distributed proofreaders europe at http://dp.rastko.net the ~botanical magazine~; or, ~flower-garden displayed~: in which the most ornamental foreign plants, cultivated in the open ground, the green-house, and the stove, are accurately represented in their natural colours. to which are added, their names, class, order, generic and specific characters, according to the celebrated linnæus; their places of growth, and times of flowering: together with the most approved methods of culture. a work intended for the use of such ladies, gentlemen, and gardeners, as wish to become scientifically acquainted with the plants they cultivate. ~by william curtis~, author of the flora londinensis. ~vol. iii.~ "the spleen is seldom felt where flora reigns; the low'ring eye, the petulance, the frown, and sullen sadness, that o'ershade, distort, and mar the face of beauty, when no cause for such immeasurable woe appears; these flora banishes, and gives the fair sweet smiles and bloom, less transient than her own." cowper. london: printed by couchman and fry, throgmorton-street, for w. curtis, at his botanic-garden, lambeth-marsh; and sold by the principal booksellers in great-britain and ireland. m dcc xc. * * * * * [73] monsonia speciosa. large-flower'd monsonia. _class and order._ polyadelphia dodecandria. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-phyllus. _cor._ 5-petala. _stam._ 15. connata in 5 filamenta. _stylus_ 5-fidus. _caps._ 5-cocca. _specific character and synonyms._ monsonia _speciosa_ foliis quinatis: foliolis bipinnatis, _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 697._ monsonia grandiflora. _burm. prodr. 23._ [illustration: no 73] the genus of which this charming plant is the most distinguished species, has been named in honour of _lady anne monson_. the whole family are natives of the cape, and in their habit and fructification bear great affinity to the geranium. the present species was introduced into this country in 1774, by mr. masson. we received this elegant plant just as it was coming into flower, from mr. colvill, nurseryman, king's-road, chelsea, who was so obliging as to inform me that he had succeeded best in propagating it by planting cuttings of the root in pots of mould, and plunging them in a tan-pit, watering them as occasion may require; in due time buds appear on the tops of the cuttings left out of the ground. it rarely or never ripens its seed with us. should be treated as a hardy greenhouse plant; may be sheltered even under a frame, in the winter. [74] antirrhinum triste. melancholy or black-flower'd toad-flax. _class and order._ didynamia angiopspermia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-phyllus. _cor._ basis deorsum prominens, nectarifera. _caps._ 2. locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ antirrhinum _triste_ foliis linearibus sparsis inferioribus oppositis nectariis subulatis, floribus sub-sessilibus. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 555._ linaria tristis hispanica. _dill. elth. 201. t. 164. f. 199._ [illustration: no 74] receives its name of _triste_ from the sombre appearance of its flowers; but this must be understood when placed at some little distance, for, on a near view, the principal colour of the blossoms is a fine rich brown, inclined to purple. is a native of spain, and of course a greenhouse plant with us, but it must not be too tenderly treated, as it loses much of its beauty when drawn up, it should therefore be kept out of doors when the season will admit, as it only requires shelter from severe frost, and that a common hot-bed frame will in general sufficiently afford it. it flowers during most of the summer months; as it rarely or never ripens its seeds with us, the usual mode of propagating it, is by cuttings, which strike readily enough in the common way. miller relates that it was first introduced into this country by sir charles wager, from gibraltar seeds. [75] potentilla grandiflora. large-flower'd potentilla. _class and order._ icosandria polygynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 10-fidus. _petala_ 5. _sem._ subrotunda, nuda, receptaculo parvo exsucco affixa. _specific character and synonyms._ potentilla _grandiflora_ foliis ternatis dentatis utrinque subpilosis, caule decumbente foliis longiore, _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 715._ fragaria sterilis, amplissimo folio et flore petalis cordatis, _vaill. paris. 55. t. 10. f. 1._ [illustration: no 75] culture is well known to produce great alterations in the appearance of most plants, but particularly in those which grow spontaneously on dry mountainous situations, and this is strikingly exemplified in the present instance, this species of _potentilla_, becoming in every respect much larger, as well as much smoother than in its natural state. _vid._ vaill. above quoted. it is a hardy herbaceous plant, a native of switzerland, siberia, and other parts of europe, and flowers in july. linnæus considers it as an annual; miller, as a biennial; we suspect it to be, indeed have little doubt of its being a perennial; having propagated it by parting its roots, but it may be raised more successfully from seed. [76] epilobium angustissimum. narrowest leav'd willow-herb. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 4-fidus. _petala_ 4. _caps._ oblonga, infera. _sem._ papposa. _specific character and synonyms._ epilobium angustifolium, foliis sparsis linearibus obsolete denticulatis aveniis, petalis æqualibus integerrimis, _ait. hort. kew. 2. p. 5._ epilobium _angustifolium_, var. _lin. sp. pl._ epilobium flore difformi, foliis linearibus. _hall, hist. helv. p. 427. n. 1001._ [illustration: no 76] though the _epilobium_ here figured has not been many years introduced into this country, it is a plant which has long been well known, and described. linnæus makes it a variety only of the _epilobium angustifolium_; haller, a distinct species, and in our opinion, most justly. those who have cultivated the _epilobium angustifolium_ have cause to know that it increases prodigiously by its creeping roots. the present plant, so far as we have been able to determine from cultivating it several years, in our garden, lambeth-marsh, has not shewn the least disposition to increase in the same way, nor have any seedlings arisen from the seeds which it has spontaneously scattered: we have, indeed, found it a plant rather difficult to propagate, yet it is highly probable that at a greater distance from london, and in a more favourable soil, its roots, though not of the creeping kind, may admit of a greater increase, and its seeds be more prolific. it is a native of the alps of switzerland, from whence it is frequently dislodged, and carried into the plains by the impetuosity of torrents. it flowers with us in july and august, and being a hardy perennial, and perhaps the most elegant species of the genus, appears to us highly deserving a place in the gardens of the curious. [77] centaurea montana. greater blue-bottle. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia frustranea. _generic character._ receptaculum setosum. pappus simplex. corollæ radii infundibuliformes, longiores, irregulares. _specific character and synonyms._ centaurea montana calycibus serratis, foliis lanceolatis decurrentibus caule simplicissimo. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 785._ cyanus montanus latifolius s. verbasculum cyanoides. _bauh. pin. 273._ cyanus major. _lobel. icon. 548._ [illustration: no 77] it has been suggested by some of our readers, that too many common plants, like the present, are figured in this work. we wish it to be understood, that the professed design of the botanical magazine is to exhibit representations of such. we are desirous of putting it in the power of all who cultivate or amuse themselves with plants, to become scientifically acquainted with them, as far as our labours extend; and we deem it of more consequence, that they should be able to ascertain such as are to be found in every garden, than such as they may never have an opportunity of seeing. on viewing the representations of objects of this sort, a desire of seeing the original is naturally excited, and the pleasure is greatly enhanced by having it in our power to possess it. but, while we are desirous of thus creating botanists, we are no less anxious to gratify the wishes of those already such; and we believe, from a perusal of the magazine, it will appear that one-third of the plants figured, have some pretensions to novelty. the _centaurea montana_ is a native of the german alps, flowers during the greatest part of the summer, is a hardy perennial, and will grow in any soil or situation, some will think too readily. [78] narcissus odorus. sweet-scented, or great jonquil. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _petala_ 6-æqualia. _nectario_ infundibuliformi, 1-phyllo. _stamina_ intra nectarium. _specific character and synonyms._ narcissus _odorus_ spatha sub-biflora, nectario campanulato sexfido lævi dimidio petalis breviore, foliis semicylindricis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 317._ narcissus angustifolius, five juncifolius maximus amplo calice. the great jonquilia with the large flower or cup. _park parad. p. 89. fig. 5._ [illustration: no 78] we shall be thought, perhaps, too partial to this tribe of plants, this being the fifth species now figured; but it should be remembered, that as the spring does not afford that variety of flowers which the summer does, we are more limited in our choice; the flowers of this delightful season have also greater claims to our notice, they present themselves with double charms. this species, which, as its name implies, possesses more fragrance than many of the others, is a native of the south of europe, flowers in the open border in april, is a hardy-perennial, thriving in almost any soil or situation, but succeeds best in a loamy soil and eastern exposure. varies with double flowers, in which slate it is often used for forcing. no notice is taken of this species by miller, except as a variety of the n. _jonquilla_, from which it differs _toto calo_. [79] lotus jacobæus. black-flower'd lotus. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _legumen_ cylindricum strictum. _alæ_ sursum longitudinaliter conniventes. _cal._ tubulosus. _specific character and synonyms._ lotus _jacobæus_ leguminibus subternatis, caule herbaceo erecto, foliolis linearibus. _lin. syst. veg. 601._ lotus angustifolia, flore luteo purpurascente, infulæ s. jacobi. _comm. hort. 2. p. 165. t. 83._ [illustration: no 79] this species of _lotus_ has been called black-flower'd, not that the flowers are absolutely black, for they are of a very rich brown inclined to purple, but because they appear so at a little distance; the light colour of the foliage contributes not a little to this appearance. "it grows naturally in the island of st. james; is too tender to live abroad in england, so the plants must be kept in pots, and in the winter placed in a warm airy glass cafe, but in the summer they should be placed abroad in a sheltered situation. it may be easily propagated by cuttings during the summer season, and also by seeds, but the plants which have been two or three times propagated by cuttings, seldom are fruitful." _miller's gard. dict._ it continues to flower during the whole of the summer; as it is very apt to die off without any apparent cause, care should be taken to have a succession of plants from seeds, if possible. [80] spigelia marilandica. maryland spigelia, or worm-grass. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ infundibuliformis. _capsula_ didyma. 2-locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ spigelia _marilandica_ caule tetragono, foliis omnibus oppositis. _lin. syst. veg. p. 197._ _mant. 2. p. 338._ lonicera _marilandica_, _spec. pl. ed. 3. p. 249._ periclymeni virginiani flore coccineo planta marilandica spicata erecta foliis conjugatis. _d. sherard raii suppl. p. 32._ _catesb. carol. 11. t. 78._ anthelmia indian pink. _dr. lining. essays physical and literary, vol. 1. and vol. 3._ [illustration: no 80] this plant, not less celebrated for its superior efficacy in destroying worms[a], than admired for its beauty, is a native of the warmer parts of north america; the older botanists, and even linnæus, at one time considered it as a _honeysuckle_, but he has now made a new genus of it, which he has named in honour of spigelius, a botanist of considerable note, author of the _ifagog. in yem herbar_. published at _leyden_ in 1633. "this plant is not easily propagated in england, for the roots make but slow increase, so that the plant is not very common in the english gardens at present; for although it is so hardy as to endure the cold of our ordinary winters in the open air, yet as it does not ripen seeds, the only way of propagating it is by parting of the roots; and as these do not make much increase by offsets, so the plants are scarce; it delights in a moist soil, and must not be often transplanted." _miller's dict._ the scarcity of this plant, even now, is a proof of the justness of mr. miller's observation; it is in fact a very shy plant, and scarcely to be kept in this country but by frequent importation. it flowers in june and july. [footnote a: _vid. lewis's mater. medica._] [81] colutea arborescens. tree colutea, or bladder senna. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _calyx_ 5-fidus. _legumen_ inflatum, basi superiore dehiscens. _specific character and synonyms._ colutea _arborescens_ arborea foliolis obcordatis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 668._ colutea vesicaria. _bauh. pin. 396._ the greater bastard senna with bladders. _park. par. 440._ [illustration: no 81] the bladder senna, a native of the south of france and italy, produces a profusion of bloom from june to august, when its inflated pods please from the singularity of their appearance; on these accounts, it is one of the most common flowering shrubs cultivated in gardens and plantations. "it is propagated by sowing its seeds any time in the spring in a bed of common earth; and when the plants are come up, they must be kept clear from weeds, and the michaelmas following they should be transplanted either into nursery-rows, or in the places where they are designed to remain; for if they are let grow in the seed-bed too long, they are very subject to have tap roots, which render them unfit for transplanting; nor should these trees be suffered to remain too long in the nursery before they are transplanted, for the same reason." _miller's gard. dict._ we have learned by experience, that a very wet soil will prove fatal to these shrubs. [82] lachenalia tricolor. three-coloured lachenalia. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _calyx_ subtriphyllus, inferus, coloratus. _corolla_ 3-petala, receptaculo inferta. _jacquin jun. in act. helv. vol. 9._ _specific character and synonyms._ lachenalia _tricolor_. _lin. syst, vegetab. ed. 14. p. 314._ _jacq. icon. pl. rarior, t. 3._ phormium _aloides_. _lin. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. p. 336. suppl. 205._ [illustration: no 82] to mr. lee, of the vineyard, hammersmith, the first, and as we understand, the only nurseryman as yet in possession of this plant, which has but lately been introduced into this country from the cape, we are indebted for the present specimen. mr. jacquin, jun. who has figured and described it in the _acta helvetica_, gives it the name of _lachenalia_, in honour of warnerus de la chenal, a very eminent swiss botanist, and the particular friend of the late illustrious haller. our readers should be informed, that it had before been called by two other different names, viz. _hyacinthus orchiodes_, and _phormium aloides_, under the latter of which it now stands in the 14th edition of the _systema vegetabilium_, as well as that of _lachenalia_. its trivial name of _tricolor_ it receives from the three colours observable in the flowers; but it must be noticed, that it is only at the middle period of its flowering, that these three colours are highly distinguishable; as it advances, the brilliant orange of the top flowers dies away; the spots on the leaves also, which when the plant is young, give it the appearance of an orchis, as it advances into bloom become less and less conspicuous. like most of the cape plants, the _lachenalia_ requires to be sheltered in the winter; during that season it must therefore be kept in a greenhouse, or hot-bed frame, well secured. it flowers in the spring, but its blowing may be accelerated by the warmth of the stove, for it bears forcing well enough. it is increased by offsets from the bulbs. [83] hibiscus syriacus. syrian hibiscus; commonly called althæa frutex. _class and order._ monadelphia polyandria. _generic character._ _calyx_ duplex, exterior polyphyllus. _capsula_ 5-locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ hibiscus _syriacus_ foliis cuneiformi ovatis superne incise-serratis, caule arboreo. _lin. syst. veg. p. 630._ alcea arborescens syriaca. _bauh. pin. p. 316._ althæa frutex flore albo vel purpureo. _park. par. p. 369._ [illustration: no 83] the _hibiscus syriacus_, known generally by the name of _althæa frutex_, is a native of syria, and forms one of the chief ornaments of our gardens in autumn; we view it, however, with less delight, as it is a sure indication of approaching winter. there are many varieties of it mentioned by authors, as the _purple, red-flowered, white-flowered, variegated red and white flowered_, and the _striped-flowered_, to which may be added, another variety, lately introduced, with double flowers: it varies also in its foliage, which is sometimes marked with white, sometimes with yellow. as from the lateness of its flowering, and the want of sufficient warmth, it rarely ripens its seeds with us; the usual mode of increasing it is by layers, and sometimes by cuttings; but the best plants are raised from seeds. miller observes, that the scarce varieties may be propagated by grafting them on each other, which is the common method of propagating the sorts with striped leaves. in the time of parkinson it was not looked on as a hardy shrub: he thus writes,--"they are somewhat tender, and would not be suffered to be uncovered in the winter time, or yet abroad in the garden, but kept in a large pot or tubbe, in the house or in a warme cellar, if you would have them to thrive." _park. parad._ [84] tussilago alpina. alpine coltsfoot. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia. _generic character._ _receptaculum_ nudum. _pappus_ simplex. _cal._ squamæ æquales, discum æquantes, submembranaceæ. _specific character and synonyms._ tussilago _alpina_ scapo unifloro subnudo, foliis cordato orbiculatis crenatis utrinque virentibus. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 755._ tussilago alpina rotundifolia glabra. _bauh. pin. 197._ [illustration: no 84] this species, a native of the alps, of switzerland, and austria, is frequently kept in gardens for the sake of variety; like the rest of the genus, it flowers early in the spring, in march and april; is a very hardy perennial, increases most readily in a moist shady situation, is usually kept in pots for the convenience of sheltering it in very severe seasons; but it will grow readily enough in the open border. all plants that flower early, though ever so hardy, require some kind of shelter, previous to, and during their flowering. is propagated by parting its roots in autumn. [85] spartium jungeum. spanish broom. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _stigma_ longitudinale, supra villosum. _filamenta_ germini adhærentia. _calyx_ deorsum productus. _specific character and synonyms._ spartium _junceum_ ramis oppositis teretibus apice floriferis, foliis lanceolatis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 643._ spartium arborescens, feminibus lenti similibus. _bauh. pin. 396._ spanish broom. _park. parad. p. 442. t. 443. fig. 4._ [illustration: no 85] grows naturally in france, spain, italy, and turkey; bears our climate extremely well; is a common shrub in our nurseries and plantations, which it much enlivens by its yellow blossoms: flowers from june to august, or longer in cool seasons. is raised by seeds, which generally come up plentifully under the shrubs. miller mentions a variety of it, which, as inferior to the common sort, does not appear to be worth cultivating. [86] gladiolus communis. common corn-flag. _class and order._ triandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ sexpartita, ringens. _stamina_ adscendentia. _specific character and synonyms._ gladiolus _communis_ foliis ensiformibus, floribus distantibus. gladiolus utrinque floridus? _bauh. pin. 41._ the french corn-flag. _park. parad. p. 189. t. 191. f. 1._ [illustration: no 86] grows wild in the corn fields of most of the warmer parts of europe, varies with white and flesh-coloured blossoms, increases so fast, both by offsets and seeds, as to become troublesome to the cultivator; hence, having been supplanted by the greater corn-flag, the _byzantinus_ of miller, whose blossoms are larger, and more shewy, it is not so generally found in gardens as formerly. it flowers in june. [87] hyoscyamus aureus. golden-flower'd henbane. _class and order._ pentandria digynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ infundibuliformis, obtusa. _stamina_ inclinata. _capsula_ operculata 2-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ hyoscyamus _aureus_ foliis petiolatis dentatis acutis floribus pedunculatis, fructibus pendulis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 220._ hyoscyamus creticus luteus major. _bauh. pin. 169._ [illustration: no 87] a native of crete, and other parts of the east. "flowers most part of the summer, but seldom ripens seeds in england; will continue for several years, if kept in pots and sheltered in winter, for it will not live in the open air during that season; if placed under a common hot-bed frame, where it may enjoy as much free air as possible in mild weather, it will thrive better than when more tenderly treated. "it may be easily propagated by cuttings, which if planted in a shady border and covered with hand-glasses, in any of the summer months, they will take root in a month or six weeks, and may be afterwards planted in pots and treated like the old plants." miller's _gard. dict._ it is, however, a more common practice to keep this plant in the stove in the winter; one advantage, at least, attends this method, we secure it with certainty. [88] narcissus bulbocodium. hoop petticoat narcissus. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _petala_ 6, æqualia: _nectario_ infundibuliformi, 1-phyllo. _stamina_ intra nectarium. _specific character and synonyms._ narcissus _bulbocodium_ spatha uniflora, nectario turbinato petalis majore, staminibus pistilloque declinatis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 317._ narcissus montanus juncifolius, calyce aureo. _bauhin. p. 53._ the greater yellow junquilia, or bastard daffodil. _park. parad. p. 106. t. 107. fig. 6. var. min. fig. 7._ [illustration: no 88] grows spontaneously in portugal; flowers in the open border about the middle of may, is an old inhabitant of our gardens, but, like the _triandrus_, is now become scarce, at least in the nurseries about london; in some gardens in hampshire we have seen it grow abundantly: miller calls it the _hoop petticoat narcissus_, the nectary, as he observes, being formed like the ladies hoop petticoats. it certainly is one of the neatest and most elegant of the genus, is propagated by offsets, and should be planted in a loamy soil, with an eastern exposure. [89] viola pedata cut-leav'd violet. _class and order._ syngenesia monogamia. _generic character._ _calyx_ 5-phyllus. _cor._ 5-petala, irregularis, postice cornuta. _capsula_ supera, 3-valvis; 1-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ viola _pedata_ acaulis, foliis pedatis septempartitis. _lin. syst. veget. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 802. spec. pl. p. 1323._ _gronov. fl. virg. ed. 2. p. 135._ viola _tricolor_ caule nudo, foliis tenuius dissectis. _banist. virg._ viola inodora flore purpurascente specioso, foliis ad modum digitorum incisis. _clayt. n. 254._ [illustration: no 89] this species of violet, a native of virginia, is very rarely met with in our gardens; the figure we have given, was drawn from a plant which flowered this spring in the garden of thomas sykes, esq. at hackney, who possesses a very fine collection of plants, and of american ones in particular. it is more remarkable for the singularity of its foliage than the beauty of its blossoms; the former exhibit a very good example of the _folium pedatum_ of linnæus, whence its name. miller, who calls it _multifida_ from a former edition of linnæus's _species plantarum_, says, that the flowers are not succeeded by seeds here, hence it can only be propagated by parting its roots. the best mode of treating it, will be to place the roots in a pot of loam and bog earth mixed, and plunge the pot into a north border, where it must be sheltered in the winter, or taken up and kept in a common hot-bed frame. [90] gorteria rigens. rigid-leav'd gorteria. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia frustranea. _generic character._ _receptaculum_ nudum. _pappus_ lanatus. _corollæ_ radii ligulatæ. _calyx_ imbricatus, squamis spinosis. _specific character and synonyms._ gorteria _rigens_ foliis lanceolatis pinnatifidis, caule depresso, scapis unifloris. _lin. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. 783. sp. pl. ed. 3. p. 1284._ arctotis ramis decumbentibus, foliis lineari-lanceolatis rigidis, subtus argenteis. _mill. dict. et icon. t. 49._ arctotheca foliis rigidis leniter dissectis. _vaill. act. 1728. n. 9._ [illustration: no 90] the gorteria, of which there are several species, and most of them, like the present, natives of the cape, has been named in honour of david de gorter, author of the _flora zutphanica_ and _ingrica_; the trivial name of _rigens_ is given to this species from the rigidity of its leaves, a term which it is sometimes apt to exchange for the more common botanic name of _ringens_; an instance of such mistake occurs in the 6th edition of miller's _gard. dict._ the greenhouse, to which it properly belongs, can scarcely boast a more shewy plant; its blossoms, when expanded by the heat of the sun, and it is only when the sun shines on them that they are fully expanded, exhibit an unrivalled brilliancy of appearance. it flowers in june, but rarely brings its seeds to perfection in this country, which is of the less consequence, as the plant is readily enough increased by cuttings. it requires the common treatment of a greenhouse plant. [91] iris surfing. chalcedonian iris. _class and order._ triandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ 6-petala, inæqualis, petalis alternis geniculato-patentibus. _stigmata_ petaliformia, cucullato-bilabiata. _specific character and synonyms._ iris _surfing_ barbata foliis ensiformibus glabris, scapo unifloro, petalis rotundatis. _lin. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. p. 88._ iris surfing flore maximo et albo nigricante. _bauh. pin. 31._ the great turkey flower-de-luce. _park. parad. 179._ [illustration: no 91] this species, by far the most magnificent of the iris tribe, is a native of persia, from a chief city of which it takes the name of surfing; linnæus informs us, that it was imported into holland from constantinople in 1573. though an inhabitant of a much warmer climate than our own, it thrives readily in the open borders of our gardens; and, in certain favourable situations, flowers freely about the latter end of may or beginning of june. it succeeds best in a loamy soil and sunny exposure, with a pure air moisture, which favours the growth of most of the genus, is injurious and sometimes even fatal to this species. as it rarely ripens its seeds with us, it is generally propagated by parting its roots in autumn. these are also usually imported from holland, and may be had of the importers of bulbs at a reasonable rate. being liable to be destroyed by seasons unusually severe, it will be prudent to place a few roots of it in pots, either in the greenhouse or in a hot-bed frame during the winter. it bears forcing well. [92] saxifraga sarmentosa. strawberry saxifrage. _class and order._ decandria digynia. _generic character._ _calyx_ 5-partitus. _cor._ 5-petala. _caps._ 2-rostris, 1-locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ saxifraga _sarmentosa_ foliis radicalibus subrotundis cordatis crenatis, sarmentis axillaribus radicantibus, corolla irregulari, racemo composito. _lin. syst. veg. ed. 14. p. 412._ _suppl. p. 240._ [illustration: no 92] this species of saxifrage differing so widely from the others, both in its habit and fructification, as to create a doubt in the minds of some, whether it ought not to be considered as a distinct genus, is a native of china, and one of the many plants which have been introduced into our gardens since the time of miller. its round variegated leaves, and strawberry-like runners, the uncommon magnitude of the two lowermost pendant petals, joined to the very conspicuous glandular nectary in the centre of the flower, half surrounding the germen, render this species strikingly distinct. it is properly a greenhouse plant; in mild winters indeed it will bear the open air, especially if placed at the foot of a wall, or among rock-work; but, in such situations, it is frequently killed in severe seasons. it flowers in may and june, but does not produce its blossoms so freely as some others. no difficulty attends the propagation of it, for it increases so fast by its runners, as to be even troublesome. [93] sempervivum monanthes. dwarf houseleek. _class and order._ dodecandria dodecagynia. _generic character._ _calyx_ 12-partitus. _petala_ 12. _capsulæ_ 12. polyspermæ. _specific character and synonyms._ sempervivum _monanthes_ foliis teretibus clavatis confertis, pedunculis nudis subunifloris, nectariis obcordatis. _aiton. hort. kew._ [illustration: no 93] it appears from the _hortus kewensis_, the publication of which is daily expected, that the plant here figured was first brought to this country from the canary islands, by mr. francis masson, in the year 1777. it is highly deserving the notice of the botanist, not only as being by far the least species of the genus, but on account of its nectaria; these, though not mentioned by linnæus in his character of the genus, have been described by other authors, particularly jacquin and haller; and though not present in most, and but faintly visible in a few species of _sempervivum_, in this plant form a principal part of the fructification; they are usually seven in number, but vary from six to eight. in the specimens we have examined, and which perhaps have been rendered luxuriant by culture, the number of stamina has been from twelve to sixteen; of styles, from six to eight; of flowers on the same stalk, from one to eight. it flowers during most of the summer months, succeeds very well with the common treatment of a greenhouse plant in the summer, but does best in a dry stove in the winter. is readily increased by parting its roots. [94] sisyrinchium irioides. iris-leav'd sisyrinchium. _class and order._ gynandria triandria. _generic character._ monogyna. _spatha_ diphylla. _petala_ 6 plana. _capsula_ tri-locularis, infera. _specific character and synonyms._ sisyrinchium _iridioides_ foliis ensiformibus; petalis oblongo-obcordatis, venosis; germinibus pyriformibus, subhirsutis. sisyrinchium _bermudiana._ _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 820. var. 2. spec. pl. p. 1353._ bermudiana iridis folio, radice fibrosa. _dill. elth. 48. t. 41. f. 48._ sisyrinchium _bermudiana_ foliis gladiolatis amplexicaulibus, pedunculis brevioribus. _miller's dict. ed. 6. 4to._ [illustration: no 94] on comparing the present plant with the _bermudiana graminea flore minore coeruleo_ of dillenius, both of which i have growing, and now in pots before me, the difference appears so striking, that i am induced with him and miller to consider them as distinct species; especially as, on a close examination, there appear characters sufficient to justify me in the opinion, which characters are not altered by culture. it is a native of the bermudian islands, and flowers in the open border from may to the end of july; it is not uncommon to keep it in the greenhouse, for which, from its size &c. it is very well adapted; but it is not necessary to treat it tenderly, as it will bear a greater degree of cold than many plants usually considered as hardy. it may be propagated most readily by seeds, or by parting its roots in the autumn; should be planted on a border with an eastern aspect; soil the same as for bulbs. [95] geranium radula. rasp-leav'd geranium. _class and order._ monadelphia decandria. _generic character._ monogyna. _stigmata_ 5. _fructus_ rostratus, 5-coccus. _specific character and synonyms._ geranium _revolutum_ pedunculis subbifloris, foliis multifidis linearibus scabris ad oras revolutis, caule arboreo. _jacq. ic. 133. collect. 1. p. 84._ geranium _radula._ _cavanill. diss. 4. p. 262. t. 101. f. 1._ [illustration: no 95] this is one of the numerous tribe of _geraniums_ introduced from the cape since the time of miller: it takes the name of _radula_, which is the latin term for a rasp or file, from the rough rasp-like surface of the leaves. there are two varieties of it, a _major_ and a _minor_, which keep pretty constantly to their characters; and as this species is readily raised from seeds, it affords also many seminal varieties. as a botanist, desirous of seeing plants distinct in their characters, we could almost wish it were impossible to raise these _foreign geraniums_ from seeds; for, without pretending to any extraordinary discernment, we may venture to prophecy, that in a few years, from the multiplication of seminal varieties, springing from seeds casually, or perhaps purposely impregnated with the pollen of different sorts, such a crop will be produced as will baffle all our attempts to reduce to species, or even regular varieties. such as are partial to this tribe, will no doubt wish to have this species in their collection; the blossoms are pretty, and the foliage is singular, but it remains but a short time in flower. it is readily propagated by cuttings. [96] lantana aculeata. prickly lantana. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _calyx_ 4-dentatus obsolete. _stigma_ uncinato-refractum. _drupa_ nucleo 2-loculari. _specific character and synonyms._ lantana _aculeata_ foliis oppositis, caule aculeato ramoso spicis hemisphæricis. _lin. syst. veg. ed. 14. p. 566._ [illustration: no 96] according to miller, this species grows naturally in _jamaica_, and most of the other islands in the _west-indies_, where it is called _wild sage_; the flowers, which are very brilliant, are succeeded by roundish berries, which, when ripe, turn black, having a pulpy covering over a single hard seed. it is readily propagated by cuttings. different plants vary greatly in the colour of their blossoms, and the prickliness of their stalks; the prickles are seldom found on the young shoots. this plant will bear to be placed abroad in the warmest summer months, the rest of the year it requires artificial heat. it is usually placed in the dry stove, to which, as it is seldom without flowers, it imparts great brilliancy. [97] fuchsia coccinea. scarlet fuchsia. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _calyx_ 1-phyllus, coloratus, corollifer, maximus. _petala_ 4, parva, _bacca_ infera, 4-locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ fuchsia _coccinea_ foliis oppositis ovatis denticulatis; petalis obovatis, obtusis. _hort. kew._ thilco _feuillée it. 3. p. 64. t. 47._ [illustration: no 97] the present plant is a native of _chili_, and was introduced to the royal gardens at kew, in the year 1788, by capt. firth; it takes the name of _fuchsia_ from _fuchs_ a german botanist of great celebrity, author of the _historia stirpium_ in _folio_, published in 1542, containing five hundred and sixteen figures in wood; and which, though mere outlines, express the objects they are intended to represent, infinitely better than many laboured engravings of more modern times. every person who can boast a hot-house will be anxious to possess the _fuchsia_, as it is not only a plant of peculiar beauty, but produces its rich pendant blossoms through most of the summer; the petals in the centre of the flower are particularly deserving of notice; they somewhat resemble a small roll of the richest purple-coloured ribband. though this plant will not succeed well in the winter, nor be easily propagated unless in a stove, it will flower very well during the summer months, in a good greenhouse or hot-bed frame, and though at present from its novelty it bears a high price, yet as it is readily propagated, both by layers, cuttings, and seeds, it will soon be within the purchase of every lover of plants. mr. lee, of hammersmith, we understand first had this plant for sale. [98] tropæolum minus. small tropæolum, or indian-cress. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 1-phyllus, calcaratus. _petala_ 5, inæqualia. _bacca_ tres, siccæ. _specific character and synonyms._ tropæolum _minus_ foliis peltatis repandis, petalis acuminato-setaceis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 357._ indian-cresses, or yellow larke's-heeles. _park. parad. p. 280._ [illustration: no 98] this species of _tropæolum_ (which like the _majus_ already figured in this work, is a native of _peru_) has long been an inhabitant of our gardens; it was the only species we had in the time of parkinson, by whom it is figured and described; it appears indeed to have been a great favourite with that intelligent author, for he says this plant "is of so great beauty and sweetnesse withall, that my garden of delight cannot bee unfurnished of it, and again the whole flower hath a fine small sent, very pleasing, which being placed in the middle of some carnations or gilloflowers (for they are in flower at the same time) make a delicate tussimusie, as they call it, or nosegay, both for sight and sent." as the _passiflora cærulea_, from its superior beauty and hardiness, has in a great degree supplanted the _incarnata_, so has the _tropæolum majus_ the _minus_; we have been informed indeed that it was entirely lost to our gardens till lately, when it was reintroduced by dr. j. e. smith, who by distributing it to his friends, and the nurserymen near london, has again rendered it tolerably plentiful. like the _majus_ it is an annual, though by artificial heat it may be kept in a pot through the winter, as usually is the variety of it with double flowers; but as it will grow readily in the open air, in warm sheltered situations, it should be raised on a hot-bed, like other tender annuals, if we wish to have it flower early in the summer, continue long in blossom, and produce perfect seeds. [99] antirrhinum purpureum. purple toad-flax. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _calyx_ 5-phyllus. _corollæ_ basis deorsum prominens, nectarifera. _capsula_ 2-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ antirrhinum purpureum foliis quaternis linearibus, caule erecto spicato. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 555._ linaria purpurea major odorata. _bauh. pin. 213._ linaria altera purpurea. _dod. pempt. 183._ [illustration: no 99] though not so beautiful as many of the genus, this species is a common inhabitant of the flower-garden, in which it continues to blossom, during most of the summer. it is a native of italy, and delights in a dry soil and situation; it will even flourish on walls, and hence will serve very well to decorate the more elevated parts of rock-work. when once introduced it comes up spontaneously from seeds. [100] lathyrus tingitanus. tangier pea. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _stylus_ planus, supra villosus, superne latior, _cal._ laciniæ superiores 2-breviores. _specific character and synonyms._ lathyrus _tingitanus_ pedunculis bifloris, cirrhis diphyllis, foliolis alternis lanceolatis glabris, stipulis lunatis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 663._ lathyrus tingitanus, filiquis orobi, flore amplo ruberrimo. _moris, hist. 2. p. 55._ [illustration: no 100] the tangier pea, a native of morocco, cannot boast the agreeable scent, or variety of colours of the sweet pea; nor does it continue so long in flower; nevertheless there is a richness in the colour of its blossoms, which entitles it to a place in the gardens of the curious, in which it is usually sown in the spring, with other hardy annuals. it flowers in june and july. the best mode of propagating it, is to, sow the seeds on the borders in patches, where the plants are to remain; thinning them when they come up, so as to leave only two or three together. [101] alyssum halimifolium. sweet alyssum. _class and order._ tetradynamia siliculosa. _generic character._ _filamenta_ quædam introrsum denticulo notata. _silicula_ emarginata. _specific character and synonyms._ alyssum _halimifolium_ caulibus suffruticosis, diffusis, foliis lineari-lanceolatis integerrimis, villosiusculis, staminibus simplicibus, siliculis subrotundis integris. _hort. kew. v. 2. p. 381._ alyssum halimifolium caulibus procumbentibus, perennantibus, foliis lanceolato-linearibus, acutis, integerrimis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. 590._ thlaspi halimi folio sempervirens. _herm. lugd. 594. t. 595._ [illustration: no 101] grows spontaneously in dry situations, in the southernmost parts of europe, where it is shrubby; and in similar situations it is so in some degree with us; but on our flower-borders, where it is usually sown, it grows so luxuriantly, that the stalks becoming juicy and tender, are generally destroyed by our frosts; hence it is an annual from peculiarity of circumstance; as such, it is very generally cultivated; the flowers exhibit a pretty, innocent appearance, and strongly diffuse an agreeable honey-like smell. they continue to blow through most of the summer months. it is a very proper plant for a wall or piece of rock-work; care must be taken, however, not to sow too much of the seed in one pot, as it spreads wide, but it may easily be reduced at any period of its growth, as it does not creep at the root. the specific description in the _hortus kewensis_ above referred to, admirably characterizes the plant, but surely at the expence of its generic character. [102] campanula speculum. venus's looking-glass. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ campanulata, fundo clauso valvis staminiferis. _stigma_ trifidum. _capsula_ infera, poris lateralibus dehiscens. _specific character and synonyms._ campanula speculum caule ramosissimo, diffuso; foliis oblongis subcrenatis, floribus solitariis, capsulis prismaticis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. 209._ onobrychis arvensis f. campanula arvensis erecta. _bauh. pin. 215._ [illustration: no 102] grows wild among the corn in the south of europe, is an annual, and, like the _sweet alyssum_, generally cultivated in our gardens, and most deservedly so indeed, for when a large assemblage of its blossoms are expanded by the rays of the sun, their brilliancy is such as almost to dazzle the eyes of the beholder. those annuals which bear our winter's frosts without injury, are advantageously sown in the autumn; for by that means they flower more early, and their seeds ripen with more certainty; the present plant is one of those: it usually sows itself, and is therefore raised without any trouble. it begins to flower in may and june, and continues to enliven the garden till august or september. [103] pelargonium acetosum. sorrel crane's-bill. _class and order._ monadelphia heptandria. _generic character._ _calyx_ 5-partitus: lacinia suprema definente in tubulum capillarem, nectariferum, secus pedunculum decurrentem. _cor._ 5-petala, irregularis. _filam._ 10. in æqualia: quorum 3 (raro 5) castrata. _fructus_, 5-coccus, rostratus: rostra spiralia, introrsum barbata. _l'herit. geran._ _specific character and synonyms._ pelargonium _acetosum_ umbellis paucifloris, foliis obovatis crenatis glabris carnosis, petalis linearibus. _l'herit. monogr de geran. n. 97._ geranium _acetosum_ calycibus monophyllis, foliis glabris obovatis carnosis crenatis, caule fruticoso laxo. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 613. sp. pl. p. 947._ geranium africanum frutescens, folio crasso et glauco acetosæ sapore. _comm. præl. 51. t. 1._ [illustration: no 103] mons. l'heritier, the celebrated french botanist, who in the number, elegance, and accuracy of his engravings, appears ambitious of excelling all his contemporaries, in a work now executing on the family of _geranium_, has thought it necessary to divide that numerous genus into three, viz. _erodium_, _pelargonium_, and _geranium_. the _erodium_ includes those which linnæus (who noticing the great difference in their appearance, had made three divisions of them) describes with five fertile stamina, and calls myrrhina; the _pelargonium_ those with seven fertile stamina, his _africana_; the _geranium_, those with ten fertile stamina, his _batrachia_. they are continued under the class _monadelphia_, in which they now form three different orders, according to the number of their stamina, viz. _pentandria_, _heptandria_, and _decandria_. if the principles of the linnæan system had been strictly adhered to, they should perhaps have been separated into different classes; for though the _pelargonium_ is monadelphous, the _geranium_ is not so; in consequence of this alteration, the _geranium peltatum_ and _radula_, figured in a former part of this work, must now be called _pelargonium peltatum_, and _radula_, and the _geranium reichardi_ be an _erodium_. the leaves of this plant have somewhat the taste of sorrel, whence its name, it flowers during most of the summer, and is readily propagated by cuttings. miller mentions a variety of it with scarlet flowers. it is a native of the cape, and known to have been cultivated in chelsea garden, in the year 1724. [104] lysimachia bulbifera. bulb-bearing loosestrife. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ rotata. _capsula_ globosa, mucronata, 10-valvis. _specific character and synonyms._ lysimachia _stricta_ racemis terminalibus, petalis lanceolatis patulis, foliis lanceolatis sessilibus. _hort. kew. p. 199._ [illustration: no 104] in the spring of the year 1781, i received roots of this plant from mr. robert squibb, then at new-york, which produced flowers the ensuing summer, since that time, i have had frequent opportunities of observing a very peculiar circumstance in its oeconomy; after flowering, instead of producing seeds, it throws out _gemmæ vivaces_, or _bulbs_ of an unusual form, from the alæ of the leaves, which falling off in the month of october, when the plant decays, produce young plants the ensuing spring. as it is distinguished from all the known species of _lysimachia_ by this circumstance, we have named it _bulbifera_ instead of _stricta_, under which it appears in the _hortus kewensis_. some botanists, whose abilities we revere, are of opinion that the trivial names of plants, which are or should be a kind of abridgment of the specific character, ought very rarely or never to be changed: we are not for altering them capriciously on every trivial occasion, but in such a case as the present, where the science is manifestly advanced by the alteration, it would surely have been criminal to have preferred a name, barely expressive, to one which immediately identifies the plant. the _lysimachia bulbifera_ is a hardy perennial, grows spontaneously in boggy or swampy ground, and hence requires a moist soil. it flowers in august. [105] tradescantia virginica. virginian tradescantia, or spiderwort. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _calyx_ triphyllus. _petala_ 3. _filamenta_ villis articulatis. _capsula_ 3-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ tradescantia _virginica_ erecta lævis, floribus congestis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 314. sp. pl. 411._ allium five moly virginianum. _bauh. pin. 506._ phalangium ephemerum virginianum joannis tradescant. the soon-fading spiderwort of virginia, or tradescant his spiderwort. _park. parad. 152. 5. t. 151. f. 4._ [illustration: no 105] under the name of _spiderwort_, the old botanists arranged many plants of very different genera: the name is said to have arisen from the supposed efficacy of some of these plants, in curing the bite of a kind of spider, called _phalangium_; not the _phalangium_ of linnæus, which is known to be perfectly harmless: under this name, parkinson minutely describes it; he mentions also, how he first obtained it. "this spiderwort," says our venerable author, "is of late knowledge, and for it the christian world is indebted unto that painful, industrious searcher, john tradescant, who first received it of a friend that brought it out of virginia, and hath imparted hereof, as of many other things, both to me and others." tournefort afterwards gave it the name of _ephemerum_, expressive of the short duration of its flowers, which linnæus changed to _tradescantia_. though a native of virginia, it bears the severity of our climate uninjured, and being a beautiful, as well as hardy perennial, is found in almost every garden. though each blossom lasts but a day, it has such a profusion in store, that it is seldom found without flowers through the whole of the summer. there are two varieties of it, the one with white the other with pale purple flowers. the most usual way of propagating it is by parting its roots in autumn to obtain varieties, we must sow its seeds. [106] iberis umbellata. purple candy-tuft. _class and order._ tetradynamia siliculosa. _generic character._ _corolla_ irregularis: _petalis_ 2 exterioribus majoribus: _silicula_ polysperma, emarginata. _specific character and synonyms._ iberis _umbellata_ herbacea, foliis lanceolatis, acuminatis, inferioribus serratis; superioribus integerrimis. _linn. syst. veg. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 589. sp. pl. p. 906._ thlaspi umbellatum creticum, iberidis folio. _bauh. pin. 106._ draba s. arabis s. thlaspi candiæ. _dod. pempt. 713._ thlaspi creticum umbellatum flore albo et purpureo. candy-tufts, white and purple. _park. parad. p. 390._ [illustration: no 106] the candy-tuft is one of those annuals which contribute generally to enliven the borders of the flower-garden: its usual colour is a pale purple, there is also a white variety of it, and another with deep but very bright purple flowers, the most desirable of the three, but where a garden is large enough to admit of it, all the varieties may be sown. for want of due discrimination, as miller has before observed, nurserymen are apt to collect and mix with this species the seeds of another, viz. the _amara_, and which persons not much skilled in plants consider as the white variety; but a slight attention will discover it to be a very different plant, having smaller and longer heads, differing also in the shape of its leaves and seed vessels, too trifling a plant indeed to appear in the flower-garden. purple candy-tuft is a native of the south of europe, and flowers in june and july: it should be sown in the spring, on the borders of the flower-garden in patches; when the plants come up, a few only should be left, as they will thereby become stronger, produce more flowers, and be of longer duration. [107] cassia chamæcrista. dwarf cassia. _class and order._ decandria monogynia. _generic character._ _calyx_ 5-phyllus. _petala_ 5. _antheræ_ superne 3 steriles; infimæ 3 rostratæ. _legumen._ _specific character and synonyms._ cassia _chamæcrista_ foliis multijugis, glandula petiolari pedicellata, stipulis ensiformibus. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 394._ _hort. kew. p. 54._ chamæcrista pavonis major. _comm. hort. 1. p. 53. t. 37._ [illustration: no 107] a native of the west-indies, and of virginia according to linnæus; not common in our gardens, though cultivated as long ago as 1699, by the duchess of beaufort; (_vid. hort. kew._) unnoticed by miller. this species, superior in beauty to many of the genus, is an annual, and consequently raised only from seeds, these must be sown in the spring, on a hot-bed, and when large enough to transplant, placed separately in pots of light loamy earth, then replunged into a moderate hot-bed to bring them forward, and in the month of june removed into a warm border, where, if the season prove favourable, they will flower very well towards august; but, as such seldom ripen their seeds, it will be proper to keep a few plants in the stove or greenhouse for that purpose, otherwise the species may be lost. [108] anthyllis tetraphylla. four-leav'd ladies-finger. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _calyx_ ventricosus. _legumen_ subrotundum, tectum. _specific character and synonyms._ anthyllis _tetraphylla_ herbacea, foliis quaterno-pinnatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 25._ _hort. kew. vol. 3. p. 25._ lotus pentaphyllos vesicaria. _bauh. pin. 332._ trifolium halicacabum. _cam. hort. 171. t. 47._ [illustration: no 108] an annual; the spontaneous growth of spain, italy, and sicily, flowers in the open border in july, and ripens its seeds, in september. long since cultivated in our gardens, but more as a rare, or curious, than a beautiful plant. its seeds are to be sown in april, on a bed of light earth, where they are to remain; no other care is necessary than thinning them, and keeping them clear of weeds. index. in which the latin names of the plants contained in the _third volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ 101 alyssum halimifolium. 108 anthyllis tetraphylla. 74 antirrhinum triste. 99 " purpureum. 102 campanula speculum. 107 cassia chamæcrista. 77 centaurea montana. 81 colutea arborescens. 76 epilobium angustissimum. 97 fuchsia coccinea. 95 geranium radula. 86 gladiolus communis. 90 gorteria rigens. 83 hibiscus syriacus. 87 hyoscyamus aureus. 106 iberis umbellata. 91 iris susiana. 82 lachenalia tricolor. 96 lantana aculeata. 100 lathyrus tingitanus. 79 lotus jacobæus. 104 lysimachia bulbifera. 73 monsonia speciosa. 88 narcissus bulbocodium. 78 " odorus. 103 pelargonium acetosum. 75 potentilla grandiflora. 92 saxifraga sarmentosa. 93 sempervivum monanthes. 94 sisyrinchium iridioides. 85 spartium junceum. 80 spigelia marilandica. 105 tradescantia virginica. 98 tropæolum minus. 84 tussilago alpina. 89 viola pedata. index. in which the english names of the plants contained in the _third volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ 101 alyssum sweet. 77 blue-bottle greater. 85 broom spanish. 106 candy-tuft purple. 107 cassia dwarf. 84 coltsfoot alpine. 81 colutea, or bladder-senna tree. 86 corn-flag common. 103 crane's-bill sorrel. 97 fuchsia scarlet. 95 geranium rasp-leav'd. 90 gorteria rigid-leav'd. 87 henbane golden-flower'd. 83 hibiscus syrian. 93 houseleek dwarf. 91 iris chalcedonian. 78 jonquil great. 82 lachenalia three-colour'd. 108 ladies finger four-leav'd. 96 lantana prickly. 102 looking-glass venus's. 104 loosestrife bulb-bearing. 79 lotus black-flower'd. 73 monsonica large-flower'd. 88 narcissus hoop-petticoat. 100 pea tangier. 75 potentilla large-flower'd, 92 saxifrage strawberry. 94 sisyrinchium iris-leav'd. 80 spigelia, or worm-grass maryland. 74 toad-flax black-flower'd. 99 " purple. 105 tradescantia virginian. 98 tropæolum, or indian cress, small. 89 violet cut-leav'd. 76 willow-herb narrowest-leav'd. file made using scans of public domain works at the university of georgia.) the ~botanical magazine~; or, ~flower-garden displayed~: in which the most ornamental foreign plants, cultivated in the open ground, the green-house, and the stove, are accurately represented in their natural colours. to which are added, their names, class, order, generic and specific characters, according to the celebrated linnæus; their places of growth, and times of flowering: together with the most approved methods of culture. a work intended for the use of such ladies, gentlemen, and gardeners, as wish to become scientifically acquainted with the plants they cultivate. ~by william curtis~, author of the flora londinensis. ~vol. ii~ "a garden is the purest of human pleasures." verulam. london: printed by couchman and fry, throgmorton-street, for w. curtis, at his botanic-garden, lambeth-marsh; and sold by the principal booksellers in great-britain and ireland. m dcc xc. [37] ~chironia frutescens. shrubby chironia.~ _class and order._ ~pentandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _cor._ rotata. _pistillum_ declinatum. _stamina_ tubo corollæ infidentia. _antheræ_ demum spirales. _peric._ 2-loculare. _specific character and synonyms._ chironia _frutescens_, foliis lanceolatis subtomentosis, calycibus campanulatis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 229._ centaurium foliis binis oppositis angustis linearibus, flore magno rubente. _burm. afric. 205. t. 74. fig. 1._ [illustration: no 37] of the genus _chironia_, ten species are enumerated in prof. murray's last edition of the _syst. vegetab._ of linnæus, exclusive of the _chironia centaurium_ which we first added to this genus in the 42d number of the _flora londinensis_. of these, the _frutescens_ is the most shewy, and therefore the most cultivated. it is a native of different parts of africa. the flowers are produced from june to autumn, and the seeds ripen in october. this plant should be placed in an airy glass case in winter, where it may enjoy a dry air, and much sun, but will not thrive in a warm stove, nor can it be well preserved in a common green-house, because a damp moist air will soon cause it to rot. the seed of this plant should be sown in small pots filled with light sandy earth, and plunged into a moderate hot-bed; sometimes the seeds will lie a long time in the ground; so that if the plants do not appear the same season, the pots should not be disturbed, but preserved in shelter till the following spring, and then plunged into a fresh hot-bed, which will bring up the plants in a short time if the seeds are good. when the plants are fit to remove, they should be transplanted into small pots, four or five in each pot, then plunged into a moderate hot-bed, where they must have a large share of air in warm weather; when they have obtained some strength, they must be gradually inured to the open air; when exposed abroad, they should be mixed with such plants as require little water, placed in a warm situation, and screened from heavy rains, which are apt to rot them. the cuttings of this sort take root if properly managed. _miller's gard. dict._ [38] ~viburnum tinus. common laurustinus.~ _class and order._ ~pentandria trigynia.~ _generic character._ _calyx_ 5-partitus, superus. _cor._ 5-fida. _bacca_ 1-sperma. _specific character and synonyms_. viburnum _tinus_ foliis integerrimis ovatis: ramificationibus venarum subtus villoso-glandulosis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 294._ laurus sylvestris, corni fæminæ foliis subhirsutis. _bauh. pin. 461._ the wild bay-tree. _park. parad. p. 400._ [illustration: no 38] we scarcely recollect a plant whose blossoms are so hardy as those of the laurustinus, they brave the inclemency of our winters, and are not destroyed but in very severe seasons. the beauties of this most charming shrub can be enjoyed by those only who cultivate it at some little distance from town, the smoke of london being highly detrimental to its growth. it is a native of portugal, spain, and italy. botanists enumerate many varieties of the laurustinus, and so considerably do some of these differ, that miller has been induced to make two species of them, which he distinguishes by the names of _virburnum tinus_ and _v. lucidum_; the last of these is the most ornamental, and at the same time the most tender; there are some other trifling varieties, besides those, with variegated leaves, or the gold and silver-striped. it is only in very favourable situations that these shrubs ripen their seeds in england, hence they are most commonly propagated by layers, which readily strike root: miller says, that the plants raised from seeds are hardier than those produced from layers. it thrives best in sheltered situations and a dry soil. [39] ~franklin's tartar.~ _a scarlet bizarre carnation._ [illustration: no 39] the carnation here exhibited is a seedling raised by mr. franklin, of lambeth-marsh, an ingenious cultivator of these flowers, whose name it bears: we have not figured it as the most perfect flower of the kind, either in form or size, but as being a very fine specimen of the sort, and one whose form and colours it is in the power of the artist pretty exactly to imitate. the _dianthus caryophyllus_ or _wild clove_ is generally considered as the parent of the carnation, and may be found, if not in its wild state, at least single, on the walls of rochester castle, where it has been long known to flourish, and where it produces two varieties in point of colour, the pale and deep red. flowers which are cultivated from age to age are continually producing new varieties, hence there is no standard as to _name_, _beauty_, or _perfection_, amongst them, but what is perpetually fluctuating; thus the _red hulo_, the _blue hulo_, the _greatest granado_, with several others celebrated in the time of parkinson, have long since been consigned to oblivion; and it is probable, that the variety now exhibited, may, in a few years, share a similar fate; for it would be vanity in us to suppose, that the carnation, by assiduous culture, may not, in the eye of the florist, be yet considerably improved. to succeed in the culture of the carnation, we must advert to the situation in which it is found wild, and this is observed to be dry and elevated; hence excessive moisture is found to be one of the greatest enemies this plant has to encounter; and, on this account, it is found to succeed better, when planted in a pot, than in the open border; because in the former, any superfluous moisture readily drains off; but, in guarding against too much wet, we must be careful to avoid the opposite extreme. to keep any plant in a state of great luxuriance, it is necessary that the soil in which it grows be rich; hence a mixture of light-loam, and perfectly rotten horse or cow dung, in equal proportions, is found to be a proper compost for the carnation. care should be taken that no worms, grubs, or other insects, be introduced with the dung; to prevent this, the dung, when sifted fine, should be exposed to the rays of the sun, on a hot summer's day, till perfectly dry, and then put by in a box for use; still more to increase the luxuriance of the plants, water it in the spring and summer with an infusion of sheep's dung. the carnation is propagated by seeds, layers, and pipings; new varieties can only be raised from seed, which, however, is sparingly produced from good flowers, because the petals are so multiplied, as nearly to exclude the parts of the fructification essential to their production. "the seed must be sown in april, in pots or boxes, very thin, and placed upon an east border. "in july, transplant them upon a bed in an open situation, at about four inches asunder; at the end of august transplant them again upon another bed, at about ten inches asunder, and there let them remain till they flower: shade them till they have taken root, and in very severe weather in winter, cover the bed with mats over some hoops. "the following summer they will flower, when you must mark such as you like, make layers from, and pot them." _ellis's gardener's pocket calendar._ the means of increasing these plants by layers and pipings, are known to every gardener. such as wish for more minute information concerning the culture, properties, divisions, or varieties, of this flower, than the limits of our work will admit, may consult _miller's gard. dict._ or the _florists catalogues_. [40] ~trillium sessile. sessile trillium.~ _class and order._ ~hexandria trigynia.~ _generic character._ _cal._ 3-phyllus. _cor._ 3-petala. _bacca_ 3-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ trillium flore sessili erecto. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 349._ paris foliis ternatis, flore sessili erecto. _gron. virg. 44._ solanum triphyllum. _pluk. alm. 352. t. 111. f. 6._ _catesb. car. t. 50._ [illustration: 40] of this genus there are three species, all of which are natives of north-america, and described by miller, in his _gardener's dictionary_, where the genus is called _american herb paris_; but as the _paris_ and _trillium_, though somewhat similar in the style of their foliage, are very different in their parts of fructification, we have thought it most expedient to anglicise _trillium_, it being to the full as easily pronounced as _geranium_, and many other latin names now familiar to the english ear. this species takes its' trivial name of _sessile_, from the flowers having no foot-stalk, but sitting as it were immediately on the end of the stalk. the figure here exhibited was taken from a plant which flowered in my garden last spring, from roots sent me the preceding autumn, by mr. robert squibb, gardener, of charleston, south-carolina, who is not only well versed in plants, but indefatigable in discovering and collecting the more rare species of that country, and with which the gardens of this are likely soon to be enriched. it grows in shady situations, in a light soil, and requires the same treatment as the _dodecatheon_ and _round-leav'd cyclamen_. we have not yet had a fair opportunity of observing whether this species ripens its seeds with us: though of as long standing in this country as the _dodecatheon_, it is far less common; hence one is led to conclude that it is either not so readily propagated, or more easily destroyed. [41] ~calceolaria pinnata. pinnated slipper-wort.~ _class and order._ ~diandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _cor._ ringens inflata. _caps._ 2-locularis, 2-valvis. _cal._ 4-partitus æqualis. _specific character and synonyms._ calceolaria _pinnata_ foliis pinnatis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 64._ calceolaria foliis scabiosæ vulgaris. _fewill peruv. 3, t. 12. fig. 7._ [illustration: 41] there being no english name to this plant, we have adopted that of _slipper-wort_, in imitation of _calceolaria_, which is derived from _calceolus_, a little shoe or slipper. this species of calceolaria is one of the many plants introduced into our gardens, since the time of miller: it is an annual, a native of peru, and, of course, tender: though by no means a common plant in our gardens, it is as easily raised from seed as any plant whatever. these are to be sown on a gentle hot-bed in the spring; the seedlings, when of a proper size, are to be transplanted into the borders of the flower-garden, where they will flower, ripen, and scatter their seeds; but being a small delicate plant, whose beauties require a close inspection, it appears to most advantage in a tan stove, in which, as it will grow from cuttings, it may be had to flower all the year through, by planting them in succession. this latter mode of treatment is used by mr. hoy, gardener to his grace of northumberland, at sion-house, where this plant may be seen in great perfection. [42] ~camellia japonica. rose camellia.~ _class and order._ ~monadelphia polyandria.~ _generic character._ _calyx_ imbricatus, polyphyllus: foliolis interioribus majoribus. _specific character and synonyms._ camellia _japonica_ foliis acute serratis acuminatis. _lin. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. p. 632._ _thunberg fl. japon. t. 273._ tsubaki _kempfer amoen. 850. t. 851._ rosa chinensis. _ed. av. 2. p. 67. t. 67._ thea chinensis pimentæ jamaicensis folio, flore roseo. _pet. gaz. t. 33. fig. 4._ [illustration: 42] this most beautiful tree, though long since figured and described, as may be seen by the above synonyms, was a stranger to our gardens in the time of miller, or at least it is not noticed in the last edition of his dictionary. it is a native both of china and japan. thunberg, in his _flora japonica_, describes it as growing every where in the groves and gardens of japan, where it becomes a prodigiously large and tall tree, highly esteemed by the natives for the elegance of its large and very variable blossoms, and its evergreen leaves; it is there found with single and double flowers, which also are white, red, and purple, and produced from april to october. representations of this flower are frequently met with in chinese paintings. with us, the _camellia_ is generally treated as a stove plant, and propagated by layers; it is sometimes placed in the green-house; but it appears to us to be one of the properest plants imaginable for the conservatory. at some future time it may, perhaps, not be uncommon to treat it as a _laurustinus_ or _magnolia_: the high price at which it has hitherto been sold, may have prevented its being hazarded in this way. the blossoms are of a firm texture, but apt to fall off long before they have lost their brilliancy; it therefore is a practice with some to stick such deciduous blossoms on some fresh bud, where they continue to look well for a considerable time. petiver considered our plant as a species of tea tree; future observations will probably confirm his conjecture. [43] ~cistus incanus. hoary, or rose cistus.~ _class and order._ ~polyandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ 5-petala. _calyx_ 5-phyllus, foliolis duobus minoribus. _capsula_. _specific character and synonyms._ cistus _incanus_ arborescens exstipulatus, foliis spatulatis tomentosis rugosis inferioribus basi connatis vaginantibus. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 497._ cistus mas angustifolius. _bauh. pin. 464._ [illustration: 43] few plants are more admired than the cistus tribe; they have indeed one imperfection, their petals soon fall off: this however is the less to be regretted, as they in general have a great profusion of flower-buds, whence their loss is daily supplied. they are, for the most part, inhabitants of warm climates, and affect dry, sheltered, though not shady, situations. the present species is a native of spain, and the south of france, and being liable to be killed by the severity of our winters, is generally kept with green-house plants. it may be propagated either by seeds, or cuttings; the former make the best plants. [44] ~cyclamen persicum. persian cyclamen.~ _class and order._ ~pentandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ rotata, reflexa, tubo brevissimo: fauce prominente. _bacca_ tecta capsula. _specific character._ cyclamen _persicum_ foliis cordatis serratis. _miller's dict. 4to. ed. 6._ [illustration: 44] linnæus in this, as in many other genera, certainly makes too few species, having only two; miller, on the contrary, is perhaps too profuse in his number, making eight. the ascertaining the precise limits of species, and variety, in plants that have been for a great length of time objects of culture, is often attended with difficulties scarcely to be surmounted, is indeed a gordian knot to botanists. our plant is the _cyclamen persicum_ of miller, and has been introduced into our gardens long since the european ones; being a native of the east-indies, it is of course more tender than the others, and therefore requires to be treated more in the style of a green-house plant. it is generally cultivated in pots, in light undunged earth, or in a mixture of loam and lime rubbish, and kept in frames, or on the front shelf of a green-house, where it may have plenty of air in the summer, but guarded against too much moisture in the winter. may be raised from seeds in the same manner as the round-leaved cyclamen already figured in this work, p. n. 4. flowers early in the spring, and is admirably well adapted to decorate the parlour or study. varies with fragrant flowers, and the eye more or less red. [45] ~crocus vernus. spring crocus.~ _class and order_ ~triandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ 6-partita, æqualis. _stigmata_ convoluta. _specific character and synonyms._ crocus _vernus_ foliis latioribus margine patulo. _jacq. fl. austr. vol. 5. app. t. 36._ _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 83. var. sativ._ crocus vernus latifolius. _bauh. pin. 65, 66._ the yellow crocus. _parkins. parad. p. 166._ [illustration: 45] linnæus considers the crocus, or saffron of the shops, which blows invariably in the autumn, and the spring crocus, with its numerous varieties (of which parkinson, in his garden of pleasant flowers, enumerates no less than twenty-seven) as one and the same species; other botanists have considered them as distinct, particularly prof. jacquin, whose opinion on this subject we deem the most decisive. we have figured the yellow variety, which is the one most commonly cultivated in our gardens, though according to the description in the _flora austriaca_, the _crocus vernus_, in its wild state, is usually purple or white. the cultivation of this plant is attended with no difficulty; in a light sandy loam, and dry situation, the roots thrive, and multiply so much as to require frequent reducing; they usually flower about the beginning of march, and whether planted in rows, or patches, on the borders of the flower-garden, or mixed indiscriminately with the herbage of the lawn, when expanded by the warmth of the sun, they produce a most brilliant and exhilirating effect. the most mischievous of all our common birds, the sparrow, is very apt to commit great depredations amongst them when in flower, to the no small mortification of those who delight in their culture; we have succeeded in keeping these birds off, by placing near the object to be preserved, the skin of a cat properly stuffed: a live cat, or some bird of the hawk kind confined in a cage, might perhaps answer the purpose more effectually, at least in point of duration. [46] ~leucojum vernum. spring snow-flake.~ _class and order._ ~hexandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ campaniformis, 6-partita, apicibus incrassata, _stigma_ simplex. _specific character and synonyms._ leucojum _vernum_ spatha uniflora, stylo clavato. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 316._ leucojum bulbosum vulgare. _bauh. pin. 55._ the great early bulbous violet. _park. parad._ [illustration: 46] the blossoms of the _leucojum_ and _galanthus_, or snow-drop, are very similar at first sight, but differ very essentially when examined; the snow-drop having, according to the linnæan description, a three-leaved nectary, which is wanting in the leucojum; the two genera then being very distinct, it becomes necessary to give them different names; we have accordingly bestowed on the leucojum the name of _snow-flake_, which, while it denotes its affinity to the snow-drop, is not inapplicable to the meaning of leucojum. as the spring snow-flake does not increase so fast by its roots, as the snow-drop, or even the summer snow-flake, so it is become much scarcer in our gardens; it may, indeed, be almost considered as one of our plantæ rariores, though at the same time a very desirable one. it does not flower so soon by almost a month, as the snow-drop; but its blossoms, which are usually one on each foot-stalk, sometimes two, are much larger, and delightfully fragrant. it is found wild in shady places and moist woods in many parts of germany and italy. the most proper situation for it is a north or east border, soil a mixture of loam and bog earth; but by having it in different aspects, this, as well as other plants, may have its flowering forwarded or protracted, and, consequently, the pleasure of seeing them in blossom, considerably lengthened. in a favourable soil and situation, it propagates tolerably fast by offsets. [47] ~amaryllis formosissima. jacobæan amaryllis.~ _class and order._ ~hexandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ 6-petala, campanulata. _stigma_ trifidum. _specific character and synonyms._ amaryllis _formosissima_ spatha uniflora, corolla inæquali petalis tribus, staminibus pistilloque declinatis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 320._ lilio-narcissus jacobæus, flore sanguineo nutante, _dillen. elth. 195. t. 162. f. 196._ the indian daffodil with a red flower. _park. par. 71. f. 3._ [illustration: 47] a native of south-america: according to linnæus, first known in europe in 1593, figured by parkinson in 1629, and placed by him among the daffodils; stoves and green-houses were then unknown, no wonder therefore it did not thrive long. "is now become pretty common in the curious gardens in england, and known by the name of jacobæa lily; the roots send forth plenty of offsets, especially when they are kept in a moderate warmth in winter; for the roots of this kind will live in a good green-house, or may be preserved through the winter under a common hot-bed frame; but then they will not flower so often, nor send out so many offsets as when they are placed in a moderate stove in winter. this sort will produce its flowers two or three times in a year, and is not regular to any season; but from march to the beginning of september, the flowers will be produced, when the roots are in vigour. "it is propagated by offsets, which may be taken off every year; the best time to shift and part these roots is in august, that they may take good root before winter; in doing of this, there should be care taken not to break off the fibres from their roots. they should be planted in pots of a middling size, filled with light kitchen-garden earth; and, if they are kept in a moderate degree of warmth, they will produce their flowers in plenty, and the roots will make great increase." _miller's gard. dict._ [48] ~narcissus triandrus. reflexed daffodil.~ _class and order._ ~hexandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _petala_ sex, æqualia. _nectario_ infundibuliformi, 1-phyllo, _stamina_ intra nectarium. _specific character and synonyms._ narcissus _triandrus_ spatha sub-biflora, floribus cernuis, petalis reflexis, staminibus tribus longioribus. narcissus _triandrus_ spatha sub-uniflora, nectario campanulato crenato dimidio petalis breviore, staminibus ternis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 317._ narcissus juncifolius, albo flore reflexo. _clus. app. alt._ the yellow turning junquilia, or rush daffodil. _parkins. parad. 93. fig. 2, 3._ [illustration: 48] the present species of _narcissus_ is considered by the nursery-men near london as the _triandrus_ of linnæus, which it no doubt is, though it does not accord in every particular with his description: his _triandrus_ is white, ours is pale yellow, but colour is not in the least to be depended on, for it is found to vary in this as in all the other species; his _triandrus_ he describes as having in general only three stamina, whence the name he has given it; ours, so far as we have observed, has constantly six, three of which reach no further than the mouth of the tube, a circumstance so unusual, that linnæus might overlook it without any great impeachment of his discernment; he says, indeed, that it has sometimes six: perhaps, the three lowermost ones may, in some instances, be elongated so as to equal the others; if he had observed the great inequality of their length, he would certainly have mentioned it. this species is found wild on the pyrenean mountains; was an inhabitant of our gardens in the time of parkinson (who has very accurately described it, noticing even its three stamina) to which, however, it has been a stranger for many years: it has lately been re-introduced, but is as yet very scarce. our figure was taken from a specimen which flowered in mr. lee's nursery at hammersmith. it grows with as much readiness as any of the others of the genus, and flowers in march and april. [49] ~soldanella alpina. alpine soldanella.~ _class and order._ ~pentandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ campanulata, lacero-multifida. _caps._ 1-locularis, apice multidentata. _specific character and synonyms._ soldanella _alpina._ _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 194._ soldanella alpina rotundifolia. _bauh. pin. 295._ [illustration: 49] of this genus there is at present only one known species, the _alpina_ here figured, which is a native of germany, and, as its name imports, an alpine plant. its blossoms are bell-shaped, of a delicate blue colour, sometimes white, and strikingly fringed on the edge. it flowers usually in march, in the open ground; requires, as most alpine plants do, shade and moisture in the summer, and the shelter of a frame, in lieu of its more natural covering snow, in the winter; hence it is found to succeed best in a northern aspect: will thrive in an open border, but is more commonly kept in pots. may be increased by parting its roots early in autumn. [50] ~iris sibirica. siberian iris.~ _class and order._ ~triandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _cor._ 6-petala, inæqualis, petalis alternis geniculato-patentibus. _stigmata_ petaliformia, cucullato-bilabiata. _thunb. diss. de iride._ _specific character and synonyms._ iris _sibirica_ imberbis foliis linearibus, scapo subtrifloro tereti, germinibus trigonis. _lin. syst. vegetab._ _p._ 91. iris pratensis angustifolia, non foetida altior. _bauh. pin. 32._ iris _bicolor._ _miller's dict. ed. 6, 4to._ the greater blue flower-de-luce with narrow leaves. _parkins. parad. p. 185. fig. 2._ [illustration: 50] this species of iris is a native of germany and siberia, and is distinguished from those usually cultivated in our gardens by the superior height of its stems, and the narrowness of its leaves; from which last character it is often, by mistake, called _graminea_; but the true _graminea_ is a very different plant. the _iris sibirica_ is a hardy perennial, and will thrive in almost any soil or situation; but grows most luxuriantly in a moist one, and flowers in june. is propagated most readily, by parting its roots in autumn. [51] ~narcissus major. great daffodil.~ _class and order._ ~hexandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _petala_ 6 æqualia: _nectario_ infundibuliformi, 1-phyllo. _stamina_ intra nectarium. _specific character and synonyms._ narcissus _major_ foliis subtortuosis, spatha uniflora, nectario campanulato patulo crispo æquante petala. narcissus _major_ totus luteus calyce prælongo. _bauhin pin. 52._ narcissi sylvestris alia icon. _dodon. stirp. p. 227._ the great yellow spanish bastard daffodil. _parkins. parad. t. 101. fig. 1._ [illustration: 51] the present species of daffodil is the largest of the genus, and bears the most magnificent flowers, but, though it has long been known in this country, it is confined rather to the gardens of the curious. it is a native of spain, and flowers with us in april. as its roots produce plenty of offsets, it is readily propagated. it approaches in its general appearance very near to the _narcissus pseudo-narcissus_, but differs in being a much taller plant, having its leaves more twisted, as well as more glaucous, its flowers (but especially its nectary) much larger, and its petals more spreading; and these characters are not altered by culture. it answers to the _bicolor_ of linnæus in every respect but colour, and we should have adopted that name, had not the flowers with us been always of a fine deep yellow; we have therefore taken bauhin's name as the most expressive. it varies with double flowers. [52] ~gentiana acaulis. large-flowered gentian, or gentianella.~ _class and order._ ~pentandria digynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ monopetala. _capsula_ bivalvis, 1-locularis. _receptaculis_ 2-longitudinalibus. _specific character and synonyms._ gentiana _acaulis_ corolla quinquefida campanulata caulem excedente. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. 267._ gentiana alpina latifolia magno flore. _bauh. pin. 187._ small gentian of the spring. _park. par. p. 352. t. 351. f. 3._ [illustration: 52] plants growing in mountainous situations, where they are constantly exposed to strong-blowing winds, are always dwarfish; in such situations, the present plant has no stalk, whence its name _acaulis_, but cultivated in gardens it acquires one. most of the plants of this family are beautiful, and, cultivated in gardens, in brilliancy of colour none exceed the present species. as most alpine plants do, this loves a pure air, an elevated situation, and a loamy soil, moderately moist; it is however somewhat capricious, thriving without the least care in some gardens, and not succeeding in others; at any rate it will not prosper very near london. it flowers usually in may, and sometimes in the autumn. is propagated by parting its roots at the close of summer; but miller says, the strongest and best plants are produced from seed. [53] ~cineraria lanata. woolly cineraria.~ _class and order._ ~syngenesia polygamia superflua.~ _generic character._ _receptaculum_ nudum. _pappus_ simplex. _calyx_ simplex, polyphyllus, æqualis. _specific character and synonyms._ cineraria _lanata_ caule suffruticoso, foliis subquinquelobis, subtus tomentosis; foliolis ad pedunculos lanatis. [illustration: 53] in the beauty of its blossoms, this species of _cineraria_, lately introduced from africa, by far eclipses all the others cultivated in our gardens; its petals exteriorly are of a most vivid purple, interiorly white; this change of colour adds much to the brilliancy of the flower. what renders this plant a more valuable acquisition to the green-house, is its hardiness, its readiness to flower, and the facility with which it may be propagated. it flowers early in the spring, and, by proper management, may be made to flower the whole year through; it is sometimes kept in the stove, and may be made to flower earlier by that means; but it succeeds better in a common green-house, with no more heat than is just necessary to keep out the frost, indeed it may be preserved in a common hot-bed frame through the winter, unless the weather prove very severe. certain plants are particularly liable to be infested with _aphides_, or, in the vulgar phrase, to become lousy, this is one: the only way to have handsome, healthy, strong-flowering plants, is to procure a constant succession by cuttings, for there is no plant strikes more readily; these should be placed in a pot, and plunged into a bed of tan. [54] ~anemone sylvestris, snowdrop anemony.~ _class and order._ ~polyandria polygynia.~ _generic character._ _calyx_ nullus. _petala_ 6-9. _semina_ plura. _specific character and synonyms._ anemone _sylvestris_ pedunculo nudo, feminibus subrotundis, hirsutis, muticis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. 510._ anemone sylvestris alba major. _bauh. pin. p. 176._ the white wild broad-leafed wind-flower. _park. par. 202._ [illustration: 54] parkinson very accurately notices the striking characters of this species of anemone, which are its creeping roots, its large white flowers standing on the tops of the flower-stalks, which sometimes grow two together, but most commonly singly; the leaves on the stalk, he observes, are more finely divided than those of the root, and its seeds are woolly. miller describes it as having little beauty, and therefore but seldom planted in gardens; it is true, it does not recommend itself by the gaudiness of its colours, but there is in the flowers, especially before they expand, a simple elegance, somewhat like that of the snowdrop, and which affords a pleasing contrast to the more shewy flowers of the garden. it flowers in may, and ripens its seeds in june. it will grow in almost any soil or situation, is propagated by offsets from the root, which it puts out most plentifully, so as indeed sometimes to be troublesome. is a native of germany. [55] ~geranium striatum. striped geranium.~ _class and order._ ~monadelphia decandria.~ _generic character._ monogynia. _stigmata_ 5. _fructus_ rostratus 5-coccus. _specific character and synonyms._ geranium _striatum_ pedunculis bifloris, foliis quinquelobis: lobis medio dilatatis, petalis bilobis venosoreticulatus. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. 616._ geranium _striatum_ pedunculis bifloris, foliis caulinis trilobis, obtuse crenatis. _miller's dict._ geranium romanum versicolor sive striatum. the variable striped cranesbill. _park. parad. p. 229._ [illustration: 55] this species is distinguished by having white petals, finely reticulated with red veins, and the corners of the divisions of the leaves marked with a spot of a purplish brown colour, which parkinson has long since noticed. is said by linnæus to be a native of italy, is a very hardy plant, flowers in may and june, and may be propagated by parting its roots in autumn, or by seed; prefers a loamy soil and shady situation. [56] ~geranium lanceolatum. spear-leaved geranium.~ _class and order._ ~monadelphia decandria.~ _generic character._ monogyna. _stigmata_ 5. _fructus_ rostratus 5-coccus. _specific character and synonyms._ geranium _glaucum_ calycibus monophyllis, foliis lanceolatis integerrimis glaucis, caule erecto suffruticoso. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. 614. supp. pl. p. 306._ [illustration: 56] this elegant and very singular species of _geranium_ appears to have been first cultivated in this country; its introduction was attended with circumstances rather unusual. mr. lee, nurseryman of the vineyard, hammersmith, in looking over some dried specimens in the possession of sir joseph banks, which he had recently received from the cape of good hope, was struck with the singular appearance of this geranium, no species having before been seen in this country with spear-shaped leaves; on examining the specimens attentively, he perceived a few ripe seeds in one of them, those he solicited, and obtained; and to his success in making them vegetate, we are indebted for the present species. the shape of the leaf readily suggested the name of _lanceolatum_, an epithet by which it has been generally distinguished in this country, and which, from its extreme fitness, we have continued, notwithstanding young professor linnæus has given it that of _glaucum_, though, at the same time, his illustrious father had distinguished another species by the synonymous term of _glaucophyllum_. this species rarely ripens its seeds with us, and is therefore to be raised from cuttings, which however are not very free to strike. it has been usual to keep it in the stove, but we have found by experience, that it succeeds much better in a common green-house, in which it will flower during the whole of the summer. small young plants of this, as well as most other geraniums, make the best appearance, and are therefore to be frequently obtained by cuttings. [57] ~papaver orientale. eastern poppy.~ _class and order._ ~polyandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _cor._ 4-petala. _cal._ 2-phyllus. _capsula,_ 1-locularis sub stigmate persistente poris dehiscens. _specific character and synonyms._ papaver _orientale_ capsulis glabris, caulibus unifloris scabris foliosis pinnatis serratis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. 490._ papaver orientale hirsutissimum, magno flore. _tournes. cor. 17. itin. 3. p. 127. t. 127._ [illustration: 57] most of the plants of this tribe are distinguished by the splendour of their colours, most of them also are annuals, in gaiety of colour none exceed the present species; but it differs in the latter character, in having not only a perennial root, but one of the creeping kind, whereby it increases very much, and by which it is most readily propagated. though a native of the east, as its name imports, it bears the severity of our climate without injury, flowers in may, and as its blossoms are extremely shewy, it gives great brilliancy to the flower-garden or plantation; prefers a dry soil. [58] ~iris spuria. spurious iris.~ _class and order._ ~triandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ 6-petala, inæqualis, petalis alternis geniculato-patentibus. _stigmata_ petaliformia, cucullato-bilabiata. _conf. thunb._ _diss. de iride._ _specific character and synonyms._ iris _spuria_ imberbis foliis linearibus, scapo subtrifloro tereti, germinibus hexagonis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. 91._ _jacq. fl. austr. tab. 4._ iris pratensis angustifolia, folio foetido. _bauh. pin. 32._ the greater blue flower-de-luce with narrow leaves. _park. parad. p. 184._ [illustration: 58] some plants afford so little diversity of character, that an expressive name can scarcely be assigned them; such is the present plant, or linnæus would not have given it the inexpressive name of _spuria_, nor we have adopted it. this species is distinguished by the narrowness of its leaves, which emit a disagreeable smell when bruised, by the colour of its flowers, which are of a fine rich purple inclining to blue, and by its hexangular germen. it is a native of germany, where, as professor jacquin informs us, it grows in wet meadows; is a hardy perennial, thrives in our gardens in almost any soil or situation, flowers in june, and is propagated by parting its roots in autumn. [59] ~mesembryanthemum bicolorum. two-coloured fig-marigold.~ _class and order._ ~icosandria pentagynia.~ _generic character._ _cal._ 5-fidus. _petala_ numerosa, linearia. _caps._ carnosa, infera, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ mesembryanthemum _bicolorum_ foliis subulatis punctatis lævibus distinctis, caule frutescente, corollis bicoloribus. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. 470._ mesembryanthemum tenuifolium fruticescens, flore croceo. _dill. elth. 267. t. 202. f. 258._ [illustration: 59] contrary to the _mesembryanthemum dolabriforme_, lately figured in this work, this species expands its flowers in the day-time, and that only when the sun shines powerfully on them; on such occasions, the blossoms on the top of the branches being very numerous, exhibit a most splendid appearance. it is a native of the cape of good hope, flowers in july, and is most readily propagated by cuttings. like most of the cape plants, it requires the shelter of a green-house during the winter. [60] ~lathyrus odoratus. sweet pea, or vetchling.~ _class and order._ ~diadelphia decandria.~ _generic character._ _stylus_ planus, supra villosus, superne latior. _cal._ laciniæ superiores 2-breviores. _specific character and synonyms._ lathyrus _odoratus_ pedunculis bifloris, cirrhis diphyllis, foliolis ovato-oblongis, leguminibus hirsutis, _linn. syst. vegetab. p. 663._ lathyrus distoplatyphyllos hirsutus mollis, magno et peramæno flore odoro. _comm. hort. 2. p. 219. t. 80._ [illustration: 60] there is scarcely a plant more generally cultivated than the _sweet pea_, and no wonder, since with the most delicate blossoms it unites an agreeable fragrance. several varieties of this plant are enumerated by authors, but general cultivation extends to two only, the one with blossoms perfectly white, the other white and rose-coloured, commonly called the _painted lady pea_. the sweet pea is described as a native of sicily, the painted lady variety as an inhabitant of ceylon; they have both been introduced since the time of parkinson and evelyn. it is an annual, and not a very tender one; seedling plants sown in autumn frequently surviving our winters. as it is desirable to have this plant in flower for as great a length of time as possible, to have them early, we must sow them in the autumn, either in pots or in the open border; if sown in pots, they can the more readily be secured from any severe weather, by placing them in a hot-bed frame, a common practice with gardeners who raise them for the london markets, in which they are in great request: others again should be sown early in the spring, and the sowings repeated every month; they grow readily in almost any soil or situation, and by this means may be had to flower most of the year through. if sown in pots, care must be taken to water them frequently. [61] ~iris ochroleuca. tall iris.~ _class and order._ ~triandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ 6-petala, inæqualis, petalis alternis geniculato-patentibus. _stigmata_ petaliformia, cucullato-bilabiata. _thunb. diss. de iride._ _specific character and synonyms._ iris _ochroleuca_ imberbis foliis ensiformibus, scapo subtereti germinibus hexagonis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 90._ [illustration: 61] of the several species of iris cultivated in our gardens, this excels in point of height; we have taken our english name therefore from this character, and not from the term _ochroleuca_, which, if translated, would be too expressive of the colour of the blossoms of the _iris pseudacorus_, with which the _ochroleuca_ has some affinity in point of size as well as colour. notwithstanding mr. miller's description of his _orientalis_ accords very badly with that of linnæus's _ochroleuca_, they have been generally considered in this country as one and the same plant, distinguished by the name of pococke's iris, dr. pococke being the person who, according to miller, in his time first introduced it from _carniola_ (by inadvertence spelt _carolina_, in the 6th 4to edition of the dictionary). there are grounds, however, for suspecting some error in the habitat of this plant, for had it grown spontaneously in carniola, it is not probable that scopoli would have omitted it in his _flora carniolica_. leaving its place of growth to be more accurately ascertained hereafter, we shall observe, that it appears perfectly naturalized to this country, growing luxuriantly in a moist rich soil, and increasing, like most of the genus, very fast by its roots. it flowers later than most of the others. [62] ~centaurea glastifolia. woad-leaved centaurea.~ _class and order._ ~syngenesia polygamia superflua.~ _generic character._ _receptaculum_ setosum. _pappus_ simplex. _corollæ_ radii infundibuliformes, longiores, irregulares. _specific character and synonyms._ centaurea _glastifolia_ calycibus scariosis, foliis indivisis integerrimis decurrentibus. _lin. syst. veg. p. 787._ _gmelin sib. 2. p. 83._ centaurium majus orientale erectum, glasti folio, flore luteo. _comm. rar. 39. t. 39._ [illustration: 62] assumes the name of _glastifolia_ from the similitude which the leaves bear to those of the _isatis tinctoria_, or _woad_, _glastum_ of the old botanists. in this plant we have an excellent example of the _folium decurrens_ and _calyx scariosus_ of linnæus, the leaves also exhibit a curious phenomenon, having veins prominent on both their sides; the scales of the calyx are moreover distinguished by a beautiful silvery appearance, which it is difficult to represent in colours. it is a native of the east, as well as of siberia; flowers with us in july, in the open border, and is readily propagated by parting its roots in autumn, which are of the creeping kind: requires no particular treatment. miller, in the last 4to edition of his dictionary, enumerates a _cent. glastifolia_; but his description in detail, by no means accords with the plant. [63] ~fragaria monophylla. one-leaved strawberry, or strawberry of versailles.~ _class and order._ ~icosandria polygynia.~ _generic character._ _calyx_ 10-fidus. _petala_ 5. _receptaculum_ feminum ovatum, baccatum, deciduum. _specific character and synonyms._ fragaria _monophylla_ foliis simplicibus. _lin. syst. veg. p. 476._ _le fraisier de versailles. duchesne hist. nat. des frais, p. 124._ [illustration: 63] the first mention made of this strawberry, we find in duchesne's _histoire naturelle des fraisiers_, where we have its complete history, and from which we learn, that it was originally raised by him at versailles, in the year 1761, from seeds of the wood strawberry. from france this plant has been conveyed to most parts of europe; how it has happened we know not, but it is certainly very little known in this country: in the 14th edit of the _syst. veg._ of linnæus, it appears as a species under the name of _monophylla_, originally imposed on it by duchesne; linnæus, however, has his doubts as to its being a species distinct from the _vesca_, and, in our humble opinion, not without reason; for it can certainly be regarded as a very singular variety only; its origin indeed is a proof of this; in addition to which we may observe, that plants raised from the runners will sometimes, though very rarely indeed, have three leaves instead of one: and it is observed by the very intelligent author of the _hist. nat._ abovementioned, that seedling plants sometimes produced leaves with three divisions, like those of the wood strawberry. besides the remarkable difference in the number of the leaves in this plant, the leaves themselves are observed to be much smaller in the winter season, and their ribs less branched; the runners also are slenderer and more productive, and the fruit in general more oblong or pyramidal. as an object of curiosity, this plant is deserving a place in every garden of any extent; nor is its singularity its only recommendation, its fruit being equal to that of the finest wood strawberry, with which it agrees in the time of its flowering, fruiting, and mode of treatment. [64] ~hemerocallis fulva. tawny day-lily.~ _class and order._ ~hexandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ campanulata: tubo cylindrico. _stamina_ declinata. _specific character and synonyms._ hemerocallis _fulva_ foliis lineari-subulatis carinatis, corollis fulvis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 339._ lilium rubrum asphodeli radice. _bauh. pin. 80._ the gold red day-lily. _park. parad. p. 148. t. 149. f. 5._ [illustration: 64] according to linnæus, this species is a native of china. it has long been inured to our climate, and few plants thrive better in any soil or situation, but a moist soil suits it best; its leaves on their first emerging from the ground, and for a considerable time afterwards, are of the most delicate green imaginable; the appearance which the plant assumes at this period of its growth is, indeed, so pleasing, that it may be said to constitute one half of its beauty; its blossoms which appear in july and august, are twice the size of those of the _flava_, of a tawny orange colour, without gloss or smell, the petals waved on the edge, the flowers are rarely or never succeeded by ripe capsules as in the _flava_, which is a circumstance that has been noticed by parkinson; when these several characters, in which the _fulva_ differs so essentially from the _flava_, are attentively considered, we shall wonder that linnæus could entertain an idea of their being varieties of each other. the _hemerocallis fulva_, from its size, and from the great multiplication of its roots, is best adapted to large gardens and plantations. may be propagated by parting its roots in autumn. [65] ~clematis integrifolia. entire-leaved clematis, or virgins-bower.~ _class and order._ ~polyandria polygynia.~ _generic character._ _cal._ 0. _petala_ 4. rarius 5.--vel 6. _sem._ caudata. _specific character and synonyms._ clematis _integrifolia_ foliis simplicibus ovato-lanceolatis, floribus cernuis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 512._ clematitis coerulea erecta. _bauh. pin. 300._ clematis coerulea pannonica. the hungarian climer. _park. parad. p. 393._ [illustration: 65] the _clematis integrifolia_ is not an uncommon plant in the nurseries about london, and is deserving a place in gardens, if not for the beauty of its flowers, at least for their singularity. it is a native of germany, flowers in july, and is one of those hardy perennials which suit most people, requiring little more than an introduction. is propagated by parting its roots in autumn. [66] ~passiflora alata. winged passion-flower.~ _class and order._ ~gynandria pentandria.~ _generic character._ trigyna. _cal._ 5-phyllus. _petala_ 5. _nectarium_ corona. _bacca_ pedicellata. _specific character._ passiflora _alata_ foliis indivisis cordatis integerrimis, petiolis quadriglandulosis, cauli membranaceo tetragono. [illustration: 66] this species of passion-flower is one of those which have been introduced into the english gardens since the time of miller; if it does not equal the _coerulea_ in elegance, it excels it in magnificence, in brilliancy of colour, and in fragrance, the blossoms being highly odoriferous: as yet, it is by no means so general in this country, as its extraordinary beauty merits, we have seen it flower this year, both summer and autumn, in great perfection in the stove of our very worthy friend james vere, esq. kensington-gore; at the physic garden, chelsea; and at mr. malcom's, kennington; at chelsea, in particular, it afforded the richest assemblage of foliage and flowers we ever saw. it appears to the greatest advantage, when trained up an upright pole, nearly to the height of the back of the stove, and then suffered to run along horizontally. by some it has been considered as a variety only of the _passiflora quadrangularis_, others, with whom we agree in opinion, have no doubt of its being a very distinct species; it differs from the _quadrangularis_, in having leaves more perfectly heart-shaped, and less veiny; in having four glands on the foot-stalks of the leaves, instead of six; and in not producing fruit with us, which the _quadrangularis_ has been known frequently to do. the nursery-men report, that this species was first raised in this country, by a gentleman in hertfordshire, from west-india seeds. the usual mode of propogating it here, is by cuttings. [67] ~mesembryanthemum pinnatifidum. jagged-leaved fig-marigold.~ _class and order._ ~icosandria pentagynia.~ _generic character._ _cal._ 5-fidus. _petala_ numerosa linearia. _caps._ carnosa infera polysperma. _specific character._ mesembryanthemum _pinnatifidum_ foliis pinnatifidis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. 470. suppl. p. 260._ [illustration: 67] this species of _mesembryanthemum_, so different in the shape of its foliage from all the others hitherto introduced into this country, is first described in the _supplementum plantarum_ of the younger linnæus, from which we learn that it grew in the upsal garden, into which it was most probably introduced by professor thunberg, as on his authority it is mentioned as a native of the cape of good hope. mr. zier, apothecary, of castle-street, was so obliging as to present me this summer with the seeds of this curious plant, i sowed them in a pot of earth, plunged in a tan pit, whose heat was nearly exhausted; they quickly vegetated, and though the summer was far advanced, they proceeded rapidly into flower, and bid fair to produce ripe seeds, as the capsules have long since been formed. the whole plant is sprinkled over with glittering particles like the ice plant, to which it bears some affinity in its duration, being an annual and requiring the same treatment. the blossoms are small and yellow, and if the weather be fine, open about two or three o'clock in the afternoon, the stalks are of a bright red colour, and the foliage yellowish green. [68] ~sempervivum arachnoideum. cobweb houseleek.~ _class and order._ ~dodecandria dodecagynia.~ _generic character._ _cal._ 12-partitus. _petala_ 12. _caps._ 12. polyspermæ. _specific character._ sempervivum _arachnoideum_ foliis pilis intertextis, propaginibus globosis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. 456._ sedum montanum tomentosum. _bauh. pin. 284._ [illustration: 68] by the old botanists, this plant was considered as a _sedum_; and to this day it is generally known in the gardens by the name of the _cobweb sedum_, though its habit or general appearance, independent of its fructification, loudly proclaims it a _houseleek_. in this species the tops of the leaves are woolly; as they expand they carry this woolly substance with them, which being thus extended, assumes the appearance of a cobweb, whence the name of the plant. like most of the houseleeks it is best kept in a pot, or it will grow well and appear to great advantage on a wall or piece of rock-work; the more it is exposed to the sun, the more colour will enliven its stalks and foliage, and the more brilliant will be its flowers; the latter make their appearance in july. it is propagated by offsets which it sends forth in abundance. it is no uncommon practice to treat this beautiful species of houseleek, as a native of a warm climate; under such an idea we have seen it nursed up in stoves, while the plant spontaneously braves the cold of the switzerland alps. [69] ~rosa muscosa. moss rose.~ _class and order._ ~icosandria polygynia.~ _generic character._ _petala_ 5. _cal._ urceolatus, 5-fidus, carnosus, collo coarctatus. _sem._ plurima, hispida, calycis interiori lateri affixa. _specific character and synonyms._ rosa _muscosa_ caule petiolisque aculeatis, pedunculis calycibusque pilosissimis. _miller's dict._ [illustration: 69] if there be any one genus of plants more universally admired than the others, it is that of the rose--where is the poet that has not celebrated it? where the painter that has not made it an object of his imitative art? in the opinion of miller, the moss rose, or moss province, as it is frequently called, is a perfectly distinct species; linnæus considers it as a variety only of the _centifolia_: as it is found in our nurseries in a double state only, and as we are ignorant of what country it is the produce, the decision of this matter must be left to future observation and inquiry. though it may not increase so fast by suckers, nor be increased so readily by layers, as the _centifolia_, there is no difficulty in propagating it either way; the latter mode is usually adopted. [70] ~mesembryanthemum barbatum. bearded fig-marigold.~ _class and order._ ~icosandria pentagynia~. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-fidus. petala numerosa, linearia. _caps._ carnosa, infera, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ mesembryanthemum _barbatum_, foliis subovatis papulosis distinctis, apice barbatis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p. 469._ mesembryanthemum radiatum, ramulis prolixis recumbentibus. _dillen. hort. elth. 245. t. 190. f. 234._ [illustration: 70] the leaves of this species have small hairs, issuing like rays from their points, whence its name of _barbatum_; there are two others figured by dillenius, whose leaves have a great similarity of structure, and which are considered by linnæus as varieties of this species; our plant is the _stellatum_ of miller's _dict._ _ed._ 6. 4_to_. like most of this tribe it inhabits the cape, flowers in july, and is readily propagated by cuttings. [71] ~statice sinuata. purple-cup't statice, or thrift.~ _class and order._ ~pentandria pentagynia.~ _generic character._ _cal._ 1-phyllus, integer, plicatus, scariosus. _petala_ 5. _sem._ 1. superum. _specific character and synonyms._ statice _sinuata_ caule herbaceo, foliis radicalibus alternatim pinnato sinuatis: caulinis ternis triquetris subulatis decurrentibus. _lin. syst. vegetab._ _p._ 301. limonium peregrinum foliis asplenii. _bauh. pin. 192._ limonium rauwolfii marsh buglosse. _parkins. parad. p. 250._ [illustration: 71] that this singular species of _statice_ was long since an inhabitant of our gardens, appears from parkinson, who in his _garden of pleasant flowers_, gives an accurate description of it, accompanied with an expressive figure; since his time it appears to have been confined to few gardens: the nurserymen have lately considered it as a newly-introduced species, and sold it accordingly. it is one of those few plants whose calyx is of a more beautiful colour than the corolla (and which it does not lose in drying); it therefore affords an excellent example of the _calyx coloratus_, as also of _scariosus_, it being sonorous to the touch. being a native of sicily, palestine, and africa, it is of course liable to be killed with us in severe seasons, the common practice is therefore to treat it as a green-house plant, and indeed it appears to the greatest advantage in a pot; it is much disposed to throw up new flowering stems; hence, by having several pots of it, some plants will be in blossom throughout the summer; the dried flowers are a pretty ornament for the mantle-piece in winter. though a kind of biennial, it is often increased by parting its roots, but more advantageously by seed; the latter, however, are but sparingly produced with us, probably for the want, as parkinson expresses it, "of sufficient heate of the sunne." [72] ~helleborus lividus. livid or purple hellebore.~ _class and order._ ~polyandria polygynia.~ _generic character._ _cal._ nullus. _petala_-5. sive plura. _nectaria_ bilabiata, tubulata. _caps._ polyspermæ, erectiusculæ. _specific character._ helleborus _lividus_ caule multifloro folioso, foliis ternatis. _ait. hort. kew. ined. 2. p. 272._ [illustration: 72] it is not a little extraordinary that this plant which has for many years been cultivated in this country, should have escaped the notice of linnæus; it is equally wonderful that we should at this moment be strangers to its place of growth. having three leaves growing together, it has been considered by many as the _trifoliatus_ of linnæus but his _trifoliatus_ is a very different plant, a native of canada, producing small yellow flowers. it has been usual to treat this species as a green-house plant, or at least to shelter it under a frame in the winter; probably it is more hardy than we imagine. it is propagated by parting its roots in autumn, and by seeds, though few of the latter in general ripen, nor do the roots make much increase--to these causes we must doubtless attribute its present comparative scarcity. it flowers as early as february; on which account, as well as that of its singularity, it is a very desirable plant in collections. index. in which the latin names of the plants contained in the _second volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ 47 amaryllis formosissima. 54 anemone sylvestris. 41 calceolaria pinnata. 42 camellia japonica. 62 centaurea glastifolia. 37 chironia frutescens. 53 cineraria lanata. 43 cistus incanus. 65 clematis integrifolia. 45 crocus vernus. 44 cyclamen persicum. 39 dianthus caryophyllus, var. 63 fragaria monophylla. 52 gentiana acaulis. 55 geranium striatum. 56 ---lanceolatum. 72 helleborus lividus. 64 hemerocallis fulva. 61 iris ochroleuca. 50 ---sibirica. 58 ---spuria. 60 lathyrus odoratus. 46 leucojum vernum. 70 mesembryanthemum barbatum. 59 ---bicolorum. 67 ---pinnatifidum. 51 narcissus major. 48 ---triandrus. 57 papaver orientale. 66 passiflora alata. 69 rosa muscosa. 49 soldanella alpina. 68 sempervivum arachnoideum. 71 statice sinuata. 40 trillium sessile. 38 viburnum tinus. index. in which the english names of the plants contained in the _second volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ 47 amaryllis jacobean. 54 anemony snowdrop. 42 camellia rose. 43 centaurea woad-leaved. 37 chironia shrubby. 53 cineraria woolly. 43 cistus, hoary or rose. 65 clematis, or virgin's-bower entire-leaved. 45 crocus spring. 44 cyclamen persian. 51 daffodil great. 48 ---reflexed. 64 day-lily tawny. 39 franklin's tartar. 70 fig-marigold bearded. 67 ---jagged-leaved. 59 ---two-coloured. 52 gentian large-flowered, or gentianella. 56 geranium spear-leaved. 55 ---striped. 68 houseleek cobweb. 72 hellebore, livid or purple. 50 iris siberian. 58 ---spurious. 61 ---tall. 38 laurustinus common. 66 passion-flower winged. 60 pea, or vetchling sweet. 57 poppy eastern. 69 rose moss. 41 slipper-wort pinnated. 46 snow-flake spring. 49 soldanella alpine. 63 strawberry one-leav'd. 40 trillium sessile. 71 thrift purple-cup't. file made using scans of public domain works at the university of georgia.) [transcriber's note: many inconsistencies appeared in the original book and were retained in this version.] the ~botanical magazine~; or, ~flower-garden displayed~: in which the most ornamental foreign plants, cultivated in the open ground, the green-house, and the stove, are accurately represented in their natural colours. to which are added, their names, class, order, generic and specific characters, according to the celebrated linnæus; their places of growth, and times of flowering: together with the most approved methods of culture. a work intended for the use of such ladies, gentlemen, and gardeners, as wish to become scientifically acquainted with the plants they cultivate. by william curtis, author of the flora londinensis. vol. i "a garden is the purest of human pleasures." verulam. london: printed by couchman and fry, throgmorton-street, for w. curtis, at his botanic-garden, lambeth-marsh; and sold by the principal booksellers in great-britain and ireland. m dcc xc. preface. the present periodical publication owes its commencement to the repeated solicitations of several ladies and gentlemen, subscribers to the author's botanic garden, who were frequently lamenting the want of a work, which might enable them, not only to acquire a systematic knowledge of the foreign plants growing in their gardens, but which might at the same time afford them the best information respecting their culture--in fact, a work, in which botany and gardening (so far as relates to the culture of ornamental plants) or the labours of linnæus and miller, might happily be combined. in compliance with their wishes, he has endeavoured to present them with the united information of both authors, and to illustrate each by a set of new figures, drawn always from the living plant, and coloured as near to nature, as the imperfection of colouring will admit. he does not mean, however, to confine himself solely to the plants contained in the highly esteemed works of those luminaries of botany and gardening, but shall occasionally introduce new ones, as they may flower in his own garden, or those of the curious in any part of great-britain. at the commencement of this publication, he had no design of entering on the province of the florist, by giving figures of double or improved flowers, which sometimes owe their origin to culture, more frequently to the sportings of nature; but the earnest entreaties of many of his subscribers, have induced him so far to deviate from his original intention, as to promise them one, at least, of the flowers most esteemed by florists. the encouragement given to this work, great beyond the author's warmest expectations, demands his most grateful acknowledgements, and will excite him to persevere in his humble endeavours to render botany a lasting source of rational amusement; and public utility. botanic garden, lambeth-marsh, 1787. [1] ~iris persica. persian iris.~ _class and order._ ~triandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ corolla 6-partita: petalis alternis, reflexis. stigmata petaliformia. _specific character and synonyms._ iris _persica_ corolla imberbi, petalis interioribus brevissimis patentissimis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p._ 79. _sp. pl. p._ 59. iris bulbosa præcox minus odora persica variegata. _moris. hist._ 2. _p._ 357. xiphium persicum. _miller dict. ed._ 6. 4_to._ the persian bulbous flower-de-luce. _parkins. parad. p._ 172. [illustration: no 1] a native of persia. flowers in february and march. its beauty, early appearance, and fragrant blossoms, make it highly esteemed by all lovers of flowers; like the hyacinth or narcissus it will blow within doors in a water-glass, but stronger in a small pot of sand, or sandy loam; a few flowers will scent a whole apartment: it will also blossom in the open air, but requires warmth and shelter; it is propagated by offsets and seeds; the best flowering roots are imported from holland, they bear forcing well; and hence this plant may be had to flower a full month or six weeks in succession. parkinson remarks, that in his time (1629) it was very rare, and seldom bore flowers. [2] ~rudbeckia purpurea. purple rudbeckia.~ _class and order._ ~syngenesia polygamia frustranea.~ _generic character._ receptaculum paleaceum, conicum. pappus margine quadri-dentato. calyx duplici ordine squamarum. _specific character and synonyms._ rudbeckia _purpurea_ foliis lanceolato-ovatis alternis indivisis, radii petalis bifidis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p._ 651. _sp. pl. p._ 1280. dracunculus virginianus latifolius, petalis florum longissimis purpurascentibus. _moris. hist._ 3. _p._ 42. _f._ 6. _t._ 9. _f._ 1. [illustration: no 2] this species differs from the other plants of the genus, in the colour of its outermost petals, which are long, narrow, purple, and pendulous, and not unaptly resemble small pieces of red tape. notwithstanding it is a native of the warm climates carolina and virginia, it succeeds very well with us in an open border: but, as mr. miller very justly observes, it will always be prudent to shelter two or three plants under a common hot-bed frame in winter, to preserve the kind, because in very severe winters, those in the open air are sometimes killed. it flowers in july. as it rarely ripens its seeds with us, the only mode of propagating it, is by parting the roots; but in that way the plant does not admit of much increase. [3] ~helleborus hyemalis. winter hellebore, or aconite.~ _class and order._ ~polyandria polygynia[a].~ _generic character._ calyx 0. petala 5 sive plura. nectaria bilabiata, tubulata. capsulæ polyspermæ erectiusculæ. _specific character and synonyms._ helleborus _hyemalis_ flore folio infidente. _linn. syst. vegetab. p._ 431. _sp. pl. p._ 783. aconitum unifolium bulbosum. _bauh. pin._ 183. the winter's wolfesbane. _park. parad. p._ 214. [illustration: no 3] grows wild in lombardy, italy, and austria, affects mountainous situations, flowers with us in february, and hence is liable to be cut off by severe frosts. "is propagated by offsets, which the roots send out in plenty. these roots may be taken up and transplanted any time after their leaves decay, which is generally by the beginning of june till october, when they will begin to put out new fibres; but as the roots are small and nearly the colour of the ground, so if care is not taken to search for them, many of the roots will be left in the ground. these roots should be planted in small clusters, otherwise they will not make a good appearance, for single flowers scattered about the borders of these small kinds are scarce seen at a distance; but when these and the snowdrops are alternately planted in bunches, they will have a good effect, as they flower at the same time, and are much of a size." _millers gard. dict._ [footnote a: most of the hellebores vary greatly in the number of their pistils, which in general are too few to justify the placing those plants in the order polygynia.] [4] ~cyclamen coum. round-leav'd cyclamen.~ _class and order._ ~pentandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ corolla rotata, reflexa, tubo brevissimo fauce prominente. bacca tecta capsula. _specific character and synonyms._ cyclamen _coum_ foliis orbiculatis planis, pediculis brevibus, floribus minoribus. _miller's dict._ cyclamen hyemale orbiculatis foliis inferius rubentibus purpurascente flore; coum herbariorum. _hort. reg. paris._ _herm. cat._ cyclamen orbiculato folio inferne purpurascente. _bauh. pin. p._ 307. the common round-leav'd sowebread. _park. parad. p._ 198. [illustration: no. 4] grows wild in many parts of italy and germany, and is sometimes found with white flowers; if the season be mild, or the plants sheltered from the inclemency of the weather, this species will flower as early as february, or much earlier by artificial heat. as it grows naturally in woods and shady places, it will thrive best in a mixture of bog-earth and loam placed in a north border; if planted in the open border, it will require to be covered with a hand-glass during winter, and in the spring, when in bloom; the more usual method with gardeners is to preserve them in pots in a common hot-bed frame, the advantage of this method is that they may, at any time, be removed to decorate the parlour or the study. the plants of this genus admit of but little increase by their roots; the best method of propagating them is by seed, which should be sown soon after they are ripe in boxes or pots, and covered about half an inch deep, placing them where they may have only the morning-sun, till the beginning of september, when they may be removed to a warmer exposure. [5] ~erythronuim dens canis. dogs-tooth, or dogs-tooth violet.~ _class and order._ ~hexandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ corolla 6-petala, campanulata: nectario tuberculis 2-petalorum alternorum basi adnatis. _specific character and synonyms._ erythronium _dens canis._ _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ 269. _sp. pl. p._ 437. dens canis latiore rotundioreque folio. _bauh. pin._ 87. dogs-tooth with a pale purple flower. _park. parad. p._ 194. [illustration: no. 5] of this genus mr. miller makes two species; linnæus, perhaps with more propriety, only one, for breadth of leaves or colour of flowers can scarcely be considered as sufficient to constitute a specific difference. it is found in the gardens with purple flowers of two different tints, also with white and yellow blossoms, grows naturally in hungary and some parts of italy, and blows in the open border at the beginning of april. "they are propagated by offsets from their roots. they love a shady situation and a gentle loamy soil, but should not be too often removed. they may be transplanted any time after the beginning of june, when their leaves will be quite decayed, till the middle of september; but the roots should not be kept very long out of the ground, for if they shrink it will often cause them to rot. the roots of these flowers should not be planted scattering in the borders of the flower-garden, but in patches near each other, where they will make a good appearance." _miller's gard. dict._ [6] ~narcissus minor. least daffodil.~ _class and order._ ~hexandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ petala 6, æqualia: nectario infundibuliformi, 1-phyllo. stamina intra nectarium. _specific character and synonyms._ narcissus _minor_ spatha uniflora, nectario obconico erecto crispo sexfido æquante petala lanceolata. _lin. sp. pl. p._ 415. _syst. vegetab. p._ 262. narcissus parvus totus luteus. _bauhin. pin._ 53. the least spanish yellow bastard daffodil. _park. parad. p._ 105. [illustration: no. 6] we are not a little surprised that mr. miller should have taken no notice of the present species, as it must have been in the english gardens long before his time, being mentioned by parkinson in his garden of pleasant flowers: it is nearly related to the _pseudo-narcissus_, but differs from it in many particulars except size, _vid. lin. sp. pl._ and parkinson above quoted. though its blossoms are not so large as those of the other species, yet when the roots are planted in a cluster, they make a very pretty shew, and have this advantage, that they flower somewhat earlier than any of the others. like the common daffodil it propagates very fast by the roots, and will thrive in almost any soil or situation. though a native of spain, it is seldom injured by the severity of our climate. [7] ~cynoglossum omphalodes. blue navelwort.~ _class and order._ ~pentandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ corolla infundibuliformis, fauce clausa fornicibus. semina depressa interiore tantum latere stylo affixa. _specific character and synonyms._ cynoglossum omphalodes repens, foliis radicalibus cordatis[b], _lin. sp. pl. p._ 193. _syst. vegetab. p._ 157. _scopoli fl. carn. p._ 124. _t._ 3. symphytum minus borraginis facie. _bauh. pin._ 259. borago minor verna repens, folio lævi. _moris. hist._ 3. _p._ 437. _s._ 11, _t._ 26. _fig._ 3. [illustration: no. 7] a native of spain, portugal, and carniola, and an inhabitant of woods and shady situations, flowers in march and april: in the autumn it puts forth trailing shoots, which take root at the joints, whereby the plant is most plentifully propagated; thrives best under a wall in a north border. [footnote b: "stolones repunt non caulis florifer, cui folia ovalia, et minime cordata. tournefortius separavit a symphito, et dixit omphallodem _pumilam vernam, symphyti folio_, sed bene monet linnæus solam fructus asperitatem aut glabritiem, non sufficere ad novum genus construendum." _scopoli fl. carn. p._ 124.] [8] ~helleborus niger. black hellebore, or christmas rose.~ _class and order._ ~polyandria polygynia.~ _generic character._ calyx nullus. petala 5 sive plura. nectaria bilabiata, tubulata. capsulæ polyspermæ, erectiusculæ. _specific character and synonyms._ helleborus niger scapo sub-bifloro subnudo, foliis pedatis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ 431. _sp. pl. p._ 783. helleborus niger flore roseo, _bauh. pin._ 186. the true black hellebore, or christmas flower. _parkins. parad. p._ 344. [illustration: no. 8] as our publication seems likely to fall into the hands of such as are totally unacquainted with botany, or botanical writings, it must plead as an apology for our often explaining many circumstances relative to plants, which may be well known to adepts in the science. this plant derives its first name from the black colour of its roots, its second from its early flowering, and the colour of its petals, which though generally milk-white on their first appearance, yet have frequently a tint of red in them, which increases with the age of the blossom and finally changes to green; in some species of hellebore, particularly the _viridis_, the flower is green from first to last. black hellebore grows wild on the appenine and other mountains, preferring such as are rocky. if the weather be unusually mild, it will flower in our gardens, in the open border, as early as december and january; it may indeed be considered as the herald of approaching spring. like most other alpine plants, it loves a pure air, a situation moderately moist, and a soil unmanured: as the beauty of its flowers is apt to be destroyed by severe frosts, it should be covered during the winter with a hand-glass, or if it be treated in the manner recommended for the round-leav'd cyclamen, it may be had to flower in still greater perfection. it is propagated by parting its roots in autumn: neither this species nor the _hyemalis_ thrive very near london. [9] ~iris pumila. dwarf iris.~ _class and order._ ~triandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ corolla sex-partita: petalis alternis, reflexis. stigmata petaliformia. _specific character and synonyms._ iris pumila corollis barbatis, caule foliis breviore unifloro. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ 78. _sp. plant. p._ 56. _jacq. fl. austr. t._ 1. chamæiris minor flore purpureo. _bauh. pin._ 33. the lesser purple dwarf flower-de-luce. _park. parad. p._ 186. [illustration: no. 9] gardeners, in former days, not having that profusion of plants to attend to and cultivate, which we can at present boast, appear to have been more solicitous in increasing generally the varieties of the several species; accordingly, we find in the _paradisus terrestris_ of the venerable parkinson, no less than six varieties of this plant[c], most of which are now strangers to the nursery gardens. we may observe, that varieties in general not being so strong as the original plant, are consequently much sooner lost. the iris pumila grows wild in many parts of hungary, affects open and hilly situations, and flowers in our gardens in the month of april; it is a very hardy plant, and will thrive in almost any soil or situation; is propagated by parting its roots in autumn. [footnote c: the lesser purple dwarf flower-de-luce with white blossoms, - --- --- -- --- -- straw colour ditto. - --- --- -- --- -- pale blue ditto. - --- --- -- --- -- blush-coloured ditto. - --- --- -- --- -- yellow variable ditto. - --- --- -- --- -- blue variable ditto, and the purple dwarf sea flower-de-luce of the same author, is probably no other than a variety.] [10] ~anemone hepatica. hepatica, or noble liverwort.~ _class and order._ ~polyandria polygynia.~ _generic character._ calyx nullus. petala 6. 9. semina plura. _specific character and synonyms._ anemone hepatica foliis trilobis integerrimis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ 424. _sp. pl. p._ 758. _fl. suec. n._ 480. trifolium hepaticum flore simplici et pleno. _bauh. pin._ 339. red hepatica or noble liverwort. _park. parad. p._ 226. [illustration: no. 10] dillenius, miller, and some other authors, make a distinct genus of the _hepatica_: linnæus unites it with the _anemone_, observing, that though it differs from the _anemone_ in having a calyx, yet that calyx is at some distance from the flower, and partakes more of the nature of an involucrum, which is not uncommon to the anemonies. the hepaticas, as parkinson observes, flower soon after the winter hellebore, "and making their pride appear in winter, are the more welcome early guests." it is found wild in its single state, with red, blue, and white flowers, in the woods and shady mountains of sweden, germany, and italy; the red variety with double flowers is the one most commonly cultivated in our gardens; the double blue is also not unfrequent; the single white is less common; and the double white miller never saw, yet admits that it may exist spontaneously, or be produced from seed: parkinson mentions a white variety with red threads or stamina. according to miller, this plant delights in a loamy soil, and in an eastern position where it may have only the morning sun: the single sorts are easily raised from seed; the double, increased by parting the roots, which ought to be done in march when they are in bloom; they should not be divided into very small heads: these plants, if often removed and parted, are apt to die, but left undisturbed for many years, they will thrive exceedingly, and become very large roots. [11] ~erica herbacea. herbaceous heath.~ _class and order._ ~octandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ calyx 4-phyllus. corolla 4-fida. filamenta receptaculo inserta. antheræ bifidæ. capsula 4-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ erica _herbacea_ antheris muticis exsertis, corollis oblongis, stylo exserto, foliis quaternis, floribus secundis, _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ 306. _carnea sp. pl. ed._ 3. _p._ 504. erica _carnea_. _jacq. fl. austr. v._ 1. _tab._ 32 erica procumbens herbacea. _bauh. pin. p._ 486. [illustration: no. 11] since the days of mr. miller, who, with all his imperfections, has contributed more to the advancement of practical gardening than any individual whatever, our gardens, but more especially our green-houses, have received some of their highest ornaments from the introduction of a great number of most beautiful heaths: the present plant, though a native of the alps and mountainous parts of germany, is of modern introduction here, what renders it particularly acceptable, is its hardiness and early flowering; its blossoms are formed in the autumn, continue of a pale green colour during the winter, and expand in the spring, flowering as early as march, especially if kept in a green-house, or in a common hot-bed frame, which is the more usual practice. it may be propagated by seeds or cuttings, the latter is the most ready way of increasing this and most of the other species of the genus: when the cuttings have struck root, they should be planted in a mixture of fresh loam and bog earth, either in the open border, under a wall, or in pots. the name of _herbacea_, which linnæus has given to this plant, is not very characteristic, but it should be observed, that linnæus in this, as in many other instances, has only adopted the name of some older botanist; and it should also be remembered, that in genera, where the species are very numerous, it is no easy matter to give names to all of them that shall be perfectly expressive. this species does not appear to us to be specifically different from the _mediterranea_. [12] ~dodecatheon meadia. mead's dodecatheon, or american cowslip.~ _class and order._ ~pentandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ rotata, reflexa. _stamina_ tubo insidentia. _capsula_ unilocularis, oblonga. _specific character and synonyms._ dodecatheon _meadia_. