the matter somewhere within it : neither of these two ways is constantly successful . and therefore experience hath oblig'd physicians to divide crises's , not only into perfect , that fully determine the event of the disease , and imperfect , that do but alter it for the better or the worse ; but into salutary , that quite deliver the patient , and mortal , that destroy him . and to a perfect and salutary crisis , some learned men require no less than six conditions ; namely , that it be preceded by signs of coction of the peccant matter ; that it be made by a manifest and sufficiently copious excretion or translation ; that it be made upon a critical day , as the seventh , fourteenth , twentieth , &c. that it leave no relicks behind it , that may indanger a relapse ; that it be made safely , that is , without dangerous symptoms : and lastly , that it be suitable to the nature of the disease , and the patient . by this it may appear , that 't is no common thing to meet with a perfect and salutary crisis , so many laudable conditions must concur in it ; and indeed nature doth usually take up with but imperfectly good ones , and it were happy if she made not better , provided she made no worse . but 't is found , by sad experience , that she rouses herself up to make a crisis , not only upon improper , and , as physicians call them , intercident days , such as the third , fifth , ninth , &c. or upon those they call empty or medicinal days , which seldom afford any crisis , and much seldomer a good one , but also when there appear not any signs of coction , or at least of due coction , and by these unseasonable attempts weaken the patient , and encrease the malady , or perhaps make it speedily mortal . nor will it justifie nature , to say , with some learned physicians , that these attempts are accidentally brought on by the acrimony or importunity of the morbifick matter , by which she is provok'd , before the time , to endeavour an expulsion of it . for if nature be indeed so prudent and watchful a guardian , as she is thought , she ought not to suffer herself to be provok'd to act preposterously , and make furious attempts , that lavish to no purpose , or worse than no purpose , that little strength the patient hath so much need of . and therefore physicians do oftentimes very well , when , to act agreeably to the dictates of prudence , they forget , how much wisdom they are wont to ascribe to nature , and employ their best skill and remedies to suppress or moderate the inordinate motions , or the improper and profuse evacuations , that irritated nature rashly begins to make . and though the crises's that are made by a metastasis of the peccant matter , or by lodging it in some particular part of the body , whether external or internal , be oftentimes , when they are not salutary , somewhat less hurtful , than those that are made by excretion ; yet these do frequently , though perhaps more slowly , prove dangerous enough , producing sometimes inward imposthumes , and sometimes external tumors , in parts that are either noble by their functions , or by their situation , or connexion , or sympathy with others , that are not to be without hazard or great inconvenience oppress'd . i know that physicians make it a great argument of nature's providence and skill , that she watches for the concoction of the peccant matter , before she rouses herself up to expel it by a crisis . what is to be meant by this coction of humours , ( for it ought not to be confounded with the coction of the aliments ) they are not wont so clearly to declare . but , as i understand it , when they say that a portion of peccant matter is brought to coction , they mean , that it has acquir'd such a disposition , as makes it more fit , than before , to be separated from the sounder portion of the mass of blood , or from the consistent parts , to which it perhaps formerly adhered , and to be afterwards expell'd out of the body . this may be partly exemplifi'd by what happens in some recent colds , where the lungs are affected , in which we see , that , after a few days , the phlegm is made more fluid ; and that which is lodg'd in the lungs , ( not sticking so fast to the inside of the aspera arteria ) is easily brought up by coughing , which could not dislodg it before . and in feavers , that separation in the urine , formerly cloudless , that physicians look upon as a good sign of coction , seems to be produc'd by some part of the peccant matter , that , beginning to be separated from the blood , mingles with the urine , and is not usually distinguish'd from it , whilst this liquor is warm ; but when it is grown cold , does , on the score of its weight or texture , somewhat recede , and appear in a distinct form , as of a cloud , a sediment , &c. but whatever they mean by coction , 't is plain enough , by what hath been lately noted , that , on many occasions , nature doth not wait for it , but unseasonably , and oftentimes dangerously , attempts to proscribe the matter that offends her , before it be duly prepar'd for expulsion . i come now to that circumstance of crises's , that is thought the most wonderful , which is , that nature does oftentimes by very unusual ways , and at unexpected places , discharge the matter that offends her , and thereby either cures , or notably relieves , the patient . and it must not be deny'd , that , in some cases , the critical evacuations have somewhat of suprising in them ; and i shall also readily grant , that , n. b. [ divine providence may expressly interpose , not only in the infliction of diseases by way of punishment , but in the removal of them in the way of mercy . ] but , setting aside these extraordinary cases , i think it not absurd to conjecture , that the performances of nature , in common crises's , may be probably referr'd , partly to the particular condition of the matter to be expell'd , and partly ( and indeed principally ) to some peculiar disposition in the primitive fabrick of some parts of the patients body , or some unusual change made in the construction of these parts by the disease itself , or other accidents ; which original or adventitious disposition , of the sick man's body , not being visible to us , at least whilst he is alive , we are apt to ascribe the unexpected accidents of a crisis , if it prove salutary , to the wonderful providence of nature . and , if it happen to be other than salutary , we are wont to overlook them . to illustrate this matter , we may consider , that plentiful evacuations , procured by medicines , are a kind of artificial crises's : we see , that some bodies are so constituted , that , although the peccant humour , wrought on by the medicine , ought , as the physitian thinks , to be expell'd by siege , and indeed is wont to be so , in the generality of those that take that kind of medicine , as , for instance , rhubarb or senna ; yet the peculiar disposition of the patient's stomach will make that an emetick , which was intended to be , and regularly should be , a cathartick . nor does this constitution of the stomach equally regard all purging medicines ; for the same stomach , that will reject them in the form , for instance , of a potion , will quietly entertain them , being in the form of pills . and to this let me add what we observe of the operation of mercury ; which though , if it be duly prepared , it is usually given to procure salivation , especially to succulent bodies ; yet there are some patients , wherein , instead of salivating , 't will violently and dangerously work downwards , like a purge , or make some other unexpected evacuation . and i have seen a patient , who , though young and very fat , could not be brought to salivate , neither by the gentler ways , nor by turbith-mineral and other harsher medicines , though administred by very skilful physitians and chyrurgeons . and this peculiarity may be as well contracted , as native . for some persons , especially after surfeits , having been rufly dealt with , or at least tyr'd out with a medicine of this or that kind of form , will afterwards nauseate and vomit up the like medicine , tho' in other bodies it be never so far from ●●ing emetick . we see also , that sometimes sudorifick medicines , instead of procuring sweat , prove briskly diuretick , and sometimes either purging or vomitive . from all this we may argue , that the qualities of the irritating matter , and much more the particular disposition of the patients body , may procure evacuations at unexpected places . i remember too , that , among the observations i have met with of famous physitians , there are instances of periodical and critical evacuations , at very inconvenient , as well as unusual , vents ; as some women are recorded to have had their menses , sometimes at the eyes , sometimes at the navil , and sometimes at the mouth ; of which there seems no cause so probable , as some peculiar structure , whether native or adventitious , of the internal parts concern'd in that discharge ; and of such unusual structures , anatomists must have seen many , since i my self have observ'd more than one or two. if these uncommon ways of disposing of the morbifick matter were always salutary to the patient , the argument grounded on them would have more weight : but though most men take notice of this sort of crises's , but when they are lucky , yet an impartial observer shall often find , that ill-condition'd and hurtful crises's may be made by unusual and unexpected ways . and , in some translations of the morbifick matter to distant and nobler parts , perhaps it will be as difficult to shew , by what channels or known ways the matter pass'd from one to another , as 't is to determine , how it was conducted to those parts , at which it was the most happily vented . in the foregoing discourse about crises's , there is , i confess , much of paradox ; and 't was unwillingly enough ; that i made an excursion , or in-road , into a subject that has been look'd upon as the physitians peculiar province . and , you may remember , that not far from the beginning of this little book , i told you , that i was willing to decline medling with other , than inanimate bodies : living ones being , as of a less simple sort , so of a more intricate speculation ; which reflexion will , i hope , excuse me to you , if you find , that my propos'd brevity , or the difficulty of the subject , has had any great influence on what i write , about health , diseases and crises's . and , as for the sons of aesculapius , it may be represented to them , in my favour , that , besides that i have treated of sickness and crises's , rather as a physiologer than a physician , i could not leave them unconsider'd , without being thought , if not to betray , at least to be wanting to , the cause i was to plead for . if it should be dislik'd , that i make the phaenomena of the merely corporeal part of the world , under which i comprize the bodies of animals , though not the rational souls of men , to be too generally referr'd to laws mechanical ; i hope you will remember , for me , several things dispers'd in this treatise , that may , when laid together , afford a sufficient answer to this surmize ; and particularly , that almost all the modern philosophers , and among them divers eminent divines , scruple not to forsake the spread opinion , that the coelestial orbs were mov'd and guided by intelligences ; and to explicate , by physical causes , the eclipses of the sun and moon , the production or apparition and phaenomena of comets , and other things , that the romans , as well as other heathens , both ancient and modern , have ascrib'd to the immediate agency of divine causes . this allows me to observe to you , that , since these modern naturalists and divines are wont to explicate the phaenomena of the vast coelestial bodies , by their local motions and the consequences of them ; they do , as well as i , endeavour to account for what happens in the incomparably greatest part of the vniverse , by physico-mechanical principles and laws . and , even in the terrestrial part of the world , which we men inhabit , most of the moderns , that have freed themselves from the prejudices of the schools , do not stick to give statical , hydro-statical , and other mechanical explications of the ascension of water in pumps , the detention of it in watering-pots , whose upper orifices are clos'd , and of other various phaenomena , which were formerly unanimously ascrib'd to nature's wonderful providence , express'd in her care to hinder a vacuum . but perhaps you will think it fitter for me to provide against their censure , who will dislike what i have written about crises's , not because i have ascrib'd too much to merely physical causes , but ( on the contrary , ) because i do not strictly confine my self to them. for i doubt , that if you should shew these papers to some of your friends , that affect to be strict naturalists , they will think it strange , that in one of the clauses in the foregoing discourse about crises's , ( i mean , that to which this mark n. b. is prefix'd , ) i admit that their events may sometimes be vary'd by some peculiar interposition of god. but yet i own to you , that the clause , 't is like they would take exceptions at , did not unawares slip from my pen. for 't is my setled opinion , that divine prudence is often , at least , conversant in a peculiar manner about the actions of men , and the things that happen to them , or have a necessary connexion with the one , or the other , or both. and tho' i think it probable , that in the conduct of that far greatest part of the universe , which is merely corporeal , the wise author of it does seldom manifestly procure a recession from the settled course of the universe , and especially from the most catholick laws of motion : yet , where men , who are creatures , that he is pleas'd to indow with free wills , ( at least in reference to things not spiritual , ) are nearly and highly concern'd ; i think he has , not only sometimes by those signal and manifest interpositions we call miracles , acted by a supernatural way , but , as the sovereign lord and governor of the world , doth divers times , ( and perhaps oftner than mere philosophers imagine ) give by the intervention of rational minds , as well united , as not united , to human bodies , divers such determinations to the motion of parts in those bodies , and of others , which may be affected by them , as by laws merely mechanical , those parts of matter would not have had : by which motions , so determin'd , either salutary or fatal crises's , and many other things , conducive to the welfare or detriment of men , are produc'd . the interposition of divine providences , in cases of life and death , might be easily shewn to christians out of divers passages of scripture , which expresly propos'd long life as a reward to obedient children , and to other righteous persons among the iews , and threatens bloody and deceitful men , that they shall not live out half their days ; and which relates , that a king of israel had his disease made mortal by his impious recourse to the false god of eckron ; and that , upon hezekiah's prayers and tears , god was pleased to add fifteen years to his life , and grant a special benediction to an outward medicine , apply'd to his threatning sore . to which passages divers may be added out of the new-testament also , and especially that of st. iames , who exhorts the sick to seek for recovery by prayer ; and that of st. paul , where , speaking to the corinthians of the unworthy receivers of the sacrament of the eucharist , he tells them , that , for that cause , divers were become sick and weak among them , and many also died . but though the nature of this discourse dissuades me from imploying here the authority of scripture , yet it allows me to observe , ( what is considerable on this occasion ) that natural theology and right reason comport very well with our propos'd doctrine . for , as i lately intimated , and do more fully shew in another paper , * god has left to the will of man the direction of many local motions in the parts of his own body , and thereby of some others ; though the mechanical laws , on which the ordinary course of things mainly depends , do not only regulate the motions of bodies , but the determinations too : and since man himself is vouchsaf'd a power , to alter , in several cases , the usual course of things , it should not seem incredible , that the latent interposition of men , or perhaps angels , or other causes unthought of by us , should sometimes be imploy'd to the like purposes by god , who is not only the all-wise maker , but the absolute , and yet most just and benign , rector of the universe , and of men. to conclude the excursion , which i hope will not appear useless , that has been occasion'd by the discourse of crises's , i think it becomes a christian philosopher , to admit , in general , that god doth sometimes in a peculiar , though hidden way , interpose in the ordinary phaenomena and events of crises's ; but yet , that this is done so seldom , at least in a way that we can certainly discern , that we are not hastily to have recourse to an extraordinary providence , and much less to the strange care and skill of that question'd being call'd nature , in this or that particular case , though perhaps unexpected , if it may be probably accounted for by mechanical laws , and the ordinary course of things . and here , though in a place less proper than i might have chosen , if i had timely remembred it , i shall , both in reference to the extraordinary accidents that sometimes happen in crises's , and more generally to the seemingly irregular phaenomena of the universe , venture to offer you a notion , that perhaps you will not dislike . i think then , that , when we consider the world , and the physical changes that happen in it , with reference to the divine wisdom and providence ; the arguments for the affirmative ought , in their kind , to have more force than those for the negative . for it seems more allowable , to argue a providence from the exquisite structure and symmetry of the mundane bodies , and the apt subordination and train of causes , than to infer from some physical anomalies , that things are not fram'd and administred by a wise author and rector . for the characters and impressions of wisdom , that are conspicuous in the curious fabrick and orderly train of things , can , with no probability , be referr'd to blind chance , but must be to a most intelligent and designing agent . whereas , on the other hand , besides that the anomalies , we speak of , are incomparably fewer , than those things which are regular , and are produc'd in an orderly way ; besides this , i say , the divine maker of the universe being a most free agent , and having an intellect infinitely superior to ours , may , in the production of seemingly irregular phaenomena , have ends unknown to us , which even the anomalies may be very fit to compass . thus , when a man , not vers'd in the mathematicks , looks upon a curious geographical globe , though , as soon as he perceives that the differing bignesses , and particular confines of kingdoms and provinces , and the apt situations , true distances and bearings of the cities and towns he knows by sight or fame , be rightly set down ; he cannot but conclude , from these impresses of art or skill , that this was the work of a designing artificer . but though he also sees on the same globe several circles , as the tropicks , the zodiack , the meridians , &c. if he be a sober man , he will not think that these were made by chance only , because he knows not the reasons or uses of them , or because some of the lines , as those curve-lines the seamen call rumbs , are not , like the other , circular , but do odly , and with a seeming irregularity , intersect them : but will rather think , that the artist , that had knowledg enough to represent the globe of the earth and waters , in a body not two foot in diameter , had also skill enough to draw those lines , with some design worthy of the same skill , though not obvious to those that are unacquainted with his art. i did not incogitantly speak of irregularities , as if they might sometimes be but seeming ones . for i think it very possible , that an artificer of so vast a comprehension , and so piercing a sight , as is the maker of the world , might , in this great automaton of his , have so order'd things , that divers of them may appear to us , and as it were break out , abruptly and unexpectedly , and at great distances of time or place from one another , and on such accounts be thought irregular ; which yet really have , both in his preordination , and in the connection of their genuine causes , a reference that would , if we discern'd it , keep us from imputing it either to chance , or to nature's aberrations . to illustrate this a little , let us consider , that if , when the jesuits , that first came into china , presented a curious striking watch to the king , he that look'd to it had wound up the alarm , so as to strike a little after one ; if , i say , this had been done , and that these chineses , that look'd upon it as a living creature , or some european animal , would think , that when the index , pointing at two of the clock , likewise struck the same hour , and so three , four , and onward , they would judg that these noises were regularly produc'd , because they ( at equal intervals of time ) heard them , and whensoever the index pointed at an hour , and never but then ; but when the alarm came unexpectedly to make a loud , confus'd , and more lasting noise , they could scarce avoid thinking , that the animal was sick , or exceedingly disorder'd : and yet the alarming noise did as properly flow from the structure of the little engine , and was as much design'd by the manager of it , as those sounds of the clock , that appear'd manifestly regular . sect . vii . i proceed now to the sixth and difficultest part of my task , which is to shew , that the most general and current effata and axioms concerning nature , that are wont to be imploy'd in the writings of philosophers , may have a fair account given of them , agreeably to the doctrine i have hitherto propos'd , tho' these axioms do some of them suppose , and others seem strongly to support , the receiv'd notion of nature . to clear the way for the ensuing explications , i must desire you to recall to mind the two cautions i have formerly offer'd you ( in the fifth section , ) wherewith i would have the common doctrine , about the ends or designs of nature , to be understood or limited . and therefore i shall not here repeat , what i there said , but only add in two words , that if those , and some few other such things , had been observ'd and duly consider'd , they might perhaps have prevented much of the obscurity , and some of the errors , that relate to the notion of nature . i hope you have not forgot , that the design of this paper was , to examine the vulgar notion of nature , not to establish a new one of my own . and indeed the ambiguity of the word is so great , ( as hath in the second section been made appear ) and 't is , even by learned men , frequently imploy'd to signifie such different things ; that , without enumerating and distinguishing its various acceptions , it were very unsafe to venture a giving a definition of it , and perhaps it were very impossible to give any , that would not be liable to censure . i shall not therefore here presume to define a thing , of which i have not found a stated and setled notion so far agreed on amongst men , but that i was oblig'd , out of aristotle and others , to compile , in the fourth section , a collective representation of the vulgarly receiv'd idea , or notion of nature : and afterwards to draw up , as well as i could , instead of an accurate definition , tolerable descriptions of what , on most occasions , may be intelligibly meant by it. wherefore , desiring and presuming , that you will retain in your mind , and , as occasion shall require , apply , in the following part of this essay , the things already delivered in the fourth section , i will not trouble you with the repetition of them. but before i descend to treat of the particular effata or sentences , that are receiv'd concerning nature's actings , it may not be improper , nor unuseful , to try if we can clear the way , by considering in what sense nature may , or may not , be said to act at all , or to do this or that . for , for ought i can clearly discern , whatsoever is perform'd in the merely material world , is really done by particular bodies , acting according to the laws of motion , rest , &c. that are setled and maintain'd by god among things corporeal . in which hypothesis , nature seems rather a notional thing , than a true physical , and distinct or separate , efficient ; such as would be , in case aristotles doctrine were true , one of those intelligences , that he presum'd to be the movers of the coelestial orbs. but men do oftentimes express themselves so very ambiguously or intricately , when they say , that nature does this and that , or , that she acts thus and thus ; that 't is scarce ( if at all ) possible to translate their expressions into any forms of speech , adequate to the original and yet intelligible . for which reason , though i have in the section said something to the same purpose with what i am now to propose , yet the difficulty and weight of the subject makes me think it may be expedient , if not necessary , in this place somewhat more fully to declare what men do , or should , mean , when they speak of nature's acting , or of a thing 's being naturally done or performed , by giving their words and phrases sometimes one interpretation , and sometimes another . i. sometimes when 't is said , that nature does this or that ; 't is less proper to say , that 't is done by nature , than , that it is done according to nature . so that , nature is not here to be look'd on , as a distinct or separate agent , but as a rule , or rather a systeme of rules , according to which , those agents , and the bodies they work on , are , by the great author of things , determin'd to act and suffer . thus , when water is rais'd in a sucking-pump , 't is said , that nature makes the water ascend after the sucker , to prevent a vacuum ; though in reality this ascension is made , not by such a separate agent , as nature is fancied to be , but by the pressure of the atmosphere , acting upon the water , according to statical rules , or the laws or the aequilibrium of liquors , settled by god among fluids , whether visible or pneumatical . so , when the strict peripateticks tell us , that all the visible coelestial orbs , being by a motion , that they call violent , hurried about the earth every four and twenty hours from east to west ; each of the planetary orbs has a natural motion , that is quite contrary , tending from the west to the east : if they will speak congruously to their master's doctrine , they must use the term natural in the sense our observation gives it : since aristotle will have the coelestial orbs to be moved by external or separate agents namely , spiritual intelligences . our observation may be also illustrated by other forms of speech , that are in use ; as when 't is said , that the law takes care of infants and lunaticks , that their indiscreet actions or omissions should not damnifie their inheritances ; and , that the law hangs men for murther , but only burns them in the hand for some lesser faults ; of which phrases the meaning is , that magistrates and other ministers of justice , acting according to the law of the land , do the things mention'd . and it tends yet more directly to our purpose to take notice , that 't is common to ascribe to art those things that are really perform'd by artificers , according to the prescriptions of the art , as when 't is said , that geometry ( as the name imports , ) measures lands , astrology foretels changes of weather and other future accidents , architecture makes buildings , and chymistry prepares medicines . ii. sometimes , when divers things , such as the growth of trees , the maturations of fruits , &c. are said to be perform'd by the course of nature , the meaning ought to be , that such things will be brought to pass by their proper and immediate causes , according to the wonted manner and series or order of their actings . thus 't is said , that , by the course of nature the summer days are longer than those of the winter : that , when the moon is in opposition to the sun , ( that is in the full moon , ) that part of her body which respects the earth , is more enlightned than at the new moon , or at either of the quadratures : and lastly , that when she enters more or less into the conical shadow of the earth , she suffers a total or a partial eclipse . and yet these and other illustrious phaenomena may be clearly explicated without recourse to any such being as the aristotelians nature , barely by considering the situations and wonted motions of the sun or earth , and the moon , with reference to each other , and to the terrestrial globe . and here it may not be amiss to take notice , that we may sometimes usefully distinguish between the laws of nature , more properly so call'd , and the custom of nature , or , if you please , between the fundamental and general constitutions among bodily things , and the municipal laws , ( if i may so call them , ) that belong to this or that particular sort of bodies . as , to resume and somewhat vary our instance drawn ftom water ; when this falls to the ground , it may be said to do so by virtue of the custom of nature , it being almost constantly usual for that liquor to tend downwards , and actually to fall down , if it be not externally hinder'd . but when water ascends by suction in a pump , or other instrument , that motion , being contrary to that which is wonted , is made in virtue of a more catholick law of nature , by which 't is provided , that a greater pressure , which in our case the water suffers from the weight of the incumbent air , should surmount a lesser , such as is here the gravity of the water , that ascends in the pump or pipe. the two foregoing observations may be farther illustrated , by considering , in what sense men speak of things which they call praeter-natural , or else contrary to nature . for divers , if not most , of their expressions of this kind , argue , that nature is in them taken for the particular and subordinate , or , as it were , the municipal laws establish'd among bodies . thus water , when 't is intensly hot , is said to be in a praeter-natural state , because it is in one that 't is not usual to it , and , men think , doth not regularly belong to it ; though the fire or sun , that thus agitates it and puts it into this state , is confess'd to be a natural agent , and is not thought to act otherwise than according to nature . thus , when a spring , forcibly bent , is conceiv'd to be in a state contrary to its nature , as is argued from its incessant endeavour to remove the compressing body ; this state , whether praeter-natural , or contrary to nature , should be thought such , but in reference to the springy body . for otherwise 't is as agreeable to the grand laws , that obtain among things corporeal , that such a spring should remain bent by the degree of force , that actually keeps it so , as that it should display itself in spight of a less , or incompetent , degree of force . and to omit the six non-natural things , so much spoken of by physitians , i must here take notice , that though a disease be generally reckon'd as a praeter-natural thing , or , as others carry the notion further , a state contrary to nature ; yet , that must be understood only with reference to what customarily happens to a human body : since excessively cold winds , and immoderate rains , and sultry air , and other usual causes of diseases , are as natural agents , and act as agreeably to the catholick laws of the universe , when they produce diseases , as when they condense the clouds into rain or snow , blow ships into their harbour , make rivers overflow , ripen corn and fruit , and do such other things , whether they be hurtful or beneficial to men. and , upon a like account , when monsters are said to be praeternatural things ; the expression is to be understood with regard to that particular species of bodies , from which the monster does enormously deviate , though the causes , that produce that deviation , act but according to the general laws , whereby things corporeal are guided . 3. i doubt , whether i should add as a third remark , or as somewhat that is referrable to one or both of the two foregoing , that sometimes , when 't is said , that nature performs this or that thing , we are not to conceive , that this thing is an effect really produc'd by other than by proper physical causes or agents ; but , in such expressions , we are rather to look upon nature , either as a relative thing , or as a term imployed to denote a notional thing , with reference whereunto physical causes are consider'd , as acting after some peculiar manner , whereby we may distinguish their operations from those that are produc'd by other agents , or perhaps by the same , consider'd as acting in another way . this , i think , may be illustrated by some other receiv'd expressions , or forms of speech . as , when many of the ancient , and some of the modern , philosophers , have said , that things are brought fatally to pass ; they did not mean , that fate was a distinct and separate agent , but only , that the physical causes perform'd the effect , as , in their actings , they had a necessary dependance upon one another , or an inviolable connexion that link'd them together . and on the other side , when men say , as they too frequently do , that fortune or chance , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ( for aristotle and his followers distinguish them , ascribing to the former , what unexpectedly happens to deliberating or designing , and to the later , what happens to inanimate or undesigning beings , ) has done this or that : considerate philosophers do not look upon fortune or chance as a true and distinct physical cause , but as a notional thing , that denotes , that the proper agents produc'd the effect without an intention to do so , ( as i have more fully declar'd in the fourth section . ) one may , for ought i know , without impertinence , refer to this our third observation , that many things are wont to be attributed to time ; as , when we say , that time ripens some fruits that are too early gather'd ; that it makes many things moulder and decay , ( tempus edax rerum ; ) that 't is the mother of truth ; that it produces great alterations , both in the affairs of men , and in their dispositions and their bodies : to omit many other vulgar expressions , which represent time as the cause of several things , whereof really it is but an adjunct or a concomitant of the effects , ( however coincident with the successive parts of time , and so , some way , related to it ) being indeed produc'd by other agents , that are their true and proper efficients . sometimes likewise , when it is said , that nature does this or that , we ought not to suppose , that the effect is produc'd by a distinct or separate being ; but , on such occasions , the word nature is to be concei●●d to signifie a complex or convention of all the essential properties , or necessary qualities , that belong to a body of that species whereof the real agent is , or to more bodies respectively , if more must concur to the production of the effect . to this sense we are to expound many of those forms of speech , that are wont to be imploy'd , when physicians , or others , speak of what nature does in reference to diseases , or the cure of them . and , to give a right sense to such expressions , i consider nature , not as a principal and distinct agent , but a kind of compounded accident , that is ( as it were ) made up of , or results from , the divers properties and qualities that belong to the true agents . and , that the name of a compounded accident may not be startled at , i shall , to explain what i mean by it , observe , that , as there are some qualities or accidents , that , at least in comparison of others , may be call'd simple , as roundness , streightness , heat , gravi●● , &c. so there are others , that may be conceiv'd as compounded , or made up of several qualities united in one subject : as , in divers pigments , greenness is made up of blew and yellow , exquisitely mix'd ; beauty is made up of fit colours , taking features , just stature , fine shape , graceful motions , and some other accidents of the human body and its parts . and , of this sort of compounded accidents , i am apt to think , there are far more , than , at the first mention of them , one would imagine . and to this kind of beings , the expressions , that naturists do on divers occasions imploy , incline me to think , that , what is call'd nature has a great affinity , at least in reference to those occasions . on which supposition , one may conceive , that , as when 't is said , that health makes a man eat well , digest well , sleep well , &c. considering men do not look upon health as a distinct and separate cause of these effects ; but , as what we lately call'd a compounded accident , that is , a complex of all the real and genuine causes of good appetite , digestion , sleep , &c. insomuch that health is not so properly the cause of these , as their effect or result : so in divers things that nature is said to do , we need conceive no more , than that the effects are produc'd by physical bodies and qualities , or other proper causes ; which , when we consider as conspiring , or rather concurring , to produce the same effect , by a compendious term we call nature . by these and the like ways of interpretation , i thought fit to try , whether i could give an intelligible and commodious sense to divers of the maxims or sentences ; and other forms of speech , that are imploy'd by those , that , on many occasions , and in differing expressions , say , that nature does this or that , and acts thus and thus . but i confess , that to clear all those ambiguous and unskilfully fram'd axioms and phrases , i found to be so intricate and difficult a task , that , for want of time , and perhaps too of patience , i grew weary before i had prosecuted it to the utmost . for which reason , though 't is not improbable , that some light may be given in this dark subject , by what i have been now saying , ( as immature and unfinish'd , as it is ) especially if it be reflected on in conjunction with what hath been formerly deliver'd ( in the fourth section ) about nature , general and particular ; yet i shall , at present , make but very little use of the things that have been now said , in expounding the axioms i am particularly to consider in this seventh section ; hoping , that i may , by the help of other mediums , dispatch my work without them . and , to do it the more easily ; i shall , without tying myself to the order wherein they are marshall'd after the beginning of the fourth section , treat of them in the order wherein i think their explications may give most light to one another , or in that , wherein the papers that belong'd to them were retriev'd . the first of the receiv'd axioms i shall consider , is , that which pronounces , that omnis natura est conservatrix sui ; where , by the word nature , i suppose , they understand a natural body , for otherwise i know not what they meant : now this axiom easily admits of a twofold interpretation . for , either it may signifie no more , than that no one body does tend to its own destruction , that is , to destroy itself : or else , that in every body there is a principle call'd nature , upon whose score , the body is vigilant and industrious to preserve its natural state , and to defend itself from the violence and attempts of all other bodies that oppugn it , or endeavour to destroy or harm it. in the former of these two senses , the axiom may be admitted , without any prejudice to our doctrine . for since according to our hypothesis , inanimate bodies can have neither appetites , nor hatreds , nor designs , which are all of them affections , not of bruit matter but of intelligent beings ; i , that think inanimate bodies have no appetites at all , may easily grant , that they have not any to destroy themselves . but , according to the other sense of the propos'd axiom , 't will import , that every body has within itself a principle , whereby it does desire , and with all its power endeavour , to compass its own preservation : and both to do those things , that tend thereunto , and oppose all endeavours , that outward agents , or internal distempers , may use in order to the destruction of it. and as this is the most vulgar sense of this axiom , so 't is chiefly in this sense , that i am concern'd to examine it. i conceive then , that the most wise creator of things did at first so frame the world , and settle such laws of motion between the bodies , that , as parts , compose it ; that by the assistence of his general concourse , the parts of the universe , especially those that are the greater and the more noble , are lodg'd in such places , and furnish'd with such powers , that , by the help of his general providence , they may have their beings continued and maintained , as long and as far forth , as the course he thought fit to establish , amongst things corporeal , requires . upon this supposition , which is but a reasonable one , there will appear no necessity to have any recourse , for the preservation of particular bodies , to such an internal appetite and inbred knowledg in each of them , as our adversaries presume . since , by virtue of the original frame of things , and established laws of motion , bodies are necessarily determined to act on such occasions , after the manner they would do , if they had really an aim at self-preservation : as you see , that , if a blown bladder be compress'd , and thereby the included air be forc'd out of its wonted dimensions and figure , it will uncessantly endeavour to throw off , and repel , that which offers violence unto it ; and first displace that part of the compressing body , that it finds weakest ; though in all this , there be no appetite in the air , ( as i elswhere shew ; ) no more than in the bladder , to that particular figure , to maintain itself in which it seems so concern'd . thus , 't is all one to a ●lump of dough , whether you make it into a round loaf , or a long rowl , or a flat cake , or give it any other form : for whatever figure your hands or your instruments leave in it , that it will retain , without having any appetite to return to that , which it last had . so , 't is all one to a piece of wax , whether your seal imprints on it the figure of a wolf , or that of a lamb. and , for brevity's sake , to pass by the instances that might be drawn from what happens to wood , and marble , and metals , as they are differently shap'd by the statuaries art and tools ; i will only observe , that the mariner's needle , before it is excited , may have no particular propensity to have respect to one part of heaven , more than another ; but when it has been duly touch'd upon a load-stone , the flwer-de-luce will be determin'd to regard the north , and the opposite extream the south . so that , if the lilly be drawn aside , towards the east or towards the west , as soon as the force , that detain'd it , is remov'd , it will return to its former position , and never rest , 'till it regard the north. but , in spight of this seeming affection of the lilly to that point of the horizon , yet , if the needle be duly touch'd upon the contrary pole of the same or another vigorous load-stone , the lilly will presently forget its former inclination , and regard the southern part of heaven ; to which position it will , as it were , spontaneously return , having been forc'd aside towards the east , or towards the west , if it be again left to its liberty . so that , though it formerly seem'd so much to affect one point of heaven , yet it may , in a trice , be brought to have a strong propensity for the opposite : the lilly having , indeed , no inclination for one point of heaven , more than another , but resting in that position , to which it was last determin'd by the prevalence of magnetical effluvia . and this example may serve to illustrate and confirm , what we have been lately saying in general . ii. another received axiom concerning nature , is , that she never fails or misses of her end , natura sine suo nunquam excidit . this is a proposition , whose ambiguity makes it uneasie for me to deliver my sense of it. but yet , to say somewhat , if by nature we here understand that being , that the school-men style natura naturans , i grant , or rather assert , that nature never misseth its end. for the omniscient and almighty author of things , having once fram'd the word , and establish'd in it the laws of motion , which he constantly maintains , there can no irregularity , or anomaly , happen , especially among the greater mundane bodies , that he did not from the beginning foresee and think fit to permit , since they are but genuine consequences of that order of things , that , at the beginning , he most wisely instituted . as i have formerly declar'd in instances of the eclipses of the sun and moon ; to which i could add others , as the inundations of nilus , so necessary to the health and plenty of aegypt . and though , on some special occasions , this instituted order , either seemingly or really , has been violated , as when the sun is said to have stood still in the days of ioshua , and the red sea to have divided itself to give free passage to the israelites , led by moses ; yet these things having been rarely done , for weighty ends and purposes , by the peculiar intervention of the first cause , either guiding or over-ruling the propensities and motions of secundary agents ; it cannot be said , that god is frustrated of his ends by these design'd , though seeming , exorbitances , by which he most wisely and effectually accomplishes them. but , if by nature be meant such a subordinate principle , as men are wont to understand by that name , i doubt the axiom is in many cases false ; for though it it be true , as i have often said , that the material world is so constituted , that , for the most part , things are brought to pass by corporeal agents , as regularly , as if they designed the effects they produce , yet there are several cases , wherein things happen quite otherwise . thus 't is confess'd , that when a woman is with child , the aim of nature is , to produce a perfect or genuine human foetus ; and yet we often see , that nature widely missing her mark , instead of that , produces a monster . and of this we have such frequent instances , that whole volumes have been publish'd , to recount and describe these gross and deform'd aberrations of nature . we many times see , ( and have formerly noted , ) that in feavers , and other acute diseases , she makes critical attempts upon improper days , and in these unseasonable attempts does not only , for the most part , miss of her end , which is to cure the patient , but often brings him to a far worse condition , than he was in , before she us'd those miscarrying endeavours . to this may may be referr'd the cheats men put upon nature ; as when , by grafting , the sap , that nature raises with intention to feed the fruit of a white thorn. ( for instance , ) is by the gardener brought to nourish a fruit of quite another kind . so , when maulsters make barley to sprout , that germination , whereby nature intended to produce stalks and ears , is perverted to a far differing purpose , and she deluded . and now , to annex some arguments ad hominem , we are told , that nature makes every agent aim at assimulating the patient to itself , and that upon this account , the fire aims at converting wood , and the other bodies it works on , into fire : but , if this be so , nature must often miss of her end in chymical furnaces , where the flame does never turn the bricks , that it makes red-hot , into fire ; nor the crucibles , nor the cuples , nor yet the gold and silver , that it throughly pervades , and brings to be of a colour , the same , or very near the same , with its own , and keeps in a very intense degree of heat , and in actual fusion . and , even when fire acts upon wood , there is but one part of it turn'd into fire , since , to say nothing of the soot and concreted smoke , the ashes remain fix'd and incombustible . and so , to add another instance ad hominem , when we are told , that nature makes water ascend in sucking-pumps , ob fugam vacui , she must needs ( as i formerly noted to another purpose , ) miss of her aim , when the pump exceeds five and thirty , or forty , foot in height ; for then , though you pump never so much , and withdraw the air from the upper part of the engine , the water will not ascend to the top ; and consequently , will leave a cavity , for whole replenishing she was suppos'd to have rais'd that liquor two or three and thirty foot. iii. another of the celebrated axioms concerning nature , is , that she always acts by the shortest or most compendious ways , natura semper agit per vias brevissimas . but this rule , as well as divers others , does , i think , require to be somewhat explained and limited , before it be admitted . for , 't is true , ●hat , as i have frequently occasion to inculcate , the omniscient author of the universe has so fram'd it , that most of the parts of it act as regularly in order to the ends of it , as if they did it with design . but , since inanimate bodies , at least , have no knowledge , it cannot reasonably be suppos'd , that they moderate and vary their own actions , according to the exigency of particular circumstances , wherewith they must of necessity be unacquainted , and therefore it were strange , if there were not divers occurrences , wherein they are determin'd to act by other , than the shortest , ways that lead to particular ends , if those other ways be more congruous to the general laws or customs , established among things corporeal . this i prove by instances taken from gravity itself , which is , perhaps , that quality , which of all others is most probably referr'd to an inbred power and propension . for 't is true , that if a stone , or another heavy body , be let fall into the free air , 't will take its course directly towards the centre of the earth ; and , if it meet with an inclining plane , which puts it out of its way , it will not for all that loss its tendency towards the centre , but run along that plane , by which means its tendency downwards is prosecuted , though not , as before , in a perpendicular line , yet in the shortest way it is permitted to take . these obvious phaenomena , i confess , agree very well with the vulgar axiom , and possibly were the chief things that induc'd men to frame it . but now let us suppose , that a small bullet of marble or steel , after having for a pretty space fallen through the air , lights upon a pavement of marble , or some such hard stone , that lies , as floors are wont to do , horizontal ; in this case , experience shews , ( as was formerly noted on another occasion ) that the falling stone will rebound to a considerable height , ( in proportion to that it fell from ) and falling down again rebound the second time , tho' not so high as before ; and , in short , rebound several times , before , by setling upon the floor , it approaches , as near as is permitted it , to the centre of heavy bodies . whereas , if nature did in all cases act by the most compendious ways , this bullet ought not to rebound at all ; but , as soon as it found , by the hardness of the floor , it could descend no lower , it ought to have rested there , as in the nearest place it could obtain to the centre of the earth , whence every rebound must necessarily remove it to a greater distance . and so likewise , when a pendulum , or bullet fasten'd to the end of a string , is so held , that the string is ( praeter propter ) perpendicular to the horizon , if it be thence let fall , it will not stop at the perpendicular line , or line of direction , which is suppos'd to reach from the nail or other prop , through the centre of the bullet , to the centre of the earth , but will pass beyond it , and vibrate or swing to and fro , 'till it have pass'd again and again the line of direction , for a great while , before the bullet come to settle in it , though , whenever it removes out of it , towards either hand , it must really ascend or move upwards , and so go further off from the centre of the earth , to which , 't is pretended , its innate propensity determines it to approach , as much and as soon as is possible . but this instance having been formerly touch'd upon , i shall now observe , to the same purpose , that having taken a good sea-compass , [ and the experiment succeeded with a naked , yet nicely pois'd , needle ] and suffer'd the magnetick needle to rest north and south ; if i held the proper pole of a good loadstone at a convenient distance , on the right or left hand of the lilly , this would be drawn aside from the north point towards the east or west , as i pleas'd ; and then the loadstone being remov'd quite away , the lilly of the needle would indeed return northward , but would not stop in the magnetick meridian , but pass on divers degrees beyond it , and would thence return without stopping at the meridian line : and so would , by its vibrations , describe many arches still shorter and shorter , 'till at length it came to settle on it , and recover that position , which , if nature always acted by the most compendious ways , it should have rested at the first time , that by the removal of the loadstone it had regain'd it . but the truth is , that , at least , inanimate bodies , acting without knowledg or design of their own , cannot stop or moderate their own action , but must necessarily move as they are determin'd by the catholick laws of motion , according to which , in one case , the impetus , that the bullet acquires by falling , is more powerful to carry it on beyond the line of direction , than the action of the causes of gravity is to stop it , assoon as it comes to the nearest place they can give it to the centre of the earth . and something like this happens in levity , as well as gravity ; for if you take an oblong and conveniently shap'd piece of light wood , as firr or deal , and , having thrust or sunk it to the bottom of a somewhat deep stagnant water , give it liberty to ascend , it will not only regain the surface of the water , where , by the laws of gravity , it ought to rest , and did rest before it was forc'd down , but it will pass far beyond that surface , and in part as it were shoot itself up into the incumbent air , and then fall down again , and rise a second time , and perhaps much oftner , and fall again , before it come to settle in its due place , in which it is in an aequilibrium with the water , that endeavours to press it upwards . another of the sentences that are generally receiv'd concerning nature , is , that she always does what is best to be done : natura semper quod optimum est facit . but of this it will not be safe for me to deliver my opinion , 'till i have endeavour'd to remove the ambiguity of the words ; for they easily admit of two different senses , since they may signifie , that nature in the whole universe does always that which is best , for the conservation of it in its present state ; or , that in reference to each body in particular , nature does still what is best , that is , what most conduces to the preservation and welfare of that body . if the first of these senses be pitch'd upon , the axiom will be less liable to exception . but then , i fear , it will be difficult to be positively made out , by such instances as will prove , that nature acts otherwise than necessarily according to laws mechanical ; and therefore , 'till i meet with such proofs , i shall proceed to the other sense that may be given our axiom , which , though it be the most usual , yet , i confess , i cannot admit , without it be both explain'd and limited . i readily grant , that the all-wise author of things corporeal has so fram'd the world , that most things happen in it , as if the particular bodies that compose it , were watchful both for their own welfare , and that of the universe . but , i think , withall , that particular bodies , at least those that are inanimate , acting without either knowledg or design , their actions do not tend to what is best for them in their private capacities , any further than will comport with the general laws of motion , and the important customs establish'd among things corporeal : so that to conform to these , divers things are done that are neither the best , nor so much as good , in reference to the welfare of particular bodies . these sentiments i am induc'd to take up , not only by the more speculative considerations , that have been formerly discours'd of and therefore shall not here be repeated , but by daily observations and obvious experience . we see oftentimes , that fruit-trees , especially when they grow old , will for one season be so overcharg'd with fruit , that soon after they decay and die ; and even whilst they flourish , the excessive weight of the too numerous fruits does not seldom break off the branches they grow upon , and thereby both hinders the maturity of the fruit , and hastens the death of the tree : whereas , this fatal profuseness would have been prevented , if a wise nature , harbour'd in the plant , did , as is presum'd , solicitously intend its welfare . we see also in divers diseases , and in the unseasonable and hurtful crises's of feavers , how far , what men call , nature oftentimes is , from doing that , which is best for the sick man's preservation . and indeed , ( as hath been formerly noted on another ocsicaon , ) in many diseases , as bleedings , convulsions , cholera's , &c. a great part of the physicians work is , to appease the fury , and to correct the errors , of nature , which being , as 't were , transported with a blind and impetuous passion unseasonably produces those dangerous disorders in the body , that , if she were wise and watchful of its welfare , she would have been as careful to prevent , as the physicians to remedy them. add to all this , that , if nature be so provident and watchful for the good of men and other animals , and of that part of the world , wherein they live ; how comes it to pass , that from time to time , she destroys such multitudes of men and beasts , by earthquakes , pestilences , famine , and other anomalies ? and , how comes it so often to pass in teeming women , that , perhaps by a fright , or a longing desire , or the bare sight of any outward object , nature suffers herself to be so disordered , and is brought to forget her plastick skill so much , as , instead of well-form'd infants , to produce hideous monsters , and those oftentimes so mishapen and ill-contriv'd , that not only themselves are unfit to live one day , or perhaps one hour , but cannot come into the world without killing the mother that bare them. these and such other anomalies , though ( as i have elsewhere shewn , ) they be not repugnant to the catholick laws of the universe , and may be accounted for in the doctrine of god's general providence ; yet they would seem to be aberrations , incongruous enough to the idaea the schools give of nature , as of a being , that , according to the axiom hitherto consider'd , does always that which is best . but 't is time that we pass from that , to the examen of another . though i have had occasion to treat of vacuum in the fifth section , yet i must also say something about it in this , because i there consider'd it , but as it is imploy'd by the peripateticks and others , to shew the necessity of the principle they call nature . but now i am to treat of it , not so much as an argument to be confuted , as on the score of its belonging to a ( very plausible ) axiom to be consider'd ; although i fear , that , by reason of the identity of the subiect , ( though consider'd in the fifth sect. and here , to differing purposes ) i shall scarce avoid saying something or other , co-incident with what has been said already . v. the word vacuum being ambiguous , and us'd in differing senses , i think it requisite , before i declare my opinion about the generally receiv'd axiom of the schools , that natura vacuum horret , ( or , as some express it , abhorret à vacuo ) to premise the chief acceptions in which , i have observ'd , the term vacuum to be made use of . for it has sometimes a vulgar , and sometimes a philosophical or strict , signification . in common speech , to be empty , usually denotes , not to be devoid of all body whatsoever , but of that body that men suppose should be in the thing spoken of , or of that which it was fram'd or design'd to contain ; as when men say that a purse is empty , if there be no mony in it ; or a bladder , when the air is squeez'd out ; or a barrel , when either it has not been yet fill'd with liquor , or has had the wine or other drink drawn out of it . the word vacuum is also taken in another sense by philosophers that speak strictly , when they mean by it , a space within the world , ( for i here meddle not with the imaginary spaces of the school-men , beyond the bounds of the universe , ) wherein there is not contain'd any body whatsoever . this distinction being premis'd , i shall inform you , that taking the word vacuum in the strict sense , though many , and , among them , some of my best friends , press'd me to a declaration of my sense about that famous controversie , an detur vacuum , because , they were pleas'd to suppose , i had made more tryals than others had done about it , yet i have refus'd to declare myself , either pro or contra , in that dispute . since the decision of the question seems to depend upon the stating of the true notion of a body , whose essence the cartesians affirm , and most other philosophers deny , to consist only in extension , according to the three dimensions , length , breadth , and depth or thickness : for , if mr. des cartes's notion be admitted , 't will be irrational to admit a vacuum , since any space , that is pretended to be empty , must be acknowledg'd to have the three dimensions , and consequently all that is necessary to essentiate a body . and all the experiments , that can be made with quicksilver , or the machina boyliana ( as they call it , ) or other instruments contriv'd for the like uses , will be eluded by the cartesians , who will say , that the space deserted by the mercury , or the air , is not empty , since it has length , breadth , and depth , but is fill'd by their materia subtilis , that is fine enough to get freely in and out of the pores of the glasses , as the effluvia of the loadstone can do . but though , for these and other reasons , i still forbear ( as i lately said i have formerly done , ) to declare either way in the controversie about vacuum , yet i shall not stick to acknowledg , that i do not acquiesce in the axiom of the schools , that nature abhors a vacuum . for , first , i consider , that the chief , if not the only , reason , that moves the generality of philosophers to believe , that nature abhors a vacrum , is , that in some cases , as the ascension of water in sucking-pumps , &c. they observe , that there is an unusual endeavour , and perhaps a forcible motion in water and other bodies , to oppose a vacuum . but i , that see nothing to be manifest here , save that some bodies , not devoid of weight , have a motion upwards , or otherwise differing from their usual motions , ( as in determination , swiftness , &c. ) am not apt , without absolute necessity , to ascribe to inanimate and senseless bodies , such as water , air , &c. the appetites and hatreds that belong to rational , or or least to sensitive , beings ; and therefore , think it a sufficient reason , to decline imploying such improper causes , if without them , the motions , wont to be ascrib'd to them , can be accounted for . 2. if the cartesian notion of the essence of a body be admitted by us , as 't is by many modern philosophers and mathematicians , it can scarce be deny'd , but that nature does not produce these oftentimes great , and oftner irregular , efforts to hinder a vacuum ; since , it being impossible there should be any , 't were a fond thing to suppose that nature , who is represented to us as a most wise agent , should bestir herself , and do extravagant feats , to prevent an impossible mischief . 