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ 163. _sp. plant. p._ 163. meadia _catesb. car._ 3. _p._ 1. _t._ 1. _trew. ehret. t._ 12. auricula ursi virginiana floribus boraginis instar rostratis, cyclaminum more reflexis. _pluk. alm._ 62. _t._ 79. _f._ 6. [illustration: no. 12] this plant grows spontaneously in virginia and other parts of north america, from whence, as miller informs us, it was sent by mr. banister to dr. compton, lord bishop of london, in whose curious garden he first saw it growing in the year 1709. it is figured by mr. catesby, in his natural history of carolina, among the natural productions of that country, who bestowed on it the name of _meadia_, in honour of the late dr. mead, a name which linnæus has not thought proper to adopt as a generic, though he has as a trivial one. "it flowers the beginning of may, and the seeds ripen in july, soon after which the stalks and leaves decay, so that the roots remain inactive till the following spring. "it is propagated by offsets, which the roots put out freely when they are in a loose moist soil and a shady situation; the best time to remove the roots, and take away the offsets, is in august, after the leaves and stalks are decayed, that they may be fixed well in their new situation before the frost comes on. it may also be propagated by seeds, which the plants generally produce in plenty; these should be sown in autumn, soon after they are ripe, either in a shady moist border, or in pots, which should be placed in the shade; in the spring, the plants will come up, and must then be kept clean from weeds; and, if the season proves dry, they must be frequently refreshed with water: nor should they be exposed to the sun; for while the plants are young, they are very impatient of heat, so that i have known great numbers of them destroyed in two or three days, which were growing to the full sun. these young plants should not be transplanted till the leaves are decayed, then they may be carefully taken up and planted in a shady border, where the soil is loose and moist, at about eight inches distance from each other, which will be room enough for them to grow one year, by which time they will be strong enough to produce flowers, so may then be transplanted into some shady borders in the flower-garden, where they will appear very ornamental during the continuance of their flowers." _miller's gard. dict._ [13] ~coronilla glauca. sea-green, or day-smelling coronilla.~ _class and order._ ~diadelphia decandria.~ _generic character._ _calyx_ bilabiatus: 2/3: dentibus superioribus connatis. _vexillum_ vix alis longius. _legumen_ isthmis interceptum. _specific character and synonyms._ coronilla _glauca_ fruticosa, foliolis septenis, obtusissimis, stipulis lanceolatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p._ 557. _sp. pl._ 1047. coronilla maritima, glauco folio. _tournef. inst._ 650. colutea scorpioides maritima, glauco folio. _bauh. pin._ 397. _prodr._ 157. [illustration: no. 13] this charming shrub, which is almost perpetually in blossom, and admirably adapted for nosegays, is a native of the south of france, and a constant ornament to our green-houses. linnæus has observed, that the flowers, which in the day time are remarkably fragrant, in the night are almost without scent. "it is propagated by sowing the seeds in the spring, either upon a gentle hot-bed, or on a warm border of light earth: when the plants are come up about two inches high, they should be transplanted either into pots, or into a bed of fresh earth, at about four or five inches distance every way, where they may remain until they have obtained strength enough to plant out for good, which should be either in pots filled with good fresh earth, or in a warm situated border, in which, if the winter is not too severe, they will abide very well, provided they are in a dry soil." _miller's gard. dict._ [14] ~primula villosa. mountain primula.~ _class and order._ ~pentandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _involucrum_ umbellulæ. _corollæ_ tubus cylindricus: ore patulo. _specific character and synonyms._ primula _villosa_ foliis obovatis dentatis villosis, scapo brevissimo multifloro. primula _villosa_. _jacquin fl. austr. app. t._ 27. [illustration: no. 14] mr. miller, in the sixth edition of the abridgment of his gardener's dictionary, mentions only four primulas, exclusive of the auricula, the two first of which are named erroneously, and of the two last not a syllable is said either as to their place of growth or culture. the plant here figured, has been introduced pretty generally into the nursery-gardens in the neighboured of london within these few years: mr. salisbury informs me, that a variety of this plant with white flowers, brought originally from the alps of switzerland, has for many years been cultivated in a garden in yorkshire. it is not noticed by linnæus: professor jacquin, in his flora austriaca, has figured and described a primula, which, though not agreeing so minutely as could be wished with the one we have figured, is nevertheless considered by some of the first botanists in this country as the same species; he gives it the name of _villosa_, which we adopt, though with us it is so slightly villous as scarcely to deserve that epithet. it varies in the brilliancy of its colours, flowers in april, and will succeed with the method of culture recommended for the round-leaved cyclamen. [15] ~narcissus jonquilla. common jonquil.~ _class and order._ ~hexandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _petala_ sex. _nectario_ infundibuliformi, monophyllo. _stamina_ intra nectarium. _specific character and synonyms._ narcissus _jonquilla_ spatha multiflora, nectario hemisphærico crenato, breviore petalis, foliis semiteretibus. _lin. spec. pl. p._ 417. [illustration: no. 15] the fragrant jonquil is a native of spain, flowers in the open ground, about the latter-end of april, or beginning of may, and will thrive in almost any soil or situation, but prefers, as most bulbs do, a fresh loamy earth; indeed such a soil is favourable to the growth of most plants, as being exempt from a variety of subterraneous insects, which are apt to infest ground which has been long cultivated. it is found in the gardens with double flowers. our plant accords exactly with the description of linnæus, above quoted, but must be carefully distinguished from some others very similar to it. [16] ~iris variegata. variegated iris.~ _class and order._ ~triandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ 6-partita; _petalis_ alternis, reflexis. _stigmata_ petaliformia. _specific character and synonyms._ iris _variegata_ corollis barbatis, caule subfolioso longitudine foliorum multifloro. _linn. spec. pl. p._ 56. iris latifolia pannonica, colore multiplici. _bauh. pin._ 31. the yellow variable flower-de-luce. _parkinson parad. p._ 182. [illustration: no. 16] this species of iris, inferior to few in point of beauty, is a native of the hilly pastures of hungary, and flowers in our gardens in the month of may, and beginning of june. it is a hardy perennial, requires no particular treatment, and may be easily propagated by parting its roots in autumn. [17] ~cactus flagelliformis. creeping cereus.~ _class and order._ ~icosandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _calyx_ 1-phyllus, superus, imbricatus. _corolla_ multiplex. _bacca_ 1-locularis, polysperma. _specific character._ cactus _flagelliformis_ repens decemangularis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed._ 14 _p._ 460. cereus _flagelliformis_. _miller's gard. dict. ed._ 6. 4_to._ [illustration: no. 17] grows spontaneously in south-america, and the west-indies, flowers in our dry stoves early in june, is tolerably hardy, and will thrive even in a common green-house, that has a flue to keep out the severe frosts. it is superior to all its congeners in the brilliancy of its colour, nor are its blossoms so fugacious as many of the other species. no plant is more easily propagated by cuttings; these miller recommends to be laid by in a dry place for a fortnight, or three weeks, then to be planted in pots, filled with a mixture of loam and lime rubbish, having some stones laid in the bottom of the pot to drain off the moisture, and afterwards plunged into a gentle hot-bed of tanners bark, to facilitate their rooting, giving them once a week a gentle watering: this business to be done the beginning of july. it is seldom that this plant perfects its seeds in this country: miller relates that it has borne fruit in chelsea gardens. [18] ~geranium reichardi. dwarf geranium.~ _class and order._ ~monadelphia decandria.~ _general character._ monogynia. stigmata 5. fructus rostratus, 5-coccus. _specific character and synonyms._ geranium _reichardi_ scapis unifloris, floribus pentandris, foliis subreniformibus inciso-crenatis. geranium _reichardi_ scapis unifloris, foliis plerisque oblongis trilobis vel quinquelobis inciso-crenatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. murr._ 14. _p._ 618. [illustration: no. 18] this species of geranium, so strikingly different from all others at present cultivated in our gardens, has been known for several years to the nursery-men in the neighbourhood of london, by the name of _acaule_, a name we should gladly have retained, had not professor murray described it in the 14th edition of linnæus's _systema vegetabilium_, under the name of _reichardi_, a name he was disposed to give it in compliment to a french gentleman, who first discovered it in the island of minorca, and introduced it into the gardens of france. linnæus describes many of the geraniums, as having only five antheræ, though several of those he thus describes have to our certain knowledge ten, the five lowermost of which shedding their pollen first, often drop off, and leave the filaments apparently barren: but in this species (with us at least) there never are more than five, but betwixt each stamen, there is a broad pointed barren filament or squamula, scarcely to be distinguished by the naked eye. the usual and best practice is to make a green-house plant of this species, though it has been known to remain in the open ground, during a mild winter, unhurt. it continues to have a succession of blossoms during the greatest part of the summer, and may be propagated either by seed or parting its roots. [19] ~hemerocallis flava. yellow day-lily.~ _class and order._ ~hexandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ campanulata, tubus cylindraceus. _stamina_ declinata. _specific character and synonyms._ hemerocallis _flava_ foliis lineari-subulatis carinatis, corollis flavis. _linn. syst. veg. ed._ 14. _p._ 339. lilium luteum, asphodeli radice. _bauh. pin._ 80. the yellow day-lily. _parkins. parad. p._ 148. [illustration: no. 19] this genus has been called _hemerocallis_, in english, _day-lily_, from the short duration of its blossoms, but these are not quite so fugacious in this species as in the _fulva_. it very rarely happens that linnæus, in his specific character of a plant, has recourse to colour, he has however in this instance; but this seems to arise from his considering them rather as varieties, than species. to us they appear to be perfectly distinct, and in addition to several other characters, the flava is distinguished by the fragrance of its blossoms. this species is an inhabitant of hungary and siberia, and consequently bears our climate exceedingly well; it requires a moist soil, and a situation somewhat shady, and is easily propagated by parting its roots in autumn. [20] ~geranium peltatum. ivy-leaved geranium.~ _class and order._ ~monadelphia decandria.~ _generic character._ monogyna. _stigmata_ quinque. _fructus_ rostratus. 5-coccus. _specific character._ geranium _peltatum_ calycibus monophyllis, foliis quinquelobis integerrimis glabris subpeltatis, caule fruticoso. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed._ 14. _p._ 613. geranium africanum, foliis inferioribus asari, superioribus staphidisagriæ maculatis splendentibus et acetosæ sapore. _comm. præl._ 52. _t._ 2. [illustration: no. 20] a native of africa, as are most of our shewy geraniums, is not so tender as many others, and may be propagated very readily from cuttings. a leaf, having its foot-stalk inserted into the disk or middle part of it, or near it, is called by linnæus, peltatum, hence the latin trivial name of this plant. it may be observed, however, that some of the leaves have this character more perfectly than others. the african geraniums differ much from the european, in the irregularity of their petals, but exhibit the character of the class _monadelphia_ much better than any of our english ones, having their filaments manifestly united into one body; this species has only 7 filaments bearing antheræ, but 3 barren ones may be discovered upon a careful examination, which makes it of the order _decandria_. [21] ~iris versicolor. particoloured iris.~ _class and order._ ~triandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ 6-petala, inæqualis, petalis alternis geniculato-patentibus. _stigmata_ petaliformia, cucullato-bilabiata. conf. _thunb. dis. de iride._ _specific character and synonyms._ iris _versicolor_ imberbis foliis ensiformibus, scapo tereti flexuoso, germinibus subtrigonis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed._ 14. _murr. p._ 90. _sp. plant. ed._ 3. _p._ 57. iris americana versicolor stylo crenato. _dill. elth._ 188. 1. 155. _f._ 188. [illustration: no. 21] a native of virginia, maryland, and pensylvania, has a perennial root, is hardy, and will thrive in almost any soil or situation; may be increased by parting its roots in autumn. our plant is the _picta_ of miller, and the _versicolor_ of miller is, we believe, the _sibirica_ of linnæus. this species has, for the most part, a stalk unusually crooked or elbowed, by which it is particularly distinguished. it flowers in june, as do most of this beautiful tribe. [22] ~nigella damascena. garden fennel-flower, love in a mist, devil in a bush.~ _class and order._ ~polyandria pentagynia.~ _generic character._ _cal._ nullus. _petala_ 5. nectaria 5. trifida, intra corollam. _capsulæ_ 5 connexæ. _specific character and synonyms._ nigella _damascena_ floribus involucro folioso cinctis. _lin. syst. vegetab. ed._ 14. _murr. p._ 506. _sp. pl. p._ 753. nigella angustifolia, flore majore simplici cæruleo. _bauh. pin._ 145. the great spanish nigella. _park. parad. p._ 287. [illustration: no. 22] is an annual, and grows wild among the corn in the southern parts of europe; varies with white and blue flowers, both single and double. "may be propagated by sowing their seeds upon a bed of light earth, where they are to remain (for they seldom succeed well if transplanted); therefore, in order to have them intermixed among other annual flowers in the borders of the flower garden, the seeds should be sown in patches at proper distances: and when the plants come up, they must be thinned where they grow too close, leaving but three or four of them in each patch, observing also to keep them clear from weeds, which is all the culture they require. in july they will produce their flowers, and their seeds will ripen in august. "the season for sowing these seeds is in march; but if you sow some of them in august, soon after they are ripe, upon a dry soil and in a warm situation, they will abide through the winter, and flower strong the succeeding year; by sowing of the seeds at different times, they may be continued in beauty most parts of the summer." _miller's gard. dict. ed._ 6. 4_to._ [23] ~tropæolum majus. greater indian-cress, or nasturtium.~ _class and order._ ~octandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _calyx_ 1-phyllus, calcaratus. _petala_ 5 in æqualia. _baccæ_ tres, siccæ. _specific character and synonyms._ tropæolum _majus_ foliis peltatis subquinquelobis, petalis obtusis. _lin. syst. vegetab. ed._ 14. _murr. p._ 357. _sp. pl. p._ 490. cardamindum ampliori folio et majori flore. _grande capucine tournef. inst. p._ 430. [illustration: no. 23] the present plant is a native of peru, and is said by linnæus to have been first brought into europe in the year 1684; it is certainly one of the greatest ornaments the flower-garden can boast: it varies in colour, and is also found in the nurseries with double flowers. the former, as is well known, is propagated by seed; the latter by cuttings, which should be struck on a hot-bed. to have these plants early, they should be raised with other tender annuals; they usually begin to flower in july, and continue blossoming till the approach of winter: the stalks require to be supported, for if left to themselves they trail on the ground, overspread, and destroy the neighbouring plants. elizabeth christina, one of the daughters of linnæus, is said to have perceived the flowers to emit spontaneously, at certain intervals, sparks like those of electricity, visible only in the dusk of the evening, and which ceased when total darkness came on. the flowers have the taste of water-cress, with a degree of sweetness, which that plant does not possess, more particularly resident in the spur of the calyx or nectary; hence are sometimes used in sallads, and hence the plant acquires its name of _nasturtium_. [24] ~agrostemma coronaria. rose cockle, or campion.~ _class and order._ ~decandria pentagynia.~ _generic character._ _calyx_ 1-phyllus, coriaceus. _petala_ 5 unguiculata: limbo obtuso, indiviso. _caps._ 1-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ agrostemma _coronaria_ tomentosa, foliis ovato-lanceolatis, petalis emarginatis coronatis serratis. _lin. syst. vegetab. ed._ 14. _murr. p._ 435. _sp. pl. p._ lychnis coronaria dioscoridis sativa. _bauh. pin._ 203. the single red rose campion. _parkins. parad. p._ 252. [illustration: no. 24] grows spontaneously in italy and siberia; linnæus informs us that the blossom is naturally white, with red in the middle. "the single rose campion has been long an inhabitant of the english gardens, where, by its seeds having scattered, it is become a kind of weed. there are three varieties of this plant, one with deep red, another with flesh-coloured, and a third with white flowers, but these are of small esteem, for the double rose campion being a finer flower, has turned the others out of most fine gardens. the single sorts propagate fast enough by the seeds, the sort with double flowers never produces any, so is only propagated by parting of the roots; the best time for this is in autumn, after their flowers are past; in doing of this, every head which can be slipped off with roots should be parted; these should be planted in a border of fresh undunged earth, at the distance of six inches, observing to water them gently until they have taken root, after which they will require no more, for much wet is injurious to them, as is also dung. after the heads are well rooted, they should be planted into the borders of the flower-garden, where they will be very ornamental during the times of their flowering, which is in july and august." _miller's gard. dict. ed._ 6. 4_to._ miller, by mistake, calls this plant _cælirosa_. [25] ~dianthus chinensis. china or indian pink.~ _class and order._ ~decandria digynia.~ _generic character._ _calyx_ cylindricus, 1-phyllus: basi squamis 4. _petala_ 5, unguiculata. _capsula_ cylindrica, 1-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ dianthus _chinensis_ floribus solitariis, squamis calycinis subulatis patulis, tubum æquantibus, corollis crenatis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ 418. _sp. pl._ 588. caryophyllus sinensis supinus, leucoji folio, flore unico. _tournef. act._ 1705. _p._ 348. _f._ 5. [illustration: no. 25] this species, unknown to the older botanists, is a native of china, hence its name of china pink; but, in the nurseries, it is in general better known by the name of indian pink. though it cannot boast the agreeable scent of many of its congeners, it eclipses most of them in the brilliancy of its colours; there are few flowers indeed which can boast that richness and variety found among the most improved varieties of this species; and as these are easily obtained from seed, so they are found in most collections, both single and double. it is little better than an annual, but will sometimes continue two years in a dry soil, which it affects. attempts have been made to force it, but, as far as we have learned, with no great success. [26] ~stapelia variegata. variegated stapelia.~ _class and order._ ~pentandria digynia.~ _generic character._ contorta. _nectarium_ duplici stellula tegente genitalia. _specific character and synonyms._ stapelia _variegata_ denticulis ramorum patentibus. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ 260. _sp. pl. p._ 316. asclepias aizoides africana. _bradl. suc._ 3. _p._ 3. _t._ 22. [illustration: no. 26] this very singular plant is a native of the cape of good hope, where it grows and flourishes on the rocks with the _stapelia hirsuta_. if these plants be kept in a very moderate stove in winter, and in summer placed in an airy glass-case where they may enjoy much free air, but screened from wet and cold, they will thrive and flower very well; for although they will live in the open air in summer, and may be kept through the winter in a good green-house; yet these plants will not flower so well as those managed in the other way. they must have little water given them, especially in winter. it is very seldom that the _variegata_ produces seed-vessels in this country; miller observes, in upwards of forty years that he cultivated it, he never saw it produce its pods but three times, and then on such plants only as were plunged into the tan-bed in the stove. this plant may be propagated without seeds, as it grows fast enough from slips; treatment the same as that of the creeping cereus, which see. it takes its name of _stapelia_ from _stapel_, a dutchman, author of some botanical works, particularly a description of theophrastus's plants. [27] ~convolvulus tricolor. small convolvulus or bindweed.~ _class and order._ ~pentandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _corolla_ campanulata, plicata. _stigmata_ 2. _capsula_ 2-locularis: loculis dispermis. _specific character and synonyms._ convolvulus _tricolor_ foliis lanceolato ovatis glabris, caule declinato, floribus solitariis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ 203. _sp. pl. p._ 225. convolvulus peregrinus cæruleus, folio oblongo. _bauh. pin._ 295. flore triplici colore insignito. _moris. hist._ 2. _p._ 17. _s._ 1. _t._ 4. _f._ 4. the spanish small blew bindeweede. _parkins. parad. p._ 4. [illustration: no. 27] this species has usually been called _convolvulus minor_ by gardeners, by way of distinguishing it from the _convolvulus purpureus_, to which they have given the name of _major_. it is a very pretty annual; a native of spain, portugal, and sicily, and very commonly cultivated in gardens. the most usual colours of its blossoms are blue, white, and yellow, whence its name of _tricolor_; but there is a variety of it with white, and another with striped blossoms. the whole plant with us is in general hairy, hence it does not well accord with linnæus's description. it is propagated by seeds, which should be sown on the flower-borders in the spring, where the plants are to remain: they require no other care than to be thinned and weeded. [28] ~passiflora coerulea. common passion-flower.~ _class and order._ ~gynandria hexandria.~ _generic character._ trigyna. _cal._ 5-phyllus. _petala_ 5. _nectarium_ corona. _bacca_ pedicellata. _specific character and synonyms._ passiflora _coerulea_ foliis palmatis integerrimis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ 823. _sp. pl. p._ 1360. granadilla polyphyllos, fructu ovato. _tourn. inst._ 241. flos passionis major pentaphyllus. _sloan. jam._ 104. _hist._ 1. _p._ 229. [illustration: no. 28] the passion-flower first introduced into this country was the _incarnata_ of linnæus, a native of virginia, and figured by parkinson in his _paradisus terrestris_, who there styles it the surpassing delight of all flowers: the present species, which, from its great beauty and superior hardiness, is now by far the most common, is of more modern introduction; and, though a native of the brasils, seldom suffers from the severity of our climate; flowering plentifully during most of the summer months, if trained to a wall with a southern aspect, and, in such situations, frequently producing ripe fruit, of the size and form of a large olive, of a pale orange colour. this most elegant plant may be propagated by seeds, layers, or cuttings; foreign seeds are most to be depended on; they are to be sown in the spring, on a moderate hot-bed, and when the plants are grown to the height of two or three inches, they are to be carefully taken up, and each planted in a separate small pot, filled with good loam, then plunged into a moderate hot-bed, to forward their taking new root; after which they should be gradually inured to the common air: the younger the plants the more shelter they require, and if ever so old or strong, they are in danger from severe frosts. the layers and cuttings are to be treated in the common way, but seedling plants, if they can be obtained, are on many accounts to be preferred. [29] ~reseda odorata. sweet-scented reseda or mignonette.~ _class and order._ ~dodecandria trigynia.~ _generic character._ _cal._ 1-phyllus, partitus. _petala_ laciniata. _caps._ ore dehiscens, 1-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ reseda _odorata_ foliis integris trilobisque, calycibus florem æquantibus. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ 449. reseda foliis integris trilobisque, floribus tetragynis. _mill. dict. t._ 217. [illustration: no. 29] _mignonette_ grows naturally in egypt, it was unknown to the older botanists; miller says he received the seeds of it from dr. adrian van royen, professor of botany at leyden, so that it is rather a modern inhabitant of our gardens. the luxury of the pleasure-garden is greatly heightened by the delightful odour which this plant diffuses; and as it is most readily cultivated in pots, its fragrance may be conveyed to the parlour of the recluse, or the chamber of the valetudinarian; its perfume, though not so refreshing perhaps as that of the sweet-briar, is not apt to offend on continuance the most delicate olfactories. being an annual it requires to be raised yearly from seed; when once introduced on a warm dry border it will continue to sow itself, and grow very luxuriantly, flowering from june to the commencement of winter; but as it is desirable to have it as early as possible in the spring, the best way is either to sow the seed in pots in autumn, securing them through the winter in frames, or in a greenhouse, or to raise the seeds early on a gentle hot bed, thinning the plants if they require it, so as to have only two or three in a pot. [30] ~lilium chalcedonicum. chalcedonian lily.~ _class and order._ ~hexandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _cor._ 6-petala, campanulata: _linea_ longitudinali nectarifera. _caps._ valvulis pilo cancellato connexis. _specific character and synonyms._ lilium _chalcedonicum_ foliis sparsis lanceolatis, floribus reflexis, corollis revolutis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ 324. lilium byzantium miniatum. _bauh. pin._ 78. the red martagon of constantinople. _park. parad. p._ 34. [illustration: no. 30] this species is best known in the nurseries by the name of the _scarlet martagon_; but as it is not the martagon of linnæus, to avoid confusion it will be most proper to adhere to the name which linnæus has given it. it is a native not only of persia, but of hungary; professor jacquin, who has figured it in his most excellent _flora austriaca_, describes it as growing betwixt carniola and carinthia, and other parts of hungary, but always on the tops of the largest mountains. it varies in the number of its flowers, from one to six, and the colour in some is found of a blood red. authors differ in their ideas of its smell: jacquin describing it as disagreeble, while scopoli compares it to that of an orange. it flowers in june and july; and is propagated by offsets, which it produces pretty freely, and which will grow in almost any soil or situation. the best time for removing the roots is soon after the leaves are decayed, before they have begun to shoot. [31] ~jasminum officinale. common jasmine or jessamine.~ _class and order._ ~diandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _cor._ 5-fida. _bacca_ dicocca. _sem_. arillata. _antheræ_ intra tubum. _specific character and synonyms._ jasminum _officinale_ foliis oppositis; foliolis distinctis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ 56. jasminum vulgatius flore albo. _bauh. pin._ 397. jasmine or gesmine. _park. parad. p._ 406. [illustration: no. 31] there is an elegance in the jasmine which added to its fragrance renders it an object of universal admiration. "it grows naturally at malabar, and in several parts of india, yet has been long inured to our climate, so as to thrive and flower extremely well, but never produces any fruit in england. it is easily propagated by laying down the branches, which will take root in one year, and may then be cut from the old plant, and planted where they are designed to remain: it may also be propagated by cuttings, which should be planted early in the autumn, and guarded against the effects of severe frosts. "when these plants are removed, they should be planted either against some wall, pale, or other fence, where the flexible branches may be supported. these plants should be permitted to grow rude in the summer, otherwise there will be no flowers; but after the summer is past, the luxuriant shoots should be pruned off, and the others must be nailed to the support. "there are two varieties of this with variegated leaves, one with white, the other with yellow stripes, but the latter is the most common: these are propagated by budding them on the plain jasmine; they require to be planted in a warm situation, especially the white-striped, for they are much more tender than the plain, and in very severe winters their branches should be covered with mats or straw to prevent their being killed." _miller's gard. dict._ [32] ~mesembryanthemum dolabriforme. hatchet-leav'd fig-marigold.~ _class and order._ ~icosandria pentagynia.~ _generic character._ _cal._ 5-fidus. _petala_ numerosa, linearia. _caps._ carnosa infera, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ mesembryanthemum _dolabriforme_ acaule, foliis dolabriformibus punctatis. _lin. syst. veg. p._ 470. ficoides capensis humilis, foliis cornua cervi referentibus, petalis luteis noctiflora, _bradl. suc._ 1. _p._ 11. _t._ 10. _dillen hort. elth. t._ 191. _f._ 237. [illustration: no. 32] though many latin names of plants, as _geranium_, _hepatica_, _convolvulus_, &c. are more familiar to the ear, and more generally used than their english ones, yet _mesembryanthemum_ though used by some, appears too long to be generally adopted, its english name of _fig-marigold_ is doubtless to be preferred. the fig-marigolds are a very numerous tribe, chiefly inhabitants of the cape of good hope; no less than thirty-three species are figured in that inestimable work the _hortus elthamensis_ of dillenius. as most of these plants grow readily from slips, or cuttings, and require only the shelter of a common greenhouse, and as they recommend themselves to our notice, either from the extreme singularity of their foliage, the beauty of their flowers, or the peculiarity of their expansion, so they are a favourite class of plants with many. the present species is a native of the cape of good hope, and is particularly distinguished by having leaves somewhat resembling a hatchet, whence its name; it is as hardy as most, and flowers as freely, but its blossoms fully expand in the evening and night only. it is very readily propagated by cuttings. [33] ~aster tenellus. bristly-leav'd aster.~ _class and order._ ~syngenesia polygamia superflua.~ _generic character._ _recept._ nudum. _pappus_ simplex. _cor._ radii plures 10. _cal._ imbricati squamæ inferiores patulæ. _specific character and synonyms._ aster _tenellus_ foliis subfiliformibus aculeato-ciliatis, pedunculis nudis, calycibus hemisphæricis æqualibus. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ 760. aster parvus æthiopicus, chamæmeli floribus, tamarisci ægyptiaci foliis tenuissime denticulatis. _pluk. alm._ 56. _t._ 271. _f._ 4. _raii. suppl._ 164. _n._ 84. [illustration: no. 33] most of the numerous species of this genus flower about michaelmas, hence their vulgar name of _michaelmas-daisy_; a name exceptionable not only on account of its length, but from its being a compound word. _aster_, though a latin term, is now so generally received, that we shall make no apology for adopting it. we are indebted to north-america for most of our asters, but the present species, which is omitted by _miller_, and is rather a scarce plant in this country, though not of modern introduction, being figured by _plukenet_ and described by _ray_, is a native of africa, and, like a few others, requires in the winter the shelter of a greenhouse. it is particularly distinguished by having very narrow leaves with short bristles on them, and by its blossoms drooping before they open. it is a perennial, flowers in september and october, and may be propagated by slips or cuttings. the plant from whence our drawing was made, came from messrs. _gordon_ and _thompson_'s nursery, mile-end. [34] ~browallia elata. tall browallia.~ _class and order._ ~didynamia gymnospermia.~ _generic character._ _cal._ 5-dentatus. _cor._ limbus 5-fidus, æqualis, patens: umbilico clauso antheris 2, majoribus. _caps._ 1-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ browallia _elata_ pedunculis unifloris multiflorisque. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ 572. _sp. pl._ 880. _mill. dict._ [illustration: no. 34] of this genus there are only two species, both natives of south-america, the _elata_, so called from its being a much taller plant than the _demissa_, is a very beautiful, and not uncommon stove or green-house plant; it is impossible, by any colours we have, to do justice to the brilliancy of its flowers. being an annual, it requires to be raised yearly from seed, which must be sown on a hot-bed in the spring, and the plants brought forward on another, otherwise they will not perfect their seeds in this country. some of these may be transplanted into the borders of the flower-garden which are warmly situated, where, if the season prove favourable, they will flower and ripen their seeds; but, for security's sake, it will be prudent to keep a few plants in the stove or green-house. as these plants have not been distinguished by any particular english name, miller very properly uses its latin one; a practice which should as much as possible be adhered to, where a genus is named in honour of a botanist of eminence. [35] ~crepis barbata. bearded crepis, or purple-eyed succory-hawkweed.~ _class and order._ ~syngenesia polygamia æqualis.~ _generic character._ _recept._ nudum. _cal._ calyculatus squamis deciduis. _pappus_ plumosus, stipitatus. _specific character and synonyms._ crepis _barbata_ involucris calyce longioribus: squamis setaceis sparsis. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ 719. hieracium proliferum falcatum. _bauh. pin._ 128. hieracium calyce barbato. _col. ecphr._ 2. _p._ 28. _t._ 27. _f._ 1. hieracium boeticum medio nigro. _herm. parad. bat._ 185. _t._ 185. [illustration: no. 35] grows spontaneously in the south of france, about montpelier; also, in spain, italy, sicily, and elsewhere in the south of europe: is one of the most common annuals cultivated in our gardens. it begins flowering in july, and continues to blossom till the frost sets in. no other care is necessary in the cultivation of this species than sowing the seeds in the spring, in little patches, on the borders where they are to remain, thinning them if they prove too numerous. miller calls this species _boetica_, and improperly describes the centre of the flower as black, as also does herman: in all the specimens we have seen, it has evidently been of a deep purple colour, or, as linnæus expresses it, _atropurpurascens_. [36] ~lilium bulbiferum. orange lily.~ _class and order._ ~hexandria monogynia.~ _generic character._ _cor._ 6-petala, campanulata: _linea_ longitudinali nectarifera. _caps._ valvulis pilo cancellato connexis. _specific character and synonyms._ lilium _bulbiferum_ foliis sparsis, corollis campanulatis erectis: intus scabris. _lin. syst. vegetab. p._ 324. _jacq. fl. austr. t._ 226. lilium purpureo-croceum majus. _bauh. pin._ 76. lilium aureum, the gold red lily. _park. parad. p._ 37. [illustration: no. 36] "the common orange or red lily is as well known in the english gardens as the white lily, and has been as long cultivated here. this grows naturally in austria and some parts of italy. it multiplies very fast by offsets from the roots, and is now so common as almost to be rejected; however, in large gardens these should not be wanting, for they make a good appearance when in flower if they are properly disposed; of this sort there are the following varieties: the orange lily with double flowers, the orange lily with variegated leaves, the smaller orange lily. these varieties have been obtained by culture, and are preserved in the gardens of florists. they all flower in june and july, and their stalks decay in september, when the roots may be transplanted and their offsets taken off, which should be done once in two or three years, otherwise their branches will be too large, and the flower-stalks weak. this doth not put out new roots till towards spring, so that the roots may be transplanted any time after the stalks decay till november. it will thrive in any soil or situation, but will be strongest in a soft gentle loam, not too moist." _mill. dict._ bears the smoke of london better than many plants. varies with and without bulbs on the stalks. index. in which the latin names of the plants contained in the _first volume_, are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ 24 agrostemma coronaria. 10 anemone _hepatica_. 33 aster tenellus. 34 browallia elata. 17 cactus flagelliformis. 27 convolvulus tricolor. 13 coronilla glauca. 35 crepis barbata. 4 cyclamen _coum_. 7 cynoglossum _omphalodes_. 25 dianthus chinensis. 12 dodecatheon _meadia_. 11 erica herbacea. 5 erythronium _dens canis_. 18 geranium reichardi. 20 geranium peltatum. 3 helleborus hyemalis. 8 helleborus niger. 19 hemerocallis flava. 31 jasminum officinale. 1 iris persica. 9 iris pumila. 16 iris variegata. 21 iris versicolor. 30 lilium chalcedonicum. 36 lilium bulbiferum. 32 mesembryanthemum dolabriforme. 6 narcissus minor. 15 narcissus _jonquilla_. 22 nigella damascena. 28 passiflora coerulea. 14 primula villosa. 29 reseda odorata. 2 rudbeckia purpurea. 26 stapelia variegata. 23 tropæolum majus. index. in which the english names of the plants contained in the _first volume_, are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ 33 aster bristly-leav'd. 34 browallia tall. 17 cereus creeping. 24 cockle rose. 13 coronilla sea-green. 27 convolvulus small. 35 crepis bearded. 4 cyclamen round-leav'd. 6 daffodil lesser. 19 day-lily yellow. 12 dodecatheon mead's. 5 dog's-tooth. 22 fennel-flower garden. 32 fig-marigold hatchet-leav'd. 18 geranium dwarf. 20 geranium ivy-leav'd. 11 heath herbaceous. 8 hellebore black. 3 hellebore winter. 10 hepatica. 31 jasmine common. 23 indian-cress greater. 15 jonquil common. 9 iris dwarf. 21 iris particoloured. 1 iris persian. 16 iris variegated. 30 lily chalcedonian. 36 lily orange. 7 navel-wort blue. 28 passion-flower common. 25 pink china. 14 primula mountain. 29 reseda sweet-scented. 2 rudbeckia purple. 26 stapelia variegated. janet blenkinship and the online distributed proofreaders europe at http://dp.rastko.net +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ |transcriber's note: older spellings of place names have been left as in| |the original. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ the ~botanical magazine;~ or, ~flower-garden displayed:~ in which the most ornamental foreign plants, cultivated in the open ground, the green-house, and the stove, are accurately represented in their natural colours. to which are added, their names, class, order, generic and specific characters, according to the celebrated linnæus; their places of growth, and times of flowering: together with the most approved methods of culture. a work intended for the use of such ladies, gentlemen, and gardeners, as wish to become scientifically acquainted with the plants they cultivate. by _william curtis_, author of the flora londinensis. ~vol. v.~ ----"the garden yields a soft amusement, an humane delight. to raise th' insipid nature of the ground, or tame its savage genius to the grace of careless sweet rusticity, that seems the amiable result of happy chance, is to create, and give a god-like joy, which ev'ry year improves." armstrong. london: printed by couchman and fry, throgmorton-street. for w. curtis, no 3, _st. george's-crescent_, black-friars-road; and sold by the principal booksellers in great-britain and ireland. m dcc xci. * * * * * [145] monarda fistulosa, _var._ crimson monarda. _class and order._ diandra monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ inæqualis: labio superiore lineari filamenta involvente. _semina_ 4. _specific character and synonyms._ monarda _fistulosa_ capitulis terminalibus, caule obtusangulo. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. 68. ed. 14. murr._ _hort. kew. v. 1. p. 36._ origanum fistulosum canadense. _corn. canad. 13. t. 14._ [illustration: no 145] the _monarda fistulosa_, a hardy herbaceous plant, growing spontaneously in canada, and other parts of north-america, has long been cultivated in the english gardens, to which it recommends itself as much by the fragrance of its foliage, as the beauty of its flowers; of this species the plant here figured is an uncommonly beautiful variety, its blossoms far surpassing those of the original in size, as well as brilliancy of colour, the floral leaves also are highly coloured; we have represented a single blossom of the common _monarda fistulosa_, that the difference of the two may be rendered obvious. this variety has been very lately introduced from holland, by messrs. grimwood and co. kensington; it flowers from june to september, and is propagated by parting its roots in spring or autumn. [146] hypericum calycinum. large-flower'd st. john's-wort. _class and order._ polyadelphia polyandria. _generic character._ _calyx_ 5-partitus. _petala_ 5. _filamenta_ multa, in 5 phalanges basi connata. _capsula._ _specific character and synonyms._ hypericum _calycinum_ floribus pentagynis solitariis terminalibus, caule tetragono fruticoso, foliis oblongo-ovatis coriaceis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. 700. mant. 106._ _hort. kew. v. 3. 103._ ascyrum magno flore. _bauh. pin. 280. prodr. 130._ androsæmum constantinopolitanum flore maximo. _wheler's journey into greece, p. 205. cum fig._ [illustration: no 146] this species of st. john's-wort, particularly distinguished by the largeness of its flowers, has very generally been considered as the _ascyron_ of linnæus, owing to his giving to that plant the synonyms which properly belong to the present one: in his _mantissa_, this species is called _calycinum_, which name is adopted in the 14th edition of the _systema vegetabilium_, and also in the _hortus kewensis_, where the proper synonyms are applied to it, and from which we learn, that it is a native of the country near constantinople, and was introduced into this country by sir george wheler, bart. in 1676. it is a hardy perennial, increasing much by its roots, which are of the creeping kind, and by parting of which in the autumn it is most readily propagated; like the periwinkle, it is a plant well adapted to cover a bank, or bare, spots under trees, where other plants will not thrive. it flowers from july to september. [147] dais cotinifolia. cotinus-leav'd dais. _class and order._ decandria monogynia. _generic character._ involucrum 4-phyllum. _cor._ 4 s. 5-fida. bacca 1-sperma. _specific character and synonyms._ dais _cotinifolia_ floribus quinquefidis decandris. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 403._ _spec. pl. p. 556._ dais _laurifolia_. _jacq. ic. collect. 1. p. 46._ [illustration: no 147] the _dais cotinifolia_ is an ornamental green-house shrub, of the deciduous kind, and though it appears from the _hortus kewensis_ to have been introduced by mr. james gordon, of mile-end, in 1776, is yet a great rarity with us, and only to be found in some of the first collections. its scarcity, and consequent very high price, is attributed to the nursery-men's not having yet discovered the means of propagating it freely. messrs. grimwood and co. of kensington, have some very fine plants of it, which flower every year in the months of june and july, but as yet have produced no perfect seeds, which they may be expected to do when grown older; such having been known to ripen them in holland. it is a native of the cape, and appears to have been long possessed by the dutch, as its generic character taken from d. v. royen, is printed in the genera plantarum of linnæus in 1764. there are only two known species, and they vary in the number of their stamina, and divisions of the corolla. [148] pelargonium betulinum. birch-leav'd crane's-bill. _class and order._ monadelphia heptandria. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-partitus: lacinia suprema definente in tubulum capillarem nectariferum, secus pedunculum decurrentem. _cor._ 5-petala, irregularis. _filamenta_ 10, inæqualia: quorum 3 (raro 5) castrata. _fructus_ 5-coccus, rostratus: rostra spiralia, introrsum barbata. _l'herit. geran._ _specific character and synonyms._ pelargonium _betulinum_ umbellis paucifloris, foliis ovatis inæqualiter serratis lævigatis. _l'herit. n. 84._ geranium _betulinum_ calycibus monophyllis, foliis ovatis inæqualiter serratis planis, caule fruticoso. _linn. sp. pl. p. 946._ _burm. ger. 38._ geranium fruticosum, betulæ folio, africanum. _raii suppl. 513._ [illustration: no 148] though long since described, we have been in possession of this species of crane's-bill but a few years; it is one of the many new ones introduced by mr. masson from the cape, and at the same time one of the most desirable, as its blossoms which are ornamental, are freely produced during most of the summer, and the plant itself is readily propagated by cuttings. the flowers vary considerably, both in size, and colour; its foliage is different from that of most others, and, as its name imports, like that of the birch-tree. it requires the same treatment as most other green-house plants. [149] zinnia multiflora. many-flowered zinnia. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia superflua. _generic character._ _recept._ paleaceum. _pappus_ aristis 2 erectis. _cal._ ovato-cylindricus, imbricatus. _flosculi_ radii 5-10, persistentes, integri. _specific character and synonyms._ zinnia _multiflora_ floribus pedunculatis. _linn. syst. veg. ed. 14. murr. p. 777._ [illustration: no 149] the _zinnia, multiflora_, a native of louisania, is a plant of more modern introduction, but requires the same treatment, and flowers at the same time, as the _tagetes patula_, with which, though far inferior in brilliancy of colour, it contributes to decorate the borders of the flower-garden from june to september. there is a variety of it with yellow flowers, nearly as common in our gardens as the present plant. linnæus gave to this genus the name of zinnia, in honour of joh. gottfr. zinn, the pupil of haller, and his successor at the university of gottingen. the plant we have figured, answers to the name and to the specific description of linnæus's _multiflora_; having never seen his _pauciflora_, we cannot say whether there be any just cause for suspecting them to be varieties of each other. [150] tagetes patula. spreading tagetes, or french marigold. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia superflua. _generic character._ _receptaculum_ nudum. _pappus_ aristis 5 erectis. _cal._ 1-phyllus, 5-dentatus, tubulosus. flosculi radii 4-8, persistentes. _specific character and synonyms._ tagetes _patula_ caule subdiviso patulo. _linn. syst. veg. ed. 14. murr. 228._ tanacetum africanum flos africanus minor. _bauh. pin. 132._ flos africanus. _dod. pempt. 255._ the small single french marigold. _park. par. p. 304._ [illustration: no 150] for richness and variety of tints few flowers can vie with this species of tagetes, which forms one of the chief ornaments of our gardens at the close of summer. some authors make it a native of africa, others of america. two principal varieties are usually kept in the gardens, the common small sort with a strong disagreeable smell, and a larger one here figured, usually called sweet-scented, the former is of more humble growth, its branches more spreading, its blossoms smaller than those of the latter, the flowers of which have usually a greater portion of the yellow tint, and the smell of the other so modified as to be far less disagreeable; sweet-scented we fear it can scarcely be called: from the seed of both sorts some flowers will be produced extremely double, and others single. miller recommends the seed to be frequently changed, to prevent them from degenerating. it is one of our tender annuals which require to be raised on a gentle hot-bed, if we are desirous of having them early; if that be not an object, they may be sown under a common hand-glass on a warm border the beginning of may, and, when large enough, planted out in the flower-beds, where they are to remain. dodonæus observes, that the leaves, if held up to the light, appear as if perforated; and he adduces some instances, which prove the plant to be of a poisonous nature. [151] lotus tetragonolobus. winged lotus. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _legumen_ cylindricum strictum. _alæ_ sursum longitudinaliter conniventes. _cal._ tubulosus. _specific character and synonyms._ lotus _tetragonolobus_ leguminibus solitariis membranaceo-quadrangulis, bractæis ovatis. _linn. syst. vegetab, p. 691._ _ait. hort. kew. p. 91._ lotus ruber siliqua angulosa. _bauh. pin. 332._ lotus pulcherrima tetragonolobus. _comm. hort. 91. t. 26._ pisum quadratum, the crimson-blossom'd or square-codded pease. _park. parad. p. 338._ [illustration: no 151] a common annual in our gardens, where it has been long cultivated; is a native of sicily, and flowers in the open borders in july and august; requires the same management as other hardy annuals. miller observes, that it was formerly cultivated as an esculent plant, the green pods being dressed and eaten as peas. [152] epidendrum cochleatum. two-leav'd epidendrum. _class and order._ gynandria diandria. _generic character._ nectarium turbinatum, obliquum, reflexum. _specific character and synonyms._ epidendrum _cochleatum_ foliis oblongis geminis glabris striatis bulbo innatis, scapo multifloro, nectario cordato. _linn. syst. vegetab, ed. 14. murr. p. 819._ _ait. hort. kew. v. 3. p. 303._ helleborine cochleato flore. _plum. sp. 9. u. 185. fig. 2._ [illustration: no 152] plants which draw their support from other living ones, of which there are numerous instances, are by botanists termed parasitical, and of this kind are most of the present family; deriving their generic name, which is of greek extraction, from growing on trees, into the bark of which they fix their roots; some of them are also found to grow on dead wood, as the present plant, which is described by sir hans sloane, in his history of jamaica, _v. 1. p. 250. t. 121. f. 2._ as not only growing plentifully on trees, but also on the palisadoes of st. jago de la vega. instances of these plants flowering in england are very rare; commodore gardner, in the year 1789, presented to the apothecaries company some roots of this plant, taken up in the woods of jamaica with great care, and which being successfully treated by mr. fairbairn in their garden at chelsea, one of them threw up a flowering stem last february, from whence our drawing was made. mr. fairbairn planted the roots in pots of earth, composed of rotten wood and decayed leaves, plunging them into the tan-bed of a pit of considerable size. in its fructification, the epidendrum obviously agrees with the orchis tribe, but differs essentially in the oeconomy of its roots; in the orchis the roots spring from the crown of the bulb, which is formed in the earth; in the epidendrum the bulb, or the part which appears to be analogous to a bulb, though of a green colour, is produced above ground, while the roots or fibres proceed from below it. [153] bulbocodium vernum. vernal bulbocodium. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ infundibuliformis, hexapetala: unguibus angustis staminiferis. _capsula_ supera. _specific character and synonyms._ bulbocodium _vernum_ foliis lanceolatis. _linn. syst. veg. ed. 14. murr. p. 320._ _ait. hort. kew. v. 1. p. 421._ _retz. obs. bot. fasc. 2. t. 1._ colchicum vernum hispanicum. _bauh. pin. 69._ medowe saffron of the spring. _park. parad. p. 158-159. f. 7._ [illustration: no 153] the excellent and learned clusius, in the second appendix to his history of rare plants, gives a very good figure of this plant, both in flower and seed, accompanied with its history; our parkinson also represents it in his _parad. terr._ and gives such a minute description of it, as convinces us he must have cultivated it at the time he wrote: mr. miller appears not to have been well acquainted with it, or he would not have described its root to be like that of the snowdrop; had he said colchicum, he would not have misled: retzius also in his bot. obs. gives a figure of it with the flower dissected. the _bulbocodium_, of which there is only one species, is a mountainous plant, a native of spain, and flowers in the open ground at the same time as the crocus, for a purple variety of which it might easily be mistaken at first sight; but it differs from the crocus in having six stamina, and from the colchicum, to which it is very nearly allied, in having one style instead of three. it is at present a rare plant in our gardens, which we attribute to its bulbs not admitting of much increase, as well as to its being liable to be killed by frost, and hence requiring more care than it may be thought entitled to from its appearance. it varies in the colour of its flowers. [154] saponaria ocymoides, basil soap-wort. _class and order._ decandria digynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 1-phyllus, nudus. _petala_ 5 unguiculata. _caps._ oblonga 1-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ saponaria _ocymoides_ calycibus cylindricis villosis, caulibus dichotomis procumbentibus. _linn. syst. veg. ed. 14. murr._ _jacq. fl. austr. v. 5. app. t. 23._ _ait. hort. kew. v. 2. p. 87._ lychnis vel ocymoides repens montanum. _bauh. pin. 206._ [illustration: no 154] the _saponaria ocymoides_ has been figured in the appendix to the fifth volume of the _flora austriaca_ in its wild state, as in similar works every plant is expected to be; our figure represents a branch of it only, taken (as all ours in this work professedly are) from a garden specimen which grew on a wall of a particular construction in our garden at brompton, and of which it was the principal ornament through the months of may, june, and july, during most of which time it was covered with a profusion of bloom[1]. though it produces blossoms in abundance, it affords but little seed, but may be increased by slips or cuttings. it is a hardy perennial, a native of france, italy, switzerland, and carinthia, loves a pure air and a dry situation[2], grows best among rocks, stones, or out of a wall, and certainly is one of the best plants imaginable for ornamenting of rock-work. i received seeds of it, and many other rare plants, from my very kind friend mr. daval, of orbe, in switzerland. [155] oxalis versicolor. striped-flower'd wood-sorrel. _class and order._ decandria pentagynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-phyllus. _petala_ unguibus connexa. _caps._ angulis dehiscens, 5-gona. _specific character and synonyms._ oxalis _versicolor_ caule erecto hirto, pedunculis unifloris, foliis ternatis: foliolis linearibus callosis. _linn. syst. veg. ed. 14. murr. p. 114. p. 434._ _ait. hort. kew. v. 2. p. 114._ oxys africana foliis tenuissimis, flore amplo versicolore. _pluk. amalth. 169. t. 434. f. 5._ oxys africana foliis tenuissimis in summitate caulis. _raii suppl. 598._ [illustration: no 155] the _oxalis-versicolor_ is considered as one of the most beautiful of the many species cultivated in gardens; and, though well known to, and described by several of the older botanists, has graced our collections but a few years, being introduced to the royal garden at kew, from the cape (where, as well as in ethiopia, it grows spontaneously) by mr. masson, in the year 1774. many of this genus flower early in the spring, the season in which this species also puts forth its blossoms, but by dexterous management it may be made to flower during most of the year; and this is effected by placing the pea-like tubera or knobs which the root sends forth, and by which the plant is propagated, in pots filled with loam and bog-earth at stated distant periods. like most of the cape plants, it is well adapted to the greenhouse, and succeeds best when placed on a front shelf of the house, where it can have plenty of light and air; some keep it in the stove, but there the plant is drawn up, and the flowers lose a part of their brilliancy: in no situation do they ever expand but when the sun shines on them; this is the less to be regretted, as they are most beautiful when closed. [156] coreopsis verticillata. whorled coreopsis. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia frustranea. _generic character._ _receptaculum_ paleaceum. _pappus_ bicornis. _calyx_ erectus, polyphyllus, basi radiis patentibus cinctus. _specific character and synonyms._ coreopsis _verticillata_ foliis decomposito-linearibus. _linn. syst. veg. ed. 14. murr. p. 782._ coreopsis foliis verticillatis linearibus multifidis. _gronov. fl. virgin. p. 131._ delphinii vel mei foliis planta ad nodos positis caule singulari. _clayt. n. 308._ [illustration: no 156] the _coreopsis verticillata_ is a hardy, perennial, herbaceous plant, a native of north-america; producing its blossoms, which are uncommonly shewy, from july to october, and is readily propagated by parting its roots in autumn. it grows to a great height, and is therefore rather adapted to the shrubbery than the flower-garden. clayton remarks, that the petals, though of a yellow colour, are used by the inhabitants to dye cloth red. [157] hyacinthus botryoides. grape hyacinth. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ campanulata: _pori_ 3 melliferi germinis. _specific character and synonyms._ hyacinthus _botryoides_ corollis globosis uniformibus, foliis canaliculato-cylindricis strictis. _linn. syst. veget. ed. 14. murr. p. 336._ _aiton hort. kew. v. 1. p. 459._ hyacinthus _racemosus_ cæruleus major. _bauh. pin. 42._ hyacinthus botroides cæruleus amoenus. the skie-coloured grape-flower. _park. par. p. 114. p. 113. f. 5._ [illustration: no 157] the _hyacinthus botryoides_, a native of italy, and cultivated in the time of gerard and parkinson, is now become scarce with us, being only to be accidentally met with in long-established gardens; we first saw it in the garden of our very worthy and much valued friend, mr. john chorley, of tottenham, to whose lady my collection stands indebted for several rare and valuable plants. this species increases sufficiently fast by offsets, but in the open border does not very readily produce flowering stems: as both it and the _racemosus_ are apt to become troublesome in a garden from their great increase, we would recommend their bulbs to be placed in moderately sized pots filled with light earth, and plunged in the borders where they are designed to flower; in the autumn they should be regularly taken out, the offsets thrown away, and about half a dozen of the largest bulbs left, all of which will most probably flower at the usual time, the end of march or beginning of april. parkinson, who most admirably describes this and the _racemosus_, enumerates three varieties, viz. the _white_, the _blush-coloured_, and the _branched_; the first is frequently imported with other bulbs from holland, the second and third we have not seen; the latter, if we may judge from parkinson's _fig._ in his _parad._ is a most curious plant, and was obtained, as clusius reports, from seeds of the white variety; whether it now exists is deserving of inquiry. the _botryoides_ differs from the _racemosus_, in having its leaves upright, its bunch of flowers smaller, the flowers themselves larger, rounder, of a paler and brighter blue. [158] hibiscus rosa sinensis. china-rose hibiscus. _class and order._ monadelphia polyandria. _generic character._ _calyx_ duplex, exterior polyphyllus. _capsula_ 5-locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ hibiscus _rosa sinensis_ foliis ovatis acuminatis serratis, caule arboreo. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 629._ _ait. hort. kew. p. 629._ alcea javanica arborescens, flore pleno rubicundo. _breyn. cent. 121. t. 56._ hibiscus _javanica_. _mill. dict. ed. 6. 4to._ by whom cultivated in 1731. [illustration: no 158] rumphius in his _herbarium amboinense_ gives an excellent account of this beautiful native of the east-indies, accompanied by a representation of it with double flowers, in which state it is more particularly cultivated in all the gardens in india, as well as china; he informs us that it grows to the full size of our hazel, and that it varies with white flowers. the inhabitants of india, he observes, are extremely partial to whatever is red, they consider it as a colour which tends to exhilarate; and hence they not only cultivate this plant universally in their gardens, but use its flowers on all occasions of festivity, and even in their sepulchral rites: he mentions also an oeconomical purpose to which the flowers are applied, little consistent with their elegance and beauty, that of blacking shoes, whence their name of _rosæ calceolariæ_; the shoes, after the colour is imparted to them, are rubbed with the hand, to give them a gloss, and which thereby receives a blueish tinge, to discharge which they have recourse to lemon juice. with us it is kept in the stove, where it thrives and flowers readily during most of the summer; the single blossoms last but a short time, yet their superiority arising from the curious and beautiful structure of the interior parts of the flower, compensates for the shortness of their duration. it is usually increased by cuttings. [159] alyssum saxatile. yellow alyssum. _class and order._ tetradynamia siliculosa. _generic character._ _filamenta_ quædam introrsum denticulo notata. _silicula_ emarginata. _specific character and synonyms._ alyssum _saxatile_ caulibus frutescentibus paniculatis, foliis lanceolatis mollissimis repandis. _linn. syst. veg, ed. 14. murr. p. 590._ _ait. hort. kew. p. 381._ alyssum creticum saxatile, foliis undulatis incanis. _tourn. cor. 15._ thlaspi luteum leucoji folio. _bocc. muf. 79. t. 93._ [illustration: no 159] as this plant has very generally obtained in gardens and nurseries the name of yellow alyssum, we have retained it; for though it is not the only one of the genus which produces yellow flowers, it may still be called yellow by way of eminence, such is the extreme brilliancy and profusion of its blossoms. it is a native of crete, and was first cultivated in this country by mr. miller, in 1731[3], at chelsea garden. it begins to flower about the latter end of april, and continues to blossom through great part of may; and it is not uncommon for it to flower again in autumn. if it has a pure air and a dry situation, it will grow in almost any soil. the usual mode of propagating it is by slips, or cuttings. as it is a small, shewy, hardy plant, and not disposed to over-run others, it is very suitable to embellish rock-work. [160] pulmonaria virginica. virginia lungwort. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ infundibuliformis fauce pervia. _calyx_ prismatico-pentagonus. _specific character and synonyms._ pulmonaria _virginica_ calycibus abbreviatis, foliis lanceolatis obtusiusculis. _linn. syst. veg. ed. 14. murr. p. 187._ pulmonaria non maculosa, floribus tubulosis longis pulcherrimis cæruleis, in panicula pendula congestis, foliis teneribus glabris latis obtusis, ad margines æqualibus, pediculis dilute purpureis infidentibus, radice crassa instar symphyti. mountain cowslip. _clayt. gron. fl. virg. p. 25._ [illustration: no 160] miller informs us in his dictionary, that the _pulmonaria virginica_ grows naturally upon mountains in most parts of north-america, that the seeds were sent many years since by mr. banister, from virginia; and some of the plants were raised in the garden of the bishop of london, at fulham, where for several years it was growing. though a native of virginia, it ranks with the hardy herbaceous plants of our gardens, and flowers in the open border about the middle of april; the blossoms before their expansion are of a reddish purple colour, when fully blown they become of a light bright blue, the foliage is glaucous, or blueish green; it is said to vary with white and flesh-coloured flowers. in favourable seasons, the flower-garden owes much of its gaiety to this elegant plant, and at a time when ornament is most desirable. it requires a pure air, and a situation moderately sheltered, as the cold easterly winds which too readily prevail in april, when it is in flower, are apt to deface it. it is usually propagated by parting its roots in autumn, and is a free grower. [161] amygdalus nana. dwarf almond. _class and order._ icosandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-fidus, inferus. _petala_ 5. drupa nuce poris perforata. _specific character and synonyms._ amygdalus _nana_ foliis basi attenuatis. _linn. syst. veg. ed. 14. murr. p. 162._ _pallas. ross. 1. p. 12. t. 6._ amygdalus indica nana. _pluk. alm. 28. t. 11. f. 3._ armeniaca persicæ foliis, fructu exsucco. _amm. ruth. 273. t. 30._ [illustration: no 161] the dwarf almond, a native of russia and tartary, is justly considered as one of our most ornamental shrubs; it rarely rises above the height of three feet, and hence becomes very suitable for the shrubbery of small extent. it flowers about the middle of april, somewhat later than the common almond. miller observes, that the roots are apt to put out suckers, by which the plant may be increased in plenty; and if those are not annually taken away, they will starve the old plant. cultivated in 1683, by mr. james sutherland. _ait. hort. kew._ [162] sanguinaria canadensis. canada puccoon, or bloodwort. _class and order._ polyandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ 8-petala. _cal._ 2-phyllus. siliqua ovata, 1-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ sanguinaria _canadensis_. _linn. syst. veg. ed. 14. murr. p. 489._ chelidonium majus canadense acaulon. _corn. canad. 212._ ranunculus virginiensis albus. _park. theat. 226._ sanguinaria flore simplici. _dill. elth. t. 252._ [illustration: no 162] though the sanguinaria cannot be considered as a handsome shewy plant, yet we scarcely know its equal in point of delicacy and singularity; there is something in it to admire, from the time that its leaves emerge from the ground, and embosom the infant blossom, to their full expansion, and the ripening of its seed vessels. the woods of canada, as well as of other parts of north-america, produce this plant in abundance with us it flowers in the beginning of april: its blossoms are fugacious, and fully expand only in fine warm weather. it is a hardy perennial, and is usually propagated by parting its roots in autumn; a situation moderately shady, and a soil having a mixture of bog-earth or rotten leaves in it suits it best. its knobby roots, when broken asunder, pour forth a juice of a bright red or orange colour, whence its name of sanguinaria: with this liquid the indians are said to paint themselves. dillenius, has figured it in his admirable work, the hortus elthamensis, where three varieties of it are represented, viz. a large one, a small one, and one in which the petals are multiplied, but which can scarcely be called double. it appears from morison[4], that the sanguinaria was cultivated in this country in 1680, the date of his work. [163] phlox divaricata. early-flowering lychnidea. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ hypocrateriformis. _filamenta_ inæqualia. _stigma_ 3-fidum. _cal._ prismaticus. _caps._ 3-locularis, i-sperma. _specific character and synonyms._ phlox _divaricata_ foliis lato-lanceolatis: superioribus alternis, caule bifido, pedunculis geminis. _linn. syst. vegetab, p. 199._ _ait. hort. kew. p. 206._ lychnidea virginiana, alsines aquaticæ foliis, floribus in ramulis divaricatis. _pluk. mant. 121?_ [illustration: no 163] most of the plants of this genus are natives of north-america, and remarkable for their beauty; they were first introduced under the name of _lychnidea_, which, though a latin term, is now familiarized to the english ear. mr. aiton has given to this species the name of early-flowering, it coming much sooner into blossom than any of the others, beginning to flower in may with the yellow alyssum; its blossoms, however, are not of so long duration, nor so ornamental as some others of the same family. it seldom exceeds a foot in height, and, on this account, may be regarded as a suitable rock-plant. it rarely ripens its seeds with us, but is readily increased either by cuttings or layers; succeeds best in a pure air and a situation moderately dry. like most other american plants, it is of modern introduction, was cultivated by mr. miller, in 1758, and figured in his icones. [164] ranunculus gramineus. grass-leaved crowfoot. _class and order._ polyandria polygnia. _generic character._ _calyx_ 5-phyllus. _petala_ 5 intra ungues poro mellifero. _semina_ nuda. _specific character and synonyms._ ranunculus _gramineus_ foliis lanceolato linearibus indivisis, caule erecto lævissimo paucifloro. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 515._ _ait. hort. kew. p. 265._ ranunculus gramineo folio bulbosus. _bauh. pin. 181?_ ranunculus montanus folio gramineo. _bauh. pin. 180._ ranunculus gramineus. grasse leafed crowfoot. _park. parad. p. 218. 221. f. i._ [illustration: no 164] this species of ranunculus, an inhabitant of the dry pastures south of france and italy, and a hardy herbaceous plant of ready growth, recommends itself by the earliness of its flowering and the delicate glaucous colour of its foliage. parkinson figures it with double flowers, though he describes it with semi-double ones only; we have not observed either of these varieties in the gardens about london, they have most probably fallen victims to the rage for novelty, at the shrine of which many a fair and goodly flower is yearly sacrificed. it flowers towards the end of april, and is propagated by parting its roots in autumn. the synonyms of this and other species of ranunculus described in gerard's _fl. gallopr._ are very inaccurately quoted in professor murray's edition of the _syst. vegetab._ [165] pelargonium cordifolium. heart-leaved geranium. _class and order._ monadelphia heptandria. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-partitus: lacinia suprema, definente in tubulum capilarem, nectariferum, secus pedunculum decurrentem. _cor._ 5-petala, irregularis. _filam_. 10 inæqualia: quorum 3. (raro 5) castrata. _fructus_ 5-coccus, rostratus: rostra spiralia introrsum barbata. _specific character and synonyms._ pelargonium _cordatum_ umbellis multifloris, foliis cordatis acutis dentatis, petalis inferis linearibus acutis. _ait. hort. kew. p. 427._ geranium _cordifolium_. _cavan. diss. p. 240. t. 117. f. 3._ [illustration: no 165] our readers are here presented with the figure of another geranium of modern introduction, not enumerated by linnæus or miller, and which in point of beauty, duration of flowering, and facility of culture, is equal to most. it was introduced to the royal garden, at kew, from the cape, by mr. masson, in 1774. there are several varieties of it, but the one here figured is the most beautiful. it strikes readily from cuttings, by which it is usually propagated. requires the same treatment as the more common geraniums, and flowers, from march to july. [166] cheiranthus maritimus. mediterranean stock. _class and order._ tetradynamia siliquosa. _generic character._ _germen_ utrinque denticulo glandulato. _cal._ clausus: foliolis duobus basi gibbis. _semina_ plana. _specific character and synonyms._ cheiranthus _maritimus_ foliis ellipticis obtusis nudis scabriusculis, caule diffuso scabro. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. 597._ _mantiss. p. 568._ _ait. hort. kew. v. 2. p. 395._ leucojum minus flore violaceo. _barr. ic. 1127._ [illustration: no 166] linnæus has described this plant minutely in his _mantissa plant_, so that no doubt remains of its being his _maritimus_. with us, it has been customary for gardeners and nurserymen to distinguish this species by the name of virginia stock, a name highly improper, as it is found to be a native of the mediterranean coast. the blossoms which this plant first puts forth are of a lively red, in a few days they become of a blueish purple colour; to this variety of hues the plant owes its chief beauty. being of humble growth, and producing a profusion of bloom, which is of long duration, it is frequently used as an edging to borders, and sometimes sown in little patches with other annuals; in whatever way used, it contributes greatly to enliven the borders of the flower-garden. it is one of those annuals whose seeds should be sown in the autumn, as it thereby comes much forwarder into bloom, and its blossoms are more lively than those arising from seeds sown in the spring; by varying the time of sowing, it may be had to flower in spring, summer, and autumn. small pots of it in bloom have a pretty appearance, and may be used to decorate the windows of those who reside in cities or great towns, where the pleasures of the garden are not to be enjoyed. [167] sophora tetraptera. winged-podded sophora. _class and order._ decandria monogynia. _generic character._ _calyx_ 5-dentatus, superne gibbus. _cor._ papilionacea: alis-longitudine vexilli. _legumen._ _specific character and synonyms._ sophora _tetraptera_ foliis pinnatis foliolis numerosis (17--19) lanceolato-oblongis villosiusculis: leguminibus membranaceo-quadrangulis, caule arboreo. _ait. hort. kew. p. 43._ sophora _tetraptera_. _job. miller ic. tab. 1._ [illustration: no 167] the magnificent and highly curious species of sophora here represented, is one of the many plants discovered by sir joseph banks at new-zealand, where it forms a tree of a considerable size. a finer sight can scarcely be imagined than a tree of this sort, extending to a great breadth on a wall with a western aspect, in the apothecaries garden at chelsea, where it was planted by mr. forsyth about the year 1774, and which at this moment (april 28, 1791) is thickly covered with large pendulous branches of yellow, i had almost said golden flowers; for they have a peculiar richness, which it is impossible to represent in colouring; in the winter care is taken to cover it carefully with mats, least it should suffer from any extraordinarily severe weather. it usually produces a few seed vessels of an uncommon form, having four wings, whence its name of _tetraptera_; from some of the seeds which have ripened in this country plants have been raised, and by these the plant is found to be propagated with the most success; it may also be increased by cuttings and layers. [168] iris pavonia. peacock iris. _class and order._ triandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ 6-petala inæqualis, _petalis_ alternis geniculato-patentibus, _stigmata_ petaliformia; cucullato-bilabiata. _specific character and synonyms._ iris _pavonia_ imberbis folio lineari glabro, scapo subunifloro. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. 92._ [illustration: no 168] we have our doubts whether the plant here figured be the _pavonia_ of the _systema vegetabilium_, as it does not accord so well with the description there given, as we could wish; as such however it has been regarded by some here, and it must be allowed to answer extremely well to the name. it is a small delicate iris, about a foot and a half high, with very narrow leaves, bearing on the top of the stalk one or at most two flowers, three of the petals are large and white, with a brilliant blue spot at the base of each, edged on the outer side with deep purple; the delicacy of the flower, and the eye-like spot at the base of three of the petals, render at one of the most striking plants of the genus. the figure here given was drawn from a plant which flowered with messrs. grimwood and co. last june, who received it from holland, and treat it in the same way as their cape bulbs, of which country it is said to be a native. it is not mentioned either in mr. miller's _gardener's dictionary_, or the _hortus kewensis_. [169] ixora coccinea. scarlet ixora. _class and order._ tetrandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ 1-petala, infundibuliformis, longa, supera, _stamina_ supra faucem. _bacca_ 4-sperma. _specific character and synonyms._ ixora _coccinea_ foliis ovalibus semiamplexicaulibus, floribus fasciculatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr._ _ait. hort. kew. p. 148._ jasminum indicum, lauri folio, inodorum umbellatum, floribus coccineis. _pluk. alm. 196. t. 59. s. 2._ cerasus zeylanica humilis sylvestris, floribus holosericeis intense rubris umbellatim congestis, fructibus nigris. _mus. zeyl. p. 15._ flamma sylvarum _rumph. amb. 4. p. 105. t. 46._ [illustration: no 169] it will appear strange, we presume, to most of our readers, when they are informed, that the _ixora coccinea_, a plant at present in few hands, and which a short time since was sold in some of our nurseries for five guineas, should have been known in this country a hundred years ago; and yet mr. aiton, who has so laudably exerted himself, in ascertaining the precise period, when most of the exotics cultivated in the royal garden at kew first made their appearance in great-britain, informs us on very respectable authority, that this plant was introduced by mr. bentick in 1690. there is every reason to suppose, that this splendid exotic did not long survive its introduction; on inquiry, we learn that it was reintroduced about fifteen years ago, by the late dr. john fothergill, a name, to medicine and botany ever dear, in whose rich and magnificent collection at upton was first known to flower; about the same time, the late mr. thoburn, nurseryman at brompton, raised a few ixoras from foreign seeds, and from these (an accident having happened to the plant which was dr. fothergill's) are said to have arisen the plants at present in this country. both rheede and rumphius describe and figure this plant in their respective works, the _hortus malabaricus_ and _herbarium amboinense_; it is mentioned also by several other authors: from their various accounts we discover, that in different parts of india, where it grows wild, it forms a slender shrub, or tree, about six feet high, rising generally with a single stem; that its clusters of flowers, seen from afar are so brilliant as to resemble a burning coal, especially in a dark wood, whence its name of _flamma sylvarum_; that it grows in the woods, and flowers in september and october, producing a black fruit, the size of small cherries, on which the peacocks are supposed to feed, and from whence they have obtained the name of _cerasa pavonina_. the chinese call it _santanhoa_; with them it produces flowers and fruit the year through, and they hold the blossoms in such veneration, as to use them in the sacrifices they make to their idol ixora, whence linnæus has taken the name applied by him to this genus. the root is said to possess some acrimony, and to be made use of by the natives in curing the toothach. it is customary in this country, to treat the _ixora_ as a stove plant; perhaps it may be less tender than we are aware of; it flowers in july and august, but has not been known to produce fruit; is increased from cuttings, without much difficulty. our drawing was taken from a small but very healthy plant in the stove of mr. whitley (late thoburn and whitley, brompton). linnæus describes, and some authors figure this plant with stipulæ, which our plant had not, not being arrived at an age, perhaps, to produce them. [170] draba aizoides. sengreen draba, or whitlow-grass. _class and order._ tetradynamia siliculosa. _generic character._ _silicula_ integra, ovali-oblonga: valvis planiusculis, dissepimento parallelis. _stylus_ nullus. _specific character and synonyms._ draba _aizoides_ scapo nudo simplici, foliis ensiformibus carinatis ciliatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. murr. p. 372._ _ait. hort. kew. v. 2. p. 372._ sedum alpinum hirsutum luteum. _bauh. pin. 284._ leucojum luteum aizoides montanum. _col. ecphr. 2. p. 62._ [illustration: no 170] the plant here figured, a native of the german alps, is one of those whose beauty cannot be shewn in a small detached piece of it; to be admired, it must be seen in a tuft of some considerable size, which it is much disposed to form when growing among rock-work, for which, like many other small alpine plants, it is well suited; thus elevated above the surface of the ground, the various beauties of this humble race are more distinctly seen, and their curious structure more readily inspected. this species is the more to be esteemed, as it flowers very early in the spring, in march, and the beginning of april, and continues in blossom about six weeks. linnæus originally confounded it with a similar plant, the _draba alpina_, a mistake since rectified in his _mantissa plant. p. 91._ [171] ixia chinensis. chinese ixia. _class and order._ triandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ 6-partita, campanulata, regularis. _stigmata_ 3. _specific character and synonyms._ ixia _chinensis_ foliis ensiformibus; floribus remotis, panicula dichotoma, floribus pedunculatis. _linn. sp. pl. v. i. p. 52._ _ait. hort. kew. v. i. p. 62._ moræa _chinensis_ caule compresso, foliis ensiformibus, panicula dichotoma, floribus pedunculatis. _murr. syst. vegetab. p. 93._ [illustration: no 171] in that elaborate and inestimable work, the _hortus malabaricus_, we have a good figure of the plant here exhibited, accompanied by a minute description; the author informs us that it grows spontaneously in india, attaining the height even of five or six feet, and affecting a sandy soil; the natives consider it as an antidote to poisons in general, and regard the bruised root as peculiarly efficacious in curing the bite of the serpent, called cobra de copella. we raised plants of it last year from seeds imparted to us by j. ibbettson, esq. of the admiralty; this year, during the months of august and september, many of them have flowered, and capsules are forming which have every appearance of producing perfect seeds; the root of this plant is yellow, and tuberous like that of the iris, the leaves also greatly resemble those of that tribe, it grows to the height of about three feet, and produces a considerable number of flowers in succession each of which is of short duration. the root and radical leaves as represented on the plate are much smaller than in plants which have been long established. our plants stood in pots in the open ground through the winter of 1790-1 without injury, but it must be remembered, that the weather during that period was uncommonly mild; it will be safest therefore to consider it as a tender herbaceous plant. it differs so much in its fructification from many others of the genus, that prof. murray has considered it as a _moræa_, with which, in our humble opinion, it has scarcely any affinity. [172] lamium orvala. balm-leaved archangel, or dead-nettle. _class and order._ didynamia gymnospermia. _generic character._ _corollæ_ labium superius integrum, fornicatum; lab. infer. 2-lobum; faux utrinque margine dentata. _specific character and synonyms._ lamium _orvala_ foliis cordatis inæqualiter arguteque serratis, corollis fauce inflata, caulibus coloratis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 534._ lamium maximum sylvaticum alterum. _bauh. pin. 231._ galeopsis maxima pannonica. _clus. hist. 2. p. 35._ hungary dead-nettle, or the dragon flower. _park. parad. p. 385._ [illustration: no 172] few of the plants of this genus have been thought to possess sufficient beauty for the flower-garden, the present one excepted, the magnificence of whose blossoms justly entitles it to rank with the more curious, if not the most beautiful of the vegetable tribes. though not common in our gardens, it has long been introduced, having been cultivated and accurately described, though badly figured, by parkinson in his _parad. terr._ it grows spontaneously in the woods of italy and hungary, and flowers with us about the latter end of april, at which time, if cold winds prevail, it is apt to be injured, unless placed in a sheltered part of the garden. it may be propagated either by seeds, or by parting its roots in autumn, is a hardy plant and grows readily. [173] aitonia capensis. cape aitonia. _class and order._ monadelphia octandria. _generic character._ monogyna. _cal._ 4-partitus. _cor._ 4-petala. _bacca_ sicca, 4-angularis, 1-locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ aitonia _capensis_. _linn. suppl. pl. p. 303._ _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 612._ cotyledon foliis linearibus, flore quadrifido, fructu subrotundo. _burm. afric. 53. t. 21. s. 2._ [illustration: no 173] this genus, of which there is only one known species, has been named by the younger linnæus, in honour of mr. william aiton, author of the _hortus kewensis_, and botanic gardener to his majesty. the great length of time[5], mr. aiton has been engaged in the cultivation of plants, the immense numbers which have been the constant objects of his care through every period of their growth, joined to his superior discernment, give him a decided superiority in the _prima facie_ knowledge of living plants over most botanists the present day; his abilities in the other line of his profession, are displayed in the eulogies of all who have seen the royal collection at kew, which he has the honour to superintend. the aitonia is a native of the cape, and was introduced by mr. masson, in the year 1774. it is a greenhouse shrub of slow growth, seldom exceeding three feet in height; producing, when of sufficient age, flowers and fruit through most of the year; the fruit is a large dry angular berry, of a fine red colour. our drawing was made from a very fine plant, formerly dr. fothergill's, now in the collection of messrs. grimwood and co. kensington. it is only to be raised from seeds, which are sparingly produced in this country. [174] buddlea globosa. round-headed buddlea. _class and order._ tetrandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 4-fidus. _cor._ 4-fida. _stamina_ ex incifuris. _caps._ 2-fulca, 2-locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ buddlea _globosa_ foliis lanceolatis, capitulis solitariis. _ait. hort. kew. p. 150. v. 1._ budleja _globosa_. _hope in act. harlem, v. 20. part. 2. p. 417. t. 11._ palquin _feuil. it. 3. p. 51. t. 38._ [illustration: no 174] mr. adam buddle, in honour of whom the present genus has been originally named by dr. houston, was an ingenious english botanist, cotemporary with, and the friend of petiver; his name is often mentioned in the _synopsis_ of mr. ray and his _hortus siccus_, or dried collection of british plants, preserved in the british museum, still resorted to in doubtful cases. the present species not enumerated either by linnæus or miller, is a native of chili, and according to the _hort. kew._ was introduced by messrs. kennedy and lee, in 1774. it has been customary, in consideration of its native place of growth, to treat it here as a greenhouse plant, for which situation it soon becomes unfit from its magnitude; some have ventured to plant it in the open borders in warm sheltered situations, where it has been found to succeed very well, producing its beautiful yellow blossoms in abundance; care must be taken, however, to guard it carefully from severe frosts, which are apt to destroy it. it flowers in may and june, and is usually propagated by cuttings or layers. [175] kalmia latifolia. broad-leav'd kalmia. _class and order._ decandria monogynia. _generic character._ _calyx_ 5-partitus. _cor._ hypocrateriformis: limbo subtus quinquecorni. _caps._ 5-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ kalmia _latifolia_ foliis ovato-ellipticis ternis sparsisque, corymbis terminalibus. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. 64. ed. 14. murr._ _ait. hort. kew. v. 2. p. 64._ andromeda foliis ovatis obtusis, corollis corymbosis infundibuliformis, genitalibus declinatis. _fl. virg. 160._ chamædaphne foliis tini, floribus bullatis. _catesb. car. 11. t. 98._ cistus chamærhododendros mariana laurifolia, floribus expansis, summo ramulo in umbellam plurimis. _pluk. mant. 49. t. 379. s. 6._ the common laurel, vulgarly called ivy. [illustration: no 175] professor kalm (in honour of whom linnæus, as before has been observed, named this genus of plants) in his travels into north-america, published in english by mr. forster, relates that he found this species in various provinces of that extensive continent, as pensylvania, new-jersey, and new-york, growing most commonly on the sides of hills, sometimes in woods; that it flourished most on the northern sides of the hills, especially where they were intersected by rivulets; he observes, that when all the other trees had lost their ornaments, this enlivened the woods by the verdure of its foliage, and that about the month of may, it was covered with a profusion of blossoms of unrivalled beauty. [176] cytisus laburnum. common laburnum. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ 2-labiatus: 2/3. _legumen_ basi attenuatum. _specific character and synonyms._ cytisus _laburnum_ racemis simplicibus pendulis, foliolis ovato-oblongis. _linn. syst. veg. p. 666. ed. 14. murr._ _ait. hort. kew. v. 3. p. 49._ laburnum arbor trifolia anagyridi similis. _bauh. hist. 2. p. 361._ laburnum. beane trefoile. _park. parad. p. 438._ [illustration: no 176] of the laburnum, our nurseries afford two principal varieties, the broad and narrow-leav'd; the latter (which is the one here figured) mr. miller was induced to make a species of under the name of _alpinum_; it certainly differs very materially from the broad-leav'd one, yet is most probably only a seminal variety; the laburnum figured in its wild state by professor jacquin, in his _flora austriaca_, has much broader leaves than ours, no mention is made by him of its being subject to vary. both miller and hanbury recommend the laburnum to be cultivated not only as an ornamental but as a timber tree, the wood having a very close grain, a good colour, and bearing a high polish;[6] they urge in its favour, that it is very hardy, a quick grower, and one that will thrive in almost any soil; the latter says, it will become a timber tree of more than a yard in girt: whatever success may attend its cultivation for the more useful purposes, as a hardy, deciduous, ornamental tree, it has long been the pride of our shrubberies and plantations. it blossoms in may, and is usually very productive of seeds, by which it may be propagated most readily. hares and rabbits being fond of its bark, do great damage to plantations of laburnum, especially in severe weather; i remember somewhere to have read, that these animals will not touch a tree if soot has been placed about it; perhaps, a circle drawn round the base of the tree with the new coal tar, which has a powerful smell of long duration, might keep off these noxious animals. the professor does not mention the precise height which he had observed these trees to attain in north-america, but it is evident that they acquire a considerable thickness, as the wood of the root as well as the body of the tree is manufactured into various utensils by the natives, and by the indians into spoons in particular, whence it has obtained the name of the _spoon tree_. the leaves have been found to prove poisonous to kine, horses, and sheep, but the deer are observed to brouse on them with impunity. peter collinson, esq. who was highly instrumental in enriching this country with the native plants of north-america, is said to have introduced this elegant species about the year 1734. with us it succeeds best when planted with a northern aspect, well sheltered, in a soil composed of loam and bog earth, in a situation moderately moist, where the air is perfectly pure. being with difficulty propagated by suckers or layers, it is most commonly raised from american seeds. [177] kalmia glauca. glaucous kalmia. _specific character and synonyms._ kalmia _glauca_ foliis oppositis oblongis lævigatis, subtus glaucis, margine revolutis, corymbis terminalibus, ramulis ancipitibus. _ait. hort. kew. v. 2. p. 64. tab. 8._ [illustration: no 177] this species (much inferior in size to the _latifolia_, as it rarely exceeds two feet in height) is a native of newfoundland, where it was discovered by sir joseph banks, bart. and by him introduced to this country in the year 1767. it is of course not described by mr. miller, nor is it mentioned the in the 14th edition of linnæus's _syst. vegetab._ by professor murray; in the _hort. kew._ of mr. aiton, it is both described and figured. it flowers in april and may, is propagated in the same manner and requires the same treatment as the _latifolia_. [178] hypericum coris. heath-leav'd. st. john's-wort. _class and order._ polyadelphia polyandria. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-phyllus. _petala_ 5. _nect._ 0. _capsula._ _specific character and synonyms._ hypericum _coris_ floribus trigynis, calycibus serrato-glandulosis, foliis subverticillatis. _linn. syst. veget. ed. 14. murr. p. 702._ coris lutea. _bauh. pin. 280._ coris legitima, ericæ similis. _hon. belli, ep. 1. ad cluj. clus. op. v. 1. p. 299._ coris. _matthioli 939._ [illustration: no 178] there is an elegance and neatness in most of this tribe, and none possess those qualities in a greater degree than the present species, which is a charming little evergreen, admirably adapted for the greenhouse, as it forms a pretty bulb, and flowers during most of the summer. it grows spontaneously in the south of europe, and many parts of the levant; honorius bellus, in his epistle clusius (_vid. clus. op_.) describes it as growing on the hilly parts of the island of crete. mr. lee, of hammersmith, received it about four years since from the crimea. it is propagated by cuttings. [179] fumaria glauca. glaucous fumitory. _class and order._ diadelphia hexandria. _generic character._ _cal._ diphyllus. _cor._ ringens. _filamenta_ 2, membranacea, singula _antheris_ 3. _specific character and synonyms._ fumaria _sempervirens_ siliquis linearibus paniculatis, caule erecto. _linn. sp. pl. v. 2. p. 984. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 837._ _ait. hort. kew. v. 3. p. 2._ bastard fumitory. _mill. dict. ed. 6. 4to._ fumaria siliquosa sempervirens. _corn. canad. 57. t. 57._ [illustration: no 179] the term _sempervirens_ applied to this plant by linnæus, originated in the description given of it by cornutus; (_vid. syn_.) the impropriety of calling an annual plant (for such it undoubtedly is with us, and must be in canada, its native place of growth) an _evergreen_, has appeared to us too glaring to be continued; we have thought the promotion of the science required a change in the name, and have therefore altered it to that of _glauca_, as coinciding with the english name of _glaucous_, given it by mr. aiton in his _hortus kewensis_; for to the delicate, pleasing, glaucous hue of its foliage, it owes its beauty, as much as to the lively colours of its blossoms. it is a hardy annual, coming up spontaneously in the open border where it has once flowered and seeded, and sometimes reaching the height of two feet. it flowers from june to september. mr. aiton informs us of its having been cultivated by mr. james sutherland in the year 1683. strange! that it should yet be a rarity in our gardens. [180] azalea nudiflora _var._ coccinea. scarlet azalea. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ campanulata. _stamina_ receptaculo inferta. _caps._ 1-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ azalea _nudiflora_ foliis ovatis, corollis pilosis, staminibus longissimis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 198._ _ait. hort. kew. v. 1. p. 202._ cistus virginiana, periclymeni flore ampliori minus odorato. _pluck. mant. 49._ [illustration: no 180] whether the variety of the azalea nudiflora here figured, was originally introduced to this country by mrs. norman of bromley in kent, or mr. bewick of clapham in surrey (both celebrated for their collections of american plants) we cannot with certainty assert; true it is, the azalea coccinea was little known here till the sale of mr. bewick's plant in 1722; a considerable number of these shrubs formed the choicest part of that collection, and sold at high prices, one of them produced twenty guineas: prior to this period, mr. bewick had presented one of the same sort of shrubs to mr. thoburn, the fruits of whose skill and assiduous care in the cultivation of american plants are apparent in his late nursery at brompton, now mr. whitley's, and from the produce of which plant our figure was taken. the original species, found abundantly in the more southern parts of north-america, was introduced, according to mr. aiton's account, by peter collinson, esq. about the year 1724. the brilliancy of colour and a happy combination of form, unite in rendering the variety here figured, one of the most beautiful plants in nature: yet it wants the fragrance of some of the varieties of the _viscosa_. it flowers in june and continues in blossom about three weeks, requires a sheltered but not too shady a situation, more dry than moist, and a soil composed of loam and bog earth, or rotten leaves. the usual mode of propagating it is by layers; care must be taken not to remove the offspring too soon from the mother plant. index. in which the latin names of the plants contained in the _fourth volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ 173 aitonia capensis. 159 alyssum saxatile. 161 amygdalus nana. 180 azalea nudiflora _var._ coccinea. 174 buddlea globosa. 153 bulbocodium vernum. 166 cheiranthus maritimus. 156 coreopsis verticillata. 176 cytisus laburnum. 147 dais continifolia. 170 draba aizoides. 152 epidendrum cochleatum. 179 fumaria glauca. 158 hibiscus rosa sinensis. 157 hyacinthus botryoides. 146 hypericum calycinum. 178 hypericum coris. 168 iris pavonia. 171 ixia chinensis. 169 ixora coccinea. 175 kalmia latifolia. 177 kalmia glauca. 172 lamium orvala. 151 lotus tetragonolobus. 145 monarda fistulosa _var._ 155 oxalis versicolor. 165 pelargonium cordifolium. 148 pelargonium betulinum. 163 phlox divaricata. 160 pumonaria virginica. 164 ranunculus gramineus. 162 sanguinaria canadensis. 167 sophora tetraptera. 154 saponaria ocymoides. 150 tagetes patula. 149 zinnia multiflora. index. in which the english names of the plants contained in the _fourth volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ 173 aitonia cape. 161 almond dwarf. 159 alyssum yellow. 172 archangel balm-leav'd. 180 azalea scarlet. 174 buddlea round-headed. 153 bulbocodium vernal. 148 crane's-bill birch-leav'd. 165 crane's-bill heart-leav'd. 164 crowsfoot grass-leav'd. 156 coreopsis whorled. 147 dais continus-leav'd. 170 draba fengreen. 152 epidendrum two-leav'd. 179 fumitory glaucous. 158 hisicus china-rose. 157 hyacinth grape. 168 iris peacock. 171 ixia chinese. 169 ixora scarlet. 175 kalmia broad-leav'd. 177 kalmia glaucous. 176 laburnum common. 151 lotus winged. 160 lungwort virginian. 163 lychnidea early-flowering. 150 marigold french. 145 monarda crimson. 162 puccoon canada. 146 st. john's-wort large-flower'd. 178 st. john's-wort heath-leav'd. 154 soap-wort basil. 167 sophora winged-podded. 166 stock mediterranean. 155 wood-sorrel striped-flower'd. 149 zinnia many-flower'd. * * * * * footnotes [1] pulcherrimos et latissimos in rupibus cespites efficit. _haller._ [2] delectatur solo duro, arenoso, umbroso sylvarum. _jacquin._ [3] _ait. hort. kew._ [4] provenit sponte in america occidentali five in virginia seu canada, unde semen ad nos delata, quibus propagata ejus fobeles abundanter satis in hortulo suburbano gul. walker non longe a palatio divi jacobi, sito in vico ejusdem nominis jacobeo dicto. [5] mr. a. was a pupil of the celebrated mr. miller. [6] matthiolus long since noticed the excellence of this wood, and speaks of it as being particularly used for making the best kind of bows; are our modern toxopholites acquainted with this circumstance? janet blenkinship and the online distributed proofreaders europe at http://dp.rastko.net the ~botanical magazine;~ or, ~flower-garden displayed:~ in which the most ornamental foreign plants, cultivated in the open ground, the green-house, and the stove, are accurately represented in their natural colours. to which are added, their names, class, order, generic and specific characters, according to the celebrated linnæus; their places of growth, and times of flowering: together with the most approved methods of culture. a work intended for the use of such ladies, gentlemen, and gardeners, as wish to become scientifically acquainted with the plants they cultivate. by _william curtis_, author of the flora londinensis. ~vol. iv.~ observe the rising lily's snowy grace, observe the various vegetable race; they neither toil nor spin, but careless grow, yet see how warm they blush! how bright they glow! what regal vestments can with them compare! what king so shining, or what queen so fair. thomson. london: printed by couchman and fry, throgmorton-street. for w. curtis, no 3, _st. george's-crescent_, black-friars-road; and sold by the principal booksellers in great-britain and ireland. m dcc xci. * * * * * [109] lavatera trimestris. annual lavatera. _class and order_. monadelphia polyandria. _generic character._ _calyx_ duplex: exterior 3-fidus. _arilli_ plurimi, monospermi. _specific character and synonyms._ lavatera _trimestris_ caule scabro herbaceo, foliis glabris, pedunculis unifloris, fructibus orbiculo tectis. _linn. sp. pl. 974._ _hort. kew. v. 2. p. 452._ lavatera _(althææfolia)_ foliis infimis cordato-orbiculatis, caulinis trilobis acuminatis glabris, pedunculis unifloris, caule herbaceo. _miller's gard. dict. ed. 6. 4to._ malva folio vario. _bauh. pin. 315._ malva hispanica flore carneo amplo. the spanish blush mallow. _park. parad. p. 366._ [illustration: no 109] our plant is undoubtedly the _spanish blush mallow_ of parkinson, and the _lavatera althææfolia_ of miller according to the former, it is a native of spain, according to the latter, of syria. mr. miller considers it as distinct from the _trimestris_; mr. aiton has no _althææfolia_ in his _hort. kew._ we are therefore to conclude that the _althææfolia_ of miller, and the _trimestris_ of linnæus are one and the same species. of the annuals commonly raised in our gardens, this is one of the most shewy, as well as the most easily cultivated; its seeds are to be sown in march, on the borders where they are to remain, the plants, thinned as they come up, and kept clear of weeds. it varies with white blossoms, and flowers from july to september. [110] mimosa verticillata. whorl'd-leav'd mimosa. _class and order._ polygamia monoecia. _generic character._ hermaphrod. _cal._ 5-dentatus. _cor._ 5-fida. _stam._ 5. f. plura. _pist._ 1. _legumen._ masc. _cal._ 5-dentatus. _cor._ 5-fida. _stam._ 5. 10. plura. _specific character and synonyms._ mimosa _verticillata_ intermis, foliis verticillatis linearibus pungentibus. _l'herit. fert. angl. t. 41._ _hort. kew. p. 438._ [illustration: no 110] the radical leaves of plants usually differ in shape from those of the stalk, in some plants remarkably so; the _lepidium perfoliatum_ figured in the _flora austriaca_ of professor jacquin is a striking instance of this dissimilarity: the _lathyrus aphaca_, a british plant, figured in the _flora lond._ is still more such, as large entire leaf-like stipulæ grow in pairs on the stalk, instead of leaves, while the true leaves next the root, visible when the plant first comes up from seed, are few in number, and those pinnated. the present plant no less admirably illustrates the above remark, the leaves which first appear on the seedling plants being pinnated, as is represented in the small figure on the plate, while those which afterwards come forth grow in whorls. we have observed the same disposition to produce dissimilar leaves in several other species of _mimosa_, which have arisen from botany-bay seeds, lately introduced. this singular species, on the authority of mr. david nelson, is a native of new south wales, and was introduced to the royal garden at kew by sir joseph banks, bart. we first saw it in flower, and have since seen it with ripe seed-pods, at mr. malcolm's, kennington. it is properly a green-house plant, and propagated only by seeds, which are to be sown on a gentle hot-bed. it is some years in arriving at its flowering state. [111] lathyrus tuberosus. tuberous lathyrus, or pease earth-nut. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _stylus_ planus, supra villosus, superne latior. _cal._ laciniæ superiores 2 breviores. _specific character and synonyms._ lathyrus _tuberosus_ pedunculis multifloris, cirrhis diphyllis: foliolis ovalibus, internodiis nudis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 663._ lathyrus arvensis repens tuberosus. _bauh. pin. 344._ lathyrus arvensis sive terræ glandes. pease earth-nuts. _parkins. theat. p. 1061._ [illustration: no 111] grows spontaneously in various parts of france and germany; mr. philip hurlock lately shewed me some dried specimens of this plant, which he gathered in the corn fields, on the _luneburgh heide_, in _upper lusatia_, where it grew plentifully, and afforded a pleasing appearance to the curious traveller:--not so to the husbandman, to whom it is as noxious as the _convolvulus arvensis_ (_small bindweed_) is with us, and equally difficult to extirpate, having powerfully creeping roots, which somewhat like the _helianthus tuberosus_ (commonly called _jerusalem artichoke_) produce large tubera, and which like those of that plant, are in high esteem with some as an article of food, and as such even cultivated abroad. it flowers from june to the end of august. it is certainly a beautiful hardy perennial, similar to (but of more humble growth) than the everlasting pea, yet must be cautiously introduced on account of its creeping roots, by which it is most readily propagated, rarely ripening its seeds with us. it is, perhaps, better suited to decorate the unclip'd hedge of the pleasure-ground, than the border of the flower-garden. [112] cistus ladaniferus. gum cistus. _class and order._ polyandria monognia. _generic character._ _corolla_ 5-petala. _calyx_ 5-phyllus: foliolis duobus minoribus. _capsula_. _specific character and synonyms._ cistus _ladaniferus_ arborescens ex stipulatus, foliis lanceolatis supra lævibus, petiolis basi coalitis vaginantibus. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 497._ cistus ladanifera hispanica incana. _bauh. pin. 467._ cistus ledon. the gum cistus or sweete holly rose. _park. parad. p. 422._ [illustration: no 112] one of the most ornamental hardy shrubs we possess; at once pleasing to the eye, and grateful to the smell; for, as miller observes, the whole plant in warm weather exudes a sweet glutinous substance, which has a very strong balsamic scent, so as to perfume the circumambient air to a great distance. its blossoms, which appear in june and july in great profusion, exhibit a remarkable instance of quickly-fading beauty, opening and expanding to the morning sun, and before night strewing the ground with their elegant remains: as each succeeding day produces new blossoms, this deciduous disposition of the petals, common to the genus, is the less to be regretted. is a native of spain and portugal, prefers a dry soil and warm sheltered situation, and in very severe seasons requires some kind of covering. cultivated 1656, by mr. john tradescant, jun. _ait. hort. kew._ is readily increased from cuttings; but miller remarks, that the best plants are raised from seeds. varies with waved leaves, and in having petals without a spot at the base. is not the plant from whence the ladanum of the shops is produced, though affording in warmer countries than ours a similar gum, hence its name of _ladanifera_ is not strictly proper. [113] convolvulus purpureus. purple bindweed, or convolvulus major. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ campanulata, plicata. _stigmata_ 2. _capsula_ 2-locularis; loculis dispermis. _specific character and synonyms._ convolvulus _purpureus_ foliis cordatis indivisis, fructibus cernuis, pedicellis incrassatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 200._ convolvulus purpureus folio subrotundo. _bauh. pin. 295._ convolvulus cæruleus major rotundifolius. the greater blew bindweede or bell-flower with round leaves. _park. parad. p. 358._ [illustration: no 113] "is an annual plant which grows naturally in asia and america, but has been long cultivated for ornament in the english gardens, and is generally known by the title of convolvulus major. of this there are three or four lasting varieties; the most common hath a purple flower, but there is one with a white, another with a red, and one with a whitish-blue flower, which hath white seeds. all these varieties i have cultivated many years, without observing them to change. if the seeds of these sorts are sown in the spring, upon a warm border where the plants are designed to remain, they will require no other culture but to keep them clear from weeds, and place some tall stakes down by them, for their stalks to twine about, otherwise they will spread on the ground and make a bad appearance. these plants, if they are properly supported, will rise ten or twelve feet high in warm summers: they flower in june, july, and august, and will continue till the frost kills them. their seeds ripen in autumn." _miller's gard. dict. ed. 4to. 1771._ [114] silene pendula. pendulous catchfly. _class and order._ decandria trigynia. _generic character._ calyx ventricosus. petala 5, unguiculata coronata ad faucem, capsula 3-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ silene _pendula_ calycibus fructiferis pendulis inflatis: angulis decem scabris. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 421._ viscago hirsuta sicula, lychnidis aquaticæ facie, supina. _dill. hort. elth. 421. t. 312. f. 404._ [illustration: no 114] grows spontaneously in sicily and crete; is an annual of humble growth, and hence a suitable plant for the borders of the flower garden, or the decoration of rock-work, as its blossoms are shewy, and not of very short duration. it flowers in june and july, and if once permitted to scatter its seeds, will come up yearly without any trouble. [115] lathyrus sativus. blue-flower'd lathyrus, or chichling-vetch. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _stylus_ planus, supra villosus, superne latior. _calycis_ laciniæ superiores 2 breviores. _specific character and synonyms._ lathyrus _sativus_ pedunculis unifloris, cirrhis diphyllis tetraphyllisque, leguminibus ovatis compressis dorso bimarginatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 662._ lathyrus sativus, flore fructusque albo. _bauh. pin. 343._ [illustration: no 115] a native of france, spain, and italy, and distinguishable when in flower by the blue colour of its blossoms, which are sometimes, however, milk-white; but its seed-pods afford a more certain mark of distinction, being unusually short, broad, and winged on the back. this species grows to the height of about two feet, and is usually sown in the spring with other annuals; though not so beautiful, it forms a contrast to the sweet and tangier pea, and may be introduced where there is plenty of room, or a desire of possessing and knowing most of the plants of a genus. it flowers in june and july. cultivated 1739, by mr. philip miller. _ait. hort. kew._ [116] limodorum tuberosum. tuberous-rooted limodorum. _class and order._ gynandria diandria. _generic character._ nectarium monophyllum, concavum, pedicellatum, intra petalum infimum. _specific character and synonyms._ limodorum _tuberosum_ floribus subspicatis barbatis. _ait. hort. kew. p. 301._ [illustration: no 116] for this rare plant i am indebted to the very laudable exertions of a late gardener of mine, james smith, who, in the spring of the year 1788, examining attentively the bog earth which had been brought over with some plants of the _dionæa muscipula_, found several small tooth-like knobby roots, which being placed in pots of the same earth, and plunged into a tan-pit having a gentle heat, produced plants the ensuing summer, two of which flowered, and from the strongest of those our figure was taken. from this circumstance we learn, that this species is a native of south carolina, and properly a bog plant, growing spontaneously with the _dionæa muscipula_. both mr. dryander and dr. j. e. smith assure me, that it is the true _limodorum tuberosum_ of linnæus; the one usually called by that name is a native of the west-indies, and treated as a stove plant. from the little experience we have had of the management of this species, it appears to us to be scarcely hardy enough for the open border, yet not tender enough to require a stove. we have succeeded best by treating it in the manner above mentioned; we may observe, that the tan-pit spoken of was built in the open garden, not in a stove, and was for the purpose of raising plants or seeds by a gentle heat, as well as for striking cuttings and securing plants from cold in the winter. our figure will make a description of the plant unnecessary, its flowering stem with us has arisen to the height of a foot and a half, the number of flowers has not exceeded five. in its most luxuriant state it will probably be found much larger, and to produce more flowers. [117] campanula carpatica. carpatian bell-flower. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ campanulata fundo clauso valvis staminiferis. _stigma_ trifidum. _capsula_ infera poris lateralibus dehiscens. _specific character and synonyms._ campanula _carpatica_ foliis glabris cordatis serratis petiolatis, pedunculis elongatis, calyce reflexo glutinoso. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 207. suppl. p. 140._ _jacq. hort. v. i. t. 57._ [illustration: no 117] this species of bell-flower, which takes its name from its place of growth, is a native of the carpatian alps, and was introduced into the royal garden at kew, by _professor_ jacquin, of _vienna_, in the year 1774. it flowers in june and july. as yet it is scarce in our gardens, but deserves to be more generally known and cultivated; its flowers, in proportion to the plant, are large and shewy: like many other alpine plants, it is well suited to decorate certain parts of rock-work, or such borders of the flower garden, as are not adapted for large plants. it is a hardy perennial, and propagated by parting its roots in autumn. our figure, from a deficiency in the colouring art, gives a very inadequate idea of its beauty. [118] sedum anacampseros. evergreen orpine. _class and order._ decandria pentagynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-fidus. _cor._ 5-petala. _squamæ_ nectariferæ 5, ad basin germinis. _caps._ 5. _specific character and synonyms._ sedum _anacampseros_ foliis cuneiformibus basi attenuatis subsessilibus, caulibus decumbentibus, floribus corymbosis. _ait. hort. kew. p. 108._ sedum _anacampseros_ foliis cuneiformibus integerrimis caulibus decumbemtibus, floribus corymbosis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. murr. p. 430._ telephium repens folio deciduo. _bauh. pin. 287._ telephium tertium. _dodon. pempt. p. 130._ [illustration: no 118] grows spontaneously out of the crevices of the rocks in the south of france; flowers in our gardens in july and august; is a very hardy perennial, and in sheltered situations retains its leaves all the year. the singular manner in which the leaves are attached to the flowering stem, deserves to be noticed. as many of the succulent plants are tender, and require a green-house in the winter, cultivators of plants are apt indiscriminately to extend the same kind of care to the whole tribe, hence it is not uncommon to find this and many other similar hardy plants, nursed up in the green-house or stove, when they would thrive much better on a wall or piece of rock-work, for the decoration of which this plant in particular is admirably adapted. like most of the sedum tribe it may readily be propagated by cuttings, or parting its roots in autumn. dodonæus' figure admirably represents its habit. according to the _hort. kew._ it was cultivated in this country by gerard, in 1596. +------------------------------------------------------+ |transcriber's note: | |there is a departure from the usual format here with | |strelitzia reginæ having two illustrations, no 119 and| |no 120, thus creating a gap in the sequence. | +------------------------------------------------------+ [119] strelitzia reginæ. canna-leaved strelitzia. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _spathæ. cal._ 0. _cor._ 3-petala. _nectarium_ triphyllum, genitalia involvens. _peric._ 3-loculare, polyspermum. strelitzia _reginæ ait. hort. kew. v. i. p. 285. tab. 2._ heliconia _bibai j. mill. ic. tab. 5, 6._ [illustration: no 119] in order that we may give our readers an opportunity of seeing a coloured representation of one of the most scarce and magnificent plants introduced into this country, we have this number deviated from our usual plan, with respect to the plates, and though in so doing we shall have the pleasure of gratifying the warm wishes of many of our readers, we are not without our apprehensions least others may not feel perfectly well satisfied; should it prove so, we wish such to rest assured that this is a deviation in which we shall very rarely indulge and never but when something uncommonly beautiful or interesting presents itself: to avoid the imputation of interested motives, we wish our readers to be apprized that the expences attendant on the present number, in consequence of such deviation, have been considerably _augmented_, not lowered. it is well known to many botanists, and others, who have experienced sir joseph banks's well known liberality, that previous to the publication of the _hortus kewensis_ he made a new genus of this plant, which had before been considered as a species of _heliconia_, and named it _strelitzia_ in honour of our most gracious queen charlotte; coloured engravings of which, executed under his direction, he presented to his particular friends; impressions of the same plate have been given in the aforesaid work, in which we are informed that this plant was introduced to the royal garden at kew, by sir joseph banks, bart. in the year 1773, where it lately flowered--of some other plants introduced after that period from the cape, of which it is a native, one flowered in the pine stove of bamber gascoyne, esq. several years ago, from whence mr. millar drew his figure, and the plant from which our drawing was made flowered this spring, in the bark stove of the garden belonging to the apothecaries company, at chelsea, where it will also soon flower again. this plant has usually been confined to the stove, where it has been placed in a pot, and plunged into the tan, as the plants in such situations usually are; it has been found that when the roots have been confined to the narrow limits of a pot, the plant has rarely or never flowered, but that when the roots have by accident extended into the rotten tan, it has readily thrown up flowering stems, the best practice therefore, not only with this, but many other plants, is to let the roots have plenty of earth to strike into. as it is a cape plant it may perhaps be found to succeed best in the conservatory. it has not, that we know of, as yet ripened its seeds in this country; till it does, or good seeds of it shall be imported, it must remain a very scarce and dear plant, as it is found to increase very slowly by its roots: plants are said to be sold at the cape for three guineas each. _general description of the strelitzia reginæ._ [illustration: no 120] from a perennial stringy root shoot forth a considerable number of leaves, standing upright on long footstalks, front a sheath of some one of which, near its base, springs the flowering stem, arising somewhat higher than the leaves, and terminating in an almost horizontal long-pointed spatha, containing about six or eight flowers, which becoming vertical as they spring forth, form a kind of crest, which the glowing orange of the corolla, and fine azure of the nectary, renders truly superb. the outline in the third plate of this number, is intended to give our readers an idea of its general habit and mode of growth. _particular description of the same._ root perennial, stringy, somewhat like that of the tawny day-lily (hemerocallis fulva); strings the thickness of the little finger, blunt at the extremity, extending horizontally, if not confined, to the distance of many feet. leaves numerous, standing upright on their footstalks, about a foot in length, and four inches in breadth, ovato-oblong, coriaceous, somewhat fleshy, rigid, smooth, concave, entire on the edges, except on one side towards the base, where they are more or less curled, on the upper side of a deep green colour, on the under side covered with a fine glaucous meal, midrib hollow above and yellowish, veins unbranched, prominent on the inside, and impressed on the outside of the leaf, young leaves rolled up. leaf-stalks about thrice the length of the leaves, upright, somewhat flattened, at bottom furnished with a sheath, and received into each other, all radical. scapus or flowering stem unbranched, somewhat taller than the leaves, proceeding from the sheath of one of them, upright, round, not perfectly straight, nearly of an equal thickness throughout, of a glaucous hue, covered with four or five sheaths which closely embrace it. two or more flowering stems spring from the same root, according to the age of the plant. spatha terminal, about six inches in length, of a glaucous hue, with a fine bright purple at its base, running out to a long point, opening above from the base to within about an inch of the apex, where the edges roll over to one side, forming an angle of about forty-five degrees, and containing about six flowers. flowers of a bright orange colour, becoming upright, when perfectly detached from the spatha, which each flower is a considerable time in accomplishing. in the plant at chelsea, the two back petals, or, more properly segments of the first flower, sprang forth with the nectary, and while the former became immediately vertical, the latter formed nearly the same angle as the spatha; four days afterwards the remaining segment of the first flower, with the two segments and nectary of the second came forth, and in the same manner at similar intervals all the flowers, which were six in number, continued to make their appearance. corolla deeply divided into three segments, which are ovato-lanceolate, slightly keeled, and somewhat concave, at the base white, fleshy, and covered with a glutinous substance flowing in great quantities from the nectary. nectary of a fine azure blue and most singular form, composed of two petals, the upper petal very short and broad, with a whitish mucro or point, the sides of which lap over the base of the other petal; inferior petal about two inches and a half in length, the lower half somewhat triangular, grooved on the two lowermost sides, and keeled at bottom, the keel running straight to its extremity, the upper half gradually dilating towards the base, runs out into two lobes more or less obtuse, which give it an arrow-shaped form, bifid at the apex, hollow, and containing the antheræ, the edges of the duplicature crisped and forming a kind of frill from the top to the bottom. stamina five filaments arising from the base of the nectary, short and distinct; antheræ long and linear, attached to and cohering by their tips to the apex of the nectary. style filiform, white, length of the nectary. stigma three quarters of an inch long, attached to, and hitched on as it were to the tip of the nectary, roundish, white, awl-shaped, very viscid, becoming as the flower decays of a deep purple brown colour, and usually splitting into three pieces, continuing attached to the nectary till the nectary decays. mr. fairbairn, to whose abilities and industry the companies garden at chelsea is indebted for its present flourishing state, being desirous of obtaining ripe seeds, i had no opportunity of examining the germen. such were the appearances which presented themselves to us in the plant which flowered at the chelsea garden; that they are liable to considerable variation is apparent from the figure of mr. millar, which appears to have been drawn from a very luxuriant specimen, as two spathæ grow from one flowering stem, the stigma is also remarkably convoluted, many other appearances are likewise represented, which our plant did not exhibit: in the figure given in the _hortus kewensis_, the stigma appears to have separated from the nectary on the first opening of the flower, and to be split into three parts, neither of which circumstances took place in our plant till they were both in a decaying state. [121] narcissus incomparabilis. peerless daffodil. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _petala_ 6 æqualia: _nectario_ infundibuliformi, 1-phyllo: _stamina_ intra nectarium. _specific character and synonyms._ narcissus _incomparabilis_ spatha uniflora, nectario campanulato plicato crispo petalis dimidio breviore, foliis planis. narcissus latifolius omnium maximus amplo calice flavo sive nompareille. the great nonesuch daffodil, or incomparable daffodil. _park. par. p. 68._ [illustration: no 121] this species of narcissus, though well described and figured by the old botanists, especially parkinson; has been overlooked by linnæus. it is undoubtedly the _incomparable daffodil_ of parkinson, figured in his garden of pleasant flowers; and the _incomparabilis_ of miller's _dict. ed. 6. 4to._ the latter informs us, that he received roots of it from spain and portugal, which fixes its place of growth. it is a very hardy bulbous plant, and flowers in april; in its single state it is very ornamental, the petals are usually pale yellow, and the nectary inclined to orange, which towards the brim is more brilliant in some than in others; in its double state, it is well known to gardeners, by the name of butter and egg narcissus, and of this there are two varieties, both of which produce large shewy flowers, the one with colours similar to what we have above described, which is the most common, the other with petals of a pale sulphur colour, almost white, and the nectary bright orange; this, which is one of the most ornamental of the whole tribe, is named in the dutch catalogues, the _orange phoenix_; its blossoms are so large as frequently to require supporting; its bulbs may be had of many of the nurseries about london, and of those who, profiting by the supineness of our english gardeners, import bulbs from abroad. like most of the tribe, this species will grow well without any care, the bulbs of the double sort should be taken up yearly, otherwise they are apt to degenerate. [122] hyacinthus racemosus. starch hyacinth. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ corolla campanulata: pori 3 melliferi germinis. _specific character and synonyms._ hyacinthus _racemosus_ corollis ovatis, summis sessilibus, foliis laxis. _linn. syst. veg. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 336._ _sp. pl. 455._ hyacinthus racemosus cæruleus minor juncifolius. _bauh. pin. p. 43._ hyacinthus botryodes 1. _car clus. hist. p. 181._ hyacinthus racemosus. _dodon. pempt. p. 217._ hyacinthus botroides minor cæruleus obscurus. the darke blew grape-flower. _park. par. p. 114._ [illustration: no 122] the _hyacinthus racemosus_ and _botryoides_ are both cultivated in gardens, but the former here figured is by far the most common; _racemosus_ and _botryoides_, though different words, are expressive of the same meaning, the former being derived from the latin term _racemus_, the latter from the greek one [greek: votrus], both of which signify a bunch of grapes, the form of which the inflorescence of these plants somewhat resembles, and hence they have both been called grape hyacinths, but as confusion thereby arises, we have thought it better to call this species the starch hyacinth, the smell of the flower in the general opinion resembling that substance, and leave the name of grape hyacinth for the _botryoides_. the _hyacinthus racemosus_ grows wild in the corn fields of germany, in which it increases so fast by offsets from the root as to prove a very troublesome weed, and on this account it must be cautiously introduced into gardens. it flowers in april and may. we have found the nurserymen very apt to mistake it for the _botryoides_, a figure of which it is our intention to give in some future number. [123] anemone hortensis. star anemone, or broad-leav'd garden anemone. _class and order._ polyandria polygynia. _generic character._ cal. 0. petala 5-9. semina plura. _specific character and synonyms._ anemone _hortensis_ foliis digitalis, feminibus lanatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed murr. p. 510._ _ait. hort. kew. vol. 2. p. 256._ anemone geranii rotundo folio, purpurascens. _bauh. pin. 173._ anemone prima. _dodon. pempt. 434._ anemone latifolia purpurea stellata sive papaveracea. the purple star-anemone or windflower. _park. parad. p. 204._ [illustration: no 123] we are more and more convinced, that in our eagerness, for novelties, we daily lose plants by far more ornamental than the new ones we introduce; the present, a most charming spring plant, with which the gardens abounded in the time of parkinson, is now a great rarity; its blossoms, which are uncommonly brilliant, come forth in april, and, like those of many other plants, appear to advantage only when the sun shines. it may be propagated either by seeds, or by parting its roots in autumn, in the former way we may obtain many beautiful varieties. it prefers a light loamy soil and moderately exposed situation. roots of a variety of this plant with scarlet double flowers are imported from holland, under the name, of _anemonoides_, and sold at a high price. [124] iberis gibraltarica. gibraltar candy-tuft. _class and order._ tetradynamia siliculosa. _generic character._ _corolla_ irregularis: petalis 2 exterioribus majoribus. _silicula_ polysperma, emarginata. _specific character and synonyms._ iberis _gibraltarica_ frutescens foliis apice dentatis. _linn. syst. veg. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 589._ thlaspidium hispanicum, ampliore flore folio crasso dentato. _dill. elth. 382. t. 287. f. 37._ [illustration: no 124] the flowers of this plant, a native of gibraltar, bear some resemblance to those of the common candy-tuft, but when they blow in perfection, they are usually twice as large; hence they are highly ornamental in the green-house, which early in the spring, the time of their coming forth, stands in need of some such shewy flowers. this plant is easily raised from cuttings, and easily preserved; it may be kept through the winter in a common hot-bed frame, and in mild winters will stand abroad, especially if sheltered amongst rock-work; its greatest enemy is moisture in the winter season, this often proves fatal to it, as indeed a long continued damp atmosphere does to many others; the nurserymen about london complain of losing more plants the last mild winter, from this cause, than they generally do from severe frosts. in a little green-house which i had in my late garden, lambeth-marsh, most of the plants became absolutely mouldy; in such seasons then, though in point of cold the plants may not require it, we must dissipate the superfluous moisture by a gentle heat. [125] alstroemeria ligtu. striped-flower'd alstroemeria. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ 6-petala, sub-bilabiata: petalis 2 inferioribus basi tubulosis. _stamina_ declinata. _specific character and synonyms._ alstroemeria _ligtu_ caule erecto, foliis spathulato-oblongis, pedunculis umbellæ involucro longioribus, corolla bilabiata. _linn. syst. veget. ed. 14._ _murr. suppl. p. 207._ _amoen. acad. v. 6. p. 247._ hemerocallis floribus purpurascentibus striatis. _few. peruv. 2. p. 710. t. 4._ [illustration: no 125] this plant receives its generic name from claudius alstroemer (son of sir jonas alstroemer, a most respectable swedish merchant) who first found the other most beautiful species the _pelegrina_ in spain, whither it had been transmitted from peru; its trivial name _ligtu_ is a provincial one. according to fewillee, who has written on the plants of peru, this species is found on the banks of the rivers in chili: we treat it, and successfully, as a stove plant; its flowers, which usually make their appearance in february and march, emit a fragrance scarcely inferior to mignonet; its leaves, contrary to most others, grow inverted, which is effected by a twist of the footstalk, and afford an excellent example of linnæus's _folium resupinatum_; the filaments, after the pollen is discharged, turn upwards, and the antheræ become almost globular. it is usually propagated by parting its roots in autumn. our figure was drawn from a plant which flowered extremely well in the stove of messrs. grimwood and co. kensington. [126] alyssum deltoideum. purple alyssum. _class and order._ tetradynamia siliculosa. _generic character._ _filamenta_ quædam introrsum denticulo notata. _silicula_ emarginata. _specific character and synonyms._ alyssum _deltoideum_ caulibus suffrutescentibus prostratis, foliis lanceolato-deltoidibus, siliculis hirtis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. 591._ _sp. pl. 908._ leucojum saxatile thymifolio hirsutum cæruleo-purpureum. _bauh. pin. 201._ [illustration: no 126] plants which flower early, and continue a long while in bloom, are deservedly preferred, more especially by those who content themselves with a partial collection; of that number is the present species of alyssum, which begins to flower in march, and continues to blossom through april, may, and june, and, if favourably situated, during most of the summer. it is properly a rock plant, being hardy, forming with very little care a neat tuft of flowers, and not apt to encroach on its neighbours. may be propagated by parting its roots in autumn, or by cuttings. is a native of the levant, according to mr. aiton; and cultivated by mr. miller, in 1739, but omitted in the 6th 4to. edition of his dictionary: has usually been considered by the nurserymen about london as the _hyperboreum_. [127] ixia flexuosa. bending-stalk'd ixia. _class and order._ triandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ 6-partita, campanulata, regularis. _stigmata_ 3. _specific character and synonyms._ ixia _flexuosa_ foliis linearibus, racemo flexuoso multifloro. _linn. sp. pl. p. 51._ _ait. hort. kew. p. 58._ [illustration: no 127] the ixias are a numerous tribe, chiefly natives of the cape, and in general remarkable either for their delicacy, or brilliant colours. the one here figured appears to be a variety of the _flexuosa_ with a purple eye, its blossoms are fragrant, and come forth in april or may. "all the sorts multiply very fast by offsets, so that when once obtained, there will be no occasion to raise them from seeds: for the roots put out offsets in great plenty, most of which will flower the following season, whereas those from seeds are three or four years before they flower. these plants will not thrive through the winter in the full ground in england, so must be planted in pots, and placed under a frame in winter, where they may be protected from frost, but in mild weather should enjoy the free air; but they must be guarded from mice, who are very fond of these roots, and if not prevented will devour them." _millers gard. dict._ [128] scilla campanulata. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ 6-petala, patens, decidua. _filamenta_ filiformia. _specific character and synonyms._ scilla _campanulata_ bulbo folido, racemo multifloro oblongo-subconico, corollis campanulatis erectis, bracteis bipartitis, pedunculo longioribus, foliis lanceolatis. _ait. hort. kew. p. 444._ hyacinthus hispanicus major flore campanulæ instar. the greater spanish bell-flowred jacinth. _park. par. 123._ [illustration: no 128] there are few old gardens which do not abound with this plant; it bears great affinity to our hare-bell, with which it appears to have been confounded by most botanists. _parkinson_ thus discriminates it: "this spanish bell-flowred jacinth is very like the former english or spanish jacinth, but greater in all parts, as well of leaves as flowers, many growing together at the toppe of the stalke; with many short greene leaves among them, hanging doune their heads with larger, greater, and wider open mouths, like unto bels of a darke blew colour, and no good sent." _park. parad._ though not remarkable for the fineness of its colours, or pleasing from its fragrance, it contributes with other bulbous plants to decorate the flower border or plantation in the spring, when flowers are most wanted. it is very hardy, and increases abundantly by offsets; its seeds also ripen well. [129] amaryllis vittata. superb amaryllis. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ hexapetaloidea, irregularis. _filamenta_ fauci tubi inserta, declinata, inæqualia proportione vel directione, _linn. fil._ _specific character and synonyms._ amaryllis floribus pedicellatis, corollis cuneiformi-infundibuliformibus, petalorum exteriorum rachibus interiorum margini adnatis, scapo tereti, stigmatibus sulcatis. _linn. fil._ amaryllis _vittata._ _l'herit. sert. angl. t. 15._ _ait. hort. kew. p. 418._ [illustration: no 129] linnæus, the son, took much pains in new modelling the generic and specific characters of this genus; as may be seen in the _hort. kew_: mons. l'heritier, when in england a few years since, saw this species, described and named it _vittata_[1]. of what country it is a native is not known with certainty, most probably of the cape, was first introduced into england by mr. malcolm. our figure was drawn from a fine specimen which flowered this spring with messrs. grimwood and co. kensington. it usually flowers in april or may, but may be forwarded by artificial heat. it rarely puts forth offsets from the root, but readily produces seeds, by which it is propagated without difficulty. when it blossoms in perfection it truly deserves the name of superb, which mr. aiton has given it, the stem rising to the height of three feet or more, and producing from two to five flowers. [130] alyssum utriculatum. bladder-podded alyssum. _class and order._ tetradynamia siliculosa. _generic character._ _filamenta_ quædam introrsum denticulo notata. _silicula_ emarginata. _specific character and synonyms._ alyssum _utriculatum_ caule herbaceo erecto, foliis lævibus lanceolatis integerrimis, filiculis inflatis. _linn. syst. veget. ed. 14. murr._ alyssoides fruticosum, leucoji folio viridi. _tourn. inst. 218._ [illustration: no 130] a native of the levant, and cultivated by mr. miller in the year 1739. is a hardy and beautiful perennial, flowering from april to june, at which time it begins to form its curiously inflated pods. like the _alyssum deltoideum_, it is well adapted to the decorating of walls, or rock-work, and is readily propagated either by seeds or slips. [131] catesbæa spinosa. thorny catesbæa, or lily-thorn. _class and order._ tetrandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ 1-petala, infundibuliformis, longissima, supera. stamina intra faucem. _bacca_ polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ catesbæa _spinosa._ _linn. syst. vegetab, ed. 14._ _murr. p. 152._ _sp. pl. p. 159._ _ait. hort. kew. p. 159._ frutex spinosus, buxi foliis plurimis simul nascentibus, flore tetrapetaloide pendulo sordide flavo, tubo longissimo, fructu ovali croceo semina parva continente. _catesb. carol. 2. p. 100. t. 100._ [illustration: no 131] of this genus there is only one species described by authors, and which linnæus has named in honour of our countryman mark catesby, author of the natural history of carolina. "this shrub was discovered by mr. catesby, near nassau-town, in the island of providence, where he saw two of them growing, which were all he ever saw; from these he gathered the seeds and brought them to england. "it is propagated by seeds, which must be procured from the country where it naturally grows. if the entire fruit are brought over in sand, the seeds will be better preserved; the seeds must be sown in small pots filled with light sandy earth, and plunged into a moderate hot-bed of tanner's-bark. if the seeds are good, the plants will appear in about six weeks; these plants make little progress for four or five years. if the nights should prove cold the glasses must be covered with mats every evening. as these plants grow slowly, so they will not require to be removed out of the seed-pots the first year, but in the autumn the pots should be removed into the stove, and plunged into the tan-bed; in spring the plants should be carefully taken up, and each planted in a separate small pot, filled with light sandy earth, and plunged into a fresh hot-bed of tanner's-bark. in summer when the weather is warm, they should have a good share of air admitted to them, but in autumn must be removed into the stove; where they should constantly remain, and must be treated afterwards in the same manner as other tender exotic plants." _miller's dict._ it is more usual with nurserymen to increase this plant by cuttings. our drawing was made from a plant which flowered this spring, with mr. colvill, nurseryman, king's-road, chelsea. it flowers most part of the summer, but not so freely as many other stove-plants. [132] rubus arcticus. dwarf bramble. _class and order._ icosandria polygynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-fidus. petala 5. _bacca_ composita acinis monospermis. _specific character and synonyms._ rubus _arcticus_ foliis ternatis, caule inermi unifloro. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. 476._ rubus humilis flore purpureo. _buxb. cent. 5. p. 13. t. 26._ rubus trifolius humilis non spinosus, sapore et odore fragariæ, fructu rubro polycocco. _amm. ruth. 185._ [illustration: no 132] the rubus arcticus grows wild in the northern parts of europe and america, in moist, sandy, and gravelly places. linnæus has figured and minutely described it in his _flora lapponica_, out of gratitude, as he expresses himself, for the benefits reaped from it in his lapland journey, by the nectareous wine of whose berries he was so often recruited when sinking with hunger and fatigue; he observes that the principal people in the north of sweden make a syrup, a jelly, and a wine, from the berries, which they partly consume themselves, and partly transmit to stockholm, as a dainty of the most delicious kind; and truly he adds, of all the wild swedish berries this holds the first place. our figure does not correspond altogether with linnæus's description, but it is drawn as the plant grew; culture doubtless made it produce more than its usual number of flowering stems and petals. it grows readily and increases rapidly in bog-earth, on a north border, and flowers in may and june, but very rarely ripens its fruit in gardens. [133] hyacinthus comosus. two coloured, or, tassel hyacinth. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ campanulata: pori 3-melliferi germinis. _specific character and synonyms._ hyacinthus _comosus_ corollis angulato-cylindricis: summis sterilibus longius pedicellatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. 336._ hyacinthus comosus major purpureus. _bauh. pin. 42._ the purple faire haired jacinth; or purse tassels. _park. parad. p. 117._ [illustration: no 133] most of the old botanists arranged this plant, the _racemosus_, and others having almost globular flowers with the hyacinths. tournefort, struck with the difference of their appearance, made a distinct genus of them under the name of _muscari_, in which he is followed by miller, and should have been by linnæus, for they differ so much that no student would consider the present plant as belonging to the same genus with the hare-bell. this species grows wild in the corn-fields of spain, portugal, and some parts of germany, and flowers in may and june. it is distinguished more by its singularity than beauty, the flowers on the summit of the stalk differing widely in colour from the others, and being mostly barren: parkinson says, "the whole stalke with the flowers upon it, doth somewhat resemble a long purse tassell, and thereupon divers gentlewomen have so named it." it is a hardy bulbous plant, growing readily in most soils and situations, and usually propagated by offsets. [134] adonis vernalis. _class and order._ polyandria polygynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-phyllus. _petala_ quinis plura absque nectario. _sem._ nuda. _specific character and synonyms._ adonis _vernalis_ flore dodecapetalo, fructu ovato. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. murr. p. 514._ _ait. hort. kew. vol. 2. p. 264._ helleborus niger tenuifolius, buphthalmi flore. _bauh. pin. 186._ buphthalmum _dodon. pempt. 261._ helleborus niger ferulaceus sive buphthalmum. the great ox-eye, or the great yellow anemone. _parkins. parad. p. 291. f. 6._ [illustration: no 134] of this plant linnæus makes two species, viz. the _vernalis_ and _appennina_, differing in their specific character merely in the number of their petals, which are found to vary from situation and culture; as the first name taken from its time of flowering is the most expressive, we have followed mr. miller and mr. aiton in adopting it. it is an old inhabitant of the english gardens, and a most desirable one, as it flowers in the spring; produces fine shewy blossoms, which expand wide when exposed to the sun, is hardy and readily cultivated. grows wild on the mountainous pastures of some parts of germany. it may be increased by parting its roots in autumn or spring, or by seed. miller recommends the latter mode. [135] gladiolus cardinalis. superb gladiolus; or, corn-flag. _class and order._ triandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ 6-partita, irregularis, inæqualis, _stigmata_ 3. _specific character._ gladiolus _cardinalis_ corollæ erectæ limbo campanulato, floribus secundis, scapo multifloro, foliis ensiformibus multinerviis. [illustration: no 135] this new species of gladiolus, of whose magnificence our figure can exhibit but an imperfect idea, was introduced into this country from holland, a few years since, by mr. graffer, at present gardener to the king of naples; and first flowered with messrs. lewis and mackie, nurserymen, at kingsland; a very strong plant of it flowered also this summer at messrs. grimwoods and co. which divided at top into three branches, from one of which our figure was drawn. it obviously differs from the other more tender plants of this genus, in the colour of its flowers, which are of a fine scarlet, with large white somewhat rhomboidal spots, on several of the lowermost divisions of the corolla; strong plants will throw up a stem three or four feet high. it is most probably a native of the cape, flowers with us in july and august, and is increased by offsets from the bulbs; must be treated like the ixias and other similar cape plants. [136] pelargonium tetragonum. square stalked geranium. _class and order._ monadelphia heptandria. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-partitus, lacinia suprema definente in tubulum capillarem, nectariferum, secus pedunculum decurrentem. _cor._ 5-petala, irregularis. _filamenta_ 10, inæqualia: quorum 3 (raro 5) castrata. _fructus_ 5-coccus, rostratus: _rostra_ spiralia, introrsum barbata. _specific character and synonyms._ pelargonium _tetragonum_ pedunculis bifloris, ramis tetragonis carnosis, corollis tetrapetalis, _l'herit. n. 72. t. 23._ geranium _tetragonum_. _linn. suppl. p. 305._ [illustration: no 136] a vein of singularity runs through the whole of this plant, its stalks are unequally and obtusely quadrangular, sometimes more evidently triangular; its leaves few, and remarkably small; its flowers, on the contrary, are uncommonly large, and what is more extraordinary have only four petals; previous to their expansion they exhibit also an appearance somewhat outrè, the body of the filaments being bent so as to form a kind of bow, in which state we have represented one of the blossoms in our figure. when it flowers in perfection, which it is not apt to do in all places, the largeness of its blossoms renders it one of the most ornamental of the genus. there is a variety of it with beautifully coloured leaves, of which we have availed ourselves in its representation. it flowers from june, to august, and september; requires the same treatment as the more common geraniums, and is readily propagated by cuttings. was first introduced to the royal garden at kew, by mr. masson, in 1774, from the cape, of which, it is a native. _ait. hort. kew._ [137] hypericum balearicum. warty st. john's-wort. _class and order._ polyadelphia polyandria. _generic character._ _calyx_ 5-phyllus. _petala_ 5. _nectarium_ 0. _capsula_. _specific character and synonyms._ hypericum _balearicum_ floribus pentagynis, caule fruticoso foliis ramisque cicatrizatis. _linn. syst. veget. p. 102._ myrto-cistus pennæi _clus. hist. 1. p. 68._ [illustration: no 137] is according to linnæus a native of _majorca_; miller says that it grows naturally in the island of _minorca,_ from whence the seeds were sent to england by mr. salvador, an apothecary at barcelona, in the year 1718. the stalks of this species are usually of a bright red colour, and covered with little warts; the leaves are small with many depressions on their upper sides like scars; the flowers are not always solitary, but frequently form a kind of corymbus. it is a hardy green-house plant, and readily propagated by cuttings. it flowers during most of the summer. clusius informs us in his _hist. pl. rar. p. 68._ that he received from thomas penny, a physician of london, in the year 1580, a figure of this elegant plant, and who the next year shewed a dried specimen of the same in london, which had been gathered in the island of majorca, and named by him [greek: murto kison], or myrtle-cistus[2] it appears therefore that this plant has long been known, if not cultivated in this country. we may remark that clusius's figure of this plant is not equally expressive with many of his others. [138] kalmia hirsuta. hairy kalmia. _class and order._ decandria monogynia. _generic character._ _calyx_ 5-partitus. _corolla_ hypocrateriformis: limbo subtus quinquecorni _caps._ 5-locularis. _specific character._ kalmia _hirsuta_ foliis ovato-lanceolatis hirsutis sparsis, floribus racemosis. [illustration: no 138] this new species of kalmia which we have called _hirsuta,_ the stalk, leaves, and calyx, being covered with strong hairs, was imported from carolina in the spring of 1790, by mr. watson, nurseryman at islington, with whom several plants of it flowered this present autumn, about the middle of september, from one of which our drawing was made. the plants were brought over with their roots enclosed in balls of the earth in which they naturally grew, which on being examined appeared of a blackish colour, and full of glittering particles of sand; similar indeed to the bog-earth which we find on our moors and heaths; there is therefore little doubt (for no account accompanied the plants) but this kalmia grows on moorish heaths, or in swamps. in its general appearance it bears some resemblance to the _andromeda daboecii_; from the specimens we have seen its usual height would appear to be from two to three feet; it grows upright; the flowers which are about the size of those of the _kalmia glauca_, are of a purple colour, and contrary to all the other known kalmia's grow in racemi. it is propagated by layers, and requires the same treatment as the rest of the genus, that is, to be planted in bog-earth, on a north border: as this however is a new, and of course a dear plant, it will be most prudent till we know what degree of cold it will bear, to keep it in a pot of the same earth, plunged in the same situation, which may be removed in the winter to a green-house or hot-bed frame. [139] alstroemeria pelegrina. spotted-flower'd alstroemeria. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ 6-petala, supera, irregularis. _stamina_ declinata. _specific character and synonyms._ alstroemeria _pelegrina_ caule erecto, corollis campanulatis rectis, foliis lineari-lanceolatis sessilibus. _linn. syst. veg. p. 338. ed. murr._ _amoen. acad. 6. p. 247. cum icone._ hemerocallis floribus purpurascentibus maculatis vulgo pelegrina. _feuill. peruv. 2. p. 711. t. 5._ [illustration: no 139] father feuillee[3] figures and describes three species of _alstroemeria_, viz. _pelegrina_, _ligtu_, and _salsilla_, common names by which they are severally distinguished in peru: the present species, which is much valued by the natives on account of its beauty, he informs us is found wild on a mountain to the north of, and a mile distant from lima. from peru, as might be expected, the present plant found its way into spain, from whence by the means of his beloved friend alstroemer, linnæus first received seeds of it; the value he set on the acquisition is evident from the great care he took of the seedling plants, preserving them through the winter in his bed-chamber. according to mr. aiton, this species was introduced to the royal garden at kew, by messrs. kennedy and lee, as long ago as the year 1753. being a mountainous plant, it is found to be much more hardy than the _ligtu_ already figured, and is generally treated as a green-house plant; it is found, however, to flower and ripen its seeds better under the glass of a hot-bed frame, where air is freely admitted. it flowers from june to october, and, though a perennial, is generally raised from seeds, yet may sometimes be increased by parting its roots, which somewhat resemble those of the asparagus: the seeds should be sown in the spring, in a pot of light earth, on a gentle hot-bed, either of dung or tan. [140] lupinus luteus. yellow lupine. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _calyx_ 2-labiatus. _antheræ_ 5 oblongæ, 5 subrotundæ. _legumen_ coriaceum. _specific character and synonyms._ lupinus _luteus_ calycibus verticillatis appendiculatis: labio superiore bipartito; inferiore tridentato. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 656._ lupinus sylvestris, flore luteo. _bauh. pin. 348._ the yellow lupine. _park. parad. p. 336._ [illustration: no 140] the present, with many other species of lupine, is very generally cultivated in flower gardens, for the sake of variety, being usually sown in the spring with other annuals; where the flower-borders are spacious, they may with propriety be admitted, but as they take up much room, and as their blossoms are of short duration, they are not so desirable as many other plants. it is a native of sicily, and flowers in june and july. we have often thought that the management of the kitchen garden, in point of succession of crops, might be advantageously transplanted to the flower garden; in the former, care is taken to have a regular succession of the annual delicacies of the table, while in the latter, a single sowing in the spring is thought to be all-sufficient; hence the flower garden, which in august, september, and part of october, might be covered with a profusion of bloom, exhibits little more than the decayed stems of departed annuals. [141] heliotropium peruvianum. peruvian turnsole. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ hypocrateriformis, 5-fida, interjectis dentibus: fauce clausa fornicibus. _specific character and synonyms._ heliotropium _peruvianum_ foliis lanceolato-ovatis, caule fruticoso, spicis numerosis aggregato-corymbosis. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. 184._ heliotropium foliis ovato-lanceolatis, spicis plurimis; confertis, caule fruticoso. _mill. dict. ed. 6. 4to. icon. t. 143._ [illustration: no 141] this plant recommends itself by its fragrance rather than its beauty, so delicious indeed is the odour it diffuses, that it is considered as essential to every green-house and stove. "it grows naturally in peru, from whence the seeds were sent by the younger jussieu to the royal garden at paris, where the plants produced flowers and seeds; and from the curious garden of the duke d'ayen, at st. germain's, i was supplied with some of the seeds, which have succeeded, in the chelsea garden, where the plants have flowered and perfected their seeds for some years." _miller's gard. dict._ you may consider it either as a stove or a green-house plant, the former is more congenial to it in the winter season. a pure atmosphere is essential to its existence, as i experienced at lambeth-marsh, where i in vain endeavoured to cultivate it. it is propagated by cuttings as easily as any geranium, and requires a similar treatment; in hot weather it must be well supplied with water, and in winter carefully guarded against frost, so fatal to most of the natives of peru. [142] scorzonera tingitana. tangier scorzonera, or poppy-leav'd vipers grass. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia æqualis. _generic character._ _receptaculum_ nudum. _pappus_ plumosus. _calyx_ imbricatus, squamis margine scariosis. _specific character and synonyms._ scorzonera _tingitana_ foliis omnibus runcinatis amplexicaulibus. _linn. syst. veg. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 711._ sonchus tingitanus papaveris folio _raii suppl. 137._ chondrilla tingitana, floribus luteis papaveris hortensis folio. _herm. lugdb. 657. t. 659._ [illustration: no 142] i am indebted for seeds of this plant to my very worthy and liberal friend nich. gwyn, m. d. of ipswich, to whose penetrating genius, and learned researches, botany owes much. as its name implies, it is a native of the province of tangier, on the barbary coast; appears to have been cultivated here, according to the _hort. kew._ in 1713, but is not mentioned in the 6th 4to. edit. of miller's dictionary. it may be considered as forming a valuable addition to our stock of annuals, being a beautiful plant, and easily cultivated: it thrives best on a moderately dry soil, warmly situated: should be sown in the spring with other annuals. i have observed, that in the middle of summer, a hot unclouded sun, which is favourable to the expansion of most of the flowers of this class, is too powerful for those of the present plant, which then appear to the greatest advantage in warm hazy weather. [143] pelargonium glutinosum. clammy crane's bill. _class and order._ monadelphia heptandria. _generic character._ _calyx_ 5-partitus: lacinia suprema definente in tubulum capillare nectariferum fecus pedunculum decurrentem. _corolla_ pentapetala, irregularis. _filamenta_ 10 inæqualia, quorum 3 raro 5 castrata. _fructus_ pentacoccus, rostratus, rostra spiralia introrsum barbata. _specific character and synonyms._ pelargonium _glutinosum_ umbellis paucifloris foliis cordatis hastato-quinquangulis viscosis. _l'herit. ger. ait. hort. kew. v. 2. p. 426._ geranium _glutinosum_. _jacq. ic. collect. 1. p. 85._ geranium _viscosum_. _cavanill. diss. 4. p. 246. t. 108. f. 2._ [illustration: no 143] the leaves of this species exhibit, on being touched, a manifest viscidity, or clamminess, which, independent of their shape, serves to characterize the species; the middle of the leaf is also in general stained with purple, which adds considerably to its beauty; but this must be regarded rather as the mark of a variety, than of the species. with most of its congeners, it is a native of the cape, and of modern date in this country, being introduced to the royal garden at kew, by messrs. kennedy and lee, in the year 1777. it flowers from may to september; is readily propagated by cuttings, and sometimes raised from seeds, from whence several varieties have been produced. [144] ferraria undulata. curled ferraria. _class and order._ gynandria triandria. _generic character._ monogyna. _spathtæ_ unifloræ. _petala_ 6, undulato-crispata. _stigmata_ cucullata. _caps._ 3-locularis, infera. _specific character and synonyms._ ferraria _undulata_ caule multifloro. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. 820. ed. 14._ _murr. ait. kew. p. 305. v. 3._ flos indicus e violaceo fuscus radice tuberosa. _i. b. ferrar. flora, ed. nov. p. 167. t. 171._ gladiolus indicus e violaceo fuscus radice tuberosa nobis. _moris. hist. f. 4. t. 4. f. 7._ narcissus indicus flore saturate purpureo. _rudb. elys. 2. t. 49. f. 9._ iris stellata cyclamine radice pullo flore. _barrel. icon. 1216._ [illustration: no 144] the old botanists appear to have been wonderfully at a loss to what family they should refer this very singular plant, as will appear on consulting the synonyms; burman at length made a distinct genus of it, naming it _ferraria_ in honour of joh. baptista ferrarius, by whom it was described, and very well figured, in his _flora feu de florum cultura_, published at amsterdam, in 1646. mr. miller informs us, that he received roots of this plant from dr. job baster, f. r. s. of zirkzee, who obtained it from the cape, of which it is a native. in the vegetable line, it is certainly one of the most singular and beautiful of nature's productions; much it is to be regretted that its flowers are of very short duration, opening in the morning and finally closing in the afternoon of the same day; a strong plant will, however, throw out many blossoms in succession. in its structure and oeconomy, it approaches very near to the _sisyrinchium_. it flowers very early in the spring, from february to may, and is usually propagated by offsets, which its bulbs produce in tolerable plenty. it requires a treatment similar to the ixias and other cape bulbs. our figure was drawn from a plant which flowered this spring, in the possession of r. forster, esq. of turnham-green. index. in which the latin names of the plants contained in the _fourth volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ 134 adonis vernalis. 125 alstroemeria ligtu. 139 -----------pelegrina. 126 alyssum deltoideum. 130 ------utriculatum. 129 amaryllis vittata. 123 anemone hortensis. 117 campanula carpatica. 131 catesbæa spinosa. 112 cistus ladaniferus. 113 convolvulus purpureus. 144 ferraria undulata. 135 gladiolus cardinalis. 141 heliotropium peruvianum. 122 hyacinthus racemosus. 133 ---------comosus. 137 hypericum balearicum. 124 iberis gibraltarica. 127 ixia flexuosa. 138 kalmia hirsuta. 111 lathyrus tuberosus. 115 -------sativus. 109 lavatera trimestris. 116 limodorum tuberosum. 140 lupinus luteus. 110 mimosa verticillata. 121 narcissus incomparabilis. 136 pelargonium tetragonum. 143 ----------glutinosum. 132 rubus arcticus. 128 scilla campanulata. 142 scorzonera tingitana. 118 sedum anacampseros. 114 silene pendula. 119 strelitzia reginæ. index. in which the english names of the plants contained in the _fourth volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ 134 adonis spring. 125 alstroemeria striped-flowered. 139 -----------spotted-flowered. 129 amaryllis superb. 130 alyssum bladder-podded. 126 ------purple. 123 anemone star. 117 bell-flower carpatian. 113 bindweed purple. 132 bramble dwarf. 124 candy-tuft gibraltar. 114 catchfly pendulous. 131 catesbæa thorny. 112 cistus gum. 143 crane's-bill clammy. 121 daffodil peerless. 144 ferraria curled. 136 geranium square-stalked. 135 gladiolus superb. 122 hyacinth starch. 133 -------two-coloured. 127 ixia bending-stalked. 138 kalmia hairy. 111 lathyrus tuberous. 115 -------blue-flowered. 109 lavatera annual. 116 limodorum tuberous-rooted. 140 lupine yellow. 110 mimosa whorl'd-leaved. 118 orpine evergreen. 142 scorzonera tangier. 137 st. john's-wort warty. 119 strelitzia canna-leaved. 128 squill bell-flowered. 141 turnsole peruvian. footnotes [1] from the gaiety of its flowers, which, from their stripes, appear like an object decorated with ribbands.--_vitta_, a ribband; _vittata_, dressed with ribbands. _ainsw._ [2] the leaves being somewhat like those of the myrtle, and a gummy substance exuding from the plant as in the gum cistus. [3] in his journal des observations physiques, mathematiques, et botaniques, faites sur les côtes orientales de l'amerique meridionale, &c. printed in 1714. file made using scans of public domain works at the university of georgia.) the botanical magazine; or, flower-garden displayed: in which the most ornamental foreign plants, cultivated in the open ground, the green-house, and the stove, are accurately represented in their natural colours, to which are added, their names, class, order, generic and specific characters, according to the celebrated linnæus; their places of growth, and times of flowering: together with the most approved methods of culture. a work intended for the use of such ladies, gentlemen, and gardeners, as with which to become scientifically acquainted with the plants they cultivate. by william curtis, author of the flora londinensis. vol. vi. * * * * * ----"nor thou disdain to check the lawless riot of the trees, to plant the grove, or turn the barren mould oh happy he, whom, when his years decline, (his fortune and his fame by worthy means attain'd, and equal to his mod'rate mind; his life approv'd by all the wise and good, even envy'd by the vain) the peaceful groves of epicurus, from this stormy world hereine in rest; of all ungrateful cares absolv'd, and sacred from the selfish crowd. happiest of men i if the same soil invites a chosen few, companions of his youth, once fellow-rakes perhaps now rural friends; with whom in easy commerce to pursue nature's free charms, and vie for sylvan fame a fair ambition; void of strife, or guile, or jealousy, or pain to be outdone. who plans th'enchanted garden, who directs the visto best, and best conducts the stream; whose groves the fastest thicken, and ascend; whom first the welcome spring salutes; who shews the earliest bloom, the sweetest proudest charms of flora; who best gives pomona's juice to match the sprightly genius of champain." armstrong. * * * * * london: printed by stephen couchman, for w. curtis, n^o 3, _st. george's-crescent_, black-friars-road; and sold by the principal booksellers in great-britain and ireland. m dcc xciii. * * * * * [181] colutea frutescens. scarlet bladder senna. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-fidus. _legumen_ inflatum, basi superiore dehiscens. _specific character and synonyms._ colutea _frutescens_ fruticosa, foliolis ovato-oblongis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr, p. 668._ _ait. hort. kew. v. 3. p. 56._ _mill. icon. 99._ colutea æthiopica, flore purpureo. _breyn. cent. 70. t. 29._ of the several species of colutea cultivated in our garden the one here figured, is distinguished by the brilliancy of its' flowers, the largeness of its pods, and the downy appearance of the under side of its leaves. it appears from the _hortus kewensis_ to have been cultivated by mr. james sutherland as long since as the year 1683 it was not however generally introduced to our gardens till the time of miller, who figured it in his _icones_, it was then understood to be an æthiopian plant; mr. aiton since describes it as a native of the cape also; of course, we find it more tender than most of its kindred, and hence it is usually regarded as a greenhouse plant; yet, as it is not destroyed by a small degree of frost, it will frequently, like the myrtle survive a mild winter in the open border, especially if trained to a wall: it is rarely of more than two or three years duration. it is readily raised from seeds sown in the open ground, plants from which flower the august following, and, in favourable seasons, ripen their seeds; in order, however, that they may ripen them with more certainty, miller, recommends the sowing them early on a gentle hot-bed. a dry soil suits this species best. [illustration] [illustration] [182] salvia aurea. golden sage. _class and order._ decandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ inæqualis. _filamenta_ transverse pedicello affixa. _specific character and synonyms._ salvia _aurea_ foliis subrotundis integerrimis, basi truncatis dentatis. _linn. syst. veget. ed. 14. murr. p. 71._ _ait. hort. kew. v. 1. p. 45._ salvia _africana_ frutescens folio subrotundo glauco, flore magno aureo. _comm. hort. 2. 183. t. 92._ such as are delighted with the singular rather than the beautiful appearances of plants, cannot fail of ranking the present species of sage among their favourites. it been called _aurea_, from the colour of its flowers, _ferruginea_ would perhaps have been more expressive of them; when they first open indeed they are of a yellow colour, but they quickly and constantly become of the colour of rusty iron. the leaves are nearly round, and have a pleasing silvery hue: a few of them only, and those chiefly at the extremities of the young shoots, are of the form described by linnæus in his specific character of the plant, and hence commelin's description (_vid. syn._) is to be preferred, as leading us with more certainty to a knowledge of the plant; the colour of the leaves, the colour and unusual magnitude of the blossoms, are indisputably the most striking features of the species, and therefore to be resorted to: for my own part, as a friend to the advancement of the science, rather than as the follower of that great man, i see no good reason why colour should not in many instances, especially where expressive characters are wanting, form a part of the specific character in plants, as well as in animals: we are told indeed of its inconstancy. i would ask--who ever saw the colour of the leaves or blossoms of the present plant to vary? and, on the contrary, who ever saw its leaves constant in their form? the _salvia aurea_ is a native of the cape, and was cultivated by mr. miller in 1731, it is a hardy greenhouse plant, is readily propagated by cuttings, and flowers from may to november. if suffered to grow, it will become a shrub of the height of six or seven feet. [illustration] [183] syringa vulgaris. common lilac. _class and order._ diandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ 4-fida. _capsula_ bilocularis. _specific character and synonyms._ syringa _vulgaris_ foliis ovato-cordatis integris. _linn. syst. veget. ed. 14. murr. p. 57._ _ait. hort. kew. v. 1. p. 15._ syringa cærulea, _bauh. pin. 398._ lilac sive syringa cærulea. the blew pipe tree. _park. parad. p. 407._ few shrubs are better known in this country than the lilac few more universally cultivated; there is scarcely a cottage it does not enliven, or a shrubbery it does not beautify. it has long had a place in our gardens; both gerard and parkinson describe two sorts, the blue and the white; to these another sort is added by more modern writers, superior in beauty to the original, as producing larger bunches of flowers, of a brighter hue, having more of the purple tint and hence called by some the purple lilac, miller considers the three as different species. the flowers of the lilac possess a considerable degree of fragrance, but not of the most agreeable kind; our readers perhaps, will not be displeased to hear the opinion of old gerard on this point, delivered in his own words:--"they have a pleasant sweete smell, but in my judgement they are too sweete, troubling and molesting the head in very strange manner: i once gathered the flowers, and laid them in my chamber window, which smelled more strongly after they had lien together a few howers, with such a ponticke and unacquainted savor, that they awaked me from sleepe, so that i could not take any rest until i had cast them out of my chamber."[1] though a native of persia, it bears our severest winters without injury, has a pleasing appearance when in bud, flowers in may, and is readily propagated by suckers; but finer plants, in the opinion of miller, are raised from seeds. it will grow in almost any soil or situation, even in london, but, to flower well, it must have a pure air. [footnote 1: the name, indeed, of one of our colours is taken from its blossoms. this quotation from gerard referring to its smell belongs to the philadelphus coronarius or mock-orange which both by him and parkinson is called syringa, & which led to the mistake.] [184] ixia crocata. saffron-colour'd ixia. _class and order._ triandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ 6-partita, campanulata, regularis. _stigmata_ 3. _specific character and synonyms._ ixia _crocata_ foliis ensiformibus, floribus secundis corolia basi hyalino-fenestratis. _thunb. diss. de ixia._ _linn. syst. veg. ed. 14. murr. p. 85._ ixia _crocata_ foliis ensiformibus, floribus alternis, tubo longitudine bractearum, corollæ laminis ovatis integerrimis basi hyalinis. _ait. hort. kew. p. 60. v. 1._ ixia planifolia, caule multifloro spatha brevissima. _mill. ic. 160. t. 239. f. 2._ to the cape of good hope, that never-failing source of rare and beautiful plants, we are indebted for most of our ixias, and among others for the present species, which though not of that value, nor possessing the delicacy or fragrance of the blossoms of some others, is a very desirable plant, not only as an object of curiosity, from the transparency of the base of the corolla, but as it adds much to the brilliancy of a collection, is easily obtained, and as easily propagated. it flowers in may and june, but its flowering may be prolonged by putting its bulbs into pots at different periods, or accelerated by artificial heat. it produces offsets more plentifully than many of the genus. mr. aiton informs us that it was cultivated by mr. miller in 1758, who figures it in his _icones_. [illustration] [185] coronilla valentina. rue-leaved coronilla. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ 2-labiatus: 2/3: dentibus superioribus connatis. _vexillum_ vix alis longius. _legumen_ isthmis interceptum. _specific character and synonyms._ coronilla _valentina_ fruticosa, foliolis subnovenis, stipulis suborbiculatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 669._ _ait. hort. kew. v. 3. p. 58._ polygala valentina. _clus. hist. pl. rar. p. 98. fig. inf._ the _coronilla valentina_ comes very near to the _glauca_ already figured in this work, but may be distinguished by a little attention; the _valentina_ has smaller leaves, which are more numerous, and more truly glaucous; the stipulæ, which in the _glauca_ are small, narrow, and pointed, in the _valentina_ are large, and almost round, and in the young plant are strikingly conspicuous; as the plant comes into flower, they drop off; the _valentina_ is not so much disposed to flower the year through as the _glauca_, but produces its blossoms chiefly in may, june, and july; the flowers of the _glauca_ are observed to smell more strongly in the day-time, those of the _valentina_ at all times diffuse a very powerful odour, so as even to scent a small greenhouse; we have often been amused with hearing the different opinions entertained of this smell, some speaking of it in terms of rapture, others ready to faint when they approach it: the flowers of the _valentina_ are more disposed to produce seed-vessels than those of the _glauca_, the seeds of which usually ripen well, and afford the means of increasing the plant most readily. to have a succession of small handsome bushy plants for the greenhouse, the old ones must either be frequently cut down, or young ones raised from seed, or cuttings, the stems as they grow up becoming naked at bottom. it is a hardy greenhouse plant, and may be kept well enough through the winter in a common hot-bed frame, or planted against a south wall, and matted as myrtles usually are in such situations; we have known the _glauca_, treated in prove a charming ornament. it is a native of spain, growing, as clusius informs us, by road-sides, in sandy places, and on the declivities of hills. cultivated here in 1656, by j. tradescant, jun. h. k. [illustration] [illustration] [186] selago ovata. oval-headed selago. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-fidus. _cor._ tubus capillaris; limbus subæqualis, _sem._ 1. _specific character and synonyms._ selago _ovata_ spicis strobilinis ovatis terminalibus, foliis sparsis linearibus, caule fruticoso. _l'herit. stirp. nov. tom. 2. t. 33._ _ait. hort. kew. v. 2. p. 355._ lippia _ovata_ capitulis ovatis, foliis linearibus integerrimis. _linn. mant. p. 89._ linnæus in his _mantissa_ has somewhat largely described this plant under the name of _lippia ovata_, evidently from a dried specimen, which may account for the flowers being described of a dark violet colour; he recommends it to such as might have an opportunity of seeing the living plant, to observe if it was not referable to some other genus; accordingly mons. l'heritier, who, when lately in england, saw it in the royal garden at kew, joined it to the genus _selago_, retaining the trivial name of _ovata, bractæata_ would perhaps have been a better name; for though its ovate inflorescence may be peculiar to the species, its bracteæ or floral leaves are so very singular that they constitute the most prominent feature of the plant. mr. aiton informs us, that it was introduced to the royal garden at kew, from the cape, by mr. masson, in 1774. it recommends itself not so much on account of its beauty, curious structure of its flowering spikes, and the fragrance of its blossoms. it is a greenhouse plant, and flowers during most of the summer; its blossoms are white with a yellow spot on the two uppermost, and sometimes on all the segments of the corolla, and an orange spot at the mouth of the tube. is propagated by cuttings. [187] iris sambucina. elder-scented iris. _class and order._ triandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ 6-petala, inæqualis, petalis alternis geniculato-patentibus. _stigmata_ petaliformia cucullato-bilabiata. _thunb. diss. de iride._ _specific character and synonyms._ iris _sambucina_ barbata, foliis ensiformibus glabris erectis brevioribus scapo multifloro, petalis deflexis planis. _linn. syst. vegetab, ed. 14. murr._ _thunb. loc. cit. n. 10._ _ait. hort. kew. v. 1. p. 69._ iris latifolia germanica, sambuci odore. _bauh. pin. 31._ iris camerarii sive purpurea versicolor major. the greater variable coloured purple flower-de-luce. _park. par. p. 181._ this species of iris, said to be a native of the south of europe, derives its name from the smell of its flowers, which very much resembles that of elder in bloom. it is one of the tallest and handsomest of the genus, in a rich moist soil acquiring the height of three feet or more; it is therefore more proper for the shrubbery than the flower-garden. it flowers about the latter end of may, and is readily increased by parting its roots in autumn. the iris of parkinson, referred to in the synonyms, accords so exactly with our plant, in every circumstance but smell, which is not mentioned, that we have no doubt but it was cultivated in our gardens in his time. [illustration] [illustration] [188] convolvulus nil. azure convolvulus. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ campanulata, plicata. _stigmata_ 2. _caps._ 2-locularis: loculis dispermis. _specific character and synonyms._ convolvulus _nil_ foliis cordatis trilobis, corollis semiquinquefidis, pedunculis petiolo brevioribus. _linn. syst. veg. ed. 14. murr. p. 209._ _ait. hort. kew. v. 1. p. 209._ convolvulus cæruleus hederaceo anguloso folio. _bauh. pin. p. 295._ nil arab. _gef. hor. eyst._ convolvulus cæruleus. blew bindweed. _ger. herb. p. 715. cum ic._ convolvulus trifolius five hederaceus purpureus. the greater purple bindeweede or bell-flower with cornered leaves. _park. parad. pl. 361. fig. 2._ all our writers on exotic botany treat of this plant, gerard, one of the first, gives us the following account: "this beautiful bindweed, which we call _convolvulus cæruleus_, is called of the arabians _nil_: of _serapio_, _hab al nil_, about alepo and tripolis in syria, the inhabitants call it hasmisen, the italians _campana azurea_, of the beautifull azured flowers and also _fior de notte_, bicause his beautie appeereth most in the night:" he informs us, that it grew in his garden, but perished before it ripened its seeds. parkinson says, it thrives remarkably well in our country, if the year be any thing kindly: miller informs us, that it is a native of africa and america, extols it as one of the most beautiful of the genus, observes, that it is a very distinct species from the purpurea, of which it has been considered by some as a variety; that it will grow to the height of eight or ten feet, that in favourable seasons the seeds will ripen in the open air, and that it requires the same treatment as other annuals usually raised on a hot-bed. mr. aiton considers it as a stove plant, as indeed most of our tender annuals properly are. it flowers from july to september. though apparently common in our gardens formerly, it is now very rarely met with. [illustration] [189] erica grandiflora. great-flowered heath. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 4-phyllus. _cor._ 4-fida. _filamenta_ receptaculo inferta. _antheræ_ bifidæ. _caps._ 4-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ erica _grandiflora_ antheris muticis exfertis, corollis cylindraceis subincurvis glabris, stylo elongato, floribus axillaribus pedunculatis, foliis subsenis acerosis glabris. _ait. hort. kew. vol. 2. p. 25._ erica _grandiflora_ foliis quaternis, stylo exserto, corolla cylindrica, calyce simplici, floribus lateralibus subcurvatis. _linn. suppl. pl. p. 223._ the erica here figured, is one of the many new and beautiful species, which within these few years have been sent from the cape by mr. masson, and which have contributed so greatly to enrich the royal garden at kew. the description given of the _grandiflora_ in the _suppl. plant_. accords so ill with our plant, that we should be led to consider it as another species, did not the respectable authority of the _hortus kewensis_ silence all doubts on that head. the blossoms of this species, whether we regard their magnitude, their colour, their smooth and glossy surface, or the regular position of the filaments, projecting beyond the corolla, and closing together by the antheræ, excite our notice, and claim our admiration. like every other heath, the hardy ones excepted, it is a greenhouse plant, and flowers from may to july. our drawing was made from a plant finely blown, in the collection of james vere, esq. kensington-gore. [190] ornithogalum aureum. golden ornithogalum. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ 6-petala, erecta, persistens, supra medium patens, _filamenta_ alterna basi dilatata. _specific character and synonyms._ ornithogalum _aureum_ foliis ovato-lanceolatis, albomargmatis, floribus racemosis confertis, filamentis nectario emarginato infidentibus. we have bestowed on this plant the name of _aureum_, from the colour of its blossoms, which are usually of a bright orange or gold colour; in some specimens we have observed them of a paler hue, and consequently less beautiful. this highly ornamental species is of modern introduction, having been received by mess. lee and kennedy, a few years since from the cape, of which it is a native. the root is a whitish bulb, resembling in size and shape that of the _lachenalia tricolor_, figured on plate 82 of this work, from whence spring three or four smooth, somewhat fleshy, upright, dark-green leaves, about half an inch wide, and three or four inches long, edged with white, and, if magnified, appearing fringed with very fine hairs or villi; the stalk is naked, from eight to twelve inches high, supporting many flowers, which spring from the alæ of large, hollow, pointed bracteæ, and which opening one after another, keep the plant a considerable time in flower; according to linnæus's generic character, every other filament should be dilated at the base, in the present species each filament is so, or rather sits as it were on a white glandular nectary, emarginated on the inside, and highly deserving of notice. in the greenhouse, where this plant has hitherto been kept, its blossoms come forth as early as january and february, and continue for several months; they will long display their beauty, if the stem be cut off and put in a phial of water. it is propagated by offsets from its bulbs, and has the appearance of being a plant of kindly growth and easy management. [illustration] [191] primula marginata. silver-edged primula. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _specific character and synonyms._ primula _marginata_ foliis obovatis serrato-dentatis albo marginatis, scapo multifloro, involucri foliolis pedunculis brevioribus. there is no difficulty in determining the british plants of this genus, but much in ascertaining many of the foreign ones: professor jacquin has taken great pains to elucidate them in his _miscel. austr._ where fifteen are specifically described, none of which accord exactly with the plant here figured, which has every appearance of being a distinct species: in the _hortus kewensis_ it is described as the _glutinosa_ of the _flora austriaca_, with which it agrees in many respects, but specimens sent from vienna shew it to be a different plant; in its farinaceous tendency it accords with the _primula auricula_, but is very unlike that plant as it is figured in its wild state by prof. _jacquin_, in the _fl. austr._ the leaves being much narrower, the flowers larger, and of a different colour; it differs from _glutinosa_ in the shortness of its involucrum, from _villosa_ (already figured) in having leaves much narrower, perfectly smooth in respect to villi, and in the colour of its blossoms, which approach that of the lilac, but more especially in its disposition to become mealy, particularly on the edges of its leaves, between the serratures, where it is so strong as to make the leaf appear with a white or silvery edge; as this character is constant to it, and not to any other species of primula that we are acquainted with, we have given to it the name of _marginata_. mr. _lee_ received it from the alps in the year 1781, and it has continued in our gardens ever since unaltered by culture.| it is a very delicate pretty plant, with a pleasing musky smell, and flowers in march and april. to succeed in its cultivation, it should be placed in a pot of stiffish loam, mixed with one-third rotten leaves, bog earth, or dung, and plunged in a north border, taking care that it does not suffer for want of water in dry seasons; thus treated, it increases by its roots nearly as readily as the auricula, and may be propagated by parting its' roots early in april or september. | [illustration] [illustration] [192] cypripedium acaule. two-leaved lady's slipper. _class and order._ gynandria diandria. _generic character._ nectarium ventricosum, inflatum, cavum. _specific character and synonyms._ cypripedium _acaule_ radicibus fibrosis, foliis oblongis radicalibus. _ait. hort. kew. v. 3. p. 303._ helleborine _calceolus_ dicta, mariana, foliis binis e radice ex adverso prodeuntibus, flore purpureo _pluk. mant. 101; t. 418. f. 1._ cypripedium _humile_--corolla labio superiore rhomboideo acuminato lateribus deflexo subtus carina angustissima obtusa, inferiore petalis longiore antice fisso. _transact. linn. soc. v. 1. p. 76. t. 3. f. 4._ we have not figured the present species of cypripedium so much on account of its beauty as of its rarity, for it is far less handsome than any of the other species that we are acquainted with. it is a native of different parts of north-america, and flowers with us in may. there is little difficulty in distinguishing it from the other foreign species, it has rarely more than two radical leaves, a very short flowering stem compared with the others, a large nectary in proportion to its size, which in the specimens we have seen has been divided on its upper part, through its whole length, so as in fact to destroy in a great degree that shoe or slipper-like form, from which this genus has taken its name. like the rest of the family, it requires a little extraordinary care in its culture; its roots should be placed in a pot filled with loam and bog-earth, or rotten leaves, well mixed, and plunged in a north border, where in severe seasons it will be proper to shelter it; if the whole border be formed of the same soil or compost the pot will be less necessary. our drawing was made from a plant growing with messrs. grimwood and co. kensington. [illustration] [193] narcissus angustifolius. narrow-leaved narcissus. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _petala_ 6 æqualia. _nectario_ infundibuliformi, 1-phyllo. _stamina_ intra nectarium. _specific character and synonyms._ narcissus _poeticus_ spatha uniflora, nectario rotato brevissimo scarioso crenulato. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 317._ _sp. pl. ed. 3. p. 414._ narcissus uniflorus, foliis ensiformibus, scypho brevissimo. _hall. hist. n. 1250._ narcissus albus circulo purpureo. _bauh. pin. p. 48._ _magnol. bot. monsp. p. 181._ narcissus poeticus medio purpureus. _lob._ narcissus medio purpureus. _dod. pempt. p. 223. f. 1._ narcissus medio purpureus præcox. timely purple ringed daffodil. _ger. herb. p. 108. f. 2._ also _præcocior, fig. 3._ and _præcocissimus, fig. 4._ narcissus medio purpureus præcox. the early purple ringed daffodil. _park. parad. p. 76. t. 75. f. 3._ narcissus latifol. classis altera, lin. 7. alterum vero, &c. _clus. hist. pl. rar. lib. 2. p. 156._ under the name of _poeticus_ three different species of narcissus appearing perfectly distinct (though similar in many respects) and regarded as such by the old botanists, have been confounded by the moderns, viz. narcissus albus circulo purpureo, v et vi } narcissus albus magno odoro flore circulo pallido,} c. bauh. narcissus pallidus circulo luteo } narcissus medio purpureus præcox, } narcissus medio purpureus serotinus,} park parad. narcissus medio luteus vulgaris, } the first of these, the one here figured is evidently the _poeticus_ of _linnæus_, judging by the authors to whom he refers in the third edition of his _spec. pl._ which are indeed few in number, and confined chiefly to _bauh. pin._ _dodonæus_; of the second, and third, he takes no notice. the two former ones of these have the greatest affinity, inasmuch as they both produce for the most part only one flower, of a white colour, having a very short nectary, edged with orange; to both of these linnæus's specific description is equally applicable, as well as the trivial name of _poeticus_, given them indiscriminately by several of the old botanists, some regarding the first, some the second as the plant mentioned by theocritus[2], virgil[3], and ovid[4]; unfortunately both of them are found to grow in the same meadows, and have the same obvious appearances, it is therefore utterly impossible to say which of the two was the narcissus of the poets; if we have the greatest difficulty in ascertaining what the plants were of the _botanists_ of those times, how are we to discover what the _poets_ meant, who with very few exceptions have been unpardonably inattentive to the appearances of nature. since then the term _poeticus_ is equally suitable to both, and as there cannot be two with the same name, we have thought it best to get rid of it altogether, and substitute others which tend in a certain degree to discriminate the several species, denominating the 1st. _angustifolius._ 2d. _majalis._ 3d. _biflorus._ the _angustifolius_ here figured is a native of the south of europe, and said by magnol and clusius to grow spontaneously in the meadows about narbonne and montpelier. it flowers in our gardens early in april, about a month before the _biflorus_, and full six weeks sooner than the _majalis_, increases readily by offsets, and succeeds best in a soil that is moderately moist. in what respects it differs from the two others, will be mentioned when they come to be figured. [footnote 2: florida sed postquam venêre in prata puellæ, his illa, hæc aliis se floribus oblectabant; narcisso illa quidem bene olente, atq; illa hyacintho.] [footnote 3: pro molli viola, pro purpureo narcisso, carduus et spinis surgit paliurus acutis.] [footnote 4: nusquam corpus erat, croceum pro corpore florem inveniunt, foliis medium cingentibus albis.] [illustration] [194] fritillaria imperialis. crown imperial. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ 6-petala, campanulata, supra ungues cavitate nectarifera. _stam._ longitudine corollæ. _specific character and synonyms._ fritillaria _imperialis_ racemo comoso inferne nudo, foliis integerrimis. _linn, syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 324._ _ait. kew. v. 1. p. 432._ lilium sive corona imperialis. _bauh. pin. p. 79._ tusai sive lilium persicum. _clust. hist. 1. p. 127._ corona imperialis. the crowne imperiall. _park. par. p. 27. tab. 29. f. 1._ the crown imperial, a native of the east, most probably of persia, was introduced according to dodonæus, into the gardens of the emperor and some of the nobility at vienna in 1576; it appears to have been cultivated here as early as 1596: both gerard and parkinson describe it minutely, the latter on account of its "stately beautifulness, gives it the first place in his garden of delight." it flowers usually in the beginning of april; the whole plant sends forth a strong unpleasant smell, compared by most writers to that of a fox, perceptible when you approach it; to this effluvia parkinson endeavours to reconcile us by saying that it is not unwholesome; it is so disagreeable however, that few choose to have many of these plants, or those in the most frequented parts of their gardens, yet it ought not to be proscribed, for independent of its beauty, there is much in it to admire, and especially its singular nectaria, which in the form of a white glandular excavation decorate the base of each petal; in these usually stands a drop of clear nectareous juice; the peduncle or flower-stalk which bends downwards when the plant is in flower, becomes upright as the seed ripens. of this plant, as of all others which have long been objects of culture, there are many varieties; those most generally cultivated in our gardens are the common orange-flowered single and double, yellow single and double, gold-striped leaved, and silver-striped leaved; the dutch in their catalogues enumerate thirteen varieties. luxuriant plants will sometimes produce a second and even a third whorl or crown of flowers, and the flat-stalked ones which are monsters, have been known to produce seventy-two blossoms, but none of these are found to be constant. the crown imperial, though a native of a much warmer climate than ours, is a hardy bulb, and not very nice in regard to soil, succeeds best in such as is stiffish, enriched with manure, and placed in a sheltered situation. is propagated by offsets, which are produced in tolerable abundance. [illustration] [195] cheiranthus mutabilis. changeable wall-flower. _class and order._ tetradynamia siliquosa. _generic character._ _germen_ utrinque denticulo glandulato. _cal._ clausus foliolis duobus basi gibbis. _sem._ plana. _specific character._ cheiranthus _mutabilis_ foliis lanceolatis acuminatis argute serratis, caule frutescente, siliquis pedunculatis. _ait. hort. kew. v. 2. p. 395._ the present species of _cheiranthus_, unknown both to miller and linnæus, was first described in the _hortus kewensis_ of mr. aiton, who informs us that it was introduced to the royal garden in 1777, and found wild in the island of madeira by mr. masson. its chief merit as an ornamental plant consists in its early flowering; its blossoms which are shewy contribute to enliven the green-house in march and april; on their first expanding, they are white, in some plants (for they are subject to great variation) inclined to yellow, in a few days they become purple; to this change of colour observable also in the _cheiranthus maritimus_ already figured, it owes its name of _mutabilis_. in sheltered gardens at the foot of a wall, we have known this species survive a mild winter; it seems indeed to be almost as hardy as the common stock; it is most commonly however kept in the green-house. the usual way of propagating this species, which is of ready and quick growth, is by cuttings, which should be put into the ground as soon as the plant has done flowering; these if properly treated will become handsome plants to place in the green-house at the approach of winter, and to decorate it the ensuing spring; in like manner may the green-house be annually recruited with many similar plants to great advantage. [196] saxifraga crassifolia. oval-leaved saxifrage. _class and order._ decandria digynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-partitus. _cor._ 5-petala. _caps._ 2-rostris, 1-locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ saxifraga _crassifolia_, foliis ovalibus retusis obsolete serratis petiolatis, caule nudo, panicula conglomerata. _linn. sp. pl ed. 3. p. 573._ _syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 412._ saxifraga foliis ovalibus crenulatis, caulibus nudis. _gmel. sib. 4. p. 166. t. 66._ the term _grandifolia_ would have been more applicable to this species of saxifrage than _crassifolia_, for it is not so much distinguished for the thickness as the largeness of its leaves; these are almost equal in size to those of our broad-leaved dock, red on the under and of a fine shining green on their upper surface; they may be ranked indeed among the more handsome kinds of foliage; the flowering stems, according to the richness and moisture of the soil in which they are planted, rise from one to two or even three feet high; at top supporting a large bunch of purple pendulous flowers, which blossom in april and may, and, if the season prove favourable, make a fine appearance. should cold winds prevail at the time of their flowering, which they are very apt to do, the plants should be covered with a hand-glass; or, if in a pot, it may be removed into the green-house, which they will not disgrace. is found spontaneously on the alps of siberia, and, according to mr. aiton, was introduced in 1765 by dr. solander. no plant is more readily increased by parting its roots, which may be done either in spring or autumn. there is another saxifrage in our gardens exceedingly like this in appearance, but differing, in producing larger bunches of flowers, and in having larger, rounder, and more heart-shaped leaves; mr. aiton regards this as a variety of the _crassifolia_, we are inclined to consider it as a species under the name of _cordifolia_. the parts of fructification in the _crassifolia_ are apt to be preternaturally increased. [illustration] [illustration] [197] narcissus biflorus. two-flower'd narcissus. narcissus _biflorus_ spatha biflor, nectario brevissimo scarioso. narcissus pallidus circulo luteo. _bauh. pin. p. 50._ narcissus medio luteus. _dod. pempt. p. 223. f. 2._ narcissus medio luteus. primrose peerles, or the common white daffodil. _ger. herb. p. 110. f. 6._ narcissus medio luteus vulgaris. the common white daffodill, called _primrose peerlesse_. _park. par. p. 74. t. 75. f. 1._ narcissus latifol classis altera, lin. 1. nascuntur, &c. ad intellexisse. _clus. hist. pl. rar. lib. 2. p. 156._ both gerard and parkinson describe and figure this plant, informing us that it was very common in the gardens in their time; the former indeed mentions it as growing wild in fields and sides of woods in the west of england; the latter says he could never hear of its natural place of growth. clusius reports that he had been credibly informed of its growing wild in england; it probably may, but of this it remains for us to be more clearly ascertained; it undoubtedly is the plant mentioned by ray in his synopsis. as it grows readily, increases in a greater degree than most others and is both ornamental and odoriferous, it is no wonder that we meet with it in almost every garden, and that in abundance, flowering towards the end of april, about three weeks later than the angustifolia. it usually produces two flowers, hence we have called it biflorus; it frequently occurs with one, more rarely with three, in a high state of culture it probably may be found with more; when it has only one flower it may easily be mistaken for the _majalis_, but may be thus distinguished from it; its petals are of a more yellow hue, the nectary is wholly yellow, wanting the orange rim, it flowers at least three weeks earlier; but the character, which by observation we have found most to be depended on, exists in the flowering stem, the top of which in the biflorus, very soon after it emerges from the ground, bends down and becomes elbowed, as our figure represents; in the _majalis_, it continues upright till within a short time of the flowers expanding. [illustration] [198] indigofera candicans. white-leaved indigo. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ patens. _cor._ carina utrinque calcari subulato patulo. _legumen_ lineare. _specific character and synonyms._ indigofera _candicans_ foliis ternatis lanceolato-linearibus subtus sericeis, spicis pedunculatis paucifloris, leguminibus cylindraceis rectis. _ait. hort. kew. v. 3, p. 67._ of the genus _indigofera_, twenty-three species are enumerated in prof. murray's edition of the _syst. vegetab._ of linnæus; ten in the _hortus kewensis_ of mr. aiton; in which last work only, the present plant, distinguished by the whiteness of its stalks and of the underside of its leaves, is described, and in which we are informed, that it is a native of the cape, from whence it was introduced by mr. masson in 1774. its principal period of flowering is from about the beginning of may to the middle of june, at which time it is highly ornamental in the green-house: strong healthy plants produce from five to eight blossoms in a spike: on a plant growing with mr. colvill, nurseryman, king's-road, chelsea, we once counted nine: a few of these usually produce seed-vessels containing perfect seeds, by which the plant is mostly propagated; it may also be raised by cuttings, but not very readily. [199] aster alpinus. alpine aster. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia superflua. _generic character._ _recept._ nudum. _pappus_ simplex. _cor._ radii plures 10. _cal._ imbricati squamæ inferiores patulæ. _specific character and synonyms._ aster _alpinus_ foliis subspathulatis hirtis integerrimis, caulibus simplicibus unifloris. _ait. hort. kew. p. 198._ aster _alpinus_ foliis spatulatis hirtis: radicalibus obtusis, caule simplicissimo unifloro. _linn. syst. vegetab. p. 761._ _jacq. fl. austr. v. 1. t. 88._ aster montanus cæruleus, magno flore, foliis oblongis. _bauh. pin. p. 267._ clusius and jacquin, by both of whom this species of aster is figured and described, inform us, that it grows spontaneously on the austrian alps: of the many hardy herbaceous species cultivated in our garden, this is by far the most humble in is growth; in its wild state acquiring the height of about four inches, and when cultivated, rarely exceeding eight or nine: its blossoms for its size are large and shewy, making their appearance much earlier than any of the others, viz. about the end of may and beginning of june, and continuing in blossom three weeks or a month. it is readily propagated by parting its roots in the autumn, may be kept in pots, or planted in the open border, prefers a moist stiffish soil; if carefully watered in dry weather, will grow among rock-work, for which, from its size, it is well adapted. [illustration] [200] antirrhinum sparteum. branching toad-flax. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-phyllus. _cor._ basis deorsum prominens nectarifera. _caps._ 2-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ antirrhinum _sparteum_ foliis subulatis canaliculatis carnosis: inferioribus ternis, caule paniculato corollisque glaberrimis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 555._ _ait. hort. kew. 2. p. 333._ the drawing here exhibited gives but a faint idea of the elegant and lively appearance which this plant assumes when it grows in a tuft, and a number of its branches are in blossom at the same time. it is a hardy annual, of small stature, a native of spain, and flowers during most of the summer. was introduced into this country, according to mr. aiton, in 1772, by mons. richard, and deserves to be much more generally cultivated. some regard it as a biennial, but as seeds of it sown in the spring flower the ensuing summer, and as the plant dies when it has ripened its seeds, there appears more propriety in considering it as an annual. it is to be sown in the same manner as other hardy annuals; will flower earlier if the seeds have been raised in autumn. the upper part of the stalk, as well as the leaves of the calyx, are beset with viscous hairs, in which respect it does not perfectly accord with linnæus's description. _vid. sp. pl. ed. 3. p. 854._ [illustration] [illustration] [201] pelargonium bicolor. two-coloured crane's-bill. _class and order._ monadelphia heptandria. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-partitus: lacinia suprema desinente in tubulum capillarem, nectariferum, secus pedunculum decurrentem. _cor._ 5-petala, irregularis. _filam._ 10, inæqualia: quorum 3 (raro 5) castrata. _fructus_ 5-coccus, rostratus: _rostra_ spiralia, introrsum barbata. _specific character and synonyms._ pelargonium _bicolor_ umbellis multifloris, foliis ternatifidis lobatis dentatis undulatis villosis. _l'herit. n. 64._ _ait. hort. kew. v. 2. p. 425._ geranium bicolor. _jacq. hort. 3. p. 23. t. 39._ _cavan. diss. 4. p. 248. t. 111. f. 1._ in every numerous tribe of plants, many of the species approach so near to each other, that there is much difficulty in distinguishing them; this objection cannot be urged against the present plant, which obviously differs from all the others of the same genus in the particular shape of its leaves and the colour of its blossoms, the latter are usually of a rich and very dark purple edged with white, from whence we apprehend it takes its name of _bicolor_; the colours however are scarcely distinct enough to justify such a name. mr. aiton informs us in his _hort. kew._ that this very ornamental species was introduced in the year 1778, by john, the late earl of bute, but of what country it is a native, does not appear to be ascertained. our drawing was made from a plant in the collection of messrs. grimwood and co. kensington, with whom it flowers from june to august. it is not disposed to ripen its seeds, nor is it very readily increased by cuttings. [202] lupinus perennis. perennial lupine. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ 2-labiatus. _antheræ_ 5, oblongæ 5, subrotundæ. _legumen_ coriaceum. _specific character and synonyms._ lupinus _perennis_ calycibus alternis inappendiculatis: labio superiore emarginato; inferiore integro. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 655._ _ait. kew. v. 3. p. 28._ lupinus calycibus alternis, radice perenni repente. _fl. virg. 172._ lupinus cæruleus minor perennis virginianus repens. _moris. hist. 2. p. 87. s. 2. t. 7. f. 6._ lupinus floribus cæruleis inodoris, in spicas longas digestis, radice reptatrice. _clayt. n. 779._ every species of lupine described in the _species plantarum_ of linnæus, and in the _hortus kewensis_ of mr. aiton, except the one here figured, are annuals; till another perennial one therefore shall be discovered, the term _perennis_ will be strictly applicable to the present plant. its root is not only of the kind just mentioned, but creeping also; mr. _miller_ informs us, that he traced some of them belonging to plants of a year old, to the depth of three feet, they also spread out far and wide; hence the roots even of young plants are with difficulty taken up entire, and as they do not succeed well by transplanting, if the root be cut or broken, our excellent author prefers raising this elegant plant from seed, which, though not very plentifully produced, ripen in july and august; care must be taken to gather them as soon as ripe. it is a native of virginia, and appears to have been cultivated in the botanic garden at oxford, as long since as 1658. flowers from may to july. is a hardy perennial, succeeding best in a dry situation, with a loam moderately stiff. [illustration] [illustration] [203] geranium angulatum. angular-stalked crane's-bill. _class and order._ monadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-phyllus. _cor._ 5-petala, regularis. _nect._ glandulæ 5, melliferæ, basi longiorum filamentorum adnatæ. _fructus_ 5-coccus, rostratus: _rostra_ simplicia, nuda, (nec spiralia nec barbata). _specific character and synonyms._ geranium _angulatum_ foliis radicalibus subpartitis incisis hirsutis, caule erecto subangulato, petalis venosis. having cultivated the geranium here figured for a series of years, we are perfectly satisfied of its being a species altogether distinct from any of the hardy and more ornamental plants of that genus usually cultivated in our gardens. it is obviously distinguished by two characters, the angular appearance of its stalk (whence our name of _angulatum_) and its flesh-coloured blossoms, marked with veins of a deeper red. in size it stands between _pratense_ and _aconitifolium_, in its blossoms it has some affinity to _striatum_ and _lancastriense_, but veins are not so strongly marked as in the former, and it differs from the latter in having an upright stalk. it usually flowers in may, and frequently again in autumn; is a hardy perennial, and easily increased either by seeds or parting its roots. of what country it is a native, or when it was first introduced, we have yet to learn; we first observed it in a nursery near town, where it is regarded as a very different species. [illustration] [204] ranunculus aconitifolius. mountain crowfoot, or fair maids of france. _class and order._ polyandria polygynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-phyllus. _petala_ 5-intra ungues poro mellifero. _sem._ nuda. _specific character and synonyms._ ranunculus _aconitifolius_ foliis omnibus quinatis lanceolatis inciso-serratis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 516._ _ait. kew. v. 1. p. 267._ ranunculus folio aconiti, flore albo multiplici. _bauh. pin. 179._ ranunculus montanus albus flore pleno. the double white mountain crowfoot. _park. parad. p. 219. f. 9._ double white bachelors buttons. _ger. herb. p. 812. f. 1._ this is one of those plants which derives its beauty from the multiplication of its petals; in its single state no one would think it deserving of culture as an ornamental plant: when double, few plants come in for a greater share of admiration. it is a native of the alps of europe, and flowers in may and june. was very generally cultivated in our gardens in the times of gerard and parkinson. like most alpine plants, it requires a pure air, and succeeds best in a situation moderately moist and shady; is a hardy perennial, and may be increased by parting its roots in autumn. in all seasons, with us, its foliage, as well as that of most other crowfoots, is liable to be disfigured, and sometimes nearly destroyed, by a very small maggot which feeds betwixt, the coats of the leaf, and which ultimately produces a small fly, called by us _musca ranunculi_. [205] antirrhinum alpinum. alpine toad-flax. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-phyllus. _cor._ basis deorsum prominens, nectarifera. _caps._ 2-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ antirrhinum _alpinum_ foliis quaternis lineari-lanceolatis glaucis, caule diffuso, floribus racemosis, calcari recto. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 556._ _ait. hort. kew. v. 2. p 335._ _jacq. fl. austr. v. 1. t. 58._ antirrhinum caule procumbente breviter spicato, foliis verticillatis. _hall. hist. p. 338._ linaria quadrifolia supina. _bauh. pin. p. 213._ linaria tertia styriaca. _clus. hist. 1. p. 322._ professor jacquin, in describing the flowers of this plant, calls them _elegantissimi_; and to one of its varieties haller applies the epithet _pulcherrima_: such testimonies in its favour will, we presume, be sufficient to recommend it to our readers. it is a native of various mountainous parts of europe, affecting moist, stony situations,[5] and flowers during most of the summer: is a hardy perennial[6], according to the celebrated author of the _fl. austriaca_; mr. aiton, in his _hort. kew._ marks it as a biennial. it is nevertheless apt to be lost, like other small alpine plants, for want of proper treatment and care. mr. aiton informs us on the authority of lobel, that it was cultivated here by mr. hugh morgan, in 1570. may be propagated by cuttings, as well as by seeds, which however are not very plentifully produced with us. succeeds best when kept in a pot, or on rock-work, which it is well suited to decorate. [footnote 5: in saxosis udis alpium. _jacq._] [footnote 6: radix perennis. _jacq._] [illustration] [illustration] [206] geranium anemonefolium. anemone-leav'd geranium. _class and order._ monadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-phyllus. _cor._ 5-petala, regularis. _nect._ glandulæ 5 melliferæ basi longiorum filamentorum adnatæ. _fructus_ 5-coccus, rostratus; _rostra_ simplicia nec spiralia nec barbata. _l. herit. geran._ _specific character and synonyms._ geranium _anemonefolium_ foliis palmatis; foliolis pinnatifidis, caule fruticoso. _l. herit. n. 6. t. 36._ geranium palmatum. _cavan. diss. 4. p. 216. t. 84. f. 2._ before the appearance of the _hortus kewensis_, _lævigatum_ was the term usually applied to this species of geranium, by botanists here, and that on account of the smooth and glossy appearance of its leaves; in that work mr. aiton adopts the word _anemonefolium_, by which mons. l. heritier had distinguished this species, from an idea that their shape afforded a more expressive character than their smoothness. we regret that the small size of our plate will not admit of our giving representation of those leaves, and of their mode of growth, which so strikingly characterizes the plant and adds so considerably to its beauty. mr. aiton informs us that this species is a native of madeira, from whence it was introduced here by mr. francis masson in 1778. it flowers from may to september, is usually and readily raised from seeds, nor is it so tender as many other green-house plants. [illustration] [207] dianthus barbatus. bearded pink or sweet william. _class and order._ decandria digynia. _generic character._ _cal._ cylindricus 1-phyllus: basi squamis 4. _petala_ 5 unguiculata. _capsula_ cylindrica, 1-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ dianthus _barbatus_ floribus aggregatis fasciculatis: squamis calycinis ovato-subulatis tubum æquantibus, foliis lanceolatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 17._ _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 88._ caryophyllus hortensis barbatus latifolius. _bauh. pin. 208._ armerius latifolius simplex. single sweete williams. _park. parad. p. 321._ linnæus, in his _spec. pl._ appears not to have known of what country the sweet william was a native, and even in the _hortus kewensis_, this circumstance is left undecided; yet dodonæus, in his _pemptades_[7], mentions its being found wild in germany, and prof. hoffman confirms this in his _germanys flora_[8]. at the time dodonæus wrote (1552) this plant was cultivated in the netherlands, from whence it was probably introduced to this country, where it certainly is one of the oldest inhabitants of our gardens. beautiful as are the numerous varieties of this species of dianthus, florists have not deemed it worthy of that peculiar attention which they have bestowed on its more favoured relatives the pink and carnation, and hence it probably has not arrived at that degree of improvement of which it is capable; our figure is intended to represent one of the most esteemed of its kind, viz. the _painted lady_ variety, which has a deep rich purple eye, surrounded with a pure white, having the edge of the petals slightly indented; but our colours fall far short of the beauties of the original. besides single flowers producing an infinite variety of colours, there are several double varieties of the sweet william, some of which are observed to have more scent than others. to possess these plants in perfection, we must renew them yearly; for though the root be perennial, it is apt to decay, especially if the soil in which it grows be either very moist, or very dry; or if the air be not pure, the single sorts must be raised from seeds, which should be saved from the choicest flowers; the double sorts may be increased by cuttings, pipings, or layers, in the same manner, and at the same time as pinks and carnations; the seed should be sown early in april, the seedlings transplanted into a bed in june, taking advantage of a wet day and placed about six inches asunder each way; in september they will be fit to transplant into the flower border, where they will blossom the ensuing summer, during the months of june and july, and ripen their seed in august. [footnote 7: in petrosis collibus et asperis, fabulosis apricisque locis, apud germanos nascitur. _pempt. p. 177._] [footnote 8: sponte in sylvaticis, montosis (carn. siles. tubing) germanys fl. 1791. p. 147.] [208] melissa grandiflora. great-flower'd balm. _class and order._ didynamia gymnospermia. _generic character._ _cal._ aridus, supra planiusculus; labio superiore subfastigiato. _corollæ_ lab. super. subfornicatum, 2-fidum; labium inf. lobo medio cordato. _specific character and synonyms._ melissa _grandiflora_ pedunculis axillaribus dichotomis longitudine florum. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 542._ _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 315._ calamintha magno flore. _bauh. pin. 229._ calamintha montana præstantior. the more excellent calamint. _ger. herb. p. 556._ as to the name. _ger. emac. 687._ as to the figure. the _melissa grandiflora_, a beautiful and hardy perennial, grows spontaneously on the hilly and mountainous parts of france, italy, and germany; gerard mentions it as found wild in this country, which stands in need of further confirmation; there is little doubt, however, but he had cultivated the plant; as he says, "brought into the garden, it prospereth marvellous well and very easily soweth itself." it is the more valuable, as it flowers during most of the summer. there is a variety of it with white, and another with red flowers, both much inferior in size to those of the plant here figured, and therefore not worth cultivating; we have a variety also with variegated leaves which we obtained from seeds. this plant is readily propagated by parting its roots in autumn, and may also be raised from seeds, which are plentifully produced: as it rarely exceeds a foot in height, it becomes a suitable plant for the small flower border, or for the decoration of rock-work. the leaves when bruised have the smell of garden balm. [illustration] [illustration] [209] hibiscus trionum. bladder hibiscus. _class and order._ monadelphia polyandria. _generic character._ _cal._ duplex: exterior polyphyllus. _caps._ 5-locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ hibiscus _trionum_ foliis tripartitis incisis, calycibus inflatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 631._ _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 458._ trionum _linn. hort. cliff. 349._ alcea vesicaria. _bauh. pin. 317._ alcea peregrina five vesicaria. venice mallow, or good night at noone. _park. parad. p. 368. 307. f. 2._ seeds of the plant here figured are sold in the seed-shops under the name of venice mallow, a name by which it was known in the time of gerard and parkinson: mr. aiton has changed this for the more scientific one of bladder hibiscus. authors have also distinguished this plant by terms expressive of the short-lived expansion of its flowers, which gerard says open at eight o'clock in the morning and close about nine, from whence he observes, that it might with propriety be called malva horaria: miller lengthens the duration of its blowing to a few hours: we have frequently observed its blossoms continue sufficiently open to shew their beauty the greatest part of the day, more especially towards the close of summer. few annuals are more admired than this, the inside of the flower is of delicate cream colour, having the centre embellished with a rich purple velvet, on which its golden antheræ are proudly conspicuous. it is said to be a native of italy; a cape variety, differing in hairiness and a few other particulars is mentioned by miller, and considered by him as a species. the least possible trouble attends the raising of this beautiful annual, as it readily ripens its seeds, which falling on the ground produce plants in abundance the ensuing spring; to have it flower as long as may be, it will be proper to sow it at two or three different periods. [illustration] [210] celsia linearis. linear-leav'd celsia. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-partitus. _cor._ rotata. _filamenta_ barbata, _caps._ 2-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ celsia _linearis_. _jacq. collect. v. 2. n. 210._ _icon. v. 2. t. 13._ celsia _linearis_ foliis ternis linearibus denticulatis. we here present our readers with the figure of a plant newly introduced from france by mr. williams, nurseryman of paris, collected originally in peru by mr. dombey, whose flowers, if they do not equal those of the fuchsia already figured in elegance of form and growth, surpass them somewhat in brilliancy of colour, whence it becomes a most desirable plant for the purpose of ornament. professor jacquin, who first gave a figure and description of this plant, informs us in his collectanea, that he received seeds of it from professor ortega of madrid, under the name of _celsia linearis_, which name he has adopted; and we, from respect to such authority, have continued; at the same time we must observe, that it ill accords with that genus: the blossoms while in bud fold up somewhat in the same manner as those of the celsia, but on expansion they appear widely different; their shape indeed then becomes truly singular, resembling a half-formed imperfect corolla, its filaments are short and want the hairs which in part characterise the celsia; its seed-vessels also are far from being round: its antheræ are large and close together, somewhat like those of the solanum, and there is so little of inequality in them, that few students would be induced to refer its flowers to the class didynamia. being a native of a warm climate, it comes to the greatest perfection here when placed in a stove in which the heat is moderate; but it will succeed very well if treated as a tender green-house plant: it does not appear to be quite so hardy as the fuchsia, nor to flower like that plant at all seasons, but usually produces its blossoms in the latter summer months, those are succeeded by seed-vessels producing perfect seeds, by which, as well as by cuttings, the plant is propagated. its leaves, which are not deciduous, are linear, and more or less toothed, growing three together; this character however is somewhat obscured by others growing from their bosoms. [211] sedum populifolium. poplar-leav'd stonecrop. _class and order._ decandria pentagynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-fidus. _cor._ 5-petala. _squamæ_ nectariferæ 5 ad basin germinis. _caps._ 5. _specific character and synonyms._ sedum _populifolium_ foliis planis cordatis dentatis petiolatis, corymbis terminalibus. _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 109._ sedum _populifolium_ foliis petiolatis cordatis dentatis, floribus paniculatis. _linn. fil. suppl. p. 242._ sedum _populifolium_. _pallas, it. 3. p. 730. t. o. fig. 2._ professor pallas, the celebrated russian naturalist, discovered this species of sedum in siberia, and in the year 1780, introduced it to the royal garden at kew; the younger linnæus describes it minutely in his _suppl. plantarum_, and observes, that in its general form it much resembles the _saxifraga rotundifolia_. its leaves are flat as in many of the other species, and when the plant grows in an open situation, exposed to the sun, they become as well as the stalks of a bright red colour, which adds much to its beauty. it is the only hardy sedum cultivated; in our gardens with a shrubby stalk, its leaves however are deciduous, so that in the winter it loses its verdure, it flowers in july and august, and is readily increased by cuttings. as most of this tribe grow readily, and many of them naturally on rocks and walls, they may be in general regarded as proper rock plants, some of them however are apt by the quickness of their growth to extend over and destroy plants of more value; this fault, if such it may be deemed, is not imputable to the _populifolius_. some not knowing its native place of growth, keep it in the green-house. [illustration] [212] tanacetum flabelliforme. fan-leaved tansy. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia superflua. _generic character._ _recept._ nudum. _pappus_ submarginatus. _cal._ imbricatus, hemisphæricus. _cor._ radii obsoletæ, trifidæ. _linn. (interdum nullæ omnesque flosculi hermaphroditi.) murr._ _specific character and synonyms._ tanacetum _flabelliforme_ corymbis simplicibus, foliis deltoidibus apice serratis. _l'herit. sert. angl. t. 27._ _ait. hort. kew. v. 3. p. 169._ there is a neatness in the appearance of this plant, which joined to the singular form of its foliage, varying also from the general hue, entitles it to a place in the green-house. mr. masson discovered it at the cape, and introduced it here in 1774. _ait. kew._ it flowers from may to august, grows freely, and is usually propagated by cuttings. [illustration] [illustration] [213] polygonum orientale. tall persicaria. _class and order._ octandria trigynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 0. _cor._ 5-partita, calycina. _sem._ 1. angulatum. _specific character and synonyms._ polygonum _orientale_ floribus heptandris digynis, foliis ovatis, caule erecto, stipulis hirtis hypocrateriformibus. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 377._ _ait. hort. kew. v. 2. p. 32._ persicaria _orientalis_ nicotianæ folio calyce florum purpureo. _tournef. cor. 38._ schovanna-modelamuccu. _rheed. mal. 12. p. 147. t. 76._ of the genus polygonum, the present well-known native of the east, as well as of india, is the principal one cultivated in our gardens for ornament, and is distinguished not less for its superior stature than the brilliancy of its flowers; it will frequently grow to the height of eight or ten feet, and become a formidable rival to the gigantic sun-flower. there is a dwarf variety of it, and another with white flowers; it has been observed to vary also in point of hairiness. it flowers from july to october, and produces abundance of seed, which, falling on the borders, generally comes up spontaneously in the spring; but it is most commonly sown in the spring with other annuals: when the seedlings appear, they should be thinned so as to stand a foot apart. this plant requires very little care, and will bear the smoke of london better than many others. was cultivated by the dutchess of beaufort, in 1707. _ait. kew._ the stipulæ on the stalk are deserving of notice, being unusual in their form, and making it look as if beruffled. [214] dracocephalum denticulatum. toothed dragon's-head. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _corollæ faux_ inflata: _labium_ superius concavum. _specific character and synonyms._ dracocephalum _denticulatum_ floribus spicatis remotis, foliis obovato-lanceolatis superne denticulatis. _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 317._ about the year 1786, we received from philadelphia, seeds of a plant collected at a considerable distance from that city, announced to us as new and rare, and which produced the present species of _dracocephalum_: mr. watson, nurseryman at islington, obtained the same plant from carolina, about the same period. it is a hardy perennial, multiplying considerably by its roots, which creep somewhat; it must be planted in a moist soil, and shady situation, for such it affects, and in such only will it thrive. it flowers in august and september. it bears a considerable affinity to the _dracocephalum virginianum_, to which, though a much rarer plant, it is inferior in point of beauty; it spreads more on the ground, its flowering stems are not altogether so upright, nor so tall, the leaves are broader, and the flowers in the spikes less numerous. [illustration] [illustration] [215] ranunculus acris flore pleno. double upright crowfoot. _class and order._ polyandria polygynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-phyllus. _petala_ 5, intra ungues poro mellisero. _sem._ nuda. _specific character and synonyms._ ranunculus _acris_ calycibus patulis, pedunculis teretibus, foliis tripartito multifidis: summis linearibus. _linn. syst. veg. ed. 14. murr. p. 517._ ranunculus hortensis erectus flore pleno. _bauh. pin. p. 178. ?._ ranunculus pratensis flore multiplici. _park. parad. p. 218._ the double yellow field crowfoot. in giving a representation of this species of ranunculus, we have made a slight deviation from the strict letter of our plan, as expressed in the title page, which confines us to the figuring of foreign plants only; we have thought, however, that it would not be inconsistent with the spirit of the _flower-garden displayed_, were we occasionally to introduce such english plants as have double flowers, and which, on that account, are thought worthy of a place in every garden; they are but few in number, and we flatter ourselves that this trifling alteration will be approved by our numerous readers. the _ranunculus acris_ is the first that we offer of these; a plant, in its wild and single state, common in all our rich meadows, and in its improved, or to speak more botanically, in its monstrous state (all double flowers being monsters, for the most part formed from the preternatural multiplication of their petals) it has long been cultivated in gardens abroad, as well as here. there are certain ornamental plants of the perennial kind, which, if once introduced, will succeed with the least possible trouble, and therefore suit such as have little time to bestow on their flower-gardens; the present plant is one of those: if the soil in which we plant it be moist, it will grow most readily, and flower during the months of june and july; and it is easily increased, by parting its roots in autumn. [illustration] [216] cypripedium album. white-petal'd ladies slipper. _class and order._ gynandria diandria. _generic character._ _nectarium_ ventricosum inflatum cavum. _specific character and synonyms._ cypripedium _album_ radicibus fibrosis foliis ovato-lanceolatis caulinis, petalis obtusis. _ait. hort. kew. v. 3. p. 303._ helleborine calceolus dicta mariana flore gemello candido, venis purpureis, striato. _pluk. mant. 101. t. 418. f. 3._ cypripedium _hirsutum_ foliis oblongo ovatis venosis hirsutis flore maximo. _mill. dict. ed. 6. 4to._ cypripedium _spectabile_. corolla labio superiore ovali basi retuso concavo subtus carina obtusa, inferiore petalis longiore grosso. _salisb. trans. linn. soc. v. 1. p. 78._ of the genus _cypripedium_, great-britain produces only one, america several species; of these the _album_ here figured, (whose name is derived from the whiteness of its petals, and with which the nectary must not be confounded) is by far the most magnificent; indeed there are few flowers which to such singularity of structure add such elegance and beauty: it grows spontaneously in various parts of north-america, and chiefly in the woods; was introduced to the royal garden at kew, by mr. william young about the year 1770, but was known to mr. miller, and cultivated by him at chelsea long before that period; this intelligent and truly practical author informs us, that all the sorts of cypripedium are with difficulty preserved and propagated in gardens; he recommends them to be planted in a loamy soil, and in a situation where they may have the morning sun only; they must, he observes, for the above reasons, be procured from the places where they naturally grow; the roots should be seldom removed, for transplanting them prevents their flowering, which usually takes place in june. a greater proof of the difficulty of increasing these plants need not be adduced than their present scarcity, though vast numbers have been imported, how few can boast of possessing them, or of preserving them for any length of time; careful management in their cultivation will doubtless go far, but peculiarity of soil and situation would appear to be of greater importance: it is well known that certain plants thrive in certain districts only, the double yellow rose, for instance, barely exists near london, yet this plant i have seen growing most luxuriantly, and producing a profusion of bloom, in the late mr. mason's garden, cheshunt, herts, and in which various orchis's also acquired nearly twice their usual size,--enviable spot! index. in which the latin names of the plants contained in the _sixth volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ 200 antirrhinum sparteum. 207 ---alpinum. 199 aster alpinus. 210 celsia linearis. 195 cheiranthus mutabilis. 181 colutea frutescens. 188 convolvulus nil. 185 coronilla valentina. 192 cypripedium acaule. 216 ---album. 207 dianthus barbatus. 214 dracocephalum denticulatum. 189 erica grandiflora. 194 fritillaria imperialis. 203 geranium angulatum. 206 ---anemonefolium. 209 hibiscus trionum. 198 indigofera candicans. 187 iris sambucina. 184 ixia crocata. 202 lupinus perennis. 208 melissa grandiflora. 193 narcissus angustifolius. 197 ---biflorus. 190 ornithogalum aureum. 201 pelargonium bicolor. 213 polygonum orientale. 191 primula marginata. 204 ranunculus aconitifolius. 215 ---acris flore pleno. 182 salvia aurea. 196 saxifraga crassifolia. 211 sedum populifolium. 186 selago ovata. 183 syringa vulgaris. 212 tanacetum flabelliforme. index. in which the english names of the plants contained in the _sixth volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ 199 aster alpine. 208 balm great-flower'd. 181 bladder-senna scarlet. 210 celsia linear-leav'd. 188 convolvulus azure. 185 coronilla rue-leav'd. 201 crane's-bill two-colour'd. 203 ---angular-stalk'd. 204 crowfoot mountain. 215 ---upright-double. 214 dragon's-head toothed. 206 geranium anemone-leav'd. 189 heath great-flower'd. 209 hibiscus bladder. 194 imperial crown. 198 indigo white-leav'd. 187 iris elder-scented. 184 ixia saffron-colour'd. 192 ladies-slipper two-leav'd. 216 ---white-petal'd. 183 lilac common. 202 lupine perennial. 193 narcissus narrow-leav'd. 197 ---two-flower'd. 190 ornithogalum golden. 213 persicaria tall. 191 primula silver-edg'd. 182 sage golden. 196 saxifrage oval-leav'd. 186 selago oval-headed. 211 stonecrop poplar-leav'd. 212 tansey fan-leav'd. 200 toad-flax branching. 207 ---alpine. 195 wall-flower changeable. 207 william sweet. file made using scans of public domain works at the university of georgia.) the botanical magazine; or, flower-garden displayed: in which the most ornamental foreign plants, cultivated in the open ground, the green-house, and the stove, are accurately represented in their natural colours. to which are added, their names, class, order, generic and specific characters, according to the celebrated linnæus; their places of growth, and times of flowering: together with the most approved methods of culture. a work intended for the use of such ladies, gentlemen, and gardeners, as wish to become scientifically acquainted with the plants they cultivate. by _william curtis_, author of the flora londinensis. vol. vii. "now let us range both far, and wide, "thro' all the gardens boasted pride. "here jasmines spread the silver flow'r, "to deck the wall or weave the bow'r, "the woodbines mix in am'rous play, "and breathe their fragrant lives away. "there rising myrtles form a shade; "there roses blush, and scent the glade; "the orange, with a vernal face, "wears ev'ry rich autumnal grace; "while the young blossoms here unfold, "there shines the fruit like pendant gold; "citrons their balmy sweets exhale, "and triumph in the distant gale. cotton. _london:_ printed by stephen couchman, for w. curtis, no 3, _st. george's-crescent_, black-friars-road; and sold by the principal booksellers in great-britain and ireland. mdccxciv. [217] buchnera viscosa. clammy buchnera. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _cal_. obsolete 5-dentatus. _corollæ_ limbus 5-fidus, æqualis: lobis cordatis. _caps_. 2-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ buchnera _viscosa_ foliis lineari-lanceolatis laxe dentatis subglutinosis, floribus pedunculatis, caule fruticoso. _l' herit. strip. nov. tom. 2. tab. 34. ait. kew. v. 2. p. 357._ _buchnera_ is a genus of plants established by linnæus in honour of a. e. buchner, a german naturalist. of this genus, nine species are enumerated in the 14th edition of the _systema vegetabilium_, by professor murray. we learn from mr. aiton, that the present species (a native of the cape) was introduced to the royal garden at kew in 1774. it cannot boast much beauty, yet as it occupies but little room, grows readily from cuttings, and flowers during most of the summer: it obtains a place in most greenhouses. [illustration: _no 217_] [illustration: _no 218_] [218] disandra prostrata. trailing disandra. _class and order._ heptandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ sub 7-partitus. _cor._ rotata, subseptem-partita. _caps._ 2-locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ disandra prostrata. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. suppl. pl. p. 32. 214._ _ait. kew, v. 1. p. 493._ sibthorpia peregrina. _linn. sp. pl. ed. 3. p. 880._ the foliage of this plant greatly resembles that of ground ivy, and its branches trail on the ground somewhat in the same manner, extending to the length of several feet; but it is not on the ground that it is best seen, as its flowers are apt to be hid among the leaves: it appears most advantageously when growing in a pot, placed on a pedestal, or in some elevated situation, where its branches may hang carelessly down: thus treated, when fully blown, it becomes a most pleasing object. linnæus, the son, in his _suppl. plant._ observes, that the _disandra_ varies extremely in the number of its stamina, as it does also in the divisions of its calyx, and corolla; in this respect;, indeed, we do not know its equal: fortunately for those systems of botany, which are formed from the number of certain parts of the fructification, few such inconstants exist. professor murray observes, that seven is the most prevalent number of its stamina, five the most natural. linnæus describes it as a native of the east; mr. aiton informs us, that it was introduced here about the year 1771, from madeira. it flowers during most of the summer months; in the winter it must be kept in the green-house; in the summer it will bear the open air, grows readily from cuttings, should be planted in rich earth, and plentifully watered in dry weather. [illustration: _no 219_] [219] michauxia campanuloides. rough-leav'd michauxia. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 16-partitus. _cor._ rotata, 8-partita. _nectarium_ 8-valve, staminiferum. _caps._ 8-locularis, polysperma. _l' heritier monogr._ _specific character and synonyms._ michauxia campanuloides. _l' heritier monogr._ the celebrated author of the _hortus kewensis_ informs us, that the plant here figured is a native of the levant, and was introduced to this country in the year 1787, by mons. l'heritier, who first gave it the name of _michauxia_, and wrote a monographia, or particular treatise on it. we have before observed, that when a plant has been named in honour of any particular person, that name must be retained in all countries, however uncouth its pronunciation may be, and there are few of our readers but what will think the present name sufficiently so. last summer 1792, in the month of july, we had the pleasure to see a fine plant of this sort, fully blown, in the collection of messrs. grimwood and co. kensington; though in a small pot, it grew nearly to the height of six feet, was branched almost to the bottom, and loaded with a profusion of blossoms, such as are represented on the plate, and which bore some distant resemblance to those of a passion-flower. it is a biennial green-house plant, and, of course, only to be raised from seeds, which we are sorry to find have not ripened in this country, though they are said to do so in france. [220] erica cerinthoides. honeywort-flower'd heath. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 4-phyllus. _cor._ 4-fida. _filamenta_ receptaculo inferta. _antheræ_ bifidæ. _caps._ 4-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ erica _cerinthoides_ antheris muticis inclusis, corollis clavatis grossis, stigmate incluso cruciato, foliis quaternis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 368._ _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 22._ the _erica cerinthoides_ is one of the most magnificent and shewy of the genus, grows wild at the cape, from whence it was introduced to the royal garden at kew, by mr. masson, in 1774; it is the more valuable, as it flowers during most of the year: its blossoms are found to vary from a deep to a very pale red. it is a hardy green-house plant, and usually propagated by cuttings. to have this beautiful tribe of plants in perfection, they must be kept in pots proportioned to their size, filled with that kind of bog earth in which our british heaths grow spontaneously, finely sifted; to which it may be necessary sometimes to add a third part of the mould of rotten leaves, or choice loam, partaking more of a clayey than a sandy nature: we must be careful not to let them suffer for want of water in dry hot weather, as such an omission, even for one day, may be fatal; and to give them as much air as possible at all times when the weather is mild. [illustration: _no 220_] [221] ipomoea coccinea. scarlet ipomoea. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ infundibuliformis, _stigma_ capitato-globosum, _caps._ 3-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ ipomoea _coccinea_ foliis cordatis acuminatis basi angulatis, pedunculis multifloris. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 204._ _ait. kew. v. 1. p. 215._ convolvulus coccineus, folio anguloso, _plum. amer. 89. t. 103._ quamolcit americana, folio hederæ, flore coccineo. _comm. rar. 21. t. 21._ the _ipomoea_ is very nearly related to the _convolvulus_, one principal difference consists in the different form of its stigma, which is globular, like that of the primrose; whereas in the convolvulus it is divided into two substances, as is obviously shewn in the _convolvulus arvensis_ and _sepium_, but all the plants of these two genera have not this character marked with equal strength. the present species is a twining plant, will run up a stick to the height of six, eight, or ten feet, and produce an abundance of flowers, of a rich orange colour tending to scarlet, which renders it one of the most ornamental annuals cultivated in our gardens, into which it is not as yet generally introduced, though cultivated by mr. miller, in 1759. mr. miller describes it as a native of carolina, and the bahama islands, mr. aiton of the west-indies; it flowers from june to september. it is cultivated in the same manner, and with the same ease as other annuals; three seeds may be set in the ground, about four inches asunder, in the form of a triangle; when the seedlings are sufficiently advanced, a tall stick is to be thrust down in the centre betwixt the three plants, for them to twine around: the warmer and more sheltered the situation, and the richer the soil in which they are placed, the taller the plants will grow; by raising them on a hot bed, you may anticipate their natural time of flowering, and be more certain of obtaining good seed. [illustration: _no 221_] [illustration: _no 222_] [222] struthiola erecta. smooth struthiola. _class and order._ tetrandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ nulla. _cal._ tubulosus, ore glandulis 8. _bacca_ exsucca, polysperma. _linn. mant. p. 4. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 165._ _specific character and synonyms._ struthiola _erecta_ glabra. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 164._ _ait. kew. v. 1. p. 165._ passerina _dodecandra_. _linn. sp. pl. ed. 3. p. 513._ _amæn. acad. v. 4. p. 271._ passerina filiformis. _mill. dict. ed. 6. 4to._ passerina. _burm. afric. t. 47. f. 1._ the plant here represented appears to have been first described and figured by burman, in his _pl. afric._ under the name of _passerina_: linnæus introduced it in the 3d edition of his _sp. pl._ by the title of _passerina dodecandra_; discovering afterwards that it had in reality only four stamina, and that the other eight substances, mistaken for such, were so many glandular nectaria, he made in his _mantiss. plant._ a new genus of it, by the name of _struthiola_, and assigned it the trivial name of _erecta_; in the abbreviated generic description given of it by prof. murray, an alteration is made in this generic character, and what before was considered as corolla, is here regarded as calyx; no reason is assigned for this alteration, and we are at a loss to account for the propriety of it. mr. miller, who cultivated this plant in 1758, describes it in his dictionary, and observes very justly, that though its branches when young are erect, when loaded with blossoms they incline to a horizontal position; hence the term _erecta_ becomes an improper one, and should be changed for one more expressive. this species of struthiola is a very common shrub in our greenhouses, will grow to the height of five or six feet, and, though not so ornamental as some other plants, has the merit of flowering during most of the year, and often in the depth of winter. is readily increased by cuttings. [223] lychnis coronata. chinese lychnis. _class and order._ decandria pentagynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 1-phyllus, oblongus, lævis. _petala_ 5, unguiculata: _limbo_ sub-bifido. _caps._ 5-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ lychnis _coronata_ glabra, floribus axillaribus terminalibusque solitariis, petalis laciniatis. _thunb. japon. p. 187._ _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 435._ _ait. kew. v. 1. p. 117._ lychnis _grandiflora_ floribus axillaribus terminalibusque folitariis, petalis inæqualiter crenatis. _jacq. collect. v. 1. p. 149. icon. v. 1._ japonice sen sjun ra, vulgo ganpi. _kempf. amæn. exot. fasc. v. p. 873._ the rich and elegant blossoms of this chinese or japanese beauty, possess a flatness and stiffness, which gives them an artificial air, to which their colour, which is exactly that of common red lead, may perhaps somewhat contribute; they make their appearance towards the close of the summer, and as many (when the plant is in health and vigour) are produced on the same stem, they continue a considerable time in bloom; its root is perennial, and its stem, which rises to the height of about two feet, herbaceous. we remember to have seen this plant in the collection of the late dr. fothergill at upton, about the year 1774, by whom it was first introduced to this country: kæmpfer, the celebrated dutch traveller, who saw it growing in japan, gives a very short description of it in his _amænitates exoticæ_, and mentions a variety of it with white flowers: professor thunberg, who saw it also in its wild state, as well as in the gardens of that country, confines himself to describing the plant more at large: professor jacquin, in his _icones_, has given an admirable figure of it. persons here differ in their mode of cultivating this species of lychnis, some treating it as a stove others as a greenhouse and others as a hardy herbaceous plant; the latter mode is to be preferred, provided care be taken to plant it in a sheltered situation, and to guard it against the inclemency of particular seasons; it is propagated by parting its roots, also by slips, and cuttings, but in this business more than ordinary care is required to be successful. [illustration: _no 223_] [illustration: _no 224_] [224] phylica ericoides. heath-leav'd phylica. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _perianthium_ 5-partitum, turbinatum. _petala_ 0. _squamæ_ 5, stamina munientes. _caps._ tricocca, infera. _specific character and synonyms._ phylica _ericoides_ foliis linearibus verticillatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 235._ _ait. kew. v. 1. p. 268._ alaternoides africana ericæ foliis, floribus albicantibus et muscosis. _comm. hort. 2. p. 1. t. 1._ mr. miller, who cultivated this plant in 1731, informs us, that it grows wild about lisbon, where it covers extensive tracts of ground, in the same manner as the heath does in this country; it seldom rises above the height of three feet, and is much disposed to become bushy; its flowers, which are slightly odoriferous, begin to appear in autumn, and continue during the winter and spring; they grow in little heads on the summits of the branches: their whiteness, contrasted with the dark colour of the foliage, forms a pleasing appearance, and entitles this plant, though a common and long-established inhabitant of the greenhouse, to a place with such as may boast more brilliancy of colour. its leaves, which thickly cover the stalks, do not well accord with linnæus's specific description. it is usually propagated by cuttings, which strike readily. [illustration: _no 225_] [225] lobelia surinamensis. shrubby lobelia. _class and order._ syngenesia monogamia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-fidus. _cor._ 1-petala, irregularis. _caps._ infera, 2 sive 3-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ lobelia _surinamensis_ caule suffruticoso, foliis oblongis glabris serratis, floribus axillaribus pedunculatis. _ait. kew. v. 3. p. 498. sp. pl. 1320._ lobelia _lævigata_ foliis ellipticis serratis glabris, capsulis grossis globosis, calycibus subulatis, corollis glaberrimis. _linn. suppl. p. 392._ the lobelia surinamensis, a plant newly introduced here, is minutely described in the _suppl. pl._ of the younger linnæus, under the name of _lævigata_, apparently from the smoothness of its flowers: in the year 1786, mr. alexander anderson sent this plant to the royal garden at kew, from the west-indies, where it grows spontaneously, as well as at surinam; and mr. aiton has inserted it at the end of the _hort. kew._ assigning to it a new specific description, and a new trivial name: our drawing was made from a plant which flowered in the stove of messrs. grimwood and co. kensington, to whom it was imparted by richard molesworth, esq. of peckham, a gentleman liberal in his communications, and anxious to promote the cause of botany. this species of lobelia is a stove plant, having a some-*what shrubby stalk, growing to the height of several feet; its blossoms are very large, of a pale red colour, and its antheræ, which might be mistaken for the stigma, unusually hairy. it begins to flower in january and february, and continues to blossom during most of the summer. is increased by cuttings. [226] arabis alpina. alpine wall-cress. _class and order._ tetradynamia siliquosa. _generic character._ _glandulæ_ nectariferæ 4, singulæ intra calycis foliola, squamæ instar reflexæ. _specific character and synonyms._ arabis _alpina_ foliis amplexicaulibus dentatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 599._ _ait. kew. vol. 2. p. 399._ _mill. dict. ed. 6. 4to._ draba alba siliquosa repens. _bauh. pin. p. 109._ an early-blowing plant, if it has no great pretensions to beauty, brings with it a powerful recommendation, more especially if its flowers are not of the more common hue; such are the claims which the present plant has to a place in this work: it is perennial, hardy, herbaceous, of low growth, rarely exceeding a foot in height, producing its white blossoms in april and may: its size renders it a suitable plant for the border of a small garden, or for the covering of rock-work. it is readily increased by parting its roots in autumn. grows spontaneously on the alps of switzerland, austria, and lapland, and was cultivated (_vid. hort. kew_) in the botanic garden at oxford, in 1658. [illustration: _no 226_] [227] helianthus multiflorus. many-flowered or perennial sun-flower. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia frustranea. _generic character._ _recept._ paleaceum, planum. _pappus_ 2-phyllus. _cal._ imbricatus, subsquarrosus. _specific character and synonyms._ helianthus _multiflorus_ foliis inferioribus cordatis trinervatis superioribus ovatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 781._ chrysanthemum americanum majus perenne, floris folis foliis et floribus. _moris. hist. 3. p. 23._ the helianthus multiflorus, a native of north-america, is a hardy perennial herbaceous plant, arising usually to the height of five or six feet, and producing a great number of large yellow shewy blossoms, which renders it a suitable plant to ornament the shrubbery or garden of large extent; the variety with double flowers is the one most commonly cultivated, and this we find in almost every garden: it flowers from july to september, and is propagated by parting its roots in autumn. this is a hardy plant, of ready growth, will bear the smoke of london better than many others; if it continues in the same spot for a great number of years, the blossoms are apt to become single. the single sort, according to morison, was introduced before 1699 by lord lemster. _ait. kew._ [illustration: _no 227_] [illustration: _no 228_] [228] bellis perennis _var._ major flore pleno. great double daisy. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia superflua. _generic character._ _recept._ nudum, conicum. _pappus_ nullus. _cal._ hemisphæricus: squamis æqualibus. _sem._ subovata. _specific character and synonyms._ bellis _perennis_ scapo nudo. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 770._ bellis hortensis flore pleno. _bauh. pin. p. 261._ bellis minor hortensis flore pleno. double garden daisy. _park. parad. p. 322._ the daisy, a plant common to europe, in its wild state delights in open situations, which are moderately moist, its root is perennial, and increases greatly; the usual colour of its flowers is white, the florets are sometimes tipt with red, but more frequently red on the under side. when double, the daisy becomes much more ornamental, and in this state many varieties of it have long been cultivated, very generally in gardens; those principally found in our nurseries are the large double daisy with florets of a deep red colour on the under side, figured on the plate; the flowers of this sort will sometimes expand nearly to the size of a half-crown piece, and are the most shewy of any that we have seen; the foliage of this sort is also proportionably larger. the pale red double daisy, more delicate in its appearance, but smaller, varying in its shades of colour. the pure white double daisy. the deep red double daisy; in this the petals are usually tubular or quilled. besides these, there are the coxcomb double daisy, both red and white, in which the flowering stem rises up preternaturally flattened, and carries on its summit a long-extended ridge of flowers, frequently of an enormous size; this monstrous production seems to arise from the coalescence of two or more flowering stems: and as it is of accidental origin, so we find that a daisy which has been a coxcomb one year, shall lose that appearance entirely the next, and out of a long edging of daisies growing luxuriantly, new ones shall here and there arise; we cannot therefore depend upon the constancy of this variety. another singular variety is the proliferous or hen and chicken daisy, in which a number of flowers standing on short footstalks spring circularly out of the main flower; as this appearance for the most part arises from great luxuriance[a], this sort of daisy is also found occasionally to lose its prolific character: in my garden at lambeth-marsh, i once had a daisy growing in an edging among a number of others, which not only became proliferous, or of the hen and chicken kind, but its stalk also, or scapus, became branched, producing six or seven flowering-stems, with flowers at their extremities of the size of the common daisy; thus we find that the most permanent characters of plants are liable to be altered, and even destroyed, by accident, or culture. daisies appear to most advantage planted as an edging to a border, not that they are superior, or even equal to box for the great purposes of an edging; but in the spring of the year they enliven the border more, and add much to the general gaiety of the garden: in the formation of these, we shall give our readers some practical instructions, which will enable them to succeed much better than by following the mode commonly practised. the last week in september, or the first in october, take up your daisy roots, and divide them into single plants; your border being dug, put down your line, and make a shallow trench along it as for the planting of box; in this trench place your plants three inches apart, spreading out their fibres in the trench, and pressing the earth closely round them; in this way they will soon become rooted, and firmly fixed in the ground before the approach of frost; should this business be deferred later, as it frequently is, and the daisies be planted with a dibber in the usual way, in all probability the worms will draw out every plant before spring, especially if the earth has been rendered loose by repeated frosts. edgings of this kind require to be replanted in the same way every autumn, as the plants, if they grow well, spread too wide; if the summer prove dry, many of the roots fail, and if they remain undisturbed in the same spot, they will degenerate and become single, notwithstanding mr. miller informs us, that he never observed them to do so. [footnote a: we once saw a specimen of a hen and chicken daisy gathered on a hill in sussex, much inferior in size to the daisy as it usually grows.] [229] primula acaulis fl. pleno carneo. double lilac primrose. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _involucr._ umbellulæ. _corollæ_ tubus cylindricus ore patulo. _specific character and synonyms._ primula _acaulis_ foliis rugosis dentatis, subtus hirsutis; scapis unifloris. _jacq. misc. austr. p. 158._ _curt. flor. lond. fasc. 6._ the primrose in its wild single state is frequently introduced into shrubberies and plantations, for the purpose of enlivening them in the spring months; in its double state it has been deemed peculiarly worthy of cultivation by the curious in flowers. of the _double yellow_ primrose, which seems to have been the first known, we meet with a figure in the _hort. eyst._ and in the _parad. terrestr._ of parkinson, since those publications many new and perfectly double varieties have been introduced, as the _double white_, rarely met with. the _double deep red or velvet_, the blossoms of this will sometimes come single. the _double pink or lilac_, here figured, a plant much admired. the _double crimson_, a new variety, which, in brilliancy of colour, far surpasses all the others. the _red_, commonly called the _scotch primrose_, less ornamental than any of the preceding: besides these, we have observed a variety with blossoms of a dingy yellow inclining to red, not worth cultivating. these several varieties of primrose are admirably adapted to the decoration of the shrubbery, plantations, or even the north side of rock-work; they delight to grow in a stiff loam, a moist and somewhat shady situation, so planted they thrive admirably, the double succeeding almost as well as the single; every second or third year their roots should be divided, which may be done either in spring or autumn, they may be cultivated also in pots for the convenience of removing them when in blossom. [illustration: _no 229_] [illustration: _no 230_] [230] plumbago rosea. rose-coloured leadwort. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ infundibuliformis: _stamina_ squamis basin corollæ claudentibus inserta. _stigma_ 5-fidum. _sem._ 1. oblongum tunicatum. _specific character and synonyms._ plumbago _rosea_ foliis petiolatis ovatis glabris, subdenticulatis caule geniculis gibbosis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 199. sp. pl. ed. 3. p. 215._ _ait. kew. v. 1. p. 205._ plumbago zeylanica, folio splendento ocymastri, flore rubro. _burm. zeyl. 195._ radix vesicatoria. _rumph. amboin. 5. p. 453. t. 168._ the _plumbago rosea_, one of the most ornamental plants which we keep in our stoves, is a native of india, from whence it was introduced to this country by the late dr. fothergill, in the year 1777, posterior to the publication of the last edition of mr. miller's dictionary. it is a shrubby plant, which frequently grows to the height of four or five feet, and is perpetually putting forth flowering spikes; these continue a long while in blossom, and hence, with proper management, it may be had to flower during most of the year, a very desirable circumstance in a plant of such singular beauty. the usual mode of increasing it is by cuttings, which strike freely. its parts of fructification, whether we regard their colour or structure, are highly deserving of notice. [illustration: _no 231_] [231] fumaria solida. solid-rooted fumitory. _class and order._ diadelphia pentandria. _generic character._ _cal._ diphyllus. _cor._ ringens. _filam._ 2 membranacea, singula _antheris_ 3. _specific character and synonyms._ fumaria _solida_, caule simplici, bracteis brevioribus multifidis, radice solida. _mill. dict. ed. 6. 4to._ fumaria _bulbosa_, caule simplici, bracteis longitudine florum. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 636. sp. pl. ed. 3. p. 983._ _ait. kew. v. 3. p. 1._ fumaria _bulbosa_ radice non cava major. _bauh. pin. p. 144._ small hollow roote. _park parad. p. 275. 279. f. 2._ by the old botanists this species of _fumaria_, whose root is constantly solid, was considered as a distinct species from another similar to it of larger growth, whose root is as constantly hollow, and which will be figured in the next number of this work; caspar bauhine in particular, in his _pinax_, describes the characters in which they differ: linnæus nevertheless makes them varieties of each other, uniting them under the name of _bulbosa_; from this union we have taken the liberty to dissent, choosing rather to follow miller, who regards them as distinct, and the botanists preceding him. the _fumaria solida_, a very old inhabitant of our gardens, is a plant of very humble growth, rarely exceeding three or four inches in height, and producing its spike of purple flowers in april, which continue in blossom about a fortnight. in point of colour the flowers of this plant are not subject to much variation, we possess a variety of it with blossoms of a much brighter colour than those of the common sort, and which, on that account, is much more worthy of cultivation. as a spring plant, it deserves a place in the garden; in point of ornament, it is applicable to the same purposes as the primrose, will grow in almost any soil or situation, requires to be taken up in the autumn, and fresh-planted every two or three years; if suffered to remain in the same spot for a great length of time, it becomes smaller, produces few or no flowers, and is so altered in its appearance, as to look like another species. [illustration: _no 232_] [232] fumaria cava. hollow-rooted fumitory. _class and order._ diadelphia hexandria. _generic character._ _cal_. diphyllus. _cor._ ringens. _filamenta_ 2 membranacea singula _antheris_ 3. _specific character and synonyms._ fumaria _cava_, caule simplici, bracteis longitudine florum integris, radice cava. fumaria _bulbosa_ radice cava major. _bauh. pin. p. 143._ radix _cava_ major. _park. parad. p. 275._ the hollow-rooted fumitory differs from the _solida_, already figured, and that constantly, in a variety of particulars; its root is always, as far as we have observed, hollow, appearing sometimes, as parkinson informs us, "like a shell, every part of which when broken will grow;" frequently acquiring a very great size; the plant itself usually grows to twice the height of the _solida_, bearing foliage and flowers proportionably large; its bracteæ or floral leaves, which in the _solida_ assume a kind of finger'd appearance from the manner in which they are divided, in this are entire or but slightly indented; it flowers also about three weeks earlier. of the _fumaria cava_ there are three principal varieties in point of colour, viz. the white, the blush-coloured, and the purple, which, though plentiful in our gardens formerly, are now rarely met with; mr. chappelow informs me, that he found them all this spring, in an old plantation at teddington, where they produced the most pleasing effect. it begins to flower in march and continues in bloom three weeks or a month, rarely produces any seed, so that it is to be propagated only by dividing its roots; it is a hardy herbaceous plant, a native of germany, and will grow in almost any soil provided it be planted in a shady situation. [233] chironia baccifera. berry-bearing chironia. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ rotata. _pistillum_ declinatum. _stamina_ tubo corollæ infidentia. _antheræ_ demum spirales. _peric._ 2-loculare. _specific character and synonyms._ chironia _baccifera_ frutescens baccifera. _linn. syst. veget. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 229._ _ait. kew. v. 1. p. 258._ centaurium minus arborescens pulpiferum. _comm. rar. 9. t. 9._ centaurium minus africanum arborescens angustifolium. _old. afr. 26._ the _chironia baccifera_, a native of africa, is a plant not unfrequent in our greenhouses; its flowers are curious in their structure, of a lively hue, and suceeded by round seed-vessels, which, when ripe, have the appearance of red berries, whence its name of _baccata_; if we carefully examine these seed-vessels, we shall find that they are not properly berries, for on cutting them transversly, they are found to be hollow and to be divided into two cells (_vid. pl._) in which are contained small black seeds, whose surface is beautifully reticulated with impressed dots; the sides of the seed-vessel are fleshy, and do not appear to divide or split in any regular manner for the discharge of the seed; they must however be regarded rather as capsules than berries: in the genus _hypericum_, the seed-vessels are found to vary in a somewhat similar manner; in this part of the fructification there is not, therefore, that deviation which has been supposed, but there is a very great one in the antheræ, which do not ultimately become spiral. this plant, which grows to the height of a foot and a half or two feet, becomes very bushy, rather too much so in point of ornament, and produces both flowers, and fruit, during most of the summer. though regarded as a greenhouse plant, it does not ripen its seeds well unless kept in the stove; is with difficulty raised from cuttings, from seeds readily, by which it requires to be frequently renovated. was cultivated by mr. miller in 1759. _ait. kew._ [illustration: _no 233_] [illustration: _no 234_] [234] linum arboreum. tree flax. _class and order._ pentandria pentagynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-phyllus. _petala_ 5. _caps._ 5-valvis, 10-locularis. _sem._ solitaria. _specific character and synonyms._ linum _arboreum_ foliis cuneiformibus, caulibus arborescentibus. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 303._ _ait. kew. v. 1. p. 388._ linum _arboreum_. _alp. exot. 19. t. 13._ contrary to what we observe in most of the plants of this genus, the present very rare and no less beautiful species of flax forms (if not a tree, as its name imports) a shrub of the height of several feet, which begins to flower in the green-house in march, and continues to be more or less covered with blossoms to the close of the summer. it is a native of the levant, from whence it was introduced to this country in the year 1788, with a profusion of other vegetables, by john sibthorp, m. d. the present celebrated professor of botany in the university of oxford; who, for the laudable purpose of promoting the science in which he is so eminent, and of enriching the oxford collection, already rendered most respectable by his unwearied labours, meditates, as we are informed, a second journey into greece. hitherto this plant has produced no seeds in this country, and it is with difficulty increased by cuttings. our figure was drawn from a plant which flowered in the spring with messrs. grimwood and co. kensington. [235] trollius asiaticus. asiatic globe-flower. _class and order._ polyandria polygynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 0. _petala_ circiter 14. _capsulæ_ plurimæ, ovatæ, polyspermæ. _specific character and synonyms._ trollius _asiaticus_ corolla patula, nectariis staminibus longioribus. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 518._ _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 271._ helleborus aconiti folio, flore globoso croceo. _amm. ruth. 101._ of this genus, two species only have as yet been discovered, the one a native of great-britain, the other here figured the produce of siberia and cappadocia, both hardy, perennial, herbaceous plants; the latter, more particularly, from the bright orange colour of its flowers, held in high estimation as an ornamental plant, and flowering in may and june. this species, as yet rare in this country, is usually propagated by parting its roots in autumn; it may also be raised from seeds, which ripen frequently on strong healthy plants: to succeed in its cultivation, we should plant it in a composition of loam and bog earth, and place it in a north border, taking care that it does not suffer from want of watering in dry summers. was cultivated by mr. miller, in 1759. _ait. kew._ [illustration: _no 235_] [illustration: _no 236_] [236] verbascum myconi. borage-leav'd mullein. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ rotata, subinæqualis. _caps._ 1-locularis 2-valvis. _specific character and synonyms._ verbascum _myconi_ foliis lanatis radicalibus, scapo nudo. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 220._ _ait. kew. p. 238._ cortusa foliis ovatis sessilibus. _linn. hort. cliff. 50._ sanicula alpina, foliis boraginis villosa. _bauh. pin. 243._ auricula _ursi_ myconi. _dalech. hist. 837._ auricula _ursi_ flore coeruleo folio boraginis. blew beares eares with borage leaves. _park. parad. p. 236. 237. f. 3._ most of the plants of this genus are tall and shewy; the one here figured is however, of very humble growth, its flowering stem in the cultivated plant rarely exceeding six inches in height; its flowers are proportionably large, of a blueish purple colour, and highly ornamental; they make their appearance in may, and continue successively in blossom for several months, hence it becomes a desirable plant to cultivate, especially for the decorating of rock-work; it is very hardy, requires a north aspect in the summer, and to be carefully watered in dry weather; will grow in almost any soil, and is usually propagated by planting its roots in autumn. grows spontaneously on the pyrenean alps; in its wild state it is more dwarfish than our figure represents it, its foliage more woolly, and enriched with various tints, which the plant loses on cultivation; such specimens i saw in the possession of dr. r. halifax, of albemarle-street, who gathered it on its native alps. was cultivated by mr. miller, in 1731, _ait. kew._ and most probably long before that period by parkinson, who lives a figure and accurate description of it in his _parad. terrestris_. [237] oxalic carina. goat's-foot wood sorrel. _class and order._ decandria pentagynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-phyllus. _petala_ unibus connect. _caps._ anglos discerns, 5-gina. _specific character and synonyms._ oxalis _carina_ scapis unbeliefs, foliis ternaries glabris, floribus erects. _thunb. oxalic, n. 11._ _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 433._ oxalis _peas capra_ scapo embellisher, foliis ternaries sub bipartite apiece subtus callouses. _linn. sp. pl. ed. 3. p. 622._ oxalis bulbosa pentacle et hexagonal, floribus margins lutes et copiosis. _burm. afr. 80. t. 29. et t. 28. f. 3._ the cape of good-hope, that most fertile source of curious and beautiful plants, affords numerous species of wood sorrel, and, among others, the present one, which is distinguished for the largeness of its blossoms; they are of a fine yellow colour, and, when expanded by the influence of the sun, make a very conspicuous figure in the green-house; it begins to flower early in april, and continues about two months in bloom, many flowering stems arising from the same root. this species is of free growth, and increases plentifully by bulbs, which are produced on the crown of the root, as well as on its fibres; these, when the plant decays, should be taken up, and two or three of the largest planted in the middle of a pot filled with a mixture of bog earth and rotten leaves, well incorporated; towards winter, the pots mould be placed in the green-house, or in a frame so secured as perfectly to keep out frost. was cultivated by mr. miller, in 1757. _ait. kew._ [illustration: _no 237_] [238] senecio elegans. purple groundsel, or ragwort. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia superflua. _generic character._ _recept._ nudum. _pappus_ simplex. _cal._ cylindricus, calyculatus. _squamis_ apice sphacelatis. _specific character and synonyms._ senecio _elegans_ corollis radiants, foliis pontiffs æqualibus pianissimos margin increased recurved. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 757._ senecio _elegans_ corollis radiants, foliis polos-viscid is pontiffs æqualibus pianissimos, roach inferno angsts, calycibus hurts. _ait. kew. v. 3. p. 193._ aster africans annuus senecionis foliis. _comm. hort. 2. p. 59. t. 30._ linnæus has given to this charming annual the name of _elegans_, on account of the great beauty of its flowers, the florets of the radius being of a most brilliant purple, and those of the disk bright yellow; colours regarded as peculiar to this plant, till the _sen. venustus_ described in the _hort. kew._ was discovered and introduced here; it is a native of the cape and other parts of africa, grows usually to the height of a foot and a half, or two feet; flowers from june to august, grows readily, requiring the same treatment as other annuals of the more tender kind; seedling plants raised in the autumn in pots, and kept in the green-house or under a frame during winter, will, of course, flower much earlier than plants produced in the spring. within these few years, a variety of this senecio with perfectly double flowers, equally brilliant as those of the single kind, has been introduced, and is here figured; this, from its superior beauty, is now cultivated, in preference to the single; there is double variety of it also with white flowers which being less shewy is not so much esteemed; both of these are raised, and that readily, from cuttings, which as soon as well rooted may be planted out in the open borders, where they will be highly ornamental during most of the summer; as young plants are most desirable, we should take care to have a constant succession from cuttings regularly put in, and to preserve pots of such in particular, in the green-house during winter, for early blowing the ensuing summer. the single sort was cultivated here, by charles dubois, esq. in the year 1700. _ait. kew._ [illustration: _no 238_] [239] amaryllis atamasco. atamasco lily. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ hexapetaloidea, irregularis. _filamenta_ fauci tubi inserta, declinata, inæqualia proportione vel directione. _linn. fil._ _specific character and synonyms._ amaryllis _atamasco_ spatha bifida acuta, flore pedicellato, corolla campanulata subæquali erecta basi breve tubulosa, staminibus declinatis æqualibus. _linn. fil._ _ait. kew. p. 416._ amaryllis _atamasco_ spatha uniflora, corolla æquali, pistillo declinato. _linn. spec. pl. ed 3. p. 420._ lilio-narcissus indicus pumilus monanthus albus foliis angustissimis atamasco dictus. _moris. hist. 11. p. 366. t. 24._ lilio-narcissus virginiensis. _catesb. carol. 3. p. 12. t. 12._ lilio-narcissus liliflorus carolinianus flore albo singulari cum rubedine diluto. _pluk. alm. 220. t. 43. f. 3._ the _amaryllis atamasco_ is a native of virginia and carolina, in which countries it grows very plentifully in the fields and woods, where it makes a beautiful appearance when it is in flower, which is in the spring. the flowers of this sort are produced singly, and at their first appearance have a fine carnation colour on their outside, but this fades away to a pale or almost white before the flowers decay. this plant is so hardy as to thrive in the open air in england, provided the roots are planted[b] in a warm situation and on a dry soil; it may be propagated by offsets from the roots, which they put out pretty plentifully, especially if they are not transplanted oftner than once in three years. _miller's dict._ it is usual with the nurserymen about london to keep this plant in the greenhouse, where it flowers about the end of april. mr. charles hatton cultivated here in 1680, _ait. kew._ on the authority of morison. [footnote b: clayton in _gronov. fl. virg._ says maddidis gaudet locis, it delights to grow in wet places.] [illustration: _no 239_] [illustration: _no 240_] [240] pelargonium tricolor. three-coloured crane's-bill. _class and order._ monadelphia heptandria. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-partitus: lacinia suprema desinente in tubulum capillarem, nectariferum, secus pedunculum decurrentem. _cor._ 5-petala, irregularis. _filamenta_ 10, inæqualia: quorum 3 (raro 5) castrata, fructus 5-coccus, rostratus: rostra spiralia, introrsum barbata. _l'herit. geran._ _specific character and synonyms._ pelargonium _tricolor_ petalis duobus superioribus punctis prominulis lucidis ad basin scabris. the _pelargonium tricolor_, a species perfectly new, in point of beauty is thought to eclipse all that have hitherto been introduced to this country; its blossoms are certainly the most shewy, in a collection of plants they are the first to attract the eye, the two uppermost petals are of a beautiful red, having their bases nearly black, the three lowermost are white, hence its name of _tricolor_: this peculiarity of colour joined to their form, has induced some to fancy a similarity betwixt its flowers and those of the heartsease: to the blossoms of the _lathyrus articulatus_ in point of colour, they bear also a distant resemblance. in our eagerness to lay before the public this striking novelty, we may possibly omit some circumstances relative to its history and treatment, which future experience may develope, they will not, however, we trust be very material; the plants which we have had an opportunity of seeing have scarcely exceeded a foot in height, growing up with a shrubby stem, and expanding widely into numerous flowering branches, unusually disposed to produce flowers in a constant succession, so that during most of the summer the plant is loaded with a profusion of bloom; these flowers for the most part go off without being followed by any seed, and when any seed is produced, of which we have seen a few instances, there is generally one perfect and four abortive, frequently all of them fail; the blossoms vary in the number of their stamina, four are most usually apparent, three superior, and that very constantly, one inferior and often two, we have never observed seven, the proper number of fertile stamina in a _pelargonium_: the whole plant is covered with short white hairs which give to the foliage a somewhat silvery hue. instances have occurred in which one or more of the white petals have had a stripe of red in them, and we have observed that the dark colour at the base of the uppermost petals is, in a certain degree, soluble in water, for on the plants being watered the white petals have here and there become stained by the colouring matter proceeding from it, and which, in a diluted state, is of a purplish tint: as the flowers decay, this apparently black part, distinguished by the roughness of its surface, arising from prominent lucid points, and which essentially distinguish the species, is sometimes perforated with numerous small holes. mr. masson, who is employed to collect plants at the cape, for the royal garden at kew, and in which employment he so honourably acquits himself, as the _hortus kewensis_ bears ample testimony, sent hither seeds of this _pelargonium_, which flowered in that matchless collection in the year 1792; a few plants of it have also been raised from cape seeds, by mr. williams, nurseryman, at hammersmith, some of which flowered this spring with mr. colvill, nurseryman, kings-road. it must be several years before the lovers of plants can be generally gratified with the possession of this plant, most of its branches running out speedily into flowering stalks, form few proper for cuttings, which are struck with difficulty, and perfect seeds are sparingly produced. it appears to be equally hardy as most others of the same tribe, and to require a similar treatment. [241] fagonia cretica. cretian fagonia. _class and order._ decandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-phyllus. _petala_ 5, cordata. _caps._ 5-locularis, 10-valvisi, loculis 1-spermis. _specific character and synonyms._ fagonia _cretica_ spinosa, foliolis lanceolatis planis lævibus. _linn. sp. pl. ed 3. p. 553._ _mant. p. 380._ _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 401._ _ait. kew. v. 1. p. 62._ trifolium spinosum creticum. _clus. hist. 2. p. 242. f._ _bauh. pin. p. 330._ fagonia cretica spinosa. _tourn. inst. p. 265._ clusius is the first author who has described and figured this plant, he is very minute in his description of it, noticing the exact number of its stamina; it is the more surprising, therefore, that he should have so little idea of generic character, as to rank it with the trefoils merely from the form of its leaves: tournefort, born to illustrate the genera of plants, named it _fagonia_ in honour of his friend and patron, mons. fagon, privy counsellor and consulting physician to lewis xiv. this species is a native of the island of candia, and was cultivated here by mr. miller, in 1739; it is an annual, and as it does not perfect its seeds with us in the open air, unless in very favourable seasons, it is usually treated as a green-house plant, its seeds should be sown in the autumn, as it thereby flowers earlier, and ripe seeds are with more certainty obtained. it blossoms from june to august. the plant from which our drawing was made, flowered this season in the very rich collection of messrs. lee and kennedy, hammersmith. its branches are usually procumbent, about a foot in length, and require, if the plant be kept in a pot, to be tied up to a stick. [illustration: _no 241_] [illustration: _no 242_] [242] veronica decussata. cross-leav'd speedwell. _class and order._ diandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ limbo 4-partito: lacinia infima angustiore. _caps._ 2-locularis apice emarginata. _specific character and synonyms._ veronica _decussata_ spicis terminalibus paniculatis, foliis oblongis integerrimis lævigatis coriaceis, caule fruticoso. _ait. kew. v. 1. p. 20._ veronica _decussata_ floribus racemosis axillaribus, foliis ovalibus decussatis integerrimis. _moench. weissenstein. p. 137._ _linn. syst. nat. tom. 2. ed. 13._ _gmel. p. 30._ the plant here represented, is a native of falkland's island, and was introduced to this country by dr. fothergill, about the year 1776; if permitted to grow, it will become a bushy shrub of a considerable size: it has been chiefly admired for the unusual and regular growth of its leaves, which are ever-green, and grow thickly on the branches, cross-wise, affording an excellent example of the _folia decussata_; but it is entitled to our admiration on another account, its blossoms have a most delicious fragrance (similar to that of the _olea fragrans_) not mentioned by authors, and we believe scarcely known, having never heard it spoken of by those who have cultivated the plant; its flowers, which are white, are produced on the tops of the branches, which, however, they do not strictly terminate, but usually grow out just below the summits, on short racemi; the corolla is sometimes divided into five segments, and there is a greater equality in the segments than is usually found in the flowers of the veronica, the seed-vessel differs also in its form, being longer, more oval, and scarcely emarginate; these several deviations from the structure of the veronica genus, joined to the fragrance of the blossoms of this plant, induce us to think, that it has more affinity with the _olea_ above mentioned. cultivators complain, that it does not blow freely; without any peculiarity of treatment, it flowers with us every year, about the middle of june; it is one of the more hardy greenhouse plants, which is usually and readily increased by cuttings. [illustration: _no 243_] [243] argemone mexicana. mexican argemone, or prickly poppy. _class and order._ polyandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ 6-petala. _cal._ 3-phyllus. _caps._ semivalvis. _specific character and synonyms._ argemone _mexicana_ capsulis sexvalvibus, foliis spinosis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 490._ _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 225._ papaver spinosum. _clus. hist. 2. p. 93._ carduus chrysanthemus peruanus. the golden thistle of peru. _ger. herb. p. 993._ this species of argemone is a native of mexico, and the west-indies, where we should suppose it to be a very common and noxious weed, from the name there given it of _fico del inferno_, or the _devil's fig_: it has long been introduced to this country; gerard, who cultivated it with success, ludicrously attributes its nickname to a different source: "the golden thistle of peru, called in the west-indies, fique del inferno, a friend of mine brought it unto me from an iland there, called saint johns iland, among other seedes, what reason the inhabitants there have to call it so it is unto me unknown, unless it be bicause of his fruite, which doth much resemble a figge in shape and bignesse, but so full of sharpe and venemous prickles, that whosoever had one of them in his throte, doubtless less it would send him packing either to heaven or to hell." miller mentions it as a plant of no great use or beauty, in the latter point of view clusius, who was one of the first to figure and describe it, and gerard, thought differently; its foliage is certainly beautiful, somewhat like that of the milk thistle, its blossoms are large and shewy, though not of long duration; like the celandine, the whole plant abounds with a yellow juice, which flows out when it is wounded; it differs from the poppy, to which it is nearly related, in having a calyx of three leaves. though a native of a very warm climate, it is cultivated with as much facility as any annual whatever; in the gardens about london, where it has once grown, and scattered its seeds, it comes up spontaneously every spring, flowers in july and august, and ripens its seeds in september; these are large, somewhat round, of a black colour, with a beautiful surface; a light rich soil and warm situation suits it best. [244] ipomoea quamoclit. winged leav'd ipomoea. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ infundibuliformis. _stigma_ capitato-globosum. _caps._ 3-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ ipomoea _quamoclit_ foliis pinnatifidis linearibus, floribus subsolitariis. _linn, syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 204._ _ait. kew. v. 1. p. 215._ quamoclit _s_ jasminum americanum. _clus. posth. 9._ convolvulus tenuifolius americanus. the red bellflower of america. _park. parad. p. 358. 3._ in a former number of this work, we gave a figure of the scarlet ipomoea, which every one possessing a garden, at least in the more southern parts of this kingdom, might gratify themselves with a sight of, it being hardy enough to flower and ripen its seeds in the open border; but the present species, an annual also, and equally beautiful, with greater singularity of foliage, can be brought to perfection only in the stove of hot-house. its seeds should be sown early in the spring, two or three in a small pot; when the plants are so far advanced as to shew a disposition to climb, they should be removed with a ball of earth into a middle-sized pot, in which one, two, or three sticks, four or five feet high should be stuck, for the plants to climb up; in the months of june and july they will flower, and ripe seed will be produced in september. this elegant species, a native of both the indies, was cultivated here by parkinson, who minutely describes it in his _parad terr._ when speaking of the seed, he observes, "with us it will seldom come to flower, because our cold nights and frosts come so soone, before it cannot have comfort enough of the sun to ripen it." [illustration: _no 244_] [245] teucrium latifolium. broad-leav'd shrubby germander. _class and order._ didynamia gymnospermia. _generic character._ _cor._ labium superius (nullum) ultra basin 2-partitum, divaricatum ubi stamina. _specific character and synonyms._ teucrium _latifolium_ foliis integerrimis rhombeis acutis villosis subtus tomentosis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 526._ _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 276._ teucrium fruticans bæticum ampliore folio. _dill. elth. 379. t. 284. f. 367._ the _teucrium latifolium_ as well as the _fruticans_, which is nearly related to it, is a native of spain, and was cultivated in this country in 1714, by the duchess of beaufort, _vid. ait. kew._ it is a shrubby plant, growing to the height of seven or eight feet (it may be trained to a much greater height) now common in our greenhouses, and sometimes planted in the open border in warm situations, where it will bear about the same degree of cold as the myrtle; it flowers during most of the summer months, and is readily increased by cuttings. [illustration: _no 245_] [illustration: _no 246_] [246] aquilegia canadensis. canadian columbine. _class and order._ polyandria pentagynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 0. _petala_ 5. _nectaria_ 5 corniculata, inter petala. _caps._ 5 distinctæ. _specific character and synonyms._ aquilegia _canadensis_ nectariis rectis, staminibus corolla longioribus. _linn. syst. veg. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 535._ _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 248._ aquilegia _pumila_ praæox canadensis. _corn. canad. 60._ aquilegia præcox canadensis; flore externe rubicundo, medio luteo. _moris. hist. 111. p. 457. t. 2. f. 4._ aquilegia virginiania flore rubescente præcox. the early red columbine of virginia. _park. th. p. 1367._ parkinson was not acquainted with this plant when he wrote his _parad. terr._ but in his larger and more general work, the _theat. pl._ published in 1640, he describes and figures it as a plant newly introduced from virginia, by mr. john tradescant: cornutus, in his account of the plants of canada, gives us a representation and a description of this plant also; according to him, its usual height in that country is about nine inches; in the gardens here it nearly equals the common columbine, which it considerably resembles in the appearance of its foliage, but differs in the form and colour of its flowers, the horn of the nectary is straighter, and the blossom in some of its parts inclines more to orange, which renders it highly ornamental. it is a hardy perennial, and may be easily propagated by parting its roots in autumn or spring; it may also be raised from seeds, which ripen readily here; these are found to be a long time in vegetating, as are others of this genus. we have observed in some gardens, a columbine of more humble growth than the one here figured, called by the name of _canadensis_, and which most probably is a variety of our plant, its blossoms spread wider, are of a pale red colour without any orange, and hence being less beautiful, is, of course, less worthy of culture. [247] scabiosa atropurpurea. sweet scabious. _class and order._ tetrandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ communis polyphyllus; proprius duplex, superus. _recept._ paleaceum nudum. _specific character and synonyms._ scabiosa _atropurpurea_ corollulis quinquefidis radiantibus, foliis dissectis, receptaculis florum subulatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 145._ _ait. kew. v. i. p. 137._ scabiosa peregrina rubra capite oblongo. _bauh. pin. 270._ scabiosa vi. indica. _clus. hist. 2. p. 3._ red flowered indian scabious. _park. parad. 324._ it is not a little singular that we should have no certain account of what country this species of scabious is a native; clusius who describes and figures it accurately, relates that he received seeds of it from italy, under the name of _indian scabious_; he informs us also that he received seeds of a scabious from spain, which the same year produced flowers of a similar colour, but paler; parkinson says this plant is verily thought to grow naturally in spain and italy; does he borrow this idea from what clusius has advanced? he certainly gives no authority for his supposition: linnæus mentions it as a native of india with a note of doubt; miller does the same, omitting any doubts about it; mr. aiton leaves its place of growth unsettled. the sweet scabious has long and deservedly held a place as an ornamental plant in our gardens, the flowers are well adapted for nosegays, have a sweet musky smell, and are produced in great profusion from june to october. it is a hardy biennial, requiring yearly to be raised from seeds, these should be sown about the latter end of may, or beginning of june, on a shady border of fresh earth, thinning the plants as they advance to the distance of three or four inches; in autumn they should be removed into the border, where they are intended to flower, thus treated they will become good strong plants against winter, flower early the ensuing summer, and produce abundance of perfect seeds. the blossoms vary in colour, towards autumn the edge of the florets become paler. parkinson, deviating from his usual accuracy, describes the flowers without scent. _vid. parad._ [illustration: _no 247_] [illustration: _no 248_] [248] vinca rosea. madagascar periwinkle. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ contorta. _folliculi_ 2 erecti. _semina_ nuda. _specific character and synonyms._ vinca _rosea_ caule fructescente erecto, foliis ovato oblongis, petiolis basi bidentatis, floribus geminis sessilibus. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 252._ _ait. kew. v. 1. p. 296._ vinca foliis oblongo-ovatis integerrimis, tubo floris longissimo, caule ramoso fruticoso. _mill. icon. 86._ the _vinca rosea_ was first cultivated in this country by mr. philip miller in 1757, he observes that it deserves a place in the stove as much as any of the exotic plants we have in england, because the flowers are very beautiful, and there is a constant succession of them all the summer. the following account is extracted from his dictionary. "this plant grows naturally in the island of madagascar, from whence the seeds were brought to the royal garden at paris, where the plants were first raised, and produced their flowers the following summer; from these plants good seeds were obtained, which were sent me by mr. richard, gardener to the king at versailles and trianon. it rises to the height of three or four feet; the branches which when young are succulent become ligneous by age: these flowers which appear early in the summer produce ripe seeds in the autumn. "this sort is propagated by seeds or cuttings in the usual way; unless the summer proves warm these plants should not be placed abroad, for they will not thrive if they are exposed to cold or wet, therefore during the summer they should be placed in an airy glass-case, and in winter they must be removed into the stove, where the air is kept to a temperate heat, without which they will not live through the winter in england. _mill. dict._ there is a variety of this plant having white blossoms with a purple eye. the flowers do not always grow in pairs. [illustration: _no 249_] [249] cineraria amelloides. blue-flowered cineraria or cape aster. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia superfloa. _generic character._ _recept._ nullum. _pappus_ simplex. _cal._ simplex polyphyllus æqualis. _specific character and synonyms._ cineraria _amelloides_ pedunculis unifloris, foliis oppositis ovatis nudis, caule suffruticoso. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 765._ _ait kew. v. 3. p. 219._ aster africanus frutescens ramosus, floribus cæruleis, foliis oppositis minimis, caulibus et ramulis in pedunculos nudos exeuntibus. _raii suppl. 158._ aster caule ramoso scabro perenni, foliis ovatis sessilibus, pedunculis nudis unifloris. _mill. icon. 76. f. 2._ the _cineraria amelloides_ a plant common in every green-house, was introduced by mr. philip miller as long since as the year 1753, being raised by him from cape seeds; it forms a bushy shrub, of the height of two, or three feet, produces numerous blossoms, which stand singly on long footstalks, are of a pale blue colour; they make some amends for their want of brilliancy by flowering during most of the year. the plant is easily propagated either by seeds or cuttings. [250] myrtus tomentosa. woolly-leaved myrtle. _class and order._ icosandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-fidus, superus. _petala_ 5. _bacca_ 2. s. 3 sperma. _specific character and synonyms._ myrtus _tomentosa_ pedunculis unifloris, foliis triplinervii, subtus tomentosis. _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 159._ arbor sinensis canellæ folio minore, trinervi, prona parte villoso, fructu caryophylli aromatici majoris villis similiter obducto. _pluk. amalth. 21. t. 372. f. 1._ in the third edition of the _species plant._ of linnæus, published in 1764, thirteen myrtles are described; in the 13th edition of the _syst. natur._ published by gmelin in 91, forty-one are enumerated; thus in twenty-seven years this genus has gained an accession of twenty-eight species: most of these are natives of warm climates, and few comparatively have been introduced to this country, six species only being mentioned in the _hort. kew._ of mr. aiton, in that work the _tomentosa_ here figured, not known to linnæus or miller is specifically described, and there mr. aiton informs us that it is a native of china, and was introduced by mrs. norman about the year 1766. since that period it has fallen into the hands of various cultivators, and flowered perhaps in greater perfection than it did originally at kew; the peduncles, in the various specimens we have seen usually supporting more than one flower. it is a shrub of great beauty, both in respect to its foliage and flowers, bearing but little similitude to the common myrtle, if suffered to grow, acquiring the height of many feet. its blossoms are produced in june and july, the buds are covered with a white down, as is also the underside of the leaves, whence its name of _tomentosa_. it has been customary to treat it as a stove plant, such it is considered in the _hort. kew._ there is great reason however to believe, that it is by no means tender, and that it may succeed as most of the chinese plants do in a good greenhouse. it is usually increased by cuttings which are struck difficulty. [illustration: _no 250_] [251] allium descendens. purple-headed garlick. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ 6-partita, patens. _spatha_ multiflora. _umbella_ congesta. _caps._ supera. _specific character and synonyms._ allium _descendens_ caule subteretifolio umbellifero, pedunculis exterioribus brevioribus, staminibus tricuspidatis. linn. _syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 322._ _ait. kew. v. 1. p. 425._ allium staminibus alterne trifidis, foliis fistulosis, capite sphærico non bulbifero atropurpureo. _hall. all. tab. 2. f. p. 355. xx. ii._ baron haller in his most admirable _monographia_ on the plants of this genus, published in his _opuscula botanica_, describes and figures this species, a hardy perennial, being a native of switzerland, and cultivated according to mr. aiton, in the garden at oxford in 1766. it usually grows to the height of three feet, thriving in almost any soil or situation, its flowers as in many other species grow in a capitulum or little head, not an umbel, strictly speaking, as linnæus describes it; this head is at first covered with a whitish membrane, wearing some resemblance to a night-cap, on the falling off of which the whole of the capitulum is perceived to be of a green colour, shortly the crown of it becomes of a fine reddish purple, this colour extends itself gradually downwards, presently we see the upper half of the head purple, the lower half green, in this state it has a most pleasing appearance; the purple still extending downwards, the whole head finally becomes uniformly so, and then its flowers begin to open, and emit an odour rather agreeable than otherwise; on dissecting a flower we find three of the stamina in each longer than the others, and bearing two little points, which proceed not from the antheræ, but from the top of the filaments, it is therefore one of those alliums which linnæus describes, as having _antheræ bicornes_. this species increases readily by offsets, which should be separated and planted in autumn. we know not why linnæus should give it the name of _descendens_, unless from its being one of those plants whose roots in process of time descend deeply into the earth. [illustration: _no 251_] [illustration: _no 252_] [252] campanula grandiflora. great-flowered bell-flower. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ campanulata fundo clauso valvis staminiferis. _stigma_ trifidium. _caps._ insera poris lateralibus dehiscens. _specific character and synonyms._ campanula _grandiflora_ caule subunifloro, foliis sublanceolatis serratis, corolla patente. _jacq. in litt. hort. v. 3. t. 2._ campanula _grandiflora_ foliis ternis oblongis serratis, caule unifloro, flore patulo. _linn. suppl. p. 140. syst. veget. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 207._ _ait. kew. v. 1. p. 218._ professor jacquin is, we believe, the first author who has figured this species of campanula, which he has done in his _hortus vindebonensis_; linnæus the son afterwards inserted it in his _suppl. pl._ assigning it the characters specified above in the synonyms, and expressing his doubts whether it was not a variety of the _campanula carpatica_, already figured in this work, _pl. 117_. prof. jacquin clearly demonstrates that it cannot be so, as it differs most essentially from that plant in a variety of particulars, _vid. linn. syst. veget. ed. 14. murr._ his specific description there given, agrees much better with the plants we have seen flower here, than that of linnæus does, there being generally more than one flower on a stalk, and the leaves rarely growing three together. the blossoms of this plant when it grows in perfection, are very large, nearly twice the size of those of the _campanula carpatica_, whence its name of _grandiflora_; previous to their opening fully, they somewhat resemble an air balloon, from which circumstance it has been called by some the balloon plant. it is a hardy perennial, a native of siberia and tartary, and was introduced to this country by mr. john bell in the year 1782. it flowers in july, is as yet a rare plant in this country, and likely to continue so, as it is not easily increased, multiplying but little by its roots, scarcely to be struck from cuttings, and rarely producing perfect seeds. index. in which the latin names of the plants contained in the _seventh volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ 251 allium descendens. 239 amaryllis atamasco. 226 arabis alpina. 243 argemone mexicana. 246 aquilegia canadensis. 228 bellis perennis var. major fl. pl. 217 buchnera viscosa. 252 campanula grandiflora. 233 chironia baccifera. 249 cineraria amelloides. 218 disandra prostrata. 220 erica cerinthoides. 241 fagonia cretica. 231 fumaria solida. 232 ---cava. 227 helianthus multiflorus. 221 ipomoea coccinea. 244 ---quamoclit. 234 linum arboreum. 225 lobelia surinamensis. 223 lychnis coronata. 219 michauxia campanuloides 250 myrtus tomentosa. 237 oxalis caprina. 240 pelargonium tricolor. 224 phylica ericoides. 230 plumbago rosea 229 primula acaulis fl. pl. carneo. 247 scabiosa atropurpurea. 238 senecio elegans. 222 struthiola erecta. 245 teucrium latifolium. 235 trollius asiaticus 248 vinca rosea. 236 verbascum myconi. 242 veronica decussata index. in which the english names of the plants contained in the _seventh volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ 252 bell flower great-flowered. 217 buchnera clammy. 233 chironia berry-bearing. 249 cineraria blue-flowered. 246 columbine canadian. 240 cranes-bill three-coloured 228 daisy great double. 218 disandra trailing. 241 fagonia cretian. 234 flax tree. 231 fumitory solid-rooted. 232 ---hollow-rooted. 251 garlick purple-headed 245 germander broad-leaved shrubby. 235 globe-flower asiatic. 220 heath honeywort-flowered. 221 ipomoea scarlet. 244 ---winged-leaved. 230 leadwort rose-coloured. 239 lily atamasco. 225 lobelia shrubby. 223 lychnis chinese. 219 michauxia rough-leaved. 236 mullein borage-leaved. 250 myrtle woolly-leaved. 248 periwinkle madagascar. 224 phylica heath-leaved. 243 poppy prickly. 229 primrose lilac double. 238 rag wort purple. 247 scabious sweet. 242 speedwell cross-leaved. 222 struthiola smooth. 227 sunflower perennial. 226 wall-cress alpine. 237 wood-sorrel goat's-foot. the botanical magazine; or, flower-garden displayed: in which the most ornamental foreign plants, cultivated in the open ground, the greenhouse, and the stove, are accurately represented in their natural colours. to which are added, their names, class, order, generic and specific characters, according to the celebrated linnæus; their places of growth, and times of flowering: together with the most approved methods of culture. a work intended for the use of such ladies, gentlemen, and gardeners, as wish to become scientifically acquainted with the plants they cultivate. by _william curtis_, author of the flora londinensis. vol. ix. "but softer tasks divide florella's hours; "to watch the buds just op'ning on the day; "with welcome shade to screen the languid flowers, "that sicken in the summer's parching ray. "oft will she stoop amidst her evening walk, "with tender hand each bruised plant to rear; "to bind the drooping lily's broken stalk, "and nurse the blossoms of the infant year." mrs. barbauld. _london_: printed by stephen couchman, for w. curtis, n^o 3, _st. george's crescent_, black-friars-road; and sold by the principal booksellers in great-britain and ireland. m dcc xcv. [289] convolvulus linearis. narrow-leaved convolvulus. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ campanulata, plicata. _stigmata_ 2. _caps._ 2-locularis: loculis dispermis. _specific character._ convolvulus _linearis_ caulibus erectis fruticosis, foliis linearibus acutis piloso-sericeis, floribus terminalibus umbellato-paniculatis, calycibus pilosis. [illustration: n^o. 289] the plant here represented has long been cultivated as a greenhouse plant in this country under the name of _convolvulus cantabrica_, but it differs so essentially from that plant, as figured and described by prof. jacquin in his _flora austr._ and accords so little with the other species described by linnæus, that we have been induced to regard it as a perfectly distinct species; in most points it agrees with _convolvulus cneorum_, but differs in having leaves much narrower, more pointed, and less silky. it strikes most readily from cuttings, is a hardy greenhouse plant, and flowers during most of the summer, qualities which many of the modern and more shewy greenhouse plants cannot boast. the precise time of its introduction here, together with its particular place of growth, we have not as yet been able satisfactorily to ascertain. [290] amaryllis lutea. yellow amaryllis. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ hexapetaloidea, irregularis. _filamenta_ fauci tubi inserta, declinata, inæqualia proportione vel directione. _linn. fil._ _specific character and synonyms._ amaryllis _lutea_ spatha indivisa obtusa, flore sessili, corolla campanulata erecta basi breve tubulosa, staminibus erectis, alternis brevioribus. _linn. fil. ait. kew. v. 21. p. 415._ colchicum luteum majus. _bauh. pin. p. 69._ narcissus autumnalis major. the greater autumne or winter daffodill. _park. parad. p. 77. 75. f. 7._ [illustration: n^o. 290] the amaryllis lutea is a hardy perennial bulbous plant, a native of spain, and other of the more southern parts of europe, and was cultivated in our gardens in the time of gerard, and parkinson. flora, who commences her revolutionary reign, by enlivening the flower border with the spring crocus, and its numerous varieties, terminates it with flowers equally pleasing, and of similar hues; thus we have the present plant, the saffron crocus, and the colchicum, flowering nearly at the same time, from the end of september, through october, and sometimes part of november. similar as the amaryllis is to the yellow spring crocus, in the colour, and form of its flowers, it differs obviously in the number of its stamina, the breadth of its leaves, and the size and colour of its root. authors describe it as varying in size, in the breadth of its leaves, the height of its flowers, and multiplication of the corolla. the dutch florists export it under the title of yellow colchicum, following the name of some of the old writers. it succeeds best in a soil moderately moist, in which it increases considerably by offsets, and flowers to the most advantage when the roots have remained for some few years undisturbed in the same spot. [291] capparis spinosa. the caper shrub. _class and order._ polyandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 4-phyllus, coriaceus. _petala_ 4. _stamina_ longa. _bacca_ corticosa, unilocularis, pedunculata. _specific character and synonyms._ capparis _spinosa_ pedunculis unifloris solitariis, stipulis spinosis, foliis annuis, capsulis ovalibus. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 487._ _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 221._ capparis _spinosa_ fructu minore, folio rotundo. _bauh. pin. p. 480._ [illustration: n^o. 291] we are happy in having it in our power to lay before our readers a representation of the caper shrub, whose blossoms are rarely seen in this country, though its flower-buds are in very general use as a pickle; indeed, so great is their consumption, that they form a very considerable article of commerce. the plant grows spontaneously in the more southern parts of europe, especially in italy and the levant; in its wild state it forms a shrub of low growth, having numerous, spreading, spinous branches, somewhat thickly beset with smooth roundish leaves; the blossoms grow alternately on the branches, and when the plant begins to flower, one opens generally every other morning, but so delicate are its parts, that on a hot summer's day it fades before noon: the petals are white; the filaments, which are extremely numerous, are white below, and of a rich purple above; in these the beauty of the flower chiefly consists, as in the pistillum or pointal does its great singularity; at first view, one would be led to conclude, that the part so conspicuous in the centre of the flower was the style terminated by the stigma in the usual way; but if we trace this part of the flower to a more advanced state, we shall perceive, that what we took for the style, was merely an elongation of the flower-stalk, and what we took for the stigma, was in reality the germen placed on it, crowned with a minute stigma, without any intervening style; this germen swells, turns downward, and ultimately becomes the seed-vessel, rarely ripening in this country. miller observes, that these plants are with difficulty preserved in england, for they delight to grow in crevices of rocks, and the joints of old walls and ruins, and always thrive best in an horizontal position; so that when they are planted either in pots or the full ground, they rarely thrive, though they may be kept alive for many years. it flowers in may and june, and is usually raised from seeds. mr. aiton regards it as a greenhouse plant, and informs us that it was cultivated by gerard in 1596. [292] passerina grandiflora. great-flowered passerina. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 0. _cor._ 4-fida. _stamina_ tubo imposita. _sem._ 1. corticatum. _specific character and synonyms._ passerina _grandiflora_ glaberrima, foliis oblongis acutis concavis extrinsecus rugosis, floribus terminalibus sessilibus solitariis. _linn. suppl. pl. p. 226._ [illustration: n^o. 292] the _passerina_ here figured, distinguished from all the other known species by the largeness of its flowers, is described in the _suppl. pl._ of the younger linnæus, but not enumerated in the _hortus kewensis_ of mr. aiton: it is indeed a plant recently introduced to this country from the cape; we saw it last summer in great perfection, at messrs. lee and kennedy's, hammersmith; it forms a small neat shrub, somewhat like the _phylica ericoides_, is a hardy greenhouse plant, flowering in may and june, and increased without difficulty from cuttings. [293] catananche cærulea. blue catananche. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia æqualis. _generic character._ _recept._ paleaceum. _cal._ imbricatus. _pappus_ aristatus, caliculo 5 seto. _specific character and synonyms._ catananche cærulea squamis calicis inferioribus ovatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 722._ _ait. kew. v. 3. p. 134._ chondrilla cærulea cyani capitulo. _bauh. pin. 130._ [illustration: n^o. 293] the _catananche cærulea_ is a native of the south of france, where it grows in hilly situations that are stony: it is a perennial herbaceous plant, moderately hardy, and has long been cultivated in our gardens, mr. aiton says, by parkinson in 1640: miller, who treats of it in his dictionary, describes it as a pretty ornament to a garden, and one that is easily kept within bounds; there is certainly much about it to excite our admiration, more especially in the structure of the calyx, and the florets: the flowers, which are of a pale blue colour with a dark eye, make their appearance from july to october. it is propagated by seeds, which miller recommends to be sown in the spring; the seedlings should be transplanted in the autumn, into the borders where they are to remain; it may also be increased by slips: the plant requires a situation moderately dry, and is most productive of flowers and seeds when it stands long in one spot. in the 14th _edit._ of the _systema vegetab._ of prof. murray, mention is made of a variety with double flowers, which we believe has not been seen in this country. [294] amaryllis sarniensis. guernsey amaryllis. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ hexapetaloidea irregularis. _filamenta_ fauci tubi inserta declinata inæqualia proportione vel directione. _linn. fil. ait. kew. p. 415._ _specific character and synonyms._ amaryllis _sarniensis_, petalis linearibus planis, staminibus pistilloque rectiusculis corolla longioribus, stigmatibus partitis revolutis. _linn. fil. ait. kew. v. 1. p. 420. thunb. jap. p. 131._ lilium sarniense. _dougl. monogr. t. 1, 2._ narcissus japonicus rutilo flore. _corn. canad. kæmpf. amæn. p. 872._ [illustration: n^o. 294] the guernsey lily, as it is most commonly called, is originally a native of japan; where it is described to grow by kæmpfer and thunberg, who visited that island, the latter says on the hills about nagasaki, from thence roots are said to have been introduced to the garden of johannes morinus at paris, in which it flowered, october 1634: its introduction to this country, which was subsequent to that date, as dr. douglass relates in his _monographia_ on this plant, "happened by a very singular melancholy accident, of which dr. morison, who no doubt had it from some persons then residing in guernsey, gives us the following account: a dutch or english ship, it is uncertain which, coming from japan, with some of the roots of this flower on board, was cast away on the island of guernsey; the roots were thrown upon a sandy shore, and so by the force of the winds and waves, were soon buried in sand; there they remained for some years, and afterwards, to the great surprise and admiration of the inhabitants, the flowers appeared in all their pomp and beauty." some of these soon made their appearance in this country: mr. aiton relates, that the plant was cultivated here in 1659, by general lambert, at wimbledon. fatal as guernsey proved to the unfortunate mariners, it afforded the roots of our plant a soil and situation apparently congenial to their own; in that island they have flourished ever since, there they are propagated in the open borders of the flower-garden with the least possible trouble, flowering most readily, but we believe never producing any ripe seeds; from thence most of the roots which flower with the curious here, are yearly imported in the autumn. in guernsey, the cold of the winter is far less intense than with us; many of those plants which we keep in our greenhouses, stand with them in the open ground; the superior mildness of the climate enables them to cultivate this plant with more success than we can do, even perhaps with all the expence and trouble to which we might subject ourselves; to such, however, whose situations may be favourable, and who may be fond of making experiments, we recommend the perusal of fairchild's directions, a practical gardener of great ingenuity, and who appears to have had much experience in the culture of this plant[a]. it is usual to plant the imported bulbs in pots of sand, or light loam, as soon as they arrive, and place them in the parlour window, or greenhouse; they blossom in september and october; the flowers, which continue about a month in perfection, are inodorous, but make up for that deficiency by the superior splendour of their colours: dr. douglass thus describes them, each flower when in its prime looks like a fine gold tissue wrought on a rose-coloured ground, but when it begins to fade and decay, it looks more like a silver tissue, or what they call a pink colour: when we look upon the flower in full sun-shine, each leaf appears to be studded with thousands of little diamonds, sparkling and glittering with a most surprising and agreeable lustre; but if we view the same by candle-light, these numerous specks or spangles look more like fine gold dust. both kæmpfer and thunberg agree, that the japanese regard the root as poisonous. [footnote a: "they love a light earth, made with dung and sand, and a little lime rubbish with it does very well, it keeps the roots sound; for if the earth be too stiff or wet, you may keep them for many years before they blow. if they are in pots, they should be put in the house in winter, to keep them from the severe frosts, which are apt to rot the roots. the time of moving them is when they have no leaves on the root, that is from june to august: those that come with six leaves this year, seldom fail blowing the next year: they need not be put in fresh earth above once in two or three years: by this method of management i have had the same roots blow again in four years time. the many miscarriages that happen to the guernsey lily, are by letting the leaves be killed by the fierceness of the frost in winter, or by cutting them off, as some people do, when they are green, which will so much weaken the plants, that they may keep them twenty years and not have them blow; by the above management, where there is a stock, there will be continually some blowing. "miller recommends for these roots the following compost: take a third-part of fresh virgin earth from a pasture-ground which is light, then put near an equal part of sea-sand, to which you should add rotten dung and sifted lime rubbish, of each an equal quantity." the great business in the culture of this flower, next to a proper soil and situation, seems to consist in giving the plant as much air as possible, and in preserving the foliage in the winter from the injury of frost.] [295] agrostemma c[oe]li rosa. smooth-leav'd cockle, or rose campion. _class and order._ decandria pentagynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 1-phyllus, coriaceus. _petala_ 5 unguiculata: limbo obtuso indiviso. _caps._ 1 locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ agrostemma _coeli rosa_ glabra, foliis lineari-lanceolatis, petalis emarginatis coronatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. p. 435._ _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 116._ lychnis segetum, nigellastrum minus glabrum dicta, flore eleganter rubello. _moris. hist. 2. p. 543. s. 5. t. 22. f. 32._ lychnis pseudomelanthiis similis africana glabra angustifolia. _herm. leyd. 391. t. 393._ [illustration: n^o. 295] mr. aiton informs us in his _hortus kewensis_, that the charming annual here figured, the liveliness of whose colours no paint can express, was cultivated by miller in 1739; seeing it is a plant of such beauty, and honoured with so distinguished an appellation, it is singular that it should not by this time have made its way more generally into our gardens. the cockle of our corn-fields is an ornamental plant, the present species resembles it; but while the plant itself is much smaller, its flowers are proportionably larger, and their colours more vivid. it is an annual of ready growth, a native of sicily and the levant, flowering in july and august, and ripening its seeds in september and october. it appears to most advantage when several plants of it grow together; the best mode, therefore, is to sow about a dozen seeds early in april on the several spots of the flower-border where you intend they shall remain; no other care is necessary than to keep the plants free from weeds and vermin. the _agr. coeli rosa_ of _miller's gard. dict. ed. 6 4to._ is the _coronaria_. [296] sempervivum tortuosum. gouty houseleek. _class and order._ dodecandria dodecagynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 12-partitus. _petala_ 12. _capsulæ_ 12 polyspermæ. _specific character._ sempervivum _tortuosum_ foliis obovatis subtus gibbis villosis, nectariis bilobis. _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 148._ [illustration: n^o. 296] we know of no figure of this plant, the first and only account of which is to be found in the _hort. kew._ of mr. aiton; there it is specifically described, and from thence we discover that it was introduced from the canary islands, where it is a native, by mr. masson, in 1779. it is a shrubby plant of low growth, producing numerous fleshy leaves growing thickly together, which being evergreen, and making a pretty appearance the year through, render the plant worthy a place in all general collections at least, of greenhouse plants; and though it cannot vie with many of the more shewy high-priced novelties, it is an abiding plant, not subject to casualties, while many of those are here to day and gone to morrow. it throws up its flowering stems, supporting numerous, starry, stonecrop-like flowers, in july and august, and is most readily propagated by cuttings. it is one of those species of houseleek which connect the genera _sedum_ & _sempervivum_. [297] dianthus superbus. superb pink. _class and order._ decandria digynia. _generic character._ _cal._ cylindricus, 1-phyllus: basi squamis 4. _petala_ 5 unguiculata. _caps._ cylindrica, 1-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ dianthus _superbus_ floribus paniculatis: squamis calycinis brevibus acuminatis, corollis multifido-capillaribus, caule erecto. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 418._ caryophyllus simplex alter, flore laciniato odoratissimo. _bauh. pin. 210._ caryophyllus plumarius austriacus sive superba austriaca. the feathered pinke of austria. _park. parad. p. 316. 4._ [illustration: n^o. 297] many of the plants of this genus diffuse an agreeable odour, which renders them most desirable objects for the flower-garden: this quality the present species possesses in a superior degree to most others; a few of its flowers communicate to a nosegay a delicate and most delicious smell, or placed in a vial of water they will even scent a small apartment[b]: it is to be regretted, however, that the blossoms, unless placed in water, from their extreme delicacy, flag soon after they are gathered. it may be doubted whether the _dianthus superbus_ of _miller's dict. ed. 6. 4to._ be our plant; if it be, the description is not drawn up with that accuracy which distinguishes his descriptions in general; the mode of culture, however, which he recommends is strictly applicable to it, as the plant rarely continues in vigour more than two years, and as it is in its greatest beauty the first year of its flowering, he recommends that young plants should be annually raised for succession from seeds, which are plentifully produced; the seeds of this plant ought therefore to be kept in the shops with annuals and biennials. the _dianthus superbus_ is a native of germany, switzerland, france, and denmark: clusius found it growing in the moist meadows about vienna, and on the borders of woods adjoining to such, with some of its flowers white, others purplish; parkinson describes them of these two colours, but says the most ordinary with us are pure white, which is contrary to what we now find them: they are rarely produced before august, from which period they will continue frequently to blossom till october. the spring is the best time for sowing its seeds; the plants require no very nice or particular treatment. [footnote b: this fragrance has been noticed by all the old authors who have treated of the plant: clusius describes the flowers as _suavissimi odoris et è longinquo nares ferientis_, of which words parkinson's are almost a literal translation "of a most fragrant sent, comforting the spirits and senses afarre off."] [298] origanum dictamnus. dittany of crete. _class and order._ didynamia gymnospermia. _generic character._ _strobilus_ tetragonus, spicatus, calyces colligens. _specific character and synonyms._ origanum _dictamnus_ foliis inferioribus tomentosis, spicis nutantibus. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 541._ _ait. kew. v. 2 p. 311._ dittany of candia. dictamnus creticus. _bauh. pin. p. 222._ [illustration: n^o. 298] by the name of dittany of crete, the species of origanum here figured, has long been known in this country as a medicinal plant; to the purposes of physic it still indeed continues to be applied, as imported in a dried state from the levant: when bruised, the whole plant gives forth an aromatic fragrance, highly grateful; as an ornamental plant, it has also been long, and is now, very generally cultivated in this country. turner, whose herbal was printed in 1568, writes thus concerning it, "i have sene it growynge in england in maister riches gardin naturally, but it groweth no where ellis that i know of, saving only in candy." as at this period no idea was entertained of a greenhouse, the plant must have been cultivated in the open ground, where it would doubtless grow readily, if secured from the severity of the weather, it being more hardy than many plants usually kept in greenhouses. this plant is at all times ornamental, but more particularly so when in flower, in which state it appears during most of the summer and autumnal months. it is usually increased by cuttings, which strike readily. [299] hermannia alnifolia. alder-leaved hermannia. _class and order._ monadelphia pentandria. _generic character._ pentagyna. _caps._ 5-locularis. _petala_ basi semitubulata, obliqua. _specific character and synonyms._ hermannia _alnifolia_ foliis cuneiformibus lineatis plicatis crenato-emarginatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 610._ _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 412._ arbuscula africana tricapsularis ononidis vernæ singulari folio. _pluk. mant. 14. t. 239. f. 1._ [illustration: n^o. 299] _hermannia_ is a genus of plants named in honour of dr. paul herman, a dutch botanist of great celebrity, author of the _paradisus batavus_, and other valuable works: twenty-six species are enumerated in the 13th edition of the _syst. naturæ_ of linnæus by prof. gmelin, and eight in the _hortus kewensis_ of mr. aiton; most of those in the latter work are cultivated in the nurseries near town: they form a set of the more hardy greenhouse plants, grow readily, and flower freely; their blossoms are for the most part yellow, and have a considerable affinity with those of the _mahernia_. the present species flowers very early in the spring, from february to may, producing a great profusion of bloom during that period; is a native of the cape, and was cultivated by mr. miller, in 1728. it rarely ripens its seeds with us, but is readily increased by cuttings. the nurserymen near town regard this plant as the _grossularifolia_ of linnæus, calling another, equally common species, with longer and narrower leaves, _alnifolia_, and which does not appear to be described by linnæus or mentioned by mr. aiton; our plant accords exactly with the linnæan description of _alnifolia_, and there is we think no doubt of its being the _alnifolia_ of the _hortus kewensis_, and mr. miller's _dictionary_. [300] gnaphalium eximium. giant cudweed. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia superflua. _generic character._ _recept._ nudum. _pappus_ plumosus vel capillaris. _cal._ imbricatus, squamis marginalibus rotundatis, scariosis, coloratis. _specific character and synonyms._ gnaphalium _eximium_ foliis sessilibus ovatis confertis erectis tomentosis, corymbo sessili. _linn. mant. pl. p. 573._ _syst. nat. ed. 13. gmel._ elychrysum africanum foliis lanceolatis integris tomentosis decurrentibus, capitulus congestis ex rubello aureis. _edw. av. t. 183._ [illustration: n^o. 300] in the summer of 1794, towards the end of july, the gnaphalium here figured, the most magnificent and shewy of all the species hitherto introduced to this country, flowered in great perfection at messrs. lee and kennedy's, hammersmith: mr. lee informs me, that he raised it from seeds given him by capt. william paterson, author of a narrative of four journeys into the country of the hottentots, and caffraria, and who has most laudably exerted himself in introducing many new and interesting plants to this country; this gentleman assured mr. lee, that the plant was found in a wild state, five hundred miles from the cape, on the borders of the caffre country, from whence the natives bring bundles of the dried plant to the cape as presents; in the state the plant has long since been imported from that fertile coast: if we mistake not, a specimen of this sort is figured in petiver's works, and a coloured representation is given of it in edwards's history of birds, taken from a dried plant, brought from the cape, by capt. isaac worth, in 1749. the plants we saw were about a foot and a half high, the stalks shrubby, and but little branched; the foliage and flowers as represented on the plate. several of the gnaphaliums it is well known are liable to be killed by moisture, especially in the winter season; during that time, this plant in particular, should be kept as dry as possible, and, if convenient, on a shelf, separate from the other plants of the greenhouse; when it is necessary to give it water, it should never come in contact with the foliage or flowers: with these precautions it may be kept very well in a good greenhouse, in which it should remain, even during summer. it may be raised from seeds, and also from cuttings. [301] melianthus minor. small melianthus, or honey-flower. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-phyllus: folio inferiore gibbo. _petala_ 4: nectario infra infima. _caps._ 4-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ melianthus _minor_ stipulis geminis distinctis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 581._ _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 368._ melianthus africanus minor foetidus. _comm. rar. 4. t. 4._ [illustration: n^o. 301] there are few flowers that do not secrete from some kind of a glandular substance, honey, or nectar, to a greater or smaller amount; in those of the present genus, this liquid is particularly abundant, even dropping from the flowers of the _major_, in considerable quantity; in the present species it flows not so copiously, but is retained in the lower part of the blossom, and is of a dark brown colour, an unusual phenomenon. there are only two species of this genus described, the _major_ and the _minor_, both of which are cultivated in our nurseries; the _major_ is by far the most common, the most hardy, and the most ornamental plant; its foliage indeed is peculiarly elegant: this species will succeed in the open border, especially if placed at the foot of a wall with a south or south-west aspect, taking care to cover the root to a considerable depth with rotten tan in severe frosts: the _minor_ is always kept in the greenhouse, in which, when it has acquired a certain age, it flowers regularly in the spring, and constantly so, as far as we have observed of the plants in chelsea garden; mr. aiton says in august, and commelin the summer through. the _melianthus minor_ grows to the height of three, four, or five feet; its stem, which is shrubby, during the flowering season is apt to exhibit a naked appearance, having fewer leaves on it at that period, and those not of their full size; but this, perhaps, may in some degree be owing to the plant's being placed at the back of others. the foliage when bruised has an unpleasant smell. it is a native of the cape, and, according to mr. aiton, was cultivated by the duchess of beaufort, in 1708; is propagated readily by cuttings. [302] mimosa myrtifolia. myrtle-leaved mimosa. _class and order._ polyandria monogynia. _generic character._ _flores_ mere masculi reliquis intersiti. _cal._ 5-dentatus. _cor._ 5-fida aut 0. _stamina_ 4-locularis. _legumen. linn. syst. nat. ed. 13. gmel._ _specific character._ mimosa _myrtifolia_ foliis ovato-lanceolatis obliquis undulatis acuminatis margine cartilagineis: primordialibus pinnatis. _smith trans. linn. soc. v. 1. p. 252._ [illustration: n^o. 302] the seeds of this species of mimosa having been sent over in plenty, with some of the first vegetable productions of new south-wales, and growing readily, the plant has been raised by many cultivators in this country; mr. hoy, gardener to the duke of northumberland, produced a specimen of it in flower at a meeting of the linnean society in 1790; it is a shrub of quick growth, and a ready blower: a plant of it in the stove of chelsea-garden has this year (may 10, 1795) produced ripe pods, and perfect seeds. in the greenhouse, where it flowers from february to april, the blossoms go off without shewing any tendency to produce fruit. it is first described by dr. smith, in the transactions of the linnean society; the leaves in the plants that have fallen under our notice have not accorded exactly with those he has described, having neither been of a glaucous green colour, according to the usual acceptation of that term, nor very much undulated; and though those of an individual plant may have presented such an appearance, we are persuaded they do not do so generally when growing and in good health. the foliage is usually edged with red, and the flowers are fragrant. [303] erica ampullacea. flask heath. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 4-phyllus. _cor._ 4-fida. _filamenta_ receptaculo inserta. _antheræ_ apice bifidæ, pertusæ. _caps._ 4-locularis, 4-valvis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ erica _ampullacea_ foliis ciliatis mucronatis, bractæis coloratis, floribus umbellatis subquaternis erecto-patentibus, stylo exserto. [illustration: n^o. 303] the erica here figured has some affinity in the form of its flowers to the _e. ventricosa_, as these in their shape resemble a flask or bottle, especially of that kind in which water is usually kept, we have named it _ampullacea_; it is of very modern introduction. on the 11th of june 1784, we had the pleasure to see a small plant of this species in flower, with mr. williams, nurseryman, turnham-green, an unwearied and ingenious cultivator of this beautiful tribe of plants in particular, the richness of whose collection will appear in the subsequent list; by him it was raised from cape seeds, though not more than the height of ten inches, it produced eighteen branches, most of which put forth flowers at their summits; we counted sixty-six blossoms on this small plant. the leaves are short, linear, somewhat triangular, rigid, edged with fine crooked hairs, very visible when magnified, and terminating in a mucro or point, on the older branches recurved and mostly eight-rowed; each branch is usually terminated by four or five flowers, at first growing closely together, and covered so strongly with a glutinous substance, as to look as if varnished, and which is so adhesive as to catch ants and small flies; as the flowering advances, they separate more widely from each other, and finally a young branch grows out of the centre from betwixt them; the true calyx is composed of four lanceolate leaves, sitting close to and glued as it were to the corolla; besides these, there are several other leaves, which might be mistaken for those of the calyx, but which may with more propriety be called bracteæ or floral-leaves; some of these, like the calyx, are wholly red, others red and green mixed together, and broader than the leaves of the plant; the flowers are about an inch and a quarter in length, inflated below, and contracted above into a long narrow neck, dilating again so as to form a kind of knob, in which the antheræ are contained, just below the limb, which divides into four somewhat ovate obtuse segments, the upper side of these segments is of a very pale flesh colour, the under side of them as well as the dilated part just below them bright red, the body of the flower flesh colour, marked with eight longitudinal stripes, of a deeper hue; filaments eight, antheræ within the tube; style projecting about the eighth of an inch beyond the corolla; stigma, a round glutinous head. the flowers as they decay become of a deeper red colour, and finally pale brown, still retaining their form and appearing to advantage;--hitherto the plant has produced no seeds here, is increased with difficulty either by cuttings or layers, but with most certainty in the latter way. * * * * * a catalogue of heaths, cultivated and sold by richard williams, at his nursery, _turnham-green, middlesex_. erica. * abietina. albens. * ampullacea. arborea. ---var. squarrosa. articularis. australis. baccans. * banksii. canescens. capitata. caffra. cernua. * cerinthoides. cinerea. ---var. fl. albo. ciliaris. * coccinea. comosa. ---var. fl. rubro. * conspicua. corifolia. * cruenta. cubica. * curviflora. denticulata. * discolor. * elata. empetrifolia. * fascicularis. * formosa. fucata. * grandiflora. * halicacaba. herbacea. incarnata. incana. lateralis. lutea. * mammosa. ---var. fl. purp. margaritacea. ---var. fl. rubro. marifolia. mediterranea. * massoni. minima. * monadelphia. * monsoniana. mucosa. multiflora. ---var. fl. albo. * muscari. * nudiflora. parviflora. * pattersoni. persoluta. ---var. fl. rubro. * petiveri. physodes. * pinifolia. planifolia. * plukenetii. pubescens. pyramidalis. quadriflora. ramentacea. regerminans. scoparia. * sessiliflora. * simpliciflora. * sparrmanni. * spicata. stricta. taxifolia. tetralix. ---var. fl. albo. thymifolia. triflora. ---var. fl. albo. * tubiflora. umbellata. urceolaris. vagans. * ventricosa. * versicolor. * verticillata. * vestita. virgata. vulgaris. ---var. fl. albo. n.b. _those marked with an asterisk have tubular flowers._ [304] hermannia lavendulifolia. lavender-leaved hermannia. _class and order._ monadelphia pentandria. _generic character._ pentagyna. _caps._ 5-locularis. _petala_ basi semitubulata, obliqua. _specific character and synonyms._ hermannia _lavendulifolia_ foliis lanceolatis obtusis integerrimis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 611._ _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 413._ hermannia frutescens folio lavendulæ latiore et obtuso flore parvo aureo boerh. _dill. hort. elth. t. 147._ [illustration: n^o. 304] the _hermannia_ here figured is a plant of humble growth, forming a small bushy shrub, a foot or a foot and a half in height, and producing numerous flowers thinly scattered over the branches, the greatest part of the summer; it is this disposition which it has of flowering so freely, that renders it a desirable plant for the greenhouse, in which it is commonly kept, and of which it is an old inhabitant. dillenius has figured it in his admirable work the _hortus elthamensis_, published in 1732; hence we learn that it was cultivated in mr. sherard's celebrated garden at eltham prior to that date. it is a native of the cape, and is readily increased by cuttings. [305] amaryllis equestris. barbadoes amaryllis, or lily. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ hexapetaloidea, irregularis. _filamenta_ fauci tubi inserta, declinata, inæqualia proportione vel directione. _linn. fil._ _specific character and synonyms._ amaryllis _equestris_ spatha subbiflora, pedicellis erectis spatha brevioribus, tubo siliformi horizontali, limbo oblique patulo sursum curvo, fauce, pilosa. _linn. fil. ait. kew. v. 1. p. 417._ amaryllis dubia _linn. am. ac. 8. p. 254_. lilium americanum puniceo flore belladonna dictum. _herm. par. bat. p. 194. cum fig._ [illustration: n^o. 305] mr. aiton, in his _hortus kewensis_, has inserted this species of amaryllis, as named and described by the younger linnæus; he informs us, that it is a native of the west-indies, and was introduced by dr. william pitcairn, in 1778: as its time of flowering is not mentioned, we may presume, that it had not blossomed in the royal garden when the publication before mentioned first made its appearance; it no doubt has since, as we have seen it in that state in the collections of several nurserymen, particularly those of mr. grimwood and mr. colvill. it flowers towards the end of april. the flowering stem rises above the foliage, to the height of about a foot or more, produces from one to three flowers, similar to, but not quite so large as those of the mexican amaryllis, to which it is nearly related; it differs however from that plant essentially in this, that the lower part of the flower projects further than the upper, which gives to its mouth that obliquity which linnæus describes. the spatha is composed of two leaves, which standing up at a certain period of the plant's flowering like ears, give to the whole flower a fancied resemblance of a horse's head; whether linnæus derived his name of _equestris_ from this circumstance or not, he does not condescend to inform us. mr. aiton regards it as a greenhouse plant; like those of many of the ixias, however, the bulbs are of the more tender kind. it is propagated by offsets, but not very readily. [306] othonna pectinata. wormwood-leaved othonna. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia necessaria. _generic character._ _recept._ nudum. _pappus_ subnullus, _cal._ 1-phyllus multifidus subcylindricus. _specific character and synonyms._ othonna _pectinata_ foliis pinnatifidis: laciniis linearibus parallelis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 793._ _ait. kew. v. 3. p. 276._ jacobæa africana frutescens, foliis absinthii umbelliferi incanis. _comm. hort. 2. p. 137. t. 69._ [illustration: n^o. 306] the _othonna pectinata_ is a native of africa, a long-established and common plant in greenhouses, having been cultivated by mr. miller, in 1731; it recommends itself chiefly on account of its foliage, which forms a pleasing contrast to the darker greens of other plants. it flowers in may and june, is moderately hardy, and readily increased by cuttings. in many collections we meet with old plants of it three or four feet high; formerly, when greenhouse plants were few in numbers and the houses large, it might be proper to keep such; but now there is not that necessity, especially since the vast accession of plants from the cape and new-holland, made within these few years. [307] hermannia althæifolia. marsh-mallow-leaved hermannia. _class and order._ monadelphia pentandria. _generic character._ pentagyna. _caps._ 5-locularis. _petala_ basi semitubulata, obliqua. _specific character and synonyms._ hermannia _althæifolia_ foliis ovatis crenatis plicatis tomentosis, calycibus florentibus campanulatis angulatis, stipulis oblongis foliaceis. _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 411._ hermannia _althæifolia_ foliis ovatis plicatis crenatis tomentosis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 610._ hermannia capensis althææ folio. _pet. gaz. 53. t. 34. f. 2._ ketmia africana frutescens foliis mollibus et incanis. _comm. hort. 2. p. 151. t. 79._ [illustration: n^o. 307] the _hermannia althæifolia_, a native of the cape, is a plant of much larger growth than the _lavendulifolia_, rising to the height, if suffered to do so, of three, four, or more feet; its blossoms are proportionably large, and of a deep yellow colour, inclined to orange. it is a plant of free growth, much disposed to produce flowers during most of the summer months; hence it is kept very generally in collections of greenhouse plants: is propagated readily by cuttings. was cultivated by mr. miller, in 1728. _ait. kew._ our readers will see, that the specific description of linnæus has been altered in the _hortus kewensis_, and that it now comprizes all the striking features of the plant. [308] verbena aubletia. rose vervain. _class and order._ diandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ infundibuliformis subæqualis curva. _calycis_ unico dente truncato. _semina_ 2 s. 4 nuda (_stam._ 2 s. 4.) _specific character and synonyms._ verbena _aubletia_ tetrandra, spicis laxis solitariis, foliis trifidis incisis. _ait. kew. v. 1. p. 33._ verbena _aubletia_ tetrandra, spicis solitariis, coroliis fasciculatis, foliis cordatis inciso-serratis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 66._ _suppl. pl. p. 86._ buchnera canadensis _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 13. p. 478._ verbena _aubletia_. _jacq. hort. v. 2. p. 82. t. 176._ obletia _journ. de rozier introd. 1. p. 367. t. 2._ [illustration: n^o. 308] it has fallen to the lot of this plant to have an unusual degree of attention bestowed on it by various botanists, and after being regarded as a distinct genus by several, to be finally classed with the _verbena_; in the _supplementum plantarum_ of the younger linnæus it is minutely described. we learn from the _hortus kewensis_ of mr. aiton that it is a native of north-america, introduced by mons. richard in 1774, and that it flowers in june and july. the extreme brilliancy of its colours renders it a very ornamental greenhouse plant, it seldom grows above the height of two feet; in favourable seasons ripens its seeds readily, by which it is usually propagated, being a biennial. [309] pelargonium echinatum. prickly-stalked geranium. _class and order._ monadelphia heptandria. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-partitus: lacinia suprema definente in tubulum capillarem nectariferum secus pendunculum decurrentem. _cor._ 5 petala irregularis. _filamenta_ 10, inæqualia, quorum 3 raro 5 castrata. _fructus_ 5 coccus, rostratus: _rostra_ spiralia, introrsum barbata. _specific character._ perlargonium _echinatum_ caule carnoso, stipulis spinescentibus, foliis cordato-subrotundis 3-5 lobis, floribus umbellatis, umbellis subseptemfloris. [illustration: n^o. 309] this singular and most beautiful species of pelargonium, recently introduced to this country, this summer flowered with mr. colvill, nurseryman, in the king's-road, chelsea, from one of whose plants our figure and description have been taken. stalk green, surface smooth and somewhat glossy, fleshy, beset with spines which bend back and terminate in brownish somewhat weak points; these appear to have been primarily the stipulæ, which become thus fleshy and rigid, and from this circumstance not altogether peculiar to this species, it takes the name of _echinatum_; the leaves stand on long footstalks, are somewhat heart-shaped, mostly roundish, divided into three or five lobes, veiny, soft, and downy, especially on the under side, which is of a much lighter colour than the upper, the flowering stem proceeds from the summit of the stalk, and is a foot or more in height; as it advances it throws out its branches, or peduncles, ultimately about five in number, each of which has a leaf at its base, similar to the other leaves of the plant, but smaller, and terminates in an umbel of seven or eight flowers; as the umbels blossom in succession, a period of several months usually intervenes betwixt the blowing of the first and the last; when the flower is expanded, the hindmost leaf of the calyx continues upright, the others are reflexed as in other species of this genus, they are all beset with fine long hairs; the three lowermost petals are pure white, with a little gibbosity at the base of each, the two uppermost are marked each with three irregular spots, of a rich purple colour, inclining to carmine, the two lowermost spots narrowest and of the deepest colour; of the stamina there are six filaments which have antheræ, and four of which have none; stigma red, divided into five parts, and a little longer than the fertile filaments. in its habit this plant resembles somewhat the _pelargonium cordifolium_, is a native of the cape, flowers from may to september, in favourable seasons has produced seeds here, but is more usually increased by cuttings. varies with petals of a rich purple colour, in which the spots are similar, though not so conspicuous. [310] erinus alpinus. alpine erinus. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-phyllus. _cor._ limbus 5-fidus æqualis. _caps._ 2-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ erinus _alpinus_ floribus racemosis, foliis spathulatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 570._ _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 357._ ageratum serratum alpinum. _bauh. pin. 221._ [illustration: n^o. 310] the _erinus alpinus_ is a native of switzerland, germany, and france; inhabiting the more mountainous parts of those countries. it is a very desirable little plant for the decoration of rock work, growing in close tufts, and producing numerous flowers of a lively purple colour during most of the summer months. is increased without difficulty by parting its roots in autumn, or from seed; in the winter some plants of it should be kept in pots under a frame or hand-glass, as it is liable to be injured by wet and frost. was cultivated here by mr. miller in 1759. [311] robinia hispida. rough-stalk'd robinia, or rose acacia. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ 4-fidus. legumen gibbum elongatum. _specific character and synonyms._ robinia _hispida_ racemis axillaribus, foliis impari pinnatis, caule inermi hispido. _linn. mant. p. 668. ait. kew. v. 3. p. 53._ robinia racemis axillaribus, pedicellis unifloris, foliis impari pinnatis, caule inermi. _jacq. amer. 211. t. 179. f. 101._ pseudo acacia hispida floribus roseis. _catesb. carol. 3. p. 20. t. 20._ [illustration: n^o. 311] there are few trees or shrubs which have contributed more to adorn our plantations, and shrubberies, than those of this genus, nine species of which are enumerated in the _hort. kew._ of mr. aiton, most of these are natives either of north-america, or siberia: the present species, an inhabitant of carolina, is perhaps the most ornamental of the whole: its large pendant bunches of rose-coloured flowers load the branches in may and june, and sometimes a second crop will be produced late in the season, these with us usually fall off without producing any seed-vessels. this shrub is not disposed to grow very tall in america, it is most prudent indeed to keep it humble, to the height of four or five feet, and to plant it in a sheltered part of the garden, as its branches are liable to be broken by high winds: marshall (_arb. amer._) describes it as spreading much from its running roots; we have not observed it to do so in any great degree here; it is propagated by layers, by cuttings of the roots, and by grafting; it is of ready growth, disposed to blow even when young, and not nice as to soil, or situation; the flowers afford a good example of the class diadelphia, they are large and beautiful, but without scent. was cultivated by mr. miller in 1758. _ait. kew._ [312] linum flavum. yellow flax. _class and order._ pentandria pentagynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-phyllus. _petala_ 5. _caps._ 5-valvis 10 locularis. _sem._ solitaria. _specific character and synonyms._ linum _flavum_ calycibus subserrato-scabris lanceolatis subsessilibus, panicula ramis dichotomis. _linn. sp. pl. v. 1. ed. 3. p. 399._ _mant. p. 360._ _syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 303._ _jacq. fl. austr. v. 3. t. 214._ linum sylvestre latifolium luteum. _bauh. pin. 214._ linum sylvestre iii. latifolium. _clus. hist. 1. p. 317._ [illustration: n^o. 312] there is a considerable similarity betwixt the representation of the present plant and that of the _linum arboreum_ figured on the 234th plate of this work, they are nevertheless two species widely differing, the _flavum_ being a hardy herbaceous perennial, a native of germany, the _arboreum_ a greenhouse shrub from the levant, both possessing considerable beauty, and highly worthy a place in all collections of ornamental plants. the _linum flavum_ is not mentioned either in the dictionary of mr. miller, or the hortus kewensis of mr. aiton, and as far as our knowledge extends was a stranger in this country, till we raised it the year before last from seeds sent us by mr. daval, of orbe in switzerland; clusius gives us a representation of it in flower, and prof. jacquin another much superior; according to the latter, it grows by the sides of hedges and among shrubs in mountainous situations, and rarely exceeds a foot in height. from the little experience we have had of this plant, it appears to be easy of culture, and to succeed best in a soil moderately stiff and moist; the flowers expand most in a morning when the sun shines, and continue in succession during june, july, and part of august; it appears as if it would ripen its seeds in my garden; these vegetate freely: the plant may also be increased by parting its roots in autumn, or by cuttings of the young shoots. [313] daphne cneorum. trailing daphne. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 0. _cor._ 4-fida corallacea marcescens stamina includens, _bacca_ 1-sperma. _specific character and synonyms._ daphne _cneorum_ floribus congestis terminalibus sessilibus, foliis lanceolatis nudis mucronatis. _linn. syst. veget. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 371._ _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 26._ thymeleæ affinis facie externa. _bauh. pin. 463._ cneorum. _matth. hist. 46._ _clus. hist. 89, 90. f. 1._ [illustration: n^o. 313] this charming little shrub is a native of switzerland and austria: clusius informs us that it grows in great abundance on many of the mountains near vienna, so much so that women gather it when in flower and sell it in the markets; its beautiful and fragrant blossoms come forth in april and may, the principal season for its flowering, but it frequently blows during most of the summer, and even in the autumn; it varies with white blossoms. it is extremely hardy, thrives remarkably well in road sand in almost any situation; is propagated by seeds, which very rarely ripen with us, by layers, and by grafting it on the stock of the mezereon, whereby it acquires an elevation superior to what it has naturally. [314] genista triquetra. triangular-stalk'd genista. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ 2-labiatus: 2/3. _vexillum_ oblongum a pistillo staminibusque deorsum reflexum. _specific character._ genista _triquetra_ foliis ternatis, summis simplicibus, ramis triquetris procumbentibus. _l'herit. stirp. nov. t. 88._ _ait. kew. v. 3. p. 14._ [illustration: n^o. 314] mons. l'heritier, author of many modern publications in botany, distinguished for their accuracy and elegance, was the first who described and figured this species of genista, a native of corsica, and cultivated here by john ord, esq. as long since as the year 1770. it is a hardy, evergreen, trailing shrub, producing a vast profusion of bloom; which renders it eminently conspicuous in may and june; its flowers are rarely succeeded by seed-vessels, so that it is usually propagated by layers. when tied up properly, and carefully trained to stake, it may vie with most of our ornamental shrubs: for covering a wall, or paling, where the situation is not too shady, it probably would succeed very well, at least it is deserving of trial. [315] pelargonium ceratophyllum. horn-leaved crane's bill. _class and order._ monadelphia heptandria. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-partitus: lacinia suprema definente in tubulum capillarem, nectariferum, secus pendunculum decurrentem. _cor._ 5-petala, irregularis. _filam._ 10 inæqualia, quorum 3 raro 5 castrata. _fructus_ 5-coccus, rostratus, rostra spiralia introrsum barbata. _specific character and synonyms._ pelargonium _ceratophyllum_ umbellis multifloris, foliis remote pinnatis carnosis teretibus, laciniis canaliculatis obsolete trifidis. _l'herit. geran. n. 50. t. 13._ _ait. kew. v. 2 p. 422._ [illustration: n^o. 315] mr. aiton informs us that this species of pelargonium, which is one of the more fleshy kinds, is a native of the south-west coast of africa, and was introduced to the royal garden at kew by mr. anthony hove in 1786. it flowers during most of the summer months, and ripens its seeds, by which it may be increased, as also by cuttings; it is found to be more tender than many others, and more liable to be injured by damps, and hence it will require a treatment more applicable to a dry stove plant. [316] polygala chamæbuxus. box-leaved milk-wort. _class and order._ diadelphia octandria. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-phyllus: foliolis 2 majoribus alæformibus, ante maturitatem seminis coloratis. _caps._ obcordata, 2-locularis. _sem._ solitaria. _specific character and synonyms._ polygala _chamæbuxus_ floribus sparsis: carinæ apice subrotundo, foliis lanceolatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 639._ _ait. kew. v. 3. p. 4._ _jacq. fl. austr. v. 3. p. 19. t. 233._ chamæbuxus flore coluteæ. _bauh. pin. 471._ anonymos flore coluteæ. _clus. hist. p. 105. f._ polygaloides procumbens foliis duris ovatis nervo aristato. _hall. hist. n. 345._ [illustration: n^o. 316] clusius, in his _hist. pl. rar._ gives an accurate description and good figure of the present plant, before unnoticed (as he observes) by any author; it has since been particularly described by haller and jacquin; the former makes a distinct genus of it, by the name of _polygaloides_. it is an elegant little evergreen shrub of low growth, rarely exceeding a foot in height, with leaves like those of box, producing flowers from may to october, but most plentifully in may and june; each flower stands on a peduncle proceeding from a kind of triphyllous cup, formed of floral leaves, the true calyx is composed of three leaves, which are nearly white; the two outermost petals, similar to the wings of a papilionaceous flower, are also white, or nearly so; the third petal which forms a kind of tube and contains the eight stamina with the pistillum, is white at the base, but yellow towards the extremity, where it changes by degrees to a bright bay colour: both clusius and jacquin observed a variety of this plant, in which the calyx and wings were of a beautiful purple; this variety, we believe, has not yet been introduced to this country: the common sort was cultivated in the garden at oxford, in 1658. miller describes it as a plant difficult of cultivation; it is not now regarded as such; both clusius and jacquin describe it as having creeping roots; such plants are generally increased without difficulty, and so is this; planted in bog earth on a shady border, it thrives extremely well, and spawns much, so that there is no necessity for having recourse to its seeds. it grows spontaneously on the alps of austria and switzerland. [317] ononis fruticosa. shrubby rest-harrow. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-partitus: laciniis linearibus. _vexillum_ striatum. _legumen_ turgidum sessile. _filamenta_ connata absque fissura. _specific character and synonyms._ ononis _fruticosa_ foliis sessilibus ternatis lanceolatis serratis, stipulis vaginalibus, pedunculis subtrifloris. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 653._ _ait. kew. 24._ ononis purpurea verna præcox frutescens, flore rubro amplo. _moris. hist. 2. p. 170._ [illustration: n^o. 317] this charming little shrub, highly deserving of being more generally known, is a native of the south of france; and was cultivated here by miller in 1748. in favourable situations, it produces blossoms in great profusion during most of the summer, and ripens seed in abundance: the situation it affects is dry and sandy, but it is a shrub by no means nice, as to soil or place of growth, and so hardy as to have borne the severity of last winter, 1795, without injury. in the collections about town we frequently find it in pots, kept with greenhouse plants. it is said to vary with white flowers. the best mode of raising it is from seed. [318] anthericum liliastrum. savoy anthericum, or st. bruno's lily. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ 6-petala, patens. _caps._ ovata. _specific character and synonyms._ anthericum _liliastrum_ foliis planis, scapo simplicissimo, corollis campanulatis, staminibus declinatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 330._ _ait. kew. v. 1. p. 449._ hemerocallis floribus patulis secundis. _hall. hist. n. 1230._ phalangium magno flore. _bauh. pin. 29._ phalangium allobrogicum majus. _clus. cur. app. alt._ phalangium allobrogicum. the savoye spider-wort. _park. parad. p. 150. tab. 151. f. 1._ [illustration: n^o. 318] botanists are divided in their opinions respecting the genus of this plant; linnæus considers it as an _anthericum_, haller and miller make it an _hemerocallis_. it is a native of switzerland, where, haller informs us, it grows abundantly in the alpine meadows, and even on the summits of the mountains; with us it flowers in may and june. it is a plant of great elegance, producing on an unbranched stem about a foot and a half high, numerous flowers of a delicate white colour, much smaller but resembling in form those of the common white lily, possessing a considerable degree of fragrance, their beauty is heightened by the rich orange colour of their antheræ; unfortunately they are but of short duration. miller describes two varieties of it differing merely in size. a loamy soil, a situation moderately moist, with an eastern or western exposure, suits this plant best; so situated, it will increase by its roots, though not very fast, and by parting of these in the autumn, it is usually propagated. parkinson describes and figures it in his _parad. terrest._ observing that "divers allured by the beauty of its flowers, had brought it into these parts." [319] anagallis monelli. italian pimpernel. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ rotata. _caps._ circumscissa 1-locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ anagallis _monelli_, foliis lanceolatis caule erecto. _linn. syst. veget. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 196._ _ait. kew. v. 1. p. 201._ anagallis coerulea foliis binis ternisve ex adverso nascentibus. _bauh. pin. 552._ anagallis tenuifolia monnelli. _clus. app. alt._ [illustration: n^o. 319] in italy and spain, where this plant grows spontaneously, it is an annual, producing seed in abundance; with us (as far at least as we have observed) it produces no seed, but like the _senecio elegans_, and some other annuals, is renewed, and rendered perennial by cuttings, which strike freely, and by which the plant requires to be renovated once or twice in a season; though described as growing with an upright stem, it requires to be tied up to a stick; and if this be neatly and dexterously done, its brilliant azure flowers springing from every side of the stem, render it a charming ornament for the greenhouse or window: it flowers during most of the year. clusius called it _anagallis monnelli_, the first knowledge he had of the plant being from his friend johannes monnellus. on the same plant we find the leaves grow two, three, or four together, with flowers corresponding. [320] lobelia cardinalis. scarlet lobelia, or cardinal's flower. _class and order._ syngenesia monogamia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-fidus. _cor._ 1-petala, irregularis. _caps._ infera 2, s. 3-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ lobelia _cardinalis_ caule erecto, foliis lato-lanceolatis serratis, racemo terminali secundo. _linn. syst. veg. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 801._ _ait. kew. v. 3. p. 284._ rapuntium galeatum virginianum, coccineo flore majore. _moris. hist. 2. p. 466. s. 5. t. 5. f. 54._ trachelium americarum flore ruberrimo, sive planta cardinalis. the rich crimson cardinal's flower. _park. parad. p. 356. t. 355._ [illustration: n^o. 320] this species of _lobelia_, so eminently distinguished for the richness of its scarlet blossoms, is a native of the colder as well as warmer parts of north-america. parkinson, who cultivated it in 1629, informs us that he received plants of it from france for his garden, and that "it groweth neere the river of canada, where the french plantation in america is seated." it is a hardy herbaceous plant, growing in favourable situations to the height of three or four feet; the main spike of flowers which terminates the stalk, is often a foot in length; by the time that most of its flowers are blown, side branches shoot out, and flower; so that the plant continues in bloom six weeks or two months: if the autumn prove favourable, the plant with us produces plenty of seed in the open ground; to insure its ripening, some place pots of it, when blowing, in the greenhouse or stove. beautiful and hardy as this plant is, and long as it has been introduced to this country, we do not find it generally in gardens; we attribute this to its having, in a greater degree than many other plants, a partiality for a particular soil; in certain districts, where the soil is stiff and moist, it grows as freely as any weed, in other soils it is perpetually going off: it is also one of those plants whose roots require to be often parted; if this be done every autumn, and they be planted in a stiff loam, the situation somewhat moist and shady, this very desirable plant may be had to grow and blossom in perfection. it flowers from the latter end of july to october. is increased by parting its roots, by cuttings of the stalk and from seed. [321] cotyledon orbiculata. round-leaved navel-wort. _class and order._ decandria pentagynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-fidus. _cor._ 1-petala. _squamæ_ nectariferæ 5 ad basin germinis. _caps._ 5. _specific character and synonyms._ cotyledon _orbiculata_ foliis orbiculatis carnosis planis integerrimis, caule fruticoso. _linn. syst. veg. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 428._ _ait. kew. var. [delta] v. 2. p. 106._ cotyledon africanum frutescens incanum orbiculatis foliis. _herm. lugd. 349. t. 551._ _moris. hist. 3. p. 474. s. 12. t. 7 f. 39._ [illustration: n^o. 321] the _cotyledon orbiculata_ is one of our oldest succulents, being introduced as long since as 1690, by mr. bentick[c]: it still retains a place in most collections, deservedly indeed, for it has every claim to our notice; its appearance is magnificent, the glaucous colour of its foliage highly pleasing, its flowers large and of long duration; it blows freely, grows rapidly, is easily increased by cuttings, and will succeed in a house or window, with the common treatment of an african geranium. when suffered to grow, it will become a shrub of considerable size; but this is not necessary for its flowering, as young and small plants are disposed to throw out blossoms, which is not the case with a plant extremely similar to, and often confounded with it, viz. the _crassula cotyledon_, whose foliage indeed scarcely differs from our plant but in being finely dotted. it is a native of the cape, and flowers from june or july to september. in the _hort. kew._ of mr. aiton, four varieties are enumerated, differing chiefly in the form of their foliage. [footnote c: ait. kew.] [322] manulea tomentosa. woolly manulea. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-partitus. _cor._ limbo 5-partito, subulato: laciniis superioribus 4 magis connexis. _caps._ 2-locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ manulea _tomentosa_ foliis tomentosis, caulibus foliosis, pedunculis multifloris. _linn. mant. 420. syst. veget. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 569._ _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 356._ selago _tomentosa_ foliis obovatis crenatis, caule prostrato, racemis ramosis. _linn. amoen. acad. v. 6. p. 90._ _sp. pl. ed. 3. p. 877._ planta _pluk. phyt. 319. f. 2._ [illustration: n^o. 322] linnæus describes this plant in the _amoenitates academicæ_ under the name of _selago tomentosa_, by which name he continues to call it in the third edition of the _spec. pl._ in his _mantissa_ he describes it more minutely, and changes it to the genus _manulea_, first established by him in the said work; he observes, that in this species the corolla is more regular than in the others. mr. aiton regards it as a biennial, its stalk is a foot or a foot and a half high, and woolly, its branches are opposite, not alternate as linnæus describes them; in this perhaps they may vary; leaves opposite, sessile, obovate, narrowing to the base, toothed on the edge, edge rolled back a little in the young leaves, flowers grow in a long thyrsus, from two to five proceed from one common short peduncle; they are at first lemon-coloured, or greenish yellow, finally deep orange; linnæus says the whole of the plant except the corolla is woolly, the tube of that even is hairy, the segments are smooth, with their edges rolled back, the upper part of the tube in which the stamina are included is dilated somewhat, as is also the lower part, so that it is narrowest in the middle. the flowers which make their appearance from may to november are usually succeeded by seeds, by which the plant is propagated. it is a native of the cape, and, according to mr. aiton, was introduced by mr. masson, in 1774. the blossoms have a singular but unpleasant smell, not perceivable at a distance. the variety of pleasant colours so conspicuous in the flowers, renders this rare plant desirable to such as aim at a general collection. [323] rubus odoratus. flowering raspberry. _class and order._ icosandria polygynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-fidus. _petala_ 5. _bacca_ composita acinis monospermis. _specific character and synonyms._ rubus _odoratus_ foliis simplicibus palmatis, caule inermi multifolio multifloro. _linn. syst. veg. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 475._ _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 210._ rubus odoratus. _corn. canad. 149. t. 150._ [illustration: n^o. 323] botanists and gardeners have given to this species of rubus the name of _flowering_, not because it is the only one which produces flowers, but from its being regarded for its flowers merely; they indeed are so shewy, and so plentifully produced, that the plant has long been thought to merit a place in most shrubberies; to the various inhabitants of which, both in the largeness and elegant form of its leaves, and the colour of its blossoms, it forms a pleasing contrast. it is extremely hardy, and easily propagated by suckers; the only care which it requires, is to keep it within proper bounds: young plants of it produce the largest and finest flowers. it blossoms from june to september, is a native of different and distant parts of north-america, and was cultivated here by mr. miller, in 1739. cornutus, who first figured and described this plant, gave it the name of _odoratus_, on account of the fragrance of its foliage; his words are "elegantissimi hujus folia fragrantissima sunt, paremque agrimonio odorato spirant odorem;" the fruit, rarely produced with us, he observes, is like the common raspberry, but not so pleasant. [324] antirrhinum triphyllum. three-leaved toad-flax. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-phyllus. _cor._ basis deorsum prominens nectarifera. _caps._ 2-locularis. _specific character and synonyms._ antirrhinum _triphyllum_ foliis ternis ovatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 555._ _ait. kew._ linaria triphylla minor lutea. _bauh. pin. 212._ linaria triphylla coerulea. _bauh. pin. 212._ linaria hispanica. _clus. hist. 1. p. 320._ linaria valentina. tode flaxe of valentia. _park. par. p. 268._ [illustration: n^o. 324] the _antirrhinum triphyllum_, so called from the leaves growing by threes on the stalk (a character, by the bye, not very constant) was cultivated by parkinson, and described by him in his _parad. terr._ he appears to have been a stranger to the particoloured variety now so generally cultivated as an ornamental annual in our gardens; in its wild state the flowers of this _antirrhinum_ are of a yellow hue, with little or no purple in them, such indeed are frequently produced from seeds sown in our gardens. it is a hardy annual, a native of spain and sicily, a plant of ready growth, requiring the common treatment of annuals sown in the spring, and much disposed indeed to come up spontaneously where it has once grown; in sowing its seeds, care should be taken to preserve the produce of such flowers as have the most purple in them. index. in which the latin names of the plants contained in the _ninth volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ 295 agrostemma coeli rosa. 290 amaryllis lutea. 294 ---sarniensis. 305 ---equestris. 319 anagallis monelli. 324 antirrhinum triphyllum. 318 anthericum liliastrum. 293 catananche coerulea. 291 capparis spinosa. 321 cotyledon orbiculata. 289 convolvulus linearis. 313 daphne cneorum. 297 dianthus superbus. 303 erica ampullacea. 310 erinus alpinus. 314 genista triquetra. 300 gnaphalium eximium. 299 hermannia alnifolia. 304 ---lavendulifolia. 307 ---althæifolia. 312 linum flavum. 320 lobelia cardinalis. 322 manulea tomentosa. 301 melianthus minor. 302 mimosa myrtifolia. 317 ononis fruticosa. 298 origanum dictamnus. 306 othonna pectinata. 292 passerina grandiflora. 309 pelargonium echinatum. 315 ---ceratophyllum. 316 polygala chamæbuxus. 311 robinia hispida. 323 rubus odoratus. 296 sempervivum tortuosum. 308 verbena aubletia. index. in which the english names of the plants contained in the _ninth volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ 290 amaryllis yellow. 294 ---guernsey. 305 ---barbadoes. 318 anthericum savoy. 291 caper shrub. 293 catananche blue. 295 cockle smooth-leaved. 289 convolvulus narrow-leaved. 315 crane's-bill horn-leaved. 300 cudweed giant. 313 daphne trailing. 298 dittany of crete. 310 erinus alpine. 312 flax yellow. 303 heath flask. 299 hermannia alder-leaved. 304 ---lavender-leaved. 307 ---marshmallow-leaved. 296 houseleek gouty. 314 genista triangular-stalked. 309 geranium prickly-stalked. 320 lobelia scarlet. 322 manulea woolly. 301 melianthus small. 316 milk-wort box-leaved. 302 mimosa myrtle-leaved. 321 navel-wort round-leaved. 306 othonna wormwood-leaved. 292 passerina great-flowered. 319 pimpernel italian. 297 pink superb. 323 raspberry flowering. 317 rest-harrow shrubby. 311 robinia rough-stalked. 324 toad-flax three-leaved. 308 vervain rose. file made using scans of public domain works at the university of georgia.) the botanical magazine; or, flower-garden displayed: in which the most ornamental foreign plants, cultivated in the open ground, the green-house, and the stove, are accurately represented in their natural colours. to which are added, their names, class, order, generic and specific characters, according to the celebrated linnæus; their places of growth, and times of flowering: together with the most approved methods of culture. a work intended for the use of such ladies, gentlemen, and gardeners, as wish to become scientifically acquainted with the plants they cultivate. by _william curtis_, author of the flora londinensis. vol. xiii. "---all alone, amid her garden fair, "from morn to noon, from noon to dewy eve, "she spent her days, her pleasing task to tend "the flowers; to lave them from the water-spring; "to ope the buds with her enamoured breath, "rank the gay tribes, and rear them in the sun. ------ "thus plied assiduous her delightful task, "day after day, till every herb she named "that paints the robe of spring." bruce. _london_: printed by stephen couchman, throgmorton-street, for w. curtis, nº 3, _st. george's-crescent_, black-friars-road; and sold by the principal booksellers in great-britain and ireland. m dcc xcix. [433] [illustration: nº. 433] azalea pontica. yellow azalea. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ campanulata. _stamina_ receptaculo inserta. _caps._ 2-5 locularis polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ azalea _pontica_ foliis nitidis lanceolatis, utrinque glabris, racemis terminalibus. _linn. sp. pl. app. p. 1669._ _pall. fl. ross. t. 69. p. 51._ chamærhodendros pontica maxima mespili folio flore luteo. _tourn. cor. hist. rei. herb. 42._ _act. paris 1704. p. 348._ _buxb. cent. 5. p. 36. t. 69._ descr. shrub from two to three feet or more in height, the thickest part of the stem not exceeding the size of the little finger, covered with a smooth brown bark, irregularly branched; flowers appearing before the leaves are fully expanded, and produced in umbels at the extremities of the branches, from eight to twelve or more in an umbel, of a fine yellow colour and agreeable fragrance; each blossom is about the size of that of the horse-chestnut, and as some of them are produced much earlier than others, the plant of course continues a considerable time in bloom, standing on short peduncles; calyx very short, viscous, and irregularly divided, most commonly into five ovato-lanceolate segments; corolla, tube cylindrical, viscous, grooved, brim divided into five segments, undulated and somewhat wrinkled, ovate, pointed, three turning upwards, two downwards, of the three uppermost segments the middle one more intensely yellow than the others and inclining to orange, with which it is sometimes spotted; stamina usually five, yellow, projecting beyond the corolla, and turning upwards near their extremities; antheræ orange-coloured; pollen whitish and thready; germen somewhat conical, evidently hairy, and somewhat angular; style yellowish, filiform, projecting beyond the stamina, and turning upwards; stigma forming a round green head. the figure and description here given were taken from a plant which flowered by means of artificial heat, in the spring of 1798, at mr. watson's, nurseryman, islington, and which had been introduced the same year, by mr. anthony hove, of warsaw. as an hardy ornamental shrub, it bids fair to prove an acquisition truly valuable, its flowers produced in the months of june and july, being highly ornamental as well as fragrant. we have the best authority for regarding this plant as the _chamærhodendros pontica_ of tournefort, it agrees with his own specimens in sir joseph banks's herbarium, it accords also with his description, and figures, more especially of those flowers which are of their natural size; nor have we any doubts of its being the _azalea pontica_ of prof. pallas, figured in the _flor. rossica_, since it corresponds generally with his description, though not in all points with his figure, which bears evident marks of inaccuracy, the stigma, for instance, is represented as trifid. tournefort found this plant on the eastern side of the black sea, mr. hove on the north side near oczakow, and elsewhere; professor pallas on mount caucasus. as yet there has been no opportunity of ascertaining the best means of propagating this new denizen, but there is every reason to suppose that it will succeed with the treatment bestowed on the other _azalea's_. prof. pallas relates that the honey of bees frequenting the flowers of this plant is supposed to be narcotic, and that goats, kine, and sheep on eating its leaves have been poisoned thereby. by permission and with the approbation of mr. anthony hove, the following extracts from his journal are here inserted. "june 9, 1796, found a few of this species of _azalea_ on the river dnieper in swampy ground, four feet high, beginning to blow, called here the stupifying shrub, and considered by some as highly efficacious in curing the venereal disease. "june 20, found this species on the river dniester, on the estate of count stanislaus sczesny potocki, about sixteen english miles from the town of mohilow, in peat earth, from four to twenty feet high; regarded by the common people as intoxicating, and used in the cure of various diseases. "july 4, near oczakow, found thousands of these plants fully blown, in a marsh, every spring-tide overflown by the sea; found there also, a tartarian farmer, who lived entirely by the profits arising from the honey which the bees extracted from the flowers of this plant, sold to constantinople and other parts of turkey for medicinal uses. "july 15, arrived at trebizond, found a valley about ten english miles from the sea covered with these plants." on cultivation, mr. hove relates that he found the _azalea's_ from trebizond much more tender than those from the borders of the dnieper and the dniester, and was therefore inclined to regard them as strong varieties if not distinct species. the leaves, when fully expanded, are in size and figure like those on the plate, hairy on both sides, and terminating in a very remarkable blunt mucro or point, which has not been noticed either by those who have described or figured the plant as it deserves, for it appears to form a very strong character. [434] [illustration: nº. 434] oxybaphus viscosus. viscid umbrella-wort. _class and order._ triandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-fidus campanulatus. _cor._ infundibuliformis. _nux_ 5-gona 1-sperma calyce explanato persistenti circumdata. _specific character and synonyms._ oxybaphus _viscosus_. _l'herit. monograph._ mirabilis _viscosa_ floribus racemosis; foliis cordatis orbiculato-acutis tomentosis. _cav. icon. i. n. 17. t. 19._ the present is one of those plants which is entitled to our admiration, for its curious and singular structure, rather than for any extraordinary figure it makes in a collection; not that its flowers are without a certain share of beauty. it is an annual, growing to about the height of two feet; the whole plant is viscous, and, if bruised, smells somewhat disagreeably; the flowers do not open at any particular time as those of the _mirabilis_ do, and each contains only three stamina; when they fall off, which they do soon after expanding, the calyx closes on the germen, enlarges, droops, and becomes deeply plaited; on the ripening of the seed it turns brown, expands, and is suspended like a little umbrella over the seed, which when perfectly ripe drops out on the ground; the expanded calyx in this state appears somewhat like the flower of a physalis. this plant flowers from june to october, and ripens its seeds in the open air; it is not difficult of culture, requires the same treatment as other tender annuals from peru. our figure was drawn from a plant which flowered 1796, in the collection of the marchioness of bute, and was raised from peruvian seeds, sent her by prof. ortega of madrid, under the name of _mirabilis triandra_; mons. cavanille has figured and described it as the _mirabilis viscosa_; mons. l'heritier, from a consideration of all its characters, has been induced to make a new genus of it, which he has called _oxybaphus_. [435] [illustration: nº. 435] gnaphalium ericoides. heath-leaved gnaphalium, or everlasting. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia superflua. _generic character._ _recept._ nudum. _pappus_ plumosus. _cal._ imbricatus: squamis marginalibus rotundatis scariosis coloratis. _specific character and synonyms._ gnaphalium _ericoides_ fruticosum foliis sessilibus linearibus, calycibus exterioribus rudibus, interioribus incarnatis. _linn. am. acad. v. 6. p. 99._ _syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 746._ _ait. hort. kew. p. 174._ in the 6th vol. of the _amoenitates academicæ_, linnæus describes this species of _gnaphalium_, most probably from dried specimens collected at the cape, where it is a native; so insignificant did the plant appear to him, that in his description, he calls it _misera_; compared with the more magnificent species, such a term might not perhaps be inapplicable: but, though small, the plant possesses much beauty when cultivated, and hence is generally kept in our green-houses. it flowers from march to august. its branches, naturally weak and trailing, require to be carefully tied up; if this business be executed with taste and judgment, the natural beauty of the plant may be considerably heightened. it is readily increased by cuttings. was introduced to the royal garden at kew, by mr. masson, in 1774. [436] [illustration: nº. 436] hibiscus præmorsus. bitten-leaved hibiscus. _class and order._ monadelphia polyandria. _generic character._ _cal._ duplex: exterior polyphyllus. _caps._ 5-locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ hibiscus _præmorsus_ foliis subrotundis, dentato-serratis retusis pubescentibus. _ait. kew. v. 2. 454._ hibiscus _præmorsus_ hirsutus, foliis ovatis basi angustato-cordatis apice præmorsis crenatis, calycibus tomentosis, seminibus tuberculatis. _linn. suppl. pl. p. 309._ pavonia _cuneifolia_. _cavan. diff. 3. p. 139. t. 45. f. 1._ urena _præmorsa_. _l'herit. stirp. nov. t. 51._ though not so shewy a plant as many of the genus, we find this species of _hibiscus_ in most collections of green-house plants about london, flowering from june to september. its foliage is singular, its blossoms sulphur coloured with a tint of orange on the under side and without scent; if suffered to grow, this shrub will acquire a considerable height; it seeds freely, by which the plant is readily increased, and by these it requires to be renewed once in two or three years. is a native of the cape, from whence it was introduced, by mr. masson, in 1774. _ait. kew._ it will be seen by the synonyms, that authors have been divided in their opinions as to the genus of this plant; linnæus the younger, in his _suppl._ makes it an _hibiscus_; cavanille, a _pavonia_; l'heritier, an _urena_; mr. aiton, an _hibiscus_; not partial to the multiplying of genera, unless there be an obvious necessity for it, we have in the present instance followed the first and last of these writers. [437] [illustration: nº. 437] hydrangea arborescens. shrubby hydrangea. _class and order._ decandria digynia. _generic character._ _caps._ 2-locularis, 2-rostris, infera, foramine inter stylos dehiscens. _specific character and synonyms._ hydrangea _arborescens_ caule arboreo. _linn. syst. nat. ed. 13._ _gmel. syst. veget. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 410._ _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 76._ anonymos floribus albis parvis, in umbella lata magna dispositis odoratis, foliis amplis acuminatis serratis pediculis insidentibus ex adverso binis, caule fruticoso præalto non ramoso, vasculo parvo, bicapsulari, seminibus minutissimis repleto, duobus parvis filamentis seu corniculis recurvis coronato. _clayt. n. 79._ _mill. icon. t. 251._ _duham. arb. 1. t. 3._ as a shrub commonly cultivated for ornament in our gardens and plantations, the _hydrangea arborescens_ has a right to appear in this work, nevertheless it is more with a view to illustrate a peculiar character of the genus that it is here figured. this shrub is a native of virginia, and was introduced in 1736, by p. collinson, esq. it is of low growth, rarely exceeding four feet in height; its flowers are produced on the summits of the branches, somewhat in the manner of the _laurustinus_; they are small, crowded, nearly white, with a tinge of red in them which is not very brilliant, and some fragrance; they are produced in july and august, and sometimes followed by ripe seeds here. is easily propagated by parting its roots the latter end of october, prefers a moist soil, but will grow in a dry one; if in severe frosts the stalks, which are rather soft, should be killed, new ones will be put up the following spring. [438] [illustration: nº. 438] hydrangea hortensis. garden hydrangea. hydrangea _hortensis_ foliis ellipticis serratis glaberrimis staminibus æqualibus. _smith icon. rar. t. 12._ hortensia. _commmers. jussieu gen. 214._ primula _mutabilis_ caule suffruticoso multiplici, foliis ovatis serratis, floribus nudis. _loureir coch. chin. v. 1. p. 104._ viburnum _tomentosum_ foliis ovatis acuminatis serratis venosis subtus tomentosis, umbellis lateralibus. _thunb. jap. p. 123. ?_ sambucus aquatica surculis pinguibus punctatis, &c. sijo vulgo adsai et ansai et adsiki. _kæmpf. am. exot. p. 854._ var. fl. albo, pila florida major. it appears to be a point not yet fully determined, whether the present plant exhibits the appearances belonging to it in a state of nature, or those which are in a certain degree the effect of accident, or of art; in its fructification it certainly is not so completely barren as the guilder rose, _viburnum opulus_, cultivated in our gardens, since it has most of its parts perfect; yet as none of the authors who have seen it in china or japan (where it is said not only to be much cultivated but indigenous[1]) describe its fruit, we are inclined on that account to regard it, in a certain degree, as monstrous. it will appear by the synonyms, that authors have entertained very different opinions as to what this plant really is; jussieu following commerson makes it an _hortensia_, thunberg a _viburnum_, loureiro, ridiculously enough, a _primula_, and dr. smith an _hydrangea_. in the original description of the characters of the genus _hydrangea_ by linnæus, there is no mention made of two different kinds of florets, as in the _viburnum_, nor has any author that i am acquainted with described the _hydrangea arbor._ as producing such; yet, to my great surprise, in a plant of this sort which flowered in my garden at brompton in july 1797, three of the cymæ, and three only, threw out each of them from their circumference a very different flower from those in the centre, smaller indeed, but very similar to the flowers of the _hydrang. hort._ see pl. 437. in 1788, mr. walter published his _fl. carolin._ in which he describes a second species of _hydrangea_, which he calls _radiata_,[2] having very distinctly, as in the _viburnum_, two different kinds of florets in the same cyma, this variation in the florets is added by him to the generic character: the similarity which exists between the flowers of mr. walter's _hydrangea radiata_, and those of the present plant sufficiently justify dr. smith in making it an _hydrangea_; the appearances observed by loureiro[3] on dissecting the germen, and our discovery of the existence of two different kinds of flowers in the _hydrangea arborescens_, tend still more to confirm its propriety; we may add, that in the very habit of these several plants there exists a considerable similarity; still, however, it is only by ripe seed-vessels of the present plant, that this doubtful matter can be satisfactorily cleared up; but it will not follow, that if it be not an _hydrangea_ it must be a _viburnum_. this magnificent and highly ornamental plant, according to dr. smith, was introduced from china to the royal garden at kew, by sir joseph banks, bart. in 1790; it was imported by mr. slater about the same time, with whom it is said to have first flowered in this country. if room were allowed us, it would be superfluous to describe minutely a plant now so very common; suffice it to say, that from a strong perennial root, rise a number of half-shrubby, irregular, somewhat spongy stalks, strongly spotted when young with purple, from one to three feet high, terminated by large bunches of flowers, at first green, then rose-coloured, and finally green a second time; these are the most common changes to which they are liable: but it will sometimes happen that a plant which has produced red flowers one year, shall produce blue another, though growing in the same pot; this we saw happen in the year 1796 to a plant in the possession of the countess of upper ossory, whose refined taste and superior judgment have in several instances contributed to render our works more acceptable to the public: the coloured changeable part of the flower is regarded as the calyx, in the centre of which is the corolla, containing the stamina, &c. all varying greatly in point of number; besides these, there are other flowers without any calyx, but the parts which they contain do not seem to be more perfect than those of the others, nor more productive of ripe fruit. since the introduction of this plant, trials have been made in regard to its hardiness, and it is found to survive mild winters if planted in very warm sheltered situations; but in others, both stalks and leaves are liable to be killed by slight frosts, though the roots are not; if persons are anxious to have it in the open border, the best mode will be to cut down the stems at the approach of winter, and cover over the root with rotten tan, or some light substance; in the spring fresh stalks will shoot forth, but it is more common to keep this plant during winter in a green-house or well secured frame; by artificial heat it may be brought to flower in april or may, without such, it begins to blossom about june, and continues in bloom till october; when successfully treated, it will acquire the height of three feet, and produce bunches of flowers supremely magnificent: such plants in pots are admirably adapted for decorating court-yards, balconies, &c. unless carefully cut in, it is apt to grow too large for the green-house, therefore it is proper to have a succession of young plants from cuttings, which strike very freely; this plant loves water, is indeed almost an aquatic, a rich soil, and plenty of pot room. footnotes: [1] _habitat_ et ob pulchritudinem colitur cantone sinarum, _loureir. coch. chin. v. 1. p. 104._ crescit in sylvis variis, inter miaco et jedo, etiam cultum, _thunb. fl. jap. p. 123_, who refers to kæmpfer, whose plant is certainly ours; yet it must be acknowledged that thunberg's description does not well accord with it. [2] this plant, or one extremely similar to it, was introduced by mr. williams, nurseryman at paris, a few years since; we saw it in full bloom, at mr. colvill's, king's-road, in the summer of 1796. [3] pericarpium abortit, quod ex dissecto germine et per microscopium viso apparet polyspermum. [439] [illustration: nº. 439] illicium floridanum. red-flowered illicium, or aniseed-tree. _class and order._ polyandria polygynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 6-phyllus. _petala 27._ _caps._ plures, in orbem digestæ, bivalves, monospermæ. _specific character and synonyms._ illicium _floridanum_ floribus rubris. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 507._ _ellis act. angl. 1770. (v. 60.) p. 524. t. 12._ _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 250._ of the genus _illicium_ there are at present only two known species, viz. the _anisatum_ and _floridanum_, the former a native of china and japan, the latter of florida; both of them are cultivated in this country, but the latter more generally, on account of the superior beauty of its flowers, which are of a fine deep red colour, and have the appearance of being double, though the petals are not preternaturally multiplied; when the plant is in bloom the peduncles hang down, when the petals drop they become erect; the blossoms are not distinguished by their fragrance, though the seed-vessels, and seeds (which do not come to perfection with us) are said to be strongly odoriferous; the foliage of this plant is also much admired: taking it indeed altogether, there are few shrubs held in higher estimation. according to mr. aiton, this species was introduced by john ellis, esq. in 1776; but isaac walker, esq. of southgate, was the first who possessed it in this country, he informs me by letter, that he received plants of it from pensacola in 1771, by the hands of mr. john bradley, and that he communicated some of them to dr. fothergill, dr. pitcairn, and mr. ellis. it flowers from april to july. cultivators differ widely as to their treatment of this plant, some keeping it in the stove, others in the green-house, while some have ventured to plant it in the open ground in warm situations; it probably is more hardy than we imagine; all agree in propagating it by layers, or by seeds if they can be procured. linnæus, contrary to his usual practice, distinguishes the two species by their colour only, and thunberg is disposed to regard them as mere varieties. [440] [illustration: nº. 440] erica albens. pallid heath. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 4-phyllus. _cor._ 4-fida. _filamenta_ receptaculo inserta. _antheræ_ apice bifidæ, pertusæ. _caps._ 4-locularis, 4-valvis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ erica _albens_ antheris muticis inclusis, corollis ovatis oblongis acutis, foliis ternis, racemis secundis. _linn. syst. vegetab. murr. ed. 14. p. 367._ _mant. 233._ erica _albens_ mutica, foliis ternis trigonis pilosis, floribus lateralibus, calyce villoso. _thunb. prodr. p. 70._ this species, a native of the cape, has been introduced since the publication of the _hort. kew._ and is now to be found in most green-house collections near town. * * * * * in its habit, its foliage, and its flowers, it is very distinct from all our other heaths; flowers from april to june, is readily increased by cuttings, and easily kept with the common treatment. [441] [illustration: nº. 441] antholyza merianella. dwarf antholyza. _class and order._ triandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ tubulosa, irregularis, recurvata. _caps._ infera. _specific character and synonyms._ antholyza _merianella_ corollis infundibuliformibus, foliis linearibus. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 87._ _ait. kew. v. 1. p. 67._ watsonia _humilis_ foliis lineari-ensiformibus, tubo floris longissimo. _mill. ic. 198. t. 297. f. 2._ this very rare species is perfectly distinct from the _meriana_, of more humble growth, the flowering stem seldom rising to more than a foot in height, and producing from four to six flowers, which are proportionably longer, more closed, and of a deeper red colour than those of _meriana_. was introduced from the cape by capt. hutchinson, in 1754. _ait. kew._ is readily increased by offsets, and requires the same treatment as the _anthol. meriana_ already figured. flowers in may and june. our drawing was made from a plant which flowered with mr. fairbairn, at the apothecaries garden, chelsea, may 2, 1798. [442] [illustration: nº. 442] genista linifolia. flax-leaved broom. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ 2-labiatus 2/3. _vexillum_ oblongum, a pistillo staminibusque deorsum reflexum. _specific character and synonyms._ genista _linifolia_ foliis ternatis sessilibus linearibus subtus sericeis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 645._ _ait. kew. v. 3. p. 14._ cytisus _argenteus_ linifolius insularum stæchadum. _tourn. inst. 648._ the _genista linifolia_ is a native of spain, and was introduced to the royal garden at kew, by sir francis drake, in the year 1786. _ait. kew._ the bright yellow flowers, which are abundantly produced on this plant during may and june, joined to the silky appearance of its foliage, has rendered it worthy the notice of most lovers of plants, in whose collections it is now generally found. it is most successfully propagated by seeds, which usually ripen in this country; it may also be raised from cuttings, but not readily, agreeing in this respect with leguminous plants in general. we do not find in linnæus's works any figure of this plant referred to; but there is a minute description of it in his _sp. pl._ it is usually kept in the greenhouse; being a native of spain, it may probably be more hardy than we imagine. [443] [illustration: nº. 443] erica physodes. sticky-flowered heath. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 4-phyllus. _cor._ 4-fida. _filamenta_ receptaculo inserta. _antheræ_ apice bifidæ pertusæ. _caps._ 4-locularis, 4-valvis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ erica _physodes_ antheris cristatis, corollis ovatis inflatis, stylo incluso, foliis quaternis, floribus subsolitariis. _linn. syst. vegetab. murr. p. 366._ _berg. cup. 108._ erica _physodes_ cristata, foliis quaternis linearibus, floribus umbellatis viscosis, calyce ovato brevi. _thunb. prodr. p. 74._ the _erica physodes_ is a native of the cape, and another of those species which have been introduced since the publication of the _hort. kew._ of mr. aiton. * * * * * it is principally distinguished by the form, and delicate whiteness of its blossoms, which are so extremely viscid as to retain flies and other insects which settle on them. * * * * * is scarcely to be increased by cuttings, more readily by seeds, which sometimes ripen here. [444] [illustration: nº. 444] canarina campanula. canary bell-flower. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 6-phyllus. _cor._ 6-fida, campanulata. _stigmata 6._ _caps._ infera, 6-locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ canarina _campanula_ caule erecto, foliis hastatis ternis oppositisve. _martyn mill. dict. linn. syst. veg. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 344._ _ait. kew. v. 1. p. 480._ _linn. mant. p. 225._ campanula _canariensis_ capsulis quinquelocularibus, foliis hastatis dentatis oppositis petiolatis. _linn. sp. pl. ed. 3. p. 238._ campanula _canariensis_ regia _s._ medium radice tuberosa, foliis sinuatis cæsiis atriplicis æmulis ternis circum caulem ambientibus, flore amplo pendulo colore flammeo rutilante. _pluk. alm. 76. t. 276. f. 1._ the flowers of this plant so strongly resemble those of the campanula, that it is no wonder the older botanists regarded it as such, linnæus himself did so at first, and miller also; and even now it may perhaps be doubted whether it ought to be made a distinct genus of, since it is found to differ principally in the number of its parts of fructification. it is a native of the canary islands, whence its name, was cultivated in the royal garden, hampton-court, as long since as the year 1696[4], and is a tender herbaceous plant, to be found in most of our greenhouses; its stem rises to the height of six or more feet, its flowers produced singly from the fork of the stalk are large and shewy, they begin to open at the commencement of winter, and continue to blow till march. "is propagated by parting of its roots, which must be done with caution; for, as the root is fleshy, if they are broken or wounded, the milky juice will flow out plentifully; so that if these are planted before the wounds are skinned over, it occasions their rotting: the best time for transplanting and parting of their roots is in july, soon after the stalks are decayed; the soil should he a light sandy loam, mixed with a fourth part of screened lime rubbish." miller. footnote: [4] ait. kew. [445] [illustration: nº. 445] coronilla emerus. scorpion senna. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ 2-labiatus: 2/3: dentibus superioribus connatis. _vexillum_ vix alis longius. _legumen_ isthmis interceptum. _specific character and synonyms._ coronilla _emerus_ fruticosa, pedunculis subtrifloris, corollarum unguibus calyce triplo longioribus, caule angulato. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 669._ _ait. kew. v. 3. p. 57._ colutea siliquosa _s._ scorpioides major. _bauh. pin. p. 1046._ authors have given to this plant the name of scorpion senna, its seed-vessels, from their slender and jointed appearance, bearing some resemblance to the tail of a scorpion. it is a native of france and germany, and a very old inhabitant of our gardens, having been cultivated by gerard in 1596; it is of low and slow growth: there is a shrub of it in the apothecaries garden, chelsea, which grew there in the time of miller, and which now is not more than five feet high. in the nurseries we have observed two varieties of it, one in which the flowers have been tinged with bright red inclining to orange and which is by far the most common, the other with flowers wholly yellow, scarcely worth cultivating. its blossoms are produced in may and june, and sometimes again in autumn; neatly trained to a wall or paling, it makes a beautiful appearance when in flower, the shortness of its shoots renders it a very proper object for this purpose. is propagated by seeds, layers, and cuttings; the first are not produced in any great plenty with us. the leaves by a proper fermentation are said to produce a dye like that of indigo. [446] [illustration: nº. 446] psoralea bracteata. oval-spiked psoralea. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ punctis callosis adspersus longitudine leguminis monspermi. _specific character and synonyms._ psoralea _bracteata_ foliis ternatis obovatis recurvato-mucronatis, mucronatis, spicis ovatis. _linn. mant. 264._ _berg. cap. 224._ _ait. kew. v. 3. p. 79._ trifolium fruticans. _linn. sp. pl. ed. 3. p. 1085._ trifolium africanum fruticans flore purpurascente. _comm. hort. 2. p. 211. t. 106._ the old authors, and indeed linnæus himself at first, regarded this plant as a trifolium; afterwards the latter changed it to _psoralea_, and minutely described it in his _mantissa_. as a green-house plant, this small and delicate species has long been cultivated[5], and still continues to hold a place in all collections of note. its inflorence to us has more the appearance of a _capitulum_ than a _spike_, and which when the plant is in full bloom, is by no means ovate, but rather hemispherical; the purple colour of the vexillum, contrasted with the white of the alæ, gives to the flowers a very pleasing parti-coloured appearance. in its leaves we have a good example of the _folium mucronatum_. it is a native of the cape, flowers in june and july, and is usually propagated by cuttings. footnote: [5] by miller, in 1731. [447] [illustration: nº. 447] erica empetrifolia. crowberry-leaved heath. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 4-phyllus. _cor._ 4-fida. _filamenta_ receptaculo inserta. _antheræ_ apice bifidæ pertusæ. _caps._ 4-locularis, 4-valvis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ erica _empetrifolia_ foliis oblongis ciliatis, floribus verticillatis: calyce ciliato. _thunb. prodr. p. 73._ _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 13. gmel. p. 627._ _linn. pflanzen syst. 3. t. 23. f. 2._ erica _empetrifolia_ antheris cristatis, corollis ovatis, foliis quaternis, floribus sessilibus lateralibus. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 366._ _ait. kew. v. 1. p. 19._ it is a most pleasing circumstance, when plants afford characters by which they may with certainty be distinguished; most of the heaths are of this kind, and the present one in particular: exclusive of its great peculiarity of growth, so obviously expressed in our representation of it, its flowers diffuse a strong honey-like fragrance, which, if other characters were wanting, would at once discriminate it. it is one of those heaths which are enumerated in the _hort. kew._ of mr. aiton, and was introduced to the royal garden by mr. masson, in 1774; is now to be met with in most of the collections of green-house plants about town, and flowers in may and june. is usually propagated by cuttings. [448] [illustration: nº. 448] mesembryanthemum micans. glittering fig-marygold. _class and order._ icosandria pentagynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-fidus. _petala_ numerosa, linearia. _caps._ carnosa, infera, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ mesembryanthemum _micans_ foliis subcylindricis papulosis distinctis, caule scabro. _linn. syst. veg. ed. 14. murr. p. 470._ _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 190._ mesembryanthemum _micans_ flore phoeniceo: filamentis atris. _dill. elth. 292. t. 215. f. 1282._ ficoides capensis, tereti folio, flore croceo. _pet. gaz. t. 7. f. 9._ ficoides capensis, folio tereti argenteo, petalis perplurimis aurantiacis. _bradl. succ. 1. p. 9. t. 8._ the _mesembryanthemum micans_, so called from the glittering particles which are conspicuous on its stalks and leaves, is a species which has long been introduced to our gardens (having been cultivated by prof. bradley in 1716) for the beauty of its flowers, which in richness of colour are indeed surpassed by few; they are produced in the months of july and august, but do not expand fully, unless the sun shines powerfully on them; nor do they long retain that regular expansion observable in some species, but quickly assume a somewhat ragged appearance; nevertheless, upon the whole, it is one of those species which is highly deserving of culture, by those who are partial to this tribe of plants. it is a native of the cape, and readily propagated by cuttings. varies with flowers of a paler hue. [449] [illustration: nº. 449] dillenia speciosa. shewy dillenia. _class and order._ polyandria polygynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 5-phyllus. _petala 5._ _caps._ polyspermæ, connatæ, pulpa repletæ. _specific character and synonyms._ dillenia _speciosa_ foliis oblongis rotundato-acutis denticulatis, pedunculis unifloris. _thunb. in linn. trans. 