3. if the atomical hypothesis be admitted , it must be granted , not only that nature does not abhor a vacuum , but that a great part of the things she does require it , since they are brought to pass by local motion ; and yet there are very many cases , wherein , according to these philosophers , the necessary motions of bodies cannot be perform'd , unless the corpuscles , that lie in their way , have little empty spaces to retire , or be impell'd into , when the body , that pushes them , endeavours to displace them . so that the effatum , that nature abhors a vacuum , agrees with neither of the two great sects of the modern philosophers . but , without insisting on the authority of either of them , i consider , that , for ought appears by the phaenomena imploy'd to demonstrate nature's abhorrency of a vacuum , it may be rational enough to think , either that nature does not abhor a vacuum , even when she seems solicitous to hinder it ; or , that she has but a very moderate hatred of it , in that sense wherein the vulgar philosophers take the word vacuum . for if we consider , that , in almost all visible bodies here below , and even in the atmospherical air itself , there is more or less of gravity , or tendency towards the centre of our terraqueous globe , we may perceive , that there is no need that nature should disquiet herself , and act irregularly , to hinder a vacuum : since , without her abhorrence of it , it may be prevented or replenish'd , by her affecting to place all heavy bodies as near the centre of the earth , as heavier than they will permit . and even without any design of hers , not to say without her existence , a vacuity will be as much oppos'd , as we really find it to be , by the gravity of most , if not of all , bodies here below , and the confluxibility of liquors , and other fluids . for , by vertue of their gravity , and the minuteness of their parts , they will be determin'd to insinuate themselves into and fill all the spaces , that they do not find already possess'd by other bodies , either more ponderous in specie than themselves , or , by reason of their firmness of structure , capable of resisting or hindring their descent . agreeably to which notion we may observe , that , where there is no danger of a vacuum , bodies may move , as they do , when they are said to endeavour its prevention . as , if you would thrust your fist deep into a pail full of sand , and afterwards draw it out again ; there will need nothing but the gravity of the sand to make it fill up the greatest part of the space deserted by your fist. and if the pail be replenish'd , instead of sand , with an aggregate of corpuscles more minute and glib than the grains of sand , as for instance , with quicksilver or with water , then the space , deserted by your hand , will be , at least as to sense , compleatly fill'd up by the corpuscles of the liquor , which , by their gravity , minuteness , and the fluidity of the body , they compose , are determin'd to replenish the space deserted by the hand , that was plung'd into either of those liquors . and i elsewhere shew , that , if you take a pipe of glass , whose cavity is too narrow to let water and quick-silver pass by one another in it ; if , i say , you take such a pipe , and having ( by the help of suction , ) lodg'd a small cylinder of mercury of about half an inch long in the lower part of it , you carefully stop the upper orifice with the pulp of your finger , the quick-silver will remain suspended in the pipe. and , if then you thrust the quick-silver directly downwards into a somewhat deep glass , or other vessel , full of water , till the quick-silver be depress'd about a foot or more beneath the surface of the water ; if then you take off your finger from the orifice of the pipe which it stopt before , you shall immediately see the quick-silver ascend swiftly five or six inches , and remain suspended at this new station . which experiment seems manifestly to prove , what i did long ago devise and do now alledge it for : since here we have a sudden ascent of so heavy a body as is quick-silver , and a suspension of it in the glass , not produc'd to prevent or fill a vacuum , for the pipe was open at both ends , the phaenomena being but genuine consequences of the laws of the aequilibrium of liquors , as i elsewhere clearly and particularly declare . when i consider , how great a power the school-philosophers ascribe to nature , i am the less inclin'd to think , that her abhorrence of a vacuum is so great , as they believ'd . for i have shewn in the fifth section , that her aversion from it , and her watchfulness against it , are not so great , but that , in the sense of the peripateticks , she can quietly enough admit it in some cases , where , with a very small endeavour , she might prevent or replenish it , as i have particularly manifested in the fore-cited section . i just now mention'd a vacuum in the sense of the peripateticks , because when the torricellian experiment is made , though it cannot , perhaps , be cogently prov'd , either against the cartesians , or some other plenists , that , in the upper part of the tube , deserted by the quick-silver , there is a vacuum in the strict philosophical sense of the word ; yet , as the peripateticks declare their sense , by divers of their reasonings against a vacuum , mention'd in that section , 't will to a heedful peruser appear very hard for them to shew , that there is not one in that tube . and , as by the school-mens way of arguing nature's hatred of a vacuum , from the suspension of water and other liquors in tubes and conical watring-pots , it appears , that they thought that any space here below , deserted by a visible body , not succeeded by another visible body , or at least by common air , may be reputed empty . so , by the space deserted by the quick-silver at the top of the pipe of a baroscope thirty one inches long , one may be invited to doubt , whether a vacuum ought to be thought so formidable a thing to nature , as they imagine she does , and ought to , think it ? for what mischief do we see insue to the universe upon the producing or continuance of such a vacuum , though the deserted space were many time greater than an inch , and continued many years , as has divers times happen'd in the taller sort of mercurial baroscopes ? and those peripateticks that tell us , that , if there were a vacuum , the influences of the coelestial bodies , that are absolutely necessary to the preservation of sublunary ones , would be intercepted , since motion cannot be made in vacuo , would do well to prove , not suppose , such a necessity ; and also to consider , that in our case the top of the quick-silver , to which the vacuum reaches , does usually appear protuberant ; which shews , that the beams of light ( which they think of great affinity to influences , if not the vehicle , ) are able to traverse that vacuum , being in spight of it reflected from the mercury to the beholder's eye . and in such a vacuum , as to common air , i have try'd that a load-stone will emit his effluvia and move iron or steel plac'd in it. in short , it is not evident , that here below nature so much strains herself to hinder or fill up a vacuum , as to manifest an abhorrence of it. and , without much peculiar solicitude , a vacuum , at least a philosophical one , is as much provided against , as the welfare of the universe requires , by gravity and confluxibility of the liquors and other bodies , that are placed here below . and as for those that tell us , that nature abhors and prevents a vacuum , as well in the upper part of the world as the lower , i think we need not trouble ourselves to answer the allegation till they have prov'd it. which i think will be very hard for them to do ; not to mention , that a cartesian may tell them , that 't were as needless for nature to oppose a vacuum in heaven as in earth , since the production of it is every where alike impossible . vi. i come now to the celebrated saying , that natura est morborum medicatrix , taken from hippocrat . who expresses it in the plural , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . and because this axiom is generally receiv'd among physicians and philosophers , and seems to be one of the principal things , that has made them introduce such a being as they call nature , i think it may be time well employ'd , to consider somewhat attentively , in what sense , and how far , this famous sentence , may , or should not , be admitted . first then , i conceive it may be taken in a negative sense , so as to import , that diseases cannot be cur'd in such persons , in whom the aggregate of the vital powers or faculties of the body is so far weaken'd or deprav'd , as to be utterly unable to perform the functions necessary to life , or at least to actuate and assist the remedies employ'd by the physitian to preserve or recover the patient . this i take to be the meaning of such usual phrases , as , that physick comes too late , and , that nature is quite spent . and in this sense i readily acknowledge the axiom to be true . for , where the engine has some necessary parts , whether fluid or solid , so far deprav'd or weakn'd , as to render it altogether unable to co-operate with the medicine , it cannot be rationally expected , that the administration of that medicine should be effectual . but in this , i presume , there is no difficulty worthy to detain us . i proceed therefore to the positive sense , whereof our axiom is capable , and wherein it is the most usually imploy'd . for men are wont to believe , that there resides , in the body of a sick person , a certain provident or watchful being , that still industriously employs itself , by its own endeavours , as well as by any occasional assistence that may be afforded it by the physitian , to rectifie whatever is amiss , and restore the distemper'd body to its pristine state of health . what i think of this doctrine , i shall leave you to gather from the following discourse . i conceive then in the first place , that the wise and beneficent maker of the world and of man , intending that men should , for the most part , live a considerable number of years , in a condition to act their parts on the mundane stage ; he was pleas'd to frame those living automata , human bodies , that , with the ordinary succours of reason , making use of their exquisite structure fitted for durableness , and of the friendly , though undesign'd ▪ assistence of the various bodies among which they are plac'd , they may in many cases recover a state of health , if they chance to be put out of it by lesser accidents than those , that god , in compliance with the great ends of his general providence , did not think fit to secure them from , or enable them to surmount . many things therefore , that are commonly ascrib'd to nature , i think , may be better ascrib'd to the mechanisms of the macrocosm and microcosm , i mean , of the universe and the human body . and , to illustrate a little my meaning by a gross example or two , i desire you will consider with me a sea-compass , wherein the excited magnetick needle , and the box that holds it , are duly pois'd by means of a competent number of opposite pivats : for though , if you give this instrument a somewhat rude shake , you will make the box totter , and encline this way and that way , and at the same time drive the points of the magnetick needle many degrees to the east , or to the west ; yet , the construction of the instrument and the magnetism of one main part of it , are such , that , if the force , that first put it into a disorderly motion , cease from acting on it , the box will , after some reciprocations , return to its horizontal situation ; and the needle , that was forc'd to deviate , will , after a few irregular ▪ motions to this and to that side of the magnetical meridian , settle itself again in a position , wherein the flower-de-luce stedfastly regards the north. and yet this recovery to its former state is effected in a factitious body , by the bare mechanism of the instrument itself , and of the earth , and other bodies , within whose sphere of activity it is plac'd . but , because many have not seen a mariner's compass , i will add a less apposite but more obvious and familiar example : for , if when an empty ballance is duly counterpois'd , you shall , by your breath or hand , depress one of the scales , and thereby , for the time , destroy the aequilibrium ; yet , when the force is once remov'd , the depress'd ballance will presently ascend , and the opposite will descend ; and , after a few motions up and down , they will both of them , of their own accord , settle again in an exact aequilibrium , without the help of any such provident internal principle , 〈◊〉 nature : the absence of whose agency may be confirm'd by this , that the depress'd scale does not at first stop at the horizontal line , beneath which it was first depress'd , ( as it ought to do , if it were rais'd by an intelligent being , ) but rises far above it. if it be here objected , that these examples are drawn from factitious , not from merely physical , bodies ; i shall return this brief answer , and desire that it be apply'd not only to the two freshly mention'd examples , but to all of the like kind , that may be met with in this whole treatise . i say then , in short , that divers of the instances , we are speaking of , are intended but for illustrations ; and that others may be useful instances , if they should be no more than analogous ones : since examples , drawn from artificial bodies and things , may have both the advantage of being more clearly conceiv'd by ordinary understandings , and that of being less obnox●●s to be question'd in that pa●●●●ar in which the comparison or correspondence consists . and i the less scruple to employ such examples , because aristotle himself and some of his more learned followers make use of divers comparisons drawn from the figures and other accidents of artificial things , to give an account of physical subjects , and even of the generation , corruption and forms of natural bodies . this advertisement premis'd , i persue this discourse , it interrupted , by adding , thus in a human body , the causes that disorder it are oftentimes but transient , whereas the structure of the body itself and the causes that conduce to the preservation of that structure , are more stable and durable , and on that account may enable the engine to out-last many things , that are hostile to it. this may be somewhat illustrated , by considering , that sleep , though it be not properly a disease , easily becomes one , when it frequently transgresseth its due bounds ; and even whilst it keeps within them , it does , for the time it lasts , hinder the exercise of many functions of the body , more than several diseases do ; and yet , according to the common course of things , the matter that lock't up the senses being spent , the man of himself recovers that sensible and active state , on whose score he is said to be awake . but to come somewhat closer to the point ; we see , that many persons , who get a praeter natural thirst with over-much drinking , get rid of it again in a few days by forbearing such excesses ; and many , that by too plentiful meals are brought to a want of appetite , recover , as it were , of course , by a spare diet , in a few days ; the renewed ferment , or menstruum of the stomach , being able in that time to concoct by little and little , or expell the indigested aliments or peccant humours that offended the stomach , and caus'd the want of appetite . and here i desire to have it taken notice of , as a thing that may be considerable to our present purpose , that i look not on a human body , as on a watch or a hand-mill , i. e. as a machine made up only of solid , or at least consistent , parts ; but as an hydraulical , or rather hydraulo-pneumatical engine , that consists not only of solid and stable parts , but of fuids , and those in organical motion . and not only so , but i consider , that these fluids , the liquors and spirits , are in a living man so constituted , that in eertain circumstances the liquors are dispos'd to be put into a fermentation or commotion , whereby either some depuration of themselves , or some discharge of hurtful matter by excretion , or both , are produc'd , so as , for the most part , to conduce to the recovery or welfare of the body . and , that even consistent parts may be so fram'd , and so connected with other parts , as to act , as it were , pro re nata , varying their motions , as differing circumstances make it convenient they should be varied , i purposely shew in another paper . to this i might altogether refer you ; but , in regard the thing is a paradox , and lays a foundation for another not inferior to itself , i shall here borrow thence one instance , not mention'd that i know of by others to this purpose , that may both declare my meaning , and confirm the thing itself : i consider then , that what is call'd the pupil or apple of the eye , is not ( as 't is known , ) a substantial part of the organ , but only a round hole or window made in the vvea , at which the modify'd beams of light enter , to fall upon the chrystalline humour , and thence be refracted to the bottom of the eye , or seat of vision , to make there an impression , that is usually a kind of picture ( for 't is not always a neat one , ) of the object . now the wise and all-foreseeing author of things has so admirably contriv'd this instrument of sight , that , as it happens to be employ'd in differing lights , so the bigness or area of the pupil varies . for when the light is vivid , and would be too gteat if all the beams were let in , that might enter at an aperture as large as the usual , the curtain is every way drawn towards the middle , and thereby the round window made narrower . and , on the other side , when the light is but faint , and the object but dimly illustrated , there being more light requisite to make a sufficient impression at the bottom of the eye , the curtain is every way drawn open , to let in more light : and when the eye is well constituted , this is regularly done , according as the organ has need of more or less light. of this , some late masters of opticks have well treated , and i have spoken about it more fully in another place . and the truth of the observation you may easily find , if you look upon the eyes of a boy or a girl , ( for in young persons the change is the most notable ) when the eyes are turn'd from looking on dark objects towards bright or more illuminated ones . and i have found the variation yet more conspicuous in the eyes of a young cat , as i elsewhere particularly relate . so that , referring you to the writings already pointed at , i shall only add in this place , that these various motions in the eye are produc'd by mere mechanism , without the direction , or so much as knowledg or perception , of the rational soul. and , upon the like account it is , that other motions , in several parts belonging to the eye , are produc'd , as 't were spontaneously , as occasion requires . and so , as to the fluid parts of the body , we find , that , according to the institution of the author of things , when healthy women are of a fit age , there is a monthly fermentation or commotion made in the blood , which usually produces a kind of separation , and then an excretion , advantagious to the body . and , that you may the better make out what i meant by the disposition , or tendency , of the parts , to return to their former constitution , i shall desire you to consider , with me , a thin and narrow plate of good steel , or refined silver ; for , if one end of it be forcibly drawn aside , the changed texture of the parts becomes such , or the congruity and incongruity of the pores , in reference to the ambient aether , that endeavours to permeate them , is made such , that , as soon as the force that bent it is remov'd , the plate does , as it were , spontaneously return to its former position . and yet here is no internal watchful principle , that is solicitous to make this restitution , for otherwise it is indifferent to the plate what figure it settle in ; for , if the springy body stand long bent , then , as if nature forgot her office , or were unable to execute it , though the force that held the spring bent be remov'd , it will not endeavour to regain its former streightness : and , i have tryed , in a silver plate , that , if you only heat it red-hot , and let it cool , if you put it into a crooked posture , it will retain it ; but barely with two or three stroaks of a hammer , which can only make an invisible change of texture , the plate will acquire a manifest and considerable springyness , which you may again deprive it of , by sufficiently heating it in the fire , without so much as melting it . but , to return to the discourse , formerly begun , about distempers wont to be harmless by being transient , we may observe , that the third or fourth day after women are brought to bed , there is commonly a kind of feaver produc'd , upon the plentiful resort of the milk to the breasts ; for which cause , this distemper is , by many , call'd the feaver of milk. and this is wont , in a short time , to pass away of itself , as depending upon causes far less durable , than the oeconomy of the womans body . and , if it be objected , that these are not diseases , because they happen according to the instituted course of nature ; i will not now dispute the validity of the consequence , though i could represent , that the labour of teeming woemen , and the breeding of teeth in children , happen as much according to the institution of nature , and yet are usually very painful , and oftentimes dangerous : but i will rather answer , that , if the troublesome accidents , i have alledg'd , cannot serve to prove , they may at least to illustrate , what i aim at . and i shall proceed to take notice of a distemper , that physicians generally reckon among diseases , i mean , the flowing of blood at the haemorrhoidal veins : for , though oftentimes this flux of blood is excessive , and so becomes very dangerous , and therefore must be check'd by the physician , ( which is no great argument , that a being , wise and watchful , manages this evacuation , ) yet frequently , if not for the most part , the constitution of the body is such , that the superfluous or vitiated blood goes off , before it has been able to do any considerable mischief , or perhaps any at all , to the body . and so we see , that many coughs , and hoarsenesses , and coryzas are said to be cur'd , that is , do cease to trouble men , though no medicine be us'd against them , the structure of the body being durable enough to out-last the peccant matters , or the operation of those other causes , that pro-duce these distempers . it is a known thing , that most persons , the first time they go to sea , especially if the weather be any thing stormy , are , by the unwonted agitations , which those of the ship produce in them , ( assisted perhaps by the sea-air , and smells of the ship ) cast into that disease , that , from the cause of it , is call'd the sea-sickness , which is sometimes dangerous , and always very troublesome , usually causing a loss of appetite , and almost continual faintness , a pain in the head , and almost constant nauseousness , accompany'd with frequent , and oftentimes violent , vomitings ; which symptoms make many complain , that , for the time , they never felt so troublesome a sickness ; and yet usually , after not many days , this distemper , by degrees , is master'd by the powers of the body , tending still to persevere in their orderly and friendly course , and suppressing the adventitious motions that oppose it , and the sick person recovers without other help . and so , though persons unaccustom'd to the sea , whether they be sick or no , are , by the inconvenient motions of the ship , usually brought to a kind of habitual giddiness , which disposes them to reel and falter , when they walk upon firm ground : yet , when they come a shore , they are wont in no long time to be freed from this uneasie giddiness , without the help of any medicine : the usual and regular motions of the parts of the body obliterating by degrees in a few days ( i us'd to be free from it within some hours , ) that adventitious impression , that caus'd the discomposure . to the same purpose , we may take notice of that which happens to many persons , who riding backwards in a coach are not only much distemper'd in their heads , but are made very sick in their stomachs , and forced to vomit , as violently and frequently , as if they had taken an emetick : and yet all this disorder is wont quickly to cease , when the patient leaves the coach , without the continuance of whose motion , ( that continues a preposterous one in some parts of the patient ) the distemper will quickly yield to the more ordinary and regular motions of the blood , and other fluids of the body . so , when in a coach , or elsewhere , a man happens to be brought to faintness , or cast into a swoon , by the closeness of the place , or the over-charging of the air with the fuliginous reeks of mens bodies ; tho' the disease be formidable , yet , if the patient be seasonably brought into the free air , the friendly operation of that external body , assisting the usual endeavours or tendency of the parts of the patients body to maintain his life and heath , is wont quickly to restore him to the state he was in , before this sudden sickness invaded him . divers things , that happen in some diseases , may be grosly illustrated , by supposing , that into a vial of fair water some mud be put , and then the vial be well shaken , for the water will be troubled and dirty , and will lose its transparency , upon a double account ; that of the mud , whose opacous particles are confounded with it ; and that of the newly generated bubbles , that swim at the top of it ; and yet to clarifie this water , and and make it recover its former limpidness , there needs no particular care or design of nature , but according to the common course of things , after some time the bubbles will break and vanish at the top , and the earthy particles , that compose the mud , will , by their gravity , subside to the bottom , and settle there , and so the water will become clear again . thus also must , which is the lately express'd juice of grapes , will for a good while continue a troubled liquor ; but though there be no substantial form to guide the motions of this factitious body , yet , according to the course of things , a fermentation is excited , and some corpuscles are driven away , in the form of exhalations or vapours , others are thrown against the sides of the cask , and harden'd there into tartar , and others again subside to the bottom , and settle there in the form of lees ; and by this means leave the liquor clear , and , as to sense , uniform . and why may not some depurations and proscriptions of heterogeneous parts be made in the blood , as well as they are usually in must , without any peculiar and solicitous direction of nature . there is indeed one thing , to which the sentence of nature's being the curer of diseases may be very speciously apply'd , and that is the healing of cuts and wounds , which , if they be but in the flesh , may oftentimes be cured without plaisters , salves , or other medicines ; but , not to mention haemorrhagies and some other symptoms , wherein the chriurgeon is fain to curb or remedy the exorbitancies of nature ; this healing of the solutio continui seems to be but an effect or consequent of that fabrick of the body , on which nutrition depends . for the alimental juice , being , by the circulation of the blood and chile , carried to all parts of the body to be nourish'd , if it meets any where , either with preternatural concretions , or with a gap made by a cut or wound , its particles do there concrete into a kind of bastard-flesh , or some such other body , which that juice , in the place and other circumstances 't is in , is fitted to constitute . thus we see , that not only wens and scrophulous tumors are nourish'd in the body , but mis-shapen mola's do by nutriment grow in the womb , as well as embryo's feed there . and , to come closer to the present argument , we see , that , in wounds , proud-flesh , and perhaps fungus's , are as well produc'd and entertain'd by the aliment brought to the wounded part , as the true and genuine flesh ; so that either nature seems much mistaken , if she designs the production and maintenance of such superfluous and inconvenient bodies ; or the chirurgeon is much to blame , who is industrious to destroy them , though oftentimes he cannot do it , without using painful corrosives . but , for ought appears , nature is not so shy and reserv'd in her bounty , but that she sends nourishment , to repair as well things that do not belong to the body , as genuine parts of it , as to restore flesh to wounded parts , as may appear by warts and corns , that grow again after they are skilfully cut . and , i remember , i have seen a woman , in whose forehead nature was careful to nourish a horn , about an inch and more in length , which i fully examin'd , whilst it was yet growing upon her head , to avoid being impos'd upon . but , besides the diseases hither to discours'd , there are many others , as well acute as chronical , wherein , 't is confess'd , that nature alone does not work the cure , so that as to these , ( which are more numerous , than the former ) i may well pretend , that the aphorism , that makes nature the curer of diseases , is not true , otherwise than in a limited sense . but , because i know 't is pretended , that even in these diseases nature is the principal agent , by whose direction the physician acts in subserviency to her designs ; and physicians themselves ( whether out of modesty or inadvertence , i now enquire not , ) are wont to acknowledg , that they are but nature's ministers , i think it necessary to consider briefly , what sense is fit , according to our doctrine , to be given to these assertions , to make them receivable by us . but , to make way for what we are to say on this occasion , it may be fit to observe , that one great cause of the common mistakes about this matter , is , as hath been partly intimated already , that the body of a man is look'd upon , rather as a system of parts , whereof most are gross and consistent , and not a few hard and solid too , than as , what indeed it is , a very compounded engine ; that , besides these consistent parts , does consist of the blood , chyle , gall , and other liquors ; also of more subtil fluids , as spirits and air ; all which liquors and fluids are almost incessantly and variously moving , and thereby put divers of the solid parts , as the heart and lungs , the diaphragma , the hands , feet , &c. into frequent and differing motions . so that , as , when the constitution or the motions , that in a sound body do regularly belong to the fluid parts , happens the former to be deprav'd , or the later to grow anomalous , the engine is immediately out of order , though the gross solid parts were not primarily affected : so , when by proper remedies ( whether visible or not , ) the vitiated texture or crasis of the blood or other juices is corrected , and the inordinate motions , that they and the spirits are put into , or , that they also put the consistent parts into , are calm'd and rectify'd , the grosser and more solid parts of the body , and so the whole animal oeconomy , if i may so call it , will be restored to a more convenient state. thus we see , that in many hysterical women , by the fragrant effluvia of a spanish glove , or some other strong perfume , the spirits and genus nervosum being affected , several disorderly symptoms are produc'd , and oftentimes the motion of the blood is so stopt or abated , that any pulse at all is scarcely to be felt , nor respiration discern'd , and the whole engine , unable to sustain itself , falls to the ground , and lies moveless on it ; and yet we have often , by barely holding to the patient's nostrils a vial full of very strong spirit , or volatile salt , or sal-armoniack , or of harts-horn , in less than a quarter of an hour , sometimes in a few minutes , restor'd women in that condition to their senses , speech and motion . we are also here to consider , what i have formerly inculcated , that the oeconomy of the human body is so constituted by the divine author of it , that it is usually fitted to last many years , if the more general laws , setled by the same author of the universe , will permit it . and therefore 't is not to be wonder'd at , that in many cases , the automaton should be in a condition to concur , though not with knowledge and design , to its own preservation , when , though it had been put somewhat out of order , 't is assisted by the physicians hands or medicines to recover a convenient state. and if it be objected , that the examples , that have been in this past discourse frequently drawn from automata , are not adequate , and do not fully reach the difficulties we have been speaking of , i shall readily grant it , provided it be consider'd , that i avowedly and deservedly suppose the bodies of living animals to be , originally , engins of god's own framing , and consequently effects of an omniscient and almighty artificer . so that , 't is not rational to expect , that in the incomparably inferior productions of human skill , there should be found engins fit to be compar'd with these , which , in their protoplasts , had god for their author . not to mention , ( what yet may be considerable in reference to the lastingness of human life , ) that a man is not a mere mechanical thing , where nothing is perform'd for the preservation of the engine , or its recovery to a good state , but by its own parts , or by other agents , acting according to mechanical laws without counsel or design ; since , though the body of a man be indeed an engine , yet there is united to it an intelligent being , ( the rational soul or mind , ) which is capable , especially if instructed by the physitians art , to discern , in many cases , what may hurt it , and what may conduce to the welfare of it , and is also able ( by the power it has to govern the muscles and other instruments of voluntary motion , ) to do many of those things it judges most conducive to the safety and the welfare of the body , 't is join'd with . so that , a man is not like a watch , or an empty boat , where there is nothing but what is purely mechanical ; but like a mann'd boat , where , besides the machinal part , ( if i may so speak ) there is an intelligent being that takes care of it , and both steers it , or otherwise guides it , and , when need requires , trimms it ; and , in a word , as occasion serves , does what he can to preserve it , and keep it fit for the purposes , 't is design'd for . these things being premis'd , i think the physitian ( here suppos'd to be free from prejudices and mistakes , ) is to look upon his patients body , as an engine that is out of order , but yet is so constituted , that , by his concurrence with the endeavours , or rather tendencies , of the parts of the automaton itself , it may be brought to a better state. if therefore he find , that , in the present disposition of the body , there is a propensity or tendency to throw off the matter that offends it , and ( which ought to be some way or other expell'd , ) in a convenient way , and at commodious places ; he will then act so , as to comply with , and further , that way of discharge , rather than another . as , if there be a great appearance , that a disease will quickly have a crisis by sweat ; he will rather further it by covering the patient with warm cloaths and giving sudorifick medicines , than , by endeavouring to carry off the peccant matter by purging or vomiting , unseasonably hinder a discharge , that probably will be beneficial : and in this sense men may say , if they please , that the physicians are ministers or servants of nature ; as sea-men , when the ship goes before a good wind , will not shift their sails , nor alter the ships motion , because they need not . but to shew , that 't is as 't were by accident , that the physitian does , in the fore-mention'd case , obey nature , ( to speak in the language of the naturists , i reason with , ) i need but represent , that there are many other cases , wherein the physitian , if he be skilful , will be so far from taking nature for his mistress , to direct him by her example , what should be done ; that a great part of his care and skill is imploy'd , to hinder her from doing what she seems to design , and to bring to pass other things very differing from , if not contrary to , what she endeavours . thus , though nature in dropsies inportunately crave store of drink , the physician thinks himself oblig'd to deny it ; as he does what they greedily desire , to his patients of the green-sickness , or that distemper they call pica : though the absurd and hurtful things , as very unripe fruit , lime , coals , and other incongruous things , be earnestly long'd for . thus also the chirurgeon does often hinder nature from closing up the lips of a wound , as she would unskilfully do , before it be well and securely heal'd at the bottom . so the physician does often , by purging or phlebotomy , carry off that matter , that nature would more dangerously throw into the lungs , and expel by frequent and violent coughs . and so , if a nerve or tendon be prick'd , the chirurgeon is fain , with anodynes , and other convenient medicines , to prevent or appease the unreasonable transports of nature , when , being in a fury , by violent and threatning convulsions , she not only much disorders , but endangers , the patient . and so likewise , when in those evacuations that are peculiar to women , nature affects , in some individuals , to make them by undue and inconvenient places , as the nipples , the mouth , or the eyes , whereof we have divers instances , among the observations collected by schenckius , or related by other good authors . the physitian is careful by bleeding the patient in the foot and by using other means , to oblige nature to alter her purpose , and make the intended evacuations by the proper uterine vessels . and , tho' according to the institution of nature , as they speak , there ought to be a monthly discharge of these superfluities , and therefore , whilst this is moderately made , the physician does rather further than suppress it : yet if , as it often happens in other patients , nature overlashes in making those evacuations , to the great weakning or endangering the sick person , the physitian is careful by contemperating medicines and other ways to correct nature's exorbitancy and check her profuseness of so necessary a liquor , as the blood. other instances , more considerable , than some of these hitherto mention'd , might be given to the same purpose ; but i forbear to do it , because , there being some , though perhaps very needless , controversies about them , i could not make out their fitness to be here alledg'd without more words , than i am now willing to employ about unnecessary proofs , fearing it might be thought , i have dwelt too long already upon the explication of one aphorism . i shall therefore only observe in short , that i look upon a good physician , not so properly as a servant to nature , as one that is a counsellor and a friendly assistant , who , in his patient's body , furthers these motions and other things , that he judges conducive to the welfare and recovery of it ; but as to those , that he perceives likely to be hurtful , either by encreasing the disease , or otherwise endangering the patient , he think it is his part to oppose or hinder , though nature do manifestly enough seem to endeavour the exercising or carrying on those hurtful motions . on this occasion , i shall take notice of the practice of the more prudent among physicians themselves , who , being call'd to a patient , subject to the flux of the haemorrhoids , if they find the evacuation to be moderate , and likely either to benefit the patient on another account , ( as in some cases 't is , ) or at least to end well , they do , as some of them speak , commit the whole business to nature ; that is , to speak intelligibly , they suffer it to take its course , being incouraged to do so , in some cases , by the doctrine of hippocrates , and in others by experience . but , if the evacuation prove to be too lasting , or too copious , they then are careful to hinder nature from proceeding in it , and think themselves oblig'd to imploy both inward and outward means , to put a stop to an evacuation , which may bring on a dropsie , or some other formidable disease and if it be said , that nature makes this profusion of so necessary a liquor as blood , only because she is irritated by the acrimony of some humour mix'd with it ; i say , that this answer , which , for substance , is the same that naturists may be compell'd to fly to , on many occasions , is in effect a confession , that nature is no such wise being as they pretend ; since she is so often provok'd to act , as it were , in a fury , and do those things in the body , that would be very mischievous to it , if the physitian , more calm and wise than she , did not hinder her. so that , notwithstanding the reverence i pay the great hippocrates , it is not without due caution and some limitations , that i admit that notable sentence of his , where he thus speaks ; * invenit natura ipsa sibi-ipsi aggressiones . and after three or four lines , non edocta natura & nullo magistro usa , ea quibus opus est facit . which , i fear , makes many physitians less couragious and careful than they should , or perhaps would be , to employ their own skill on divers occasions , that much require it. i shall now add , that , as in some cases , the physitian relieves his patient in a negative way , by opposing nature in her unseasonable or disorderly attempts : so in other cases , he may do it in a positive way , by employing medicines that either strengthen the parts , as well fluid as stable , or make sensible evacuations of matters necessary to be proscrib'd by them ; or ( he may do it , ) by using remedies , that by their manifest qualities oppugn those of the morbifick matter or causes ; as when by alcaly's or absorbing medicaments he mortify's praeter-natural acids , or disables them to do mischief . and , perhaps , one may venture to say , that , in some cases , the physitian may ▪ in a positive way , contribute more to the cure even of an inward disease , than nature herself seems able to do : for , if there be any such medicine preparable by art , as helmont affirms may be made of paracelsus's ludus , by the liquor alkahest ; or , as cardan relates , that an empirick had in his time , who , travell'd up and down italy , curing those where-ever he came , that were tormented with the stone of the bladder ; if , i say , there be any such medicines , the physitian may , by such instruments , perform that , which , for ought appears , is not to be done by nature herself , since we never find , that she dissolves a confirm'd stone in the bladder . nay , sometimes the physician does , even without the help of a medicine , controle and over-rule nature , to the great and sudden advantage of the patient . for , when a person , otherwise not very weak , happens by a fright , or some surprising ill news , to be so discompos'd , that the spirits hastily and disorderly thronging to some inward part , especially the heart , hinder the regular and wonted motion of it , by which disorder the circulation of the blood is hinder'd , or made very imperfect : in this case , i say , the patient is by nature's great care of the heart , ( as is commonly suppos'd even by physitians , ) cast into a swoon ; whence the physitian sometimes quickly frees him , by rubbing and pinching the limbs , the ears and the nose , that the spirits may be speedily brought to the external parts of the body ; which must be done by a motion to the circumference , ( as they call it , ) quite opposite to that towards the centre or heart , which nature had given them before . but as to the theory of swoonings , i shall not now examine its truth , it being sufficient to warrant my drawing from thence an argument ad hominem , that the theory is made use of by those i reason with . by what has been discours'd one may perceive , that , as there are some phaenomena , that seem to favour the doctrine of the naturists about the cure of diseases , so there are others , that appear more manifestly favourable to the hypothesis we propose . and both these sorts of phaenomena , being consider'd together , may well suggest a suspition , that the most wise and yet most free author of things , having fram'd the first individuals of mankin'd , so as to be fit to last many years , and endow'd those protoplasts with the power of propagating their species ; it thereupon comes to pass , that in the subsequent hydraulico-pneumatical engines we call human bodies , when neither particular providence , nor the rational soul , nor over-ruling impediments interpose , things are generally perform'd according to mechanical laws and courses ; whether the effects and events of these prove to be conducive to the welfare of the engine itself , or else cherish and foment extraneous bodies or causes , whose preservation and prospering are hurtful to it. on which supposition it may be said , that the happy things , referr'd to nature's prudent care of the recovery and welfare of sick persons , are usually genuine consequences of the mechanism of the world , and the patients body ; which effects luckily happen to be co-incident with his recovery , rather than to have been purposely and wisely produced in order to it ; since , i observe , that nature seems to be careful to produce , preserve , and cherish things hurtful to the body , as well as things beneficial to it. for we see in the stone of the kidneys and bladder , that out of vegetable or animal substances of a slighter texture , such as are the alimental juices , which , in sucking children ( who are observ'd to be frequently subject to the stone in the bladder ) are afforded by so mild a liquor as milk ; nature skilfully frames a hard body of so firm a texture , that it puzzles physicians and chymists to tell , how such a coagulation can be made of such substances : and i have found more than one calculus to resist both spirit of salt , that readily dissolves iron and steel , and that highly corrosive menstruum , oyl of vitriol itself . we see also , that , divers times , the seeds or seminal principles of worms , that lye conceal'd in unwholesome fruits , and other ill-qualifi'd aliments , are preserv'd and cherish'd in the body , so , as in spight of the menstruum's ferments , &c. they meet with there , they grow to be perfect worms , ( of their respective kinds ) that are often very troublesome , and sometimes very dangerous , to the body that harbours them : producing , though perhaps not immediately , both more and more various distempers ( especially here in england ) than every physician is aware of . this reflection may very well be applied to those instances we meet with in good * authors , of frogs , and even toads , whose spawn , being taken in with corrupted water , hath been cherished in the stomach 'till the eggs being grown to be compleat animals , they produc'd horrid symptoms in the body , that had lodg'd and fed them . and if , according to the receiv'd opinion of physicians , stubborn quartans are produc'd by a melancholy humour seated in the spleen ; it may be said , that nature seems to busie herself to convert some parts of the fluid chile into so tenacious and hardly dissipable a juice , that in many patients , notwithstanding the neighbourhood of the spleen and stomach , neither strong emeticks , nor purges , nor other usual remedies , are able , in a long time , to dislodg it , or resolve it , or correct it . but that is yet more conducive to my present purpose , that is afforded me by the consideration of the poyson of a mad-dog , which nature sometimes seems industriously and solicitously to preserve : since we have instances , in approved authors , that a little foam convey'd into the blood by a slight hurt , ( perhaps quickly heal'd up , ) is , notwithstanding the constant heat and perspirable frame of the human body , and the dissipable texture of the foam , so preserved , and that sometimes for many years , that , at the end of that long time , it breaks out , and displays its fatal efficacy with as much vigour and fury , as if it had but