1. p. 200._ dillenia _indica_. _linn. syst vegetab. ed. 14. murr. p. 507._ syalita malabaris. _rheede hort. malab. tom. iii. p. 39. t. 38. 39._ the name of _dillenia_ was given by linnæus to this genus of plants, in honour of john james dillenius, professor of botany at oxford, and the celebrated author of the _hist. muscorum_, _hort. elthamensis_, &c. until the publication of the first volume of the _linnean transactions_, only one species of _dillenia_ was generally known; in that work prof. thunberg minutely describes five others, three of which are there figured; all these, and one more described by dr. roxburgh in his work on the coromandel plants, are inserted by prof. martyn in his new and highly improved edition of miller's _dictionary_. the present species, which now loses its name of _indica_ in that of _speciosa_, and which though not enumerated in the _hort. kew._ has many years been cultivated at kew, and in the stoves of the curious near town, is a native of malabar and java; in its native soil it becomes a vast tree, here we rarely see it more than two or three feet high; its flowers are large and shewy, but quickly deciduous, and remarkable for the unpleasantness of their scent, which is like that of the _lycium japonicum_, but not being readily exhaled does not infect the air of the stove. this species is increased without difficulty by cuttings, which quickly produce flowering plants. [450] [illustration: nº. 450] gladiolus watsonius. watson's corn-flag. _class and order._ triandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ 6-partita, tubulosa, ringens. _stamina_ adscendentia. _specific character and synonyms._ gladiolus _watsonius_ corollis infundibuliformibus, limbi laciniis subæqualibus, foliis linearibus ad oras revolutis. _jacq. icon. rar. 2. t. 233. collect. 3. p. 257._ _linn. sp. pl. ed. wilden. p. 214._ gladiolus _watsonius_ monostachyus corollis cernuis, tubo duplici, limbi laciniis oblongis, foliis linearibus glabris. _thunb. prod. p. 8._ professors jacquin and thunberg have both described this rare bulbous plant, a native of the cape, and newly introduced to this country from holland among a great variety of others: it seems highly probable that the descriptions of both these authors were taken from dried specimens, since they accord so little with the living plant as it flowers with us. at first sight, one would be led to regard this plant as an _antholyza_ rather than a _gladiolus_, its flowers bearing a great affinity to those of the _antholyza meriana_, which differs widely from those of the _gladiolus communis_: prof. thunberg having thought fit to make a _gladiolus_ of that plant, he could do no less than regard this as a _gladiolus_ also; we regret that the infinite variety to which all the productions of nature are subject should give occasion to versatile minds perpetually to alter genera, often without due consideration. this species flowers in february and march, requires the same treatment as other cape bulbs, and is propagated in the same manner. descr. stalk from twelve to eighteen inches high, upright, smooth; leaves about three or four, the lowermost a sheath merely, the second leaf springs from a long sheath, is puckered at its base, three inches in length, upright, rigid, flat, linear-lanceolate, having three strong ribs, one in the middle, two at the margin, which, projecting on each side, give to the edge of the leaf a thick appearance, the leaves as they ascend, gradually differ from this, and finally become hollow bracteæ, which at first envelope the flowers, and afterwards contribute to support them; flowers from two to three, each standing on a peduncle-like tube, enclosed by a bifid spatha, contained within and about half the length of the bracteæ; corolla bright red, funnel-shaped, tube bent somewhat downwards, nearly cylindrical, a little flattened, and glossy, limb divided into six ovato-lanceolate segments, spreading outwards, the uppermost segment incumbent, the three lowermost smaller than the others; filaments three, whitish, nearly straight; antheræ oblong, straight, purple; style red; stigma trifid, each segment dividing into two villous lips. [451] [illustration: nº. 451] blakea trinervia. three-ribbed blakea. _class and order._ dodecandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ inferus, 6-phyllus, superus, integer. _petala 6._ _capsula_ 6-locularis, polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ blakea _trinervia_ bicalyculata, foliis enerviis transversim subtilissime striatis. _linn. suppl. p. 246._ _syst. veg. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 442._ blakea foliis ellipticis trinerviis nitidis, floribus lateralibus. _brown. jam. 323. t. 35._ the wild rose. "this vegetable is certainly one of the most beautiful productions of _america_. it is but a weakly plant at first, and supports itself for a time by the help of some neighbouring shrub or tree; but it grows gradually more robust, and at length acquires a pretty moderate stem, which divides into a thousand weakly declining branches, well supplied with beautiful rosy blossoms on all sides that give it a most pleasing appearance in the season. "it is chiefly found in cool, moist, and shady places, and grows generally to the height of ten or fourteen feet; but rises always higher when it remains a climber, in which state it continues sometimes. it thrives best on the sides of ponds or rivulets, and those that would choose to have it flourish in their gardens, where it must naturally make a very elegant appearance, ought to supply it with some support while it continues young and weakly. "it is called _blakea_, after mr. martin blake, of antigua, a great promoter of every sort of useful knowledge, and a gentleman to whose friendship the natural history of jamaica chiefly owes its early appearance." _brown's jamaic._ our figure was drawn from a very fine healthy plant which flowered in the collection of lady downe, at her villa of bookham-grove, near leatherhead, in april 1799; though not enumerated in the _hortus kewensis_, it had produced blossoms in several other collections near town long before this period; those when they once expand are of short duration, but the foliage when healthy is always handsome. it is usually kept in the stove with other jamaica plants, and propagated by layers. we cannot see the propriety of applying _foliis enerviis_ to the description of this species, since linnæus himself, in his _sp. pl._ describes the leaves as _trinervia_; three strong ribs they always have, and usually two others near the margin which are finer. [452] [illustration: nº. 452] cardamine trifolia. three-leaved cuckow-flower. _class and order._ tetradynamia siliquosa. _generic character._ _siliqua_ elastice dissiliens valvulis revolutis. _stigma_ integrum. _cal._ subhians. _specific character and synonyms._ cardamine trifolia foliis ternatis obtusis, caule subnudo. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 593._ _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 387._ nasturtium alpinum trifolium. _bauh. pin. 104._ cardamine trifolia. trefoile ladies smockes. _parkins. parad. p. 389._ such as are attached to the smaller alpine plants, will regard this species of _cardamine_ as worthy a place in their collections; one would scarcely have expected to find it in parkinson's _parad._ yet there it is described, and the following account given of its introduction: "it was sent me by my especial good friend john tradescante, who brought it among other dainty plants from beyond the seas, and imparted thereof a root to me." this species is perennial, hardy, and of very humble growth; the leaves grow thickly together, forming a kind of tuft; the flowering stems rarely rise above the height of six inches, and produce on their summits numerous flowers, waved on their edges; all those which we have had an opportunity of seeing have been perfectly white, parkinson and haller describe them as being sometimes tinged with red or purple; they begin to appear towards the end of march and continue through april, the shelter of a hand-glass open at top is often necessary to protect and improve the flowering of this and other such early-blowing plants. it grows readily either in a pot or in the open border, succeeds best when planted in bog earth in a situation moderately moist and shady, and is readily increased by parting its roots, which are somewhat of the creeping kind. grows spontaneously in most of the northern parts of europe, especially lapland, switzerland, and austria. [453] [illustration: nº. 453] amaryllis reginæ. mexican lily. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ hexapetaloidea irregularis. _filamenta_ fauci tubi inserta, declinata, inæqualia proportione vel directione. _linn. fil._ _specific character and synonyms._ amaryllis _reginæ_ spatha subbiflora, pedicellis divaricatis, corollis campanulatis breve tubulosis nutantibus, fauce tubi hirsuta, foliis lanceolatis patulis. _linn. fil. ait. kew. 416. mill. ic. p. 16. t. 24._ lilium americanum puniceo flore belladonna dictum. _herm. par. 194. t. 194._ descr. "bulb green, scape round, somewhat flattened: corolla scarlet, with a bottom of a whitish green, the three outer petals round at the tip, the three inner fringed at the base; the style red, the flower stems seldom rise more than one foot high; each stem supports two, three, or four flowers, rarely more; they are large, and of a bright copper colour, inclining to red; the spathe which cover the buds before they open, divides into two parts to the bottom, standing on each side the umbel of flowers joined to the peduncles. "it flowered in mr. fairchild's garden at hoxton, in 1728, when the late dr. james douglass caused a figure of it to be drawn, and wrote a folio pamphlet on it. he gave it the title of _lilium reginæ_, because it was in full beauty on the first of march, which was the late queen's birth-day. mr. fairchild told me the roots were brought from mexico; so he gave it the name of mexican lily, which is still continued to it by the english gardeners. it flowers constantly in the spring, when it is placed in a very warm stove. it is in beauty in february, and those which are in a moderate temperature of air will flower in march or april. "not being so hardy as some others, it must be placed in a warm stove, and if the pots are plunged into a hot-bed of tanner's bark, the roots will thrive better, and the flowers will be strong. "it is increased by offsets." _mill. dict. ed. mart._ [454] [illustration: nº. 454] canna indica. common indian reed or shot. _class and order._ monandria monogynia. _generic character._ _corolla_ 6-partita erecta: labio bipartito, revoluto. _stylus_ lanceolatus, corollæ adnatus. _calyx_ 3-phyllus. _specific character and synonyms._ canna _indica_ foliis ovatis utrinque acuminatis nervosis. _sp. pl. 1._ _ait. kew. vol. 1. p. 1._ cannacorus. _rumph. amb. 5. p. 177. t. 71. f. 2._ arundo indica latifolia. _bauh. pin. 19._ canna indica flore rubro. red flowred indian reede. _park. parad. p. 376._ the _canna indica_, a native of both the indies, is a plant greatly admired for the beauty of its foliage and flowers, and on that account generally cultivated; it has been called by some _indian shot_, from the roundness and hardness of its seeds. we find it to have existed in our gardens in the time of gerard, 1596. parkinson was acquainted with that variety of it which has yellow spotted flowers: prof. martyn, in his edition of _miller's dict._ has quoted the chief of what these authors say of it, which as a matter of curiosity we shall here transcribe: "gerard informs us, that in his time it was in the garden at padua, that he had planted it in his garden divers times, but it never came to flowering; and that it must be set or sown in a pot, with fine earth, or in a bed made of horse-dung, in such manner as cucumbers and musk-melons are: parkinson says, in some kindly years this beautiful plant has borne its brave flowers, but never any ripe seed, and that it will not abide the extremities of our winters, unless it meet with a stove, or hot-house, such as are used in germany; for neither house nor cellar will preserve it: clusius saw it flowering by house-sides in spain and portugal, and says, that the inhabitants there use the seeds for making their rosaries." mr. aiton enumerates four varieties of it, viz. _rubra_, _lutea_, _coccinea_, and _patens_. "being a native of the warmest parts of america, it requires to be placed in a moderate stove in winter, where they always flower in that season, at which time they make a fine appearance, and in the summer place them abroad in a sheltered situation with other tender exotic plants, where they generally flower again, and produce ripe seeds annually." _mill. dict._ "these plants will continue many years with proper management, but as young plants always flower better than the old root, so it is scarce worth while to continue them after they have borne good seeds, which should be sown on a hot-bed in the spring." _mill. dict._ [455] [illustration: nº. 455] aloe retusa. cushion aloe. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ erecta, ore patulo fundo nectarifero. _filam._ receptaculo inserta. _specific character and synonyms._ aloe _retusa_ acaulis foliis quinquefariis deltoideis. _thunb. aloe, n. 15. ait. kew. 471._ aloe _retusa_ floribus sessilibus triquetris bilabiatis labio inferiore revoluto. _linn. sp. pl. 459._ aloe _africana_ brevissimo crassissimoque folio, flore viridi. _comm. hort. 2. p. 11. t. 6._ _till. pis. 6. t. 5._ though the flowers of this aloe have little to recommend them, there is much to admire in the form and structure of its leaves; and this pleasing circumstance attends it, it is perfectly distinct from all the other species: when first introduced, it was no doubt an object of great admiration; fairchild, the celebrated gardener of hoxton, who preceded miller, had it engraved, with several other succulents, on a plate which is prefixed to dr. blair's _botanic essays_, and which he described to the doctor, betwixt whom and mr. fairchild there appears to have subsisted a great degree of intimacy: the essays were printed in 1720. this species is a native of the cape, and flowers in june, but not regularly so, increases very fast by offsets: mr. aiton makes it as he does all the aloes indiscriminately, dry stove plants, but it may be kept in a good green-house, taking care to place it in the driest and most airy part, and to guard it at all times from much wet, but more especially in the winter season. [456] [illustration: nº. 456] diosma serratifolia. serrated or saw-leaved diosma. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ 5-petala. _nectaria_ 5 supra germen. _caps. 3. s. 5._ coalitæ. _sem._ calyptrata. _specific character._ diosma _serratifolia_ follis lanceolatis glanduloso-serrulatis, pedunculis axillaribus oppositis subunifloris. it was in the green-house of mr. whitley, nurseryman at old brampton, that we first saw this plant in flower, on the 25th of march 1799; previous to this period it had flowered in the royal garden at kew, and specimens of it had been deposited in the herbarium of sir joseph banks, under the name of _diosma serratifolia_. it forms a neat pretty shrub, which is rendered more desirable by its early flowering; its blossoms are pure white, set off by antheræ of a lively purple colour; the whole plant has a strong scent very like that of pennyroyal, but more powerful. this shrub is one of the many which have been raised within these few years from botany-bay seeds, is a greenhouse plant, of easy culture, blows freely, and is readily increased by cuttings. descr. twigs somewhat angular, reddish purple; leaves opposite, narrow, on very short footstalks, spreading, slightly truncated at the extremity, finely toothed, a transparent gland in the angle of each tooth, beset on both sides with numerous glands, which project and give to the upper surface a manifest roughness; flowers from the alæ of the leaves, opposite, on peduncles about one-third of an inch long, usually supporting one, sometimes two flowers; calyx composed of five leaves which are tinged with red and permanent; corolla five petals, white, ovato-lanceolate; stamina filaments five, white, hairy, at first upright, afterwards bending back betwixt the petals; antheræ before they open purple; pollen yellow; nectaries of two kinds, five white, springing up between each filament, and which may perhaps be considered as so many imperfect stamina, they are broader, much smoother, and about one-third of the length of the filaments, terminating in a transparent gland instead of an anthera; five green, forming a kind of calyx to the germen, from the top of which they spring, they consist of five roundish, fleshy, spreading, green leaves, edged with hairs; besides these, there is a glandular ring at the base of the germen; style white, tapering, very hairy; stigma simple; flowers usually dropping off without ripening the seeds. [457] [illustration: nº. 457] aloe plicatilis. fan aloe. _class and order._ hexandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ erecta, ore patulo, fundo nectarifero. _filam._ receptaculo inserta. _specific character and synonyms._ aloe _plicatilis_ subacaulis, foliis linguæformibus lævibus distichis, floribus racemosis pendulis cylindricis. _ait. kew. v. 1. p. 470._ aloe _disticha_ var. [greek: e]. _linn. sp. pl. ed. 3. p. 459._ aloe _plicatilis_ foliis ensiformibus inermis ancipitibus, floribus laxe spicatis, caule fruticoso. _mill. dict. ed. 6. 4to._ aloe africana arborescens montana non spinosa, folio longissimo plicatili, flore rubro. _comm. hort. 2. p. 5. t. 3._ "the fan aloe grows to the height of six or seven feet, with a strong stem, towards the upper part of which are produced two, three, or four heads, composed of long, compressed, pliable leaves, of a sea-green colour, and ending obtusely; these are placed in a double row, lying over each other, with their edges the same way; the flowers are produced in short loose spikes, are of a red colour, and appear at different times of the year." _mill. dict._ linnæus originally made this plant a variety of his _aloe disticha_, the leaves in their mode of growth are indeed truly distichous, few plants afford a better example of such, but they differ materially from those of the real _disticha_ both in form and colour: mr. miller, with great propriety, made a distinct species of it, by the name of _plicatilis_, or _fan aloe_, which mr. aiton has continued; and by the name of _fan aloe_ it is very generally known: we may remark, however, that though this term may be justified by the form into which the leaves expand, the _folium plicatile_ of linnæus is a very different kind of a leaf. both the foliage and flowers of this plant are very handsome, in the course of many years it grows to a great size; in the chelsea garden there are some fine plants of it, which grew there in the time of miller, by whom it was cultivated in 1731. it is native of africa, requires the same treatment as the other aloes, and is propagated by dividing and planting its heads. [458] [illustration: nº. 458] aristea cyanea. grass-leaved aristea. _class and order._ triandria monogynia. _generic character._ _petala 6._ _stylus_ declinatus. _stigma_ infundibuliforme hians. _caps._ infera polysperma. _specific character and synonyms._ aristea _cyanea_. _ait. kew. v. 1. p. 67._ ixia _africana_ floribus capitatis, spathis laceris. _linn. sp. pl. ed. 3. p. 51._ moræa _africana_ floribus capitatis spathis laceris. _murr. syst. vegetab. ed. 14. p. 93._ ixia foliis ad radicem nervosis gramineis, floribus ac fructu convolutis. _burm. afric. 191. t. 70. f. 2._ bermudiana capensis, capitulis lanuginosis. _pet. sicc. 242._ gramen eriophorum africanum flore lanato. _pluk. mant. 98._ it will be seen, on consulting the synonyms, that this native of the cape, though introduced to the kew garden by mr. masson in 1774, was long before known to a considerable number of botanists, and it is curious to see the different opinions which they entertained of it; we abide by that of mr. aiton, who has called it _aristea_, from the bearded appearance, we apprehend, of the spathæ. it is a small fibrous-rooted plant, rarely exceeding when in bloom the height of six or eight inches, and would be too insignificant for a green-house collection, were not its flowers of a very brilliant blue colour; indeed miller, who appears evidently to have cultivated it, says, the flowers make little appearance, and so the plant is only kept for the sake of variety. _dict. 4to. ed. 6. ixia africana._ mr. aiton tells us, that it flowers from april to june, yet mr. andrews, intent on giving to messrs. lee and kennedy the credit of flowering it first, disregards this information, and is pleased to conjecture that the plant never flowered at kew, because mr. aiton, as he alleges, has not given to it any specific character; not aware that, as a new genus, its parts of fructification are described at the end of the _hort. kew._ and that no specific character is ever given to a plant, where there is only one of a genus, and that for the most obvious reason. the _aristea_ is a plant easily propagated by parting its roots, as well as by seeds, will succeed in a small pot, and though a green-house plant, will not be hurt by the moderate heat of the stove, but flower the better for it. the blossoms do not expand fully unless the sun shines hot on them. [459] [illustration: nº. 459] convolvulus cneorum. silvery-leaved bind-weed. _class and order._ pentandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ campanulata, plicata. _stigmata 2._ _caps._ 2-locularis loculis dispermis. _specific character and synonyms._ convolvulus _cneorum_ foliis lanceolatis tomentosis, floribus umbellatis, calycibus hirsutis, caule erecto. _linn. syst. veg. 203._ _ait. kew. vol. 1. p. 213._ convolvulus argenteus umbellatus erectus. _tournef. inst. 84._ convolvulus major erectus creticus argenteus. _moris. hist. 2. p. 11 s. 1. t. 3. f. 1._ convolvulus saxatilis erectus villosus perennis. _barr. rar. 4. t. 470._ _bocc. mus. 2. p. 79. t. 70._ cneorum album folio argenteo molli. _bauh. pin. 463._ the _convolvulus cneorum_ is a native of spain and the levant, was cultivated in the botanic garden at chelsea in 1739, and flowers from may to september. _ait. kew._ in size, habit, &c. this species has some affinity to the _convolvulis linearis_, figured pl. 289, but differs from it, and other species usually cultivated with us, in the silky appearance of its foliage, which it is not in the artist's power to imitate, and for the beauty of which, more than that of its flowers, it is very generally kept in collections of green-house plants; its blossoms are nearly white and rarely or never productive of seeds in this country, hence it is increased by cuttings. it is a hardy green-house plant, requiring a dry rather than a moist regimen. [460] [illustration: nº. 460] maurandya semperflorens. climbing maurandya, or bastard foxglove. _class and order._ didynamia angiospermia. _generic character._ _caps._ bilocularis, truncata, bisulca, apice inæqualiter dehiscens. _cor._ ringens, tubulosa campanulata, ventricosa, bisulcato-plicata. _specific character and synonyms._ maurandya _semperflorens_ caule fruticoso scandente, foliis hastatis nervosis. _c. g. orteg. nov. pol. dec. 2. p. 21._ usteria. _cavanill. icon. vol. 2. p. 5. num. 126. t. 116._ the plant whose elegant form is here so happily delineated by the masterly pencil of mr. edwards, according to dr. ortega, is an inhabitant of mexico, where its seeds originally were collected by dr. martin sesse, and sent to the royal garden at madrid, in which the plant produced flowers and seeds in abundance; from thence seeds were obtained by the marchioness of bute, about the year 1786, who most kindly communicated them to different persons in the neighbourhood of london, and among others to my most generous benefactor, james vere, esq. in whose collection at his villa, kensington-gore, by the careful management of his gardener, william anderson, it was first brought to flower in this country, anno 1797. mons. cavanille, who resides at madrid, where he seizes every opportunity of publishing whatever new plants appear there, has figured and described the present one, under the name of _usteria_, not aware that wildenou had previously bestowed that name on a different plant; for this and other reasons[6], dr. ortega, in a new work of his above referred to, has changed the term _usteria_ to that of _maurandya_; and, though we cannot cordially coincide with the doctor in the propriety either of his generic or trivial name, we have adopted them. this climber rises with a shrubby stalk to the height of many feet, is very prolific in branches, and produces flowers abundantly from july to september, which are succeeded by ripe seed-vessels and seeds.--as the plant is easily propagated by cuttings, as well as by seeds, it will soon become common to our greenhouses, though it is rather better suited to the conservatory; if its blossoms, which have a great affinity to those of the foxglove, had more colour in them, the plant would be more desirable: at some future period such may probably be obtained from seeds. footnote: [6] observ. quandoquidem usteriæ nomen huic generi à clar. cavanilles, qui primus id descripsit, impositum permanere non potest ut pote antea ab illust. wildenou alii generi inditum; propterea illud d. catharinæ pancratiæ maurandy, lectissimæ feminæ, d. augustini juan, reg. botanic. horti carthaginensis professoris uxori, et botanicorum laborum sociæ, nuncupandum duxi; oblataque opportunitate usus plantam denuo recognovi, et tum characterem genericum, tum etiam descriptionem specificam ad incudem revocans reformavi. [461] [illustration: nº. 461] jasminum fruticans. yellow jasmine. _class and order._ diandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cor._ 5-fida. _bacca_ dicocca. _sem._ arillata. _antheræ_ intra tubum. _specific character and synonyms._ jasminum _fruticans_ foliis alternis ternatis simplicibusque ramis angulatis. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 56._ jasminum _fruticans_ foliis alternis ternatis foliolis obovatis cuneiformibusque obtusis ramis angulatis laciniis calycinis subulatis. _ait. kew. v. 1. p. 9._ jasminum _luteum_, vulgo dictum bacciferum. _bauh. pin. 298._ polemonium sieu trifolium fruticans. shrubby trefoil. _ger. herb. p. 1129. f._ the yellow jasmine is often planted against walls, pales, &c. as the branches are weak and slender and it will grow to be ten or twelve feet high if thus supported; it may however be planted in shrubbery quarters, to which it is better suited than the white jasmine. the young shoots are of a fine strong green colour, angular, and a little hairy. the leaves are trifoliate, though sometimes they grow singly. they are placed alternately on the branches, are of a thick consistence, smooth, and of a fine deep green colour. these leaves in well-sheltered places remain until the spring before they fall off, so that this plant may not improperly be planted among the evergreens, especially as the young shoots are always of a strong green. the flowers are yellow, and do not possess the fragrance of the common jasmine. they are produced chiefly in june, and the blow is soon over. they are succeeded by berries, which when ripe are black, whence its name of berry-bearing jasmine. although this shrub possesses a certain stiffness, which gives it somewhat the appearance of an artificial flower, yet the fine yellow colour of its blossoms contrasts so well with the rich green of the foliage, that in the flower-pot or bouquet it never fails to have a conspicuous and pleasing effect. is a native of the south of europe and the levant, was cultivated by mr. john gerard, in 1597, and flowers from may to october. _ait. kew._ is easily propagated by suckers or layers; as the flowers have no scent, is not so much cultivated as formerly. _miller's dict._ [462] [illustration: nº. 462] anthemis pyrethrum. pellitory of spain. _class and order._ syngenesia polygamia superflua. _generic character._ _recept._ paleaceum. _pappus_ nullus. _cal._ hemisphæricus, subæqualis. _flosculi_ radii plures quam 5. _specific character and synonyms._ anthemis _pyrethrum_ caulibus simplicibus unifloris decumbentibus foliis pinnato multifidis. _linn. syst. veget. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 776._ _woodville's medical botany, p. 286._ chamæmelum specioso flore, radice longa fervida. _shaw. afr. 138._ pyrethrum flore bellidis. _bauh. pin. 148._ the pellitory of spain is more celebrated as an useful than an ornamental plant, the root which is of a very hot and biting nature being a common application for the cure of the tooth-ach; but, divested of its utility as a medicinal plant, it merits a place in collections on account of the beauty both of its foliage and flowers, the latter are more handsome when in bud than when fully expanded, the underside of the florets being of a fine purple colour, the upper pure white; it is moreover a very rare plant in this country, notwithstanding it was cultivated here so long since as 1570: parkinson evidently grew it, as he observes that the roots of the cultivated plant, were much larger than those of the wild one; he tells us also, that it was too tender to endure our winters: to the latter cause, as well as to the difficulty of propagating it, for it does not ripen its seeds in this country, we may attribute its present scarcity: mr. miller raised this plant in 1732, in a very curious way, from seeds picked out from among raisins. in its place of growth it is not confined to spain, but is found in the levant, syria, arabia, and elsewhere; flowers with us from may to july, and may be increased by cuttings of the roots, a mode of propagating by which we sometimes happily succeed with rare and valuable plants when all others fail. it is a plant not very nice as to the quality of the soil in which it grows, but must have a warm dry situation, will succeed very well in a pot, or it may be planted in the open border; but especial care must be taken to secure it against frost in the winter. [463] [illustration: nº. 463] epidendrum ciliare. fringed epidendrum. _class and order._ gynandria diandria. _generic character._ _cor._ 6-petala. _nectarium_ turbinatum, obliquum reflexum. _caps._ infera 1-locularis, 3-valvis, fenestrata. _specific character and synonyms._ epidendrum _ciliare_ foliis oblongis aveniis, nectarii labio tripartito ciliato: intermedia lineari, cauli bifolio. _linn. syst. vegetab. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 818._ _jacq. amer. pict. p. 110. t. 209._ of this parasitical tribe the number of species described in the third edition of the _sp. pl. linn. 1764_, amounts to thirty; in gmelin's thirteenth edition of the _syst. nat. linn. 1791_, no less than seventy-five are enumerated, which is a vast accession in so short a period; most of these are natives of hot climates, and on that account require a stove heat in this country; from their nature also they require a situation not to be exactly imitated, they are therefore to be regarded as plants very difficult of culture, and we are not to be surprised that three species only are enumerated in the _hort. kew._--but, since the publication of that work, many others have been added to the royal collection, and this among the rest. the rare and singular species here represented, a native of the warmer parts of america, and the west-indies, flowered with mr. whitley, nurseryman, old-brompton, in feb. 1799, and at irregular periods before that time; he informs me that it is not constant as to the time of its blowing, and that though the plant flowers with him, it never assumes a fine healthy green appearance, he propagates it by dividing its limbs or branches, which often put forth small roots; the plant grows in a pot, in a mixture of loam and peat or bog-earth, and is kept constantly plunged in the tan-pit of the stove. [464] [illustration: nº. 464] sisyrinchium gramineum. grass-leaved sisyrinchium. _class and order._ gynandria triandria. _generic character._ _spatha_ 2-phylla. _petala_ 6-plana. _caps._ 3-locularis infera 3-valvis. _specific character and synonyms._ sisyrinchium _gramineum_ caule ancipiti lato, germinibus glabris. sisyrinchium _angustifolium_ foliis lineari-gladiolatis, pedunculis longioribus. _mill. dict._ sisyrinchium _cæruleum_ parvum, gladiato caule, virginianum. _pluk. alm. 348. t. 61. f. 1._ bermudiana graminea, flore minore cæruleo. _dill. elth. 49. t. 41. f. 49._ gladiolus cæruleus hexapetalus caule etiam gladiato. _banist. virg. 1926._ in a former number of this work, we gave a figure of the large variety of _sisyrinch. bermud._ of _linn._ regarding it as a distinct species, and naming it _iridioides_, conformably to dillenius's specific description; we regret now that we did not continue to it the name of _bermudiana_ (it being the true bermudas plant) and which cannot with propriety be applied to the present species, a native of virginia, far more diminutive, with flowers much smaller, of a paler blue colour, a much hardier plant also, and of more ready growth; it is indeed a truly hardy perennial, adapted to the open border, in which it will grow readily, and produce abundance of flowering stems in june and july; the flowers expand to the sun, and are followed by numerous seed-vessels which ripen their seeds, by which the plant may be increased, or by parting its roots in the autumn. its stalk affords an excellent example of the _caulis anceps_. we readily embrace the opportunity here afforded us of correcting an error in regard to the hardiness of the _sisyrinch. iridioides_, which we were led into partly by miller's account, and partly from observing the plant to survive a mild winter in the open ground; we have since found that it is a tender plant, and to be ranked with those of the greenhouse; an additional proof of its being a distinct species from the one here figured, which has long[7] been cultivated in our gardens. footnote: [7] by mr. jacob bobart, in 1693. _ait. kew._ [465] [illustration: nº. 465] indigofera angustifolia. narrow-leaved indigo. _class and order._ diadelphia decandria. _generic character._ _cal._ patens. _cor._ carina, utrinque calcari subulato patulo. _legumen_ lineare. _specific character and synonyms._ indigofera _angustifolia_ foliis pinnatis linearibus, racemis elongatis, caule fruticoso. _linn. syst. veget. ed. 14._ _murr. p. 678._ _mant. 272._ _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 69._ this small, delicate, and rather elegant species of indigo, to be found in most collections of greenhouse plants near town, rises with an upright, shrubby stem, to the height of several feet; its leaves, of a lively green colour, are furnished with pinnæ, which are numerous and unusually narrow, whence its name; its flowers, produced on long racemi springing from the sides of the stem or branches, are of a singular dull red colour, and rarely followed by seeds with us. it is a native of the cape[8], from whence it was introduced by mr. masson, in 1774; flowers from june to october, and is usually increased by cuttings. there is a description of this species in the _mantiss. pl. linn._ but we know of no figure of it that has yet been published. footnote: [8] _ait. kew._ [466] [illustration: nº. 466] calycanthus præcox. japan all-spice. _class and order._ icosandria polygynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 1-phyllus, urceolatus, squarrosus: foliolis coloratis. _cor._ calycina. _styli_ plurimi, stigmati glanduloso. _sem._ plurima, caudata, intra calycem succulentum. _specific character and synonyms._ calycanthus _præcox_ petalis interioribus minutis. _linn. sp. pl. ed. 3. p. 718._ _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 220. tab. x._ obai _s. robai_. jasminum flore pleno suavi foetido, fructu turbinato, semine phascoli. _kæmpf. amæn. exot. p. 878._ the learned and instructive kæmpfer in his _amæn. exot._ that vast fund of most useful information, gives a figure of this plant, in which it is represented both with flowers and seed-vessels, accompanied with a description and short account of it; from which we learn that it is cultivated in japan as an ornamental plant, that the flowers are produced in february, before the leaves, that they have the scent of the violet, but become unpleasant on being long smelt to. hearing that lord coventry was the first who possessed this plant in england, i took the liberty of writing to his lordship in january 1799, to request some information on this point, as well as some others relative to its culture, &c. on the 13th of the same month, his lordship had the goodness to send me a beautiful specimen of the plant in bloom, a seedling plant one year old, together with a seed-vessel of the year 1798, and some seeds; in the earl's letter is the following passage:--"the beauty of the _calycanthus præcox_ at this moment surpasses all description, it is covered with blossoms from top to bottom, and the fragrance of it may be perceived at the distance of fifty yards from the conservatory." by his lordship's direction, i received at the same time from his gardener, mr. william dean, the following information, in answer to my queries:--"my lord received the plant from china in 1766:--it was planted in a conservatory, is now sixteen feet high, and expands ten feet wide:--bears a succession of flowers from september to march:--the time of its first blowing i cannot precisely ascertain, but believe it to be nearly twenty years back:--it is propagated by layers, cuttings, and seeds, the latter it produces most years at croome, but i believe at no other place in england:--there are plants of it at croome six feet high, in a warm situation in the open border, which have stood out several years by being covered with a single mat in severe weather." not expecting to receive a plant from lord coventry in bloom, our drawing was made from one which flowered with mr. whitley, nurseryman, old-brompton, december 22, 1798, and which came originally from croome, his lordship having presented most of the nurserymen about town with plants of it; the blossoms of that from croome were somewhat larger than those here represented, and the petals were less striped, indeed almost wholly tinged with purple, the leaves also proceeded more from the summit of the stalks and were of a much greener hue, owing no doubt to its being kept in the conservatory, while mr. whitley's plant was tacked to the outside of the bottom of the greenhouse. in the number of its stamina, which is rarely more than five, it does not accord with the character of the class icosandria, nor do the seeds agree with the generic character as described by linnæus. [467] [illustration: nº. 467] dracocephalum virginianum. virginian dragon's-head. _class and order._ didynamia gymnospermia. _generic character._ _cor._ faux inflata: labium superius fornicatum. _specific character and synonyms._ dracocephalum _virginianum_ foliis lineari-lanceolatis serratis, floribus confertis. _linn. syst. nat. ed. 13. gmel. p. 915._ dracocephalum _virginianum_ floribus spicatis, foliis lanceolatis serratis. _linn. syst. veg. ed. 14. murr. p. 543._ dracocephalum _virginianum_ floribus spicatis confertis, foliis lineari-lanceolatis serratis. _ait. kew. v. 2. p. 317._ this elegant species of _dracocephalum_, a native of virginia, and other parts of north-america, is a hardy herbaceous plant, rising to the height of about two feet, and producing numerous flowers in long spikes, usually arranged on each side of the stalk. it comes near to the _denticulatum_ already figured, but differs in its superior height, the form of its leaves, the number of its flowers, and many other particulars. it flowers from july to september, and with me has generally ripened much of its seed, from which it may be easily raised, as also by parting of its roots in spring or autumn; it succeeds best in a moist situation, and its stalks require to be carefully and timely sticked. was cultivated as long since as 1683, by mr. james sutherland. [468] [illustration: nº. 468] oenothera tetraptera. white-flowered oenothera. _class and order._ octandria monogynia. _generic character._ _cal._ 4-fidus. _petala 4._ _caps._ cylindrica infera. _sem._ nuda. _specific character and synonyms._ oenothera _tetraptera_ foliis lanceolatis, basi pinnatifido-dentatis, capsulis pedicellatis obovatis quadrialatis. _linn. sp. pl. edit. wildenou._ oenothera foliis alternis subpinnatis crispis, flore mutabili fructû tetraptero. _cavanill. icon. t. 3. p. 40. tab. 279._ of this genus we have already figured six different species; this is another newly discovered one, which, like most of its kind, displays its beauties chiefly in the night. it is the only one, as far as we yet know, that has white blossoms; these, when first expanded, are beautifully so, but in the morning they change to a purple colour, fade, and their place is supplied by a fresh succession. in this remarkable change of colour, it bears some affinity to the _oenothera anomala_, which may be considered as strengthening our opinion that the latter plant belongs to this genus rather than to that of _gaura_. the _oenothera tetraptera_ is a native of mexico, its duration as yet not certainly ascertained, but may be treated as a tender annual; and such plants as do not flower the first year, may be preserved under glasses through the winter. it was raised from seeds sent by mr. donn, from cambridge; but was probably first introduced into this country from seeds sent to the marchioness of bute, by prof. ortega, of madrid. index. in which the latin names of the plants contained in the _thirteenth volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ 457 alöe plicatilis. 455 alöe retusa. 453 amaryllis reginæ. 462 anthemis pyrethrum. 441 antholyza merianella. 458 aristea cyanea. 433 azalea pontica. 451 blakea trinervia. 466 calycanthus præcox. 444 canarina campanula. 454 canna indica. 452 cardamine trifolia. 459 convolvulus cneorum. 445 coronilla emerus. 449 dillenia speciosa. 456 diosma serratifolia. 467 dracocephalum virginianum. 463 epidendrum ciliare. 440 erica albens. 447 erica empetrifolia. 443 erica physodes. 442 genista linifolia. 450 gladiolus watsonius. 435 gnaphalium ericoides. 436 hibiscus præmorsus. 437 hydrangea arborescens. 438 hydrangea hortensis. 461 jasminum fruticans. 439 illicium floridanum. 465 indigofera angustifolia. 460 maurandya semperflorens. 448 mesembryanthemum micans. 468 oenothera tetraptera. 434 oxybaphus viscosus. 446 psoralea bracteata. 464 sisyrinchium gramineum. index. in which the english names of the plants contained in the _thirteenth volume_ are alphabetically arranged. _pl._ 466 allspice, japan. 455 aloe, cushion. 457 aloe, fan. 441 antholyza, dwarf. 458 aristea, grass-leaved. 433 azalea, yellow. 444 bell-flower, canary. 459 bindweed, silvery-leaved. 451 blakea, three-ribbed. 442 broom, flax-leaved. 450 corn-flag, watson's. 452 cuckow-flower, three-leav'd. 449 dillenia, shewy. 456 diosma, serrated or saw-leaved. 467 dragon's head, virginian. 463 epidendrum, fringed. 448 fig-marygold, glittering. 435 gnaphalium or everlasting, heath-leaved. 447 heath, crowberry-leaved. 443 heath, sticky-flowered. 440 heath, pallid. 436 hibiscus, bitten-leaved. 438 hydrangea, garden. 437 hydrangea, shrubby. 461 jasmine, yellow. 439 illicium, red-flowered or aniseed tree. 454 indian reed or shot, common. 465 indigo, narrow-leaved. 453 lily, mexican. 460 maurandya or bastard foxglove, climbing. 468 oenothera, white-flowered. 462 pellitory of spain. 446 psoralea, oval-spiked. 445 senna, scorpion. 464 sisyrinchium, grass-leaved. 434 umbrella wort, viscid. _london_: printed by stephen couchman, throgmorton-street. core historical literature of agriculture (chla), albert r. mann library, cornell university (http://chla.library.cornell.edu/) http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2923510 transcriber's note: text enclosed between tilde characters was in bold face in the original (~bold face~). [oe] represents the oe-ligature. the $100. prize essay on the cultivation of the potato. prize offered by w. t. wylie and awarded to d. h. compton. how to cook the potato, _furnished by prof. blot._ [illustration] illustrated. price, 25 cents. new-york: orange judd co., no. 751 broadway. prize essay on the potato and its cultivation. $100. in the fall of 1868, i offered $100 as a prize for the best essay on the cultivation of the potato, under conditions then published; the prize to be awarded by a committee composed of the following gentlemen, well known in agricultural circles: colonel mason c. weld, associate editor of _american agriculturist_. a. s. fuller, esq., of ridgewood, n. j., the popular author of several horticultural works, and associate editor of the _hearth and home_. dr. f. m. hexamer, who has made the cultivation of the potato a special study. in the month of january, 1870, the committee awarded the prize to d. a. compton; and this essay is herewith submitted to the public in the hope of stimulating a more intelligent and successful cultivation of the potato. bellefonte, pa., january, 1870. w. t. wylie. office of the american agriculturist, new-york, january, 1870. rev. w. t. wylie: dear sir: the essays submitted to us by mr. bliss, according to your announcement, numbered about twenty. several could not be called essays from their brevity, and others were exceedingly incomplete. about twelve, however, required and were worthy of careful consideration. that of mr. d. a. compton, of hawley, wayne county, pa., was, in the opinion of your committee, decidedly superior to the others as a practical treatise, sure to be of use to potato-growers in every part of the country, and well worthy the liberal prize offered by yourself. in behalf of the committee, sincerely yours, mason c. weld, _chairman_. potato culture. by d. a. compton, hawley, pennsylvania. the design of this little treatise is to present, with minuteness of detail, that mode of culture which experience and observation have proved to be best adapted to the production of the potato crop. it is written by one who himself holds the plow, and who has, since his early youth, been engaged in agriculture in its various branches, to the exclusion of other pursuits. the statements which appear in the following pages are based upon actual personal experience, and are the results of many experiments made to test as many theories. throughout the northern states of our country the potato is the third of the three staple articles of food. it is held in such universal esteem as to be regarded as nearly indispensable. this fact is sufficient to render a thorough knowledge of the best varieties for use, the character of soil best adapted to their growth, their cultivation and after-care, matters of the highest importance to the farmers of the united states. the main object of this essay is so to instruct the novice in potato-growing that he may be enabled to go to work understandingly and produce the potato in its highest perfection, and realize from his labors bestowed on the crop the greatest possible profits. soil required--its preparation. the potato is most profitably grown in a warm, dry, sandy, or gravelly loam, well filled with decayed vegetable matters. the famous potato lands of lake county, ohio, from which such vast quantities of potatoes are shipped yearly, are yellow sand. this potato district is confined to ridges running parallel with lake erie, which, according to geological indications, have each at different periods defined its boundaries. this sand owes much of its potato-growing qualities to the sedimentary deposit of the lake and to manural properties furnished by the decomposition of the shells of water-snails, shell-fish, etc., that inhabited the waters. new lands, or lands recently denuded of the forest, if sufficiently dry, produce tubers of the most excellent quality. grown on dry, new land, the potato always cooks dry and mealy, and possesses an agreeable flavor and aroma, not to be attained in older soils. in no argillaceous soil can the potato be grown to perfection as regards quality. large crops on such soil may be obtained in favorable seasons, but the tubers are invariably coarse-fleshed and ill-flavored. to produce roots of the best quality, the ground must be dry, deep, and porous; and it should be remembered that, to obtain very large crops, it is almost impossible to get too much humus in the soil. humus is usually added to arable land either by plowing under green crops, such as clover, buckwheat, peas, etc., or by drawing and working in muck obtained from swamps and low places. the muck should be drawn to the field in fall or winter, and exposed in small heaps to the action of frost. in the following spring, sufficient lime should be mixed with it to neutralize the acid, (which is found in nearly all muck,) and the whole be spread evenly and worked into the surface with harrow or cultivator. leaves from the woods, buckwheat straw, bean, pea, and hop vines, etc., plowed under long enough before planting to allow them time to rot, are very beneficial. sea-weed, when bountifully applied, and turned under early in the fall, has no superior as a manure for the potato. no stable or barn-yard manure should be applied to this crop. if such nitrogenous manure must be used on the soil, it is better to apply it to some other crop, to be followed the succeeding year by potatoes. the use of stable manure predisposes the tubers to rot; detracts very much from the desired flavor; besides, generally not more than one half as many bushels can be grown per acre as can be obtained by using manures of a different nature. market gardeners, many of whom from necessity plant on the same ground year after year, often use fine old stable manure with profit. usually they plant only the earlier varieties, crowd them with all possible speed, dig early, and sell large and little before they have time to rot, thus clearing the ground for later-growing vegetables. thus grown, potatoes are of inferior quality, and the yield is not always satisfactory. flavor, however, is seldom thought of by the hungry denizens of our cities, in their eagerness to get a taste of something fresh. market gardeners will find great benefit from the use of wood-ashes, lime, and the phosphates. sprinkle superphosphate in the hill at the rate of two hundred pounds per acre; mix it slightly in the soil with an iron rake or potato-hook, then plant the seed. just before the last hoeing, sprinkle on and around the hill a large handful of wood-ashes, or an equal quantity of lime slacked in brine as strong as salt will make it. but for the generality of farmers, those who grow only their own supply, or those who produce largely for market, no other method of preparing the soil is so good, so easy, and so cheap as the following; it requires time, but pays a big interest: seed down the ground to clover with wheat or oats. as soon as the grain is off, sow one hundred and fifty pounds of plaster (gypsum) per acre, and keep off all stock. the next spring, when the clover has made a growth of two inches, sow the same quantity of plaster again. about the tenth of july, harrow down the clover, driving the same direction and on the same sized lands you wish to plow; then plow the clover neatly under about seven inches deep. harrow down the same way it was plowed, and immediately sow and harrow in two bushels of buckwheat per acre. when it has grown two inches, sow plaster as before; and when the buckwheat has grown as large as it will, harrow down and plow under about five inches deep. this, when cross-plowed in the spring sufficiently deep to bring up the clover-sod, is potato ground _first-class in all respects_. it is hardly supposable that this mode of preparation of soil would meet with favor among all farmers. there is a parsimonious class of cultivators who would consider it a downright loss of time, seed, and labor; but any one who will take the trouble to investigate, will find that these same parsimonious men never produced four hundred bushels of potatoes per acre; and that the few bushels of small tubers that they do dig from an acre, are produced at considerable loss. "men do not gather grapes from thorns, nor figs from thistles." to make potato-growing profitable in these times of high prices of land and labor, it is absolutely necessary that the soil be in every way fitted to meet any and all demands of the crop. it is said that in the state of maine, previous to the appearance of the potato disease, and before the soil had become exhausted by continued cropping, potatoes yielded an average of four hundred bushels per acre. now, every observer is aware that the present average yield of the same vegetable is much less than half what it was formerly. this great deterioration in yield can not be attributed to "running out" of varieties; for varieties are extant which have not yet passed their prime. it can not be wholly due to disease; for disease does not occur in every season and in every place. true, we have more insects than formerly, but they can not be responsible for all the great falling off. it is traceable mainly to poverty of the soil in certain ingredients imperatively needed by the crop for its best development, and to the pernicious effect of enriching with nitrogenous manures. any one who will plant on suitably dry soil, enriched only with forest-leaves, sea-weeds, or by plowing under green crops until the whole soil to a proper depth is completely filled with vegetable matter, will find to his satisfaction that the potato can yet be grown in all its pristine vigor and productiveness. to realize from potato-growing the greatest possible profits, (and profits are what we are all after,) the following conditions must be strictly adhered to: first, the ground chosen _must be dry_, either naturally or made so by thorough drainage; a gently sloping, deep, sandy or gravelly loam is preferable. second, the land should be liberally enriched with humus by some of the means mentioned, if it is not already present in the soil in sufficient quantities, and the soil should be deeply and thoroughly plowed, rendering it light, porous, and pulverulent, that the air and moisture may easily penetrate to any desirable depth of it; and a proper quantity of either wood-ashes or lime, or both, mixed with common salt, should be harrowed into the surface before planting, or be applied on top of the hills immediately after planting. and, finally, the cultivation and after-care should be _prompt_, and given as soon as needed. nothing is more conducive to failure, after the crop is properly planted, than failure in promptness in the cultivation and care required. general remarks on manuring with green crops. experience proves that no better method can be adopted to bring up lands partially exhausted, which are remote from cities, than plowing under green crops. by this plan the farmer can take lot after lot, and soon bring all up to a high state of fertility. true, he gathers no crop for one year, but the outlay is little; and if in the second year he gathers as much from one acre as he formerly did from three, he is still largely the gainer. it costs no more to cultivate an acre of rich, productive land than an acre of poor, unproductive land; and the pleasure and profit of harvesting a crop that abundantly rewards the husbandman for his care and labor are so overwhelmingly in favor of rich land as to need no comment. besides, manuring with green crops is not transitory in its effects; the land remembers the generous treatment for many years, and if at times lime or ashes be added to assist decomposition, will continue to yield remunerative crops long after land but once treated with stable manure or guano fails to produce any thing but weeds. the skinning process, the taking off of every thing grown on the soil and returning nothing to it, is ruinous alike to farm and farmer. thousands of acres can be found in various parts of the country too poor to pay for cultivating without manuring. of the capabilities of their lands under proper treatment the owners thereof have no idea whatever. such men say they can not make enough manure on the farm and are too poor to buy. why not, then, commence plowing under green crops, the only manure within easy reach? if fifty acres can not be turned under the first year, put at least one acre under, which will help feed the rest. why be contented with thirty bushels of corn per acre, when eighty or one hundred may be had? why raise eight or twelve bushels of wheat per acre, when forty may as well be had? why cut but one half-ton of hay per acre, when the laws of nature allow at least three? why spend precious time digging only one hundred bushels of potatoes per acre, when with proper care and culture three or four hundred may easily be obtained? and, finally, why toil and sweat, and have the poor dumb beasts toil and sweat, cultivating thirty acres for the amount of produce that should grow, may grow, can grow, and has grown on ten acres? the poorest, most forsaken side-hills, cobble-hills, and knolls, if the sand or gravel be of moderate depth, underlaid by a subsoil rather retentive, by turning under green crops grow potatoes of the first quality. if land be so poor that clover will not take, as is sometimes the case, seed to clover with millet very early in the spring, and harrow in with the millet thirty bushels of wood-ashes, or two hundred pounds of guano per acre; then sow the clover-seed one peck per acre; brush it in. if neither ashes nor guano can be obtained at a reasonable price, sow two hundred pounds of gypsum per acre as soon as the bushing is completed. this will not fail in giving the clover a fair foothold on the soil. before the millet blossoms, cut and cure it for hay. keep all stock off the clover, plaster it the following spring, plow it under when in full bloom; sow buckwheat immediately; when up, sow plaster; when in full bloom, plow under and sow the ground immediately with rye, to be plowed under the next may. thus three crops are put under within a year, the ground is left strong, light, porous, free from weeds, ready to grow a large crop of potatoes, or almost any thing else. much is gained every way by having and keeping land in a high state of fertility. some crops require so long a season for growth, that high condition of soil is absolutely necessary to carry them through to maturity in time to escape autumnal frosts. in the western states manure has hitherto been considered of but little value. the soil of these states was originally very rich in humus. for a time wheat was produced at the rate of forty bushels per acre; but according to the statistics given by the agricultural department at washington, for the year 1866, the average yield in some of these states was but four and a half bushels per acre. it is evident from this that mr. skinflint has had things pretty much his own way. his land now produces four and a half bushels per acre; what time shall elapse when it shall be four and one half acres per bushel? who dare predict that manure will not at some day be of value west of the alleghanies? new-jersey, with a soil naturally inferior to that of illinois, contains extensive tracts that yearly yield over one hundred bushels of indian corn per acre, while the average of the state is over forty-three; and the average yield of the same cereal in illinois is but little over thirty-one bushels per acre. in the western states, where potatoes are grown extensively for southern markets, the average yield is about eighty bushels per acre; while in old pennsylvania could be shown the last year potatoes yielding at the rate of six hundred and forty bushels per acre. there are those who argue that manure is never necessary--that plant-food is supplied in abundance by the atmosphere; it was also once said a certain man had taught his horse to live without eating; but it so happened that just as he got the animal perfectly schooled, it died. good, thorough cultivation and aeration of the soil undoubtedly do much toward the production of crops; but mere manipulation is not all that is needed. that growing plants draw much nourishment from the atmosphere, and appropriate largely of its constituents in building up their tissue, is certainly true; it is also certainly true that they require something of the soil besides mere anchorage. all facts go to show that if the constituents needed by the plant from the soil are not present in the soil, the efforts of the plant toward proper development are abortive? what sane farmer expects to move a heavy load over a rugged road with a team so lean and poverty-stricken that they cast but a faint shadow? yet is he much nearer sanity when he expects farming to be pleasant and profitable, and things to _move aright_, unless his land is strong and fat? is he perfectly sane when he thinks he can skin his farm year after year, and not finally come to the bone? the farmer on exhausted land must of necessity use manure. manure of _some_ kind must go under, or he must go under; and to the great mass of cultivators no mode of enriching is so feasible, so cheap, and attended with such satisfactory results, as that of plowing under green crops. the old plan of leaving an exhausted farm, and going west in search of rich "government land," must soon be abandoned. already the head of the column of land-hunters have "fetched up" against the pacific, and it is doubtful whether their anxious gaze will discover any desirable unoccupied soil over its waters. the writer would not be understood as saying that all farms are exhausted, or that there is _no_ way of recuperation but by plowing under green crops. what he wishes understood is, that where poor, sandy, or gravelly lands are found, which bring but small returns to the owner, by subjecting them to the process indicated, such lands bring good crops of the kind under consideration. and further, that land in the proper condition to yield a maximum crop of potatoes, is fitted to grow other crops equally well. neither would the writer be understood as arguing that a crop of clover and one of buckwheat should be turned under for each crop of potatoes; where land is already in high condition, it may not be necessary. a second growth of clover plowed under in the fall for planting early kinds, and a clean clover sod turned in _flat_ furrows in the spring, for the late market varieties, answer very well. to turn flat furrows, take the furrow-slice wide enough to have it fall completely inside the preceding one. potatoes should not be planted year after year on the same ground; trouble with weeds and rapid deterioration of quality and quantity of tubers soon render the crop unprofitable. loamy soil planted continuously soon becomes compact, heavy, and lifeless. where of necessity potatoes must be grown yearly on the same soil, it is advisable to dig rather early, and bury the vines of each hill in the one last dug; then harrow level, and sow rye to be plowed under next planting time. the intelligent farmer, who grows large crops for market, will always so arrange as to have a clover-sod on dry land in high condition each year for potatoes. it is said by many, in regard to swine, that "the breed is in the trough;" though this is certainly untrue to a certain extent, yet it is undeniable that in potato-growing success or failure is in the character of soil chosen for their production. why clover, or clover and buckwheat lands, are so strongly urged is, such lands have in them just what the tubers need for their best and healthiest development; the soil is rendered so rich, light, and porous, and so free from weeds, that the cultivation of such land is rather a pleasure than otherwise, and at the close of the season the tangible profits in dollars and cents are highly gratifying. varieties. from the fact that the united states produce about 109,000,000 bushels of potatoes annually, it might be supposed a great many varieties would be cultivated. such, however, is not the fact. of the varieties extant, comparatively few are grown extensively. every grower's observation has established the fact that for quality the early varieties are inferior to the late ones. the early june is very early, but its quality is quite indifferent. the cherry blow is early, attains good size, and yields rather well. in quality it is poor. the early kidney, as to quality, is good, but will not yield enough to pay for cultivation. the cowhorn, said to be the mexican yam, is quite early, of first quality, but yields very poorly. the michigan white sprout is early, rather productive, and good. jackson white is in quality quite good, is early, and a favorite in some places. the monitor is rather early, yields large crops; but as its quality is below par, it brings a low price in market. philbrick's early white is one of the whitest-skinned and whitest-fleshed potatoes known. it is about as early as early goodrich, is quite productive, and grows to a large size, with but few small ones to the hill. its quality is excellent. it has not yet been extensively tested. the early rose is said to be very early, of excellent quality, and to yield extremely well. it has, however, not been very widely tested. perhaps for earliness and satisfactory product, the early goodrich has no superior. it is of fair quality, and though some seasons it does not yield as well as others, yet, all things considered, it is a desirable variety. the old neshannock, or mercer, is among the latest of the early varieties. as to quality, it is the standard of excellence of the whole potato family. but it yields rather poorly, and its liability to rot, except on soils especially fitted for it, has so discouraged growers that its cultivation in many sections is abandoned. on rather poor, sandy soil, manured in the hill with wood-ashes, common salt, and plaster only, it will produce in ordinary seasons two hundred bushels per acre of sound, merchantable tubers, that will always command the highest market price. any potato cultivated for a long series of years will gradually become finer in texture and better in quality; but its liability to disease will also be greatly increased. as an instance of this, it will be remembered that when the merino and california varieties were first introduced, they were so coarse as to be thought fit only to feed hogs, and for this purpose, on account of their great yielding qualities, farmers continued to cultivate them, until finally they became so changed as in many sections to be preferred for the table. their cultivation, however, is now nearly abandoned. of the later varieties, the garnet chili, a widely-diffused and well-known sort, deserves notice. it is not of so good quality as the peach blow; but its freedom from disease, and the large crop it produces, make it a favorite with many growers. the chief fault with it is, the largest specimens are apt to be hollow at the centre. it ripens rather early; and, even when dug long before maturity, it has a dryness and mealiness, when prepared for the table, not found in many other sorts. the buckeye is extensively grown for market; its yield is not satisfactory, and its quality is only medium. the dykeman is yet grown to some extent, but will soon be superseded. the prince albert is a well-known and highly-esteemed variety, approaching very near the peach blow in quality. one peculiarity of this potato is, the largest tubers appear to be of as good quality as the small ones. with proper soil and culture, it yields a fair crop; is quite free from disease; and its smoothness, high flavor, and fine appearance make it much sought after in the market. the fluke, a very late potato, is a great favorite with many who produce for market. its yield is very large; and its smoothness and uniformity of size make it altogether a desirable variety. it is generally free from disease. in quality it is rather above medium. the harrison, if it should do as well in the future as it has done in the past, bids fair to become _the_ potato for general cultivation. it has yielded in this section, on soil of moderate fertility, with ordinary culture, one peck to the hill of uniform-sized, merchantable potatoes. it is a strong, vigorous grower, and very healthy. its quality, though not the very best, is good. the willard, lately originated by c. w. gleason, of massachusetts, is a half-early variety. it is enormously productive, of a rich rose color, spotted and splashed with white. the flesh is white. in form and size it closely resembles the early goodrich, its parent. it has not been extensively tested, but certainly promises well. the excelsior is said, by those interested in its sale, to be very productive, and of most excellent quality, retaining its superior flavor all the year round. it is claimed that old potatoes of this variety are better than new ones of most early kinds, thus obviating the necessity of having early sorts. the excelsior is said to cook very white and mealy; form nearly round, eyes prominent. it has not been much tested out of the neighborhood where it originated. but the potato-eater is yet unborn who can justly find fault with a properly-grown peach blow. it is pronounced by many equal or superior to the mercer in quality, which is not the fact. it is emphatically a late potato; and, though it does not yield as well per acre as some other sorts, it is comparatively healthy; and its quality is such that it always brings a high price in the market. in fact, but few other kinds of late sorts could find sale if enough of this kind were offered to supply the demand. planted ever so early, it keeps green through the heat of summer, and never matures its tubers until after the fall rains, and then no potato does it more rapidly. grown on rich argillaceous soil, it will be hollow, coarse flesh, and ill-flavored; but planted on such soil as is recommended, it is about all that could be desired. it is a strong, vigorous grower; and one peculiarity of it is, that insects will not attack vines of this variety if other kinds are within reach. planted on extremely poor ground, it will, perhaps, yield more bushels of tubers, and those of better quality, than any other variety that could be planted on the same soil. among all the old or new sorts, perhaps, no potato can be found that deteriorates so little in quality from maturity to maturity again. and, in fine, where only high quality with moderate yield are desired, it has few if any superiors. many other varieties might be mentioned; but the list given includes about all of much merit. new varieties are constantly arising, clamoring for public favor, many of which are wholly unworthy of general cultivation. one or two varieties, such as are adapted to the grower's locality and market, are preferable to a greater number of sorts grown merely for variety's sake. influence of soil on seedlings. the characteristics of a potato, such as quality, productiveness, healthfulness, uniformity of size, etc., depend much on the nature of the soil on which it originated. these characteristics, some or all, imbibed by the minute potato from the ingredients of the soil, at its first growth from the seed of the potato-ball, adhere with great tenacity to it through all its generations. a seedling may, in size, color, and form resemble its parent; but its constitution and quality are in a great degree dependent on the nature of the soil, climatic influences, and other accidental causes. true crosses are generally more vigorous and healthy than others; and it is probably to accidental crosses we are indebted for many varieties that differ so widely from their parents. a cross is most apparent to the eye when the parents are of different colors, in which case the offspring will be striped or marked with the colors of each parent. how to cross varieties. in order to comprehend fully the principles of this subject, and their application to practical operations, it will be necessary to take a general view of the generative organs of the vegetable kingdom, and the manner in which they act in the production of their species. if we examine a perfect flower, we shall find that it consists essentially of two sets of organs, one called the pistils, the other the stamens. the pistils are located in the centre of the flower, and the stamens around them. the summit of the pistil is called the stigma; and on the top of each stamen is situated an anther--a small sack, which contains the pollen, a dust-like substance, that fertilizes the ovules or young seeds of the plant. these organs are supposed to perform offices analogous to those of the animal kingdom--the stamens representing the male, and the pistils the female organs. when the anthers, which contain the pollen, arrive at maturity, they open and emit a multitude of minute grains of pollen; and these, falling on the pistils of the flower, throw out hair-like tubes, which penetrate through the vascular tissue of the pistil, and ultimately reach the ovules, thus fertilizing them, and making them capable, when mature, of reproducing plants of their own kind. the ovules are the rudimentary seeds, situated in a case at the base of the pistils, each consisting of a central portion, called the nucleus, which is surrounded by two coats, the inner called the secundine, the outer the primine. when the hairlike tube of the pollen-grain passes through the orifice in the coatings of the ovule, and reaches the nucleus, or embryo sack, it is supposed to emit a spermatic or plantlet germ, which passes through the wall of the embryo sack and enters the germinal vesicle contained in it. the vesicle corresponds to the vesicle, or germinal spot, in the eggs of birds, and ovum of mammiferous animals. the germ remains in the vesicle, and finally becomes the embryo, fully developed into a plantlet, as may be seen in many seeds. flowers of plants are called perfect when the stamens and pistils are in the same flower, as the apple; mon[oe]cious, when in different flowers and on the same plant, as the white oak; and di[oe]cious, when in different flowers and on different plants, as in the hemp. in that class of plants in which the stamens, or males, are on one plant, and the pistils, or females, on another, the males of course must always remain barren; and the pistilates, to be fruitful, must have the pollen from the anthers of the staminate brought in contact with its stigma by wind, insects, or other means. in plants with perfect flower, the stamens are generally situated around and above the pistil, so that the pollen falls upon the stigma by mere force of gravity. in the potato, the pollen is conveyed from the anthers to the stigma by actual contact of the two organs. cross-breeding in plants consists in fertilizing one variety with the pollen of another variety of the same species. the offspring is called a cross-breed, or variety. the process of cross-breeding consists in taking the pollen of one variety and applying it to the stigma of another variety, in such a way as to effect its fertilization. this is done by cutting away (with scissors) the stamens of the flower to be fertilized, a short time before they arrive at maturity, and taking a flower in which the pollen is ripe, dry, and powdery, from the stalk of the variety wished for the male parent; and holding it in the right hand, and then striking it on the finger of the left, held near the flower, thus scattering the pollen on the stigma of the pistil of the flower to be fertilized. the utmost care should be taken to apply the pollen when the flower is in its greatest vigor, and the stigma is covered with the necessary coating of mucus to insure a perfect connection of the pollen with the pistil, and make the fertilization perfect. all flowers not wanted in the experiment should be removed before any pollen is formed. it is necessary to tie a thin piece of gauze over the flower to be fertilized, before and after crossing, to prevent insects from conveying pollen to it, thus frustrating the labors of the operator. if the operation has been successful, the pistil will soon begin to wither; if not perfect, the pistil will continue fresh and full for some days. this _modus operandi_ is substantially the same in crossing fruits, flowers, and vegetables throughout the vegetable kingdom. hybridizing differs from cross-breeding only in fertilizing one species, or one of its varieties, with the pollen of another species, or one of its varieties, of the same or a different _genus_. the offspring is called a hybrid, or mule. hybrids, with very few exceptions, are sterile, they fail to propagate themselves from seed, and must, to preserve them, be propagated by grafts, layers, or suckers. no change is perceptible in the fruit produced from blossoms upon which the operation of cross-breeding or hybridizing has been performed; but the seed of fruits so obtained may be planted with the certainty of producing a fruit or tuber commingling the qualities, colors, and main characteristics of both parents. experience, however, shows that the characteristics of the male predominate somewhat in the offspring. to judicious cross-breeding and hybridizing we owe most of our superior fruits and vegetables. if the operation were more generally known and practiced by farmers, the most gratifying results would be soon obtained, not only in the production of the most valuable varieties of potatoes and other vegetables, but also in fruits, flowers, and grain of every description. smooth vs. rough potatoes. other things being equal, smooth potatoes are preferable to those with deeply-sunken eyes. the starch being most abundant near the skin, not so much is lost by the thin paring of the former as by the necessarily deeper paring of the latter. varieties usually well formed sometimes grow so knobby and ill-shaped as to be scarcely recognized. this is caused by severe drought occurring when the tubers are about two thirds grown, causing them to partially ripen. on the return of moisture, a new growth takes place, which shows itself in knobby protuberances. cut and uncut seed. many growers argue that potatoes should be planted whole. the only plausible theory in support of whole seed is, that the few eyes that do start have a greater supply of starch available from which to obtain nutriment until the plant can draw support from the soil and atmosphere. but experiments also demonstrate that if all the eyes except one or two near the middle be cut out of the seed-potato, such seed will push with the greatest possible vigor. many eyes of the uncut seed start, but the stronger soon overpower the weaker, and finally starve them out. a plot planted with three small, uncut potatoes to the hill, and another planted with three pieces of two eyes each to the hill, will not show much difference in number of vines during the growing season. the poor results sometimes attending cut seed are almost always traceable to improper seed improperly cut. only large, mature, sound tubers should be used. cut them in pieces of two or three eyes each, taking pains to secure around each eye as much flesh as possible, also under the eye to the centre of the tuber. experiments prove that eyes from the "seed end" produce potatoes that mature earliest; they are also smallest. those from the large or stem end are largest, latest, and least in numbers. eyes from the middle produce tubers of very uniform size. if small, ill-shaped potatoes be planted on the same ground for three successive years, the results will give the best variety a bad name. much is gained by changing seed. no two varieties are made up of the same constituents exactly in the same proportion; hence, a soil may be exhausted for the best development of one, and still be fitted to meet the demands of another. even when the same variety is desired, experience shows the great benefit of planting seed grown on a different soil. the best and most extensive growers procure new seed every two or three years, and many insist on changing seed every year; and undoubtedly the crop is often doubled by the practice. planting and manuring. early kinds should be planted as soon as the ground has become sufficiently dry and warm. late market varieties should be planted about two weeks later than the early ones. unquestionably more bushels can be obtained per acre by planting in drills than in hills, but the labor of cultivating in drills is much the greater. prepare the ground by thorough plowing, making it decidedly mellow. mark it out four feet apart each way, if to be planted in hills, by plowing broad, flat-bottomed furrows about three inches deep. at the crossings drop three pieces of potato, cut, as directed, in sections of two or three eyes each. place the pieces so as to represent the points of a triangle, each piece being about a foot distant from each of the other two. if the cut side is put down, it is better; cover about two inches deep. where land is free from stone and sod, the covering may be well and rapidly done with a light plow. immediately after planting, sprinkle over and around each hill a large handful of unleached wood-ashes and salt, (a half-bushel of fine salt mixed with a barrel of ashes is about the right proportion.) if ashes can not be obtained, as is sometimes the case, apply instead about the same quantity of lime slacked in brine as strong as salt will make it. the potato from its peculiar organization has a hungering and thirsting after potash. wood-ashes exactly meet its wants in this direction. lime indirectly supplies potash by liberating what was before inert in the soil. salt in small quantities induces vigorous, healthy growth. to obtain the best results, the ashes or lime should be covered with about half an inch of soil. this plan of manuring in the hill is recommended only in cases where the fertilizers named are in limited supply, and it is desirable to make the most of them. maximum crops have been obtained by using the fertilizers named in the manner described; but where they can be obtained at low prices, it is certainly advisable, and requires less labor, to apply all three, ashes, lime, and salt, broadcast in bountiful quantities, and harrow it in before the ground is marked out for planting. cultivation. if weeds are expected, pass a light harrow over the rows just before the vines are ready to burst through; this will disturb them and render them less troublesome. as soon as the tops are two inches high, run a corn-plow five inches deep _close_ to the hills, turning the furrows _from_ the rows. plow both ways twice between the rows, finishing on the rows running east and west, which will give the sun's rays a better chance to warm the ground properly. standing on the squares of earth, warmed on all sides by the air and sunlight, the potatoes will grow amazingly. just as soon as the tops have attained a height of six or seven inches, hitch a strong horse to a two-horse plow, and turn furrows fully seven inches deep midway between the rows _to_ the hills. plow twice between the rows both ways; and if the ground be a side-hill, turn the first furrow between the rows up-hill, which will leave the rows in better shape. hoeing is often wholly unnecessary; but where, from weeds or poor plowing, it is needed, draw mellow earth to the plants with the hoe, keeping the top of the hills somewhat hollow to catch the rains. then, so far as stirring the soil is concerned, _let it alone_. after potatoes are fairly up, their cultivation should be crowded through with all possible speed, or at least as rapidly as the growth of the tops will permit. if the last plowing be deferred until the vines are large, a large proportion of small potatoes is sure to be the consequence. after a certain stage of growth, new tubers are formed each time the soil is disturbed; these never fully develop, they rob those first formed, and make the crop much inferior to what it should be. by the mode of culture described, the ground is made warm and mellow close up to the seed-potatoes, the roots soon fill the whole hill, and tubers are formed that have nothing to do but to grow. the writer is aware flat culture has strong advocates; but, after many experiments, he is convinced that hills are much the best. plaster. however much lime or other fertilizers may be applied to the soil, still great benefit is derived from the use of plaster, (sulphate of lime.) after all, plaster is the main dependence of the potato-grower, a help on which he may rely with the utmost confidence. astonishing results are obtained from its use, when applied in a proper manner. the writer has seen a field, all of the same soil, all prepared alike, and all planted with the same variety at the same time, on one half of which, that had no plaster, the yield was but sixty bushels per acre, and many rotten; the other part, to which plaster was applied in the manner hereafter explained, yielded three hundred and sixty bushels per acre, and not an unsound one among them. the action of plaster is often puzzling. from the fact that where land has been strongly limed, a small quantity of plaster applied shows such decided benefit, there would seem plausibility in liebig's theory that its effects must be traceable not to the lime, but to the sulphuric acid. the ammonia in rain-water in the form of carbonate (a volatile salt) is decomposed by plaster, the sulphuric acid having greater affinity for it, thus forming two new compounds, sulphate of ammonia and carbonate of lime. but as arable soil has the same property of absorbing ammonia from the air and rain-water, and fixing it in the same or even a higher degree than lime, there is only the sulphuric acid left to look to for an explanation of the favorable action of plaster on the growth of plants. it is found that plaster in contact with soil undergoes decomposition, part of the lime separating from the sulphuric acid, and magnesia and potash taking its place, quite contrary to the ordinary affinities. these facts show that the action of plaster is very complex, and that it promotes the distribution of both magnesia and potash in the ground, exercising a chemical action upon the soil which extends to any depth of it; and that, in consequence of the chemical and mechanical modifications of the earth, particles of certain nutritive elements become accessible and available to plants that were not so before. it is said plaster is of most benefit in wet seasons; such is not always the case. it is certainly beneficial to clover, wet or dry; so of potatoes. a few years since, when the drought was so intense in this section as to render the general potato crop almost a total failure, the writer produced a plentiful crop by the use of plaster alone. on examination at the dryest time, the bottoms of the hills were found to be literally dust, yet in this dust the tubers were swelling finely: the leaves and vines were of a deep rich green, and remained so until frost, while other fields in sight, planted with the same variety, but not treated with plaster, were brown, dead, and not worth digging. that gypsum attracts moisture may be proved by plastering a hill of corn and leaving a hill by it unplastered; the dew will be found deposited in greater abundance on the plastered hill. but, according to liebig, certain products of the chemical action of plaster enter into and are incorporated with the structure of the plant, closing its breathing pores to such an extent that the plant is enabled to withstand a drought which would prove fatal to it unassisted. certain it is that plaster renders plants less palatable to insects, and, so far as the writer's experiments extend, it is fatal to many of the fungi family. to obtain the best results, the vines of potatoes should be dusted with plaster as soon as they are fairly through the soil, again immediately after the last plowing and hoeing, and, for reasons hereafter given, at intervals throughout the whole growing season. the first application may be light, the second heavier, and thereafter it should be bountifully applied, say two hundred pounds per acre at one sowing. the potato-rot--its cause the year 1845 will ever be memorable by its giving birth to a disease which threatened the entire destruction of the potato crop, and which caused suffering and pecuniary ruin to an incredible extent throughout europe. the potato, at the time of the appearance of the potato disease, was almost the sole dependence of the common people of ireland for food. that over-populated country experienced more actual suffering in consequence of the potato disease than has any other from the same cause. although this disease has never, in this country, prevailed to the same ruinous extent that it has in some others, yet we are yearly reminded of its existence, and in some seasons and localities its destructive effects are seriously apparent. the final or culminating cause of the disease known as the "potato-rot" is _botrytis (peronospora) infestans_. this may be induced by many and various predisposing causes, such as feebleness of constitution of the variety planted, rendering them an easy prey to the disease; by planting on low, moist land, or on land highly enriched by nitrogenous manures, causing a morbid growth which invites the disease; also by insects or their larvã¦ puncturing or eating off the leaves or vines. but by far the most wide-spread and most common cause of the disease is sudden changes of atmospheric temperature, particularly when accompanied by rain. drought, though quite protracted and severe, unless accompanied by strong drying winds, and followed by sudden and great reduction of temperature, seldom affects the potato seriously. it is not uncommon in the northern states, during the months of august and september, for strong westerly winds to prevail for many days in succession. these winds, coming from the great american desert, are almost wholly devoid of moisture, and their aridity is often such that vegetation withers before them as at the touch of fire. evaporation is increased in a prodigiously rapid ratio with the velocity of wind. the effects of the excessive exhalation from the leaves of plants exposed to the sweep of such drying winds are at once seriously apparent. when these winds finally cease, the atmosphere has a low relative humidity, not enough moisture remains in the air to prevent radiation; the heat absorbed by the earth through the day is, during the bright, cloudless night, rapidly radiated and lost in space, and a reduction in temperature of twenty to thirty degrees is the consequence. in the first place, the potato-vines suffer by excessive exhalation; in the second, by sudden reduction of temperature, and, though not frozen, their functions are much deranged, and their vitality greatly enfeebled. to use a common expression, the plant "has caught a violent cold that has settled on the lungs." the leaves (which are the lungs of plants) now fail to perform their functions properly. the points of many of the leaves turn brown, curl up, and die. the ascending sap, not being fully elaborated by the diseased leaves, oozes out through the skin of the stalk in a thick, viscous state, and the plant to all appearance is in a state of consumption. at this stage the ever-present minute spores of the _botrytis infestans_ eagerly pounce on the sickly plant, fastening themselves on its most diseased parts. the _botrytis infestans_ is a cryptogamous plant, and is included in the mucidineous family, (moulds.) it is a vegetable parasite preying upon the living potato plant, like lice or other animal parasites upon the animal species. at first this mould forms webby, creeping filaments, known in botanical language as mycelium. these root-like fibres then branch out, sending out straight or decumbent articulated stems. these bead-like joints fill up successively with seeds or spores, which are discharged at the proper time to multiply the species. under favorable conditions of warmth and moisture, the mycelium spreads very rapidly. spores are soon formed and matured, to be carried to plants not yet infected. rains also wash the seminal dust down the plant, causing it to fasten and grow on the vine near the ground. the roots of the parasite penetrate and split up the stalk even to the medullary canal. these roots exude a poisonous substance, which is carried by the elaborated descending sap down to the tubers, and as the largest tubers require the largest amount of elaborated sap for their development, they will, consequently, receive the greatest quantity of the vitiating principle, and will, on digging, be found a mass of rottenness, when the smaller ones are often but slightly affected. the _botrytis infestans_ can not gain a lodgment on vines that are truly healthy and vigorous, high authority to the contrary notwithstanding. healthy varieties, growing in a sheltered situation on dry, new soil, to which no nitrogenous manures have been applied, can not be infected, though brushed with other vines covered with the fungus. different varieties, and sometimes different members of the same variety, are not always alike affected by the disease, though growing in the same hill. as will be noticed, the potato disease is rather an effect than a cause, and appears to have been designed to prevent members enfeebled by accident or otherwise from propagating their species by putting such members out of existence. ozone, supposed to be a peculiar form of oxygen, is exhaled from every part of the green surface of plants in health, and effectually repels the attacks of mildew; but it is found that when the atmosphere is very dry, or, on the other hand, very humid, plants cease to evolve ozone, and are therefore unprotected. winds from the ocean are strongly ozonic, and it is ascertained that plants growing on soil to which salt has been applied evolve more ozone than others. hence the benefit derived from the use of salt on potato lands. the "black knot," another species of fungus that attacks the branches of the plum and morello cherry, operates very similarly to the potato mildew. the roots of the parasite penetrate and split up the cellular tissue of the branch on which it fastens, and if the limb be not promptly amputated, the descending sap carries the deleterious principle through the whole system, and the following year the disease appears in a greatly aggravated form in every part of the whole tree. the remedy in this case is prompt amputation of the part diseased on its first appearance, and a judicious application of salt to the soil. common salt, to a certain extent, is as beneficial to some plants as to animals; and every intelligent farmer knows that if salt be withheld from the bovine _genus_ for any considerable length of time, the general health droops and parasites are sure to abound. the object of nature in bringing into existence the large family of mildews, each member of which is a perfect plant in its way, and as capable of performing its functions as the oak of the forest, was undoubtedly to prevent propagation from sickly stock, and by the decomposition of feeble plants to make room and enrich the soil for the better development of healthier plants. but it by no means follows that, because a plant is attacked by mildew, it must necessarily be left to die, any more than it follows that, because an animal is infested with vermin, it should be let alone to be eaten up by them. remedy for the potato-rot. in treating for the potato-rot, "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure;" for when leaves or vines are once dead, they ever remain so. all that can be done for potatoes infested is to stop the mildew from spreading, by destroying it where it is, and by strengthening "those things which remain." the writer was led to the adoption of the remedy proposed by experiments made upon fruits. every one who has an apple or pear-orchard must have observed that mildew of fruit supervenes after some sudden change of temperature, especially when accompanied by rain. spots of mildew invariably form on the young fruit immediately after a cold night, when the thermometer has indicated a change of twenty to twenty-five degrees. this growth of mildew takes place when the apples are of various sizes, from the earliest formation to the size of large marbles. these fungous growths appear as dark-colored spots, which arrest the growth of the apple immediately beneath, causing it to become distorted, while the expansion and contraction bring on diseased action, which results in the cracking and general scabbiness of the fruit. knowing that dry-rot (_merulius lachrymans_, schum,) another species of fungus, was remedied by an application of sulphuric acid, i thought it might possibly destroy the fruit mildew. an application of plaster, (gypsum,) which is composed of lime and sulphuric acid, was made with the happiest results. it was found that an apple dusted with ground plaster at its first formation remained free from mildew and came to maturity, while apples growing by it, but not so treated, became scabby and worthless. it was also ascertained that a thorough application of plaster destroyed the mildew after it had formed, and that such fruit came to maturity. on the potato mildew, so far as the writer's experience extends, plaster, if applied early, is a perfect prevention, and if not delayed too long after the disease appears, is a certain remedy. the vines should be watched closely, and on the first appearance of the disease plaster should be applied; not merely sowing it broadcast, but dashing it over and under the vines, bringing it in contact with the stalks, using a handful to three or four hills. plaster for this purpose should be very dry and powdery, and should be applied when the air is still. one application is seldom sufficient; it should be renewed as often as circumstances require. examine the vines about three days after a cold night, or about the same length of time after a heavy rain. if the leaves begin to curl and wither, apply plaster at once; and, in short, whenever the vines show any signs of drooping, be the cause bites of insects, excessive aridity, or excessive humidity of the atmosphere, or sudden change of temperature, drooping from any cause whatever indicates the approach of mildew, which should be promptly met with an application of plaster. as before stated, plaster the vines as soon as they are up, again after the last plowing and hoeing; after that, one, two, or three times, as circumstances indicate. by this method the vines are kept of a bright lively green, and the tubers are kept swelling until growth is stopped by frost. another point gained is, potatoes so grown are so sound and free from disease as to be easily kept for spring market without loss by rot. whether the surprising effects of plaster on the potato mildew is attributable to the sulphuric acid, to the lime, or to its simply being a dust, has not been determined. it is well known that the fruits of a vineyard or orchard in close proximity to a dusty and much frequented highway are remarkably free from mildew, which can only be due to dust settling on the trees and fruit. but in the case of plaster, the writer is inclined to believe its efficacy is mainly due to the sulphuric acid, probably assisted by the lime in a state of dust. be this as it may, it matters not. the result is all that can be desired; the remedy is easily applied, costs but a trifle, and a single season's trial is all that is needed to convince the most skeptical grower of its merits. digging and storing is full half the labor of growing and securing a crop of potatoes. digging is a long, laborious task. many small fortunes are sunk yearly by inventors in experimenting with and constructing "potato-diggers;" but, so far, no machine has done the work properly except under the most favorable circumstances. stones, vines, and weeds are obstacles not yet fully overcome. many tubers are left covered with earth, and so lost; and besides, some machines so bruise the potatoes in digging as to injure their appearance and keeping qualities. undoubtedly, the day will come when the great bulk of potatoes will be dug well and rapidly by horse-power; but until that day does come, the potato-hook must be used. much of the back-ache and general unpleasantness incident to digging is avoided, or greatly mitigated, by having the potatoes large and sound, turning out a peck to the hill, especially if the digger is the owner of the crop. digging should be done only when the ground is dry, that the potatoes may come out clean and bright. a small plow, to turn a light furrow from each side of the rows, is some help. pull up the vines, and lay them down so that they will be covered by the dirt dug from the hill. commence on one side of the hill; press the hook or hoe down, so that it will reach a trifle below the potatoes, and draw the implement firmly toward you. repeat the operation, each time placing the tool a few inches further in or across the hill, until the whole hill is dug. by this method the potatoes will not be bruised; whereas, if the digging be commenced in the centre of the hill, many potatoes will be sacrificed and much injured. potatoes should be picked up as soon and as fast as dug; and immediately covered with straw or other material, to protect them from the light. a few hours' strong sunshine will ruin the best potato ever grown. light changes the natural color to green, and renders the potato so bitter and unpalatable as to be wholly unfit to eat. owing to the inconsiderate way in which potatoes are often dug, and the light to which they are exposed while being transported to and while in market, the denizens of our cities seldom, if ever, taste this vegetable in its greatest excellence. if to be stored in the cellar, the potatoes should be left in the field, in heaps covered with straw, until the sweating is over, and then be removed to the cellar and lightly covered with dry sand, or earth, just sufficient to exclude the light. if to be buried in the field, choose a dry, sideling place; scrape out a slight hollow, by merely removing the surface soil with a hoe; into this, pile ten to twelve bushels; place the potatoes properly, and cover them carefully with clean straw, six inches deep; cover over the straw with four or five inches of earth, except a small opening at the top; over this opening place a board or flat stone, elevated a little on one side, to lead off the rain. let them remain so until the sweating is completely over, or so long as prudence will permit; and when cold weather fairly sets in, add more earth to keep from freezing, leaving only a wisp of straw protruding through to carry off any foul air that may be generated. where the winters are intensely cold, it is best to cover but lightly with earth, say five or six inches deep; and when freezing is becoming severe, spread over the heap buckwheat straw, or coarse manure, to the depth of six inches. there is danger in covering very deep at first, especially if the autumn should prove warm. if kept too warm, rot is sure to ensue. experience shows that any vegetable keeps better buried in pits that contain not more than ten or twelve bushels each. where large quantities are to be buried, it is advisable to open a long, shallow, broad trench, leading up and down a hill, if possible, to secure good drainage. commence, at either end, by placing a desirable quantity of potatoes as soon as dug; next to these put a little straw; against the straw place about six inches of earth; then more straw and more potatoes; and so keep on until the trench is full. a few furrows plowed on each side assist in covering; and make a drain to lead off the rains, which is a matter of the first importance. by this method each lot of potatoes is kept separate; and any section can be opened at any time to be taken to market, without endangering the others. potatoes buried properly are usually of better flavor in the spring than it is possible for potatoes to be which are kept in a common cellar. and here let me add that, if leaves from the woods be used instead of straw, to cover potatoes to be buried, such potatoes will be of better flavor; and further, if nothing but dry earth comes in contact with them, they will be better still. straw is used for the twofold purpose of securing an air-chamber to keep out frost, and to prevent the earth from mingling with the tubers on opening the pits. insects injurious to the potato. there are ten distinct species of insects preying upon the potato-plant within the limits of the united states. many of these ten species are confined within certain geographical limits. their habits and history differ very widely. some attack the potato both in the larva state and in the perfect or winged state; others in the perfect or winged state alone; and others again in the larva state alone. in the case of seven of these insects, there is but one single brood every year; while of the remaining three there are every year from two to three broods, each of them generated by females belonging to preceding broods. eight of the ten feed externally on the leaves and tender stems of the potato; while two of them burrow, like a borer, exclusively in the larger stalks. each of these ten species has its peculiar insect enemies; and a mode of attack which will prove very successful against some of them will often turn out to be worthless when employed against the remainder. [illustration] ~the stalk-borer~,[a] (_gortyna nitela_, guenee.)--this larva (fig. 2,) commonly burrows in the large stalks of the potato. it occurs also in the stalks of the tomato, in those of the dahlia and aster, and other garden flowers. it is sometimes found boring through the cob of growing indian corn. it is particularly partial to the stem of the common cocklebur, (_zanthium sirumarium_;) and if it would only confine itself to such noxious weeds, it might be considered more of a friend than an enemy. it is yearly becoming more numerous and more destructive. it is found over a great extent of country; and is particularly numerous in the valley of the mississippi north of the ohio river. the larva of the stalk-borer moth leaves the stalk in which it burrowed about the latter part of july, and descends a little below the surface of the earth, where in about three days it changes into the pupa, or chrysalis state. [footnote a: where no hair-lines are given, the insects are represented life-size.] the winged insect (fig. 1,) which belongs to the same extensive group of moths (_noctua_ family, or owlet moths) to which all the cut-worm moths appertain, emerges from under ground from the end of august to the middle of september. hence it is evident that some few, at all events, of the female moths must live through the winter, in obscure places, to lay eggs upon the plants they infest the following spring; for otherwise, as there is no young potato, or other plants, for them to lay eggs upon in the autumn, the whole breed would die out in a single year. this insect, in sections where it is numerous, does more injury to the potato crop than is generally supposed. ~the potato-stalk weevil,~ (_baridius trinotatus_, say.)--this insect is more particularly a southern species, occurring abundantly in the middle states, and in the southern parts of missouri, illinois, and indiana. it appears to be totally unknown in new-england. the female of this beetle deposits a single egg in an oblong slit, about one eighth of an inch long, which it has previously formed with its beak in the stalk of the potato. the larva subsequently hatches out, and bores into the heart of the stalk, always proceeding downward toward the root. when full grown, it is a little more than one fourth of an inch in length, and is a soft, whitish, legless grub, with a scaly head. hence it can always be readily distinguished from the larva of the stalk-borer, which has invariably sixteen legs, no matter how small it may be. unlike this last insect, it becomes a pupa in the interior of the potato-stalk which it inhabits: and it comes out in the beetle state about the last of august or beginning of september. the stalk inhabited by the larva wilts and dies. the perfect beetle, like many other snout-beetles, must of course live through the winter, to reproduce its species the following spring. in southern pennsylvania, some years, nearly every stalk of extensive fields is infested by this insect, causing the premature decay of the vines, and giving them the appearance of having been scalded. in some districts of illinois, the potato crop has, in some seasons, been utterly ruined by this snout-beetle, many vines having a dozen larvã¦ in them. this insect attacks no plant but the potato. ~the potato-worm~, (_sphinx 5-maculata_, haworth.)--this well-known insect, the larva of which (fig. 3,) is usually called the potato-worm, is more common on the closely allied tomato, the leaves of which it often clears off very completely in particular spots in a single night. when full-fed, which is usually about the last of august, the potato-worm burrows under the ground, and shortly afterward transforms into the pupa state, (fig. 5.) the pupa is often dug up in the spring from the ground where tomatoes or potatoes were grown in the preceding season, and most persons that meet with it suppose that the singular jug-handled appendage at one end of it is its _tail_. in reality, however, it is the _tongue-case_, and contains the long, pliable tongue which the future moth will employ in lapping the nectar of flowers. the moth itself (fig. 4) was formerly confounded with the tobacco-worm moth, (_sphinx carolina_, linnã¦us,) which it very closely resembles, having the same series of orange-colored spots on each side of the abdomen. the gray and black markings, however, of the wings differ perceptibly in the two species; and in the tobacco-worm moth there is always a more or less faint white spat, or a dot, near the centre of the front wing, which is never met with in the other species. the potato-worm often feeds on the leaves of the tobacco plant in the northern states. in the southern states, in mexico and the west-indies, the true potato-worm is unknown, and it is the tobacco-worm that the tobacco-grower has to fight. the potato-worm, however, is never known to injure the potato crop to any serious extent. ~the striped blister-beetle~, (_lytta vittata_, fabr.) this insect (fig. 6) is almost exclusively a southern species, occurring in some years very abundantly on the potato-vines in southern illinois, and also in missouri, and according to dr. harris, it is occasionally found even in new-england. in some specimens the broad outer black stripe on the wing-cases is divided lengthwise by a slender yellow line, so that, instead of _two_, there are _three_ black stripes on each wing-case; and often in the same field may be noticed all the intermediate grades; thus proving that the four-striped individuals do not form a distinct species, as was supposed by the european entomologist fabricius, but are mere varieties of the same species to which the sixth-striped individual appertains. the striped blister-beetle lives under ground and feeds upon various roots during the larva state, and emerges to attack the foliage of the potato only when it has passed into the perfect or beetle state. this insect, in common with our other blister-beetles, has the same properties as the imported spanish fly, and any of them will raise just as good a blister as that does, and are equally poisonous when taken internally in large doses. where the striped blister-beetle is numerous, it is a great pest and very destructive to the potato crop. it eats the leaves so full of holes that the plant finally dies from loss of sap and the want of sufficient leaves to elaborate its juices. in some places they are driven off the plants (with bushes) on a pile of hay or straw, and burned. some have been successful in ridding their fields of them by placing straw or hay between the rows of potatoes, and then setting it on fire. the insects, it is said, by this means are nearly all destroyed, and the straw burning very quickly, does not injure the vines. ~the ash-gray blister-beetle~, (_lytta cinera_, fabr.)--this species (fig. 7, male) is the one commonly found in the more northerly parts of the northern states, where it usually takes the place of the striped blister-beetle before mentioned. it is of a uniform ash-gray color. it attacks not only the potato-vines but also the honey locusts, and especially the windsor bean. in particular years it has been known, in conjunction with the rose-bug, (_macrodactylus subspinosus_, linn.,) to swarm upon every apple-tree in some orchards in illinois, not only eating the foliage, but gnawing into the young apples. this beetle does considerable damage to the potato crop, especially in the north-western states. like the other members of the (_lytta_) family, it lives under ground while in the larva state, and is troublesome only when in the perfect or winged state. ~the black-rat blister-beetle~, (_lytta murina_, le conte.)--this species (fig. 8,) is entirely black. there is a very similar species, the black blister-beetle, (_lytta atrata_, fabr.,) from which the black-rat blister-beetle is distinguishable only by having four raised lines placed lengthwise upon each wing-case, and by the two first joints of the antennã¦ being greatly dilated and lengthened in the males, of the lath species. it is asserted by some authors that the black blister-beetle is injurious to the potato; but i can not see how it could do much damage to that crop, as the perfect insect does not appear until late in august, when the potato crop is nearly out of its reach. not so, however, with the black-rat blister-beetle, which is on hand ready for business early in the season. this insect does considerable damage to the potato in iowa, and neighboring states; it is also found, though in not so great numbers, throughout the whole of the northern states. ~the margined blister-beetle~, (_lytta marginata_, fabr.)--this species (fig. 9) maybe at once recognized by its general black color, and the ash-gray edging to its wing-cases. it usually feeds on certain wild plants, but does not object to a diet of potato-leaves. though found over a large extent of country, it seldom appears in numbers large enough to damage the potato crop materially. like other blister-beetles, it goes under ground to pass into the pupa state, and attacks the potato only when it is in the perfect or winged state. ~the three-lined leaf-beetle~, (_lema trilineata_, olivier.) the larva of the three-lined leaf-beetle may be distinguished from all other insects which prey upon the potato by its habit of covering itself with its own excrement. in figure 10, _a_, this larva is shown in profile, both full and half grown, covered with the soft, greenish excrementitious matter which from time to time it discharges. figure 10, _c_, gives a somewhat magnified view of the pupa, and figure 10, _b_, shows the last few joints of the abdomen of the larva, magnified and viewed from above. the vent of the larva, as will be seen from this last figure, is situated on the upper surface of the last joint, so that its excrement naturally falls upon its back, and by successive discharges is crowded forward toward its head, till the whole upper surface is covered with it. there are several other larva, feeding upon other plants, which wear cloaks of this strange material. many authors suppose that the object of the larva in all these cases is to protect itself from the heat of the sun. in all probability the real aim of nature in the case of all these larvã¦ is to defend them from the attacks of birds and of cannibal and parasitic insects. there are two broods of this insect every year. the first brood of larvã¦ may be found on the potato-vine toward the latter end of june, and the second in august. the first brood stays under ground about a fortnight before it emerges in the perfect beetle state, and the second brood stays under ground all winter, and only emerges at the beginning of the following june. the perfect beetle (fig. 11) is of a pale yellow color, with three black stripes on its back, and bears a strong resemblance to the cucumber-bug, (_diabrotica vittata_, fabr. fig. 12.) from this last species, however, it may be distinguished by its somewhat larger size, and by the remarkable pinching-in of the thorax, so as to make quite a lady-like waist there, or what naturalists call a "constriction." the female, after coupling, lays her yellow eggs (fig. 10,_d_) on the under surface of the leaves of the potato plant. the larvã¦ hatching, when full grown descend into the ground, where they transform to pupã¦ (fig. 10, _c_) within a small oval chamber, from which in time the perfect beetle emerges. this insect in certain seasons is a great pest in the eastern and middle states, but has never yet occurred in the mississippi valley in such numbers as to be materially injurious. ~the cucumber flea beetle~, (_haltica cucumeris_, harris.) this nimble minute beetle (fig. 13) belongs to the flea-beetles, (_haltica_ family,) the same sub-group of the leaf-beetles (_phytophaga_) to which also appertains the notorious steel-blue flea-beetle (_haltica chalybea_, illiger) that is such a pest to the vineyardist. like all the rest of the flea-beetles, it has its hind thighs greatly enlarged, which enables it to jump with much agility. it is not peculiar to the potato, but infests a great variety of plants, including the cucumber, from which it derives its name. it eats minute round holes in the leaf of the plant it infests, but does not always penetrate entirely through it. the larva feeds internally upon the substance of the leaf, and goes under ground to assume the pupa state. it passes through all its stages in about a month, and there are two or three broods of them in the course of the same season. this is emphatically the greatest insect pest that the potato-grower has to contend with in pennsylvania. it abounds throughout most of the northern, middle, and western states. large fields of potatoes can any summer be seen in the middle states much injured by this minute insect, every leaf apparently completely riddled with minute round holes, and the stalks and leaves appearing yellow and seared. plaster frequently and bountifully applied is sure to prevent the attacks of this insect, or to disperse it after it has commenced operations. ~the colorado potato-bug~, (_doryphora_ 10--_lineata_, say.)--this insect, which, according to dr. walsh, has in the north-west alone damaged the potato crop to the amount of one million seven hundred and fifty thousand dollars, came originally from the rocky mountains, where it was found forty-five years ago, feeding on a wild species of potato peculiar to that region, (_solanum rostratum_, dunal.) when civilization marched up the rocky mountains, and potatoes began to be grown in that region, this highly improved pest acquired the habit of feeding upon the cultivated potato. it went from potato-patch to potato-patch, moving east-ward at the rate of about sixty miles a year, and is now firmly established over all the country extending from indiana to its old feeding-grounds in the rocky mountains. in about twelve years it will have reached the atlantic coast. there is another very closely allied species, known as the bogus colorado potato-bug, (_coryphora juncta_, germor,) which has existed throughout a great part of the united states from time immemorial. this latter insect, however, feeds almost exclusively on the horse-nettle, (_solanum carolinense_, linn.,) and is never known to injure the potato. both insects are figured, so that one need not be mistaken for the other. figure 14, _b_, _b_, _b_, gives a view of the larva of the true colorado potato-bug, in various positions and stages of its existence. figure 15, _b_, _b_, of that of the bogus colorado potato-bug. it will be seen at once that the head of the former is black, and the first joint behind the head is pale and edged with black behind only; that there is a double row of black spots along the side of the body; and that the legs are black. in the other larva, (fig. 15, _b_,) on the contrary, the head is of a pale color, the first joint behind the head is tinged with dusk and edged all round with black; there is but a single row of spots along the side of the body, and the legs are pale. figure 14, _d_, _d_, exhibits the true colorado potato-bug; figure 15, the bogus colorado potato-bug; each of its natural size. figure 14, _e_, shows the _left_ wing-case enlarged, and figure 15, _e_, an enlarged leg of the latter. on a close inspection, it will be perceived that in the former (fig. 14, _e_) the boundary of each dark stripe on the wing-cases toward the middle is studded with confused and irregular punctures, partly inside and partly outside the edge of the dark stripe; that it is the third and fourth dark stripes, counting from the outside, that are united behind, and that both the knees and feet are black. in figure 15, _d_, on the contrary, it is the second and third stripes--not the third and fourth--counting from the outside, that are united behind, and the leg is entirely pale, except a black spot on the middle of the front of the thigh. the eggs (fig. 14, _a_, _a_, and fig. 15, _d_, _d_) are yellow, and are always laid on the under side of the leaf in patches of from twenty to thirty; those of the bogus are of a lighter color. each female of the true colorado potato-bug lays, according to dr. schirmer, about seven hundred eggs. in about six days the eggs hatch into larvã¦, which feed on the foliage of the potato plant about seventeen days; they then descend to the ground, where they change into pupã¦ at the surface of the earth. the perfect beetle appears about ten to fourteen days after the pupa is formed, begins to pair in about seven days, and on the fourteenth day begins to deposit her eggs. there are three broods of this insect every year. neither geese, ducks, turkeys, nor barn-yard fowl will touch the larva of the colorado potato-bug when it is offered to them, and there are numerous authentic cases on record where persons who have scalded to death quantities of these larvã¦, and inhaled the fumes of their bodies, have been taken seriously ill, and even been confined to their beds for many days in consequence. it is also reported to have produced poisonous effects on several persons who handled them incautiously with naked hands. various plans have been tried to destroy this persistent enemy of the potato plant. powdered hellebore is said to have been used with effect as a means of destroying the pest. it should be dusted on and under the foliage when the plant is wet with dew. hellebore, however, is a dangerous remedy on account of its poisonous qualities. a mixture of one part salt, ten parts soap, and twenty parts water, applied to every part of the plants with a syringe, is quite effectual. several cannibal and one parasitic insect are known to prey upon the larva of the colorado potato-bug, and the eggs in vast numbers are eaten by several species of lady-birds and their larva. general remarks on insects. the time is not far distant when the american farmer will be obliged to put forth greater efforts to destroy noxious insects than he has hitherto. it is a well-known fact that noxious insects are increasing in a rapid rate throughout every part of our land. the country is becoming so "buggy" that eternal vigilance is the price of every thing produced from the soil. close observers calculate that more fruits of various kinds and varieties are annually destroyed or rendered worthless by insects than are gathered and used by man. the cotton-worm, the wheat-midge, the canker-worms, the potato-bugs, are each every year increasing in numbers and destructiveness. the "curculio" alone destroys millions of dollars' worth of fruit annually. it is a safe estimate, all things considered, that, if noxious insects of all descriptions could at once be annihilated throughout our country, and mildews of various classes be effectually held in check, the cost of living to our people would, in-a short time, be reduced to one third of its present amount. it is disheartening to see what a vast amount of grains, fruits, and vegetables is annually eaten up by the larvã¦, or appropriated by the perfect insects of various classes, merely for the sake of propagating their abominable species. yet, in view of all the devastation, but feeble effort is made to abate the evil. birds, many species of which nature seemingly designed on purpose to keep insects in check, are wantonly shot by lazy boys and indolent men, who range the fields and forests, killing all, from the humming-bird to the crow. legislative enactments made expressly to protect the insectivorous songsters are every day violated with impunity. one man plants an orchard and does all he can to destroy noxious insects; another man near him also has an orchard, but his orchard serves no purpose but to propagate "curculios," "canker-worms," "bark-lice," "tent caterpillars," "codling moths," etc., for his neighbors, and, as a matter of course, the whole neighborhood swarms with noxious insects. if all cultivators would act in concert and with a will, insects might be reduced in numbers very rapidly. most moths of night-flying insects are attracted to and destroyed by small bonfires kindled in still evenings during the summer months. bottles half-filled with sweetened water, hung here and there, will trap countless bugs. strong soap-suds applied immediately after they hatch is a sure remedy for plant lice. molasses and water, to which a little arsenic has been added, placed in shallow dishes among the vines, is good medicine for potato-bugs, and all bugs in general. a lighted lamp placed in the centre of a common milk-pan, partly filled with water, the whole elevated a few feet from the ground, will, on a still evening, attract and destroy the wheat-midge and similar insects in great numbers. the calculations of the "curculio" and "codling moth" are brought to naught by turning hogs into the orchard to eat the stung fruit as it falls, and the larva that depastures upon the leaves of the current and gooseberry is destroyed by syringing the plants with a mixture of soap, salt, and water. value of the potato as cattle food. the constituents of the potato are according to different authorities, as follows: water 75.2 casein 1.4 starch 15.5 dextrine 0.4 sugar 3.2 fat 0.2 fibre 3.2 mineral matter 0.9 or economically: water 75.2 flesh-formers 1.4 fat-formers 18.9 accessories 3.6 mineral matter 0.9 of the high value of potatoes, when used in connection with other food, there is not a shadow of doubt. all experimenters and observers in the economy of food agree in saying that they are of the highest utility; but they must be used with other food whose constituents are different from those of the root. the analysis shows that potatoes surpass in the fat-producing principles the nutritious or flesh-forming in such proportions that they could not alone sustain the composition of the blood; for an animal fed alone on these tubers would be obliged to consume such quantities to provide the blood with the requisite proportion of albumen that, even if the process of digestion were not discontinued, there would be a superabundance of fat accumulated beyond the power of the oxygen to consume, which would successively absorb from the albuminous substance a part of its vital elements, and thus a check would be caused in the endless change of matter in the tissues in the nutritive and regressive transformations. potatoes, then, to be of most value as food for cattle, should be fed in connection with grain, or with other roots in which the flesh-forming element predominates. there seems to be no doubt that the tubers are of most value when cooked, although some authors affirm to the contrary. it seems possible to prove this on philosophical principles; for it is well known that the starch contained in the potato is incapable of affording nourishment until the containing globules are broken, and one of the most efficient means of doing this seems to be by heat. boussingault, in speaking of the economy of cooking potatoes, says, "the potato is frequently steamed or boiled first; yet i can say positively that horned cattle do extremely well upon raw potatoes, and at bechelbrunn our cows never have them otherwise than raw. they are never boiled, save for horses and hogs. the best mode of dealing with them is to steam them; they need never be so thoroughly boiled as when they are to serve for the food of man. the steamed or boiled potatoes are crushed between two rollers, or simply broken with a wooden spade, and mixed with cut hay or straw or chaff, before being served out. it may not be unnecessary to observe that by steaming potatoes lose no weight; hence we conclude that the nutritive equivalent for the boiled is the same as that of the raw tuber. "nevertheless, it is possible that the amylaceous principle is rendered more easily assimilable by boiling, and that by this means the tubers actually become more nutritious. some have proposed to roast potatoes in the oven, and there can be little question that heated in this way they answer admirably for fattening hogs, and even oxen. done in the oven, potatoes may be brought to a state in which they may perfectly supply the place of corn in feeding horses and other cattle." the apparent contradiction in the remarks will be observed; but the evident leaning in favor of cooked potatoes shows that boussingault, although paying some attention to the theory that cooked food is not generally attended with the same benefit to ruminating as to other animals, was evidently almost convinced that those which contained an abundance of starch in their constituents must be rendered more nutritious when exposed to the action of heat. potatoes fed in a raw state to stock are laxative in their effects, and are often given to horses as a medicine in cases of "hidebound" with decided benefit. bots, which have been known to live twenty-four hours immersed in spirits of turpentine, die almost instantly when placed in potato-juice; hence a common practice with horsemen, where bots are suspected, is to first administer milk and molasses to decoy the parasites from the coating of the stomach, and then drench the animal with the expressed juice of potatoes. a decoction made by boiling the parings of potatoes in a small quantity of water is often used as a wash to kill vermin on cattle. raw potatoes, fed occasionally and in small quantities, are a good tonic for stock of any kind which is kept principally on hay; but all experiments show that when the potato is used for fattening purposes, the tubers should in some way be cooked, that the animal to which they are fed may derive from them the greatest possible amount of nutriment. repeated experiments demonstrate the fact that horned cattle or hogs lay on as much fat from the consumption of two thirds of a given quantity of potatoes properly cooked as they will by eating the entire quantity in a raw state. in point of nutriment as cattle-food, two pounds of potatoes are considered equivalent to one pound of hay. how to cook the potato. furnished by prof. pierre blot, of brooklyn. at the suggestion of a number of friends, i addressed the following note to professor blot, which, with his reply, is appended: professor pierre blot: new-york, feb. 15, 1870. dear sir: in connection with a prize essay on the cultivation of the potato, i wish to publish an article on cooking the potato, to be taken from your _hand-book of practical cookery_. i write this note to ask whether i can do this with your entire approval. hoping that such article may aid our american housekeepers to prepare the potato for the table in a more palatable and wholesome manner, i remain yours very truly, w. t. wylie. brooklyn, central kitchen, feb. 15, 1870. rev. w. t. wylie: dear sir: ~you are authorized, with the greatest pleasure.~ p. blot. in accordance with the above authority, the following selections have been made from the book named: ~to select.~--as a general rule, the smaller the eye the better the potatoes. by cutting off a piece from the larger end, you ascertain if they are sound; they must be white, reddish, bluish, etc., according to the species. if spotted, they are not sound, and therefore very inferior. there are several kinds, and all of them are good when sound or coming from a proper soil. use the kind you prefer, or those that are better fit for the way they are intended to be served. ~to boil.~--being naturally watery, potatoes should never be cooked by boiling except when wanted very white, as for _croquettes_. when boiled whole, put them of an even size as much as possible, in order to cook them evenly. they are better, more mealy, when steamed or baked; but those who have no steamer must, of course, boil them. cover them with cold water, set on the fire and boil till done, then pour off all the water, put the pan back on a slow fire for five minutes and well covered; then use the potatoes. ~to steam.~--place them above a kettle of boiling water, in a kind of drainer made for that purpose, and adapted to the kettle. the drainer must be covered tight. they cook as fast as by boiling, the degree of heat being the same. when steamed the skin is very easily removed. ~to prepare.~--if they are to be boiled, or steamed, or baked, it is only necessary to wash them. if wanted peeled, as for frying, etc., then commence by cutting off the germs or eyes; if young and tender, take the skin off with a scrubbing-brush, and drop immediately in cold water to keep them white; if old, scrape the skin off with a knife, for the part immediately under the skin contains more nutriment than the middle, and drop in cold water also. if wanted cut, either in dice, or like carpels of oranges, or any other way, cut them above a bowl of cold water, so that they drop into it; for if kept exposed to the air, they turn reddish and lose their nutritive qualities. ~a l'allemande.~--steam, peel, and slice the potatoes. cut some bread in thin slices, and fry bread and potatoes with a little butter, and turn the whole in a bowl, dust well with sugar, pour a little milk all over, and bake for about fifteen minutes; serve warm. ~a l'anglaise.~--steam or boil about a quart of potatoes, and then peel and slice them. put two ounces of butter in a frying-pan on the fire, and put the potatoes in when melted, toss them for about ten minutes, add salt, pepper, a little grated nutmeg, and serve hot. ~broiled.~--steam, peel, and slice the potatoes. lay the slices on a gridiron, and place it over a rather slow fire; have melted butter, and spread some over the slices of potatoes with a brush; as soon as the under part is broiled, turn each slice over and spread butter over the other side. when done, dish, salt, and serve them hot. a little butter may be added when dished, according to taste. ~fried.~--to be fried, the potatoes are cut either with a vegetable spoon, in fillets, in slices, with a scalloped knife, or with an ordinary one, or cut in pieces like carpels of oranges, or even in dice. when cut, drain and wipe them dry. this must be done quickly, so as not to allow the potatoes to turn reddish. have a coarse towel ready, then turn the potatoes into a colander, and immediately turn them in the towel, shake them a little, and quickly drop them in hot fat. when done, turn them into a colander, sprinkle salt on them, and serve hot. bear in mind that fried potatoes must be eaten as hot as possible. fry only one size at a time, as it takes three times as long to fry them when cut in pieces as when sliced or cut in fillets. ~to fry them light or swelled.~--when fried, turn into the colander, and have the fat over a brisk fire; leave the potatoes in the colander only about half a minute, then put them back in the very hot fat, stir for about one minute, and put them again in the colander, salt them, and serve hot. if the fat is very hot, when dropped into it for the second time they will certainly swell; there is no other way known to do it. it is as easily done as it is simple. potatoes cut in fillets and fried are sometimes called _ã  la parisienne_; when cut in slices or with a vegetable spoon, they are called _ã  la franã§aise_. potatoes cut with a vegetable spoon and fried, make a good as well as a sightly decoration for a dish of meat or of fish. they may be fried in oil also, but it is more expensive than in fat. they may be fried in butter also, but it is still more expensive than oil, and is not better than fat; no matter what kind of fat is used, be it lard, beef suet, or skimmings of sauces and gravy, it can not be tasted. ~lyonnaise.~--potatoes _lyonnaise_ are prepared according to taste, that is, as much onion as liked is used, either in slices or chopped. if you have not any cold potatoes, steam or boil some, let them cool, and peel and slice them. for about a quart of potatoes, put two ounces of butter in a frying-pan on the fire, and when melted put as much onion as you please, either sliced or chopped, into the pan, and fry it till about half done, when add the potatoes and again two ounces of butter; salt, pepper, and stir and toss gently till the potatoes are all fried of a fine, light-brown color. it may require more butter, as no vegetable absorbs more than potatoes. ~mashed.~--peel and quarter about three pints of potatoes, as directed; put them in a saucepan with more water than is necessary to cover them, and a little salt; set on the fire and boil gently till done, drain, put them back in the saucepan, mash them well and mix them with two ounces of butter, two yolks of eggs, salt, pepper, and milk enough to make them of a proper thickness. set on the fire for two or three minutes, stirring the while, and serve warm. when on the dish, smooth them with the back of a knife or scallop them, according to fancy. ~mashed and baked.~--put two ounces of butter in a stewpan and set it on the fire; when hot, add a tea-spoonful of parsley chopped fine, and a little salt; five minutes after, put in it a quart of potatoes, prepared, cooked, peeled, and mashed, as directed; then pour on the whole, little by little, stirring continually with a wooden spoon, a pint of good milk; and when the whole is well mixed, and becoming rather thick, take from the fire, place on the dish, then set in a brisk oven for five minutes, and serve. ~sautees.~--take a quart of young and tender potatoes, peel them with a brush, and cut in slices. put two ounces of butter in a frying-pan on a quick fire; when hot, put the potatoes in, and fry them till of a golden color; place them on a dish without any butter, sprinkle chopped parsley and salt on, and serve. they may also be served without parsley, according to taste. ~soufflees.~--steam a quart of potatoes, then peel and mash them in a saucepan and mix an ounce of butter with them; set on the fire, pour into it, little by little, stirring the while, about half a pint of milk, stir a little longer after the milk is in and until they are turning rather thick; dish the potatoes, smooth or scallop them with the back of a knife, and put them in a quick oven till of a proper color, and serve. ~in cakes.~--prepare and cook by steam a quart and a half of potatoes, peel and mash them; mix with them the yolks of five eggs, half a lemon-rind grated, and four ounces of fine white sugar. put four ounces of butter in a stewpan and set it on the fire; when melted, put the mixture in, stirring it with a wooden spoon continually; as soon as it is in the stewpan, add the whites of the five eggs, well beaten; leave on the fire only the time necessary to mix the whole well together, and take off; when nearly cold, add, if handy, and while stirring, a few drops of orange-flower water; it gives a very good flavor; then put the whole in a tin mould greased a little with butter; place in a quick oven for about thirty-five minutes, and serve. ~with butter, or english fashion.~--put water on the fire with considerable salt in it; at the first boil, drop a quart of washed potatoes in and boil till done, when take off, peel, and put them whole in a saucepan, with butter, salt, pepper, and a little nutmeg; set on a rather slow fire, stirring gently now and then till they have absorbed all the butter. serve warm. they absorb a great deal of butter. ~with bacon or salt pork.~--peel and quarter about a quart of potatoes. set a saucepan on the fire with about four ounces of fat salt pork cut in dice in it. when fried, put the potatoes in. season with a bunch of seasonings composed of two sprigs of parsley, one of thyme, and a bay-leaf; salt and pepper to taste, and about half a pint of broth or water. boil gently till cooked, remove the bunch of seasonings; skim off the fat, if any, and serve warm. it is served at breakfast, as well as _entremets_ for dinner. ~with cream or milk.~--peel and mash a quart of potatoes, when prepared and cooked. put two ounces of butter in a stewpan and set it on a good fire; when melted, sprinkle in it a tea-spoonful of flour, same of chopped parsley, a pinch of grated nutmeg, and salt; stir with a wooden spoon five minutes; then add the potatoes, and half a pint of milk or cream; keep stirring ten minutes longer, take from the fire, sprinkle in them half a table-spoonful of sugar, and serve as warm as possible. ~with white sauce.~--clean, wash, and throw a quart of potatoes in boiling water, with a sprig of thyme, two onions, a bay-leaf, two sprigs of sweet basil, two cloves, salt, and pepper; when cooked, take the potatoes out carefully, peel and cut them in two, place them on a warm dish, pour on them a white sauce, and serve warm. the potato: illustrations and descriptions. we propose to add a few pages of illustrations of the new varieties, together with descriptions of the same. a number of these were given in the pamphlet issued last year, and are reproduced from that. in case a new edition is called for, it is likely that a number of additional cuts will be added to it. we would call attention to the report of a series of experiments which have been made on the farms connected with the agricultural college of pennsylvania. there are very many questions connected with the cultivation of the potato which can be answered satisfactorily only by careful and repeated experiments. [illustration: excelsior.] seedling of early goodrich, now six years old, and is claimed to combine more good qualities than any other potato. d. s. heffron, of utica, originated it. is said to be productive, early, and of good keeping qualities. massasoit.--a new variety from western massachusetts, resembling the harrison in appearance, but earlier and of much better quality; flesh white, cooks dry and mealy, and altogether a superior variety; strongly recommended for a general crop. (see next page.) bellefonte, february 12, 1870. rev. w. t. wylie: dear sir: i inclose an extract from the report, suitable, i think, for the pamphlet. h. n. mcallister. agricultural college of pennsylvania. from an interesting and instructive report of the professor of agriculture to the board of trustees of the agricultural college of pennsylvania, for 1869, in relation to the results of experiments made upon the three several experimental farms connected with that institution, we make the following extracts touching the potato, verifying and illustrating some of the principles set forth in the above essay: _1st.--varieties._ of upward of thirty different varieties experimented upon, the early goodrich, early rose, and harrison are among the best and most prolific. like weights of seed upon equal areas of ground. _2d.--different modes of preparing the seed._ central farm.--one fourth of plot no. 11--early goodrich--_cut tubers_, yields 500 pounds, equal to 286 bushels per acre; _large and whole tubers_, yields 410 pounds, equal to 234 bushels per acre; _medium-sized tubers_, yields 419 pounds, equal to 239 bushels per acre; and _small tubers_, yields 486 pounds, equal to 278 bushels per acre. _3d.--combined diversity between soil and sub-soil and common plowing._ central farm.--the 4 plots, nos. 11, 16, 116, and 416--_soil and subsoil plowing_--yields 6200 pounds, equal to 221 bushels per acre; the 2 plots, nos. 216 and 316--_common plowing_--yields 1845 pounds, equal to but 131 bushels per acre. _4th.--diversity between letting all sprouts grow and thinning to three in each hill._. eastern farm.--plot no. 208: monitors; large and whole tubers, 21-1/2 pounds; _not thinned_; moro philips's superphosphate; yield 1174 pounds, equal to 168 bushels per acre. plot no. 209: monitors; large and whole tubers, 23 pounds; _thinned_; moro philips's superphosphate; yield 1042 pounds, equal to 149 bushels per acre. plot no. 210: monitors; large and whole tubers, 15 pounds; _not thinned_; stable manure; yield 860 pounds, equal to 124 bushels per acre. plot no. 211: monitors; large and whole tubers, 14-1/2 pounds; _thinned_; stable manure; yield 839 pounds, equal to 119 bushels per acre. _5th.--diversity from time of cutting the seed-potatoes._. plot no. 222: monitors; _cut two weeks before planting_; yield 580 pounds, equal to 83 bushels per acre. plot 223: monitors; _cut at time of planting_; yield 819 pounds, equal to 117 bushels per acre. plot 220: early shaw; _cut two weeks before planting_; yield 764 pounds, equal to 100 bushels per acre. plot 221: early shaw; _cut at time of planting_; yield 907 pounds, equal to 129 bushels per acre. [illustration: massasoit.] [illustration] bresee's peerless, or no. 6. the latest and best of all mr. bresee's seedlings for the main crop. this is also a seedling of the garnet chili, and originated from the same seed-ball as the early rose; skin dull white, occasionally russeted; eyes shallow, oblong; flesh white, mealy; grows to a large size, often weighing from one and a half to two pounds, and enormously productive. at a trial before a committee of the massachusetts horticultural society, in september last, this variety obtained more votes as to quality than any other of bresee's seedlings. table of experiments. try it and report results. lbs. two pounds large-sized potatoes, planted whole 00 " " " " cut into quarters 00 " " " " cut to single eyes 00 " " " " cut to single eyes and planted four in a hill 00 " " " " planted in drills, fifteen inches between the sets, 00 two pounds small potatoes, planted whole 00 " " " cut in two pieces 00 two pounds cut to single eye, and worked in ridges 00 " " " the surface kept flat 00 to these add such other experiments as may be interesting to you. _weigh_ the product of each carefully, and report _weight_, _average_, _size_ of each lot, and _quality_. [illustration] _brezee's king of the earlies._ raised, in 1862, by albert brezee, of hubbardton, vt., from a ball of the garnet chili. vines of medium height, or a little less, and bearing no balls; leaves large; tubers large and handsome, roundish and slightly flattened; eyes small, and somewhat pinkish; skin flesh-colored, or dull pinkish white; flesh white, cooks well, and is of the best quality for the table. has proven thus far very hardy. the variety will not be sent out until the spring of 1870. [illustration] the early mohawk potato. originated in michigan, in 1866, from a cross of the peachblow and brick eye. it is of oblong, roundish shape, flattened at the ends. skin light pink, with pink blush near the eye. eyes slightly sunken, flesh white, cooks dry and mealy, and of superior flavor. ripens from six to ten days earlier than the rose, of uniform large size and but few small ones, and perfectly free from core or hollow heart, and a superior winter and spring variety. [illustration] _brezee's prolific._ this variety originated with albert brezee, esq., of hubbardton, vt., in 1861. mr. brezee was the originator of the early rose, the seed producing both that and brezee's prolific being from the same seed-ball, and both are seedlings of the garnet chili. the vines of brezee's prolific are of medium height, quite bushy, and somewhat spreading, and with very large leaves; as yet they have produced no seed-balls. tubers large, regular in shape, and very smooth, slightly oblong, and very much flattened; skin dull white, inclined to be russeted; eyes but little depressed and slightly pinkish; flesh white, rarely if ever hollow; cooks quickly, and is very mealy and of excellent quality. yield very large, maturing three weeks later than the early rose. * * * * * _rules worth observing._--an experienced cultivator says, "my experience leads me to lay down the following as _safe rules_: "i. as early as possible, _lay your plans_ for the next season's planting, and manure and work your ground accordingly, in advance. "ii. secure the _best seed_, even if it cost you two or five times as much as a common and less valuable sort. "iii. _always_ get a new, improved variety, as soon as it has been tested and proved. _remember_ the profit is mainly made by the early cultivators. when it gets so common that _you_ can buy cheap, you will have to _sell_ cheap, too. "iv. buy only from reliable dealers, and _be sure_ you get the _genuine_ article. "v. buy, or at least order, if you possibly can, in the fall or winter; you thus save the spring rise of prices. "vi. liberal outlay for _seed, manure, tools, and work_ gives ten-fold the largest return in money, as well as satisfaction." [illustration] the gleason. also a seedling of 1860, of the pink eye rusty coat, no. 15, which it closely resembles. when two years old, mr. goodrich described it thus: "longish, rusty, coppery; leaves and vines dark green; flowers white; a very hopeful sort." september 29th, 1863, at digging time, he added: "very nice; many in the hill; no disease." the two seasons, 1865 and 1866, under dr. gray's cultivation, this variety yielded at the rate of four hundred bushels to the acre, being more productive than the parent. this variety gives the best satisfaction. the tubers are not overgrown, but numerous; have fine-grained, solid flesh, that cooks white. for winter use this kind is excellent. it is a good keeper, and has a fine, rich flavor, especially when baked. [illustration] _willard._ j. j. h. gregory says of this potato: "the willard is a seedling from the early goodrich. it proves to be a half early variety, enormously productive, and is a potato of good promise. it is of a rich rose color, spotted and splashed with white. the flesh is white." [illustration] the early rose. "it is a seedling of the garnet chili, that was originated in 1861, by albert brezee, esq., an intelligent farmer of hortonville, vt. i have experimented with it for three years, and have been so well pleased with it that i have purchased all mr. brezee could spare for the last two years, and have engaged the whole of his small crop for another year. "it has a stout, erect stalk, of medium height; large leaves; flowers freely; bears no fruit. the tuber is quite smooth, nearly cylindrical, varying to flattish at the centre, tapering gradually toward each end. eyes shallow, but sharp and strongly marked. skin thin, tough, of a dull bluish color. flesh white, solid, and brittle; rarely hollow; boils through quickly; is very mealy, and of the best table quality. it is as healthy and productive as the early goodrich, matures about ten days earlier, and is its superior for the table. the cut is a good outline of this beautiful and excellent sort. "i consider it the most promising very early potato with which i am acquainted, and i have tried nearly all the early sorts of the country." * * * * * _~how to double your crop, when you have new and rare kinds.~_--in an ordinary hot-bed or cold frame, put some six inches of good, loose, rich soil; split your potato, and lay it cut side down about three inches under the surface. when the sprouts are four or five inches high, lift the potato, slip off the sprouts, and plant them. you can then cut the tuber into single eyes, and plant as usual. the crop from the sprouts will ripen two weeks before the others. i made $40 this year by trying this with a _handful_ of potatoes. every reader is welcome to it, and may make as much or more than i did, if he secures a few pounds of the newer and costly but valuable kinds. w. _early goodrich._ a seedling of the cusco of 1860. in 1862, mr. goodrich described it: "round to longish; sometimes a crease at the insertion of the root; white; flowers bright lilac; (produces) many balls; yield large. table quality is already very good. this sort is no. 1 every way." he said to me in the spring of 1864: "this early sort gives me more satisfaction than any other i have ever grown." this variety ripens as early as the ashleaf kidney; on rich soil yields from 250 to 350 bushels per acre; has never shown any disease; is white-fleshed, and of superior quality. the above description by d. s. heffron is fully sustained by my experience. i noticed at dinner to-day, (nov. 17th,) every potato in a large dishful had cracked its skin, and from most of them the skin had peeled itself half off. w. * * * * * _rev. w. f. dixon_, of pine grove, gives the results of his experience in the following note: "pine grove, mercer co., pa., september 20, 1868. "a year ago last spring, a friend gave me three early goodrich potatoes, which i planted four eyes in a hill, and last fall i raised over one bushel. i had the buckeye planted in the same lot. the goodrich produced about four times as much to the hill as the buckeye." * * * * * our country may well honor the memory of rev. c. e. goodrich, who, by persevering experiments and patient toil, has produced such wonderful results. his success should stimulate every farmer to make a similar line of experiments. _potato crop of new york state._--the total potato crop of the state of new york, this year, is about 25,000,000 bushels. the six great potato counties are washington, rensselaer, saratoga, monroe, st. lawrence, and genesee. only one other county (oneida) produces 300,000 bushels; three others, 600,000; one, 500,000; six, 400,000. new york county returns a crop of 1700 bushels. the entire crop of the state, 25,000,000 bushels, is raised on 254,403 acres of land. the three counties in the state which produce the most potatoes join each other, viz., washington, rensselaer, and saratoga--their aggregate production reaching within a fraction of 2,500,000 bushels, or more than one-eighth of the total product of the whole state.--_new york observer_. harison. mr. heffron gives the following account of this variety: "it is a brother of the early goodrich--a seedling of the cusco of 1860. when two years old, mr. goodrich described it thus: 'white, large, not so deep eyes as the parent, nice.'" in 1863, mr. goodrich had eleven and a half bushels; and though it was a bad year for disease, and this a young and tender seedling, when he overhauled his seedlings, january 29th, 1864, he made this entry in his book: "all perfect, fine." it has a smooth white skin, white flesh, and is the most solid of large potatoes, having no hollow at the centre. it is enormously productive, yielding as well as the parent cusco, and exceeds all others; its form is good, table quality excellent; keeps well; ripens ten days earlier than the garnet chili, and thus far is as hardy as the garnet chili. among winter sorts this potato must soon hold as high a place as is conceded to the early goodrich among the early sorts. [illustration] _to keep potatoes during winter._--as soon as dry after digging, pick up and handle carefully; store in a dry, well-aired, cool cellar, free from frost, either in bins raised a little from the bottom of the cellar, or in barrels having at least two holes bored through the staves near the bottom, and lay the top head on, over a lath, so as to exclude the light without preventing a free circulation of air. also sprinkle among the potatoes about half a pint of recently slacked quick-lime to each barrel. if bins are used, cover them over sufficiently to exclude the most of the light. air the cellar all winter, as often as the temperature outside will admit of it. climax. [illustration] it has a stout, erect stalk, of full medium height, internodes of medium length, and very large leaves; the tuber is above medium in size, quite smooth, in form of a short cylinder swelled out at the centre, occasionally slightly flattened, and terminating rather abruptly; eyes shallow, sharp, sometimes swelled out or projecting, and always strongly defined; skin medium thickness, considerably netted or russet, tough, white; flesh entirely white, solid, heavy, brittle, and never hollow, and it boils through quickly, with no hard core at centre or stem, is mealy, of floury whiteness, and of superior table quality. [illustration] _early prince._ the _early prince_ is a seedling of the early york, and was propagated in 1864. it has proved to be from a week to ten days earlier than the early rose, as far as size and solidity are concerned, and from two to three weeks earlier in quality. * * * * * established in 1842. a good, cheap, and very valuable paper for every man, woman, and child in city, village, and country. the american agriculturist, for the farm, garden, and household, including a special department of interesting and instructive reading for children and youth. * * * * * the agriculturist is a large periodical of _forty-four_ quarto pages, beautifully printed, filled with _plain, practical, reliable, original_ matter, and containing hundreds of _beautiful and instructive engravings_ in every annual volume. it contains each month a calendar of operations to be performed on the _farm_, in the _orchard_ and _garden_, in and around the _dwelling_, etc. the thousands of hints and suggestions given in every volume are prepared by practical, intelligent _workingmen_, who know what they write about. the _household department_ is valuable to every housekeeper, affording very many useful hints and directions calculated to lighten and facilitate indoor work. the _department for children and youth_ is prepared with special care, to furnish not only amusement, but also to inculcate knowledge and sound moral principles. terms--english edition. the circulation of the american agriculturist is so large that it can be furnished (_postage prepaid by the publishers_) at the low price of $1.50 a year; four copies, one year, for $5; six copies, one year, for $7; ten or more copies, one year, $1 each; single copies, 15 cents each. try it a year. ~a german edition,~ containing all the principal articles and engravings of the english edition, and other matter of special interest to german-americans, is furnished at the same rates as above stated for the english edition, _postage prepaid by the publishers_. orange judd company, publishers and proprietors, no. 751 broadway, new york city. transcriber's note: text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). * * * * * _frontispiece to vol. ii._ [illustration] useful knowledge: or _a familiar account_ of the various productions of nature, mineral, vegetable, and animal, which are chiefly employed for the use of man. _illustrated with numerous figures, and intended as a work both of instruction and reference._ ---by the rev. william bingley, am. fls. late of peterhouse, cambridge, and author of animal biography. [illustration] in three volumes. vol. ii. vegetables. ---_fourth edition._ ---london: printed for baldwin, cradock, and joy; harvey and darton; and c. and j. rivington. ---1825. explanation of the plates of the _second volume_. ---frontispiece: plate i. fig. 1. olive. 2. ginger plant. 3. black pepper. 4. cardamom plant. 5. sugar cane. 6. saffron. 7. scammony plant. 8. jalap plant. 9. coffee-tree. 10. peruvian bark tree. 11. tobacco plant. 12. annual capsicum. plate ii. 13. wheat. 14. oats. 15. barley. 16. rye. 17. vernal grass. 18. cotton grass. 19. bull-rush. 20. meadow fox-tail grass. 21. cat's-tail grass. 22. fiorin, or orcheston long grass. 23. canary grass. 24. purple melic grass. plate iii. 25. meadow soft grass. 26. reed meadow grass. 27. smooth-stalked meadow grass. 28. annual meadow grass. 29. crested dog's-tail grass. 30. hard fescue grass. 31. flote fescue grass. 32. sheep's fescue grass. 33. common reed. 34. sea matweed. 35. rye, or ray grass. 36. couch, or squitch grass. plate iv. fig. 37. flax. 38. socotrine aloe. 39. rice. 40. cinnamon-tree. 41. camphor-tree. 42. cashew nut tree. 43. logwood-tree. 44. mahogany-tree. 45. all-spice, or pimento-tree. 46. almond-tree. 47. pomegranate. 48. caper plant. plate v. 49. tea-tree. 50. clove-tree. 51. tamarind-tree. 52. cotton plant. 53. cowhage plant. 54. chocolate-tree. 55. orange-tree. 56. lemon-tree. 57. bread-fruit-tree. 58. maize, or indian corn. 59. cucumber. 60. indian rubber tree. plate vi. 61. common elm. 62. broad-leaved elm. 63. alder. 64. beech-tree. 65. sweet chesnut. 66. horse chesnut. 67. hazel. 68. oak. 69. walnut-tree. 70. sycamore. 71. plane-tree. 72. mulberry-tree. plate vii. 73. hornbeam. 74. white poplar. 75. black poplar. 76. flowering ash. 77. lignum-vitæ tree. 78. quassia-tree. 79. ash-tree. 80. nutmeg-tree. 81. hop plant. 82. hemp. 83. fig-tree. 84. morell. _pl. 2._ [illustration] _pl. 3._ [illustration] _pl. 4._ [illustration] _pl. 5._ [illustration] _pl. 6._ [illustration] _pl. 7._ [illustration] useful knowledge. ---vegetable productions. ---_introduction._ 1. vegetables or plants are natural bodies endowed with organization and life, but destitute of voluntary motion and sense; and botany is that branch of natural science which treats of their structure and functions, the systematical arrangement and denomination of their several kinds, and their peculiar properties and uses. 2. the principal parts of plants are the _root_; the _herb_ or plant itself; and the _fructification_, or flower and fruit. 3. as it is the sole object of this introduction to describe, in a concise manner, the linnæan arrangement of plants, for the purpose of explaining the classification adopted in the present volume, the parts of _fructification_ only will be mentioned. these are the calyx, corolla, stamens, pistil, seed-vessel, seeds, and receptacle. 4. the calyx, or flower cup, is the green part which is situated immediately beneath the blossom. in some plants this consists of one, in others of several leaves; and it is frequently tubular, as in the polyanthus, and cowslip. 5. the corolla, or blossom, is that coloured part of every flower on which its beauty principally depends. the leaves that compose it are denominated _petals_. some flowers, as the convolvolus and campanula, have only a single petal; and others, as the rose and peony, have several petals. 6. in the centre of the flower there are two kinds of organs on which the fructification and re-production of the species more particularly depend. these are the stamens, and the pistil. the stamens are slender, thread-like, substances, which surround the pistil. they each consist of a _filament_ or thread, and an _anther_ or summit: the latter contains, when ripe, a fine dust or powder called _pollen_. this, though, to the naked eye, it appears a fine powder, is so curiously formed, and is so various in different plants, as to be an interesting object for the microscope. each grain of it is, commonly, a membranous bag, round or angular, rough or smooth, which remains entire till it meets with any moisture; it then bursts and discharges a most subtile vapour. 7. the pistil is a prominent part, immediately in the centre of each flower, which adheres to the fruit, and is destined for the reception of the pollen. some flowers have only one pistil; others have two, three, four, &c. and others more than can be easily counted. 8. at the foot of the pistil is situated the _germen_. this, when grown to maturity, has the name of pericarp or seed-vessel, and is that part of the fructification which contains the seeds: whether it be a _capsule_ as in the poppy, a _nut_ as the filbert, a _drupe_ as the plum, a _berry_ as the gooseberry, a _pome_ as the apple, a _pod_ as in the pea, or a _cone_ as of the fir-tree. 9. that part of every vegetable, which, at a certain state of maturity, is separated from it, and contains the rudiments of a new plant, is called the seed. 10. the receptacle is the base which connects all the parts of fructification together, and on which they are seated. in some plants this is very conspicuous; and in none more so than the artichoke, of which it forms the eatable part, called the bottom. 11. the linnæan system of classification of plants is founded upon a supposition that the stamens represent the _male_, and the pistils the _female_ parts of fructification. the whole vegetable creation has been distributed, by linnæus, into twenty-four _classes_. these are divided into _orders_, which are subdivided into _genera_ or tribes; and these genera are further divided into _species_ or individuals. 12. of the classes the discriminating characters are taken from the number, connexion, length, or situation of the stamens. in each of the first twenty classes there are stamens and pistils in the same flower; in the twenty-first class, the stamens and pistils are in distinct flowers on the same plant; in the twenty-second, in distinct flowers on different plants; in the twenty-third, in the same flower and also in distinct flowers; and in the twenty-fourth class they are not at all discernible. thus: the stamens considered according to their: _classes._ {one 1. monandria. classes. {two 2. diandria. {three 3. triandria. {four 4. tetrandria. {five 5. pentandria. {number {number only {six 6. hexandria. { { {seven 7. heptandria. { { {eight 8. octandria. { { {nine 9. enneandria. { { {ten 10. decandria. { { {about twelve 11. dodecandria. { { { {and their {insertion {on the calyx: more than { { { nineteen 12. icosandria. { { {not on the calyx: more { { { than nineteen 13. polyandria. { { { {proportion {four: two long andtwo { { unequal { short 14. didynamia. { {six: four long andtwo { { short 15. tetradynamia. { {connexion by {filaments {in one set 16. monadelphia. { { united {in two sets 17. diadelphia. { { {in three or more sets 18. polyadelphia. { {anthers united 19. syngenesia. { {stamens upon the pistil 20. gynandria. { {separation of {on the same plant 21. monoecia. { pistils {on two plants 22. dioecia. { {with flowers of both sexes 23. polygamia. { {not being discernible 24. cryptogamia. 13. the characters of the orders are most commonly taken from the number of the pistils; but sometimes from circumstances relative to the stamens, pistils, or seed. those of the _first thirteen classes_ are taken from the number of pistils, thus: monogynia 1 pistil. digynia 2 pistils. trigynia 3 pistils. tetragynia 4 pistils. pentagynia 5 pistils. hexagynia 6 pistils. heptagynia 7 pistils. octagynia 8 pistils. enneagynia 9 pistils. decagynia 10 pistils. dodecagynia about 12 pistils. polygynia many pistils. the orders of the fourteenth class, _didynamia_, are taken from the situation of the seeds; and are gymnospermia naked seeds. angiospermia seeds in a capsule. the orders of the fifteenth class, _tetradynamia_, are formed from a difference in the shape of the seed-vessel: siliculosa a broad pod. siliquosa a long pod. in the classes _monadelphia_, _diadelphia_, _polyadelphia_, and _gynandria_, the orders are taken from the number of stamens: pentandria 5 stamens. hexandria, &c. 6 stamens, &c. in the nineteenth class, _syngenesia_, the orders are taken from the structure of the flower: polygamia æqualis,--all the florets alike. polygamia superflua,--the florets of the centre perfect or united; those of the margin with pistils only, but all producing perfect seeds. polygamia frustranea,--the florets of the centre perfect or united; those of the margin, in general, without either stamens or pistils. polygamia necessaria,--the florets of the centre with stamens only; those of the margin with pistils only. the classes _monoecia_ and _dicoecia_ take their orders from the number and other peculiarities of the stamens: monandria 1 stamen. diandria, &c. 2 stamens, &c. polyandria 7 stamens. monadelphia stamens united into one set. polyadelphia stamens united into several sets. gynandria stamens upon the pistil. in the class _polygamia_ there are three orders: monoecia. dioecia. trioecia. the twenty-fourth class, _cryptogamia_, has five orders: 1. ferns. 2. mosses. 3. liverworts. 4. flags. 5. mushrooms. the linnæan system is professedly artificial. its sole aim (observes sir j. e. smith) is to help any one to learn the name and history of an unknown plant in the most easy and certain manner. this is done by first determining its class and order; after which its genus is to be made out, by comparing the parts of fructification with all the generic characters of that order; and, finally, its species, by examining all the specific definitions of the genus. ---class i.--monandria. ---monogynia. 14. _ginger is the dried root of a somewhat reed-like plant_ (amomum zingiber, pl. 1. fig. 2.) _which grows wild in several parts of asia; and is much cultivated both in the east and west indies._ _the flowers of the ginger plant issue from stalks distinct from those which support the leaves, and form a kind of ear or spike, of beautiful colours and very fragrant smell._ the cultivation of ginger is nearly similar to that of potatoes. the land is first well cleansed from weeds: it is then dug into trenches similar to those which our gardeners make for celery; and the plants are set in these trenches in march or april. they flower about september; and, in january or february, when the stalks are withered, the roots are in a proper state to be dug up. these are prepared for use in two ways. when intended for what is called _white ginger_ they are picked, scraped, separately washed, and afterwards dried with great care, by exposure to the sun. for _black ginger_ they are picked, cleansed, immersed in boiling water, and dried. this process is much less laborious and expensive than the last, consequently the price of the article is not so great. by boiling, the ginger loses a portion of its essential oil; and its black colour is owing to this. the uses of ginger, both in medicine, and as a spice, are numerous and well known. in the west indies this root is frequently eaten fresh in salads, and with other food: and the roots when dug up young, namely, at the end of three or four months after they have been planted, are preserved in syrup, and exported as a sweet-meat to nearly all parts of the world. the ginger which is brought into this country from the east indies is much stronger than any we have from jamaica. 15. _cardamoms are the seeds of an east indian plant[1]_ (_fig. 4_), _which has shining reed-like stalks and spear-shaped glossy leaves. they are brought into europe in their pods, which are small, oblong, triangular, and each divided into three cells._ _the roots are thick, fleshy, and knotted. the stalks grow from seven to twelve feet high; and the flowers are of irregular shape, and, in colour, are green, pink, and white._ in those woody parts of india where cardamom plants spontaneously grow, the inhabitants form plantations of them by a very simple process. they clear, from particular spots, the greater number of the trees; and, towards the close of the fourth rainy season afterwards, they look for the first crop of cardamoms (raised from the scattered seeds which have lain dormant in the ground), and they are seldom disappointed. the cardamom harvest usually commences in october, and lasts till december. women or children pluck the fruit-stalks from the roots, carry them into the houses, and there spread them upon mats to dry. the pods are then separated from the stalks by stripping them with the fingers: they undergo some further processes of drying; after which they are packed for exportation, in large chests, which are well pitched at the joints and seams, to prevent them from being injured by moisture. it is estimated that about 15,000 pounds weight of these seeds are annually vended at the east india company's sales. cardamoms have a pleasant aromatic smell; and, when chewed, impart to the mouth a warmth and pungency, which, to most persons, are extremely grateful. the indians use them, in considerable quantity, in their food; and also mix them with betel (22), and chew them, under a belief that they tend to facilitate digestion. they are sometimes used with us in medicine, but more frequently for the purpose of concealing the nauseous taste of other medicines. 16. _turmeric is a thick, fleshy, and solid east indian root, which is usually seen in pieces from half an inch to two inches and upwards in length; has a yellowish and rugged surface, and is of a shining saffron brown colour within._ _the flowers of the turmeric plant_ (curcuma longa) _are white, and form an ear or spike, which issues immediately from the root. the leaves are spear-shaped, and each eight or nine inches long._ this root, which has an aromatic smell somewhat resembling that of ginger, is much cultivated in the east indies, where it is in common use as a seasoning for ragouts and other dishes. it constitutes a principal ingredient in _curry powder_; and, under this form, is used, in great quantities, both in india and europe. some years ago it had considerable repute as a medicine for the removal of jaundice, diseases of the liver, and other complaints: but the chief purpose for which it is now esteemed is its imparting a rich yellow dye to silks, linen, or woollen; and for heightening and rendering brighter the red colours dyed with cochineal and vermilion. it is in much request by glovers, for dyeing yellow gloves. some of the indian tribes use it in painting their bodies. 17. _arrow root, in the state that we see it, is a kind of starch, manufactured from the root of a plant which is cultivated both in the east and west indies._ _this plant_ (maranta arundinacea) _is about two feet high, has broad, pointed, and somewhat hairy leaves; small white flowers in clusters, and a nearly globular fruit about the size of a currant._ the arrow-root plant has its name from the indians using its juice as a remedy for wounds inflicted by poisoned arrows. they likewise consider it efficacious against the stings of those venomous insects with which the countries of nearly all hot climates abound. the starch or powder of arrow-root is obtained by the following process. the roots, when a year old, are dug up, washed, and beaten to a milky pulp, in deep wooden mortars. this pulp is afterwards well washed in clean water, and the fibrous parts, that are found amongst it, are carefully separated and thrown away. it is next passed through a sieve, or coarse cloth, and suffered to stand for some time to settle. the water that remains is subsequently drawn off, and the white mass at the bottom is again washed. after this the water is entirely cleared away, and the pulp, when dried in the sun, is an extremely pure kind of starch; which requires only to be reduced to powder to attain the state in which we import it. there is no european vegetable, if we except the _salep_ or _orchis root_ (219), which yields so large a proportion of nutritive mucilage as this. consequently, as an article of diet for children, and persons recovering from illness, it has of late years been found extremely valuable. care, however, should be taken to obtain it genuine, as the high price for which it is sold is frequently the cause of its being adulterated. it is even said that the article usually sold in london under the name of arrow-root, consists chiefly of starch made from potatoes. ---class ii.--diandria. ---monogynia. 18. _the olive_ (olea europea) _is a low evergreen tree, which, in its general form and appearance, somewhat resembles a willow. it is cultivated in several parts of the continent, and has spear-shaped leaves, and clusters of small white flowers, that arise at the junction of the leaves and branches_ (_fig. 1._) the fruit of this tree has the name of _olives_. these are usually about the size of a damson plum, and each contains a hard, rough stone. when first gathered they have an acrid, bitter, and unpleasant taste; and it is not until they have been steeped, for several days, in a ley of wood ashes, and then pickled in salt and water, that they are in the state to be introduced at table after dinner, in desserts. lucca olives, being smaller than any others, have the weakest taste. the larger ones are imported from spain, and are the strongest; but those most esteemed are the olives of provence, which are of middle size. if olives be eaten by persons of delicate habits, especially after a solid or heavy dinner, they are considered injurious, on account of the great quantity of oil they contain. it is to this fruit that we are indebted for the _salad_ or _olive oil_, which is so much in use throughout every part of europe. the preparation of it is as follows:--the olives, when sufficiently ripe, are carefully picked, by hand, off the trees, and those that are bad are taken out and thrown aside. after having been left a little while to wither, they are first bruised, and then more completely crushed, by an upright millstone rolling upon an horizontal plane. the paste thus formed is submitted to the operation of the press. the finest oil flows first: when no more is found to flow, the pulp is moistened with boiling water, and the mass is again pressed. this done, the remaining oil is drawn from the surface of the water, but it contains some impurities from which it cannot, without difficulty, be cleared. what remains of the pulp is squeezed into lumps or balls, and dried for fuel. if the olives be indiscriminately gathered and heaped together, sound and unsound, without selection, the oil is always bad. the wild trees yield a very small kind of fruit, which furnishes, though in less quantity, a peculiarly excellent oil. the olive tree has ever been considered the symbol of peace; and the ancient poets have asserted that minerva well merited the honour of giving her name to the city of athens for having planted it in attica. as a _wood_, this tree is in considerable request by cabinet makers, from its being beautifully veined, and taking an excellent polish. in some parts of spain, ornamental boxes are made of the roots of the olive tree. olive oil is employed in various branches of culinary and domestic economy. when united with soda, it is manufactured into soap. it is likewise used in medicine; is adopted as a softening ingredient in almost all kinds of ointments and plasters, and is supposed to be efficacious as a remedy against the poison of the viper. persons copiously anointed with oil are said to have escaped the infection of the plague and yellow fever. trigynia. 19. _the common jasmine_ (jasminum officinale) _is a well known shrub, with white, salver-shaped flowers, and opposite, winged leaves, the leaflets somewhat pointed; and is a native of malabar and other parts of the east._ as an ornamental shrub, jasmine has long been cultivated in europe. it is chiefly trained against walls and trellis-work, and is interesting, not only from the elegance of its foliage, but also from the number of beautiful white flowers with which it is adorned throughout the summer and autumn. these exhale a sweet and penetrating odour, particularly after rain, and in the night. the italians, by a very simple operation, prepare from the flowers of jasmine a grateful perfume. they soak cotton-wool in some kind of scentless vegetable oil, and then place, in glass vessels, alternate layers of this and of the flowers. after having been left in this state some days, the flowers are found to have given the whole of their fragrance to the oil in the cotton: they are then separated, and the oil is pressed out and removed into small glass bottles for use. 20. _black pepper is the dried berry of a climbing or trailing plant_ (piper nigrum, fig. 3) _which grows in the east indies, and in most of the islands of the indian sea._ _its stem has numerous joints, and throws out roots at every joint. the leaves, which are somewhat egg-shaped, and pointed, are of a brownish colour, and have each seven very strong nerves. the flowers are small and white._ in the cultivation of pepper it is customary to mark out the grounds into regular squares of about six feet each, which is the usual distance allowed for the plants. and, as these have not sufficient strength to support themselves in an upright growth, they are generally placed near a thorny kind of shrub, among the branches of which they creep like ivy. when they have run to a considerable height, the twigs, on which the berries hang, bend down, and the fruit appears in long slender clusters, of from twenty to fifty grains, somewhat resembling, but much more compact than, bunches of currants. the berries are green when young, but change to a bright red colour when ripe. as soon as they begin to redden, they are in a fit state to be gathered. when gathered, they are spread upon mats in the sun, where they are suffered to remain till they become dry, black, and shrivelled, as we see them. in this state they have the denomination of _black pepper_. _white pepper_ is nothing more than the best and soundest of the berries, gathered when they are fully ripe, and stripped of their external coat or skin. to effect this they are steeped, for about a week, in salt water, by the end of which time the skins burst. they are then dried in the sun, rubbed between the hands, and winnowed. thus cleared from their skins they are rendered smaller and more smooth than black pepper. as the acridity of pepper lies principally in the skin, this kind becomes, of course, much less pungent than the other; but it has one recommendation, that it can be made only of the best and soundest grains, taken at their most perfect state of maturity. pepper is an article of considerable traffic betwixt this country and the east indies. that which is imported from malabar is considered better than any other. the quantity of pepper vended at the east india company's sales has, in some years, exceeded six millions of pounds' weight, of which seven or eight hundred thousand pounds have been retained for home consumption. both black and white pepper are in daily use, not only as a spice, but also in cookery. when coarsely ground, pepper is eaten with peas, cabbages, cucumbers, and other flatulent and cold vegetables; and occasionally also with fish. it is sometimes employed in medicine as a stimulant. a singular imposition respecting pepper is occasionally practised in retail shops in london: artificial pepper-corns, both black and white, are mixed and sold with real pepper. the detection of this fraudulent mixture, however, is easy. if a handful of the suspected pepper be thrown into water, the artificial corns will fall to powder, or be partially dissolved, while the true pepper-corns will remain whole. the fraudulent grains are said to be made of peas-meal. 21. _long pepper is the fruit of a slender climbing shrub_ (piper longum) _which grows in the east indies._ _it is of cylindrical shape, about an inch and half in length, and a quarter of an inch in thickness; and is formed by the union of a great number of small rounded grains. the shrub that produces it has dark green and heart-shaped leaves, each with seven strong nerves._ a considerable quantity of long pepper is annually imported in this country from bengal and other parts of the east, for use, both in domestic economy and in medicine. the inhabitants of india drink water in which long pepper has been infused, and esteem it a valuable remedy for some disorders of the stomach. they also distil an ardent spirit from it; and they pickle this fruit in vinegar, for use at table. the fruit that is collected for exportation is gathered before it is quite ripe. 22. _betel is the leaf of a climbing east indian plant_ (piper betel) _which belongs to the same tribe as pepper; and, in shape and appearance, is not much unlike that of ivy, but is more tender, and full of juice._ there is an almost incredible consumption of betel over the whole continent of india. the inhabitants chew it almost incessantly, and in such quantity that their lips become quite red, and their teeth black, a colour greatly preferred by them to the whiteness which europeans so much affect. they carry it, in little white boxes, about their persons, and present it to each other, by way of compliment and civility, in the same manner as the europeans do snuff. this is done by women as well as by men: and it would be considered an offence if those to whom it was offered should refuse to accept of, and chew it. the leaves are sometimes used alone, but much more commonly covered with a kind of lime made of sea shells, and wrapped round slices of the areca nut (245). ---class iii.--triandria. ---monogynia. 23. _saffron is the orange-coloured pistil, or centre part, of a purple species of crocus_ (crocus sativus) _which flowers in the autumn, and is chiefly distinguished by having the three extremities of the pistil so long as to hang out of the flower_ (fig. 6.) in cambridgeshire there is a town called saffron walden, that has its name from the quantity of saffron which is annually produced in its neighbourhood. the roots of the saffron crocuses are planted at the distance of about five inches from each other, and two inches deep in the ground. as soon as the flowers appear, they are gathered by hand every morning, just before they open; and, as they continue to open in succession for several weeks, the saffron harvest of course continues so long. when the flowers are gathered, they are spread on a table: the upper part of the pistil only is picked out, and the rest of the flower is thrown away. as soon as a sufficient quantity of the pistils have been collected, they are dried in a kind of portable kiln; over this a hair cloth is stretched, and upon it a few sheets of white paper. the saffron is scattered upon these to the thickness of two or three inches, and is then covered with several sheets of paper, over which is laid a coarse blanket five or six times doubled, or a canvas bag filled with straw. as soon as the fire has heated the kiln, a board, on which a weight is put, is placed upon the blanket to press the saffron into a cake. by the end of the first hour, a strong fire being employed, the cake is formed. this is then turned, and, for another hour, is subjected to an equal degree of heat. it is then turned a second time, and a more gentle heat is employed, till the cake becomes dry, during which time it is turned every half hour. a field of saffron will continue in perfection for three or four years, yielding progressively, during this period, more numerous and larger flowers, as well as an increase of the bulbous roots; after which the offsets may be advantageously transplanted to other situations. the saffron which is grown in england is considered superior to any that is imported from other countries. the best saffron may be known by the breadth of the blades. it ought not to be of too deep a red or orange colour, and should be fresh and tough, and have a strong but pleasant aromatic odour. saffron should not be kept more than twelve months. saffron was much used by the ancients as a perfume, but, in this respect, their taste was very different from ours. not only were the halls, theatres, and courts, through which they wished to diffuse an agreeable smell, strewed with this substance, but it was used by them for a scent, in vinous extracts. from saffron, with the addition of wax, the greeks, as well as the romans, prepared scented salves. in our own country it was formerly much used in medicine; having been esteemed an excellent remedy in hysterical and other complaints. when taken in small doses, it tends to exhilarate the spirits; but it ought to be used with great moderation. it is sometimes used by bakers, to colour and flavour different kinds of cakes and biscuits. with water or spirits it gives out a beautiful yellow colour; but this is not useful as a dye, as, on exposure to the air, it soon fades; and no means have hitherto been discovered by which it can be fixed and rendered permanent. 24. _orris root is the root of a white flowered kind of iris, called_ florentine iris (iris florentina), _which is a native of italy, and is distinguished by having two flowers on each stalk, the petals bearded, and the leaves sword-shaped._ in a dried state this root is well known on account of its grateful odour, which somewhat approaches that of the violet. it is consequently much used in the manufacture of hair-powder, and other articles for which an agreeable scent is required. it is sometimes employed in medicine as a pectoral or expectorant, and sometimes in dropsies. in a recent state the root is extremely acrid; and, when chewed, it excites in the mouth a pungent taste, which continues for several hours; but this acrimony is almost wholly dissipated by drying. orris-root is chiefly imported from leghorn. 25. _the yellow water-flag, or common iris_ (iris pseudacorus) _is a very conspicuous plant in most of our marshes. it has sword-shaped leaves, and, about the middle of july, bears large and beautiful yellow flowers._ the roots of this plant possess qualities which render them capable of being applied to many useful purposes. their astringency is such that it is supposed they might be employed with great advantage in the tanning of leather. in the island of jura, one of the hebrides, they are used for dyeing a black colour; and the inhabitants of some parts of scotland adopt them instead of galls in the making of ink. for this purpose they are cut into thin slices, and boiled, or infused in water, till the liquid is deeply tinged with blue. this is poured clear off, and the blade of a knife, or some other piece of iron, is put into it, and rubbed hard with a rough white pebble, by which process, after a little while, the liquor becomes perfectly black. a slice of the fresh root, if held between the teeth, will, it is said, almost instantly remove the sensibility, and thus alleviate the pain, of tooth-ache. the leaves of this plant are considered poisonous to all cattle except sheep. 26. _the papyrus is a sedge-like plant_ (cyperus papyrus), _which grows in watery places in egypt, syria, sicily, and madagascar._ _it has a three-sided stem, many feet in height, which is terminated by a bushy head, consisting of a large and compound clustre of flowers._ from this plant the ancients made their paper; and the process of manufacturing it is described by pliny, the roman naturalist, to have been very simple. the inner rind of the stem was merely cut into strips, and laid in parallel and transverse rows; and these, on being heavily pressed with weights, adhered together. the substance thus formed, though of rude texture, was capable of being written upon; and there are many manuscripts still extant on paper of this description. the ancients also sometimes employed the sword-shaped leaves of this plant for writing upon. with the former a kind of ink was used; but on the latter the letters were formed by a metallic, pointed instrument, called by the romans a stylus. but the papyrus plant was not merely useful for writing upon. the inhabitants of the countries where it is found manufacture it, even to this day, into sail-cloth, mattresses, ropes, and sometimes even into wearing apparel. when the stems are compactly woven together, and plastered, externally, with a kind of resinous substance, so as to prevent the admission of water, they are made into boats. these, though they resemble great baskets in appearance, are of considerable use to the inhabitants. the "ark of bulrushes daubed with slime and pitch," in which the infant moses was placed, is supposed, by the best commentators, to have been a boat made of this plant. the floral _thyrsus_ which was used to adorn the temples and statues of the gods, was a representation of the tuft of the papyrus. digynia. 27. _sugar is the concrete or crystallized juice of the_ sugar cane (saccharum officinarum, fig. 5), _a plant, much cultivated both in the east and west indies, which has a jointed stem eight or nine feet high, long and flat leaves of greenish yellow colour, and flowers in bunches._ the cultivation of the sugar-cane is pursued to great extent in the islands of the west indies, where, about three centuries ago, it was first introduced from china, or some other parts of the east, and where it flourishes with great luxuriance, particularly in moist and rich ground. the season for planting it commences about the beginning of august. this operation is performed by laying the canes in rows, in trenches formed for the purpose. roots issue from each joint; and, in the course of nine or ten months, the stems which rise from these respective roots, and constitute the sugar crop, attain their perfect state. the saccharine juice is contained in a spongy pith with which the interior of the plant is filled. when cut down, the leaves are thrown aside as of no use in the manufacture of sugar, and the stems or canes are divided into pieces, each about a yard in length. these are tied together in bundles, and conveyed to the sugar-mill; where they are bruised betwixt three upright wooden rollers covered with iron. the juice, which flows from them, is conducted, by canals, into a large vessel formed for receiving it. the quantity of juice prepared by some of these mills is upwards of ten thousand gallons in a day. the next operation is called clarifying. for this purpose the juice is conducted, along a wooden gutter lined with lead, to a place called the boiling house, where it is received into copper pans, or caldrons, each placed over a separate fire. a certain proportion of powdered lime is now added to it, for the purpose of taking up any acid which the juice may happen to contain. the heat is then increased until the liquor is nearly in a boiling state. by this process the greatest part of the impurities that were contained in the juice rise to the surface in a scum. the purified liquor is then carefully drawn off, either by a syphon or a cock, leaving the scum at the bottom of the pan. from these pans it is conveyed, by another gutter, or channel, to the grand copper, or evaporating boiler, where the scum, which rises to the surface, is skimmed off as the liquor boils. after undergoing a similar process in smaller boilers, with a farther mixture of lime, until it has attained a certain degree of thickness, it is transferred into a large shallow wooden vessel, where, as it cools, it granulates or runs into an imperfect crystallization, by which it is in some degree separated from the _molasses_ or _treacle_, an impure part of the juice, which is incapable of being crystallized, and which, in large casks, is exported, for various useful purposes, to the different countries of europe. from the cooler the sugar is removed to the curing-house. this is a large, airy building, furnished with a capacious cistern, for the reception of the molasses. over the cistern is an open frame of strong joist-work; upon which are placed several empty hogsheads, each open at the head, and having a few holes at the bottom, closed by stalks of the plantain tree thrust through them. the mass of saccharine matter is now put into these hogsheads; the molasses are separated from the sugar, by draining, into the cistern, through the spongy stalks of the plantain; and the remainder, thus entirely crystallized, has the name of _muscovado_ or _raw sugar_. the article denominated _clayed sugar_ undergoes a process somewhat different. for the preparation of this, the sugar, when taken from the coolers, is put into conical vessels of earthen-ware, each having, at its bottom, a hole, about half an inch in diameter, which, at the commencement of the process, is stopped with a plug. this plug, after the sugar has become perfectly cool, is removed, and the molasses drain through the hole. when these have ceased to run, the surface of the sugar, in the vessel, is covered with fine clay, to a certain thickness, and water is poured upon the clay. this, oozing through it, pervades the whole mass of sugar, re-dissolves the molasses still remaining in it, with some parts of the sugar itself, carries these off through the hole at the bottom, and renders the sugar, that is left, much purer than that which is made the other way. the further refining of sugar, or forming it into the white conical loaves which are so much used in this country, is the business of the european sugar-bakers. this is done by dissolving the raw sugar in water, boiling the solution in lime water; and then clarifying it with bullock's blood, or the white of eggs, and straining it through woollen bags. after due evaporation it is suffered to cool to a certain degree. it is then poured into conical moulds of unglazed earthen-ware, the summits of which are perforated. here it concretes into a hard white mass, leaving that part of the syrup, which will not crystallize, to run off through the hole in the point of the cone. the broad end of the cone is then covered with moist clay, the water from which penetrates into the sugar, and displaces and carries off the impurities which, otherwise, would be retained in and discolour it. it is then carefully dried, and receives the name of _loaf_, or _lump sugar_. _sugar-candy_ is formed by boiling down a solution of sugar till it becomes thick; and then removing it into a very hot room, to crystallize upon sticks or strings, placed across small tubs, or other vessels. it is denominated brown or white sugar-candy, according to the quality of the sugar of which it is made. _barley sugar_ is sugar boiled in barley water, but now more frequently in common water, till it is brittle. it is then rolled on a stone anointed with oil of sweet almonds, and formed into twisted sticks. to give it a colour, a small quantity of saffron is sometimes mixed with it. when sugar was first introduced into this country, it was employed only as a medicine; but it has now become an essential article both of luxury and use. it is the basis of syrups; and is used in cooking, and in confections, preserves, sweetmeats, and liqueurs of every description. sugar is also sometimes employed in medicine. the juice of the sugar-cane is so palatable, and at the same time so nutritive, that, during the sugar harvest, every creature which partakes freely of it, whether man or animal, appears to derive health and vigour from its use. the meagre and sickly negroes exhibit, at this season, a surprising alteration; they now become fat and healthy. the labouring horses, oxen, and mules, being allowed, almost without restraint, to eat of the refuse plants, and of the scummings from the boiling-house, improve now infinitely more than they do at any other season of the year. _rum_ is a spirituous liquor distilled from molasses, scummings of the hot cane juice from the boiling house, or raw cane liquor from canes expressed for that purpose, lees (or, as it is called in jamaica, _dunder_), and water. the dunder answers the purpose of yeast for the fermentation. sugar-canes, as large and juicy as those of the west indies, are cultivated in several parts of spain, but particularly in the country betwixt malaga and gibraltar. they were originally introduced, by the moors, several centuries ago; and the sugar made from them is of excellent quality. there are sugar mills, in more than twelve different places, on the coast of grenada, all of which are fully employed: in one village there are four, which cost at least 5,000_l._ sterling each. 28. _oats are the seeds or grain of an annual plant_ (avena sativa, fig. 14), _too well known, and too much cultivated throughout every part of europe, to need any description._ _the country from which they were originally imported is not known._ the principal use of oats in this country is for the feeding of horses. in the northern parts of england, and in scotland, they are applied also to the nutriment of man. when simply freed from their husks they are called _groats_ or _grits_; and, in this state, are much used in broths, and other kinds of nutriment for sick and infirm persons. more frequently, however, they are ground into _oatmeal_, which is made into cakes, biscuits, &c. the husks, infused in water, and allowed to remain till the water becomes somewhat acid, are boiled to a jelly called _sowins_. a grateful and nutritive kind of jelly, which has the name of _flummery_, is also made of oatmeal, boiled with water, and flavoured with a little orange-flower water, and sugar. oats will thrive in almost any soil, but they are chiefly productive on land that has been newly broken up. they are usually sown in february or march, and the harvest commences about august. several kinds or varieties are cultivated in different parts of england, such as _white oats_, _black oats_, _brown_ or _red oats_, _tartarian_ or _reed oats_, _friezeland oats_, _poland oats_, and some others, but, of these, the first are considered the most valuable. 29. _wheat is a well known kind of corn_ (triticum hybernum, fig. 13) _which is cultivated in most of the civilized countries of the world, and is supposed to have been originally introduced into europe, from some part of asia._ no grain is so valuable to the inhabitants of nearly all climates as this; and, by a wonderful ordination of providence, it is rendered capable of sustaining, without injury, almost the two extremes of heat and cold. not only does it ripen in egypt and barbary, but it ripens equally well in scotland, denmark, and sweden. it constitutes the chief food of the british nation; and its abundance or scarcity regulates, in a great degree, the welfare and prosperity of the inhabitants. the whole annual consumption of grain, in this island, amounts to nearly 25,000,000 quarters; and in london alone, to more than 1,162,100 quarters. of this by far the greatest proportion is wheat. for the cultivation of this important grain the best lands are rich clays and heavy loam; and, although light soils will produce wheat of excellent quality, yet the crops on the other soils are by far the most abundant. the best season for committing the seed to the ground is september, and the earlier in the month the better. some farmers consider it necessary to steep the seed in brine or other pickle before it is used, to prevent it from being devoured by vermin, and render the corn less liable to disease than it would be without this process. in a good season the wheat harvest commences in august, and is finished in the course of the ensuing month. this species of corn is usually cut with instruments called reaping-hooks, but in some parts it is mown with scythes. the different kinds or varieties of wheat that are cultivated in this country are too numerous to be particularized. wheat is liable to injury, not only from the attack of insects, but from several kinds of disease, the principal of which are _blight_, _mildew_, and _smut_. in the former the fibres and leaves of the plants are contracted and enfeebled, and the grain is ultimately deprived of sufficient nourishment: by mildew the straw and ear are affected: and by smut the grains, instead of containing their proper substance, become filled with a black or dark brown powder. _wheat flour_ consists of four distinct principles, gluten, starch, albumen, and a sweet kind of mucilage. and it is a remarkable circumstance, that the _gluten_, if not similar, has a very near alliance to animal substances. to enumerate the various ways in which preparations from wheat serve for nutriment would be unnecessary, as they are known to every one. _starch_ is a substance frequently prepared from wheat, and is obtained by the following process. the wheat is put into tubs of water, and exposed, for some days, to the heat of the sun, in order to bring on a proper degree of fermentation, the water being changed twice a day. having now become sufficiently soft, it is poured into large canvass bags, which are worked or beaten, on a board over an empty vessel, to extract the farinaceous particles. fresh water is put to it, and after being considerably agitated, it is allowed to subside. as the sediment increases, the water is gradually drained off, and, at length, the starch is formed into small pieces, and dried for use. during the late war, when the intercourse betwixt france and the west indian islands was entirely cut off, several attempts were made in that country to obtain _sugar_ from starch. the process was a long and intricate one; and the success with which it was attended was not such as to render it either practically or permanently useful. _bran_ is the husk of wheat, separated in grinding. infusions of bran are, not unfrequently, employed both externally and internally in medicine. they are also sometimes used to cleanse the hands instead of soap. and, in times of scarcity, bran has been advantageously employed in the making of household bread. _wheat straw_, when chopped or cut small, forms a wholesome provender for horses and oxen, especially when mixed with green food. it is also used as litter for horses, and is employed as thatch for cottages, houses, and barns. when cut into certain lengths, bleached by means of sulphur, and split, it is plaited, and formed into hats and bonnets. a nutritive substance called _semolina_ is formed from wheat flour, granulated by a particular process. a patent was granted in the year 1780 to mr. jacob levy, for a method of making it. previously to this, semolina had been imported from poland, under the name of _cracow groats_. it constitutes a light and wholesome food for invalids, being considered, in this respect, preferable to sago; it may also be made into excellent puddings. _macaroni_ is a preparation from the finest wheat flour, mixed with eggs, or other glutinous substance. it is chiefly imported from italy, sicily, and germany. its name implies _cut paste_, and it is eaten in various ways; on the continent with milk, and with us in soups and puddings, or served up in a dish with grated cheese, milk, and other ingredients. _vermicelli_ is made by a mixture of flour, cheese, the yolks of eggs, sugar and saffron. this, being reduced to a proper consistency, is formed into long slender pieces or threads, like worms, by being forced, with a piston, through a number of little holes, in the end of a pipe made for the purpose. vermicelli was first brought from italy, and it is chiefly used in soups and other culinary preparations. 30. _barley is a well known kind of corn_ (hordeum distichon, fig. 15.) _which grows wild in the island of sicily, and some other parts of the south of europe._ next to wheat, this is, in europe, the most valuable of all the species of grain, especially for growth on light and sharp soils. the seed-time for barley usually commences about the end of march or the beginning of april, and sometimes lasts until the first week in june; and, for the produce, four quarters per acre are considered a fair average crop, and eight quarters a very extraordinary one. few instances of fecundity in corn are more remarkable than what has been related of two grains of six-rowed barley (_hordeum hexastichon_) which were planted in a garden: they produced 113 stalks, nearly all of which yielded ears; and these contained, in the whole, more than 2,500 grains. the principal use to which barley is applied in this country is for the making of _malt_, from which beer and ale are brewed. for this purpose it is first steeped in water for three or four days. it is then taken out, and suffered to lie, until it begins to sprout or germinate. as soon as the germination has approached a certain state its further progress is prevented by drying the barley in a kiln, heated with coke, charcoal, or straw. the grain has now become mellow and sweet; and, after having been crushed in a kind of mill contrived for the purpose, its saccharine qualities are easily extracted by the boiling water, in brewing. the liquor that is thus produced has the name of _wort_; and this, after having undergone the process of fermentation, and having received a bitter flavour by a mixture of hops, becomes ale or beer. hence has originated the general appellation of _malt liquor_. what remains of the malt after brewing is called _grains_. these, in london, are employed for the feeding of horses, cows, and swine. besides the use of barley in brewing, there is in some countries, especially in scotland and germany, a great consumption of this grain, for broths, soups, and other food. for this purpose it is freed from its husks and formed into round granules, about the size of small shot, and of a pearly whiteness, which thence have the name of _pearl-barley_. all except the heart or best part of the grain is thus taken away. the barley, in this state, when boiled, forms a nutritive food; and a decoction of it, properly flavoured with acid, is said to be one of the best beverages that can be adopted in acute diseases. the making of pearl barley is a german invention. in scotland the lower classes make it by means of hand-mills; and many persons are satisfied with merely ridding the grain of its husks by stamping it in mortars. _barley-meal_ is occasionally made into bread by the poor; and it is likewise used for the fattening of poultry and swine. from _barley-straw_ a yellowish coloured paper has been manufactured; the making of which was, some years ago, attempted in this country upon a large scale, but without success. 31. _rye_ (secale cereale, fig. 16.) _is a kind of grain supposed to have been first introduced into the northern parts of europe from the island of crete._ as bread corn, sometimes alone, but more commonly mixed with wheat, rye was formerly in great request, particularly in the northern counties of england. this mixture, which is denominated _blend-corn_, or _maslin_, is at present partially used, in certain districts, not only from motives of economy, but also because the rye is supposed to render the bread more moist and palatable than it would otherwise be. in some part of the country, rye is much used by ginger-bread bakers, for the dark colour of its flour is not perceptible, when mixed with treacle. this species of grain is frequently used for the distillation of spirits. it has been remarked, in some districts of france, that rye, from bad seasons, or from other causes, has proved noxious and even poisonous. the grains of the corn, thus degenerated, are black on the outside and tolerably white within; and, when dry, are harder and closer than good grain. bread that is made of rye which contains even a great quantity of this bad corn, is not distinguishable by the taste, from other rye bread; and it seldom produces its ill effects till some time after it has been eaten, it is then said to occasion gangrenes in the legs and other parts of the body, and dangerous fevers. the poorer people, however, are those chiefly who are subject to these diseases, as many of them have little other substantial food to subsist upon than bread made of this species of corn. in several parts of england rye is sown either by itself, or mixed with tares to be cut whilst green, for the feeding of sheep, cows, and horses. rye straw is used by brick-makers, and collar-manufacturers; and is considered an excellent material for the thatching of cottages and barns. 32. grasses.--_by grasses we are to understand such plants as have a round, jointed, and hollow stem, surrounded at each joint with a single leaf, long, narrow, and pointed; and the flowers of which are a kind of chaffy husk. according to this definition, wheat, barley, oats, and rye, properly belong to the grasses, although they are known by the peculiar appellation of corn or grain._[2] to the grasses it is that the face of nature is indebted for a great portion of its cheerful appearance, and its beauty. they constitute the general herbage of every country, covering to an immense extent the whole surface of the ground. they are very various in their kinds, the british species alone being nearly a hundred and twenty in number. to many species of animals their leaves afford an indispensable article of sustenance; and their seed supply food to birds. 33. _sweet-scented vernal grass_ (_anthoxanthum odoratum_, fig. 17).[3]--this species is usually considered (though it perhaps ought not exclusively to be so) as that to which the hay fields are indebted for their well-known and delightful fragrance. when partially dried it is very odorous; and, if chewed, in a recent state, its _stalks_ are highly aromatic, tasting not unlike those of fresh lavender. the _root_ has an odour somewhat resembling that of musk. a distilled water, which serves as a vehicle for some perfumes, is occasionally prepared from the leaves and flowers of the vernal grass. the dried flowers are employed in some parts of the continent for imparting an agreeable flavour to snuff and tobacco. the vernal grass is not very productive, and by some farmers it is considered not palatable for cattle. others, however, esteem it an useful addition in their meadows; and, from its being generally found in great abundance on such pastures as sheep are fond of, and afford excellent mutton, it is at least thought to be a good grass for them. 34. _cotton grass_ (_eriophorum angustifolium_, fig. 18).--the seeds of this grass are encompassed with long cottony or wool-like hairs; and so abundant are the plants in many tracts of marshy land, particularly in the northern parts of england, that the ground appears almost as if covered with snow. poor people sometimes stuff their pillows with the down of the cotton grass; but there is a prevailing opinion that it is not wholesome to sleep on. this down is probably too brittle to be manufactured by itself into thread, yet, in combination either with wool or cotton, it may be spun into a strong and uniform yarn, from which gloves, stockings, and cloth, in small quantity, have been made. its brittleness has been much corrected by a simple chemical process. wicks for candles have sometimes been made of it. 35. _bull-rush_ (_scirpus lacustris_, fig. 19).--of the stems of this plant the rush bottoms of chairs are made. being of soft and pliant texture, totally destitute of roughness, the bull-rush is also sometimes used for the stuffing of pack saddles, making of mats, and thatching of cottages. 36. _meadow fox-tail grass_ (_alopecurus pratensis_, fig. 20) is a very common but valuable kind, which grows freely in moist and fertile pastures and meadows. it possesses, in a superior degree to any other grass, the three great requisites of quantity, quality, and early growth. the best hay which is brought to london is said to be from meadows where this grass abounds; and, in many parts adjacent to the metropolis, it is extremely abundant. 37. _timothy grass, or meadow cats-tail_ (_phleum pratense_, fig. 21), is a grass much cultivated in several parts of north america, and particularly in wet, loamy grounds, where, though coarse and hard, it is found extremely productive and useful. such has been the celebrity of timothy grass, that a gentleman (william strickland, esq.) was requested by the board of agriculture to make inquiries concerning it; and, from his remarks, it appears that this grass is the chief support of cattle wherever the meadows of it abound. he saw extraordinary crops of timothy grass growing, as thickly as it could stand upon the ground, three or four feet high, and, in some instances, as coarse as wheat straw. it is cut before it arrives at maturity; and horses are said to prefer the hay that is made of it to every other kind, and to thrive peculiarly well upon it. though a native and very common grass in our own country, it is doubtful whether our climate be sufficiently warm to bring it to the same perfection in which it is found in america. it has, however, been cultivated in england with considerable success; and, when used for green food, for which it is particularly calculated, it may be cut two or three times in one season; but, when intended for hay, it should be cut at least a week before it flowers. 38. _fiorin, or orcheston long grass_ (_agrostis stolonifera_, fig. 22), is known as a troublesome weed in moist meadows and pastures, and also in cold and stiff arable land, by name of _black squitch_ or _bent-grass_. it grows with such luxuriance, lying upon the ground, and taking root at the different joints, that the stems are sometimes several feet in length; and, when cultivated as a crop, it has been known to produce, at two cuttings, betwixt seven and eight tons per acre. this grass was first brought into notice as a grass for hay, by a small tract of meadow ground, in which it was cultivated several years ago, at a village called orcheston, in wiltshire. horses, sheep, and cattle are said to be extremely partial to it, and to prefer the hay which is made from it to any other. to be in perfection, it requires a moist climate, or a wet soil; and it will grow on cold clays, that are unfitted for other grasses. in ireland it is called fiorin grass, and, under this appellation, it was first introduced to the public notice in that country, in the year 1810, by the rev. dr. richardson, of clonfecle, in the county of antrim. 39. _the meadow soft grass, or yorkshire white grass_ (_holcus lanatus_, fig. 25), though it vegetates late in the season, produces an abundant crop, and flourishes well in any moist situation. both its foliage and flowers are soft and woolly. it is chiefly calculated for the feeding of sheep, and has answered extremely well, when close fed. the hay that is made from it is said to be very injurious to horses, and it is not much relished by cattle. 40. _canary grass_ (_phalaris canariensis_, fig. 23).--this grass grows wild in worcestershire, and some other parts of england. it is, however, often cultivated for the sake of its seeds, which are extensively used as food for small birds. 41. _purple melic grass_ (_melica cærulea_, fig. 24) is found in great luxuriance on the turf moors, near glastonbury, in somersetshire. the people of that neighbourhood make of its stalks a neat kind of besoms, which are used as a cheap and tolerably good substitute for hair brooms. this grass occurs in the most barren, sandy, and boggy situations; but, more especially, about pools upon mountainous heaths. 42. _reed meadow grass_ (_poa aquatica_, fig. 26) is one of the most useful of the british grasses, particularly if grown in wet meadows, or upon the banks of rivers or brooks. in the fenny lands of cambridgeshire and lincolnshire it not only affords a rich pasturage for cattle in summer, but forms also the chief part of their winter sustenance. in situations favourable to its growth it sometimes attains the height of five or six feet, when cut for hay, it is first dried, then bound up into sheaves, and formed into ricks, in which it undergoes a slight fermentation that much improves it. cows and sheep are both partial to this grass. as hay, it is a valuable food for cattle, and particularly for milch cows. 43. _smooth-stalked meadow grass_ (_poa pratensis_, fig. 27) is a favourite grass for cattle; and flourishes even on the driest soils, growing wild in meadows, on dry banks, and even on walls. in rich meadows of somersetshire it forms a considerable part of the herbage; and, in those that have been flooded during the winter, it flourishes with such luxuriance as nearly to exclude every other grass. notwithstanding this, it possesses the valuable property of resisting excessive drought, and is frequently green in high gravelly pastures, after almost every other grass has been withered. it flowers early, and makes an extremely valuable hay. 44. _annual meadow grass_ (_poa annua_, fig. 28).--no grass is more common than this, and none makes a finer turf. it occurs in almost every situation, by the sides of roads, on open and extensive commons; and in many parts of england there are whole meadows of it, without any mixture of other grasses. in those districts of suffolk which produce the best butter, the annual meadow grass is found in great abundance. it is a remarkable circumstance respecting this grass, that it does not suffer injury, but that, on the contrary, it is improved by persons frequently walking over it. mr. stillingfleet states that, on the hill near malvern, in worcestershire, a walk which had been made for the convenience of the water drinkers, was, in less than a year, nearly covered with it, though no plant of it could be found about any part of the hill. this was attributed, in a great measure, to the constant treading upon it, by persons passing to and from the well. 45. _crested dog's-tail grass_ (_cynosurus cristatus_, fig. 29) is extremely common in meadows and pastures, and constitutes a principal part of the turf, on high gravelly or chalky soils, in parks, lawns, and sheep walks: and, from the close and thick turf which it makes, it affords good nourishment to cattle and deer. parks that are famous for excellent venison contain a great proportion of this grass. in the summer time its seeds afford sustenance to pigeons and small birds. 46. _sheep's fescue grass_ (_festuca ovina_, fig. 32) has great celebrity as food for horses and cattle, and, in particular, for sheep, which are said to prefer it to all other grasses, and to become fat upon it sooner than upon any other. though of short growth, its leaves are numerous and succulent. the tartars are said generally to fix their habitations, during the summer, in places where there is the greatest plenty of this grass, from its yielding an abundant supply of excellent food for their cattle. and it has been remarked that the sepulchral monuments of the ancient tartars are chiefly observed in situations where sheep's fescue grass abounds; this has been considered a test of the great value which that people set upon it. 47. _hard fescue grass_ (_festuca duruscula_, fig. 30) is common in pastures, meadows, and waste grounds. it springs early, affords excellent food for all kinds of cattle; and, in good ground, yields a plentiful crop. 48. _flote fescue grass_ (_festuca fluitans_, fig. 31).--this plant, which grows almost exclusively in wet ditches, and in ponds, is so favourite a food of horses and swine, that they will sometimes even endanger their lives to obtain it. a farmer, who resided some years ago at ruscomb, in berkshire, assured mr. stillingfleet that he had known a field of four acres (which was nearly always covered with water) afford sufficient nutriment to maintain five farm horses, in good condition, from april to the end of harvest, without any other food; and that it yielded even more than they could eat. the cottenham and chedder cheeses are said, in a great measure, to derive their celebrity from the cows feeding on this grass. its seeds are small, and are remarkable for their sweet flavour and nutritious qualities. they are annually collected in poland, and are exported thence, into germany, and other parts of the continent, under the name of _manna seeds_. these are used in soups, gruel, and puddings, even by persons of the first rank and consequence. when ground into flour, they are convertible into bread, which is little inferior to that made of wheat. the bran of these seeds is stated by linnæus to be useful as a medicine for horses that are troubled with worms. geese are fond of the seeds, and well know where to find them. it is remarkable that these seeds have hitherto been entirely neglected in england; though without difficulty they might be obtained in sufficient quantity to prove beneficial. 49. _the common reed_ (_arundo phragmites_, fig. 33) grows in ditches, ponds, and by the sides of rivers, attaining the height of six or seven feet, and flowering about the month of july. reeds are frequently made into screens or fences for gardens, and they are considered particularly eligible for sheltering tender plants from injury by cold, or blighting winds. they likewise make excellent _weavers' combs_; and, when nailed across a frame of wood-work, are frequently employed as a foundation for plaster floors. they are sometimes made into chair bottoms; and into thatch for cottages and out-buildings. from the flowers of the reed the country people of sweden extract a green dye, which they occasionally use for woollen cloth; and we are informed that, from the dried roots, a flour may be made, which is capable of being converted into a wholesome and nutritive bread. 50. _sea matweed_ (_arundo arenaria_, fig. 34) is an useful and common plant on most of our sandy sea shores. its cultivation has, at various times, been much encouraged, and even acts of parliament have been passed for its preservation, in consequence of its spreading roots giving stability to the loose, blowing sand, and thus raising a bulwark against the encroachments of the waves. the dutch are said to have availed themselves of the advantage of these plants in securing and rendering firm several parts of their coasts, which would otherwise have suffered much injury. at newborough, a town on the south coast of the island of anglesea, the inhabitants manufacture this plant into mats and ropes; and the danes employ the fibrous roots for making whisk brushes. the common people of iceland collect the seeds of the sea matweed for making bread. 51. _rye grass, or ray grass_ (_lolium perenne_, fig. 35), has, of late years, been cultivated in some countries, to considerable extent, as fodder for cattle. its agricultural merits were first discovered in norfolk, and, thence, the seeds have been distributed through the greater part of the kingdom; those who purchase them little suspecting that the plant was a weed in their own fields. in dry pastures, and by road sides, this kind of grass is extremely common. when sown in high or sandy lands, either alone or mixed with clover, it yields an earlier crop than most other grasses; and thus affords food at a season when it is sometimes difficult otherwise to be obtained. the ray grass that grows wild is stated to be much superior to that which is obtained by cultivation; and we are informed that, if sown in a rich and fertile soil, it will dwindle in a few years to a poor and insignificant grass. 52. _couch, or squitch grass_ (_triticum repens_, fig 36), is, in general, considered a troublesome and pernicious weed. the roots strike so deeply into the ground, and extend so widely, that the eradicating of them is frequently attended with difficulty. as the plant lies upon the ground it strikes out fibres from every joint; and so luxuriant is it sometimes seen, that a single joint, when transplanted, has, in the course of twelve months, covered a square yard of land. the roots of couch grass are collected in large quantities at naples, and sold in the market as food for horses. they have a sweetish taste, somewhat resembling that of liquorice; and, in times of scarcity, when dried and ground into meal, they have been converted into bread. a decoction of the roots is sometimes used in medicine. ---class iv.--tetrandria. ---monogynia. 53. _teasel_ (dipsacus fullonem) _is a plant, with a somewhat egg-shaped head of flowers, and hard reflected scales, which is cultivated in several parts of england, to be used in the carding of woollen cloth._ _the fullers teasel is distinguished from other plants of the same tribe by having its leaves connected at the base, the flower scales hooked, and the general calyx reflected or bent back._ the seeds of this plant are usually sown in strong rich land, about the commencement of spring. the flowers appear in july, and the blossoms begin to decay in the following month. shortly after this the heads are cut off, and exposed daily to the sun until they are perfectly dried. in the clothing counties of england the fuller's teasel is an article of considerable importance. the crooked scales accompanying the flowers are so hard and rough that the heads are employed for raising the nap of woollen cloths. for this purpose they are either set into flat boards like cards, or are fixed round the circumference of a large and broad wheel. the former are used with the hand; and the latter is turned round whilst the cloth is held against it. 54. _madder_ (rubia tinctorum) _is a rough, trailing plant, that grows wild in several parts of the south of europe, and is much cultivated in england and holland on account of its roots, which are used by dyers and calico-printers._ the land best adapted for the cultivation of madder is a soft, sandy loam. when the roots have attained sufficient growth, they are taken up, carefully peeled, and dried in an airy shed. after this they are conveyed to a kiln, where they undergo a kind of management somewhat similar to that adopted in the drying of hops (260). the next process is to pulverize them, which is done by pounding or grinding; a secret that was long exclusively possessed by the dutch. madder is extensively used in dyeing, not only on account of its yielding a fine red colour, but also as forming a first tint for several other shades. the madder used for dyeing cottons in the east indies, is, in some respects, different from that cultivated in europe. and, in the neighbourhood of smyrna, and in the island of cyprus, a kind of madder is grown which affords a peculiarly bright and beautiful colour. this root is sometimes employed in medicine, in obstructions of the bowels, rickets, and a few other complaints. it tinges water a dull red colour, and spirit of wine a deep bright red. when eaten by animals, it stains even their most solid bones. cows are remarkably fond of the madder plant; and when they freely eat of it their milk becomes red, yet the cream which it affords makes a yellow butter, 55. _sandal wood, or yellow saunders, is a yellowish, odoriferous wood, which is imported from the east indies in logs or short pieces, chiefly as a perfume, or for the manufacture of ornamental articles._ _the tree that produces it_ (santalum album) _grows principally on the coast of malabar, and in the island of timor. it has somewhat the appearance of a large myrtle, with stiff branches, and smooth, shining, spear-shaped leaves, each about two inches long. the flowers grow in clusters, small and red, and are succeeded by berries about the size of peas._ when the sandal wood trees are cut down they are stripped of their bark; after which the wood is usually chopped into billets or small pieces, and buried in a dry place for about two months. during this time the ants eat the outer part of it, without penetrating to the heart, which is the sandal. the billets are then taken up, smoothed, and sorted; and the deeper the colour the higher is found the perfume. in china this elegant wood, when cut into large planks, is sometimes made into coffins for the principal persons; and such coffins are said to resist the effects of air and moisture for many years. the chinese also reduce the wood to powder, and, with the addition of water, convert it into a paste, which they apply to their bodies, their furniture, and about their houses, as a perfume. the powder of sandal wood is likewise employed as an incense in their idolatrous temples. hence it is that a considerable trade in this wood exists between the east indies and china. besides the logs, the chips and cuttings of the roots of sandal wood are an article of commerce. from these chips, and from the waste wood, an odoriferous oil is sometimes prepared, which is considered nearly equal in fragrance to oil of roses. sandal wood is at present seldom used in medicine; though, from its powerful qualities, it might probably be applied to many medicinal purposes with success. it has a bitterish aromatic taste, accompanied by a degree of pungency which is by no means unpleasant, tetragynia. 56. _holly_ (ilex aquifolium) _is a small evergreen tree, with shining, irregular, and spinous leaves, and white flowers which grow in clusters round the branches, and are succeeded by small red berries._ in those parts of the country where hollies are very abundant they afford a cheerfulness to the scenery in winter which is extremely pleasing. it is on this account principally that they are planted in gardens and shrubberies. the barbarous taste of our ancestors was such that they frequently clipped them into the shape of birds, quadrupeds, and other fantastic representations of nature. as a fence, holly is eminently serviceable. when formed into hedges, it admits of being cropped, and retains its verdure and beauty, without injury, even through the severest winters. its growth is slow, and its duration longer than that of most other trees. the _wood_, which is hard and close-grained, is much used in veneering, and is frequently stained black, to imitate ebony. it is likewise advantageously used in making handles for knives, cogs for mill-wheels, and other articles. the _leaves_ in winter afford a grateful food to sheep and deer; and the _berries_ yield a subsistence, during this inclement season, to the feathered tribes. in some places, particularly in the island of corsica, the inhabitants employ the seeds of holly for making a beverage somewhat similar, but much inferior, to coffee. the _bark_ of the holly is smooth, and replete with a strong mucilaginous substance, from which the article called _bird-lime_ is made. for this purpose it is boiled ten or twelve hours; and, when the green rind is separated, it is covered up in a moist place, to stand for a fortnight. it is afterwards reduced to a tough paste, and washed in a running stream until no impurities are left. the next part of the process is to suffer it to ferment for four or five days; after which it is mixed, over the fire, with a third part of nut-oil (241), or some other oily fluid, and is thus rendered fit for use. bird-lime has a remarkably adhesive quality, particularly to feathers and other dry substances. it is, on this account, employed for the smearing of twigs to ensnare birds. in its elasticity and inflammable nature it has much resemblance to indian rubber; and, if any means could be adopted to harden it, there is little doubt but it might be substituted for that article. holly deserves to be much more extensively cultivated than it is. some years ago a person who purchased a holly wood in yorkshire, sold the bird-lime prepared from the bark to a dutch merchant, for nearly the whole sum of his original purchase. among the ancient romans it was customary to send branches of holly, to their friends, with new years' gifts, as emblematical of good wishes. we decorate our houses and churches with it at christmas, to give, as it has been observed, an air of spring in the depth of winter. ---class v.--pentandria. ---monogynia. 57. _alkanet is a dyeing drug, the bark of a root which produces a rough plant_ (anchusa tinctoria), _with downy and spear-shaped leaves, and clusters of small purple or reddish flowers, the stamens of which are shorter than the corolla._ though this plant is sometimes cultivated in england, by far the greater portion of the alkanet which we use is imported either from the levant, or from the neighbourhood of montpelier in france. alkanet imparts a fine deep red colour to all unctuous substances, and to spirits of wine; but it tinges water with a dull, brownish hue. its chief use is for the colouring of oils, plasters, lip-salve, and other similar articles. it is likewise employed in compositions for rubbing, and giving colour to mahogany furniture. wax tinged with alkanet, and applied to the surface of warm marble, stains it flesh colour, and sinks deep into the stone. 58. _the cowslip is a plant_ (primula veris) _which grows in most meadows and pastures, and is too well known to require any description._ the _flowers_ of the cowslip, when picked and dried, are sometimes used as a balsamic tea. when boiled, with a certain proportion of water and sugar, and afterwards properly fermented, they may be made into a peculiarly pleasant wine. the _roots_ have a fine odour; and, when immersed in ale or beer, are said to add considerably to the strength of the liquor. the _leaves_ are sometimes eaten as a pot-herb, and in salads; and both the leaves and flowers are an excellent food for silk-worms. 59. _buck-bean, or bog-bean_ (menyanthes trifoliata), _is a common plant in shallow ponds; and is distinguishable by its leaves growing in threes, and its pink and white flowers being shaggy on their inner surface._ there is no british plant the flowers of which are more beautiful than those of buck-bean; and nothing but the difficulty of propagating it in dry ground could prevent its having a place in every garden. the _leaves_ are intensely bitter, and are occasionally used in the highlands of scotland as a tea, to strengthen the stomach. the inhabitants of some parts of sweden employ them in place of hops, to impart a bitter taste to ale; two ounces of them being considered equal in strength to a pound of hops. by some persons the leaves of buck-bean are smoked instead of tobacco; and different preparations of this plant have been found efficacious as a remedy against agues, and in scorbutic and scrofulous diseases, rheumatisms, and dropsy. there is an opinion that sheep, when compelled to eat of buck-bean, are cured of the rot. in lapland it is said that the pounded roots, though very unpalatable, are sometimes converted into bread. 60. _scammony is a concrete or dried juice obtained from the roots of a climbing plant of the convolvulus tribe_ (convolvulus scammonia, fig. 7,) _which is cultivated in asiatic turkey, syria, and persia._ _this plant is known by having arrow-shaped leaves, notched in a particular manner at the base, and each flower-stalk bearing two or three large and somewhat purplish white flowers._ the roots of the scammony plant are thick, black on the surface, white within, and full of an acrid milky juice, which, in a concrete state, is frequently used in medicine. to obtain it, the earth, at a certain season of the year, is removed from the upper part of the roots whilst they are growing, and the tops are cut obliquely. the juice flows from the wound into a small vessel sunk into the earth, at the lower end of the gash, to receive it. but, as each root furnishes only a very small quantity, the produce of several roots is usually mixed together for the greater convenience of being exposed to the sun and dried. still, however, the quantity, thus obtained, is sometimes insufficient to supply the demand. in this case an addition is made to it by the pressure of juice from the leaves and stalks. the best scammony is imported from aleppo, in light, spongy, friable pieces, of shining blackish grey colour, which have a faint, unpleasant smell, and a bitterish, pungent taste. it is sometimes adulterated with flour, and sometimes even with sand or earth. in its medical effects, scammony, when administered alone, is an efficacious, though violent purgative. but if triturated or ground down with sugar, almonds, or gum-arabic, its operation becomes sufficiently mild and safe. 61. _jalap is a dark-coloured root, which is usually imported, in transverse slices, from south america._ _the plant that produces it_ (convolvulus jalapa, fig. 8) _belongs to the convolvulus tribe, and has generally somewhat heart-shaped leaves, and flowers that are reddish on the outside, and dark purple or yellowish within._ the name of jalap is derived from xalapa, a town in south america, situated betwixt vera cruz and mexico, where the plant, of which it is the root, was originally discovered, and whence it has been imported, in great quantities, into europe. the jalap plant is now cultivated in the botanical garden at charlestown, and in several other parts of america. when recent, the root is large, whitish, and full of juice; but, when dried, the best pieces are compact, hard, weighty, and of dark colour, with black circular marks. both in smell and taste it is very nauseous. it is frequently mixed with slices of bryony root; but these are easily distinguished by their paler colour and porous texture. the only mode in which this root is of use is as a medicine; and it is administered in substance, in a tincture, and an extract. it has been advantageously employed in several disorders; but, as it is very powerful in its effects, great caution is necessary in the use of it, particularly with children. 62. _peruvian bark is the produce of a tree which grows in south america, and chiefly in peru, whence its name has been derived._ _this tree_ (cinchona officinalis), _in size and general appearance, somewhat resembles our cherry-tree. its leaves are in pairs, oval, pointed, nerved, and smooth on the upper side; and the flowers hang in loose clusters, are fringed at the edges, and red in the inside_ (fig. 10.) formerly this valuable medicine had the name of _jesuit's bark_, from its having been first introduced into europe by some persons of the religious order called jesuits, that were settled in south america. they had been instructed in the use of it by the inhabitants of peru, to whom it had long been known; and it continued, for many years, to be a lucrative article of commerce to them. for its officinal name of cinchona it was indebted to the lady of a spanish viceroy, the countess del cinchon, who, about 170 years ago, derived great benefit from taking it. the tree from which it is obtained grows spontaneously, and in great abundance, in several of the mountainous forests of quito and peru. the proper time for cutting it is from september to november, the only season during which there is any considerable intermission from rain. the indians, as soon as they have discovered a spot where the trees are in sufficient number, build a few huts for themselves, and one large hut for containing the bark, to preserve it from wet. they then go forth, each furnished with a large knife, and a bag which will hold about fifty pounds' weight of bark. each tree occupies two men. they first cut or slice down the bark as far from the ground as they can reach. they then tie to the tree several sticks a little distance apart, and each about half a yard in length, to serve as a ladder by which they can ascend to the upper part, always slicing off the bark as far as they can reach, before they fix a new step. in this manner one of the two mounts to the top, whilst the man below collects what his companion cuts. to relieve each other, they ascend the different trees by turns; and they are generally able to fill their bags once in the course of the day. when they return to their huts, they spread out the bark to dry, and they are very careful to preserve it from wet, which would greatly injure it. there are three sorts of bark in use: the _pale_, the _red_, and the _yellow_. of these the two last have recently been discovered. the red is now very scarce, and is seldom brought into europe. the pale bark is imported, from the spanish main, in large bundles, closely packed in goat or other skins. the yellow is in much larger pieces, and flatter and thicker than those of the pale bark. we are informed, by some writers, that the peruvians first learned the use of this bark from observing certain animals, affected with intermittent fevers, instinctively led to it. others say that one of the inhabitants of peru, having an ague, was cured by drinking the water of a pool into which some trees of this kind had accidentally fallen. on its first introduction into europe, its use was opposed by many eminent physicians; and, for a long time afterwards, it was believed to be a very dangerous remedy. its character, however, in process of time, became perfectly established, and it is now considered one of the most valuable medicines we possess. peruvian bark is used as a remedy in intermittent fevers or agues; and, by some persons, is prescribed in other kinds of fevers, in confluent small-pox, in gangrenous sore throat, and indeed in every species of gangrene. it is given in powder, as an extract, a spirituous tincture, and a decoction; but the most efficacious form is that of powder. in taste it is bitter and astringent, leaving an impression upon the palate which continues for some time afterwards; but its smell is rather agreeable than otherwise. 63. _coffee is the seed of an evergreen shrub which is cultivated in hot climates, and is chiefly imported from arabia and the east and west indies._ _this shrub_ (coffea arabica, fig. 9) _is from fifteen to twenty feet in height. the leaves are four or five inches long, and two inches broad, smooth, green, and glossy on the upper surface; and the flowers, which grow in bunches at the base of the leaves, are white and sweet-scented. the berries or fruit are of a somewhat oval shape, about the size of a cherry, and of dark red colour, when ripe. each of these contains two cells, and each cell has a single seed, which is the coffee as we see it before it undergoes the process of roasting._ coffee is an article of only late introduction. to the greeks and romans it was wholly unknown. its use appears to have originated in ethiopia; and, in 1554, it is stated to have been first introduced into constantinople, whence it was gradually adopted in the western parts of europe. in 1652 mr. daniel edwards, a turkey merchant, brought with him to england a greek servant, whose name was pasqua, and who understood the methods of roasting coffee, and making it into a beverage. this man was the first who publicly sold coffee in this country; and he kept a house for that purpose in george yard, lombard street. at paris, coffee was nearly unknown until the arrival of the turkish ambassador, solomon aga, in 1669; about three years after which the first coffee-house is said to have been established in that city. the coffee shrub was originally planted in jamaica in 1732. great attention is paid to the culture of coffee in arabia. the trees are raised from seed sown in nurseries, and afterwards planted out, in moist and shady situations, on sloping grounds, or at the foot of mountains. care is taken to conduct little rills of water to the roots of the trees, which at certain seasons require to be constantly surrounded with moisture. as soon as the fruit is nearly ripe, the water is turned off, lest the fruit should be rendered too succulent. in places much exposed to the south, the trees are planted in rows, and are shaded from the otherwise too intense heat of the sun, by a branching kind of poplar tree. when the fruit has attained its maturity, cloths are placed under the trees, and, upon these, the labourers shake it down. they afterwards spread the berries on mats, and expose them to the sun to dry. the husk is then broken off by large and heavy rollers of wood or iron. when the coffee has been thus cleared of its husk, it is again dried in the sun, and lastly winnowed with a large fan, for the purpose of clearing it from the pieces of husks with which it is intermingled. a pound of coffee is generally more than the produce of one tree; but a tree in great vigour will produce three or four pounds. the best coffee is imported from mocha, a town on the eastern bank of the red sea. this, which in europe is called _mocha_ and _turkey coffee_, bears a higher price than any which our colonists are able to raise; owing, as it is supposed, to the difference of climate and soil in which it is grown. it is packed in large bales, each containing a number of smaller bales; and, when good, it appears fresh, and of a greenish olive colour. the coffee next in esteem to this is grown in java and the east indies, and that of lowest price in the west indies. when stowed in ships with rum, pepper, or other articles, it is said that coffee contracts a rank and unpleasant flavour, and this has been assigned as a reason of the inferiority of such as is imported from our own plantations. the quantity of coffee annually supplied by arabia is supposed to be upwards of fourteen millions of pounds. before the commencement of the french revolution the island of st. domingo alone exported more than seventy millions of pounds per annum. almost all the mahometans drink coffee at least twice a day, very hot, and without sugar. the excellence of coffee depends, in a great measure, on the skill and attention that are exercised in the roasting of it. if it be too little roasted, it is devoid of flavour; and if too much, it becomes acrid, and has a disagreeable burnt taste. in england the operation of roasting is usually performed in a cylindrical tin box, perforated with numerous holes, and fixed upon a spit which runs lengthwise through the centre, and is turned by a jack. in a medical view, coffee is said to be of use in assisting digestion, promoting the natural secretions, and preventing or removing a disposition to drowsiness. it has been found highly beneficial in relieving some cases of severe head-ach. the outer pulpy part of the berry, and the inner membrane, which immediately invests the seeds, are used by the arabians, and of these the former is much esteemed, and constitutes what is called _coffee à la sultane_. 64. _stramonium, or thorn-apple_ (datura stramonium), _is an annual plant, with thick round stalks, somewhat triangular leaves, jagged or toothed at the edges, large white and funnel-shaped flowers, and seed vessels large and beset with spines._ although originally a native of america, stramonium is now a frequent weed on dunghills, and in cultivated ground of our own country; and, when once introduced into a garden, it is difficult to be eradicated. its smell is exceedingly unpleasant, and its qualities are so pernicious, when taken internally, as to occasion giddiness, torpor, and sometimes even death. the seeds are particularly injurious. notwithstanding this, the inspissated or dried juice of the leaves has been considered a valuable remedy in epileptic and other convulsive disorders. an ointment prepared from them affords relief in external inflammations; and smoking the dried leaves has lately been recommended in asthmatic complaints. the soporiferous and intoxicating qualities of stramonium are well known in eastern countries, and have often occasioned the plant to be employed for very improper uses. 65. _tobacco, in the state that we see it, is a narcotic drug formed from the dried leaves of an annual plant_ (nicotiana tabacum, fig. 11) _that is principally cultivated in north america,_ _the stalk of the tobacco plant is erect, strong, round, and hardy. the leaves are large, oblong, pointed, clammy, and of pale green colour. the flowers, which terminate the stem and branches in loose clusters, are of reddish colour, and funnel shaped, with a long hairy tube; and the seed vessel is oval, and divided into two cells, that contain many rounded seeds._ the cultivation of tobacco is carried on to great extent in several parts of north america. the seed, mixed with ashes on account of its smallness, is sown a little before the beginning of the rainy season; and, in order the better to cover it, the beds are raked over or trampled upon. in about a fortnight the young plants begin to appear, and, as soon as they have four leaves, they are drawn up and transplanted in lines, and about three feet asunder, into the tobacco field. here they are kept clear of weeds; and, as soon as they have eight or nine leaves each, the tops are nipped off to make the leaves grow thicker and longer. when the plants are full grown, and the leaves are become somewhat brittle, they are cut with a knife close to the ground. they are suffered to lie upon the ground for a little while, after which they are carried to the drying shed, where they are hung by pairs upon lines or ropes. when perfectly dry, the leaves are stripped from the stalks, and made into small bundles tied round with another leaf. these bundles are laid in heaps, and covered with blankets for about seven days to heat; after which they are closely stowed in casks for exportation. the name of tobacco was given to this article from its having been originally brought into europe from tobago, or tabago, an island in the bay of panama, near the coast of america. to the american indians the use of tobacco has been known for many centuries; and the practice of _smoking_ it is common to almost all the tribes. tobacco forms a part of every entertainment; and, in the intervals of hunting, sleeping, and eating, it occupies no small portion of their time. in many of their religious ceremonies tobacco is used; and instances have occurred in which they have taken it in such quantity that death has ensued. the custom of smoking is understood to have been first introduced into england, by sir walter raleigh, during the reign of queen elizabeth, and a ludicrous story has often been told respecting it: that sir walter having directed a servant to bring him a jug of water, the man, at his return into the room, found him smoking, and, alarmed at seeing his master apparently on fire, threw the whole contents of the jug into his face to quench it. so extensive has this nauseous practice now become, especially in holland and germany, that it constitutes a daily luxury with nearly all the peasantry of those countries, as well as with the more indolent and wealthy classes of the inhabitants. to many constitutions it is very injurious. when first begun, it occasions vomiting, intoxication, and other unpleasant effects. these however, by repetition, are discontinued, though its stupifying qualities are never entirely overcome. another form under which tobacco is used, is that of _snuff_. the basis of snuff is tobacco powdered; but many other matters are added, to give it a peculiar smell, or to impart pungency to it. when first applied to the nose, snuff excites sneezing, but, by repetition, this entirely ceases. the practice of taking snuff has, in some instances, been found injurious to the smell and the voice; it has been attended with loss of memory, and by symptoms of a weakened or debilitated state of the nervous system. but there is no mode of using tobacco so disgusting, to persons unaccustomed to it, as chewing. by the labouring classes, and particularly by mariners, this practice is chiefly followed, from a notion, though apparently a very erroneous one, that it will prevent the return of hunger, and, in some degree, supply a lack of food. though all these are disgusting as practices, there is no doubt, but, medicinally, they may be attended with good effects. by smoking and chewing, tooth-ach has often been relieved; and some persons consider the former a means of guarding against contagion. the occasional and moderate use of snuff has, in several cases, been found beneficial, particularly in head-achs, and in diseases of the eyes and ears. infusions of tobacco are sometimes administered in medicine, but this drug is principally given in the form of a vinous or watery infusion. tobacco is a powerful medicine, and requires to be used with great caution. the smoke of this herb, when blown against noxious insects, destroys them, and is the means which gardeners adopt for ridding hot-houses and green-houses of such as infest their plants. the tobacco plant is sufficiently hardy to sustain the rigour of an european climate, and is cultivated in several parts of spain and portugal. as however, on importation, it pays a heavy tax to government, the culture of it in this country is restricted, by the legislature, to half a rod of ground in _physic gardens_; and if this be exceeded the cultivator is liable to a penalty of ten pounds for every rod. the different kinds of tobacco and snuff are attributable rather to the difference of climate and soil in which the plants have been grown, and to the different modes of management and manufacture, than to any essential distinction in the plants from which they are manufactured. 66. _deadly nightshade_ (atropa belladonna) _is an extremely poisonous plant, which grows in hedges and waste grounds, in several parts of england, and has somewhat oval leaves of dull green colour, purple bell-shaped flowers, and shining black berries, each about the size of a small cherry._ there is no british plant so injurious in its effects on the human frame as this; and the alluring appearance and sweetish taste of the _berries_ have, in many instances, particularly with children, been succeeded by the most fatal consequences. it is true that some persons have been known to eat three or four of them without injury; but in others a single berry, and even the half of one, has occasioned death. the _leaves_ are more powerful than the berries. the usual symptoms of this poison are a deep and deadly stupor, giddiness, delirium, great thirst, retching, and convulsions. a draught of vinegar, and keeping the patient constantly in motion, are said to be the best means of cure. some writers have supposed it was the deadly nightshade which produced those strange and dreadful effects that are described by plutarch to have been experienced by the roman soldiers, under the command of antony, during their retreat from the parthians:--"their distress for provisions was so great that they were compelled to eat of plants unknown to them. among others, they found an herb of which many ate; these, shortly afterwards, lost their memory and their senses, and wholly employed themselves in turning over all the stones they could find; then, being seized with vomiting, they fell down dead." the _leaves_ of the deadly nightshade have sometimes been used externally, and with good effect, in cases of cancer; and in ulcers and tumours of different kinds. they are likewise given, internally, in infusion; but the sufferings of the patient, however small the dose may be, are so dreadful that few practitioners like to resort to them. 67. _potatoe_ (solanum tuberosum) _is a well known edible root, which was originally imported into this country from america._ no root with which we are acquainted is so valuable to mankind in temperate climates, as the potatoe. in some countries, particularly in ireland, it forms a most important article of food to the lower classes of inhabitants. by the english peasantry the potatoe is by no means esteemed as it deserves. in addition to its value for culinary uses, it might, in a very essential degree, be made to serve as a substitute for bread. if duly prepared, and mixed with a nearly equal portion of wheat flour, it may even be made into loaves. a kind of cheese may be made, by reducing potatoes to the consistence of paste, adding an equal quantity of the curd from which cheese is made, with a little salt and some other ingredients, mixing the whole together, and forming them in moulds. the germans prepare a favourite dish by slicing boiled potatoes and pouring over them the same kind of sauce which is used for salads, and mixing anchovies with them. these roots afford an excellent food for horses and cattle; and it is said that bullocks will fatten on them more speedily than on cabbages or turnips. potatoes are likewise serviceable for the fattening of hogs; but, for a little while before these are killed, it is requisite to use barley meal in addition, as otherwise the fat of the bacon is liable to boil away in the cooking. in the use of potatoes as food, it is requisite to prepare them in some manner by heat, as otherwise they are both unpalatable and poisonous. a kind of brandy was formerly distilled from potatoes; but this has been forbidden by the legislature. starch may be made from potatoes, by the simple process of scraping them in water, and well washing the pulp: the starch settles to the bottom of the vessel, in a heavy and closely connected sediment. this starch is of use for the same purposes as starch prepared from wheat: it is also valuable as a size; which, unlike the size produced from animal substances, does not easily putrefy, and has no disagreeable smell. bakers in germany, by the addition of calcined oyster shells and burnt hartshorn, convert the pulp of potatoes into yeast. the _stalks_ or haulm of potatoes are capable of being made into paper. they are also of considerable utility as manure. the _apples_, or seed-vessels, may be usefully employed as a pickle: and, if properly prepared, they are said to be even more palatable than cucumbers. there are numerous varieties of the potatoe. of these the most remarkable are the different kinds of _kidney potatoes_, the _aylesbury white_, and _altringham early white_, which are chiefly grown for the table; the _ox noble_, _irish purple_, and _red potatoes_, which are adapted for fodder. this valuable root was originally imported from america, about the beginning of the seventeenth century. the inhabitants of ireland assert that it was first introduced into that country, by the accidental wreck, upon their coast, of a vessel which was laden with potatoes and freighted for england. the usual mode of planting potatoes is by cutting the roots into pieces, reserving one eye or bud to each division, and setting these in the earth. they will succeed in any tolerable soil; but they flourish most luxuriantly in light sandy loams. the proper time for digging them up is during dry weather in autumn, when the leaves and stems begin to decay. when cultivated on a small scale, they are usually dug with a three pronged fork; but when raised in fields, where this process would be too tedious, they are turned up by a plough. 68. _capsicums are south american and indian plants easily known by their hollow pods, of shining red or yellow colour, which contain many small, flat, and kidney-shaped seeds._ _the principal species are, heart or bell pepper_ (_capsicum grossum_), _guinea pepper_ (_capsicum annuum_, fig. 12), _and bird pepper_ (_capsicum baccatum_). all the species of capsicum possess the same general qualities. in hot climates, but particularly in the east and west indies, and some parts of spanish america, the fruit of these plants is much used for culinary purposes. it is eaten in large quantities, both with animal and vegetable food; and is mixed, in greater or less proportion, with almost all kinds of sauces. _cayenne pepper_ is made from the fruit of different species of capsicum. this fruit, when ripe, is gathered, dried in the sun, and then pounded; and the powder is mixed with a certain portion of salt, and kept, for use, in closely stopped bottles. of late years cayenne pepper has been introduced into most of the countries of europe; and it is now very generally used as a poignant ingredient in soups and highly seasoned dishes. its taste is extremely acrid, and it leaves a durable sensation of heat on the palate, which is best removed by butter or oil. when taken in small quantity, cayenne pepper is a grateful stimulant; and, in medicine it is used, both externally and internally, to promote the action of the bodily organs when languid or torpid; and it is said to be found efficacious in many gouty and paralytic cases. 69. _the guinea pepper, or annual capsicum_ (fig. 12), _is a slender herbaceous plant, with smooth leaves, white flowers, single flower stalks, and smooth, shining fruit of oblong shape, and usually of red and yellow colour._ this plant is a native both of the east and west indies, and is considered the most hardy of the whole tribe of capsicum. in many parts of the south of europe, its _fruit_ is eaten green by the peasants at their breakfasts, and is preferred by them to onions or garlic. the fruit of all the species may be rendered useful in domestic economy, either as a pickle, or as cayenne pepper. for the latter, it may be dried before a fire, and ground to powder in a common pepper-mill. 70. _the buck-thorn_ (rhamnus catharticus) _is a spinous shrub, which grows in thickets and hedges, and has clusters of small green flowers, globular black berries, and somewhat oval leaves, serrated at the edge._ about the month of september the berries of the buck-thorn begin to ripen; and, if these are bruised when perfectly ripe, they yield a green tint. they are made into the _sap-green_ which is used by painters in water-colours, by evaporating their juice to the consistence of a gum. from the juice of the unripe berries, mixed with alum, a yellow dye is obtained, which is employed by dyers, and also for staining maps or paper. if the fruit be gathered late in the autumn the juice is purple. the _syrup_ of buck-thorn berries is sometimes used in dropsies and other complaints, though there are objections to it from its occasioning sickness and griping. the berries have a faint disagreeable smell, and a nauseous bitter taste. it is not unusual to mix with, or substitute for them, the fruit of the berry-bearing alder, and of the dog-berry tree. the fraud is, however, easily detected on examination; for the buck-thorn berries have each four seeds, which the others have not. the _inner bark_ of the buck-thorn is said to yield a medicine preferable to that afforded by the berries, but it is an extremely powerful one. 71. _nux vomica, or vomic nut, is a round, flat seed, about an inch in diameter, of greyish brown colour, and horny consistence, the produce of a tree_ (strychnos nux vomica) _which grows in the east indies._ _the tree is of large size, and has somewhat oval leaves, in pairs, each marked with three or five strong ribs. the young branches have swelled joints. the flowers are in a kind of umbels at the extremity of the branches._ the _fruit_ which produces the vomic nut is a species of berry, about the size of a small apple, and covered with a hard substance somewhat resembling that of the pomegranate (154), and of beautiful orange colour when ripe. this fruit is filled with a pulp which contains the seeds. there is so great a consumption of nux vomica, that the quantity vended at the east india company's sales, in 1808, was about five tons' weight, and its price about nineteen shillings per hundred weight, exclusive of the duty. it is imagined that public brewers sometimes use this drug in the adulteration of ale and porter, for the purpose of rendering it more intoxicating than it otherwise would be. it is employed for the destruction of vermin; and is said to be quickly fatal to dogs, foxes, wolves, and most other quadrupeds. when pounded and mixed with oatmeal, it is used for the killing of rats. yet deleterious as this drug is, it has lately been employed on the continent, as a medicine of great efficacy, in spasmodic affections of the bowels, and some other complaints; but its administration ought only to be attempted by medical men. an extract of nux vomica has lately been imported from india; but it is not generally known for what purpose. 72. _the teak-tree_ (tectonia grandis) _is a valuable species of timber, which grows in the forests of the east indies._ _this tree attains the height of fifty feet and upwards. its leaves are somewhat oval, slightly scalloped, rough on the upper side, and clad with a white down beneath; and its flowers are in bunches, small, white, and fragrant._ for the building of ships, teak-wood is esteemed superior to every kind of timber except oak. it is said to be almost incorruptible in water; and its bitterness preserves it from the attack of worms. for all the purposes of carpentry, teak is the most useful timber that is produced in asia. it is easily wrought, and is peculiarly strong and durable. that which grows on the coast of malabar is considered the best; but the greatest quantity is obtained from pegu. the former is nearly all hill timber, whereas the latter is the produce of a low and flat country. in india much of the furniture is made of teak wood. the attention of government has of late been called to the cultivation of this timber; and great encouragement is now given to an extensive propagation of it. in the present scarcity of oak timber in england, the increase of teak in the east is become an object of importance to the prosperity of our navy. its culture has also been recommended in our west indian islands, the climate and soil of which are considered nearly similar to those of its native country. 73. _mangos, as they are imported into this country, are the unripe fruit of an east indian tree_ (mangifera indica) _pickled in vinegar._ _the mango tree grows to a great size, and has spear-shaped leaves, each eight or nine inches long, and two inches wide. the flowers spring, in a loose kind of bunch, from the extremity of the stems._ the _fruit_ of this tree, when ripe, is as large as a goose's egg, and is much esteemed in india, on account of its invigorating odour; which, it is imagined, will restore health to persons in a declining state. beneath its rough shell there is a kernel, similar to that of the almond, which may be eaten either fresh or preserved. from the expressed juice of this fruit the indians prepare a kind of wine. when intended for pickling, the fruit is gathered in an unripe state. an imitation of mangos is made in our own country with a particular sort of melon. a small square piece is cut from the side of the melon, through which the seeds are taken out. it is then filled with mustard seeds and shred garlic, and afterwards pickled with vinegar and spices. large cucumbers are sometimes prepared as mangos. 74. _red currants are the fruit of a well known shrub_ (ribes rubum), _which is cultivated, in gardens; and which also grows wild in woods or thickets of some of the northern parts of england. its bunches are smooth and pendant; and its flowers are flattish._ the utility of this fruit in domestic economy has long been established. its _juice_, if boiled with an equal weight of loaf sugar, forms an agreeable substance, called _currant jelly_, which is much employed in sauces and for other culinary purposes; and also in the cure of sore throats and colds. the french frequently mix currant jelly with sugar and water, as a beverage; and, by many persons, this mixture is preferred to orgeat or lemonade. the juice of currants is a valuable remedy in obstructions of the bowels; and, in febrile complaints, it is useful on account of its readily quenching thirst, and for its cooling effect on the stomach. this juice, fermented with a proper quantity of sugar, becomes a palatable wine, which is much improved by keeping; and which, with care, may be kept for twenty years and upwards. modes of making this, as well as other british wines, are to be found in all the domestic receipt books. the _inner bark_, boiled with water, is a popular remedy in jaundice; and, by some medical men, it has been administered in dropsical complaints. _white_ and _flesh-coloured currants_ have, in every respect, the same qualities as the red species. 75. _black currants are the fruit of a garden shrub_ (ribes nigrum) _which is distinguished by having its bunches hairy and its flowers oblong._ the berries of the black currant shrub are larger than those of the red; and, in some parts of siberia, are said to attain the size of a hazel nut. they are occasionally made into wine, jelly, and rob or syrup. the two latter are frequently employed in the cure of sore throats; and, from the great use of black currants in quinsies, they have sometimes been denominated _squinancy_ or _quincy berries_. the leaves are fragrant, and have been recommended for their medicinal virtues. an infusion of them, in the manner of tea, is very grateful, and, by many persons, is preferred to tea. the tender leaves tinge common spirits so as to resemble brandy; and an infusion of the young _roots_ is useful in fevers of the eruptive kind. black currant trees grow wild in wet hedges, and near the banks of rivers, in several parts of norfolk. the _dried currants_ of the shops do not belong to this family, but are a small kind of grape (79). 76. _gooseberries are the fruit of a prickly shrub_ (ribes grossularia) _which grows wild in cheshire, lancashire, and several parts of yorkshire._ few of the garden fruits are more esteemed for the table than gooseberries. for culinary purposes, gooseberries are generally employed before they are ripe; but this is founded on erroneous notions of their chemical properties, since, either for sauces or wine, though they are more cool and refreshing, they do not possess the delicate flavour and rich saccharine qualities which are inherent in the ripe fruit. wine made of gooseberries has great resemblance to champaigne. in the making of wine, after the juice has been expressed, it is customary to throw away the _skins_ of the fruit. these, however, may with advantage be employed in distillation, as they afford an agreeable spirit somewhat resembling brandy. when kept a few months, this spirit is said to be little inferior, either in strength or flavour, to the best cogniac brandy. vinegar may be made from gooseberries. some of the kinds are bottled while green, and kept for winter use; and others are, for the same purpose, preserved with sugar. gooseberries vary much in colour, size, and quality. some are smooth, and others hairy. some are red, others green, and others yellow or amber coloured. wild gooseberries are greatly inferior, in size, to those which are cultivated in gardens. 