newly been receiv'd into the body . to this agrees that which is well known in italy , about the biting of the tarantula . for , though the quantity of poyson can scarce be visible , since 't is communicated by the tooth of so small an animal as a spider , yet , in many patients , 't is preserved during a great part of of their lives , and manifests its continuance in the body by annual paroxysms . and , i know a person of great quality , who complain'd to me , that , being in the east , the biting or stinging of a creature , whose offensive arms were so small , that the eye could very hardly discern the hurt , had so lasting an effect upon him , that , for about twelve years after , he was reminded of his mischance , by a pain he felt in the hurt place , about the same time of the year that the mischief was first done him . and , in some hereditary diseases , as the gout , falling-sickness , and some kinds of madness , nature seems to act as if she did , with care as well as skill , transmit to the unhappy child such morbifick seeds or impressions of the parents disease , that , in spight of all the various alterations the younger body passes through , during the course of many years , this constantly protected enemy is able to exert its power and malice , after forty , or perhaps fifty , years concealment . such reflections as these , to which may be added , that the naturists make no scruple to style that death , which men are brought to by diseases , a natural death , make me backward to admit the fam'd sentence of hippocrates hitherto consider'd , morborum naturae medici , without limitations , especially those two that are deliver'd in the fifth section : to which i refer you the rather , because they may help you to discern , that divers phaenomena , that favour not the receiv'd notion of a kind and prudent being , as nature is thought to be , are yet very consistent with divine providence . sect . viii . i have now gone through so many of the celebrated axioms , concerning nature , that , i hope , i may reasonably presume , that the other sentences of this kind , that my haste makes me leave unmention'd , will be thought capable of being fairly explicated , and with congruity to our hypothesis , by the help of the grounds already laid , since , with light variations , they may be easily enough improv'd , and apply'd to those other particulars , to which they are the most analogous . but this intimation ought not to hinder me to make a reflection , that not only is pertinent to this place , but which i desire may have retrospect upon a great part of the whole precedent discourse . and it is this , that , though we could not intelligibly explicate all the particular axioms about nature , and the phaenomena of inanimate bodies , that are thought , but not by me granted , to favour them by mechanical principles ; it would not follow , that we must therefore yield up the whole cause to the naturists . for we have already shewn , and may do so yet further ere long , that the supposition of such a being , as they call nature , is far from enabling her partizans to give intelligible accounts of these and other phaenomena of the universe . and though our doctrine sh●●ld be granted to be , as well as that generally receiv'd about nature , insufficient to give good accounts of things corporeal : yet i shall have this advantage in this case , that a less degree of probability may serve , in arguments imploy'd but to justifie a doubt , than is requir'd in those that are to demonstrate an assertion . 't is true , that the naturists tell us , that the nature they assert is the principle of all motions and operations in bodies ; which infers , that in explicating them , we must have recourse to her. but before we acquiesce in , or confidently employ , this principle , it were very fit we knew what it is . this question i have discours'd of in the section : but having there intimated a reference to another place , the importance , as well as difficulty of the subject , invites me to resume in this place the consideration of it ; and both vary and add to what i formerly noted , that i may as well inculcate as clear my t●oughts about it. i demand then o● those , that assert such a nature as is vulgarly describ'd , whether it be a substance or an accident ? if it be the later , it should be declar'd , what kind of accident it is ; how a solitary accident can have right to all those attributes , and can produce those numerous , manifold , and wonderful effects , that they ascribe to nature ; and why a complex of such accidents , as are the mechanical affections of matter , ( as figure , bulk , motion , &c. ) may not altogether , as probably as that accident they call nature , be conceived to have been instituted by the perfectly wise author of the universe , to produce those changes among bodies , which are ( at least for the most part , ) intelligibly referable to them ? and if things be not brought to pass by their intervention , 't were very fit , as well as desirable , that we should be inform'd , by what other particular and intelligible means nature can effect them better , than they may be by that complex . but if it be said , as by most it is , that the principle , call'd nature , is a substance , i shall next demand , whether it be a corporeal , or an immaterial one ? if it be said to be an immaterial substance , i shall further ask , whether it be a created one , or not ? if it be not , then we have god under another name , and our dispute is at an end , by the removal of its object or subject , which is said by the schools to be god's vicegerent , not god himself . but if nature be affirm'd ( as she is , at least by all christian philosophers , ) to be a created being , i then demand , whether or no she be endowed with understanding , so as to know what she does , and for what ends , and by what laws she ought to act ? if the answer be negative , the supposition of nature will be of very little use to afford an intelligible account of things ; an unintelligent nature being liable to the objections , that will a little below be met with against the usefulness of nature , in case she be suppos'd a corporeal being . and though it should be said , that nature is endowed with understanding , and performs such functions as divers of the antients ascribe to the soul of the world ; besides , that this hypothesis is near of kin to heathenism , i do not think , that they who shall with many grecian , and other philosophers , who preceded christianism , suppose a kind of soul of the universe , will find this principle sufficient to explicate the phaenomena of it. for if we may compare the macrocosm and microcosm in this , as well as many are wont to do in other things ; we may conceive , that , though nature be admitted to be indowed with reason , yet a multitude of phaenomena may be mechanically produc'd , winhout her immediate intervention ; as we see that in man , though the rational soul has so narrow a province to take care of , as the human body , and is suppos'd to be intimately united to all the parts of it ; yet , abundance of things are done in the body by the mechanism of it , without being produc'd by that soul. of this we may alledge , as an instance , that , in sleep , the circulation of the blood , the regular beating of the heart , digestion , nutrition , respiration , &c. are perform'd without the immediate . agency , or so much as the actual knowledge , of the mind . and , when a man is awake , many things are done in his body , not only without the direction , but against the bent of his mind ; as often happens in cramps and other convulsions , coughing , yawnings , &c. nay , though some brutes , as particularly apes , have the structure of many parts of their bodies very like that of the analogous ones of human bodies : yet , that admirable work of the formation and organization of the foetus , or little animal , in the womb , is granted by philosophers to be made by the soul of the brute ( that is therefore said to be the architect of his own mansion , ) which yet is neither an incorporeal , nor a rational substance . and , even in a human foetus , if we will admit the general opinion of philosophers , physitians , divines and lawyers , i may be allowed to observe , that the human body , as exquisite an engine as 't is justly esteem'd , is form'd without the intervention of the rational soul , which is not infus'd into the body , 'till this hath obtain'd an organization , that fits it to receive such a guest ; which is commonly reputed to happen about the end of the sixth week , or before that of the seventh . and this consideration leads me a little further , and prompts me to ask , how much , by the supposition or knowledge of the mind , ( at the newly mention'd time , ) we are enabled to explicate the manner , how the foremention'd functions of an embryo are perform'd , when at the end of six or seven week the rational soul supervenes and comes to be united to this living engine ? and , if it be urg'd , that nature being the principle of motion in bodies , their various motions , at least , which amount to a considerable part of their phaenomena , must be explainid by having recourse to her : i answer , that 't is very difficult to conceive , how a created substance , that is immaterial , can by a physical power or action move a body : the agent having no impenetrable part , wherewith to impell the corporeal mobile . i know , that god , who is an mmaterial spirit , ought to be acknowledg'd the primary cause of motion in matter , because ( as we may justly with monsieur des cartes infer , ) motion not belonging to corporeal substance , as such ; this must owe that to an incorporeal one. but then , i consider , that there is that infinite distance between the incomprehensible creator , and the least imperfect order of his creatures , that we ought to be very cautious , how we make parallels between him and them , and draw inferences from his power & manner of acting to theirs . since he , for instance , can immediately act upon human souls , as having created them , but they are not able so to act upon one another . and i think it the more difficult to conceive and admit , that , if nature be an incorporeal substance , she should be the greater mover of the mundane matter , because we see , that , in a human body , the rational soul , ( which the school-philosophers assert to be an immaterial spirit , ) tho' vitally united to it , can only determin the motion of some of the parts , but not give motion to any , or so much as regulate it in most . and , if nature be said to move bodies in another than a physical way , i doubt , whether the supposition of such a principle will be of much use to physiologers in explicating phaenomena ; since i shall scarce think him an inquisitive or a judicious doctor , who should imagine , that he explains , that it gives an intelligible and particular account of the astonishing symptoms of those strange diseases , that divers very learned and sober physitians impute to witchcraft , when he says , that those strange distortions and convulsive motions , for instance , and other prodigious effects , were produc'd by a wicked immaterial spirit , call'd a devil . but having to this purpose said more in another paper , which you may command the sight of , i shall not trouble you with it here . the past discourse opposes their opinion , who assert nature to be an immaterial creature . but because 't is thought , that a greater number of philosophers , at least among the moderns , take her to be corporeal , i shall now address my discourse to their hypothesis . and though i might object , that , if nature be a body , it may be demanded , how she can produce , in men , rational souls , that are immaterial beings , and not capable to be produc'd by any subtiliation or other change of matter whatsoever ? yet , waving this objection , i shall first demand , whether those , i reason with , believe nature , though corporeal , to act knowingly , i. e. with consciousness of what she does , and for pre-designed ends ; or else to be blindly and necessarily moved and directed by a superior agent , indow'd with ( what she wants , ) an excellent understanding ; and then i shall represent a few things , appliable some to one or the other of the two answers , that may be made , and some to both . and first , the cartesians would ask , how , if nature be a corporeal substance , we can conceive her capable of thinking ; and , which is more , of being a most wise and provident director of all the motions that are made in the corporeal world ? secondly , a philosophizer may justly ask , how a corporeal being can so pervade , and , as it were , com-penetrate the universe , as to be intimately present with all its minute parts , whereof yet 't is said to be the principle of motion ? thirdly , he may also demand , whence nature , being a material substance , comes itself to have motion , whereof 't is said to be the principle ? since motion does not belong to matter in itself , and a body is as truly a body when it rests , as when it moves . and , if it be answer'd , that the first cause , that is , god , did at first put it into motion ; i reply , that the same cause may , at least as probably , be suppos'd to have put the unquestion'd mundane matter into motion , without the intervention of another corporeal being , in whose conception , ( i. e. as 't is matter , ) motion is not involv'd . fourthly , it may likewise be ask'd , how the laws of motion come to be observ'd or maintain'd by a corporeal being ? which , as merely such , is either uncapable of understanding them , or of acting with respect to them , or at least is not necessarily endow'd with any knowledge of them , or power to conform to them , & to make all the parts of the unquestion'd mundane matter do so too . fifthly , and i do not see , how the taking in such an unintelligent & undesigning principle will free our understandings from great difficulties , when we come to explicate the phaenomena of bodies . for , as is elsewhere noted , if nature be a bodily creature , and acts necessarily , and ( if i may so speak , ) fatally , i see no cause to look upon it but as a kind of engine ; and the difficulty may be as great , to conceive how all the several parts of this supposed engine , call'd nature , are themselves fram'd and mov'd by the great author of things , and how they act upon one another , as well as upon the undoubted mundane bodies ; as 't is to conceive how , in the world itself , which is manifestly an admirably contriv'd automaton , the phaenomena may , by the same author , ( who was able to endow bodies themselves with active powers , as well as he could , on other scores , make them causes , ) be produc'd by vertue , and in consequence of the primitive construction and motions that he gave it ( and still maintains in it , ) without the intervention of such a thing , as they call nature . for this , as well as the world , being a corporeal creature , we cannot conceive , that either of them act otherwise than mechanically . and it seems very suitable to the divine wisdom , that is so excellently display'd in the fabrick and conduct of the universe , to imploy in the world , already fram'd and compleated , the fewest and most simple means , by which the phaenomena , design'd to be exhibited in the world , could be produc'd . nor need we be much mov'd by hearing some naturists say , that nature , though not an incorporeal being , is of an order superior to mere matter ; as divers of the school-men teach the things , they call material forms to be . for , who can clearly conceive an order or kind of beings , that shall be real substances , and yet neither corporeal nor immaterial ? nor do i see , how the supposition of this unintelligible , or at least unintelligent being , though we should grant it to have a kind of life or soul , will much assist us to explicate the phaenomena ; as if a man be acquainted with the construction of mills , he he may as well conceive , how corn is ground by a mill , driven by the wind or by a stream of water , which are brute and senseless beings , as he can by knowing , that 't is kept at work by a horse , who , though an animated being , acts in our case but as a part of an engine that is determin'd to go round , and who does neither intend to grind the corn , nor know that he grinds it. and in this place ( though perhaps not the very fittest , ) i may question , with what congruity to their master's doctrine , the school-philosophers teach , that nature is the principle of motion in all the bodies , they call natural . for , not to urge , that those great masses of sublunary matter , to which they give the name of elements , and the mixt bodies , that consist of them , are , by divers learned men , said to be mov'd to or from the centre of the earth , by distinct internal principles , which they call gravity in the earth and water , and levity in the fire and air ; and that there is ascrib'd also to every compounded body , that quality of the two , which belongs to the element that predominates in it. not to urge this , i say , consider , that the coelestial part of the world does so far exceed the sub-coelestial in vastness , that there is scarce any comparison between them ; and yet the generality of the peripateticks , after aristotle , tell us , that the coelestial globes of light , and the vast orbs they suppose them to be fix'd in , are mov'd from west to east by intelligences , that is , rational and separate beings , without whose conduct they presume , that the motions of the heavens could not be so regular and durable , as we see they are . so that , in that part of the universe , which is incompararably vaster than the sublunary is , intelligences being the causes of motion , there is no recourse to be had to nature , as the true and internal principle of it. and here it may not , perhaps , be improper to declare somewhat more fully a point already touch'd upon , namely , that , if to know what is the general efficient cause of motion , can much contribute to the explication of particular phaenomena ; the hypothesis of those naturists i now reason with , will have no considerable advantage , if any at all of ours ; which derives them from the primitive impulse given by god to matter , and from the mechanical affections of the greater and lesser portions of it. for 't is all one to him , that would declare by what particular motion , as swift , slow , uniform , accelerated , direct , circular , parabolical , &c. this or that phaenomenon is produc'd ; to know , whether the motions of the parts of matter were originally impress'd on them by nature , or immediately by god ; unless it be , that he , being of infinitely perfect knowledge , may be , more probably than a creature , suppos'd to have at first produc'd in matter motions best accommodated to the phaenomena , that were to be exhibited in the world. nor do i see sufficient cause to grant , that nature herself ( whatever she be , ) produces any motion de novo , but only , that she transfers and regulates that , which was communicated to matter at the beginning of things : ( as we formerly noted , that in the human body , the rational soul or mind has no power to make new motions , but only to direct those of the spirits and of the grosser organs and instruments of voluntary motion . ) for , besides that many of the modern naturalists approve of the cartesian opinion , that the same quantity of motion is always preserv'd in the whole mass of of the mundane matter , that was communicated to it at first , though it be perpetually transferring it from one part to another : besides this , i say , i consider , that , if nature produces in these & those bodies motion , that were never before in beings ; ( unless much motion be annihilated , which is a thing as yet unprov'd , ) the quantity of motion in the universe must have for some thousands of years perpetually increas'd , and must continue to do so ; which is a concession , that would much disorder the whole theory of local motion , and much perplex philosophers , instead of assisting them , in explicating the phaenomena of bodies . and as for the effects of local motion in the parts of the universal matter , which effects make a great part of the phaenomena of the world : after what i have formerly declar'd , you will not wonder to hear me confess , that , to me , the supposition of nature , whether men will have her an immaterial or corporeal substance , and either without knowledge or else indowed with understanding , doth not seem absolutely necessary , nor perhaps very useful , to make us comprehend , how they are produc'd . the bodies of animals , are divers of them little less curiously fram'd than mens , and most of them more exquisitely , than , for ought we know , the great inanimate mass of the corporeal world is : and yet , in the judgment of no mean naturalists , some of the mechanical philosophers , that deny cogitation , and even sense properly so call'd , to beasts , do , at least as intelligibly and plausibly , as those that ascribe to them souls indow'd with such faculties as make them scarce more than gradually different from human ones , explicate the phaenomena that are observ'd in them . and i know not , whether i may not on this occasion add , that the peripateticks themselves , especially the moderns , teach some things , whence one may argue , that the necessity of recurring to nature does not reach to so many things by far , as is by them suppos'd . for the efformation ( or framing ) of the bodies of plants and animals , which are by great odds the finest pieces of workmanship to be met with among bodies , is ascrib'd not immediately to nature , but to the soul itself , which they will have to be the author of the organization of the body , and therefore call it the architect of its own mansion ; which , they say , that it frames by an innate power and skill , that some call plastick , and to which others give other names . and unto the same soul , operating by her several functions , they attribute the concoction of aliments , the expulsion of excrements , the production of milk , semen , &c. the appetitive , loco-motive , and i know not how many other faculties , ascrib'd to living bodies . and , even in many inanimate ones , the noblest properties and operations are , by the same school-philosophers , attributed to what they call their substantial forms ; since from these they derive the wonderful properties of the load-stone , the attractive faculty of amber and other electricks , and the medical vertues of gems and other mineral bodies , whether consistent or fluid . but not to insist on this argument , because 't is but ad hominem , ( as they speak , ) if we consider the thing itself , by a free examen of the pretended explanations , that the vulgar philosophers are wont , by recurring to nature , to give of the phaenomena of the universe ; we shall not easily look on those accounts , as meriting the name of explications . for to explicate a phaenomenon , 't is not enough to ascribe it to one general efficient , but we must intelligibly shew the particular manner , how that general cause produces the propos'd effect . he must be a very dull enquirer , who , demanding an account of the phaenomena of a watch , shall rest satisfied with being told , that 't is an engine made by a watch-maker ; though nothing be thereby declar'd of the structure and co-aptation of the spring , wheels , ballance , and other parts of the engine ; and the manner , how they act on one another , so as to cooperate to make the needle point out the true hour of the day . and ( to improve to my present purpose an example formerly touch'd upon , ) as he that knows the structure and other mechanical affections of a watch , will be able by them to explicate the phaenomena of it , without supposing , that it has a soul or life to be the internal principle of its motions or operations ; so he , that does not understand the mechanism of a watch , will never be enabled to give a rational account of the operations of it , by supposing , as those of chiness did , when the jesuits first brought watches thither , that a watch is an european animal , or living body , and indow'd with a soul. this comparison seems not ill to befit the occasion of propounding it ; but to second it by another , that is more purely physical ; when a person , unacquainted with the mathematicks , admires to see , that the sun rises and sets in winter in some parts of the horizon , and in summer in others , distant enough from them ; that the day , in the former season , is by great odds shorter than in the later , and sometimes ( as some days before the middle of march and of sept. ) the days are equal to the night ; that the moon is sometimes seen in conjunction with the sun , and sometimes in opposition to him ; and , between those two states , is every day variously illuminated ; and , that sometimes one of those planets , and sometimes another , suffers an eclipse ; this person , i say , will be much assisted to understand , how these things are brought to pass , if he be taught the clear mathematical elements of astronomy . but , if he be of a temper to reject these explications , as too defective , 't is not like , that it will satisfie him , to tell him after aristotle and the school-men , that the orbs of the sun and moon , and other coelestial spheres , are mov'd by angels or intelligences ; since to refer him to such general and undetermin'd causes , will little , or not at all , assist him to understand , how the recited phaenomena are produc'd . if it be here objected , that these examples are drawn from factitious , not from merely physical , bodies ; i shall return this brief answer , and desire that it be apply'd not only to the two freshly mention'd examples , but to all of the like kind , that may be met with in this whole treatise , ( near the beginning of which , had i remember'd it , something to the same purpose should have had place . ) i say then in short , that divers of the instances we are speaking of are intended but for illustrations ; and that others may be useful instances , if they should be no more than analogous ones : since examples , drawn from artificial bodies and things , may have both the advantage of being more clearly conceiv'd by ordinary understandings , and that of being less obnoxious to be question'd in that particular , in which the comparison or correspondence consists . and i the less scruple to imploy such examples , because aristotle himself , and some of his more learned followers , make use of divers comparisons , drawn from the figures and other accidents of artificial things , to give an account of physical subjects , and even of the generation , corruption and forms of natural bodies . this advertisement premis'd , i persue the discourse it interrupted , by adding , that thus we see that confirm'd , which was formerly observ'd , namely , that though mechanical principles could not be satisfactorily imploy'd for explaining the phaenomena of our world ; we must not therefore necessarily recur to , and acquiesce in , that principle , that men call nature , since neither will that intelligibly explain them : but in that case , we should ingeniously confess , that we are yet at a loss , how they are perform'd ; and that this ignorance proceeds , rather from the natural imperfection of our understandings , than from our not preferring nature ( in the vulgar notion of it , ) to the mechanical principles , in the explication of the phaenomena of the universe . for whereas monsieur des cartes , and other acute men , confidently teach , that there are scarce any of these phaenomena , that have been truly and intelligibly deduc'd from the principles peculiar to the aristotelians and school-philosophers ; it will scarce be deny'd by any that is acquainted with physico-mathematical disciplines , such as opticks , astronomy , hydrostaticks , and mechanicks , more strictly so call'd , but that very many effects ( whereof some have been handled in this present tract , ) are clearly explicable by mechanical principles ; which , for that reason , aristotle himself often imploys in his quaestiones mechanicae and elswhere . so that , if because the corpuscularian principles , cannot be satisfactorily made use of to account for all that happens among things corporeal , we must refuse to acquiesce in them : it is but just , that , since a recourse to what is call'd nature is yet more dark and insufficient , at least , we must reject as well the later as the former hypothesis , and endeavour to find some other preferrable to both. and now , if it be demanded , what benefit may redound to a reader from the explications given in the foregoing seventh section ? and in general , from the troublesome , as well as free , enquiry , whereof they make a considerable part ? i shall answer , that i am not quite out of hope , that the things hitherto discours'd may do some services both to natural philophy and to religion . and as to the first of these ; this tract may be of use to the cultivaters of that science , by dissuading them from employing often , and without great need , in their philosophical discourses and writings , a term , ( i mean nature , ) which , by reason of its great ambiguity , and the little or no care , which those that use it are wont to take , to distinguish its different acceptions , occasions both a great deal of darkness and confusedness in what men say and write about things corporeal ; and a multitude of controversies , wherein really men do but wrangle about words , whilst they think they dispute of things ; and perhaps would not differ at all , if they had the skill or luck to express themselves clearly . besides which service , the past discourse may do this other , to wean many from the fond conceit they cherish , that they understand or explicate a corporeal subject or a phaenomenon , when they ascribe it to nature . for to do that , one needs not be a philosopher , since a country swain may easily do the same thing . on this occasion , i must not forbear to take notice , that the unskilful use of terms of far less extent and importance , and also less ambiguous , than the word nature is , has been , and still is , no small impediment to the progress of sound philosophy . for not only the greatest part both of physitians ( though otherwise learned men , ) and of chymists ; but the generality of physiologers too , have thought , that they have done their part , though not on all occasions yet on very many , when they have referr'd an effect or a phaenomenon to some such things as those , that are presum'd to be real qualities ; or are by some styl'd natural powers ; or are by others , by a more comprehensive and more usual name , ( which therefore here chiefly imploy , ) call'd faculties ; for each of which they are wont to form a name , fit for their purpose : though they do not intelligibly declare , what this faculty is , and in what manner the operations they ascribe to it , are perform'd by it. thus the attractive faculty ascrib'd to a man , that is enabled by nature's ( presum'd ) abhorrence of a vacuum , to suck up drink through a straw or pipe , has been for many ages acquiesced in , as the true cause of the ascension of that liquor in suction ; of which nevertheless the modern philosophers , that have slighted explications deriv'd merely from faculties , have assign'd ( as has been already declar'd , ) intelligible , and even mechanical causes . the power that a load-stone has with one pole to attract ( as they speak , ) the northern point of the mariner's needle , and with the other to drive it away , is look'd upon as one of the noblest and most proper faculties of that admirable stone . and yet i elsewhere shew , how in a very small , indeed , but true and natural magnet , i have , by a bare , and sometimes invisible , change of texture , given that extream of the magnet , that before drew the southern point of the needle , the power to draw the northern , and to the opposite extream , the power to drive it away : so much does even this wonderful attractive faculty , as 't is call'd , depend upon the mechanical structure of the mineral , and its relation to other bodies , among which 't is plac'd , especially the globe of the earth , and its magnetical effluvia . but because in another paper , i purposely discourse of what naturists call faculties , i shall here content my self to note in general , that the term faculty may , indeed , be allowed of , if . it be applied as a compendious form of speech , but not as denoting a real and distinct agent ; since in reality the power or faculty of a thing is ( at least ) oftentimes but the matter of it , made operative by some of its mechanical modifications ; [ i say , some , because the complex of all makes up its particular nature . ] and with how little scruple soever , men commonly speak of faculties , as supposing them to be distinct and active principles ; yet this condition does not necessarily belong to them . for sometimes , if not frequently , the effect , of what is reputed a natural power of faculty , is produc'd by the texture , figure , and , in a word , mechanical disposition of the agent ; whereby it determines the action of a remoter agent to the produc'd effect . thus in a clock , to make the ballance vibrate , to point at the hour , to make , at set times , the hammer strike upon the bell , are but different effects of the weight or spring , that sets and keeps the engine in motion . and so a key may either acquire or lose its power of opening a door ( which , perhaps , some school-men would call its aperitive faculty , ) by a change , not made in itself , but in the locks it is apply'd to , or in the motion of the hand that manages it. and least it should be objected , that these instances are taken wholly from artificial bodies , i shall add , that , when a clear piece of native chrystal has obtain'd , as it often does , a good prismatical shape , and is , in a due position , expos'd to the sun-beams ; its figuration , by inabling it to refract and reflect those beams after a certain manner , gives it a colorifick faculty , whereby it is inabled to exhibit that wonderful and pleasing variety of colours , that emulate , if not surpass , those of the rain-bow . and so in a concave metalline looking-glass , though there seem to be many distinct faculties , such as that of reflecting , inverting , magnifying divers objects , and melting , burning , &c. several bodies ; yet all these powers are but the genuine consequences of the figure , capacity and smoothness , which are mechanical affections of the matter of the speculum . and , indeed , if i judge aright , ( though what i am going to say will seem a paradox , ) yet many qualities of very many bodies are but lasting dispositions to be thus or thus wrought upon by the action of external agents , and also ( perchance ) to modifie that action ; as we see , that the power of making an eccho , that is observ'd in divers hollow places , is nothing but the mechanical disposition , their figure and resistence gives them to reflect a sound . and , to resume the lately mention'd instance of a key , we may add , that , by bare position , either end of it , especially if the key be long , may be made to acquire or lose a transient magnetick faculty from the effluvia of that great magnet , the earth ; and that also the same key may , in a few moments , acquire a durable magnetism , by a mechanical change receiv'd from the load-stone , as is known to those , that are any thing vers'd in the philosophy of that wonderful mineral . and to me it seems likely , that one main reason , why learned men have ascrib'd such inherent and active powers , as they call faculties , to so many bodies , is , because that , not being conversant enough with natural and artificial things , they did not duly perpend , how great a difference there may be between a body consider'd absolutely , or by itself , and the same body consider'd in such circumstances , as it may be found in . for in some cases a physical body many have strange things justly ascrib'd to it , though not as 't is such a body consider'd simply , or unassociated with other bodies ; but as 't is plac'd among congruous ones , and makes the principal or most operative part of a compounded body , or of the complex of bodies it is joyn'd with , and which are of such determinate structures , as are convenient for the phaenomena , to be exhibited . this may be analogically seen in what happens to a spring . for if , being bent , 't is held in ones hand , or crouded into a box , 't is but a simple thing , that does only , by its expansive endeavour , strive to remove the bodies that keep it compress'd . but in a curious watch , it may , by virtue of the structure of that engine , become the principle of i know not how many differing , and perhaps contrary , motions , among the parts of it ; and of many notable phaenomena and effects exhibited or produc'd thereby . this reflection may , perhaps , be improv'd , if i here add , that , in many bodies , a fluid substance , determin'd to convenient motions , may be equivalent to an internal spring ; especially if it be assisted by friendly external agents . this may be illustrated by considering , that if one that plays skilfully on a flute , blow out of his mouth into the open air , he will but turn it into a vapid aereal stream : but if this wind duly pass into the instrument , and be modify'd there by the musician's fingers and skill , the simple stream of air may be form'd into very various and melodious tunes . thus gunpowder artificially temper'd , tho' , if it be fir'd in the open air , it will give only a rude and sudden flash , that presently vanishes ; yet , if it be skilfully dispos'd of in rockets and other well-contriv'd instruments , and then kindled , it will exhibit a great and pleasing variety of shining bodies and phaenomena , that are justly admir'd in the best sort of artificial fire-works . a physical instance also , in favour of our analogical or vicarious springs ( if i may so call them , ) is afforded me by the bulbs of onions , and the roots of aloes , commonly call'd semper-vive , and some other vegetables , which in the spring being expos'd to the air , the juices and spirits , contain'd in them , will be so agitated by the warmth of that season , and so modify'd by the particular structure of the more firm parts , that , though neither earth nor rain co-operate , they will shoot forth green stalks or leaves for many weeks together , as if they were planted in a good soil ; ( though the matter of these green productions be furnish'd by the radical parts themselves , as may be argued both from the manifest diminution of the bulb in bigness , and the great and gradual decrement in weight , that i observ'd in making experiments of this king. and so also the air , which is an external fluid , concurring with the juices and spirits of divers insects and other cold animals , may both be put into motion , and have that motion so determin'd by their organization , as to recover in the spring or summer , as it were , a new life , after they have lain moveless and like dead things , all the winter ; as we see in flies , that , in a hot air , quickly recover motion and sense , after having lost both , for perhaps many months . and the like change may be far more suddenly observ'd in them , in the warmer seasons of the year , when the air is drawn from them by the pneumatick pump , and afterwards permitted to enliven them again . and to give another instance , that may possibly please better , ( because , as 't is purely physical , so 't is simple and very conspicuous , ) tho' that which the sun-beams are wont primarily to produce be but light and , perhaps , heat ; yet falling in a due manner upon a rorid cloud , they form there the figure of a vast bow , and , being variously reflected and , refracted , adorn it with the several colours , men admire in the rain-bow . but i must not farther prosecute an observation , that i mention'd but occasionally , as an instance whereby to shew , that the advancement of solid philosophy may be much hinder'd by mens custom of assigning , as true causes of physical effects , imaginary things or perhaps arbitrary names ; among which none seems to have had a more malevolent influence upon physiology than the term nature , none having been so frequently and confidently us'd , or imploy'd to so many differing purposes . and therefore , though i would not totally forbid the use of the word nature , nor of expressions of kin to it , in popular discourses or even in some philosophical ones , where accurateness is not requir'd or ambiguity is prevented by the context ; nor ( to dispatch ) whereit may be imploy'd as a compendious form of speech , without danger to truth , or prejudice to sound philosophy , ( in which cases i myself forbear not the use of it ; ) yet , i hope , our free enquiry may ( somewhat at least , ) conduce to the more skilful indagation , and happy discovery , of physical truths , if it can perswade men to make use less frequently , and with more circumspection , of so ambiguous , and so often abus'd , a term as nature ; and cease to presume , that a man has well perform'd the part of a true physiologer , till he have circumstantially or particularly deduc'd the phaenomenon he considers , by intelligible ways , from intelligible principles . which he will be constantly put in mind of doing , or discover that he hath not done it ; if , by forbearing general and ambiguous terms and words , he endeavours to explain things by expressions , that are clear to all attentive readers , furnish'd with an ordinary measure of understanding and reason . and this perspicuous way of philosophizing should be not a little recommended to ingenious men , by the valuable discoveries , which those that have imploy'd it , in their researches and explications of difficult things , have in this inquisitive age happily made , not only about the various phaenomena , commonly referr'd to the fuga vacui ; but in the hydrostaticks , opticks , anatomy , botanicks , and divers other parts of real learning , that i cannot now stay to enumerate . and thus much it may possibly be sufficient to have said , about the service our doctrine may do natural philosophy . as for religion , if what i have formerly said in favour of it be duly consider'd and apply'd , the past discourse will not appear unfriendly , nor perhaps useless , to it. and therefore , if i do here abridge what i have there said , and add to it some considerations , that were fit to be reserv'd for this place ; i hope the doctrine , we have propos'd , may appear fit to do it a threefold service . i. and in the first place , our doctrine may keep many , that were wont , or are inclin'd , to have an excessive veneration for what they call nature , from running , or being seduc'd , into those extravagant and sacrilegious errors , that have been upon plausible pretences imbrac'd not only by many of the old heathen philosophers but , by divers modern professors of christianity , who have of late reviv'd , under new names and dresses , the impious errors of the gentiles . this i venture to say , because many of the heathen writers , as hath been shewn in the fourth section , ackonwledg'd indeed a god ( as these also own they do , ) but meant such a god , as they often too little discriminated from matter , and even from the a world ; and as is very differing from the true one , ador'd by christians and jews : for ours is a god , first , infinitely perfect ; and then secondly , by consequence , both incorporeal and too excellent to be so united to matter , as to animate it like the heathens mundane soul ; or to become to any body a soul properly so call'd ; and thirdly , uncapable of being divided , & having either human souls or other beings , as it were , torn or carv'd out , or otherwise separated from him , so as to be truly parts or portions of his own substance . b b the error here rejected , was the opinion of many of the heathen philosophers , and particularly of the stoical sect ; of whose author , * * in vita zenonis . laertius says , de divina substantia zeno ait mundum totum atque coelum . and several ethnick philosophers , even after the light of the gospel began to shine in the world , adopted the argument of the elder stoicks , who inferr'd the world to be animated and rational from the nature of the human soul , which they thought a portion of the intelligent part of the world , that some of them confounded with the deity . for the soicks ( in laertius ) affirm , de vitis phil. l. 7. mundum esse animale & rationale & animatum ( 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ) & intelligibile . and 't is added , mundum animatum esse , inde manifestum est , quod anima nostra inde veluti avulsa sit . thus seneca , epist. 92. quid est autem cur non existimes , in eo divini aliquid existere , quae dei pars est ? plutarch in quaest. plut. so plutarch , speaking of the soul , non opus solum dei , sed & pars est ; neque ab ipso , sed ex ipso nata est . and epictetus , dissert . 1. caip . 