77. _ipecacuanha_ (viola ipecacuanha) _is a medicinal root, small, wrinkled, bent, and contorted into a great variety of shapes; which is imported from the west indies and south america, and is given as an emetic._ there are three kinds of ipecacuanha: ash-coloured or grey, brown, and white. of these, the ash-coloured is usually preferred for medicinal use, from its being more efficacious than the white, and less violent than the brown. ipecacuanha was first brought into europe towards the middle of the seventeenth century; but it was not admitted into general use until about the year 1686, when it was introduced into practice under the patronage of louis the fourteenth of france. its taste is bitterish and somewhat acrid; and it seems to cover the tongue with a kind of mucilage. it is one of the mildest and safest emetics with which we are acquainted; and is administered in powder, as a wine, and as a tincture. it has this peculiar advantage, that, if it do not operate as an emetic, it passes off without injury by the skin or bowels. in very small doses it is efficacious in obstinate coughs, and in several other complaints. the roots of a kind of dogsbane (_apocynum_) are not unfrequently substituted for those of ipecacuanha; but, in some instances, this substitution has been attended with fatal consequences. 78. _vines are a very important tribe of shrubs, to the fruit of which we are indebted for all our foreign wines, for raisins of every description, and for the dried currants of the shops._ _several species of vine are cultivated; but by far the most important of the whole is the common vine_ (vitis vinifera _of linnæus_). the earliest introduction of the vine into the western parts of europe is stated to have been about the year 280, under the sanction of probus, the roman emperor, who, throughout his whole dominions, was a zealous encourager of agricultural pursuits. there can be no doubt that vines were anciently propagated in our own island for the purpose of wine, and that there were vineyards of considerable extent in gloucestershire, hampshire, and some other counties; but, as vines are principally found to flourish in inland countries, lying betwixt the thirtieth and fifty-first degrees of latitude, it is evident that there can be no part of great britain sufficiently adapted to their successful cultivation. any person who has seen a hop garden, may easily form an idea of the appearance of a _vineyard_. vines are usually propagated by slips, cuttings, or offsets from the roots. these, when they have obtained a sufficiency of roots, are transplanted from the nursery-ground into the vineyard, the soil of which ought to be light and rich. they are placed, in this ground, in rows, and at regular intervals, leaving space sufficient for the vine-dressers and the reapers to pass betwixt them; and as soon as the rooted plants are three years old, they begin to bear fruit. the season for pruning and dressing them is the early part of the year, before the sap begins to rise; and about the time when the flowers appear, the plants are fastened to poles, for the purposes of supporting them, of preventing them from growing entangled with each other, admitting a free circulation of air amongst them, and affording greater convenience for gathering the fruit. the vintage, which is a season of mirth and delight to the whole country, commences in the early part of autumn. the villagers assemble in the respective vineyards under the direction of overseers. the reaping of the grapes is, in general, performed in three distinct gatherings. the first of these comprehends all the finest and ripest bunches, carefully clearing away from them every grape that appears green or decayed: the second is confined to the large and thick clusters which are not so ripe as the others; and those which are nearly green, withered, or decayed, are gathered last. to obtain the juice from the grapes, they are subjected to the operation of large presses of somewhat similar construction to the cyder presses of our own country (the separate gatherings being still kept apart), and the juice is received into vessels fixed for that purpose. afterwards it undergoes the necessary fermentation to convert it into wine. by the ancients the juice was obtained by treading the grapes. this practice is alluded to in various parts of scripture, but perhaps in none are the characteristics of the ancient vintage expressed more strongly than in the predictions of isaiah concerning moab: "and gladness is taken away, and joy out of the plentiful field; and in the vineyards there shall be no singing, neither shall there be any shouting: the treaders shall tread out no wine in their presses; i have made their vintage-shouting to cease." the treading of grapes is still practised in several parts of the world. the ancients frequently kept their wine in skins, or leathern bags, well secured at the seams; hence the passage in the gospels; "neither do men put new wine into old bottles; else the bottles break, and the wine runneth out, and the bottles perish: but they put new wine into new bottles, and both are preserved." the kinds of wine are extremely various. the difference which exists betwixt them is not, however, so much owing to a distinction in the species of grapes, as in the quality of the fruit, produced by the varieties of soil, cultivation, and climate to which they are subject. this difference likewise depends, in some instances, on the peculiar mode of fermentation, and the state of the grapes from which the wine is produced. (_a_) portuguese wines.--of all the kinds of wine that are consumed in england, none are so much in request as _red port_. this has its name from the city of oporto, in the neighbourhood of which the vines that produce it are chiefly cultivated. a great proportion, however, of the port that is consumed in england, is said to be mixed with a spanish red wine of inferior quality, or to be otherwise adulterated. red port is brought over in casks called pipes, which measure 138 gallons each, and ought to fill fifty-two dozen bottles of legal measure. the difference in colour betwixt red wines and white does not so much depend upon the quality of the grape, as upon the mode in which the wines are prepared. the juice of red grapes, if carefully pressed, and fermented separately from the skins, forms a white wine. if the skins be pressed so as to discharge the colouring matter they contain, or, if they be allowed to remain in the juice during the fermentation, the wine assumes a red tinge. _white port_, and _lisbon_, are two kinds of white wine which we receive from portugal. of these, the former was much in demand some years ago, but it is now seldom called for; the latter is still in use. (_b_) french wines.--many excellent wines are produced in france. that usually considered the best is _burgundy_, a red wine of very delicate flavour, which has its name from the province where it is made. the wines of the neighbourhood of orleans, however, after having been matured by age, are much like burgundy. _claret_ is the only french red wine for which there is any great demand in england. it is thin and highly flavoured, and is chiefly supplied from the neighbourhood of bourdeaux. some of the red wines of champaigne are highly prized for their excellence and delicacy, though they, occasionally, have a pungent and sourish taste. _hermitage_ is produced from vineyards, at a place so called, near the village of thein, on the eastern bank of the rhone; and _côte rotie_ from vineyards on the opposite side of the river. no french white wine has so much celebrity as _champaigne_. this is of two kinds; one of which, called still or quiet champaigne, has gone through the whole process of fermentation; the other, which has the name of sparkling champaigne, has been bottled before the fermentation was complete: this, consequently, proceeds slowly in the bottle, and causes the wine, on the drawing of the cork, to sparkle in the glass. _vin de grave_ is produced in the vicinity of bourdeaux, and the lower parts of gascoigne: _pontac_ is made in guienne; and _frontignac_ and _muscadel_ are white wines, the delicious productions of languedoc. (_c_) spanish wines.--the country about xeres, in andalusia, is celebrated for a grape which produces an excellent wine called _sherry_. there are several french and english houses at xeres and seville which trade, to great extent, in this wine. it is very strong, and full-bodied, owing, in a great degree, to the quantity of brandy with which it is mixed. in the province of valencia, some of the proprietors have wines of different kinds, sixty, eighty, and even a hundred years old, the prices of which differ according to their age. _rota_, in seville, produces a rich and sweet white wine; and the country around _malaga_, near gibraltar, is celebrated for white wine which is known by that name; and so assiduously is the cultivation of the vine there pursued, that the export of the produce of the vineyards yields to the inhabitants an annual revenue of more than 200,000_l._ sterling per annum. we import from spain a harsh and inferior kind of _red wine_, which, duty free, sells for only 10_l._ or 15_l._ per pipe of 126 gallons; but the territory of alicant produces a very rich and excellent kind of red wine. the sweet red wine which we call _tent_ is a spanish production; chiefly imported from cadiz, and in hogsheads of about sixty gallons each. it is made from the juice of a particular kind of grapes, which are not used for this purpose until some time after they have been perfectly ripe. (_d_) italian wines.--notwithstanding the ancient celebrity of many of the wines of italy, by far the greater part of what are now manufactured in that country are thin and bad. certain vineyards on mount vesuvius, however, still have great celebrity for a luscious red wine called _lachryma christi_. (_e_) german wines.--germany produces many excellent wines, of which tokay, hock, rhenish, and moselle, are the most celebrated. _tokay_ has its name from a town in hungary, near which it is chiefly made. the quantity of this wine is so small that, even on the spot where it is manufactured, it is sold at a very high price. it is made by mixing with the common grapes a portion of luscious, half-dried, and shrivelled grapes; the latter being absolutely necessary to constitute the peculiar quality of the wine. the two kinds of grapes are pressed separately, and the juice is afterwards mixed, fermented, and strained through a cloth or sieve into the barrels in which it is to continue. the best tokay does not long remain in the place where it is made, a great portion of it being sent into the cellars of the nobility in other parts of hungary. tokay is certainly a fine wine, but is no way adequate to the price for which it is sold. several years ago it could not be purchased, even in hungary, for much less than half a guinea of english money per bottle; and yet there are few englishmen, who, except on account of its scarceness, would prefer it to good claret or burgundy. of all the german wines, that which is in greatest demand in england is _hock_. this has its name from the town of hochstadt in suabia, celebrated for a great battle which was fought in its neighbourhood by the french and the allies in 1704. _rhenish_ and _moselle_ are produced chiefly on the banks of the rivers rhine and moselle, and have a cool, sharp taste, and considerable strength. anterior to the late wars in germany, there were wines in the cellars of many of the noble and wealthy inhabitants of that country which were more than a hundred years old, and of such body as to be uninjured even by so great an age. (_f_) madeira and teneriffe wines.--to the madeira and canary islands we are indebted for some excellent white wines. of these _madeira wine_ is considered by far the most valuable, particularly after it has been ripened by conveyance into a hot climate. the number of pipes of madeira annually made is about 30,000. the grapes, when gathered, are put into wooden vessels, and the juice is extracted by persons treading upon them. the canary islands gave name to a rich white wine, which was formerly in great esteem under the name of _canary sack_, and is now usually called _malmsey madeira_. the genuine _malmsey_ wine, which is of sweet and luscious flavour, and rich golden yellow colour, is the produce of malvesia, one of the greek islands, and thence had originally its name, the french merchants denominating it _vin de malvesia_: but so little is now made that few persons can possess it. _teneriffe wine_, when two or three years old, has much the flavour of madeira, but, after this age, it becomes so sweet and mellow, as somewhat to resemble malaga. (_g_) cape wines.--there are produced, at the cape of good hope, two kinds of peculiarly rich, sweet, and delicate wine, called _red_ and _white constantia_. the farm from which they have their name is situated about eight miles from cape town. the grapes of this farm, owing, as it is supposed, to some peculiarity in the soil, are superior to any other in the whole country. the vintage commences about march or april; and great care is taken in the manufacture of the wine, no fruit being used but such as is fully ripe and in the highest perfection. the annual produce is considered to be about sixty pipes of the red, and 100 pipes of the white wine. constantia is in perfection when about two years old; but, when kept six or seven years, it sparkles in the glass somewhat like wine which has not undergone a perfect fermentation. what is denominated _cape madeira_ is a light kind of white wine, the produce of the cape of good hope. considerable quantities of this wine are now consumed in england, in consequence of the lowness of its price. this is owing to its paying to government only one-third part of the duty which is imposed on most other wines. the juice of unripe grapes has a harsh, sour, and rough taste. this, under the name of _verjuice_, was formerly much esteemed for culinary and other purposes. the young twigs of the vine, when dried, cut into small pieces, and moistened with water, afford a wholesome food for cattle and horses. the _leaves_ and _tendrils_ have an astringent taste, which it is probable they would impart to british made wines, and thus render them somewhat similar to foreign wines. the _wood_ of the vine, reduced to charcoal, is used by painters for drawing outlines; and, from the seeds or _stones_, a kind of oil is sometimes made, which can scarcely be distinguished from olive oil. these stones, when purified, moderately roasted, and ground to a coarse powder, form a tolerable substitute for chocolate. _brandy_ is a spirituous liquor, produced by the distillation of wine; and prepared in most of the wine countries of europe. the principal manufactories of this spirit are in france, particularly in languedoc, and anjou, whence comes the well-known _cognac brandy_. the distilleries of brandy in catalonia, in spain, are so extensive as to yield more than 35,000 pipes per annum. when brandy first issues from the still, it is colourless as water; and the colour, which is given to it by the merchants, is produced partly by the oaken casks in which it is kept, but chiefly by the addition of red saunders wood, burnt sugar, and other colouring matters. these, however, do not in the least affect the quality of the spirit. in addition to the preceding uses of the vine, we have to add those of its fruit in a recent state, called _grapes_, as a delicious addition to our desserts; and of this fruit, in a dried state, under the appellation of raisins and currants. _raisins_ are grapes which have been suffered to remain on the trees until they are perfectly ripe, and have been dried. they are occasionally dried in ovens. sometimes the clusters, being tied several together, are dipped in a ley of the ashes of rosemary and vine branches, with a certain portion of slaked lime, and are then dried by exposure to the sun. the best fruit of this description are the _sun_, and _jar raisins_; both of which are dried in the sun, without any preparation. these are imported from the southern countries of europe; and also from the asiatic provinces of turkey. they are principally used for desserts, whilst _malaga raisins_, and some other kinds, are employed for culinary purposes and the making of wine. 79. _the currants of commerce are a small kind of raisins, or dried grapes, which are produced in the grecian archipelago, and particularly in the islands of zante and cephalonia._ the chief plantation of these grapes was anciently in the isthmus of corinth, whence they obtained the name of _corinths_, since corrupted to currants, few, however, are now produced there, the vineyards having been neglected in consequence of the jealousy of the turks not allowing large vessels to enter the gulf for their exportation. these grapes have no stones, are usually either of a red or black colour, and when recently gathered, are an extremely delicious fruit. the harvest commences in the month of august, and as soon as the grapes are plucked from the trees, they are spread to dry, upon a floor prepared for the purpose by stamping the earth quite hard. this floor is formed with a gentle rising in the middle, that the rain, in case any should fall, may run off, and not injure the fruit. when sufficiently dry, the currants are cleaned, and laid up in magazines, being poured into them through a hole, and stowed so closely that it is necessary to dig them out with an iron instrument. they are packed for exportation in large casks, and by persons who have their feet greased in order to tread them close. the principal consumption of currants is in england; but the inhabitants of the islands whence they are brought know little of the use we make of them. they imagine that we employ them only in the dyeing of cloth, and are entirely ignorant of our luxury of christmas pies, and plum puddings. a small but inferior kind of currants are grown in some parts of spain. digynia. 80. _beet_ (beta vulgaris) _is a well known fleshy or succulent root, which is cultivated in our kitchen gardens, and grows wild in several countries of the south of europe._ _there are two principal varieties of beet, one of which is of deep red or purple colour, and the other is white, crossed with bands of red._ red beet is principally used at table boiled and cut in slices: it is, however, sometimes pickled, and sometimes stewed with onions; but, if eaten in great quantity, it is said to be injurious to the stomach. the roots may be taken out of the ground for use about the end of august, but they do not attain their full size and perfection till the month of october. when good they are large, and of deep red colour; and, when boiled, they are tender, sweet, and palatable. it has lately been ascertained that beet roots may be substituted for malt, if deprived of the greater part of their juice by pressure, then dried, and treated in the same manner as the grain intended for brewing. the beer, made from beet, has been found perfectly wholesome and palatable, and little inferior to that prepared from malt. from _white beet_ the french, during the late war, endeavoured to prepare sugar; that article, as a british colonial produce, having been prohibited in france. for this purpose, the roots were boiled as soon as possible after they were taken from the earth. when cold, they were sliced, and afterwards the juice was pressed out, and evaporated to the consistence of syrup. the sugar was obtained, from this syrup, by crystallization. from 110 pounds' weight of the roots, 41½ pounds of juice were obtained, which, on further evaporation, yielded somewhat more than 4¼ pounds of brown sugar; and these, by a subsequent operation, produced four pounds of well grained white powder sugar. the residuum, together with the syrup or molasses which remained, produced after distillation, 3½ quarts of rectified spirit, somewhat similar to rum. 81. _mangel wurzel or root of scarcity, is a plant of the beet tribe_ (_a variety of_ beta cicla) _with large and red veined leaves; those arising from the root being on footstalks, and those of the stem being without stalks, and the flowers growing in threes._ the farmers, in some parts of germany, cultivate this plant as food for cattle, and they are said to prefer it, for that use, to potatoes, turnips, carrots, and indeed to most other vegetables. it was introduced to the public notice in england, by the late dr. lettsom; and it has been strongly recommended, not only for the feeding of cattle, but also for the use of man. both the _leaves_ and _root_ grow to very large size; and the former, which may be eaten as spinach, continue in season long after that plant is withered. the root is insipid and unpalatable; but the stalks, and the stronger middle part of the leaves, may be stewed, or eaten plain-boiled, as asparagus. 82. _barilla is the spanish name of a plant_ (salsola soda) _from the ashes of which is produced the salt called_ kali _or_ soda. _soda is also procured from the ashes of_ prickly saltwort (salsola kali), shrubby saltwort (salsola fructicosa), _and numerous plants of other tribes._ on the shores of the mediterranean, where the preparation of soda is pursued to considerable extent, the seeds of the plants from which it is obtained are regularly sown in places near the sea. when at a sufficient state of maturity, the plants are pulled up by the roots, dried, and afterwards tied in bundles to be burnt. in some places, this is done in ovens constructed for the purpose; and in others, in trenches dug near the sea. the ashes, whilst they are hot, are continually stirred with long poles, and the saline matter they contain forms, when cold, a solid mass, almost as hard as stone. this mass is afterwards broken into pieces of convenient size for exportation. the best sort of spanish soda is in dark-coloured masses of bluish tinge, very heavy, sonorous, dry to the touch, and it externally abounds in small cavities. its taste is sharp, corrosive, and strongly saline. soda is chiefly employed in glass and soap manufactories. see the uses of minerals, vol. i. no. 200. 83. _elms are forest-trees well known in almost every part of england. there are several species, of which, however, only three, the_ common elm (ulmus campestris, fig. 61,) wych hazel, _or_ broad-leaved elm (ulmus montana, fig. 62,) _and_ dutch elm (ulmus suberosa), _grow in this country without cultivation_. _they are easily distinguishable from most other forest-trees, by their leaves being rough, and doubly serrated at the edge._ _of these trees the flowers of the first are four-cleft, and have each four stamens, and the fruit is oblong: those of the second are five or six cleft, and have each five or six stamens, the fruit is roundish, and the leaves are broad; those of the third are four-cleft, and have four stamens, and the bark of the branches has a corky appearance._ the dutch elm is grown in most parts of england. the common elm, though plentiful in worcestershire, middlesex, and some other southern counties, is said to be rare further north than grantham or stamford. the wych hazel is common in woods and hedges throughout the whole of south britain. the use of the elm as _timber_ is chiefly confined to rough and inferior work. implements of husbandry are almost wholly made of it; and it is employed for waggons, carts, mill-wheels, water-pipes, low-priced chairs, blocks for hat-makers, and various other purposes; and among the lower and middling classes, almost exclusively, for coffins. the preference which it has obtained for the latter purpose, is supposed to have originated in its peculiar durability in moist situations. some of the northern writers state that, from the _inner bark_ of the elm, if stripped off in the spring, and boiled in water, a very palatable kind of beer may be brewed; and that this bark, dried and ground to powder, has, in times of scarcity, been mixed with meal to make bread. it is occasionally administered as a decoction for obstinate cutaneous complaints; and it has been proposed for use in rheumatism, dropsy, and other diseases. the young _leaves_ may be used for the feeding of silk-worms. few trees are better adapted than the elm for planting in hedge rows, along the sides of roads, and along shady walks; but in the latter case the numerous suckers which grow up from its roots give much trouble to keep the ground clear. 84. _gentian is a bitter drug, the dried root of a plant_ (gentiana lutea) _which grows wild amongst the alps, and in other mountainous parts of the continent._ _the flower-stem of the gentian is two or three feet high, strong, smooth, and erect. the leaves which grow upon its lower part are spear-shaped and ribbed, and those on the upper part are concave, smooth, and egg-shaped. the flowers, which are large and yellow, grow round the upper part of the stem on strong footstalks, and are divided at the edge into five or more segments. the calyx is a kind of sheath._ gentian is one of the principal bitters that are now used in medicine; and is of considerable service in fevers, and in such complaints as arise from weakness of the stomach. it is externally of a brown colour, and internally yellowish or bright red. its taste is at first sweetish, but immediately afterwards bitter and pungent. as a simple bitter, it is rendered more grateful to the stomach by the addition of some warm aromatic; and, for this purpose, orange-peel is commonly employed. an extract of gentian root, boiled with water till it has nearly the consistence of honey, is kept in the shops. 85. _garden carrot_ (daucus carota) _is a plant too well known to need any description._ in few vegetable productions are the effects of cultivation more conspicuous than in the carrot. the wild plants, which are common in most parts of england, have a root so small and woody, that no one could suppose they had any alliance whatever to the large and succulent root of the garden carrot. the various uses of the carrot in cookery are well known. but, although it contains much nutriment, this root is difficult of digestion; particularly if eaten raw, or imperfectly boiled. carrots are an excellent fodder for cattle and horses, either alone or mixed with hay; and, if given to cows, in winter or the early part of spring, they are said to cause a great increase of milk. if carrots be boiled with their wash, hogs will thrive well upon them. in some parts of england this vegetable has been cultivated as a winter food for deer; and the leaves have sometimes been made into hay. carrots contain a large proportion of saccharine matter, and various but unsuccessful experiments have been made to extract sugar from them. they have, however, been more advantageously employed in distillation. ten pounds' weight of carrots will yield about half a pint of very strong, ardent spirit: and the carrots (twenty tons in weight) produced by an acre of ground, have been known to produce 240 gallons of spirit. a syrup made of these roots, and clarified with the white of eggs, has been found useful for many purposes. an infusion of the _seeds_ and the expressed juice of the roots, are said to afford relief in fits of the gravel. a marmalade of carrots has been used with success in sea-scurvy, and a poultice prepared from them is sometimes employed in cancerous ulcers. crickets are so fond of these roots that they may easily be destroyed by making a paste of flour, powdered arsenic, and scraped carrots, and placing this near their habitations. 86. _rock samphire_ (crithmum maritimum) _is an umbelliferous plant, with fleshy, spear-shaped leaflets, and small but regular-shaped white flowers._ the cliffs of dover have long been celebrated for the production of this vegetable, which has received an additional interest from the notice that shakspeare has taken of the gathering of it: "half-way down hangs one that gathers samphire; dreadful trade!" it is also found on cliffs of other parts of the south of england, as well as in italy, france, and spain; and generally in inaccessible situations. in some parts of england the _leaves_ of samphire pickled in vinegar are in use for the table: they are also used in salads, and for other culinary purposes. but their place is frequently supplied by a much more common plant, which grows in salt marshes, and has the name of _marsh samphire_ (_salicornia_). this, however, is a very inferior substitute, and entirely destitute of the fine aromatic flavour of the former species. 87. _asafoetida is a resinous gum, procured from the root of a large umbelliferous plant_ (ferula asafoetida) _which grows in the mountains of some parts of persia._ _the leaves of this plant are nearly two feet long, doubly winged, and have the leaflets alternate. the flowers are small, and the seeds oval, flat, and each marked with three longitudinal lines._ no one who has ever smelt the peculiarly powerful, and garlic-like odour of asafoetida, can well forget it. if exposed to the air, but particularly when heated, it will pervade every apartment of a house. notwithstanding this, it constitutes a favourite seasoning, for food, with the inhabitants of many of the eastern countries of the world. the banian indians, who never eat animal food, use it in almost all their dishes; and, before their meals, they even rub their mouths with it, to stimulate their appetite. it is sometimes used by our own cooks, but in very small quantity, in place of garlic. in many parts of arabia and persia, asafoetida is much esteemed as a remedy for internal diseases, and even as an external application to wounds; and, with us, it is considered a powerful medicine in several disorders. it has been applied with success, in the cure of hooping-cough and worms; and in flatulent colics, it has, in many cases, afforded great relief. it is imported in masses of various sizes and form, and of yellow, brown, or bluish colour, sometimes interspersed with roundish white pieces. the plant from the root of which asafoetida is produced grows in the mountains which surround the small town of disgnun, in persia; and, at the season when it is collected, the whole place smells of it. the upper part of the roots, which are sometimes as thick as a man's leg, rises somewhat above the surface of the ground. the harvest commences when the leaves begin to decay; and the whole gathering is performed by the inhabitants of the place, in four different journeys to the mountains. the demand for the article in foreign countries being first ascertained to be sufficient for the trouble of collecting, the persons employed proceed to the mountains in companies of four or five each. the juice is obtained by cutting the roots across, at the same time sheltering them by the leaves (which have been previously twisted off) from the intense heat of the sun. each party takes into its care about 2000 plants. after the first incision has been made, the roots are suffered to remain untouched for about a month, when they are again visited, and the gum which has exuded is taken off. this operation is repeated three times, a few days betwixt each; after which the plants are exhausted and left to die. at the respective gatherings each party generally brings away about fifty pounds' weight of asafoetida. it is stated that a single ship is exclusively devoted to transporting the bulk of this commodity to the ports in the persian gulf; and that, when smaller parcels are carried, it is usual to tie them to the top of the mast. in the year 1784, the asafoetida plant was introduced into the botanic garden at edinburgh, from seeds which had been sent by dr. guthrie of petersburgh to dr. hope. the _ferula tribe_ consists of nine or ten known species of plants, and it is supposed that asafoetida is yielded by several of them. in some parts of the levant the sailors are said to use the _stalks_ of a species of ferula to transport fire from one island to another. this custom is of great antiquity, and explains a passage of hesiod, who, speaking of the fire stolen from heaven by prometheus, says that he carried it in a ferula. the foundation of this fable is undoubtedly owing to what diodorus siculus informs us of prometheus, that he was the inventor of the steel with which fire is struck from flint; and in all probability that prince made use of the pith of the ferula instead of tinder, to convey it from one place to another. 88. _coriander is a small globular seed, produced by an annual umbelliferous plant_ (coriandrum sativum), _with leaves in slender segments, and small whitish flowers, that grows wild in suffolk and essex, and is cultivated in several parts of england._ in several farms in essex and kent the cultivation of coriander is pursued to considerable extent. this is done solely for the seed, which is used by distillers, druggists, and confectioners. in some parts of the north of europe it is ground and mixed with dough, to give an aromatic flavour to bread. coriander is usually grown with teasel (53) and caraway (91); but, as neither of the latter come to perfection until the second year after they have been sown, the coriander is harvested without interfering with the other crops. in this labour, which usually commences about the beginning of july, women and children are principally employed: and, to prevent the seeds of the largest and best plants from being shed and lost, each stem is cut separately. the stems are then carried into some convenient part of the field, and threshed all together upon a sail cloth. so luxuriantly, and, at the same time, so abundantly does this plant grow in a wild state, in some of the southern parts of europe, as almost to choke the growth of wheat and other grain. every part of it, except the seed, has a fetid and disagreeable smell. the seeds, when taken in large quantities, have been considered injurious; but dr. withering states, that he has known six drams of them taken without any remarkable effect. 89. _parsnip is the root of an umbelliferous plant_ (pastinaca sativa), _with winged and serrated leaves, and small yellow flowers, which is cultivated in kitchen gardens, and which also grows wild on the borders of ploughed fields in several parts of england._ the wild and cultivated parsnips differ much from each other, but particularly in the roots of the latter being large and succulent, and those of the former being slender and woody. parsnips are propagated by seed sown in february or march, and the roots are in perfection about october. these, besides their use as a vegetable for the table, are of great value for the feeding of cattle, horses, sheep, and hogs. land in guernsey, which lets for 7_l._ an acre, is sown with parsnips to feed cattle; and the milk of the cows so fed is not only richer than it would otherwise be, but yields butter of fine saffron colour and excellent taste. if parsnips be washed clean, and sliced among bran, horses will eat them. they will fatten sheep and oxen in a short time; and for the feeding of hogs they are at least equal if not superior to carrots. as food for mankind they are considered extremely nutritive; and may, with great advantage, be kept on board ships that are destined for long voyages. it is, however, said that they should not be dug up for use in the spring, because, at that season, the nutritive juices rising upward to produce the seed, they are then unwholesome. parsnips abound in saccharine juice; and various experiments have, in vain, been made with a view to extract sugar from them. in several parts of ireland they are used instead of malt in brewing; and, when properly fermented, they afford an agreeable beverage. the _seeds_ are considered by some practitioners as an efficacious remedy in intermittent fevers. 90. _fennel_ (anethum foeniculum) _is a well known plant, which is cultivated in gardens, and grows wild in several parts of england._ the _leaves_ of fennel, both boiled and raw, are used in sauce for several kinds of fish. the tender buds are eaten in salads; and, in italy, the _stalks_ are sometimes blanched as winter salad. a distilled water, prepared from the seeds, is occasionally administered as a medicine; and there was formerly a notion that the _roots_ were peculiarly valuable, as a remedy in several diseases, but they are now almost wholly disregarded. 91. _caraway is a small well known seed, produced by an umbelliferous plant_ (carum carui), _with smooth and double winged leaves, narrow leaflets, and small white, or pale flesh-coloured flowers, of which the petals are bent inward, so as to become heart-shaped._ the _seeds_ of caraway have a pleasant spicy smell, and a warm aromatic taste. they are much used by pastry-cooks and confectioners in cakes, and for other purposes. incrusted with sugar, they are called caraway comfits. they are also distilled with spirituous liquors, to improve their flavour; and are recommended as a medicine in several disorders. an essential _oil_ and a _spirit_ are also prepared from them. in the spring of the year the _leaves_ are sometimes used in soups, or boiled with pot-herbs. the _roots_ may be converted into an agreeable pickle; and, if simply boiled, they are said by parkinson to be better than parsnips. this plant grows wild in several parts of england, but particularly in meadows and pastures near bury st. edmunds, in suffolk. it is much cultivated in essex and kent, sometimes alone, and sometimes mixed with teasel (53) and coriander (88). the season for cutting it is about the beginning of july; and it is threshed in the field on a cloth, in the same manner as rape-seed (187). 92. _anise-seeds are the production of an umbelliferous annual plant_ (pimpinella anisum), _which grows wild in egypt, syria, and other eastern countries. they are roundish and striated, flatted on one side, and pointed at one end; and of pale colour, inclining to green._ attempts were made more than two hundred years ago to cultivate anise in this country, but the summers of our climate are seldom warm enough to bring the plant to perfection. it has consequently been found necessary to import the seed from malta and spain, where it is cultivated to considerable extent. anise-seeds have an aromatic smell, and a pleasant warm taste, accompanied with some degree of sweetness. they have long been employed in medicine, and have been considered useful in diseases of the lungs and complaints of the stomach. they give out all their virtue to rectified spirit; and a spirituous water prepared from a mixture of equal parts of anise-seed and angelica, is kept in the shops as a cordial. 93. _parsley_ (apium petroselinum) _is an annual umbelliferous plant too common to need any description._ the uses of parsley, in our kitchens, both for sauce and garnish, are numerous and well known. it is, however, poisonous to several kinds of birds; and, although so commonly used at table, facts have been adduced from which it would appear that, with some persons, it occasions epilepsy, or at least aggravates the fits in those who are subject to that disease. inflammation in the eyes has also been attributed to the use of it. parsley is eaten with great avidity by sheep, and has been recommended for use in several diseases of those animals, as well as in some diseases of horses. both the _roots_ and _seed_ are employed in medicine. the former have a sweetish taste, accompanied with a slight warmth, and a flavour somewhat resembling that of the carrot: the latter are warm and aromatic. parsley is a native of sardinia, and propagated by seed, which is usually sown about the month of march. 94. _celery_ (apium graveolens) _is a well known plant belonging to the same tribe as parsley._ in a wild state celery is found in ditches and marshes of several parts of england, and is a small, acrid, and noxious plant, called _smallage_: but, when cultivated, it entirely loses these properties. it is grown in trenches, and is earthed up for the purpose of blanching or whitening the lower parts. the seeds are sown in spring, and the plants may be taken out for use towards the end of the autumn. celery is eaten raw in salads, boiled in soup, or stewed. the seeds are used, particularly at sea, for the flavouring of soup, to which they give the same taste as the plant itself. 95. _copal is a somewhat resinous substance, obtained from a tree_ (rhus copallinum) _the produce of america, which has winged and very entire leaves, the foot-stalks membranaceous and jointed._ we annually import considerable quantities of copal from the spanish colonies in america, in irregular masses, some of which are transparent, of yellowish or brown colour, and others are whitish and semi-transparent. when copal is dissolved in any volatile liquid, and thinly spread upon wood, metal, or any other firm substance, so that the liquid may evaporate, the copal remains perfectly transparent; and forms one of the most beautiful and perfect varnishes that can be imagined. the varnish thus formed has the name of _copal varnish_, and is said to have been first discovered in france. one mode of preparing it is by melting the copal with an equal quantity of linseed oil (97); another, by mixture with oil of turpentine; and a third, by mixture with alcohol or spirit of wine. the particular processes are described in the fourth volume of dr. thomson's system of chemistry, fifth edition; but they are too long and intricate for insertion here. copal is the varnish which is chiefly used in the japanning of snuff-boxes, tea-boards, and other similar articles. trigynia. 96. _the common elder_ (sambucus nigra) _is a wild english shrub, distinguishable by its winged leaves, with serrated and somewhat oval leaflets, its clusters of small white flowers divided into five principal branches, and the small black or purple berries by which these are succeeded._ the uses of the elder are more numerous than those of most other shrubs. there is scarcely any part of this shrub which has not been advantageously employed in some way or other. the _wood_ is yellow, and, in old trees, becomes so hard that it will take a polish almost as bright as that of box (232); and, indeed, it is often used as a substitute for box-wood. its toughness also is such that it is made into skewers for butchers, tops for fishing rods, and needles for the weaving of nets. it is likewise employed by turners. sir j. e. smith has remarked that this tree is, as it were, a whole magazine of physic to rustic practitioners, and that it is not quite neglected even by professional men. ointments have been made of the green _inner bark_, and of the _leaves_. the dried _flowers_, infused in water, are used in fomentations, or as tea: and, mixed with butter-milk, they are sometimes employed as a wash for the face; and the clusters of flowers, before they open, may be made into a delicious pickle, to eat with boiled mutton. the _berries_ are boiled into a rob, which is useful in sore throats, colds, and hoarsenesses. in addition to their medicinal services, the leaves are sometimes thrown into the subterraneous paths of moles, under an impression that their smell will drive away those noxious animals. if turnips, cabbages, fruit trees, or corn, all of which are subject to blight from various kinds of insects, be strongly whipped with the green leaves and branches of elder, insects will not attack them; and an infusion of the leaves is sometimes sprinkled by gardeners over the buds of such flowers as they wish to preserve from the devastation of caterpillars. elder flowers have an agreeable flavour, which they impart, in distillation, to water: they are likewise used to give a flavour to vinegar. the berries are poisonous to poultry, but their juice, properly fermented, makes a pleasant and wholesome wine; and, in germany, a very pure and strong spirit is distilled from them. the juice of elder berries is sometimes employed to give a red colour to raisin or other sweet wine. the _young shoots_ of this shrub are filled with an exceedingly light _pith_, which is cut into balls for electrical experiments; and is also made into toys for the amusement of children. the elder will grow and thrive in almost any soil and situation; but, as every part of this shrub has an unpleasant narcotic smell, people ought to be cautious not to sleep under its shade, as, in such case, it might prove of serious injury to them. tetragynia. 97. _flax is the produce of an annual plant_ (linum usitatissimum, fig. 37), _with spear-shaped leaves, and blue flowers, which is cultivated in several parts of great britain, and grows wild in corn-fields and sandy pastures of some of the southern counties._ _the stems of these plants rise to the height of about two feet. the seed vessels and leaves of the calyx are sharp pointed, and the flowers have each five scolloped petals._ it is supposed that we were originally indebted for this plant to those parts of egypt which are annually inundated by the nile; but the time of its introduction into this country is unknown. its utility is incalculable. to it we are indebted for the linen we wear, for our sheets, table-cloths, and numerous other indispensable articles of clothing and domestic economy; and although cotton might, in some degree, supply its place, those persons who have been accustomed to the comforts of linen would be little desirous of the exchange. the cultivation of flax is pursued to considerable extent in some parts of the british dominions. the seed imported from riga and holland is generally, though perhaps erroneously, esteemed the best. it is sown in march or april; and the plants, when nearly ripe, are pulled up by the roots. these, if flax and not seed be the object of the crop, are either placed in small parcels upon the surface of the land, for exposure to the sun, to dry; or they are immediately conveyed to the place where they are to undergo the process called watering. for this purpose they are loosely tied in small bundles, placed in pools or ponds of soft and stagnant water, and allowed to continue there several days. by the fermentation which takes place, the bark or flaxy substance becomes separated. they are then taken out, and thinly spread upon the grass, in regular rows. here they are occasionally turned until they have become so brittle, that, on being rubbed between the hands, the flax easily and freely separates from the stalks. they are taken up, and bound in sheaves, to be either sent to a mill, or to be broken and scuttled, as it is called, by a machine contrived for that purpose. the flax, by the above process, having been separated from the stalks, it subsequently undergoes various dressings, according to the purposes for which it is to be used. when the plants have been grown for _seed_, they are pulled as before, and then laid together by handfuls upon the ground, with the seed ends towards the south, that they may be the better exposed to the sun. the next operation is to force off the seed vessels. for this purpose a large cloth is usually spread on some adjacent and convenient spot of ground, and an instrument, called a ripple, is placed in the middle of it. this is a sort of comb, consisting of six, eight, or ten, long, triangular, upright teeth. the seed ends of the flax are pulled repeatedly through the teeth of the comb, by which the parts containing the seed are removed from the stalks. after this the pods and seeds, which have the name of _line-seeds_, are spread upon a cloth in the sun to dry, and subsequently are threshed, sifted, winnowed, and cleansed. the best seed is generally preserved for sowing, and the second sort yields considerable profit in the oil which is obtained from it by pressure. this, which is called _linseed oil_, is equally useful in the arts and in medicine. it is occasionally employed for making the soap called green soap. if heat be applied during the pressure of the seeds, the oil attains a yellowish colour and a peculiar smell, and, in this state, it is used by painters and varnishers. an infusion of the seed, in the manner of tea, is recommended in coughs; and from the seed is also made an useful kind of poultice for external inflammations. after the oil has been expressed, the remaining farinaceous part of the seeds is squeezed together into large masses, called _oil-cake_ which is given as food to oxen. it must be remarked that the water in which flax has been macerated becomes thereby poisonous to cattle; and, on this account, the practice of steeping it in any running stream or common pond was prohibited by an act of parliament, passed in the reign of henry the eighth. ---class vi.--hexandria. ---monogynia. 98. _the pine_ (bromelia ananas) _is a rich and highly fragrant fruit, of large size, and yellow colour, with protuberances on its surface; and crowned by a tuft of strong and pointed leaves, edged with sharp spines._ this, the best and finest flavoured of all known fruits, was originally imported into england from south america, about the year 1690. in that country and the west indies it has long been cultivated in the open ground; and, from free access to a congenial atmosphere, it attains there a much finer flavour than is possible in a forced state, in the hot-houses of great britain. pines are planted in earth; and the pots which contain them are immersed in beds of bark, after it has been used by the tanners. about the month of april the young fruit begins to advance, but the usual season for ripening does not commence till july, and the fruit is in greatest perfection from the middle of august to the end of september. the ripening of pines is discoverable by the fragrant odour which they emit, and by their protuberances yielding to pressure with the hand; and their flavour speedily dissipates if left uncut longer than three or four days after they are fully ripe. when brought to table, their leafy crowns should be reserved for planting. these, if placed in pots, and plunged in the bark-bed, or in a hot-bed, and covered, for some time, with glass, will in two years bear fruit. there are several varieties of pine, of which the following are among the principal. (_a_) _white pine._--this has a whitish and fibrous flesh, and the rind as yellow as that of an orange. its smell is highly fragrant, and it excels most other kinds in size and beauty, although its flavour is inferior to that of many. its juice edges the teeth, and sometimes makes the lips smart. (_b_) _the yellow pine_ edges the teeth less; but both this and the preceding variety are exceeded by (_c_) _the sugar-loaf pine_; which is distinguished by the purple stripes on the outside of the leaves, and by its straw-coloured fruit. (_d_) _the montserrat pine_ is now rare in europe, though in america it is esteemed in preference to most others. it is principally known by the protuberances of the fruit being longer and flatter than those of the common sort. in the west indies an excellent liquid sweetmeat or confection is made from pines. this fruit also is sometimes preserved whole, and, when taken out of the syrup, is iced over with sugar. sweetmeats of this kind were formerly sent into europe, in great quantity, from the antilles. wine made from pines is almost equal to malmsey: at the end of about three weeks it becomes somewhat acid, but it recovers by longer keeping. pines, in the west indies, are frequently put into rum to communicate to that liquor their peculiar aromatic flavour. 99. _garlic_ (allium sativum) _is a plant with bulbous root, of irregular form, composed of many smaller bulbs, called cloves, which are all included within a white skin._ _the stem leaves are flat and narrow; the upper part of the stem bears small bulbs, and the stamens are three pointed._ in warm climates, where _garlic_ is produced having considerably less acrimony than in this country, it is much used, both as a seasoning and as food. the lower classes of french, spaniards, and portuguese, consume great quantities of it. the jews also eat of it to excess. with us it is in considerable estimation for culinary and other domestic purposes. it has an acrid taste, and an highly offensive smell; and it differs from the onion only by being more powerful in its effects. when bruised and applied to the skin, it causes inflammation, and raises blisters. the medical properties of garlic are various. in dropsical complaints, asthmas, and agues, it is said to have been successfully used. some instances have occurred, in deafness, of the beneficial effects of wrapping a clove of garlic in muslin and putting it into the ear. as a medicine internally taken, garlic is administered as a bolus, or made into pills. its smell is considered an infallible remedy against vapours, and to be useful in nearly all the nervous disorders to which females are subject. an oil is sometimes prepared from garlic, which is so heavy as to sink in water. but the virtues of this pungent vegetable are more perfectly and more readily extracted by spirit of wine than in any other way. a syrup is also made from it. the juice of garlic is said to be the best and strongest cement that can be adopted for broken glass and china, leaving little or no mark, if used with care. snails, worms, and the grubs, or larvæ of insects, as well as moles, and other vermin, may all be driven away by placing preparations of garlic in or near their haunts. this plant grows wild in the island of sicily. 100. _leeks_ (allium porrum) _belong to the onion or garlic tribe, and are known by their leaves growing out on each side, somewhat in the shape of a fan._ in some countries leeks are much esteemed for culinary uses, in soups, broth, and for boiling as greens with meat. they are considered the badge of the welsh nation, and representations of them are frequently worn by persons of that country on the day of their patron saint, st. david. the origin of this custom was an occurrence, during the welsh wars, in which a party of welshmen, wanting a mark of distinction, and shortly afterwards passing through a field or garden of leeks, seized and stuck the plants in their caps, and under this signal were victorious. leeks are natives of switzerland. 101. _shalot_ (allium ascalonicum) _is a kind of garlic, the bulbs or roots of which are oblong, irregular, and seldom of large size._ _the stem is naked and round; the leaves are somewhat awl-shaped; the head of flowers is globular; and the stamens are three-pointed._ the uses of shalot, or echalotte, as it is denominated by the french, are almost wholly confined to cookery. it has a strong, but rather pleasant smell, on which account it is generally preferred to onions. it is employed for the seasoning of soups, gravy, hashes, pickles, and for numerous other purposes. this plant grows wild in several parts of the continent. 102. _the canadian or tree onion_ (allium canadense) _is remarkable for producing a bulb or onion at the top of the stalk._ _the stem is naked and round; and the leaves are flat and narrow._ these onions are well deserving of attention both as objects of curiosity, from producing their bulb at the upper extremity of the stalk, and also for their use. when pickled, they are generally thought superior in flavour to the common onion. they were originally imported from canada; are perennial, and are propagated by planting the bulbs in the spring or autumn. either the bulbs of the root or those on the stalk will grow. 103. _chives_ (allium schoenoprasum) _are the smallest of the garlic tribe, seldom rising more than a few inches above the ground, and the bulbs not being larger than peas._ _the stem is naked, as long as the leaves; and the leaves are round and somewhat awl-shaped._ chives are natives of italy, switzerland, and several other parts of europe; and are so hardy, and at the same time so useful, that they merit a place in every garden: yet, in the northern counties of england and in scotland, they are very rarely to be seen. the leaves, which are small and are the principal parts that are used, appear early in the spring. they are employed in salads, and for numerous culinary purposes; and often at a season when other plants of the same tribe cannot be procured. 104. _the common onion_ (allium cepa) _is known by its round and hollow leaves, and its swelling pipy stalk, which is considerably thicker in the middle than either at the top or bottom._ the name of onion is derived from the latin word _unio_, which, properly, signifies a bulb that does not throw out offsets. onions are propagated by seed which are sown in spring; and the bulbs or roots arrive at perfection in the autumn. the whole plant, when young, is eaten as salad. onions generally cease to grow towards the middle of august, the stalks and leaves at that time shrinking and turning brown. shortly after this they must be drawn out of the earth; the tops and blades must be cut off; and the roots dried, either in a warm place, or by exposure to the sun. _spanish onions_ are of large size, and flattened shape; and _portugal onions_ are large, handsome bulbs, of roundish form. by the common people onions are frequently eaten raw with their food. this has particularly been the case, and from time immemorial, with the inhabitants of egypt. by stimulating the stomach, they are supposed to favour digestion. some persons have imagined that they possess a large portion of alimentary matter; but others say that they afford little or no nourishment, and that, when eaten freely, they produce flatulencies, occasion thirst, head-achs, and turbulent dreams. onions have so much acrimony as generally to affect the breath for many hours: but when boiled or roasted, this is, in a great measure, dissipated, and they then exhibit some sweetness, with a considerable portion of mucilaginous matter. onions are of great use in several culinary preparations, but particularly in soup and pickles. they are employed in medicine chiefly as poultices for swellings; and have been recommended by some persons, to be rubbed on bald parts of the head, to promote the growth of the hair. 105. _asparagus_ (asparagus officinalis), _is a well known plant, the young shoots of which are a favourite culinary vegetable_. few circumstances in the phenomena of vegetation are more remarkable than the gradual enlargement of size, and improvement of quality, which have taken place in the cultivation of asparagus. it grows wild on the pebbly beach near weymouth, and in the island of anglesea: but its stem, in these situations, is not usually thicker than a goose's quill, and its whole height does not exceed a few inches; whereas in gardens its stem is sometimes near three quarters of an inch thick, and its height, when at maturity, is four or five feet. asparagus is one of the greatest delicacies which our kitchen gardens afford, and it is particularly estimable from the early season at which it is produced. even in the open ground, it is in perfection for the table about the end of april; and when forced, by being planted in hot-beds under glass, it may be cut much earlier. asparagus continues in season till about the end of june. it is usually raised from seed, in beds formed for the purpose: and the plants should remain three years in the ground before they are cut: after which, for several years, they will continue to afford a regular annual supply. during the winter, they are secured from the effects of frost by the beds being covered some inches thick with straw or litter. in the cutting of asparagus, the knife is passed three or four inches beneath the ground. the plants are cut by sloping the blade upward; and the white part that we see, is that which had not previously been exposed to the air. the smallest plants are suffered to grow for the purpose of producing berries to re-stock the beds, and keep them continually in a state of supply. 106. _aloes are an extensive tribe of plants, some of which are not more than a few inches, whilst others are thirty feet and upwards, in height. all the leaves are fleshy, thick, and more or less spinous at the edges or extremity._ _these plants, which are chiefly inhabitants of hot climates, have flowers of a single petal, the mouth expanded, the base nectariferous, and the filaments of the stamens inserted into the receptacle._ some of the larger kinds of aloes are of great importance to the inhabitants of countries in which they grow. beset as the _leaves_ are with strong spines, they form an impenetrable fence. the negroes of the western coast of africa make ropes and weave nets of the fibrous part of these leaves. the hottentots hollow out the _stems_ of one of the kinds into quivers for their arrows. in jamaica, there is a species of aloe which supplies the inhabitants with bow-strings, fishing lines, and materials from which they are able to weave stockings and hammocks. an aloe which grows in the kingdom of mexico is applied by the inhabitants to almost every purpose of life. it serves as hedges for enclosures: its trunk supplies the place of timber for the roofs of houses, and its leaves the place of tiles. from this plant the mexicans make thread, needles, and various articles of clothing and cordage: whilst from its juices they manufacture wine, sugar, and vinegar. some parts of it they eat, and others they apply in medicine. the _juice_ of aloes was formerly used in eastern countries in embalming, to preserve dead bodies from putrefaction; and, as the resinous part of this juice is not soluble in water, it is sometimes adopted in hot climates as a preservative to ships' bottoms against the attack of marine worms. one ounce of it mixed with turpentine, tallow, and white lead, is considered to be sufficient for covering about two superficial feet of plank; and about twelve pounds are sufficient for a vessel of fifty tons' burthen. in proof of the efficacy of this method, two planks of equal thickness, and cut from the same tree, were placed under water, one of them in its natural state, and the other smeared with the composition above described. they were suffered to continue in the water eight months, and when, at the end of that time, they were taken out, the former was perforated in every part, and in a state of absolute decay; whilst the latter was as perfect as at first. in the east indies, the juice of these plants is used as a varnish, to preserve wood from the attacks of destructive insects: and skins, and even living animals, are sometimes smeared with it for the same purpose. there is a tract of mountains, about fifty miles north of the cape of good hope, which is wholly covered with aloes. among the mahometans, and particularly in egypt, the aloe is a kind of symbolic plant: it is dedicated to the offices of religion; and pilgrims, on their return from mecca, suspend it over their doors, as a declaration that they have performed that holy journey. 107. _socotrine aloes are the dried juice of a large species of aloe_ (aloe perfoliata, fig. 38) _which grows in great abundance in the island of socotra, near the mouth of the red sea._ _the leaves are sword-shaped, fleshy, smooth, full of juice, of bluish-green colour; and beset at the edges with strong spines. the flower-stems rise to the height of three or four feet, are smooth, erect, and have at the top a spike of flowers of purple or reddish colour, the stamens of which have oblong orange-coloured anthers._ the true socotrine aloes are imported into this country wrapped in skins; and when pure have a bright surface, and are in some degree pellucid. in the lump they have a yellowish red colour, with a purplish cast; and, when reduced to powder, are of a golden yellow. their taste is bitter and disagreeable, but somewhat aromatic; and their smell is not unpleasant. _barbadoes aloes_, _common aloes_, or _hepatic aloes_, are the dried juice of a variety of the socotrine aloes, which is cultivated in barbadoes and jamaica. of this we import three kinds: one in gourd shells; an inferior kind, in pots; and another, still worse, in casks. in the cultivation of aloes it is requisite that the plants should grow for two or three years before the juice is procured from them. the operation of collecting the juice is performed in different ways. dr. browne tells us that labourers go into the field with knives and tubs; and that cutting off the largest and most succulent leaves close to the stalk, they immediately put them into the tubs in an upright position, that the liquor may drain from the wounds. when this is nearly all discharged, they take the leaves out singly, and clear them of any juice that may adhere to them; and the liquor is then put into shallow flat-bottomed vessels, and dried gradually in the sun, until it acquires a proper thickness to be poured out or ladled into the gourd shells which are to contain it. what is thus obtained is called _socotrine aloes_, and is the clearest and most valuable of any. an additional quantity of juice is obtained by pressing the leaves. in some places the plants are pulled up by the roots, and, after having been carefully cleansed from earth or other impurities, they are sliced and cut in pieces, into small hand-baskets or nets. in these the pieces are boiled, for a little while, in water, by which the juice is extracted; and successive basketfuls are boiled in the same liquor, until it becomes thick and of dark colour. the fluid part is subsequently evaporated, and what remains is put into gourd shells for sale. other methods of inspissating or drying the juice are to pour it into bladders left open at the top, and suspended in the sun; or to place it in broad shallow trays of wood, pewter or tin, exposed to the sun every dry day, until the fluid parts are exhaled, and a perfect resin is formed, which is then packed up for sale. there is a kind called _caballine_ or _horse aloes_, which has a rank and unpleasant smell, but in taste is not much more disagreeable than either of the others. in its properties it agrees nearly with hepatic aloes, but it is chiefly employed by farriers in horse medicines. the medical properties of aloes have long been known and established: and their extensive application in medicine is, perhaps, the best proof that can be adduced of their utility. in the arts aloes are, in several respects, useful. but, particularly, the leaves of the socotrine aloes afford a beautiful violet colour which does not require the aid of any mordant to fix it; the same also is capable of being formed into a fine transparent colour for painting in miniature. 108. _the great, or american aloe_ (agave americana), _is a large plant, the leaves of which are thick, fleshy, and spinous at the edge, and the stem branched and of great height._ _the flowers of this plant are distinguished by having the tube of the corolla narrowed in the middle, the stamens longer than the corolla, and the style longer than the stamens._ this magnificent native of north america is by no means an uncommon plant in our gardens, but, with us, it is seldom seen in flower. there is indeed a notion, but it is an erroneous one, that the american aloe does not bloom until it is a hundred years old. the fact is, that the flowering depends almost wholly on its growth. in hot countries it will flower in a few years; but in colder climates, the growth being slower, it is necessarily longer in arriving at maturity. the stem which bears the blossoms rises from the centre of the leaves, and, when the plant is in a vigorous state, it frequently exceeds the height of twenty feet. an american aloe in the garden of the king of prussia was forty feet high. branches issue from every side, and in such manner as to form a kind of pyramid, composed of greenish yellow flowers, which stand erect, and are seen in thick clusters at every joint. when in full flower, the appearance of this aloe is extremely splendid; and if the season be favourable, and the plant be sheltered from the cold in autumn, a succession of blossoms will sometimes be produced for near three months. in the warmer parts of europe, american aloes are cultivated as objects of considerable utility. they are frequently grown in rows, as fences, for enclosures, particularly in spain, portugal, and italy. in algarvia the leaves are employed for scouring pewter and other kitchen utensils, and floors; and, cut into slices, are used for the feeding of cattle. by a certain preparation, the juice of the leaves is made into cakes, which are employed for washing, and which will lather with salt water as well as with fresh. the fibres of the leaves, when properly prepared, may be separated into threads that are useful in various ways. this separation is sometimes effected by bruising and steeping them in water, and afterwards beating them. the process, in some parts of portugal, is, after plucking the largest and best leaves, to place them on a square board, which a person presses obliquely between his breast and the ground, and then scrapes with a square iron bar held in both hands. by this operation all the juices are pressed out, and only the fibres and some of the membranous parts of the leaves remain, which are then easily detached. the fibres are employed for all the purposes to which thread can be applied, but they are neither strong nor durable; and if exposed to moisture, they soon decay. 109. _the fan palm is a very remarkable tree_ (corypha umbraculifera) _that grows in the east indies, but particularly in malabar, and the island of ceylon; its leaves, eight or ten in number, rise out of the summit of the trunk, are winged and somewhat fan-shaped, and have their segments connected by a thread or fibre._ the stem of the fan palm is straight, cylindrical, smooth, and as tall as a ship's mast. its _leaves_ are upwards of six yards in length, and four yards wide; and form altogether a head of twelve or thirteen yards in diameter. these leaves, which, when dry, fold up somewhat like a fan, are used for the covering of huts and cottages; and not unfrequently by soldiers, instead of canvas, for the construction of tents. one of them is sufficiently large to shelter twenty persons from the rays of the sun. they are also a kind of natural paper on which the inhabitants write, by means of a sharp-pointed iron instrument, which leaves indelible marks upon them. many of the books which are shown in europe for those of egyptian papyrus (26) are said to be formed of parts of these leaves.--the _pith_ of the trunk, beaten into a kind of paste and mixed with water, is formed into cakes, and constitutes a species of bread, very serviceable to the inhabitants in times of scarcity. the _juice_ of some parts of the tree is used as an emetic. the fan palms are said not to bear fruit until they are near forty years old; but after this period, when in perfection, they produce annually more than twenty thousand _berries_ each. these are each about 1½ inch diameter, of globular shape, smooth, green, and fleshy; but are not known to be of any use. 110. _the rotang or dragon's blood tree, is a species of cane_ (calamus rotang) _which grows to the length of more than a hundred feet, is about as thick as a man's arm, and is closely beset with erect prickles._ _this cane has at the top a tuft of leaves which are several feet in length, and alternately winged, and of which the leaflets are sword-shaped, and armed with sharp spines._ in consequence of its great length and slender form, the rotang tree (which is usually found in woods near rivers, and in morassy places) does not grow entirely upright; but, after having attained the height of five or six yards, it depends, for support, upon other trees, which it sometimes overruns, in nearly an horizontal direction to the extent of sixty or eighty feet. the flowers are produced in upright spikes that separate into long spreading branches, and are succeeded by a red and somewhat egg-shaped fruit, which to the taste is pleasantly acid. the drug called _dragon's blood_[4] is obtained from this fruit, in japan, and several other countries of the east. the japanese expose the fruit of the rotang tree to the steam of boiling water, by which the external shell is softened, and a resinous fluid is forced out, that is afterwards enclosed in leaves and suspended in the air to dry. in sumatra the external surface of the fruit is observed to be covered with the resin: this is rubbed off, melted in the sun, and formed into grains or globules, which are folded in leaves, and are considered the purest kind of dragon's blood. in some countries the fruit is boiled in water, and the resin, which floats upon the surface, is skimmed off and subsequently purified, and formed into the requisite shape for sale. an inferior kind of dragon's blood is made up into large masses, which contain the membranous parts of the fruit and other impurities. when this substance is tolerably pure, it breaks smooth, and appears internally of a dark red colour; melts readily, and easily catches fire. its principal use is in medicine. the _stem_ of the rotang furnishes the inhabitants of the countries where it grows with shafts for pikes or spears; and the inner part of the young shoots is boiled or roasted for food. 111. _the common walking canes_ (calamus scipionum) _have a smooth and glossy stem, usually marked with dark spots: and the knots or joints are sometimes three or four feet asunder._ these canes grow, very abundantly, in sumatra and other eastern islands, as well as on the continent of india, whence they appear to have been originally exported to europe by the dutch. there is a considerable trade in them to china. the long spaces between the knots, their shining surface, and lightness, have rendered them preferable to most other articles for walking canes. 112. _the rattan or true cane_ (calamus verus), _is remarkable for growing to the great length of a hundred feet, and upwards, and, at the same time, not being thicker than a man's finger._ a trade in rattans to considerable extent is carried on from several of the islands of the east to china, which is the principal market for them. these canes are extremely tough and flexible, of yellowish brown colour, and, when cut into thongs, are sometimes used to make cables and other ropes. our cane-bottomed chairs are made of split rattans, the outer or smooth surface of which is always kept uppermost. for this work the canes are chosen by their great length, pale yellow colour, and bright gloss. they are purchased in bundles, each of which contains a hundred canes, neatly tied in the middle, and the ends bent together. when perfectly dry, they are so hard as to yield sparks of fire when struck against each other. the word rattan, in the malay language, signifies a staff or walking stick. 113. _the bamboo cane_ (bambusa arundinacea) _has a hollow, round, straight, and shining stem; and sometimes grows to the length of forty feet and upwards: it has knots at the distance of ten or twelve inches from each other, with thick, rough, and hairy sheaths, alternate branches, and small, entire, and spear-shaped leaves._ there is scarcely any plant so common in hot climates as this, and few are more extensively useful. it occurs within the tropical regions both of the eastern and western hemispheres, throughout the east indies and the greater part of china, in the west indies, and america. in england, it can only be cultivated in a hot-house; and its growth is so rapid, even there, that a strong shoot has been known to spring from the ground and attain the height of twenty feet in six weeks. the inhabitants of many parts of india build their houses almost wholly of bamboo; and make nearly every description of furniture with it, in a very ingenious manner. they likewise form with it several kinds of utensils, for their kitchens and tables; and, from two pieces of bamboo rubbed hard together, they produce fire. the masts of boats, boxes, baskets, and innumerable other articles, are made of bamboo. after having been bruised, steeped in water, and formed into a pulp, the _sheaths_ and _leaves_ may be manufactured into paper. the stems are frequently bored, and used as pipes for conveying water; and the strongest stems serve to make the poles with which the slaves or servants carry those kind of litters so common in the east, called palanquins. the stems of the bamboo serve also as the usual fence for gardens and other enclosures: and the leaves are generally put round the tea which is sent in chests from china to europe. the chinese make, of the external _bark_ of the bamboo, a kind of cordage, which has the advantage of united lightness and durability. for this purpose the bark is cleft in strips several feet in length; and these are twisted together according to the thickness that is required. for the tow lines of their vessels, eight or nine bands or strips are sufficient; but, for cables, a much greater number is requisite. some of the malays preserve the small and _tender shoots_ of bamboo in vinegar and pepper to be eaten with their food. many of the walking canes which we see in europe are formed of the young shoots of this plant. the chinese make a kind of frame-work of bamboo, by which they are enabled to float in water; and the chinese merchants, when going on a voyage, always provide themselves with this simple apparatus to save their lives in case of shipwreck. it is formed by placing four bamboos horizontally across each other, so as to leave, in the middle, a square place for the body; and, when used, this frame is slipped over the head, and secured by being tied to the waist. 114. _the common rush_ (juncus effusus) _is known by its green, smooth, stiff, upright, leafless and pointed stem; having a loose bunch of small flowers at the side, and the seed-vessels blunt at the extremity._ although the rush is generally considered by farmers a noxious weed in wet meadows and pastures, it is applicable to a variety of useful purposes; but particularly for making the wicks of rushlights. for this purpose it is usually cut a little after midsummer; and is immediately afterwards thrown into water, and kept there, that it may not become dry, and that it may be the more easily peeled. at first a person would find it no easy matter to divest a rush of its rind, so as to leave on each side, from top to bottom, one regular, narrow, and even rib, that may support the pith. but this, by practice, soon becomes familiar even to children. when rushes are thus far prepared, they are spread on the grass to be bleached; and, afterwards, they are dried in the sun for use. if only one rib of peel be left, instead of two, rushes will supply the place of cotton wicks for candles. in some parts of hampshire the labouring people form wicks of this description; they dip them into scalding fat or grease, and use them in place of candles. rushes are sometimes manufactured into a slight kind of baskets. in the vicinity of farnham, in surrey, they are cut about midsummer, and dried in the same manner as hay. after this they are formed into a kind of rick, and sheltered till the succeeding spring. they are then usefully employed, for bands or ties, in fastening hop-binds to the poles. in a fresh state they are sometimes made into brooms or besoms for blacksmiths, and other artisans working in metals. 115. _barberries are a beautiful red and oblong-shaped fruit, produced, in small bunches, by a shrub_ (berberris vulgaris) _which grows wild in many parts of england. this shrub has somewhat oval, serrated, and pointed leaves; thorns growing three together upon the branches; and pendent clusters of yellow flowers._ so great is the acidity of this beautiful _fruit_ that even birds refuse to eat it. in this respect it nearly approaches the tamarind. when boiled with sugar, however, it makes an agreeable preserve, rob, or jelly, according to the different modes of preparing it. barberries are also used as a dry sweetmeat, and in sugarplums or comfits; are pickled with vinegar, and are used for the garnishing of dishes. they are likewise well calculated to allay heat and thirst in persons afflicted with fevers. the _bark_ of this barberry shrub is said to have been administered with effect in cases of jaundice, and in some other complaints; and the inner bark, with the assistance of alum, dyes linen a fine yellow colour. the _roots_, but particularly their bark, are employed, in poland, in the dyeing of leather. a very singular circumstance has been stated respecting the barberry shrub; that corn, sown near it, proves abortive, the ears being in general destitute of grain; and that this influence is sometimes extended to a distance of three or four hundred yards across a field. a similar opinion, on this subject, prevails in france, as well as in england, but there is reason to suppose it is without foundation. digynia. 116. _rice_ (oryza sativa, fig. 39) _is a well-known kind of grain, which is much cultivated in the east indies, america, and some parts of spain; and which, previously to its being sold for use, is freed from a brownish husk that covers it._ _the rice plant has an erect, simple, round, and jointed stem. its leaves are narrow and pointed; and its flowers appear in a kind of bunch, at the extremity, somewhat resembling, but more compact than, an ear of oats._ we are, at present, chiefly supplied with rice from america; and it is said that the americans were indebted for this grain to a small bag of it which was formerly given as a present from a mr. dubois, treasurer of the east india company, to a carolina merchant. a wet and morassy soil, appears in general necessary to the cultivation of rice. the parts of the farms or plantations in which it is grown are usually so situated as to admit of being flooded; and, in many places, reservoirs of water are formed for this purpose. these reservoirs have sluices, by which the rice fields may be inundated at pleasure. in reaping the crop, the labourers generally work knee deep in water and mud. as the rice is cut, the sheaves are put on drays, and carried out to be spread on dry ground. the rice thus produced has the name of _marsh rice_, and is that which is chiefly imported into europe. in some of the mountainous parts of the east indies rice is cultivated on the sides of hills, where it can only be watered by rain. it is sown, however, at the beginning of the rainy, and reaped in the beginning of the dry season; so that, in fact, it has nearly all the advantages of being watered, which the marsh rice possesses. the general appellation of rice, in the east indies, is _paddy_; but the kind just mentioned is denominated _paddy gunung_, or _mountain rice_, and is little known in europe, though of late years it has been cultivated with success in tuscany. its grains are whiter, finer, and more palatable than those of the marsh rice. after the harvesting of rice, the next process is to free the grains from the husk in which they are enveloped. there are several ways of doing this. in some places they are pounded in large mortars, and afterwards winnowed. in others large cylindrical pestles are lifted by a wheel worked by oxen; and between these one person sits and pushes forward the rice to be beaten, whilst another carries it off to be winnowed, and supplies fresh parcels. the inhabitants of several parts of the east throw it into hot water, by which the grains are slightly swelled, and thus burst through the husk. in the island of ceylon, and in some parts of america, a hollow place, about a foot in depth, and nine or ten yards in diameter, is dug in the ground. this is filled with corn, which is trodden by oxen driven round it until the grain is cleared. the sacred and other writings inform us that this was the mode which the ancients adopted with other species of grain. in spain, when the rice is ripe, it is gathered into sheaves, and put into a mill, where the lower grinding stone is covered with cork; and, by this means, the grain is separated from the husk, without being bruised. rice is said to have been lately cultivated, with success, in some parts of scotland; and it is not improbable, that, by degrees, this species of grain may be naturalized to our climate. no kind of grain is so generally adopted for food in hot climates as this. the inhabitants of many parts of the east subsist almost wholly upon it; and large quantities are annually imported into europe, where it is highly esteemed for puddings and numerous culinary preparations. it is considered very nutritive, but it should not be eaten in too large quantities by languid or debilitated persons. in a scarcity of other grain, rice may be used with considerable advantage as an ingredient in bread. indeed, on account of its excellence and its cheapness, it claims attention as a general article of sustenance for the poorer classes of society; as it is well known that a quarter of a pound of rice, slowly boiled, will yield more than a pound of solid and nutritive food. for the fattening of poultry, boiled rice has been adopted with success, and it would be more generally adopted than it is, were it not for an unfounded and very extraordinary notion that it tends to make them blind. the inhabitants of the east obtain from rice a vinous liquor, which is more intoxicating than the strongest wine; and an ardent spirit, called _arrack_, is also partly made from it. the latter is chiefly manufactured at batavia, and at goa on the coast of malabar; and is said to be distilled from a mixture of the wort or infusion of rice, and of toddy, or the juice of the cocoa-nut tree (233), to which other ingredients, and particularly spices, are added. there is only one species of rice; but the varieties of it, according to the soil, climate, and culture, are very numerous. ---class vii.--heptandria. ---monogynia. 117. _the horse-chesnut_ (æsculus hippocastanum, fig. 66) _is a very common tree in parks and pleasure grounds, bearing leaves each composed of seven large lobes; and having large and elegant clusters of light-coloured flowers._ _each flower consists of five petals of white colour, irregularly spotted with red and yellow; and roundish, but undulated or waved at the edges. the fruit, which is of bitter and unpleasant taste, is enclosed in a roundish capsule or seed vessel, beset with spines, and divided into three cells._ there is no tree of british growth more admired, or more deserving of admiration on account of its brilliant appearance at a very early season of the year than the chesnut. its beautiful flowers, in upright conical spikes, terminate the branches on all sides, in such manner that sometimes almost the whole tree appears as if it were covered by them. the _fruit_ of the horse-chesnut has been found of considerable use in the fattening of cattle, the tallow of which it is said to render peculiarly firm. for this purpose, however, as well as for the feeding of sheep, it has been considered advantageous to macerate the nuts in lime water, or in caustic alkali, to deprive them of their bitterness; and, afterwards, to wash them in water, and boil them into a paste. goats and deer are partial to these nuts; but they are said to be unwholesome for swine. in turkey they are ground and mixed with provender for horses; and, if they could be wholly divested of their bitterness and acrimony, it is supposed they might be converted into bread. a patent was granted, in the year 1796, to lord w. murray for his discovery of a method of extracting starch from horse-chesnuts; and a paste or size has been made from them, which is preferred by book-binders, shoe-makers, and paper-hangers, to that made from wheaten flower. they contain a soapy quality, and are used, in some parts of france and switzerland, for cleaning woollens, and for the washing and bleaching of linen; and, if ground and made into cakes or balls, it is supposed they might answer the purpose of soap, both in washing and fulling. if a small portion of horse-chesnut, in a state of powder, be snuffed up the nostrils, it excites sneezing; and even an infusion or decoction of it has been said to produce a similar effect. these have consequently been administered in some complaints of the head and eyes, and have been productive of considerable benefit. the prickly _husks_ may be advantageously employed in the tanning of leather. the _wood_ of the horse-chesnut tree is white, soft, and of little value. it however serves occasionally for water-pipes, for mill-timber, and turners' ware. and if it be dipped into scalding oil, and well pitched, it becomes extremely durable. in some parts of the continent the _bark_ of this tree is used in the cure of intermittent and other fevers; and some writers have been of opinion that it might, with advantage, be substituted in several complaints for peruvian bark. this tree was first brought into europe, from the northern parts of asia, about the year 1550; and its growth is so rapid, that trees, raised from nuts, have, in twelve or fourteen years, attained nearly their full dimensions. it is further remarkable, in the growth of the horse-chesnut tree, that the whole of the spring shoots are said to be completed in little more than three weeks from the first opening of the buds. ---class viii.--octandria. ---monogynia. 118. _balsam, or balm of gilead, is the dried juice of a low tree or shrub_ (amyris gileadensis), _which grows in several parts of abyssinia and syria._ _this tree has spreading crooked branches, small bright green leaves, growing in threes, and small white flowers on separate footstalks. the petals are four in number, and the fruit is a small egg-shaped berry, containing a smooth nut._ by the inhabitants of syria and egypt, this balsam, as it appears from the authority of the scriptures, was in great esteem in the highest periods of antiquity. we are informed by josephus, the jewish historian, that the balsam of gilead was one of the trees which was given by the queen of saba to king solomon. those ishmaelitish merchants, who were the purchasers of joseph, are said to have been travelling from gilead, on the eastern side of canaan, to egypt, having their camels laden with "spicery, balm, and myrrh." it was then, and it still is, considered one of the most valuable medicines that the inhabitants of those countries possessed. the virtues, however, which have been ascribed to it, exceed all rational bounds of credibility. the mode in which it is obtained is described by mr. bruce. he says that the bark of the trees is cut, for this purpose, with an axe, at a time when the juices are in their strongest circulation. these, as they ooze through the wound, are received into small earthen bottles; and every day's produce is gathered, and poured into a larger bottle, which is closely corked. when the juice first issues from the wound, it is of light yellow colour, and somewhat turbid appearance; but, as it settles, it becomes clear, has the colour of honey, and appears more fixed and heavy than at first. its smell, when fresh, is exquisitely fragrant, and strongly pungent, not much unlike that of volatile salts; but, if the bottle be left uncorked, it soon loses this quality. its taste is bitter, acrid, aromatic, and astringent. the quantity of balsam yielded by one tree never exceeds sixty drops in a day. hence its scarcity is such that the genuine balsam is seldom exported as an article of commerce. even at constantinople, the centre of trade of those countries, it cannot, without great difficulty, be procured. in turkey it is in high esteem as a medicine, an odoriferous unguent, and a cosmetic. but its stimulating properties upon the skin are such that the face of a person unaccustomed to use it becomes red and swollen, and continues so for some days afterward. the turks also take it in small quantities, in water, to fortify the stomach, and excite the animal faculties. 119. _rose-wood_ (amyris balsamifera) _is an odoriferous tree, with smooth oval leaves, which grows in the island of jamaica._ the _wood_ of this tree is much used by cabinet-makers in this country for the covering or veneering of tables and other furniture. its grain is of dark colour, and very beautiful. this tree yields an odoriferous _balsam_, which is much esteemed, both as an external application for the cure of wounds, and an internal medicine in various diseases. 120. _the common maple_ (acer campestre) _is a low kind of tree, common in woods and hedges, which has its leaves in lobes, blunt, and notched, and green flowers in upright clusters._ by the romans, the maple _wood_, when knotty and veined, was often highly prized for furniture. the poet virgil speaks of evander sitting on a maple throne. the knots of this wood were considered to resemble the figure of birds, beasts, and other animals: and when boards, large enough for tables, were found of this curious part of it, the extravagance of purchasers is said to have been incredible. indeed its value, in that madly luxurious age, is stated to have been such, that, when, at any time, the romans reproached their wives for their extravagance in pearls, jewels, or other rich trifles, the latter were accustomed to retort, and turn the _tables_ upon their husbands. hence our expression of "turning the tables" upon any person is said to have been derived. with us the maple tree is used by turners, particularly for making cups, which may be rendered so thin as to be almost transparent. this wood, where it is devoid of knots, is remarkably white, and is sometimes used for domestic furniture. on account of its lightness it is frequently employed for musical instruments, and particularly for those of the violin kind. 121. _sugar maple_ (acer saccharinum) _is a north-american tree, which grows to the height of fifty or sixty feet, and has somewhat hand-shaped leaves, in five divisions, notched at the edges, and downy underneath._ this large and beautiful tree is much cultivated in america on account chiefly of the _juice_ which it yields, and which is made into sugar. the process of obtaining the juice is, in the spring of the year, to bore holes about two inches deep into the tree, and to put into each of these holes a projecting spout, by which it may be conveyed into troughs placed to receive it. each tree will afford from twenty to thirty gallons of juice, from which may be obtained five or six pounds of sugar. the juice is clear, of pleasant flavour; and, in its simple state, is sometimes drunk as a remedy against the scurvy. the sugar, which is obtained from it by evaporation, is clean to the eye, and very sweet, but it has a peculiar, though not unpleasant taste. it may be clarified and refined in the same manner as the common sugars. the juice of the maple furnishes also a pleasant wine, and a very excellent vinegar. the _wood_ of this tree is valuable as timber, and is also well adapted for turnery and cabinet ware, more particularly as it is said not to be liable to suffer by the depredations of insects. possessing these properties, and being sufficiently hardy to sustain the rigours even of a cold climate, its culture, in our own country, would be attended with great advantage, and cannot be too strongly recommended. 122. _the sycamore_ (acer pseudoplatanus, fig. 70) _is a handsome tree of british growth, which has leaves in five lobes unequally serrated; and green flowers in pendant clusters._ it is peculiarly deserving of remark concerning this tree, that it grows better near the sea than in any other situation, and that plantations of sycamores may be so made as even to defend the herbage of the adjacent country from the spray, and consequently from the injurious effects of the sea. its growth is quick, yet it will increase in size until it is two hundred years old. the soil in which it best flourishes is a loose black earth. the only inconveniences attending it in plantations is the early shedding of its leaves. in the spring of the year the inhabitants of some parts of scotland bore holes through the bark of the sycamore, at the distance of about twelve inches from the root, and suffer the _juice_ to drain into vessels, to the amount of eight or nine quarts a day from each tree. this liquor they convert into a kind of wine; and, if the watery part were evaporated, a useful sugar might be obtained from it. the _wood_ of the sycamore is soft and white, and was formerly much in request by turners, for making trenchers, dishes, bowls, and other articles; but, since the general introduction of earthen-ware for all these purposes, its value has greatly decreased. 123. _cranberries are a small red fruit with purple dots, produced by a slender wiry plant_ (vaccinium oxycoccos), _which grows in the peaty bogs of several parts of the north of england, and also in norfolk, lincolnshire, and cambridgeshire._ _the leaves are small, somewhat oval, and rolled back at the edges, and the stem is thread-shaped and trailing. the blossoms are small, but beautiful, each consisting of four distinct petals rolled back to the base, and of deep flesh colour._ the collecting of cranberries is a tiresome and disagreeable employment, as each berry, which seldom exceeds the size of a pea, grows on a separate stalk, and the morasses in which they grow are frequently very deep. cranberries are much used in the northern counties, and great quantities of them are bottled and sent to london. so considerable a traffic in this fruit is carried on, that, at longtown in cumberland, the amount of a market day's sale, during the season for gathering it, is stated by dr. withering to be from 20_l._ to 30_l._ cranberries begin to ripen about the month of august, and continue in perfection for some weeks. they are much used in confectionary, but particularly in tarts; their rich flavour being very generally esteemed. the usual mode of preserving them is in dry bottles, corked so closely as to exclude all access of the external air: some persons, however, fill up the bottles with spring water. others prepare this fruit with sugar. from the juice of cranberries, mixed with a certain portion of sugar, and properly fermented, a grateful and wholesome wine may be made. the inhabitants of sweden use this fruit only for the cleaning of silver plate. a considerable quantity of cranberries is annually imported, into this country, from north america and russia. these are larger than our own, of a different species, and by no means of so pleasant flavour. 124. there are three other species of fruit belonging to the cranberry tribe, which grow wild in this country, on heaths or in woods. these are bilberries, or blea-berries (_vaccinium myrtillus_), which are occasionally eaten in milk, and in tarts, and which afford a violet-coloured dye: great bilberries (_v. uliginosum_), which, in france, are sometimes employed to tinge white wines red: and red whortle-berries (_v. vitis idæa_), which, though not of very grateful flavour, are occasionally used in tarts, rob, and jelly. 125. _the common heath, or ling_ (erica vulgaris), _is a well-known plant, with numerous small rose-coloured flowers, which grows wild on heaths and mountainous wastes, in nearly every part of england._ the principal use to which the heath is applied is for making brooms or besoms. it is likewise bound into fagots, and employed as fuel, particularly for ovens; and is, not unfrequently, employed in the filling up of drains, and the morassy parts of roads, previously to their being covered with earth, stones, and other durable materials. in the highlands of scotland, the poorer inhabitants make walls, for their cottages, with alternate layers of heath and a kind of mortar made of black earth and straw: they likewise thatch their cabins with it, and make their beds of it. the inhabitants of islay, one of the western islands of scotland, are said to brew a wholesome kind of beer from one part of malt, and two parts of the young tops of heath. the _stalks_ and _tops_ may be rendered of considerable service in the tanning of leather; and in dyeing woollen cloth an orange colour. bees are partial to the _flowers_; but the honey which they form, after having fed upon these flowers, acquires a reddish tint. the _leaves_ and _seeds_ of heath afford a grateful food to grouse, and other animals. trigynia. 126. _buckwheat, or brank, is a black and triangular grain, produced by a plant of the persicaria tribe_ (polygonum fagopyrum), _with somewhat arrow-shaped leaves, and purplish white flowers._ although buckwheat may now be considered as in some degree naturalized in this country, and as growing wild near our fields and dunghills, it was originally introduced from the northern parts of asia, and was first cultivated here about the year 1600. the flowers appear about july, and the seeds ripen in october; and so tender are the plants, that a single night's sharp frost will destroy a whole crop. as a grain, buckwheat has been principally cultivated for oxen, swine, and poultry; and although some farmers state that a single bushel of it is equal in quality to two bushels of oats, others assert that it is a very unprofitable food. mixed with bran, chaff, or grains, it is sometimes given to horses. the flower of buckwheat is occasionally used for bread, but more frequently for the thin cakes called crumpets. in germany it serves as an ingredient in pottage, puddings, and other food. beer may be brewed from it; and, by distillation, it yields an excellent spirit. the best mode of harvesting this grain is said to be by pulling it out of the ground like flax, stripping off the seeds by the hand, and collecting these into aprons, or cloths tied round the waist. buckwheat is much cultivated in the domains of noblemen and gentlemen possessed of landed property, as a food for pheasants. with some farmers it is the practice to sow buckwheat for the purpose only of ploughing it into the ground, as a manure for the land. whilst green, it serves as food for sheep and oxen; and, mixed with other provender, it may also be given, with advantage to horses. the _blossoms_ may be used for dyeing a brown colour. the principal advantage of buckwheat is, that it is capable of being cultivated upon land which will produce scarcely any thing else, and that its culture, comparatively with that of other grain, is attended with little expense. ---class ix.--enneandria. ---monogynia. 127. _cinnamon is the under bark of the branches of a tree of the bay tribe_ (laurus cinnamomum, fig. 40,) _which is chiefly found in the island of ceylon, but which also grows in malabar and other parts of the east indies._ _this tree attains the height of twenty or thirty feet. its leaves are oval, each from four to six inches long, and marked with three principal nerves. the flowers stand on slender footstalks, and are of pale yellow colour; and the fruit is somewhat shaped like an acorn._ there are two principal seasons of the year in which the ceylonese enter their woods for the purpose of barking the cinnamon trees. the first of these commences in april, and the last in november: but the former is that in which the great crop is obtained. in this operation the branches of three years' growth are cut down, and the outside pellicle of the bark is scraped away. the twigs are then ripped up lengthways with a knife, and the bark is gradually loosened till it can be entirely taken off. it is then cut into slices, which, on being exposed to the sun, curl up in drying. the smaller pieces or quills, as they are called, are inserted into the larger ones, and the whole are afterwards tied into bundles. cinnamon is examined and arranged, according to its quality, by persons who, for this purpose, are obliged to taste and chew it. this is a very troublesome and disagreeable work; and few persons are able to continue it more than two or three days successively, as the cinnamon deprives the tongue and lips of all the mucus with which they are covered. after this examination, the bundles are made up to the length of about four feet, and weight of eighty-eight pounds each. from the roots of the trees numerous offsets shoot up. these, when they have attained the height of about ten feet, are cut down and barked, being then about the thickness of a common walking-stick. the cinnamon which they yield is much finer than any other. a french ship, bound in 1782, from the island of bourbon, to cape françois in st. domingo, and having on board various oriental productions, the cinnamon tree among the rest, was taken by the late admiral rodney, who presented the trees to the assembly of jamaica; and, from this parent stock, different parts of that island were afterwards supplied. in ceylon the cinnamon trees are said to be so common as to be used for fuel and other domestic purposes. the smell of cinnamon, particularly of the thinnest pieces, is delightfully fragrant; and its taste is pungent and aromatic, with considerable sweetness and astringency. if infused in boiling water in a covered vessel, it gives out much of its grateful flavour, and forms an agreeable liquid. an oil is extracted from cinnamon, which is heavier than water. this is prepared in ceylon, and almost wholly from the small and broken pieces. it is, however, obtained in such small quantity that the oil of cassia (128) is generally substituted for it. indeed the cassia bark is often substituted for cinnamon, to which it has considerable resemblance, although, in its qualities, it is much weaker, and although it is immediately distinguishable by its slimy taste. the virtues of cinnamon are not confined to the bark. the _leaves_, the _fruit_, and the _root_ all yield oil of considerable value. that from the fruit is highly fragrant, of thick consistence, and, in ceylon, was formerly made into candles for the exclusive use of the king. 128. _wild cinnamon, or cassia, is the bark of a tree of the bay tribe_ (laurus cassia), _which grows in the east indies and china, and is distinguished by having spear-shaped leaves, each with three nerves._ this _bark_ was well known to the ancients, and highly esteemed by them: but, since the use of cinnamon has been generally adopted, the cassia bark has fallen into disrepute on account of its inferiority. it is thicker and more coarse than cinnamon, of weaker quality, and abounds more with a viscid mucilaginous matter. for many purposes, however, cassia, as being much less expensive, is substituted for cinnamon, but more particularly for the preparation of what is called oil of cinnamon: and nearly the whole of what is at present sold under the name either of simple or spirituous cinnamon water is prepared from cassia. the _buds_, as well as the _bark_, of this tree are used in culinary preparations, and for several other purposes. they are chiefly imported from china. 129. _camphor is a white resinous production of peculiar and powerful smell, which is extracted from two or three kinds of trees of the bay tribe that grow in the islands of the east indies, and in china._ _of these the principal is_ laurus camphora (fig. 41). _it is of considerable height, much branched, and has spear-shaped leaves, with nerves, of pale yellowish green colour on the upper side, and bluish green beneath. the flowers are small and white, and stand on stalks which issue from the junction of the leaves and branches._ camphor is found in every part of the trees; in the interstices of the perpendicular fibres, and in veins of the wood; in the crevices and knots, in the pith, and in the roots. the modes by which it is extracted differ in different countries. in borneo and sumatra, the largest pieces are picked out with sharp instruments; and the smaller ones are procured by rasps, to which, along with bits of wood and other impurities, they adhere. the chinese cut off the branches, chop them very small, and place them in spring water for some days. they then put them into a kettle, and boil them for a certain time, during which they keep constantly stirring them with a stick. as soon as the camphor, in a white and frosted appearance, is observed to adhere to the stick, the whole is strained. the liquor is subsequently poured into a basin, and, after some hours, the camphor coagulates into a solid mass. in japan it is usual to obtain camphor by cutting the roots and extremities of the branches into chips, and exposing them to the steam of water in close vessels. in other countries the roots, wood, and leaves, are all boiled in large iron pots, having a kind of tubular apparatus, which is stuffed with straw, and leads to certain large vessels called receivers. in this operation most of the camphor becomes condensed in a solid form amongst the straw; and the remainder passes with the water into the receiver. in a crude state camphor is formed into irregular lumps of yellowish grey colour, somewhat resembling nitre, or saltpetre. it is imported into europe in canisters; and the refining of it was long kept a secret by the venetians. the dutch have since performed this work; and large quantities of camphor are now also refined by some of the english chemists. the best camphor is imported from sumatra. the principal use of this drug is in medicine; and it was formerly in high repute. dr. cullen says that it has been employed with advantage in fevers of almost all kinds: but, since the free use of opium has been introduced, camphor has been little employed in this country, though its utility has been fully established by some of the most eminent practitioners of the continent. it has often been found to relieve tooth-ache and rheumatism. several preparations of camphor, in combination with other substances, are used in medicine, of which, perhaps, the most common is that with spirit of wine. to insects the effluvium of camphor is so disagreeable that they quickly avoid it. hence it is customary to place pieces of it in collections of natural history, to prevent their destruction by these voracious little creatures. for carpenters' work the _wood_ of the camphor tree is much in request. it is light and durable; and, in consequence of long retaining its aromatic smell, is not liable to be injured by insects. plants of the camphor and cinnamon trees were captured, from the french, in 1782, by admiral rodney, and afterwards conveyed to jamaica, and propagated there. several shrubs and plants of our own country contain camphor in considerable quantity. the principal of these are _rosemary_, _sage_, _lavender_, and _marjoram_. 130. _the common sweet bay_ (laurus nobilis) _is an evergreen shrub, which grows in italy and other southern parts of europe, and is principally celebrated as that which was anciently used to form the crown of victory among poets._ _its leaves are of shining green colour, somewhat spear-shaped, and often waved towards the edge. the flowers appear in april and may, in clusters of three or four together on short footstalks. the corolla is in four segments of yellowish white colour, and is succeeded by an oval berry covered with a dark green rind._ this handsome shrub is common in our gardens and shrubberies. its _leaves_ afford, by distillation, an useful oil, which is occasionally employed in medicine. they are also employed, in cookery, to flavour custards, puddings, stews, and pickles; and dr. woodville assures us that they may thus be used not only with safety, but even with advantage, as assisting digestion. the _berries_ or fruit of the bay tree, which have an aromatic smell, and a warm, bitterish, and pungent taste, were much used by the ancient romans for culinary purposes. we import them chiefly from the coasts of the mediterranean. from the berries, in a recent state, the people of spain and italy obtain, by pressure, a green aromatic oil, which is employed in medicine, externally, as a stimulant in nervous, paralytic, and other disorders. 131. _the alligator pear is a pear-shaped fruit, produced by a species of bay tree_ (laurus persea), _that is much cultivated in the west indies._ _this tree, which is an evergreen, has a straight stem, and grows to a considerable height. its leaves are somewhat oval, leathery, transversely veined, and of beautiful green colour; and the flowers grow in bunches._ to the inhabitants of the west indian islands, particularly the negroes, this _fruit_, which ripens in the months of august and september, is an agreeable, and, in some respects, an important article of diet. when ripe the pulp is of yellow colour, of consistence somewhat harder than that of butter, and, in taste, not much unlike marrow. the negroes frequently make their meals of these pears, a little salt, and plantains; and they are occasionally served up at the tables of the white people as fruit. their exterior surface is covered with a green skin; and in the centre there is a large round seed or _stone_, extremely hard and woody, with an uneven surface. this stone is used for the marking of linen. the cloth is held or tied over the stone; and the letters are pricked by a needle, through the cloth, into the outer covering of the stone. by this means it is stained of an indelible reddish brown colour, in the direction along which the needle has passed. the _leaves_ are used by the negroes medicinally. 132. _sassafras is the wood of a north american tree of the bay tribe_ (lauras sassafras), _and is imported into europe in long straight pieces, which are of light and porous texture, and covered with a rough fungous bark._ _this tree is sometimes twenty or thirty feet high. the branches are crooked, and the leaves various, both in form and size, some of them being oval and entire, and others having two or three lobes. they are pale green, and downy beneath. the flowers, which are of a dingy yellow colour, appear in pendant spikes._ this _wood_ has a fragrant smell, and an aromatic and somewhat acrid, though sweetish taste, that are also observable in the _bark_, the smaller _twigs_, and the _roots_, all of which are imported into this country as well as the wood. infusions and decoctions of sassafras are frequently taken as a medicine for improving the tone of the stomach and bowels, in persons whose humours are in a vitiated state. soon after its introduction into europe, in the year 1560, this medicine was in such high repute as to be sold, on the continent, at the rate of fifty livres per pound; and its virtues were extolled in numerous publications that were written on the subject. it is, however, now considered of little importance; and sassafras is seldom employed but in conjunction with other medicines, which, in their nature, are more powerful. infusions of sassafras are sold in the streets of london, under the name of _saloop_. we are informed that, in many parts of america, where the sassafras trees not only grow in great numbers in the woods, but are planted along the fences of enclosures, it is not unusual to make bed-posts of the wood, for the purpose of expelling bugs. its powerful scent drives away these disagreeable insects; and some persons put chips of sassafras into their wardrobes and chests, to prevent the attack of moths. this wood serves for the posts of enclosures, to which, by its lasting nature in the ground, it is peculiarly adapted. the _bark_ of the sassafras tree is used by the american women for dyeing worsted, which it does of a permanent and beautiful orange colour. 133. _the cashew nut is a small kidney-formed nut, which grows at the extremity of a somewhat pear-shaped indian fruit._ _the tree which produces it_ (anacardium occidentale, fig. 42) _somewhat resembles a walnut tree in shape, as well as in the smell of its leaves, which are leathery, somewhat oval and shining. the flowers are red, and sweet-scented._ the size of this _fruit_ is nearly that of a large pear, and the colour of its pulp is sometimes yellow and sometimes red. the singularity of its form, with a nut or stone at the extremity, instead of the centre, generally excites the surprise of persons when they first see it. in a ripe state the fruit is sometimes roasted, cut in slices, and used as an agreeable acid in punch. its juice, when fermented, is made into wine; and, on distillation, yields a spirit which some persons prefer even to rum. the _nuts_ are each enclosed in two shells, connected together by a cellular substance, which contains a thick, inflammable, and very caustic oil. the kernels of these nuts have a peculiarly sweet and pleasant flavour, and are eaten either raw or roasted, and sometimes even pickled. it is said that the negroes of brazil, who eat of these nuts as part of their sustenance, find them peculiarly wholesome, and that they are relieved, by the use of them, from various disorders of the stomach. they are also used in medicine, as almonds; and, when ground with the chocolate nut, they greatly improve its flavour. cashew nuts may be kept, without any great alteration of their quality, for many years. if the shells be broken, and the nuts be laid for a little while on the fire, they open of themselves; and the kernels being taken out, the thin brown skin which covers them must be removed previously to their being eaten. it is necessary to be cautious, respecting the oil, that it do not come in contact with the mouth or lips; as, in such case, it would inflame and excoriate them. the _oil_ of the cashew nut is sometimes applied, by the inhabitants of the west indies (though much caution is requisite in the use of it) as a means of corroding cancerous ulcers, corns, and ring-worms; and some of the west indian ladies, when they imagine themselves too much tanned by the scorching rays of the sun, cut off the outer shell of the nut, and rub the oil upon their faces as a cosmetic. the immediate consequences of this extraordinary operation are swelling and blackness of the parts; and, in five or six days, the whole skin peels off, leaving the face so sore and tender, that it is impossible for the person using it to appear abroad in less than a fortnight; by which time the new skin is sufficiently hardened, and is as fair as that of a newly-born infant. there are, however, few british females who would consent to be thus flayed alive for the sake of rendering themselves fair. this oil tinges linen a permanent rusty iron colour. from the cashew nut tree a milky _juice_ is obtained, by tapping or incision, which stains, of a deep black colour, whatever it touches. the fine black varnish so much used in china and japan is the resinous juice of a tree called _fsi-chu_, which is conjectured to be the cashew nut tree. trigynia. 134. _the true or officinal rhubarb_ (rheum palmatum) _is a medicinal root which grows wild in various parts of asia._ _the leaves which issue from this root are large, and deeply cut into lobes; and the whole plant has a general resemblance to what in our country are called docks. the stem is erect and six or seven feet high. the leaves stand on footstalks, that are somewhat grooved above, and rounded at the edge. those which proceed from the stalk supply at the joints a kind of membraneous sheaths. the flowers terminate the branches in clusters._ the importance and the properties of this _root_ in medicine are universally known. rhubarb is usually imported from turkey, but it is occasionally also brought from russia, china, and the east indies. dr. woodville states that the _turkey rhubarb_ is brought over in oblong pieces, flattish on one side, and rounded on the other; and that it is compact, hard, heavy, and internally of a dull colour, variegated with yellow and white. the _chinese rhubarb_ is in roundish pieces, each with a large hole through the centre. it is softer than the former, and exhibits, when broken, many streaks of bright red colour. in some of the mountains of tartary, rhubarb plants are found in great abundance. the roots, when first dug out of the ground, are thick, fleshy, externally of yellowish brown colour, and internally of bright yellow streaked with red veins. when they have attained sufficient size, they are dug up and cleansed; and the small fibres and the rind being cut off, they are divided into pieces of proper size. each piece is then perforated in the middle, and they are strung on cords in such manner as not to touch each other, and are suspended to dry, either upon adjacent trees, or in the tents. the sum expended for the importation of this drug is said to exceed 200,000_l._ per annum, a great proportion of which, it is presumed, might be saved to the country by cultivation of the plants in great britain. this was first attempted, about sixty years ago, by dr. hope, in the botanic garden at edinburgh, and with such success as to prove that the climate even of scotland would be no obstacle to its increase. in 1791, sir william fordyce received from the society for encouragement of arts, manufactures, and commerce, a gold medal, for having raised more than 300 plants of the true rhubarb from seed. and, in 1783, mr. davis, of minehead, in somersetshire, brought to perfection as many plants as yielded three hundred pounds' weight of dried rhubarb. since this period, rhubarb has been grown, in different parts of england, to great extent; and has so far flourished, that some of the roots have weighed seventy pounds and upwards. the principal difficulty has attended the curing of it; but this, after numerous experiments, has at length been performed in such manner, that the english drug has been found equal, or nearly equal, to that which is imported from turkey and china. the _bark_ of rhubarb has been used for tinctures, and found, in every respect, as efficacious as the best part of the roots: and the _seeds_ possess nearly the same qualities. the _leaves_ impart an agreeable acidity, somewhat similar to that of sorrel; and a marmalade, which may, with advantage, be adopted for children, is made from the fresh _stalks_, by stripping off the bark, and boiling the pulp with an equal quantity of sugar. 135. _the common rhubarb_ (rheum rhaponticum), _is a plant which is cultivated in kitchen gardens, and has large, blunt and smooth leaves, and the leaf-stalks furrowed on the upper side, and rounded at the edge._ this species of rhubarb grows wild on the mountains of rhodope, in thrace, whence it was first propagated in other parts of europe, about the year 1630. it is chiefly in request for the _footstalks of the leaves_, which are used, (in the early part of the year, when there is little fruit) for pies and tarts. the _root_ has some of the qualities of the true rhubarb, and has occasionally been imposed upon purchasers for that drug. ---class x.--decandria. ---monogynia. 136. _senna is a drug, the dried leaves of an annual plant_ (cassia senna) _which grows in various parts of africa and asia._ _the stems of this plant are woody, and not unlike those of a shrub. the leaves are winged, and the leaflets oval, smooth, and pointed. the flowers, which grow in lengthened clusters, and are of pale yellow colour, are succeeded by oblong, compressed, and kidney-shaped pods._ the cultivation of senna is carried on to considerable extent in ethiopia, arabia, persia, and upper egypt, from several of which countries it has, from time immemorial, been brought by the caravans to alexandria, as the most convenient port whence it could be shipped or sold into europe. from this circumstance, it is sometimes denominated _alexandrian senna_. the process of stripping and drying the leaves is perfectly simple. when dried, they are of a yellowish green colour, have a faint, though not unpleasant smell, and a somewhat acrid, bitterish, and nauseous taste. these leaves have long been in use in eastern countries as a medicine; and their repute, though not so great as in the east, is very considerable in europe. they are administered in various ways; and the _pods_ have the same effect as the leaves. a kind of senna has of late been cultivated, with success, in italy and some of the southern parts of france. 137. _the officinal cassia is a somewhat cylindrical pod, about an inch in diameter, and a foot or more in length, the fruit of a tree_ (cassia fistula) _which is cultivated in egypt, the east and west indies, and south america._ _this tree is forty or fifty feet high, and much branched. its leaves are winged, with five pair of leaflets, somewhat oval, pointed, smooth, and of pale green colour. the flowers are large, yellow, and grow in oblong clusters. the pods are divided, by transverse partitions, into numerous cells, each containing one seed._ these pods are in request on account of the black, sweetish, but somewhat acid _pulp_, which is contained in their cells, and which is used, in many cases, as a mild opening medicine. it is customary in egypt to pluck the pods before they are quite ripe, and to place them in a house, from which the external air is, as much as possible, excluded. they are then laid in beds about six inches deep, having palm leaves interposed betwixt them. on the two following days the whole are sprinkled with water; and, in the course of about six weeks, they are in a fit state to be packed for sale. the east indian and west indian cassia somewhat differ, both in appearance and qualities. of the former the pods are smoother, smaller, and have a thinner rind; and the pulp is of a deeper shining black colour, sweeter, and more agreeable to the taste. in choosing cassia, those pods should be selected which are the heaviest, and in which the seeds do not rattle on being shaken. 138. _lignum vitæ and guiacum are the wood and resin of a large west indian tree_ (guiacum officinale, fig. 77) _which has winged leaves in two sets upon one footstalk, and regular flowers of five petals._ _the usual height of this tree is between thirty and forty feet. the leaves consist of two, three, and sometimes four pairs of leaflets, which are somewhat oval, and of shining dark green colour. the flowers spring, in clusters, from the division of the smaller branches; the petals are of a rich blue colour, and the stamens are crowned with yellowish anthers._ the _wood_, resin, bark, and even the flowers of this tree, are all of use either in the mechanical arts or in medicine. the former, which is yellow towards the outside, of deep blackish brown colour in the centre, and so compact and heavy as to sink, when immersed in water, is chiefly employed in the west indies for the wheels and cogs of sugar mills. it is also formed into mortars, bowls, and domestic utensils of various kinds, for which, on account of its hardness, and not being liable to warp, it is peculiarly valuable. lignum vitae is chiefly imported into this country from jamaica, in logs or pieces of four or five hundred pounds' weight each, and is in great request for school-boys' rulers, and numerous articles of turnery ware. a decoction of the wood, when rasped, is occasionally administered as a medicine in rheumatic and gouty affections. the _resin_ of this tree is sometimes obtained by wounding the bark in different parts. it exudes through the wounds; and, when sufficiently hardened by exposure to the sun, is taken off, and packed in small kegs for exportation. sometimes it is obtained by sawing the wood into billets, each about three feet in length, which are then bored with an augur longitudinally, and laid upon a fire, in such position that the melted resin, which flows through the hole as the wood burns, may be received into a vessel placed for the purpose of containing it. this resin, which is frequently called _gum guiacum_, is of a greenish colour, but has sometimes a reddish hue. its taste is pungent and acrid. from the bark of the tree there is frequently a spontaneous exudation: this has the name of _native gum_, and is imported in small, irregular, bright pieces, which are much more pure than the gum obtained in any other way. guiacum is used as a strengthening medicine, and a warm aromatic; it is employed as a remedy against rheumatic and other pains, and as an ingredient in many officinal preparations. on its first introduction, which was soon after the discovery of america, it was in such repute as to have been sold for seven crowns a pound. in the west indies, the _bark_, _flowers_, and _fruit_, are each employed in medicine; and of these the former is frequently used instead of soap for washing, in which process it gives a good lather. 139. _balsam of tolu is a reddish yellow, thick, and pellucid substance, of fragrant odour, which is obtained from a tree_ (toluifera balsamum) _which grows in south america._ _this tree is of considerable height; and has somewhat oval leaves, each on a short foot-stalk. the flowers are numerous, and in lateral branches; and the fruit is a round berry._ the name of this balsam has been obtained from its being chiefly procured from the province of tolu, on the north coast of south america, near the isthmus of panama. incisions are made in the bark of the trees, at a particular season of the year, and a resinous fluid of yellowish white colour oozes out. this is collected in small gourd shells. at first it is about the consistence of treacle, but it thickens by being kept; and by age it becomes hard and brittle. its smell is peculiarly grateful, somewhat resembling that of lemons; and its taste is warm and sweetish. on being chewed, it adheres to the teeth. this balsam is used in medicine both in the form of a tincture, and a syrup; and, in its medicinal virtues, it agrees with most other balsams. the syrup of tolu is used in several medicines; and is also made into lozenges, which may be procured of almost any chemist, and which are considered serviceable in appeasing the irritation occasioned by severe coughing. 140. _benzoin or gum benjamin, is a concrete or solid and fragrant balsamic substance, the produce of a tree_ (styrax benzoe) _which grows chiefly in the island of sumatra._ _this tree has oblong leaves which taper to a pointy and are smooth on the upper surface, and downy beneath. the flowers are in loose bunches; they usually hang all on the same side; and are generally closed, which gives them the appearance of buds._ in some of the northern parts of sumatra, particularly near the sea coast, there are several extensive plantations of benzoin trees. the seeds or nuts are sown in the rice fields, and they afterwards require no other attention than that the surrounding shrubs should be cleared away from about the young plants. when the trees have attained the age of six or seven years, incisions are made into the bark; and from these the balsam exudes, in the form of a thick, whitish, resinous juice. by exposure to the air, this juice soon hardens; it is then pared from the bark with a knife or chisel. for the first three years the trees yield the purest resins: this is of a white colour inclining to yellow, is soft and fragrant. afterwards, for the next seven or eight years, an inferior sort is yielded; this is of reddish yellow colour, degenerating to brown. at length the trees, unable to bear a repetition of the process, are cut down, and split into pieces. from these is procured by scraping, a still worse sort of benzoin, which is dark-coloured, hard, and mixed, more or less, with parings of the wood and other impurities. the inferior sorts of benzoin are exported to arabia, persia, and some parts of india, where they are burned, to perfume, with their smoke, the temples and the houses of the inhabitants; to expel troublesome insects, and obviate the pernicious effects of unwholesome air or noxious exhalations. benzoin is brought for sale to the mercantile parts of sumatra, in large cakes, covered with mats. in order to pack it in chests, it is necessary to break these cakes, and to expose it to the heat of the sun. the greater part of the benzoin which is brought to england is re-exported to countries where the roman catholic and mahometan religions prevail; to be there burned as incense in the churches and temples. the annual exportation of benzoin from london to mogadore only has been estimated at 30,000 pounds' weight per annum. that which is consumed in england is chiefly employed in medicine, in perfumes, and as cosmetics. it constitutes the basis of what are called _turlington's_ or _friar's balsam_, and _jesuit's drops_; the salutary effects of which, particularly in healing recent wounds, is well known. this balsam is composed of benzoin, balsam of tolu (139), socotrine aloes (107), and rectified spirit of wine. benzoin is also used in the preparation of what is called _ladies' court plaster_; but in this it is supposed to be unnecessary if not prejudicial; not only as it renders the plaster more difficult to be moistened, previously to its application, but as the irritating quality of the benzoin may in some instances dispose a fresh wound to fester. the mode of making court plaster is very simple. five ounces of isinglass are dissolved in a pint of water. a quantity of thin black sarsnet being then stretched on a frame, a warm solution of the isinglass is applied with a brush equally over the surface; and, when dry, this is repeated a second or third time. it is finally brushed over with a weak solution of benzoin in spirits of wine, which communicates to it a pleasant aromatic smell. if powdered benzoin be put into an earthen vessel over a slow fire, and the fumes of it be made to sublime into a paper cone fixed to the top of the pot, the substance thus formed is the _flowers of benzoin_ of the shops, or _benzoic acid_, as it is termed, by chemists. 141. _storax is a fragrant, concrete, or solid balsam, that is obtained from a tree_ (styrax officinalis) _which grows in the levant, and in some parts of italy._ _this tree grows to the height of twenty feet and upwards: it is much branched, and has broad, alternate, oval leaves, somewhat pointed, smooth above, and downy beneath. the flowers are large, white, in clusters on short footstalks, and terminate the branches._ the best storax is obtained from asiatic turkey, in small transparent masses, of pale red or yellowish colour, and generally abounding in whitish tears, resembling those of benzoin. the drug, however, which is commonly sold in the shops as storax, consists of large, light pieces, very impure, from the saw-dust with which it is mixed. the mode of obtaining this balsam is similar to that employed for benzoin (140): incisions are made in the trees, and, on its oozing from the wound, it is scraped off, and collected together to be packed for sale. it was formerly customary to enclose it in reeds. storax is one of the most fragrant of the balsams, and is much used in some countries in perfumes, and for fumigation. it is also compounded in various ways with other substances, for medicinal use. 142. _log-wood is a dark red wood, chiefly used in dyeing; and imported from honduras, and some of the islands of the west indies._ _the log-wood tree_ (hæmatoxylon campechianum, fig. 43) _is from sixteen to twenty-four feet high, and, both in the trunk and branches, is extremely crooked. the branches are spinous, and the leaves winged, with, in general, four or five pair of leaflets, which are somewhat heart-shaped. the flowers are if a reddish yellow colour, small, and numerous._ the district of honduras in north america has long been celebrated for the production of log-wood, which grows wild chiefly in forests where the soil is moist, or near the banks of rivers and lakes. the cutting of it occupies a great number of hands, and is an unpleasant and very unhealthy pursuit. in the year 1715 some seeds of the log-wood tree were introduced into the island of jamaica; and this wood is now chiefly employed in that island as a fence against cattle. as an article of commercial export, it does not appear to answer so fully as could have been wished; yet, in morassy parts of the island, it grows in considerable luxuriance. few kinds of wood are of more solid texture than this. hence arises its weight, which is so great that it will sink in water. its predominant colour is red, tinged with orange and black; and its hardness such that it is capable of being polished, and is scarcely susceptible of decay. for exportation to europe, it is cut into billets or logs, each about three feet in length. the chief use of log-wood in this country is for dyeing green, purple, blue, and black colours, according to the different ingredients with which it is employed. it gives a purplish tinge to watery and spirituous infusions; but all the colours which can be prepared from it are fugitive, and cannot, by any art, be rendered so durable as those prepared from other materials. independently of its use as a dyeing drug, log-wood possesses considerable utility as an astringent medicine, chiefly under the form of a decoction, or of an extract boiled down to a proper consistence. the price of logwood at honduras is so low as not usually to exceed 12_l._ or 14_l._ jamaica currency per ton. 143. _mahogany is the wood of a well-known tree_ (swietenia mahagoni, fig. 44) _of large dimensions, with winged leaves, and small white flowers, which grows in jamaica and honduras._ _the branches of this tree are numerous and spreading. its leaves are alternate and winged, with four or five pair of leaflets, which are somewhat spear-shaped. the flowers are numerous, small, white, and in spikes or clusters, which arise at the junction of the leaves with the branches._ the cutting of mahogany constitutes a principal occupation of the british settlers in the vicinity of honduras. the gangs of negroes employed in this work consist of from ten to fifty each, one of whom is styled the "huntsman." he is generally selected from the most intelligent of his companions, and his chief employment is to search for these trees in the woods, the principal of which lie adjacent to the river balize. about the beginning of august, the huntsman is despatched into the woods, and he cuts his way through the thickest parts, to the highest spots he can find. here he climbs the loftiest tree, and thence attentively surveys the surrounding forest. at this season the leaves of the mahogany trees are of a yellow reddish hue, and an eye accustomed to them can discover, at a great distance, the places where they are most abundant. he now descends, and to such places directs his steps; and, having well marked the way, returns to his companions, to point out the places to them. here they assemble, and erect, against each tree to be felled, a stage so high as to allow of the tree being cut down at the height of about twelve feet from the ground. the last day of felling the trees is appropriated to festivity; and these people have then a short interval of leisure for comforts in which they seldom can indulge at any other time. after the branches are lopped, and the useless parts of the wood are cut off, the operation commences of conveying the trees, by cattle and trucks, to the water's side, a task of infinite and laborious difficulty. a sufficient number of pieces to form a raft being here collected, they are shoved from the bank into the water, and suffered to float singly upon the current to large cables which are placed across the river at some distance below. as numerous gangs of mahogany cutters are usually employed near the banks of the same river, their trees also float to the same spot. here therefore the whole are collected, amounting sometimes to more than a thousand immense logs; and, each party claiming his own, the trees are formed into separate rafts for their final destinations. in some instances the profit of cutting mahogany at this settlement has been very great. a single tree has occasionally been known to contain 12,000 superficial feet, and to have produced upwards of 1000_l._ sterling. the body of the tree is of course the most valuable; but, for ornamental purposes, the limbs or large branches, are generally preferred, their grain being much closer, and their veins being more rich and variegated than those of the other parts. the honduras mahogany is considered inferior to that produced in jamaica. in this island mahogany was formerly much more abundant, and consequently much less expensive than it is now, because the low lands have gradually been thinned of such trees as could readily be carried to market, or conveyed on board vessels for exportation. the date of the introduction of mahogany wood into england is 1724. since this period it has been in very general request for making the more valuable kinds of household furniture. it admits of a high polish, and is excellently adapted for tables, chairs, desks, and other similar articles. in jamaica, mahogany is employed as a strong and durable timber for beams, joists, planks, boards, &c. many attempts have been made to stain other kinds of wood so as to resemble it, but none of these have been attended with success. it has been lately discovered that the _bark_ of the mahogany tree may be advantageously employed in medicine, as a substitute for peruvian bark (62). 