14. animae ita alligatae & conjunctae deo sunt , ut particulae ejus sint . whereas , the idolaters and infidels i speak of , conceiv'd , under the name of god , a being , about which they dogmatically entertained conceptions , which , tho' different from one another , are much more so from the truth . for first , most of them thought their god to be purely corporeal , as , besides what diogenes laertius and others relate , i remember origen doth in several places affirm . if you will believe c c praepar . lib. 3. cap. 4. eusebius , the ancient aegyptian theologers not only affirm'd the sun , moon and stars to be gods , but deny'd incorporeal substances , or invisible nature's , to have fram'd the world , but only the sun , that is discoverable to our eyes . and this corporiety of god seems manifestly to be the opinion of mr. hobbs and his genuine disciples , to divers of whose principles and dogmas it is as congruous , as 't is repugnant to religion . but secondly , there are others , that allow'd a soul of the world , which was a rational and provident being , together with the corporeal part of the universe , especially heaven , ( which , i remember , aristotle himself styles a d d de coelo l. 2. c. 3. divine body , ( or , as some render his expressions , the body of god : ) but withal , they held , that this being did properly inform this great mass of the universe , and so was , indeed , a mundane soul. and though some of our late infidels ( formerly pointed at in this treatise , ) pretend to be great discoverers of new light in this affair , yet , as 〈◊〉 ●s i am inform'd of their doctrine , it has much affinity with , and is little or not at all better than that which i formerly noted out of lactantius to have been asserted by the stoicks , and the doctrine which is express'd by maximus ( a pagan ) to st. austin . equidem vnicum esse deum summum atque magnificum , quis tam demens , tam mente captus , ut neg●t esse certissimum ? hujus nos virtutes per mundanum opus diffusas , multis vocabulis invocamus , quoniam nomen ejus cuncti proprium ignoremus . or by that famous and learned roman , varro , who is cited by st. austin , de civit dei lib. 7. cap. 6. to have said , deum se arbitrari animam mundi , & hunc ipsum mundum esse deum : sed sicut hominem sapientem , cum sit ex animo & corpore , tamen ab animo dicimus sapientem ; ita mundum deum dici ab animo , cum sit ex animo & corpore . the doctrine , by us propos'd , may ( 't is hop'd , ) much conduce to justifie some remarkable proceedings of divine providence , against those cavillers , that boldly censure it , upon the account of some things , that they judge to be physical irregularities , ( for moral ones concern not this discourse , ) such as monsters , earth-quakes , floods , eruptions of volcanos , famines , &c. for , according to our doctrine , — 1. god is a most free agent , and created the world , not out of necessity , but voluntarily , having fram'd it , as he pleas'd and thought fit , at the beginning of things , when there was no substance but himself , and consequently no creature , to which he could be oblig'd , or by which he could be limited . 2. god having an understanding infinitely superior to that of man , in extent , clearness , and other excellencies , he may rationally be suppos'd to have fram'd so great and admirable an automaton as the world , and the subordinate engines compriz'd in it for several ends and purposes , some of them relating chiefly to his corporeal , and others to his rational creatures ; of which ends , he hath vouchsafed to make some discoverable by our dim reason , but others are probably not to be penetrated by it , but lye conceal'd in the deep abyss of his unfathomable wisdom . 3. it seems not incongruous to conceive , that this most excellent and glorious being thought fit to order things so , that both his works and actions might bear some signatures , and as it were badges of his attributes , and especially to stamp upon his corporeal works some tokens or impresses , discernable by human intellects , of his divine wisdom ; an attribute that may advantagiously disclose itself to us men , by producing a vast multitude of things , from as few , and as simple , principles , and in as vniform a way , as , with congruity to his other attributes , is possible . 4. according to this supposition , it seems , that it became the divine author of the vniverse to give it such a structure , and such powers , and to establish among its parts such general and constant laws , as best suited with his purposes in creating the world ; and , to give these catholick laws , and particular parts or bodies , such subordinations to one another , and such references to the original fabrick of the grand system of the world , that , on all particular occasions , the welfare of inferior or private portions of it , should be only so far provided for , as their welfare is consistent with the general laws setled by god in the vniverse , and with such of those ends , that he propos'd to himself in framing it , as are more considerable , than the welfare of those particular creatures . upon these grounds , if we set aside the consideration of miracles , as things supernatural , and of those instances , wherein the providence of the great rector of the universe , and human affairs , is pleas'd peculiarly to interpose ; it may be rationally said , that god having an infinite understanding , to which all things are at once in a manner present , did , by vertue of it , clearly discern , what would happen , in consequence of the laws by him establish'd , in all the possible combinations of them , and in all the junctures of circumstances , wherein the creatures concern'd in them may be found . and , that having , when all these things were in his prospect , setled among his corporeal works , general and standing laws of motion suited to his most wise ends , it seems very congruous to his wisdom , to prefer ( unless in the newly excepted cases ) catholick laws , and higher ends , before subordinate ones , and uniformity in his conduct before making changes in it according to every sort of particular emergencies : and consequently , not to recede from the general laws he at first most wisely establish'd , to comply with the appetites or the needs of particular creatures , or to prevent some seeming irregularities ( such as earth-quakes , floods , famins , &c. ) incommodious to them , which are no other than such as he fore saw would happen ( as the eclipses of the sun and moon from time to time , the falling of showers upon the sea and sandy desarts , and the like must do , by vertue of the original disposition of things , ) and thought fit to ordain , or to permit , as not unsuitable to some or other of those wise ends , which he may have in his all-pervading view , who either as the maker and upholder of the universe , or as the sovereign rector of his rational creatures , may have ends , whether physical , moral , or political ; ( if i may be allowed so to distinguish and name them , ) divers of which , for ought we can tell , or should presume , are known only to himself , whence we may argue , that several phaenomena , which seem to us anomalous , may be very congruous or conducive to those secret ends , and therefore are unfit to be censur'd by us , dim-sighted mortals . and indeed , the admirable wisdom and skill , that , in some conspicuous instances , the divine opificer has display'd in the fitting of things for such ends and uses , for which ( among other purposes ) he may rationally be suppos'd to have design'd them , may justly persuade us , that his skill would not appear infeferiour in reference to the rest also of his corporeal works , if we could as well in these , as in those , discern their particular final causes . as if we suppose an excellent letter about several subjects , and to different purposes , whereof some parts were written in plain characters , others in cyphers , besides a third sort of clauses , wherein both kinds of writing were variously mix'd , to be heedfully perus'd by a very intelligent person , if he finds that those passages , that he can understand , are excellently suited to the scopes that appear to be intended in them , it is rational as well as equitable in him to conclude , that the passages or clauses of the third sort , if any of them seem to be insignificant , or even to make an incongruous sense , do it but because of the illegible words ; and that both these passages , and those written altogether in cyphers , would be found no less worthy of the excellent † † see the discourse of final causes . writer , than the plainest parts of the epistle , if the particular purposes , they were design'd for , were as clearly discernable by the reader . and perhaps you will allow me to add , that by this way of ordering things so , that , in some of god's works , the ends or uses may be manifest , and the exquisite fitness of the means may be conspicuous ; [ as the eye is manifestly made for seeing , and the parts it consists of admirably fitted to make it an excellent organ of vision ] and in others , the ends design'd seem to be beyond our reach : by this way , ( i say ) of managing things , the most wise author of them does both gratifie our understandings , and make us sensible of the imperfection of them. if the representation now made of providence serve ( as i hope it may , ) to resolve some scruples about it ; i know you will not think it useless to religion . and though i should miss of my aim in it , yet since i do not dogmatize in what i propose about it , but freely submit my thoughts to better judgments ; i hope my well meant endeavours will be , as well as the unsuccessful ones of abler pens have been , excus'd by the scarce superable difficulty of the subject . however , what i have propos'd about providence , being written , rather to do a service to theology , than as necessary to justifie a dissatisfaction with the receiv'd notion of nature , that was grounded mainly upon philosophical objections ; i hope our free enquiry may , though this second use of it should be quite laid aside , be thought not unserviceable to religion , since the first use of it , ( above deliver'd ) does not depend on my notions about providence , no more than the third , which my prolixity about the former makes it fit i should in few words dispatch . iii. the last then , but not the least , service , i hope our doctrine may do religion , is , that it may induce men to pay their admiration , their praises , and their thanks , directly to god himself ; who is the true and only creator of the sun , moon , earth , and those other creatures that men are wont to call the works of nature . and in this way of expressing their veneration of the true god , ( who , in the holy scripture styles himself a iealous god , exod. xx . 5. ) and their gratitude to him , they are warranted by the examples of the ancient people of god , the israelites , and not only by the inspir'd persons of the old testament , but by the promulgators of the new testament , and even by the coelestial spirits ; who , in the last book of it , are introduc'd , rev. iv . 2. praising and thanking god himself for his mundane works , without taking any notice of his pretended vice-gerent , nature . the conclusion . and now , dear eleutherius , you have the whole bundle of those papers that i found and tack'd together , ( for they are not all that i have written ) touching my free enquiry into the receiv'd notion of nature : at the close of which essay , i must crave leave to represent two or three things about it. 1. since this treatise pretends to be but an enquiry , i hope that any discourses or expressions that you may have found dogmatically deliver'd , about questions of great moment or difficulty , will be interpretated with congruity to the title and avow'd scope of this treatise ; and that so favourable a reader , as eleutherius , will consider , that 't was very difficult in the heat of discourse , never to forget the reserves , that the title might suggest , especially since , on divers occasions , i could not have spoken , with those reserves , without much enervating my discourse , and being , by restrictions and other cautious expressions , tedious or troublesome to you . but this , as i lately intimated , is to be understood of things of great moment or difficulty . for otherwise , there are divers notions , suppositions , and explanations , in the vulgarly receiv'd doctrine of nature , and her phaenomena ; which i take to be either so precarious , or so unintelligible , or so incongruous , or so insufficient , that i scruple not to own , that i am dissatisfied with them , and reject them . 2. though , upon a transient view of these papers , i find that several parcels , that came first into my hands , having been laid and fasten'd together , ( to keep them from being lost , as others had already been ) before the others were lighted on , some of them will not be met with in places that are not the most proper for them ; yet haste and sickness made me rather venture on your good nature , for the pardon of a venial fault , than put myself to the trouble of altering the order of these papers , and substituting new transitions and connections , in the room of those , with which i formerly made up the chasms and incoherency of the tract , you now receive . and if the notions and reasonings be themselves solid , they will not need the assistence of an exact method to obtain the assent of so discerning a reader , as they are presented to : upon the score of whose benignity , 't is hop'd , that the former advertisement may likewise pass for an excuse , if the same things , for substance , be found more than once in a tract written at very distant times , and in differing circumstances . for , besides that such seeming repetitions will not ( if i be not mistaken ) frequently occur , and will , for the most part , be found , by being variously express'd , to elucidate or strengthen the thought or argument , they belong to : and besides , that the novelty and difficulty of some points may have made it needful , not only to display , but to inculcate them ; besides these things , ( i say ) 't is very possible that the same notion may serve to explicate or prove several truths ; and therefore may , without impertinency , be made use of in more than one part of our treatise . and if our enquiry shall be thought worthy to be transcrib'd , and presented to you a second time , after i shall have review'd it , and heard objections against it , and consider'd the things , that either you , or i myself , may find fault with in it ; 't is very possible , that ( if god grant me life and leisure , ) this tract , which , in its present dress , i desire you would look on but as an apparatus ( towards a more full and orderly treatise , ) may appear before you in a less unaccurate method : and that my second thoughts may prove more correct , more mature , or better back'd and fortifi'd , than my first . 3. the subject of my enquiry being of great extent , as well as consequence , it oblig'd me to consider , and treat of many things , ( as philosophical , medical , theological , &c. ) and , among them , of divers that are not at all of easie speculation . and i found it the more difficult to handle them well , because the attempt i have ventur'd upon being new , and to be prosecuted by discourse , many of them opposite to the general sentiments of mankind , i was not to expect much assistence from any thing , but truth and reason . and therefore , as i cannot presume not to need your indulgence , so i cannot despair of obtaining it , if in this my first essay , upon a variety of difficult points , i have not always hit the mark , and as happily found the truth as sincerely sought it . but if you shall ( which 't is very probable you will ) find that i have fallen into some errors , 't will be but one trouble for you , to make me discern them , and forsake them , ( especially any , wherein religion may be concern'd ) which i have , by way of praevision , made it the more easie for myself to do ; because ( if my style have not wrong'd my intentions , ) i have written this discourse , rather like a doubting seeker of truth , than a man confident that he has found it. finis . a catalogue of some books lately printed for , and are to be sold by , john taylor at the globe in st. paul's church-yard . the declamations of quintilian , being an exercitation or praxis upon his twelve books , concerning the institution of an orator ; translated ( from the oxford theatre edition ) into english , by a learned and ingenious hand , with the approbations of several eminent school-masters in the city of landon . octavo . price 4 s. 6 d. england's happiness in a lineal succession ; and the deplorable miseries which ever attended doubtful titles to the crown , historically demonstrated by the bloody wars between the two houses of york and lancaster . twelves . price 1 s. 6 d. the happy ascetick , or the best exercise ; with a letter to a person of quality , concerning the lives of the primitive christians . by anthony horneck , d. d. preacher at the savoy . octavo . price 4 s. 6 d. this book is now printing in latine , by the author 's own direction , and will be publish'd by trinity term next . printed for , and sold by iohn taylor at the globe in st. paul's church-yard , 1686. errata . pag. 27. l. 17. r. angel , p. 47. dele to which i now proceed , p. 131. l. 10. r. causality , p. 134. l. 15. & 16. r. god and a providence is afforded by the consideration of the visible , &c. p. 273. l. 16. r. world. mal-punctations , or small literal faults ( if any be , ) the courteous reader is desired to correct with his pen. advertisement . the reader is here to be advertis'd of a great oversight that happen'd to be made by several transpositions of the loose sheets , wherein ( and not in a book , ) the copy was sent to the press . for the discourse beginning at the sole break that is to be met with in the hundred and fiftieth page , and ending with another break at the second line of the hundred fifty and sixth page , ought to have been plac'd at the sole break that is to be met with in the hundred sixty and second page . and the discourse that reaches from the beginning of the hundred seventy and eighth page , to the close of the v. section , which ends in the hundred eighty and second page , ought to have been printed among the arguments that may be alledg'd by the naturists , among which it should , if i misremember not , have been brought in at the close of the two hundred forty and eighth page , and thence have reach'd to the end of the sixth section . these transpositions are thought necessary to have notice given of them , to avoid confusion , since the printed sheets did not come to hand , 'till too much of the book was wrought off before the transpositions could be discern'd ; which makes it fit to give notice of what 't is too late to remedy . and though also some connections and transitions , relating to the transpos'd papers , be not such as they should be , yet 't is not judg'd fit , that the reader be troubled with long advertisements about them ; because his discretion may easily correct them , and the incongruities are not of moment enough to spoil the discourses they relate to . notes, typically marginal, from the original text notes for div a28982-e1340 act. 17. see the iii , the iv , and also the last section of this treatise . notes for div a28982-e4680 2 phys. c. 1. l. 3. 1 cor. xv . 37 , 38. rev. xvi . 5. rev. xiv . 18. verse 7. notes for div a28982-e6000 * arist. de coelo , l. ii. c. 11. † arist. de coelo l. ii. c. 5. it . de gen. l. ii. c. 10. §. 22. gen. i. 31. gen. ii . 3. job . xxxviii . 4 , 6 , 7. more nevoch . lib. iii. cap. 30. histor. orientalis . lib. i. cap. 8. lib. iii. cap. 36. 2 king. xvii . & 16. 2 chron. xxxiii . & 3. mor. nevoch . lib. iii. cap. 25. gen. xxxi . & xix . vers . 30. * sen. de benef. lib. vii . cap. 21. galenus de usu partium , l. xvii . apud lacunam in epitome oper. galeni . origen . cont . celsum . l. v. prae parat . l. iii. c. 4. damascius vita isidori apud photium : colunt prae coeteris diis aegyptii osirim & isin ( i. e. solem & lunam , ) illum omnia condere , & figuris numerisque materiam adornare arbitrati . rom. i. 25. sed nec illam , quam ejusdem numinis ( solis ) beneficio adeptus sum , sortem conditionemque parvi facio ; quod ex eo genere , penes quod terrarum dominatus atque imperium est , temporibus nostris ortum acceperim . julian . ad regem solem . more novochim . l. 3. c. 29. ( ni fallor . pag. m. 98. origen-contra celsum . l. v. origen . contra celsum . lib. 8. exod. xx . sextus empir . adversus mathemat . lib. 8. p. m. 326. * august . de civit. dei. l. 7. c. 2. † natur. hist. l. 2. c. 1. * natur. quaest. l. 2. c. 45. de benef. l. 4. c. 7. lib. 7. cap. 1. deus & natura nihil prorsus faciunt frustra . arist. de coelo , lib. ii . cap. 5. see lib. xi . cap. 3. aristot. de coelo . l. xi . c. 13. rom. 1. 25. notes for div a28982-e12470 heb. xi . 10. see the iv. section . notes for div a28982-e16220 * see the appendix to the hydrostat . paradoxes . natura est principium quoddam & causa , cur id moveatur & quiescat , in quo inest , &c. aristot. auscult . lib. ii. cap. 1. the fifth commandment , in exodus xx . psalm v. 6. psalm lv . 23. 2 kings i. 16. isa. xxxviii . james v. 25. 1 cor. xi . 30. * a discourse relating to miracles . notes for div a28982-e19780 differunt autem fortuna & casus , quia casus latius patet . quod enim à fortuna est , casu est : hoc autem non omne est à fortuna . arist. auscult . lib. ii . cap. 4. natura semper id facit quod est optimum eorum quae fieri possunt . arist. de coelo . lib. ii . c. 4. see also arist. de gen. lib. ii . cap. 10. §. 22. hippocrat . epidem . lib. 6. §. 5. t. 1. schenk . obser. l. iv. pag. m. 633. & seq . hippocrat . lib. vi . aphorism . xi . * hippocrat . epidem . l. 6. § 5. text . 2. 4. * schenck . observ. lib. 3. pag. mihi 337. & seq . see pag. 164. to pag. 173. notes for div a28982-e25030 a thus the stoicks , in laertius , describe the world thus , mundus est qui constat ex coelo & terra atque ex illorum naturis ; sive , qui constat ex diis & hominibus , iisque rebus quae horum gratia conditae sunt . and of chrysippus , one of the patriarchs of that sect , the same . † historian in the same book says , purissimum dixit ac liquidissimum aethera , quem etiam primum asserunt stoici esse deum , sensibiliter veluti infusum esse , per ea quae sunt in aere , per cunctas animantes & arbores , per terram autem ipsam secundum halitum . to which agrees not only that noted passage of virgil , principio coelum , &c. — but another , which i somewhat wonder learned men should read with no more reflexion : since he there gives the sky the very title of the high god : tum pater omnipotens foecundis imbribus aether , &c. † diog. laertius l. 7. in vita zenon .