144. _quassia is a drug, the root of a tree_ (quassia amara, fig. 78) _which grows in the west indies and south america, but particularly in the colony of surinam._ _the leaves of the quassia tree are winged, with two pair of oval and somewhat pointed leaflets, and an odd one at the end: these are smooth, deep green above and pale below; and the common footstalk is edged on each side with a leafy membrane. the flowers are bright red, and terminate the branches in long clusters._ this drug was first brought into use in surinam, by a negro whose name was quassia, and who employed it with great success in the cure of intermittent and other malignant fevers, which prevail in that flat and marshy country. the offer of a valuable consideration induced him to reveal the secret to daniel rolander, a swede, who carried specimens of the wood, together with a branch of the tree, the flower, and fruit, to stockholm, in 1756. since this period the drug has been generally employed in europe; and its efficacy in the removal of many diseases has been perfectly ascertained. dr. cullen, however, observes, that though it is an excellent bitter, and that it will do all that any pure or simple bitter can do, yet his experience of it had not led him to think it would do more. quassia is said to possess antiseptic properties, and consequently to have considerable influence in retarding a tendency to putrefaction. it is also sometimes used instead of hops in the brewing of malt liquor. the _root_, _wood_, and _bark_ of the quassia tree are all occasionally employed in medicine, and the bark is said to be more intensely bitter than either of the other two. ---class xi.--dodecandria. ---monogynia. 145. _gamboge is a yellow resinous gum obtained from a tree_ (garcinia cambogia) _which grows in several parts of camboga or camboya in the empire of tunkin._ _the leaves of this tree are oval, but acute. the flowers have each five petals, and fifteen stamens: they are solitary, terminate the branches, and have scarcely any stalks. the fruit is a berry about the size of an orange._ the name of this gum has been derived from that of the country whence it is brought. the mode of obtaining it is by puncturing or cutting the branches of the trees. it issues from the wounds in a fluid state, but soon becomes hardened by the heat of the sun. after this it is formed into large cakes or rolls, in which state we receive it. gamboge is chiefly used as a pigment. when good, it is of a fine orange colour; and on being softened with water, is bright yellow, requiring no preparation previously to being used. it is also given as a medicine; but its operations being very violent, it should be administered with great caution. the dried fruit of the gamboge tree is not unfrequently sent to our colonies in the east indies, where it is used in sauces, and with several kinds of food. 146. _weld_ (reseda luteola) _is a plant of the mignionette tribe, used in dyeing: it grows wild, in barren and uncultivated places, particularly on coal-pit banks, in several parts of england._ _the leaves are spear-shaped, and entire, with a tooth-like process on each side of the base. the flowers are yellow, and in long spikes; and the calyx is divided into four segments._ in some parts of england, particularly in the clothing counties, weld is cultivated to great extent; and it flourishes in sandy soils that could be turned to little advantage in any other way. when the plants are ripe, they are pulled up by the roots, dried, and tied into bundles for use. the tinging quality of weld resides both in the stems and roots. this imparts to wool, cotton, mohair, and silk, a very bright and beautiful yellow colour; and blue cloths, dipped in a decoction of it, become green. the yellow colour of the paint called _dutch pink_ is obtained from this plant. ---class xii.--icosandria. ---monogynia. 147. _the guava, or bay plum, is a west indian fruit, of which there are two kinds, one white and round, and the other red and pear-shaped. the former is produced by a tree_ (psidium pomiferum) _which has sharp-pointed and highly ribbed leaves, and flowers three on each stalk; and the latter by a tree_ (psidium pyriferum) _with oval leaves and single-stalked flowers._ equally delicious and wholesome, these _fruits_ are in the highest estimation in the countries where they are produced. the rind or skin is lined with an apple-like substance, which is used for tarts and other sweet preparations. it is also stewed and eaten with milk; and, in this form, is generally thought better than any other stewed fruit; from the same part a marmalade is made. this rind encloses an agreeable pulp, mixed with innumerable small seeds. the whole fruit is eaten raw, or prepared as a sweetmeat in various ways; the most common form in which we see it is that of a jelly. the _wood_ is used for fuel, and also makes excellent charcoal. 148. _the common myrtle_ (myrtus communis) _is a well-known ornamental evergreen shrub, which is cultivated chiefly in greenhouses in this country, but grows wild in the countries of the south of europe._ although this shrub is cultivated with us chiefly for ornament, it is of considerable utility to the inhabitants of the south of europe. its _young shoots_ are used for tanning leather; and both its _leaves_ and _berries_ are employed in medicine. from the former a distilled water is obtained, which is sometimes used in gargles. the berries are likewise distilled; and an oil prepared from them has considerable repute as a means of thickening the hair. 149. _all-spice, or pimento, is the dried berry of a west indian species of myrtle_ (myrtus pimenta, fig. 45.) _this tree grows to the height of twenty feet and upwards, and has somewhat oval leaves about four inches long, of deep shining green colour, and numerous bunches of white flowers, each with four small petals._ in the whole vegetable creation there is scarcely any tree more beautiful or more fragrant than a young pimento about the month of july. branched on all sides, richly clad with deep green leaves, which are relieved by an exuberance of white and strongly aromatic flowers, it attracts the notice of all who approach it. pimento trees grow spontaneously, and in great abundance, in many parts of jamaica; but they cannot be propagated without great difficulty. the usual method of making a new pimento walk, or plantation, is to appropriate for this purpose a piece of woody ground in the neighbourhood of an already existing walk, or in a part of the country where the scattered trees are found in a native state. the other trees are cut down; and, in a year or two, young pimento plants are found to spring up in all parts, supposed to have been produced from berries scattered there by birds, which eagerly devour them. about the month of september, and not long after the blossoms have fallen, the berries are in a fit state to be gathered. at this time, though not quite ripe, they are full grown, and about the size of pepper-corns. they are gathered by the hand; and one labourer on a tree will strip them off so quickly as to employ three below in picking them up; and an industrious picker will fill a bag of seventy pounds' weight in a day. the berries are then spread on a terrace, in the sun, for about seven days, to be dried; but this is an operation which requires great care, from the necessity of keeping them perfectly free from moisture. by the drying they lose their green colour, and become reddish brown; and the process is known to be completed by their colour, and by the rattling of the seeds within the berries. they are then packed into bags or hogsheads for the market. when the berries are quite ripe, they are of a dark purple colour, and filled with a sweet pulp. pimento is thought to resemble in flavour a mixture of cinnamon, nutmegs, and cloves, whence it has obtained the name of "all-spice." it is much employed in cookery; and is chiefly used in whole grains. it is also employed in medicine, as an agreeable aromatic; and forms the basis of a distilled water, a spirit, and an essential oil. the _leaves_ of the pimento trees yield in distillation an odoriferous oil, which is not unfrequently used in medicinal preparations, instead of oil of cloves. 150. _the peach is a large, downy, and well-known garden fruit_ (amygdalus persica), _which is supposed to have been originally introduced into europe from persia, and was first brought into england about the year 1562._ this rich and delicious fruit is highly and deservedly esteemed at table, as an article in our desserts; and, when ripe and fresh, is grateful and wholesome, seldom disagreeing with the stomach, unless this organ be not in an healthy state, or the fruit be eaten to excess. when preserved in wine, brandy, or sugar, it loses its good properties. the _kernels_ yield a salubrious bitter. the _flowers_, which are very beautiful, and appear early in the spring, emit an agreeable odour, have a bitterish taste, and are used for medical purposes. the _leaves_ are occasionally employed in cookery, but they ought not to be used without great caution, on account of their injurious properties. there are many varieties of the peach, some of which are much more esteemed than others. the mode in which the trees are usually propagated is by a process termed budding, or grafting upon the stock of some other tree (see p. 147); and, by this process, those of any favourite kind may be exactly obtained. 151. the nectarine is a smooth-skinned variety of the peach, but of richer and more delicious flavour. the culture and management of the two kinds are exactly the same; and in all the circumstances of their growth, wood, leaves, and flowers, they precisely resemble each other. 152. _the common or sweet almond is a soft and pleasant-flavoured kernel, contained in a nut which is of flattish shape, and has a tender shell with numerous small holes on the outside._ _the almond tree_ (amygdalus communis, fig. 46) _is usually twelve or fourteen feet high. its beautiful pink flowers of five petals grow in pairs, and appear early in the spring. the leaves are somewhat oval, pointed, and delicately serrated at the edges._ our shrubberies contain no tree the flowers of which are more beautiful than those of the almond; and these flowers appear in march and april, a season when few other parts of the vegetable creation have recovered from their wintry state. though known to the ancients from the most remote periods of antiquity, the almond tree has only been cultivated in england since the year 1562, and this almost wholly on account of the elegant appearance of its flowers; as the climate of great britain is not sufficiently warm for the fruit to be perfected with us. the almonds that are consumed in this country are imported, sometimes in the shell, but much more commonly without, from france, spain, italy, and the levant; and they are packed in casks, boxes, and bales. the province of valencia had formerly great celebrity for its almonds; but the cultivation of the trees in that part of spain has for several years been much neglected. the chief uses of sweet almonds are in confectionary and cooking. they are also eaten with raisins in desserts after dinner; but they should be well chewed, as every piece that is swallowed entire is indigestible. by pressure, they yield a considerable proportion, sometimes nearly half their weight, of _oil_. indeed this is so plentiful that it may even be squeezed out of the kernel with the fingers. some preparations of almonds are used in medicine, particularly that called _milk of almonds_, which is formed of pounded almonds, loaf-sugar, and water, well mixed together. in some parts of the east indies, it is said that almonds supply the place of small money. 153. _bitter almonds are in no respect different from sweet almonds, either as to the appearance of the kernels themselves, or the trees which produce them, except somewhat in the size of the flowers and fruit._ like sweet almonds, they yield a large portion of _oil_. this has no bitterness; but the substance which remains after the pressure is intensely bitter. if these almonds be eaten freely, they occasion sickness and vomiting; and, to many quadrupeds and birds, they are a fatal poison. there was formerly a notion, but it is an erroneous one, that the eating of them would prevent the intoxicating effects of wine. they are frequently used, instead of apricot kernels, in ratafia, and sometimes are employed in making a counterfeit cherry-brandy. the oil and emulsions of bitter almonds are used in medicine: and a powder and paste, for washing the hands is made both from them and from sweet almonds. by confectioners they are much in request for flavouring biscuits and other articles. 154. _the pomegranate is an apple-shaped fruit with thick rind, and crowned with the leaves or teeth of the calyx. it is the produce of an evergreen shrub_ (punica granatum, fig. 47) _which grows wild in the southern parts of europe._ _this shrub is usually from fifteen to twenty feet high. the branches are armed with spines; and the leaves are oblong, pointed, and dark green. the flowers, which are of a rich scarlet colour, have five rounded petals._ by the greeks and romans almost every part of the pomegranate tree (the root, leaves, flowers, and fruit) was considered to possess medical properties of a very remarkable and even marvellous description; and the country then chiefly celebrated for the production of it was that adjacent to the city of carthage. the pomegranate is now, however, in little esteem, except on account of its fruit; the pulp or juice of which is pleasant to the palate, and, in common with other summer fruits, allays heat and mitigates thirst, but has a slightly astringent flavour. this pulp is red, is contained in transparent membranes, and included in nine distinct cells. the tough _rind_ of the fruit, which is of a bitter and astringent nature, was employed by the ancients in the dressing of leather; and it is still used in some parts of germany, together with the _bark_ of the tree, in the preparation and dyeing of red leather in imitation of what is called morocco leather. pomegranates were first cultivated in england about the year 1596; but the fruit grown in this country seldom attains a delicacy of flavour equal to that which is imported from spain, italy, and other warm climates. 155. _the cherry is a fruit of the prune or plum tribe, the original stock of which is the wild cherry_ (prunus cerasus) _of our woods._ the gradual effects of cultivation, as they regard the cherry, have been the production of several kinds, which, both in size and flavour, infinitely exceed the fruit of the parent stock, or wild cherry of the woods. the kinds that are best known are the _may duke, early kentish cherry, white heart, and black heart cherries_. the trees are propagated by grafting (see p. 147) them usually upon the stocks of wild black and red cherry trees, which are reared for that purpose. this agreeable _fruit_ is eaten either fresh or dried. it is sometimes preserved with sugar as a sweetmeat; is made into jam; used in preparations of the liqueur called cherry-brandy: and made into wine. from wild black cherries the swiss distil an ardent spirit, by the sale of which to the french and germans they derive considerable profit. the _wood_ of the cherry-tree, which is hard and tough, is much used, particularly by turners and cabinet-makers on the continent, for the manufacture of chairs and other furniture. the _gum_ that exudes from the bark is, in many respects, equal to gum arabic (273); and is considered very nutritive. hasselquist informs us that, during a siege, more than 100 men were kept alive for nearly two months, without any other sustenance than a little of this gum, which they occasionally took into their mouths and suffered gradually to dissolve. 156. _the apricot_ (prunus armeniaca) _is a fruit of the plum tribe, which grows wild in several parts of armenia and was first introduced into this country about the middle of the sixteenth century._ some persons are inclined to consider the apricot as the most delicate of all our hardy fruits. for pastry certainly none is more excellent. it is used for tarts, both green and when ripe; it is also preserved with sugar in both these states, and is sometimes dried as a sweetmeat. care, however, should be taken to gather it before it becomes soft and mealy. the _kernels_ of apricots have a pleasantly bitter flavour, and answer much better for several purposes in confectionary than bitter almonds, which are usually applied. they likewise contain a sweet oil, which, like that of almonds, was formerly used in emulsions. the _gum_ that issues from the apricot tree is nearly similar to that of the cherry (152). the _wood_ is coarse-grained and soft, and consequently is seldom used in carpentry. apricot trees are chiefly grown against walls, and are propagated by grafting upon plum-tree stocks. 157. _the common or domestic plum, in all its varieties, has been derived from a wild species of plum-tree_ (prunus domestica), _which grows in hedge-rows and thickets in several parts of england; and is distinguished by its branches being without thorns, and its fruit-stalks being single._ were it not a well-established fact, few persons would suppose that the _magnum bonum_, or _egg plum_, the _green gage_, and several others, which are now common in our gardens, are indebted, for their parent stock, to the wild plum above-mentioned. these are all used at table; and, when sufficiently ripe, and eaten in moderate quantity, are pleasant and wholesome fruits, but, in an immature state, they are very unwholesome. _prunes_ and _french plums_ are the dried fruit of different kinds of plum-trees. they are usually packed in boxes, and are imported from the continent, but particularly from the neighbourhood of marseilles.--brignolles, a town of provence, about thirty miles from marseilles, is one of the most famous places in france for dried prunes. _prunes_ or _st. catherine's plums_, constitute a lucrative branch of traffic, which is almost exclusively carried on in tours and chatelherault. prunes are sometimes employed in medicine, but french plums are chiefly used at table. the _wood_ of the plum-tree is of little value; but the _bark_ is in occasional request as affording a yellow dye. 158. _the bullace plum is a small violet-coloured fruit of globular shape, produced by a shrub_ (prunus insititia) _which grows wild in our hedges, and is known by its branches being thorny, and its fruit-stalks in pairs._ the plum has a rough, but not unpleasantly acid taste, especially after it has been mellowed by the frost. a conserve, called _bullace cheese_, is sometimes prepared by mixture of the pulp of the bullace with about thrice its weight of sugar. in several parts of germany this fruit is preserved in vinegar and spice; and is occasionally used, in the manner of cherries, for the flavouring of brandy. an infusion of the _flowers_, sweetened with sugar, is sometimes used medicinally for children. the _wood_ is pleasingly veined, and is much valued by turners. 159. _the sloe is a small, round, and nearly black kind of plum_ (prunus spinosa), _of extremely austere taste, which is common in thickets and hedges throughout nearly every part of england._ _the shrub that produces it has thorny branches, and the fruit-stalks are single._ the harshness and austerity of the sloe are proverbial. its _juice_, if mixed with british made wines, communicates to them a red colour, and an astringent flavour, somewhat resembling that of port wine; a fact too well known to some of the dealers in that favourite liquor. the juice of unripe sloes, dried over a gentle fire, so nearly resembles the egyptian acacia (273), that it has in many instances been substituted for that substance; it is, however, harder, heavier, of darker colour, and somewhat sharper taste than the genuine kind. a conserve of this fruit, made with three times its weight of double-refined sugar, has been used with success as a gargle for sore throats. an infusion of the _flowers_ in water, or the flowers boiled in milk, are sometimes employed medicinally; and the _bark_, reduced to powder, has been efficaciously administered in agues. if boiled in ley, the bark yields a red dye. the young and tender _leaves_ of the sloe afford a substitute for tea, but some persons consider them unwholesome. the juice of the fruit, mixed with green vitriol, becomes an indelible black fluid, either for dyeing linen, or as writing-ink. the _wood_, being extremely tough, is converted into walking-sticks, and made into the teeth of rakes; it is also sometimes used by turners. dr. withering has remarked, that, from certain effects which he observed to follow the prick of the _thorns_ of the sloe, he was inclined to consider they had some poisonous quality, especially in autumn. pentagynia. 160. _the medlar_ (mespilus germanica) _is usually considered a native english fruit, having been remarked, more than a century ago, to grow wild in hedges about minshull in cheshire. it is distinguished by being depressed and concave at the top, the leaves of the calyx continuing upon it; and by its containing several hard, compressed, and angular nuts._ it is the property of the medlar, which is cultivated in most large gardens, to be hard, and remarkably austere and disagreeable to the taste, until it has, in part, undergone the putrefactive fermentation, when it becomes a soft, mellow, and, to many palates, a pleasant fruit. medlars are usually gathered from the trees about the end of october, or beginning of november. to facilitate their becoming fit for the table, they may be placed in moist bran; but such as require to be kept for subsequent use should be deposited on dry straw. in a fortnight or three weeks those in the bran will be eatable, and the others will more gradually ripen. after they are perfectly ripe, they, however, soon become mouldy and decay. the _wood_ of the medlar-tree somewhat resembles that of the pear-tree, but is of no great value. 161. _the common pear is a well-known garden fruit, derived from an english stock, the wild pear-tree_ (pyrus communis), _which grows in hedges and thickets in somersetshire and sussex._ it would be an endless task to describe the different known varieties of the cultivated pear. some of these are very large, and others extremely small; some have a rich and luscious flavour, and others, as the iron pear, are so hard and disagreeable to the taste, as to be absolutely unfit to eat. pears are chiefly used in desserts; and one or two of the kinds are stewed with sugar, baked, or preserved in syrup. the fermented _juice_ of pears is called _perry_, and is prepared nearly in the same manner as that of apples (162) is for cider. the greatest quantities of perry are made in worcestershire and herefordshire. the _squash_, the _oldfield_, and the _barland perry_ are esteemed the best. many of the dealers in champaigne wine are said to use perry in the adulteration of it; and, indeed, really good perry is little inferior, either in flavour or quality, to champaigne. of the _wood_ of the pear-tree, which is light, smooth, compact, and of yellowish colour, carpenters' and joiners' tools are usually made, as well as the common kinds of flat rulers, and measuring scales. it is also used for picture frames that are to be stained black. the _leaves_ impart a yellow dye, and are sometimes employed to communicate a green colour to blue cloth. 162. _the apple, in all its numerous varieties, has been derived from the_ crab-tree (pyrus malus), _which grows wild in almost every thicket, and in hedges of all parts of the kingdom._ the uses of apples are very extensive, and even the _crab-tree_ is not without its use. the _fruit_ is indeed small, and bad to the taste; but its fermented juice, which is called _verjuice_, is sometimes employed in cookery, occasionally in medicine, and frequently by wax-chandlers, for the purifying of wax. dr. withering conceives that, with a proper addition of sugar, a grateful liquor might be made from the juice of crabs, little inferior to hock. hogs and deer are particularly partial to this fruit. the _wood_ is tolerably hard, and, when made into the cogs of wheels, acquires a polish, and is very durable. apple-trees are all produced in an artificial manner, by a process termed _grafting_. this is performed by inserting young shoots of such trees as bear valuable fruit, on stocks that have been raised from the seeds of crabs. thus the shoot of an apple-tree, inserted into a crab stock, occasions the crab-tree, from that time, to produce apples of nearly the same kind and quality with those of the tree from which the shoot was taken. other stocks might be used, but those of the crab are considered the best. the same process is adopted in the propagation of nearly every kind of fruit-tree; since, by experience, it has been ascertained that such as are produced from seed all partake of the nature of wild fruits, and have little resemblance to the fruit from which they spring. there are several kinds of apples, and the varieties are every day increasing, through the attention that is paid, by different individuals, to the culture of this valuable fruit. those best known as eating apples are the american apple called _newtown pippin_, the _non-pareil_, _golden pippin_, _ribstone pippin_, _golden rennet_, and _lemon pippin_; for the kitchen, the _codlin_ and _russet_; and for cider, the _golden pippin_, _coccagee_, and _red streak_. of these the non-pareil and golden pippin, from some unaccountable causes, are beginning to fail; the trees of late production not affording fruit of excellence equal to what has formerly been produced in this country. it would be impossible in this place to enumerate all the uses of apples. they are employed in culinary preparations of several kinds, particularly in puddings and pies: they are a constant article in desserts; and are dried, baked, and made into jelly and marmalade. but by far the most important application of them is for the making of _cider_. the mode in which this is done in herefordshire is very simple. after the apples have been gathered, they are sorted according to their different degrees of ripeness, and laid together, for a little while, to heat, by which those which are not perfectly ripe are greatly improved in flavour. the fruit is then ground in a mill, till even the kernels and rind are well bruised. it is allowed to stand, for a day or two, exposed in a large open vessel; after which it is pressed between several hair cloths. the liquor that issues from it is received into a vat, to be fermented; it is subsequently removed into casks till it becomes fine; it is then racked off into other vessels, leaving the lees behind. as soon as the fermentation has ceased, the casks are filled up with other cider, and the bung-holes are closed. cider is a more acid liquor than perry, and, generally speaking, is a wholesome and pleasant drink during the heats of summer; but the harsher kinds, or those which are prepared in leaden vessels, if freely drunk, are the cause of colics and other painful complaints. by distillation from cider an ardent spirit may be obtained. this has an unpleasant flavour, of which, however, it may be deprived by a certain process with charcoal. by boiling the fresh juice of apples, and afterwards fermenting it, a _wine_ may be made, which, when three or four years old, is said to acquire both the colour and flavour of rhenish wine. 163. _the quince is a somewhat pear-shaped fruit, which is supposed to have been originally imported into this country from the island of crete._ _the quince-tree_ (pyrus cydonia), _is low and bushy. its leaves are oval, entire, and whitish beneath. the flowers are large, of pale red or white colour, and do not grow in bunches, but each on a separate stalk._ though quinces have an austere taste, and are not eatable when raw, they lose a considerable portion of their harshness if prepared in any manner by heat; and, when mixed with other fruit in cookery, they communicate a very pleasant flavour. hence it is that they are often mixed with apples in pies. quinces are also boiled and eaten with sugar; made into marmalade, and preserved in syrup either whole or in halves. the _juice_ of quinces, boiled with sugar, was formerly used as a medicine, but of late years it has been nearly discontinued. a proportion of one quart of the juice, mixed with a pound of sugar, and fermented, yields a delicious wine. on the continent, a celebrated liqueur is prepared from this juice, in combination with sugar and brandy. a mucilage of the _seeds_ is kept by apothecaries, and used in medicine, as more pleasant, but it is not so efficacious, as that of the simple gums. quince-trees grow wild on the banks of the danube, but, with much less luxuriance than in a state of cultivation. polygynia. 164. _the hundred leaved, or common garden rose_ (rosa centifolia), _is a shrub too well known to need any description._ this, the queen of flowers, is one of the most elegant and fragrant of the vegetable productions. its _petals_ yield, on distillation, a small portion of aromatic _oil_, together with a _water_ which possesses both the odour and taste of the flowers. this oil congeals in the common temperature of our atmosphere, and in that state is of white colour; but, when liquefied by heat, it appears yellow. so small, however, is the quantity that can be obtained, that an hundred pounds' weight of the flowers will scarcely yield half an ounce of oil. it is in much request as a perfume, under the name of _ottar_ or _essence of roses_; and, though chiefly manufactured in the east indies, is seldom imported from thence for sale, but considerable quantities of it are brought from turkey, at the price of from three to four pounds per ounce, exclusive of the duty. that from the east indies, when genuine, has been sold at a much more exorbitant rate than this; but it is not unfrequently adulterated with oil of sandal-wood (55). the fraud, however, is easily detected by those who are accustomed to the smell of the latter, and also by the fluidity of the compound. the true ottar of roses is undoubtedly the most elegant perfume that is known. from the petals of this rose are also prepared a _conserve_ and _syrup_, which are used in medicine. the simple distilled _rose-water_ has little to recommend it beyond its fragrance: it is occasionally used to impart an agreeable flavour to culinary preparations, and also to some kinds of cordials. it should be remarked that, although, from their fragrance, roses are much used for nosegays, their odour has sometimes produced very alarming symptoms in persons sitting or sleeping with such nosegays in confined apartments. 165. _the wild brier, or hep-rose_ (rosa canina), _is a common wild flower in hedges, and is distinguished by having a somewhat egg-shaped fruit, smooth flower-stalks, the prickles of the stem hooked, and the leaves oval, pointed, smooth, and shining._ we possess no wild shrub more ornamental to the country, in its flowers, its foliage, or its fruit, than this; and its sweet and delicate scent, though less powerful, is perhaps as grateful as that of any rose that is known. the _flowers_, when distilled, afford a pleasant perfumed water. the _fruit_, or heps, contain an acid yet sweetish pulp, with a rough prickly matter enclosing the seeds. of the pulp, when carefully separated from this substance, and mixed with sugar, is prepared the _conserve of heps_ of the shops, which, though of little medicinal virtue itself, is used to give form to more active medicines. in the north of europe, the fruit of the rose, with the addition of sugar, is sometimes employed in the preparation of domestic wines; and the pulp, in a dried state, affords a grateful ingredient in sauces: but it is supposed that a still greater advantage might be derived from the fruit by distillation. the _leaves_ of this, and indeed of every kind of rose, have been recommended as a substitute for tea. on the continent they are employed in currying the finer kinds of leather. on the branches of this tree a singular moss-like and prickly excrescence is frequently found. this, which is caused by an insect (_cynips rosæ_), and forms the habitation of its offspring, was formerly in great medicinal repute; but it is now seldom used. 166. _the red officinal rose_ (rosa gallica) _differs from the hundred-leaved rose in having the leaf-stalks more rough and prickly. the petals are of deep crimson colour, large, spreading, and not numerous._ in the period of its flowering, this rose, which is a native of the south of europe, succeeds the common garden rose. it is used in several medicinal preparations. of its _petals_, in conjunction with sugar, a conserve is made, an infusion, and a syrup; and the dried _buds_, with water and honey, are made into what is called _honey of roses_. 167. _the raspberry_ (rubus idæus) _is a well-known garden fruit, which grows wild in woods and thickets of several parts of england._ to most persons the flavour of the raspberry is peculiarly grateful; and its perfume very delightful. raspberries are much used in cookery and confectionary, as well as to eat in desserts. with sugar they are made into jam and jelly, and also into cakes. the juice, mixed with a certain portion of sugar and of brandy, constitutes the liqueur called _raspberry-brandy_. this juice is much in request for ice-creams, and is sometimes manufactured into wine. a grateful syrup is obtained from raspberries, which is occasionally used in medicine. the _leaves_ are said to be a grateful food to kids. white raspberries are sweeter than the red ones. 168. our wild hedge fruit, called blackberries (_rubus fruticosus_), belong to the same tribe as the raspberry. these are much eaten by children, and sometimes, when taken in too great quantities, produce very violent effects, and have caused fever, delirium, and other unpleasant symptoms. in provence blackberries are employed for the colouring of wine. a syrup and jelly, and sometimes also wine, are prepared from them. the _twigs_ are sometimes used in dyeing a black colour. silkworms are occasionally fed upon the _leaves_ of the blackberry. 169. _the strawberry_ (fragaria vesca) _is a british wood fruit which has been long cultivated in gardens._ by cultivation the strawberry has been greatly increased in size, but its flavour continues much the same as that of the wild fruit. the varieties of the strawberry are very numerous. none of our fruits are more wholesome than these, and, even when eaten in large quantities, they seldom disagree with the stomach. they abound in juice, have a grateful, cooling, somewhat acid taste, and a peculiarly fragrant smell; and are either eaten alone, or with sugar, milk, or wine. a palatable jam, wine, and vinegar, are prepared from strawberries. this fruit is sometimes preserved whole in syrup, and sometimes in wine. ---class xiii.--polyandria. ---monogynia. 170. _capers are the unopened flower-buds of a low shrub_ (capparis spinosa, fig. 48), _which grows from the crevices of rocks and walls, and among rubbish, in the southern parts of france, in italy, and the levant._ _the stems of the caper bush are trailing, and two or three feet in length. the leaves are alternate, of somewhat oval shape, veined, and of bright green colour: and the flowers are large and beautiful, with four petals, and white with a tinge of red._ in the south of france, the caper bush is as common as the bramble is with us. it grows wild upon the walls of rome, sienna, and florence; and when trained against a wall, it flourishes even in the neighbourhood of paris: notwithstanding which it is almost unknown in english gardens, where it cannot be made to flower without the aid of artificial heat. this shrub is cultivated on a large scale, between marseilles and toulon, and in many parts of italy. in the early part of the summer it begins to flower, and the flowers continue successively to appear till the commencement of winter. the buds are picked, every morning, before the petals are expanded: and, as they are gathered, they are put into vinegar and salt. when a sufficient quantity is collected, they are distributed, according to their size, into different vessels, again put into vinegar, and then packed up for sale and exportation. this pickle is much used in sauce for boiled mutton. to persons unaccustomed to it, the taste of capers is unpleasant; but, after a little while, the palate becomes reconciled to it. the bark of the _root_ cut into slices, and dried in small rolls or quills like cinnamon, is sometimes used in medicine in cases of obstruction of the liver. the flower-buds of the marsh marygold (_caltha palustris_), and of nasturtiums, are frequently pickled and eaten as a substitute for capers. 171. _the white poppy_ (papaver somniferum) _is a naturalized english plant, with smooth calyx and seed-vessels, and with leaves embracing the stem, which grows wild in neglected gardens, and some corn-fields, and to which we are indebted for two important medicines_, opium _and_ laudanum. although the white poppy has long been naturalized in this country, it is supposed that we were originally indebted for it to some of the northern parts of asia. throughout nearly the whole of that quarter of the world it is cultivated with great attention, on account of the _opium_ which is obtained from it. opium is the dried juice of the seed-vessels, and is thus procured:--after the petals have fallen off, and the seed-vessels are about half grown, the latter are wounded on one side, with an instrument having four or five teeth, the gashes being made about an inch in length. a glutinous, milky fluid exudes from the wounds: this is carefully scraped off, on the ensuing day, by a person who, in similar manner, wounds the opposite side of the head; the juice issuing from which is afterwards similarly collected. the whole is then put into earthen vessels, where it is worked by the hand, in the open sunshine, until it attains sufficient consistence to be formed into balls, cakes, or loaves; after which it is covered over with poppy or tobacco leaves, and further dried, till it is in a proper state for exportation. _opium_ is of reddish brown colour, inclining to black; and has a strong and very peculiar smell. it is adulterated in various ways; by an extract of the plant, obtained by boiling; by a powder of the dried leaves and stalks, mixed with some kind of gum; by rice flour, and by other substances not quite so agreeable as these. the cultivation of opium is so extensively pursued in the east indies that nearly 600,000 pounds' weight of it are annually exported from the ganges. but there is no necessity for us to import, at a great expense from abroad, that which might be advantageously prepared in our own country. it is true that the seed-vessels of the white poppy do not attain so large size in this as in warmer climates; but the opium procured from it is of sufficiently excellent quality. from the seed-vessels of a single plant more than forty grains of this drug have been obtained; and, under very disadvantageous circumstances of weather, upwards of twenty-one pounds' weight have been procured from plants grown upon five acres of land. it has been calculated that, in favourable seasons, the produce of a single acre ought to be near fifty pounds. it is recommended that the seed be sown in autumn rather than in spring. when the seed-vessels have attained a sufficient state of maturity, they may be wounded, and the opium may be collected by children from eight to twelve years of age. the only proper time for collecting it is in the morning, and seven children and two men have been able to collect 1½ pound in one morning, betwixt five and nine o'clock. the best mode of reducing the opium to a proper consistence appears to be to spread it thinly in shallow dishes, and expose it, under glasses, to the rays of the sun. we possess few medicines so valuable as this. it is used as a powerful antidote, but chiefly as a remedy for procuring sleep and mitigating pain, which it does in a very remarkable manner. in the latter respects, however, it is too often abused; and, if taken in large doses, it proves a deadly poison. but so much are the effects of opium diminished by the habit of taking it, that, although four grains have, in some instances, proved fatal to grown persons, fifty times that quantity have been taken daily by others. the bad effects of too great a dose are best counteracted by making the patient drink freely of acids and coffee, and not permitting him to yield to the desire of sleeping, with which he is oppressed. the habitual use of opium, which is much indulged in by the asiatics, is attended with the same bad effects as the habit of drinking ardent spirits: it brings on tremors, palsy, stupidity, and general emaciation; and, when once acquired, it can scarcely ever be relinquished. possessing the above properties, it is remarkable that opium, combined in a certain proportion with vegetable acids, instead of inducing, will prevent sleep. in consequence of which it has often, though injuriously, been used by persons who are obliged to devote their nights to sedentary or active pursuits. it is likewise deserving of remark, that the _seeds_ of the poppy have none of the narcotic qualities of the opium. they are mild, sweet, and nutritive; and yield, by pressure, an oil little inferior to that of almonds. so numerous are these seeds that more than 30,000 have been counted from a single seed-vessel. _laudanum_ is a liquid preparation from opium and spirit of wine; and is used for most of the same purposes to which opium is applied. its effects, as a poison, may be counteracted in the same manner as those of opium. 172. _arnatto, or annotta, is a red dyeing drug, generally imported in lumps wrapped up in leaves, and produced from the pulp of the seed-vessels of a shrub_ (bixa orellana) _which grows spontaneously in the east and west indies._ _this shrub is usually seven or eight feet high, and has heart-shaped and pointed leaves. the flowers, which have each ten large peach-coloured petals, appear in loose clusters at the ends of the branches, and produce oblong and somewhat hairy pods._ the seed-vessels of the arnatto shrub are, in appearance, somewhat like those of the chesnut (235). they each contain from thirty to forty seeds, enveloped in a kind of pulp (of red colour and unpleasant smell), which is not much unlike the paint called red lead, when mixed with oil. in the west indies the method of extracting the pulp, and preparing it for sale, is to boil it, and the seeds which are mixed with it, in clear water, until the latter are perfectly extricated. they are then taken out, and the pulp is allowed to subside to the bottom of the water; this is drawn off, and the sediment is distributed into shallow vessels, and gradually dried in the shade until it is sufficiently hard to be worked into lumps or masses for sale. arnatto, though made in the west indies, is an object of no great commercial importance; the demand for it not being sufficient to give much encouragement to its culture. it is now chiefly prepared by the spaniards in south america, and for the purpose principally of mixing with chocolate, to which, in their opinion, it gives a pleasing colour and great medicinal virtue, as well as an improved flavour. the chief consumption of arnatto in england depends upon painters and dyers; and it is supposed that _scott's nankeen dye_ is nothing but arnatto dissolved in alkaline ley. this drug is sometimes used by the dutch farmers to give a rich colour to butter; and the double gloucester and several other kinds of cheese are coloured with it. poor people occasionally use it instead of saffron. in countries where the arnatto shrubs are found, the _roots_ are employed by the inhabitants in broth; and they answer all the purposes of the pulp, though in an inferior degree. the _bark_ is occasionally manufactured into ropes; and pieces of the _wood_ are used by the indians to procure fire by friction. 173. _the lime or linden-tree is a british forest tree_ (tilia europæa), _distinguished by its heart-shaped and serrated leaves of bright green colour, and by its berries or seed-vessels, having each four cells and one bud._ _the blossoms are whitish, in small clusters, and have a yellowish green floral leaf nearly as long as the fruit-stalk, and attached to it for about half its length._ no one can have passed a grove of lime-trees, in the month of july, without having been charmed with the perfume which, at this season, is emitted by the _flowers_. they are a great resort of bees, and supply those insects with materials for their best honey. whether fresh or dried, they easily ferment, and a fine flavoured spirit may be distilled from them. the _wood_ is close-grained, though soft, light, and smooth. it is much used by carvers and turners; and is in great request for the boards of leather-cutters. when properly burnt it makes an excellent charcoal for gunpowder, and for painters. if the _bark_ be softened in water, the fibrous inner part may be separated: of this the russians manufacture fishing-nets, mats, shoes, and rustic garments; and ropes and other cordage, made from it, are stated to be so remarkably strong and elastic, that, in this respect, they are superior to iron chains. in some countries the _leaves_ are dried as a winter food for sheep and goats; and, from these and the bark, a smooth but coarse brown paper may be manufactured. an inferior kind of sugar may be made from the _sap_; and the _seeds_, by pressure, yield a sweet and pleasant oil. the lime is an eligible tree to form shady walks and clipped hedges: but its leaves fall very early in the autumn. in rich soils it attains a prodigious size; and instances have been mentioned of these trees having existed during more than six centuries. 174. _tea, both black and green, consists of the dried leaves of an evergreen shrub_ (thea bohea _and_ thea viridis, _of linneus_, fig. 49), _with indented and somewhat spear-shaped leaves and white flowers with six petals or more, which is much cultivated in china._ _the tea shrub attains the height of five or six feet, and is much branched. the leaves, when full grown, are about 1½ inch long, narrow, tapering, and of dark glossy green colour, and firm texture. the flowers are not much unlike those of the white wild rose, but smaller; and they are succeeded by a fruit about the size of a sloe, which contains two or three seeds._ the tea-tree flourishes, with great luxuriance, in valleys, on the sloping sides of mountains, and on the banks of rivers, in a southern exposure, betwixt the thirtieth and forty-fifth degrees of north latitude. it is chiefly cultivated near pekin, and around canton, but it attains the greatest perfection in the mild and temperate climate of nankin. the collecting of the leaves is conducted with great care: they are picked singly, and, for the most part, at three different times of the year; about the end of february, the beginning of april, and the end of may. the drying and preparation of them, for use, are processes too long to admit of minute detail respecting them in this place. it may, however, be observed, that for these purposes buildings are erected, which contain from five to ten, and some of them even twenty, small furnaces, each having, at the top, a large iron pan. there is also a long table covered with mats, on which the leaves are laid, and rolled by persons who sit round it. the iron pan being heated by a fire in the furnace beneath, a few pounds of the leaves are put upon it, and frequently turned and shifted. they are then thrown upon the mats to be rolled betwixt the palms of the hands: after which they are cooled as speedily as possible. that the moisture of the leaves may be completely dissipated, and their twisted form be better preserved, the above process is repeated several times with the same leaves, but with less heat than at first. the tea, thus manufactured, is afterwards sorted, according to its kind or goodness. some of the young and tender leaves are never rolled, but are merely immersed in hot water, and dried. how long the use of tea has been known to the chinese we are entirely ignorant; but we are informed that an infusion of the dried leaves of the tea shrub is now their common drink. they pour boiling water over them, and leave them to infuse, as we do in europe; but they drink the tea thus made without either milk or sugar. the inhabitants of japan reduce the leaves to a fine powder, which they dilute with water, until it acquires nearly the consistence of soup. the tea equipage is placed before the company, together with a box in which the powdered tea is contained: the cups are filled with warm water, and then as much of the powder is thrown into each cup as the point of a knife can contain, and it is stirred about until the liquor begins to foam, in which state it is presented to the company. it was formerly imagined that black and green tea were the production of different species of shrubs; but the chinese all assert, that both are produced from the same species, and that the sole difference which exists betwixt them arises from the seasons when the leaves are gathered, and the modes of curing them. the teas principally consumed in europe are four kinds of black, and three of green. _black teas._ (_a_) _bohea_, or _voo-yee_, so called from the country in which it is produced, is sometimes collected at four gatherings. as the leaves are picked, they are put into flat baskets, which are placed on shelves or planks, in the air or sun, from morning till night; after which they are thrown, by small quantities at a time, into a flat cast-iron pan, which is made very hot. they are twice stirred quick with the hand: then taken out, again put into the baskets, and rubbed between men's hands to roll them. after this they undergo another roasting in larger quantities, over a slower fire: and are then sometimes put into baskets over a charcoal fire. when the tea is, at last, sufficiently dried, it is spread on a table; and the leaves that are too large, and those that are unrolled, yellow, broken, or otherwise defective, are picked out, and the remainder is laid aside to be packed. the best bohea tea is a small blackish leaf, is dusty, smells somewhat like burnt hay, and has a rough and somewhat harsh taste. the average annual importation of bohea into this country, in the ten years from 1791 to 1800, was 3,310,135 pounds. (_b_) _congo_, or _cong-foo_, derived from a word which implies much care or trouble, is a superior kind of bohea, less dusty, and with larger leaves. these are gathered with peculiar care, and there is some little difference in the preparation of congo and bohea. the leaves of the latter, of souchong, hyson, and the fine single teas, are said to be beaten, with flat sticks or bamboos, after they have been withered by exposure to the sun or air, and have acquired toughness enough to keep them from breaking. of congo the annual average quantity imported in the above years amounted to 9,564,202 pounds. (_c_) _souchong_, from a chinese word which signifies small good thing, is made from the leaves of trees three years old; and, where the soil is good, even of the leaves of older trees. of true souchong very little is produced; what is sold to europeans for this is only the finest kind of congo, and the congo usually purchased by them is but the best sort of bohea. such is the delicacy of this tea that, upon a hill planted with tea-trees, there may only be a single tree, the leaves of which are good enough to be called souchong, and even of these, only the best and youngest are taken. the others make congos of different kinds, and bohea. (_d_) _pekoe_ is distinguished by having the small white flowers of the tree intermixed with it. this, which is chiefly consumed in sweden and denmark, is usually made from the tenderest leaves of trees three years old, gathered just after they have been in bloom, when the small leaves that grow between the first two that have appeared, and which altogether make a sprig, are white, and resemble young hair or down. _green teas._ it has been asserted that green teas are indebted for their qualities and colour to a process of drying them upon plates of copper. this is certainly incorrect. the leaves for green tea are gathered, and immediately roasted, or _tached_, as it is called, upon cast-iron plates, and then are very much rubbed betwixt men's hands, to roll them. they are afterwards spread out and separated, as the leaves in rolling are apt to adhere to each other: and are again placed over the fire, and made very dry. after this they are picked, cleansed from dust, several times tached or roasted, and finally put hot into the chests in which they are to be packed. the principal kinds of green tea are singlo, hyson, and gunpowder. (_a_) _singlo_, or _song-lo_, is so named from the place where it is chiefly cultivated. of this tea there are three or more sorts; but the leaves of the best are large, fine, flat, and clean. it is gathered at two seasons, the first in april, and the second in june. as we see it, the leaf is flattish, and yields, on infusion, a pale amber-coloured liquor. (_b_) _hyson_, or _hee-chun_, has its name from that of an indian merchant who first sold this tea to the europeans. there are two gatherings of hyson. it should have a fine blooming appearance, be of a full-sized grain, very dry, and so crisp that, with slight pressure, it will crumble to dust. when infused in water the leaf should appear open, clear, and smooth, and should tinge the water a light green colour; the infusion ought to have an aromatic smell, and a strong pungent taste. (_c_) _gunpowder_ tea is a superior kind of hyson, gathered and dried with peculiar care. this tea should be chosen in round grains, somewhat resembling small shot, with a beautiful bloom upon it which will not bear the breath: it should have a greenish hue, and a fragrant pungent taste. gunpowder tea is sometimes adulterated; an inferior kind being dyed and glazed in such manner as to resemble it; but, on infusion, this is found in every respect very inferior. tea, both black and green, is sometimes imported in balls from the weight of two ounces to the size of peas. the dried leaves of the tea plant are a commodity which, a century and a half ago, were scarcely known as an article of trade. the earliest importation of tea into europe is said to have been by a dutch merchant in 1610; but the time of its first introduction into england has not been correctly ascertained. so scarce an article was it, for many years after the above period, that, in 1666, twenty-two pounds and three quarters of tea, estimated at fifty shillings a pound, were presented, as a valuable gift, to king charles the second. the first importation of tea by the east india company was in 1669, and this consisted only of two canisters, weighing 143lb. 8oz. so rapidly, however, has the consumption of this article since increased, that, notwithstanding the immense distance from which it is brought, it now amounts to more than twenty millions of pounds' weight per annum. such is, at present, the extent of the tea trade, that it affords constant employment for at least 50,000 tons of shipping, and 6,000 seamen; and its importance to us is the greater since it has been the means of opening, in china, a market for the sale of woollen goods, one of the most essential articles of our manufacture, to the amount of more than one million of pounds sterling per annum. if good tea be taken in moderate quantity it is considered by medical men to be beneficial, by exhilarating the spirits and invigorating the system; but, when taken too copiously, it is apt to occasion weakness, tremor, and other bad symptoms. the tea plant may be propagated in the temperate climates of europe, as well as in the indies; under the shelter of a south wall it will even flourish in our own gardens. it is, however, somewhat remarkable that the fresh leaves, if used for tea, produce giddiness and stupefaction; but these noxious properties are capable of being dissipated by the process of roasting. in some of the southern parts of england there are smugglers who have reduced to a regular process the management of the leaves of the ash, the sloe, and some other trees, for the adulteration of tea. the article thus prepared has the name of _smouch_, and is sometimes mixed in the proportion of about one-third, with the ordinary teas. the preparation of it, however, if discovered, is subject to very heavy penalties. 175. _cloves are the unexpanded flower-buds of an east indian tree_ (caryophyllus aromaticus, fig. 50), _somewhat resembling the laurel in its height, and in the shape of its leaves._ _the leaves are in pairs, oblong, large, spear-shaped, and of bright green colour. the flowers grow in clusters, which terminate the branches, and have the calyx divided into four small and pointed segments. the petals are small, rounded, and of bluish colour; and the seed is an oval berry._ in the molucca islands, where the preparation of different spices was formerly carried on by the dutch colonists to great extent, the culture of the clove-tree was a very important pursuit. it has even been asserted that, in order to secure a lucrative branch of commerce in this article to themselves, they destroyed all the trees growing in other islands, and confined the propagation of them to that of ternate only. but it appears that, in 1770 and 1772, both clove and nutmeg trees were transplanted from the moluccas into the islands of france and bourbon; and, subsequently, into some of the colonies of south america, where they have since been cultivated with great success. at a certain season of the year the clove-tree produces a vast profusion of flowers. when these have attained the length of about half an inch, the four points of the calyx being prominent, and having in the middle of them the leaves of the petals folded over each other, and forming a small head about the size of a pea, they are in a fit state to be gathered. this operation is performed betwixt the months of october and february, partly by the hand, partly by hooks, and partly by beating the trees with bamboos. the cloves are either received on cloths spread beneath the trees, or are suffered to fall on the ground, the herbage having previously been cut and swept for that purpose. they are subsequently dried by exposure for a while to the smoke of wood fires, and afterwards to the rays of the sun. when first gathered they are of reddish colour, but, by drying, they assume a deep brown cast. this spice yields a very fragrant odour, and a bitterish, pungent, and warm taste. it is sometimes employed as a hot and stimulating medicine, but is more frequently used in culinary preparations. when fresh gathered, cloves will yield on pressure a fragrant, thick, and reddish oil; and, by distillation, a limpid essential oil. the latter is imported into europe, but is frequently adulterated, and sometimes even to the amount of nearly half its weight. oil of cloves is used by many persons, though very improperly, for curing the tooth-ache, since, from its pungent quality, it is apt to corrode the gums, and injure the adjacent teeth. when the tooth is carious, and will admit of it, a bruised clove is much to be preferred. 176. _ladanum, or labdanum, is a resinous drug which exudes, and is collected, from the leaves and branches of a beautiful species of cistus_ (cistus creticus), _which grows in syria and the grecian islands._ _the height of this shrub seldom exceeds three or four feet. its leaves, which stand in pairs on short foot-stalks, are oblong, wrinkled, rough, and clammy. the flowers appear in june and july, and consist of five large rounded petals of light purplish colour, each marked with a dark spot at the base._ the ancient mode of collecting ladanum, if the accounts which have been stated respecting it may be credited, was not a little curious. goats, which delight in grazing upon the leaves and young branches of the shrubs that produce it, were turned loose into the plantation, and the resin that adhered to the long hair of their beards and thighs was afterwards detached by combing them. the present method is different, and is a laborious and troublesome employment. tournefort informs us that he saw seven or eight country fellows, in their shirts and drawers, and in the hottest part of the day, drawing over the shrubs a kind of whip, or rake, with numerous long straps or thongs of leather. from these they collected the resin, by scraping it off with a kind of knife; after which it was made into cakes of different sizes for sale. as loose sand generally adheres, in considerable quantity, to the viscous leaves of the shrub, it is not unusual for dealers in this drug to adulterate it with sand. we import ladanum principally from the levant and the persian gulf; and it comes to us in cakes or masses of different size, dark colour, and about the consistence of soft plaster; and also in rolls, lighter-coloured and much harder, which are twisted up so as somewhat to resemble the rolls of wax tapers. the smell of ladanum is strong, but not disagreeable; and its taste is warm, aromatic, and somewhat unpleasant. this drug was formerly much used as an internal medicine; but it is now employed only externally, as an ingredient in plasters. 177. _the tulip-tree_ (liriodendron tulipifera) _is an american production which yields a very beautiful and valuable kind of wood._ _it sometimes grows to the height of sixty or seventy feet; and has lobed leaves, and tulip-shaped flowers._ while young, the _wood_ of the tulip-tree is white; but at an advanced age, it assumes a fine yellow colour, or a streaked appearance of different shades of red. this wood is equally useful in ornamental furniture, and as a timber for building. it is occasionally employed in the construction of light vessels; and the trunks of tulip-trees are frequently hollowed by the indians into canoes. when they have been grown in a favourable soil and climate, one of them is sufficiently large to be made into a canoe capable of containing several people. on account of its quick growth and easy culture, this noble tree well deserves the attention of planters in our own country. ---class xiv.--didynamia. ---gymnospermia. 178. _lavender is a well-known perennial garden plant_ (lavandula spica) _which grows wild in the south of europe, and the flowers of which yield a grateful perfume._ such is the fragrance of this delightful flower, and so easy is its culture, that we can now scarcely enter a garden in which it is not found. it will grow in almost any soil, but it flourishes most luxuriantly in clayey ground; and in situations whence, without inconvenience, it can be conveyed to the metropolis, it is a very valuable crop. when cultivated to any extent, lavender should be planted in rows two or three feet apart, and the sets should be about two feet from each other. it is usually propagated from slips. during dry weather, in the month of july, the flowers should be gathered, by cutting off the heads close to the stem; after which they must be tied in bundles to be distilled. when distilled with water, the _flowers_ of lavender, if in a mature state, yield an essential _oil_; generally in the proportion of about one ounce of oil to sixty ounces of flowers. this oil is of a bright yellow colour, and possesses the perfect fragrance of the lavender. but, if distilled with rectified spirit, the virtues are more completely extracted. from the leaves a very small proportion of oil can be obtained. the preparations of this plant that are used in medicine are, the essential oil, a simple _spirit_, and a compound tincture. lavender, however, is much more frequently and more extensively employed as a perfume than medicinally. the flowers are deposited in chests and wardrobes among linen, not only on account of their fragrant smell, but also from an opinion that their odour will prevent the depredations of moths and other insects. the perfume called _lavender water_ may be prepared by mixing three drachms of oil of lavender, and one drachm of essence of ambergris, with one pint of spirit of wine. lavender is supposed to have been first cultivated in england about the year 1558. 179. _common or spear-mint_ (mentha viridis), _one of our most frequent garden herbs, is a native british plant, and grows wild in watery places, and near the banks of rivers, in several parts of england._ the ancients ascribed many virtues to different kinds of mint, but it is not now possible to ascertain correctly the respective species, though there can be little doubt that spear-mint was one of the most important of them. its flavour is to many persons peculiarly agreeable, and, on this account, it is employed for several culinary purposes, both in a green and dried state. the _leaves_ are used in spring salads, are boiled with peas, and put into soup. in conjunction with vinegar and sugar they form a sauce for lamb; and prepared with sugar, they are made into a grateful conserve. spear-mint is occasionally used in medicine, and the officinal preparations of it are the conserve, an essential oil, a simple distilled water, a spirit, and a tincture, or extract. in drying, the leaves lose about three-fourths of their weight, but without suffering much either in taste or smell. 180. _pepper mint_ (mentha piperita) _is a british plant, which grows in watery places, and is cultivated chiefly on account of an oil and distilled water which are prepared from it._ this is the strongest and most aromatic of all the mints; and, on this account, is more used in medicine than any other species. when distilled with water it yields a considerable quantity of essential oil, of pale greenish yellow colour. the well-known liquor called _pepper mint water_, prepared from this plant, is an excellent stomachic: but is too often used in cases of impaired appetite, and for the relief of various imaginary complaints. angiospermia. 181. _the fox-glove_ (digitalis purpurea) _is a stately british plant, with long, erect spikes of large, purple, and somewhat bell-shaped flowers, marked internally with dark spots in whitish rings, and containing four stamens, with large yellow anthers._ _the calyx, or flower-cup, has five pointed divisions. the extremity of the blossom is divided into five segments; and the seed-vessel is egg-shaped, and contains many seeds. the leaves are large, wrinkled, and somewhat downy beneath._ the gravelly or sandy hedge-banks or hills of all the midland counties of england are adorned, in the later months of summer, with this, one of the most beautiful, most dangerous, and yet, if properly applied, one of the most useful of all our wild plants. for its medicinal virtues it has long been esteemed. the italians have an adage which implies that "the fox-glove heals all sores:" hence it is said, that they apply the bruised leaves, and the juice of the leaves, in the healing of different kinds of wounds, and particularly for the removal of scrophulous swellings. the _juice_ of this plant has a bitter and nauseous taste; and, when taken internally, acts violently on the stomach and bowels, and brings on stupor and drowsiness; notwithstanding which, in careful hands, it may be rendered a valuable medicine in dropsy, consumption, and epilepsy. it is given in powder, tincture, and infusion of the dried leaves; and such is its strength, that dr. woodville states, the dose of the dried leaves, in powder, should not exceed from one to three grains per day. 182. _the calabash-tree_ (crescentia cujeta) _is a production of the west indies and america, about the height and dimensions if an apple-tree, with crooked horizontal branches, wedge-shaped leaves, pale white flowers on the trunk and branches, and a roundish fruit, from two inches to a foot in diameter._ the uses to which the _fruit_ of the calabash tree is applied are very numerous. being covered with a greenish yellow skin, which encloses a thin, hard, and almost woody shell, it is employed for various kinds of domestic vessels, such as water cans, goblets, and cups of almost every shape and description. so hard and close-grained is the calabash, that, when it contains any kind of fluid, it may even be put on the fire without injury. when intended for ornamental purposes, the vessels that are made of the shell of this fruit are sometimes highly polished, and have figures engraven upon them, which are variously tinged with indigo and other colours. the indians make musical instruments with the calabash. the calabash contains a pale, yellow, juicy _pulp_, of unpleasant taste, which is esteemed a valuable remedy in several disorders, both external and internal. ---class xv.--tetradynamia. ---siliculosa. 183. _sea kale_ (crambe maritima) _is a well-known plant in our kitchen-gardens, the early shoots of which are blanched, and eaten in the same manner as asparagus._ this plant grows wild on sandy sea-coasts in various parts of england; and has been transplanted thence into the gardens. the mode of management is, in the autumn, to place large inverted garden-pots over the plants, and to cover the whole bed and the pots with dung and litter. the heat of the fermenting dung causes the plants to shoot early in the spring; and the pots protect them and keep them clear of the litter. by this means also, as they have no access to the light, they become blanched, tender, and of extremely sweet and delicate flavour. sea kale is ready for use some time before asparagus appears; and, for the table, it is preferred by most persons to that favourite vegetable. if the leaves of sea kale be eaten when full grown, they are said to occasion giddiness; but horses, cows, swine, and other animals, feed upon them without injury. 184. _woad is a dyeing drug, produced by a british plant_ (isatis tinctoria), _with arrow-shaped leaves on the stem, yellow cruciform flowers, and oblong seed-vessels, each containing one seed._ this plant is believed to have been the same that was adopted by the ancient britons for staining, or painting their bodies a blue colour, to render them, in appearance, at least, more terrible to their enemies. it grows wild on the borders of corn-fields, in some parts of cambridgeshire, somersetshire, and durham: and is cultivated in several of the clothing districts of england. as soon as the plants are in a sufficient state of maturity, they are gathered. the leaves are picked off, and submitted to the action of mills, somewhat similar to the mills that are used for the grinding of oak-bark. in these they are reduced to a pulp. the woad is then laid in small heaps, which are closely and smoothly pressed down. after continuing about a fortnight in this state, the heaps are broken up, and their substance is formed into balls, which are exposed to the sun to be dried. when the balls are perfectly dry, they are ready for use; and are employed, not only in dyeing blue, but also as the basis of several other colours. 185. _horse-radish_ (cochlearia armoracia) _is a well-known kitchen-garden plant, which grows wild by the sides of ditches and the banks of rivers, in several parts of the north of england._ the _root_ of horse-radish is much used for culinary purposes. it is remarkable for great pungency both of smell and taste. when scraped, it is mixed with pickles to heighten their flavour, and is eaten with roast beef, fish, and several other kinds of food. whenever more of the roots are dug out of the earth at once than are immediately wanted, they may be preserved for some time, in a juicy state, by putting them into dry sand. horse-radish is also in considerable repute as a medicine, and is a powerful stimulant, whether externally or internally applied. notwithstanding this, we are informed by dr. withering, that an infusion of horseradish in cold milk is one of the best and safest cosmetics that are known. siliquosa. 186. _common mustard is made from the powdered seeds of a plant_ (sinapis nigra), _which grows wild in corn-fields and by road sides, in most parts of england, and is known by its yellow cruciform flowers, with expanding calyx, and its pods being smooth, square, and close to the stem._ in light and otherwise barren lands mustard is cultivated to great advantage. that which is produced in the county of durham has much celebrity; though the powdered seeds of charlock have, in many instances, been substituted, and sold in place of it. mustard is in daily use at our tables, and the _seeds_, whole or bruised, are employed in pickles, and for numerous other culinary purposes. these seeds yield, on pressure, a considerable quantity of oil, which is soft and insipid to the taste, and partakes but little of the acrimony of the plant. different preparations of mustard are sometimes used in medicine. the seeds, taken internally, are serviceable in asthma, rheumatism, and palsy. cataplasms of mustard are employed, on account of its stimulating properties, on benumbed or paralytic limbs. an infusion of the powdered seeds, taken in considerable quantity, operates as an emetic, and, in smaller quantity, is an useful aperient and diuretic. 187. _rape and cole seed_ (brassica napus) _are different varieties of a plant with yellow cruciform flowers and, spindle-shaped root, which grows wild upon ditch banks, and amongst corn._ _this plant is distinguished from others of the same tribe by its roots being a regular continuation of the stem._ in several parts of england rape and cole seed are sown intermixed, the plants being distinguishable in their growth by the cole exceeding the rape in height, being more soft and tender, and less branched and bushy. when sown separately the cole is usually, though not always, consumed as food for sheep and cattle; and the rape is allowed to stand for seed. for the cultivation of rape the soil ought to be rich and deep. the harvest commences about the month of august; and as the seed, when in a state of maturity, is easily shed, it is customary, in some places, to thresh the plants on a large cloth in the field. rape-cloths are sometimes so large as to measure twenty yards square, and to weigh more than half a ton. the threshing is almost always considered a sort of festival, at which a great portion of the neighbours attend, in order to expedite the work; and they are repaid by the good cheer of their brother farmer. in other places the rape is carried on a cloth, in a low kind of waggon, to be threshed out of the field. _oil_ is obtained from rape-seed by pressure. this is used, in large quantities, by clothiers and others. it is also used in medicine; and for making the soap called green soap. it is likewise useful for various purposes in domestic life, and particularly for burning in lamps; but it is apt to become rancid, though there are means of purifying it. after the oil has been extracted, the refuse is called _oil-cake_, and is employed for the fattening of oxen; and, in norfolk, is sometimes broken to pieces, and strewed upon the land as manure. the _roots_ of rape plants may be eaten like turnips, but they have a stronger taste. the _stalks_, or haulm, if strong, may be advantageously employed in the formation of the enclosing fences of farm-yards. they are, however, generally burnt; and in some parts of the country, the ashes, which are equal in quality to the best pot-ashes, are collected together and sold. 188. _the turnip_ (brassica rapa) _is a well-known edible root, which is cultivated to great extent in almost every part of england._ to the farmer turnips are, in various particulars, a most valuable crop. they afford a profitable intervening crop with corn. both the _tops_ and _roots_ are eaten by sheep. horses and cattle may be advantageously fed upon the roots during winter; but the milk of cows receives an unpleasant flavour from them. this flavour is also communicated to the butter; but it may be taken off by dissolving a little nitre in spring water, and putting a small tea-cupful of it into about eight gallons of milk, when warm from the cow. turnips also serve as food for mankind, either boiled or roasted. in the years 1629, 1636, and 1693, during the pressure of a severe famine, bread is stated to have been made of turnips in several parts of england, particularly in the county of essex. the process was to put the turnips into a kettle over a slow fire, till they became soft; they were then taken out, squeezed as dry as possible, mixed with an equal quantity of flour, and, after having been kneaded with yeast, salt, and a little warm water, were made into loaves and baked. in bread thus made the peculiar taste of the turnip is said to be scarcely perceptible. these roots have been much recommended as sea store, from the possibility, with care, of preserving them for a great length of time uninjured, and from their furnishing an agreeable and wholesome food for sailors, on long voyages. the young and tender _tops_ of turnips, when boiled, afford an agreeable substitute for greens. for the cultivation of turnips a light soil, particularly such as consists of a mixture of sand and loam, is found preferable to rich and heavy land. turnips are raised from seed, which it has long been the established custom to sow in the month of june. as soon as the young plants have attained a tolerable size, they are hoed, for the purpose of thinning them. in their growth they suffer much by the attacks of slugs, caterpillars, and insects of different kinds, particularly of a small, dark beetle with two longitudinal yellowish stripes (_chrysomela nemorum_), which is called by farmers the _turnip-fly_. for the destruction of this insect many plans have, at different times, been devised. turnips are either eaten on the land by cattle, or are drawn out and stacked, or preserved under ground for winter use; and, in this state, they may be kept sound till april. there are several kinds of turnips; but of these the _common white_, or _norfolk turnips_, and the _ruta-baga_, or _swedish turnips_, are the principal. the latter, which indeed constitute a distinct species, are generally of a yellowish colour, and are so hardy as to suffer no injury even from the most intense cold; but their substance is so compact as sometimes to break the teeth of sheep which feed upon them. 189. _the common cabbage_ (brassica oleracea) _is a well-known plant, the original stock of which grows on cliffs by the seaside, in kent, cornwall, yorkshire, and wales._ _this wild plant is likewise the original of the various kinds of_ colewort, borecole, cauliflower, _and_ brocoli. the effects of cultivation on the cabbage are very remarkable. in the wild plants the leaves are extended: but in the common garden cabbage they are set so close together as to lie upon each other, almost like the scales of a bulb, and, increasing in compactness as they increase in size: those in the interior being excluded from the effects of the light, do not assume a green, but are of yellow colour. other plants of this species form their stalks into a head, as the _cauliflower_ and _brocoli_; and others grow, in a natural way, without forming either their leaves or stalks into heads, as the _coleworts_, or _dorsetshire kale_, the _borcoles_, _turnip-rooted cabbage_, and others. in some parts of england, cabbages of different kinds are much cultivated as food for cattle, and they succeed well in rich and finely prepared land. the seed is sown in february or march. in april or may the young plants are taken out, and set in rows, at a little distance from each other; and, in the ensuing autumn and winter, the cabbages afford a valuable stock of food. all the kinds of cabbage are useful for domestic purposes; and some of them afford a peculiarly sweet and delicate food. an agreeable pickle is made of them, and the germans, and people of other northern countries of the continent, prepare from them a favourite food called _sour-crout_. these plants were known to, and much used by, the ancient greeks and romans. cabbages are biennial plants, or are sown one year, produce seed in the ensuing year, and then die. ---class xvi.--monadelphia. ---triandria. 190. _tamarinds are the pulp and needs produced by the pods of a large tree with winged leaves_ (tamarindus indica, fig. 51), _which grows in the east and west indies, america, and several parts of asia._ _this tree is from thirty to forty feet in height; and its leaves consist usually of fourteen pairs of leaflets. the flowers are formed in clusters, from the sides of the branches, and have each three yellowish petals, beautifully marked with red veins._ _the fruit of the tamarind-tree is a roundish but somewhat compressed pod, four or five inches in length, the external part of which is very brittle. each pod contains three or four hard seeds, enveloped in tough skins, surrounded by a dark-coloured, acid pulp, and connected together by numerous tough and woody fibres._ previously to the exportation of tamarinds, the pulp, with the seeds and fibres, are freed from their shell: and those which we receive from the west indies are usually preserved in syrup. in jamaica the fruit is gathered about the month of july. when fully ripe, and after the pods are cleared away, the remainder is placed in layers, in small casks: and boiling syrup, just before it begins to granulate, is poured upon them until the casks are filled, after which the heads are put in and fastened up for exportation. the east indian tamarinds are generally packed without any admixture. they are more esteemed than the others; and, when in the pods, are easily distinguished from them by their being longer, and containing six or seven seeds; the pulp also is drier and of darker colour. it is said that we are indebted to the arabians for a knowledge of the use of tamarinds. in hot climates they are a most refreshing and delicious fruit; and, dissolved in water, are much used as a cooling and agreeable beverage, particularly by persons suffering under fever. they also give great relief in sore throats, and other complaints. polyandria. 191. _the sour-gourd, boabab, or african calabash-tree_ (adansonia digitata) _is probably the largest of all vegetable productions. the trunk, although not usually more than twelve or fifteen feet high, is frequently from sixty to eighty feet in girth. the lowest branches extend almost horizontally; and, as they are sometimes near sixty feet in length, they bend, by their own weight, to the ground; and thus the whole tree forms an hemispherical mass of verdure, which measures from 120 to 130 feet in diameter._ _the fruit is oblong, about ten inches in length, pointed at both ends, and covered with a greenish down, under which there is a blackish and woody rind. its interior consists of a whitish, spongy, and juicy substance, with several brown seeds._ _this tree is a native of senegal and other parts of africa._ the virtues and uses of the sour-gourd tree and its fruit are numerous and of great importance to the inhabitants of the countries in which it is found. the _bark_ and _leaves_ are dried, powdered, and preserved in bags, to be employed as a seasoning for food. two or three pinches of this powder are put, by the negroes, into their messes, under an impression that it promotes perspiration and moderates the heat of the blood. the pulp of the _fruit_ has an agreeably acid flavour. this is not only eaten when fresh, but is dried and powdered for medicinal uses; a kind of soap is also prepared from it. in senegal, when the trees are decayed, the _trunks_ are hollowed, by the negroes, into burying-places for their poets, musicians, and buffoons. these persons are much esteemed whilst they live, although they are supposed to derive their superior talents from sorcery or an alliance with demons. when dead, however, their bodies are regarded with horror, and are not allowed the usual burial, under a notion that the earth would, in such case, refuse to produce its accustomed fruits. the bodies inclosed in these trees are said to become perfectly dry without decaying, and thus to form a kind of mummies, without the process of embalming. 192. _cotton is a soft vegetable down, which is contained in the seed vessels, and envelopes the seeds of the cotton-plant_ (gosypium herbaceum, fig. 52), _which is cultivated in the east and west indies, and numerous other countries of hot climates._. _this, though an annual plant, grows to a considerable heights it has leaves of bright green colour, marked with brownish veins, and each divided into five lobes. the flowers have only one petal, in five segments, with a short tube, and are of pale yellow colour, with five red spots at the bottom._ the cotton pods are of somewhat triangular shape, and have each three cells. these, when ripe, burst, and disclose their snow-white or yellowish contents, in the midst of which are contained small black seeds, in shape somewhat resembling those of grapes. we are informed, by mr. edwards, that the plants are raised from seed, the land requiring no other preparation for them than to be cleared of its native incumbrances. the seeds are usually sown in rows six or eight feet asunder, and the holes in which they are put are about four feet apart. at the end of five months the plants begin to flower, and in two months more the pods are formed. after the cotton is gathered, it is freed from the seeds to which it is attached, by a very simple machine, consisting of two small rollers that are close and parallel to each other, and move in opposite directions. the cotton is next hand-picked, to free it from decayed leaves, broken seeds, and other impurities; after which it is packed, for sale, in bags of about two hundred pounds each. though the cotton plant flourishes best in tropical climates, it is capable of cultivation in such as are not so hot; and it is now an object of attention in several of the southern parts of europe. we receive great quantities of cotton from america, and the east and west indies. the whole quantity imported into this country, in the year 1802, exceeded 60,000,000 pounds' weight; whilst the average annual importation, anterior to 1780, did not amount to one tenth part of this; so rapid has been the increase and prosperity of our cotton manufactories. calicoes and muslins of all kinds are made of cotton; fustians, corderoys, and innumerable other articles. nankeens, which are manufactured in india, are made of a kind of cotton which is naturally of a reddish buff colour. after the cotton is imported into england, the first process which it goes through is that of _carding_. some years ago, this was performed by the hand, upon the knee, with a single pair of cards; but it is now performed with cylindrical cards, worked by machinery. the next and most important improvements in the manufacture of cotton, were made at cromford, in the county of derby, by the late sir richard arkwright; who, in 1768, first introduced the method of _spinning_ cotton by machinery. by this contrivance cotton was _carded_, _roved_, and _spun_, with the utmost expedition, correctness, and equality. other machines have, at different subsequent periods, been invented by various mechanics and manufacturers, particularly that called a _jenny_, by which one person is able to spin a hundred hanks of cotton yarn a-day, containing, in the whole, near a million of yards. the concluding operation is that of weaving, which is performed with a machine called a loom, in the same manner as flax (97) and hemp (259). cotton is capable of being manufactured into paper, which is little inferior to that made from linen rags. ---class xvii.--diadelphia. ---decandria. 193. _the common broom_ (spartium scoparium) _is a shrub common on sandy pastures and heaths in nearly all the southern parts of england; and is distinguished by having large, yellow, butterfly-shaped flowers, leaves in threes, and single, and the branches angular._ few of our wild plants are applicable to more numerous purposes of domestic utility than this. its _twigs_ are tied in bundles, and formed into brooms. some persons roast the _seeds_, and make them into a kind of coffee. the fibrous and elastic parts of the _bark_, after having been separated by soaking in water, may be manufactured into cordage, matting, and even into a coarse kind of cloth. the twigs and young branches have been successfully employed as a substitute for oak bark, in the tanning of leather. they may also be rendered serviceable as thatch for houses, and corn ricks; and some persons mix them with hops in brewing; but it is doubtful whether, in this respect, they are wholesome. the _flower buds_, when pickled, have occasionally been used as a substitute for capers. the _wood_, where the dimensions are sufficient for the purpose, is employed by cabinet-makers for veneering; and it is stated by dr. mead, that a decoction of the green tops, in conjunction with mustard, has been found efficacious in the cure of dropsy. 194. _spanish broom, or spart_ (spartium junceum), _is a well-known ornamental flowering shrub in our gardens, which has opposite, round branches, that flower at the top, and spear-shaped leaves._ in the province of valencia, and other parts of spain, great attention is paid to this manufacture of various articles from the _twigs_ and _bark_ of this shrub. they are plaited into mats, carpets, coverings for plants, baskets, ropes, and even shoes. a great portion of these twigs was formerly exported to different french ports in the mediterranean, particularly to marseilles; but, in 1783, on account of the employment of which it deprived the spanish people in working them, their exportation was prohibited by the government. 195. _furze, gorze, or whin_ (ulex europæus), _is a well-known thorny shrub, which is common on heaths and waste ground in almost every part of england._ the chief use to which furze is applied, is for the heating of ovens; and, in this respect, it is valuable, from its burning rapidly, and emitting a great degree of heat. its _ashes_ are used for a ley, which is of considerable service in the washing of linen. in some parts of the country, furze is sown on banks, round fields, for the purpose of a fence; and it will flourish even close to the sea side, where the spray of the sea destroys almost every other shrub. but it will not bear severe cold, and it is often destroyed by intense frost. furze does not often occur in the northern parts of our island. horses, sheep, and cattle may be fed on this shrub; and, in several places, the seeds of it are sown, either by themselves, or with barley, oats, or buck-wheat (126). the plants are mown a year afterwards. they will grow for several years, and produce from ten to fifteen tons per acre of food, which is equal, in quality and excellence, to the same quantity of hay. they are bruised before they are eaten, either in a machine, or by heavy mallets on blocks of wood. this operation is requisite, in order to break the prickles, and prevent these from being injurious to the mouths of the animals that eat them. 196. _cowhage, or cow-itch, is a sharp and barbed kind of down or hair, which thickly clothes the pods of a bean-like climbing plant_ (dolichos pruriens, fig. 53), _that grows in the west indies, and other countries of warm climates._ _this is an herbaceous plant, which entwines round the adjacent trees or shrubs, and often rises to a considerable height. the leaves grow in threes upon long foot-stalks; and the flowers are large, butter-fly shaped, of purplish colour, and form long and pendant spikes, which have a very beautiful appearance._ it is the property of cowhage, when rubbed upon the skin, immediately to penetrate it, and to cause an intolerable itching. hence it is sometimes wantonly employed for mischievous purposes; and hence also it is found very troublesome to cattle and domestic animals, in places where the plants grow. notwithstanding this, it may be swallowed in safety, and, if taken into the stomach and intestines, is said to be an useful remedy for the destruction of worms. as a medicine, it is mixed with syrup or treacle into the form of an electuary. 197. _soy is a dark-coloured sauce, which is prepared from the seeds of a chinese plant_ (dolichos soja), _that has an erect and hairy stem, erect branches of flowers, and pendulous bristly pods, each containing about two seeds._ there is a joke amongst seamen, that soy is made from beetles or cockroaches. this probably originates in the seeds of the plant from which the sauce is manufactured having some fancied resemblance, in shape and colour, to a beetle. these _seeds_ are used in china and japan as food. they are made into a kind of jelly or curd, which is esteemed very nutritious, and which is rendered palatable by seasoning of different kinds. the liquid which we know by the name of _soy_ is thus prepared:--after the seeds have been boiled until they become soft, they are mixed with an equal weight of wheat or barley meal, coarsely ground. this mixture is fermented; and a certain proportion of salt and water being added, the whole is allowed to stand for two or three months, care being taken to stir it every day; and, by the end of that time, it is ready for use. soy is chiefly prepared in china and japan; but that imported from japan is considered preferable to any other. the quantity annually vended at the east india company's sales is from eight hundred to two thousand gallons, at an average price of sixteen or eighteen shillings per gallon. 198. _beans_ (vicia faba) _are well-known seeds, originally introduced from persia, of which there are several kinds or varieties; some of these are cultivated in fields, and others in gardens._ _field_, or _horse-beans_, as they are frequently called, are small and somewhat round. the cultivation of them is pursued to a considerable extent. they are esteemed, in many respects, an advantageous crop to the farmer, and will thrive on any land where the soil is sufficiently stiff. they are usually sown in the month of february; sometimes in the autumn; but, in case of severe frost, all the plants that are not well and deeply covered with snow will perish. there is also much uncertainty in the crop, owing to the state of the weather in the spring and summer; and particularly to the ravages of small black insects, myriads of which are frequently seen to crowd the tender tops of the plants. the bean-harvest is seldom completed till nearly the end of september, owing to the bulk and succulence of the plants; and the produce is from two and a half to five quarters per acre. there are several varieties of field-beans; but the fine and very small ones usually bear the highest price. bean flour is not only thought more nutritive, but is found to be more abundant than that of oats. beans are chiefly applied to the feeding of horses, hogs, and other domestic animals; and it is supposed that meal-men often grind them amongst wheat, the flour of which is to be made into bread. by some persons they are roasted, and adopted as a substitute for coffee. with the roman ladies bean-flour was in much repute as a cosmetic. _garden-beans_ are almost wholly confined to culinary uses. what are called _french-beans_, and _kidney-beans_, belong to a different tribe from the present. bean _stalks_, if subjected to a certain process, are capable of being converted into paper. 199. _vetches are a small species of beans_ (vicia sativa) _which grow wild in dry meadows, pastures, and cornfields, and are also cultivated in most parts of england._ _the pods are generally in pairs; and the leaves winged, having each about six pairs of leaflets, with a branched tendril at the extremity. at the bases of each of the leaves there is a small stipule, marked with a dark spot._ the principal use of vetches is as provender for horses and cattle. they are grown so early as to allow of being fed off, or cut for this purpose, in sufficient time for turnips to be sown the same year. when the land is to be prepared for a wheat crop it is sometimes customary to plough in the vetches as manure. the _seeds_ afford a grateful food for pigeons. 200. _peas_ (pisum sativum) _are a kind of seeds too well known to need any description._ there are several kinds of peas, some of which are cultivated in gardens, and others in fields. the former are principally used for culinary purposes. in the early part of the year, gardeners in the neighbourhood of london raise them on hot-beds. the kind they select for this purpose are the dwarf peas. these are sown about the middle of october in warm borders; and afterwards, towards the end of january, they are removed into the hot-beds. the inducement, of course, is the enormous prices that are paid for the earliest peas brought into the market. the podding or picking of green peas for the london market is also a valuable branch of the business of some farms within a few miles of the metropolis. many attempts have been made to preserve green peas for use in winter; one of these is by bottling them, and another by drying them in an oven, and afterwards keeping them in paper bags; but none of the modes have been attended with complete success. field peas are sown about march or april, and succeed best in light, rich soils. they are generally considered an uncertain crop; but this is owing, in a great degree, to want of due attention to their culture. in common with most other seeds of this class, peas yield a nutritive food to persons of strong stomachs. when boiled in a fresh or green state, they are both wholesome and agreeable; and, when ripe and ground into meal, they are peculiarly serviceable for the fattening of swine. the flour of peas is not unfrequently mixed by bakers amongst that of wheat for bread; but bread made of this flour alone is heavy and unwholesome. three parts of rye-flour and one of ground peas are said to yield a palatable and nourishing bread. peas that are freed from their husks, and split in mills constructed for the purpose, are used for soup. the haulm or _straw_ of field peas, if saved in favourable seasons, affords not only an excellent fodder for working horses, but is also an useful food for horses, cattle, and sheep. it has been presumed that the _everlasting pea_, which is commonly grown as an ornamental flower in our gardens, would be an advantageous green food for horses and cattle. 201. _liquorice is the root of a perennial plant_ (glycyrrhiza glabra), _with winged leaves, and purplish butterfly-shaped flowers, which grows wild in the south of europe, and is cultivated near pontefract in yorkshire, worksop in nottinghamshire, and godalming in surrey, and by many gardeners in the vicinity of london._ _the stalks of the liquorice-plant are usually four or five feet high. the leaves are winged, and the leaflets egg-shaped, with an odd one at the extremity. the flowers grow in long spikes from the junction of the leaves and branches. the roots are long, round, tough, of brown colour externally, and yellow within._ the principal use of liquorice is in medicine. it contains much saccharine matter, joined with some portion of mucilage; and is one of the few sweet substances which tend to allay thirst. liquorice is an excellent medicine in coughs and hoarsenesses. when boiled in a little water, it gives out nearly all its sweetness; and this, when the moisture is evaporated, produces, by different processes, what are called _spanish liquorice_, _liquorice cakes_, _liquorice lozenges_, and _pontefract cakes_. the former of these is used to great extent in the brewing of porter. it is said that more than two hundred tons' weight of it are annually manufactured in spain, a considerable portion of which is sold to the london brewers for this purpose. liquorice powder, which is used in medicine, is often adulterated with flour, and probably also with less wholesome articles. the root itself may be employed as stopples for beer or wine bottles. the soil in which liquorice is cultivated should be deep, light, and sandy; and the roots, which strike deeply into the ground, should be planted in rows, at the distance of a foot and half or two feet from each other. three years elapse, after the roots are planted, before the liquorice is in perfection. 202. _saint-foin_ (hedysarum onobrychis) _is a british perennial plant with winged leaves, somewhat pyramidal bunches of butterfly-shaped flowers, marked with red, white, and purple; and oblong, hairy pods, each containing a single seed._ this plant is cultivated in several of the farming districts of england, as food for horses and cattle; and it succeeds best on dry and chalky lands, in high and exposed situations. the seed should be sown in february or march, and, during the first year, the plants should remain untouched. in the ensuing summer a crop of hay may be obtained from them; and after this the saint-foin may regularly be mown twice every year, for ten or fifteen years. when intended for hay, saint-foin should not be cut before it is in full bloom, about the beginning of july, as otherwise the quality of the hay would be much injured. some farmers assert that saint-foin, when cows are fed with it, both increases the quantity and improves the quality of their milk; but, in the opinion of others, the quality is rather injured than improved by it. no pasture is considered more excellent for sheep than this. saint-foin is also sometimes sown with clover, and sometimes with barley. 203. _common red or broad clover_ (trifolium pratense) _is a well-known field plant, much cultivated in this country._ clover is chiefly grown in firm and good soils, either as green food for horses and cattle, or to be cut for hay. on grass farms it is sometimes sown in conjunction with spring corn, and sometimes with ray-grass (51); and its utility in the fattening of cattle is well known. this species of clover grows wild, in meadows and pastures of most parts of europe; and, in some countries, during a scarcity of provisions, the flowers have been made into a kind of bread. in sweden the heads are used as a green dye. 204. _lucern_ (medicago sativa) _is a perennial plant with small purple butterfly-shaped flowers, twisted pods, the stem erect and smooth, and the leaves in threes._ although a wild plant in nearly every country of the temperate parts of europe, this useful vegetable has only of late years been introduced into cultivation. it flourishes most luxuriantly in deep, rich, and friable loams, and cannot be too strongly recommended as food for cattle. the value of lucern may be considerably increased by sowing it with oats; and, though an expensive crop, it yields great profit. 205. _indigo is a blue dye prepared from a plant_ (indigofera tinctoria) _with a shrubby stem, oblong, smooth, and winged leaves, bunches of flowers shorter than the leaves, and cylindrical pods slightly curved, which grows in america and the west indies._ the culture of indigo is an object of considerable importance in the west indian islands, and in some parts of america. the grounds appropriated to it are sown about the middle of march, in rows fifteen inches asunder. the plants come into flower about three months afterwards, and are in a state to be cut about the month of august. they are cut with a kind of reaping hook, a few inches above the root. the plants are then laid in strata, in a vat or cistern constructed of strong mason-work, and so much water is poured in as will cover them. in this state they are left to ferment, and the fluid or pulp, which is first green, afterwards becomes of deep blue colour. it is now drawn off into another vat, where it is strongly and incessantly beaten and agitated, until the colouring matter is united into a body. the water is then let off by cocks in the sides of the vat; and the indigo, after undergoing some further preparations, is cast, in boxes or moulds, into small pieces, each about an inch square, and packed up for sale. the vapour which issues from the fermented liquor is extremely injurious to the negroes who attend the process; and as peculiar attention is requisite both to this and the granulating of the pulp, many indigo-planters have failed in the manufacture of this article. indigo is employed by dyers, calico-printers, and paper-stainers, to an extent so great that nearly 500,000 pounds' weight of it are annually imported into this kingdom. the _stone-blue_ used by laundresses, and the colours called _saxon-blue_, and _green_, are made from indigo. painters use it as a water-colour. this article is frequently adulterated with earth, ashes, and pounded slate. the genuine drug ought to be of rich, dark blue colour, approaching to black; and, when broken, should display the lustre of copper. it ought not to sink in water, nor to leave any sediment when dissolved. ---class xviii.--polyadelphia. ---decandria. 206. _chocolate is a kind of cake or hard paste, sometimes made of different ingredients, but the basis of which is the pulp of the cacao or chocolate nut, a produce of the west indies and america._ _the chocolate tree_ (theobroma cacao, fig. 54,) _both in size and shape, somewhat resembles a young cherry tree, but it separates near the ground into four or five stems. the leaves are each about four inches in length, smooth but not glossy, and of dull green colour. the flowers are saffron-coloured, and very beautiful._ the _fruit_ of the chocolate-tree somewhat resembles a cucumber in shape, but is furrowed deeper on the sides. its colour, while growing, is green; but, as it ripens, this changes to a fine bluish red, almost purple, with pink veins; or, in some of the varieties, to a delicate yellow or lemon colour. each of the pods contains from twenty to thirty nuts or kernels, which in shape are not much unlike almonds. these are arranged in rows, surrounded by a sweet pulpy substance, and are called _cacao_ or _chocolate-nuts_. plantations of chocolate trees are numerous on the banks of the river magdelana, in south america, and in the caraccas; but, at present, there are very few in our own colonies. they are usually formed in morassy situations; and are sheltered from the intense heat of the sun by larger trees which are planted among them. there are two principal crops of chocolate-nuts in the year; the first in june, and the second in december. as soon as the fruit is ripe, it is gathered, and cut into slices; and the nuts, which at this time are in a pulpy state, are taken out with the hand; for the thinness of their husk precludes the possibility of using a machine. they are then laid in skins, or on leaves, to be dried in the sun. they have now a sweetish acid taste, and may be eaten like any other fruit. when perfectly dry they are put into bags, each containing about a hundred weight; and, thus packed, are exported to foreign countries. previously to the preparation of these nuts into the substance which we call chocolate, they are gently roasted, or parched over the fire, in an iron vessel, after which process their thin external covering is easily separated. the kernel is then pounded in a mortar, and subsequently ground on a smooth warm stone. sometimes a little arnatto (173) is added; and, with the aid of water, the whole is formed into a paste. this, whilst hot, is put into tin moulds, where in a short time it congeals; and in this state it is the chocolate of the shops. in south america and spain other modes are adopted; the chocolate is mixed with sugar, long pepper (21), vanilla, cinnamon, cloves, almonds, and other ingredients, according to the taste of the respective inhabitants. mr. edwards was of opinion, that the cakes of chocolate used in england were made of about one half genuine chocolate, and the remainder of flour, or castile soap. chocolate was first introduced into europe by the spaniards, and that from the caraccas is considered the best. it should be used whilst new, as neither the seeds nor the cakes will keep well more than two years. the chocolate used in this country must be manufactured in england, for, by an act of the legislature, the importation of chocolate paste is prohibited, under heavy penalties. the mode in which this substance is immediately prepared for use is well known. by the natives of south america chocolate _nuts_ are used for food, and also as a circulating medium instead of coin: about 1200 of them being considered equal in value to a dollar. a white oily matter, about the consistence of suet, is obtained by bruising these nuts, and boiling the pulp. the oil is by this means liquefied, and rises to the surface, where it is left to cool and congeal, that it may the more easily be separated. this, which is called _butter of cacao_, is without smell, and, when fresh, has a very mild taste. its principal use is as an ingredient in pomatums. from the nuts, when slightly roasted, an oil is sometimes obtained by pressure, which is occasionally used in medicine. icosandria. 207. _the citron, lime, and lemon, are different varieties of the fruit of a small evergreen shrub, the original or parent stock of which_ (citrus medica) _was imported from asia into the southern parts of europe._ _the_ citron _is oblong, with a very thick rind; the_ lemon _is oblong with a small lump or protuberance at the end; and the_ lime _has no protuberance, has a very thin rind, and is about the size of a small egg. these are the principal marks of discrimination betwixt these fruits, but they are not quite constant._ _the lemon shrub_ (_fig. 56_) _has large and slightly indented shining leaves, of somewhat oval shape, but pointed; and on the footstalks of the leaves there is no remarkable appendage. the flowers are large and white, but purplish on the outside of the petals._ it is generally supposed that the _citron-tree_ was first introduced from assyria and media into greece, and thence into the southern parts of europe, where it is now cultivated to considerable extent. it is also grown in the islands of the west indies. the fruit, partaking of the same quality as the lemon, with the exception of being somewhat less acid, is seldom eaten raw; but, preserved in sugar as a sweetmeat, it is much used by confectioners and others. the principal consumption of citron is on the continent, where it is also occasionally employed in medicine. the _lemon-tree_ is a native of upper asia, whence, like the citron, it was brought into greece, and afterwards transplanted into italy. the _juice_, which is one of the sharpest and most agreeable of all acids, is used in cookery, confectionary, medicine, and in various other ways. by calico-printers it is very extensively employed, as a discharger of colour, to produce, with more clearness and effect, the white figured parts of coloured patterns that are dyed with colours formed from iron. its juice is procured by simply squeezing the fruit, and straining it through linen or any loose filter; and in sicily, and other parts of the mediterranean, it forms an important article of commerce. being one of the most valuable remedies for the scurvy, with which we are acquainted, it generally constitutes part of the sea store of ships that are destined for long voyages. several modes have been recommended for preserving lemon juice. one of these is to put it into bottles, with a small quantity of oil, which, floating on the surface, prevents the immediate contact of the air, and retards the decomposition of the acid; though, in this case, the original fresh taste soon gives place to one which is less grateful. in the east indies lemon juice is sometimes evaporated, by a gentle heat, to the consistence of a thick extract. sometimes it is crystallized into a white and acid salt; but what is sold in the shops, under the name of _essential salt of lemons_, for taking out ink-stains and iron-mould spots from linen, is only a preparation from the juice of sorrel. the external part of the _rind_ has a grateful aromatic and bitter taste, which renders it useful in cookery. when dried it is considered a good stomachic, promotes the appetite, and is otherwise serviceable as a medicine. it is often candied and made into a sweetmeat, under the name of _lemon chips_. when distilled it yields a light and almost colourless oil, which, in smell, is nearly as agreeable as the fresh peel, and is frequently employed as a perfume. lemons are sometimes preserved in syrup. small ones with thick rinds are converted into a grateful pickle; and a marmalade and syrup are also made of them. for the purpose of keeping the fruit, it is recommended that a fine packthread about a quarter of a yard long, should be run through the protuberance at the end of the lemons: the ends of the string are to be tied together, and suspended on a hook in an airy situation, and in such manner that each lemon may hang perfectly free and detached. the cultivation of the _lime_ is much attended to in several parts of north america and the west indies. its juice affords a more grateful acid than that of the lemon, which is there in little repute, and is, comparatively, but seldom seen. a plate of limes is said to be a constant dish at entertainments in the west indies; and the juice is used for all the same purposes as that of lemons is with us. 208. _orange_ (citrus aurantium, fig. 55). _the difference betwixt orange and lemon-trees is immediately known by the former having a kind of winged appendage on the leafstalks, of which the latter are destitute._ we are informed that the first orange-tree introduced into europe was sent as a present, from some part of asia, to the conde mellor, prime minister of the king of portugal. it was the only one of a great number which were contained in the same chest that survived; and it became the parent stock of multitudes of subsequent trees. the delightful perfume of an orange grove is such as to scent the air for miles, and the _flowers_ appear in succession during the whole summer; and flowers and ripe fruit are found on the same tree. orange flowers are valued as a perfume, and yield their flavour to rectified spirits; and, in distillation, both to spirits and water. in portugal and italy a fragrant red-coloured oil is obtained from them, which, by some persons, is considered of more delicate and agreeable perfume than even ottar of roses. the _juice_ of the orange, when ripe and of good kind, is extremely sweet, grateful, and wholesome. in fevers, and other complaints, it is of considerable use for allaying heat and quenching thirst; and, in scurvy, it has been found a very valuable remedy. the _rind_, which yields a grateful aromatic bitter, is sometimes used in medicine, and, in particular, has obtained notice for the cure of intermittent fevers or agues. it is frequently preserved in syrup, and also in sugar, under the name of preserved _orange-peel_, and _orange-chips_; and is much esteemed in desserts. in cookery and by confectioners, oranges are used in numerous ways; for marmalade, in biscuits, cheesecakes, jelly, puddings, and tarts; and an agreeable wine is prepared from oranges, with water, sugar, and some other ingredients. _seville_, or _bitter oranges_ are a large, dark-coloured, and rough-skinned variety of the common species. these are much used in medicine and cookery. _bergamot_ is a well-known perfume, obtained from the rind of a variety of orange much cultivated near the town of bergamo in italy, whence it has obtained its name. the rind is cut into small pieces, and the oil is pressed out into glass vessels. sometimes a fragrant water is distilled from the peel. 209. _the shaddock_ (citrus decumana) _is a yellowish green fruit, of the orange kind, as large as the head of a child, with twelve or more cells, and contains a red or whitish pulp. it is very common in many parts both of the east and west indies._ in hot climates the shaddock is much esteemed on account of its agreeable flavour, which is a pleasant mixture of sweet and acid. it is safely eaten, even in considerable quantities, and is esteemed very salubrious. the rind is thick, and has a disagreeable bitterish taste. this fruit is indebted, for its name, to a captain shaddock, who is said to have first brought it from china, or, as some say, from guinea, and transplanted it into one of the west indian islands. 210. _cajeput is a greenish coloured oil produced from the fruit of a tree_ (melaleuca leucodendron) _which grows in the east indies._ _this tree has a long flexible trunk; with linear spear-shaped, alternate leaves, which are smooth, ash-coloured, and each with five nerves. the flowers are white, and in long, terminal spikes._ the _leaves_ of the cajeput tree have an aromatic odour, somewhat resembling that of cardamom seed (15); and they yield, by distillation, an essential oil, which manifests this aromatic principle still more strongly. among the malays cajeput oil is a medicine in great repute; but its uses are so little known in this country that it is rarely kept even in the shops of the metropolis. in acute rheumatism and gout, however, it has been known to afford immediate relief by being rubbed on the part affected; but it ought not to be applied without great care, as it is very powerful in its effects. cajeput oil is one of the most valuable remedies which have hitherto been discovered for the toothache. from whatever cause this affection of the face may proceed, whether from a carious or hollow tooth, rheumatic acrimony, or cold, this oil has generally been found efficacious in removing it. it is best applied by being dropped on lint, and placed in the cavity of the tooth, or round the gum. hence it deserves a place in the medicine chest of every private family. if taken internally, in a dose of five or six drops, it heats and stimulates the whole system; and it is said to have had a beneficial effect in dropsies and intermittent fevers. in india it is used, both internally and externally, in palsies, deafness, gout, rheumatism, and several other complaints. its odour is remarkably destructive to insects. a few drops of it, in a cabinet or drawer in which animal or vegetable specimens of natural history are kept, in a dried state, have, on this account, been found useful. cajeput oil is chiefly prepared in the island of bouro, one of the moluccas; and it is imported into europe from the east indies. but, from its high price, it is so frequently adulterated, that it is seldom to be had genuine in europe. ---class xix.--syngenesia. ---æqualis. 211. _the artichoke_ (cynara scolymus) _is a well-known plant which is grown chiefly for culinary purposes, and was originally imported into this country from the south of europe._ this plant was cultivated with us as early as the year 1580. the parts that are eaten are the receptacle of the flower, which is called the _bottom_, and a fleshy substance on each of the scales of the calyx. the _choke_ consists of the unopened florets, and the bristles that separate them from each other: these stand upon the receptacle, and must be cleared away before the bottom can be eaten. its name has doubtless been obtained from a notion that any one unlucky enough to get it into his throat must certainly be choked. with us artichokes are generally plain boiled, and eaten with melted butter and pepper; and they are considered both wholesome and nutritious. the bottoms are sometimes stewed, boiled in milk, or added to ragouts, french pies, and other highly-seasoned dishes. for winter use they may be slowly dried in an oven, and kept in paper bags in a dry place. on the continent artichokes are frequently eaten raw, with salt and pepper. by the country people of france the _flowers_ of the artichoke are sometimes used to coagulate milk, for the purpose of making cheese. the _leaves_ and _stalks_ contain a bitter juice, which, mixed with an equal portion of white wine, has been successfully employed in the cure of dropsy, when other remedies have failed. the juice, prepared with bismuth, imparts a permanent golden yellow colour to wool. 212. _the cardoon_ (cynara cardunculus) _is a species of artichoke which grows wild in the south of france, and has smaller flowers than the common artichoke, and the scales of the calyx terminated by long, sharp spines._ _the stems rise to the height of four or five feet, and are upright, thick, and cottony. the leaves are large and winged, and the flowers of blue colour._ the parts of the cardoon that are eaten are not those belonging immediately to the flower, as of the artichoke, but the roots, stalks, and middle ribs of the leaves; and chiefly the latter, which are thick and crisp. but, as all these are naturally very bitter, the plants, previously to being used, are blanched, by being tied up like lettuces, about the month of september, and having earth thrown upon their lower parts, to the depth of eighteen inches or two feet. cardoons come into season for the table about the end of november; and are either eaten alone, or as a sauce to animal food, particularly to roasted meat; or are introduced as a dish in the second course. they are, however, not so much used in england as on the continent; and this in consequence chiefly of the trouble attending their cultivation, and their preparation for the table, so as to render them palatable. 213. _lettuce_ (lactuca sativa) _is an esculent vegetable, that is cultivated in nearly every kitchen garden in the kingdom._ the different kinds or varieties of lettuce are extremely numerous: but those best known are the _cos lettuce_, and _cabbage lettuce_, the former having upright leaves, and the latter having its leaves folded over each other like those of a cabbage. their culture is very simple. the seeds are sown at various seasons of the year, that the plants may be ready, in succession, for the table. after a while, they are planted out from the seed-bed into another part of the garden, at a certain distance from each other, to allow of room for their expansion and growth. when the cos lettuces have attained a sufficient size, their leaves are tied together with strings of matting, to blanch them for use. from seeds that are sown towards the end of summer, lettuces may, with care, be obtained in perfection during the ensuing winter and spring. lettuces have an odour somewhat resembling that of opium; and they also possess somewhat similar narcotic properties, which reside in the milky juice. the properties of this vegetable as a salad, if eaten without oil, are considered to be emollient, cooling, and wholesome. 214. _endive_ (cichorium endivia) _is a common vegetable in kitchen gardens, having curled or crisped leaves._ we are supposed to have been originally indebted to the east indies for this useful winter salad. it is chiefly cultivated in the south of england; being sown generally about june or july, and afterwards planted out, like lettuce. the chief excellence of endive consists in the whiteness of its inner leaves. it is, therefore, adviseable, either to cover the plants with flower-pots, or, when full grown, to tie them loosely together, for two or three weeks. by so doing, they will become perfectly blanched; and, in winter, they may be preserved, either by covering them with straw and mats, or by putting them in sand in a dry cellar. the french consume a great quantity of endive at their tables. they either eat it raw in salads, boiled in ragouts, fried with roast meat, or as a pickle. it is a wholesome vegetable which seldom disagrees with the stomach. superflua. 215. _camomile_ (anthemis nobilis) _is a well-known plant, the dried daisy-like flowers of which are frequently used in medicine._ the principal use to which camomile _flowers_ are applied is to excite vomiting, and promote the operation of emetics. they have likewise occasionally been substituted for peruvian bark, in the case of intermittent fevers or agues, particularly on the continent, but not with much success; and are used as a valuable stomachic. both the _leaves_ and flowers are employed in fomentations and poultices. they each, but particularly the flowers, have a powerful, though not an unpleasant smell, and a bitter taste. they are administered in substance, as a powder or electuary, in infusion as tea, in decoction or extract, or in the form of an essential oil obtained by distillation. so fragrant is the camomile plant, that the places where it grows wild, on open gravelly commons, may easily be discovered by the somewhat strawberry-like perfume which is emitted by treading on them. this quality alone has sometimes induced the cultivation of camomile for a green walk in gardens. 216. _tarragon_ (artemisia dracunculus) _is a hardy plant of the wormwood tribe, which grows wild in india and the southern parts of europe, and is cultivated with us in gardens for culinary uses._ _it has a somewhat shrubby stem; smooth, spear-shaped, leaves tapering at each end; and flowers roundish, erect, and on footstalks._ this is a hot and bitter vegetable, which is sometimes eaten with lettuces, or other salad herbs: and sometimes used as an ingredient in soup. its _seeds_ are pungent; and may be advantageously substituted for the more costly spices obtained from the indies. the indians frequently eat the _leaves_ of the tarragon plant with bread. the sauce called _tarragon vinegar_ is made by infusing for fourteen days, one pound of the leaves of tarragon, gathered a short time before the flowers appear, in one gallon of the best vinegar: straining this through a flannel bag, and fining it by means of a little isinglass. a distilled water is sometimes prepared from the leaves of tarragon. frustranea. 217. _the jerusalem artichoke is a somewhat potatoe-shaped root, produced by a species of sunflower_ (helianthus tuberosus) _which grows wild in several parts of south america._ _this plant bears single stalks, which are frequently eight or nine feet high, and yellow flowers, much smaller than those of the common sunflower._ so extremely productive are these valuable roots, that betwixt seventy and eighty tons' weight of them are said to have been obtained, in one season, from a single acre of ground. they succeed in almost any soil; and, when once planted, will continue to flourish in the same place, without requiring either much manure, or much attention to the culture. the season in which they are dug up for use is from about the middle of september till november; when they are in greatest perfection. after that they may be preserved in sand, or under cover, for the winter. the roots are generally eaten plain boiled; but they are sometimes served to table with white fricassee-sauce, and in other ways. their flavour is so nearly like that of the common artichoke, that it is difficult to distinguish them from each other. we are informed that jerusalem artichokes are a valuable food for hogs and store pigs; and that if washed, cut, and ground in a mill, similar to an apple-mill, they may also be given to horses. 218. _the common or annual sunflower_ (helianthus annuus) _is a peruvian plant, with large yellow flowers, that is well known in our gardens._ the uses to which this plant may be applied are such as to render it well deserving of attention in rural economy. its _stalks_ contain a white, shining, fibrous substance, which might be advantageously employed in the manufacture of paper; and the woody part of them makes excellent fuel. its ripe _seeds_, when subjected to pressure, yield a great proportion of sweet and palatable oil. these seeds may also be used for the feeding of poultry. the _receptacles of the flowers_, it is said, may be boiled and eaten like artichokes. ---class xx.--gynandria. ---diandria. 219. _salep is the powder of the dried roots of several well-known field-plants of the orchis tribe_ (orchis morio, o. mascula, &c.) as an article of diet, salep is supposed to contain the largest portion of nutriment, in an equal compass, of any known vegetable production: even arrow root (17) is, in this respect, inferior to it. the orchises from which it is manufactured flourish in great abundance in meadows and pastures of several parts of england, flowering about the months of may and june. as soon as the flower-stalks begin to decay, the roots should be dug up, and the newly-formed bulbs, which have then attained their perfect state, should be separated. when several roots are collected, they should be washed in water, and have their external skin removed by a small brush, or by dipping them in hot water, and rubbing them with a coarse linen cloth. the next process is to place them on a tin plate, and put them into an oven for about ten minutes, by which time they will have lost the milky whiteness which they before possessed, and will have acquired a transparency like horn. they are then to be spread in a room, where, in a few days, they will become dry and hard. although salep might be procured in great abundance in our own country, we import nearly the whole of what we use from the levant, and generally in oval pieces of yellowish white colour, somewhat clear and pellucid, and of almost horny substance. when these, or the powder prepared from them, are put into boiling water, they dissolve into a thick mucilage. with the turks, salep has great celebrity, on account of the restorative qualities which it is supposed to possess. it is much recommended as nutritive food for persons recovering from illness; and, in particular, as a part of the stores of every ship about to sail into distant climates. it not only possesses the property of yielding an invaluable nutriment, and, in a great measure, of concealing the saline taste of sea-water, but is likewise of essential service against the sea-scurvy. when it is stated that one ounce of this powder and an ounce of portable soup, dissolved in two quarts of boiling water, will form a jelly capable of affording sustenance to one man for a day, the utility of salep will be further seen as a means of preventing famine at sea for an infinitely longer time than any other food of equal bulk. ---class xxi.--monoecia. ---monandria. 220. _the bread fruit is a large globular berry of pale green colour, about the size of a child's head, marked on the surface with irregular six-sided depressions, and containing a white and somewhat fibrous pulp, which, when ripe, becomes juicy and yellow._ _the tree that produces it_ (artocarpus incisa, fig. 57) _grows wild in otaheite and other islands of the south seas, is about forty feet high, has large and spreading branches, and large bright green leaves, each deeply divided into seven or nine spear-shaped lobes._ we are informed, in captain cook's first voyage round the world, that the edible part of this fruit lies between the skin and the core; and that it is white as snow, and somewhat of the consistence of new bread. it is generally used immediately when gathered; if it be kept more than twenty-four hours it becomes hard and chokey. the inhabitants of the south sea islands prepare it as food, by dividing the fruit into three or four parts, and roasting it in hot embers. its taste is insipid, with a slight tartness, and somewhat resembles that of the crumb of wheaten bread mixed with jerusalem artichoke (217). of this fruit the otaheitans make various messes, by putting to it either water or the milk of the cocoa-nut (233), then beating it to a paste with a stone pestle, and afterwards mixing it with ripe plantains (270), bananas (271), or a sour paste, made from the bread fruit itself, called _mahié_. it continues in season eight months of the year; and so great is its utility in the island of otaheite, that (observes captain cook), if, in those parts where it is not spontaneously produced, a man plant but ten trees in his whole life-time, he will as completely fulfil his duty to his own and to future generations, as the natives of our less temperate climate can do by ploughing in the winter's cold, and reaping in the summer's heat, as often as these seasons return; even if, after he has procured bread for his present household, he should convert the surplus into money, and lay it up for his children. not only does this tree supply food, but clothing, and numerous other conveniences of life. the _inner bark_, which is white, and composed of a net-like series of fibres, is formed into a kind of cloth. the wood is soft, smooth, and of yellowish colour; and is used for the building of boats and houses. in whatever part the tree is wounded, a glutinous milky _juice_ issues, which, when boiled with cocoa-nut oil (233), is employed for making bird-lime, and as a cement for filling up cracks in such vessels as are intended for holding water. some parts of the _flowers_ serve as tinder in the lighting of fire; and the leaves are used for wrapping up food, and for other purposes. as the climate of the south sea islands is considered not much to differ from that of the west indies, it was (about thirty years ago) thought desirable that some of the trees should be transferred, in a growing state, to our islands there. consequently, his majesty's ship the bounty, in 1787, sailed for this purpose to the south seas, under the command of lieutenant, afterwards admiral bligh. but a fatal mutiny of the ship's crew prevented the accomplishment of this benevolent design. the commander of the vessel, however, returned in safety to his country; and a second expedition under the same person, and for the same purpose, was fitted out in the year 1791. captain bligh arrived in safety at otaheite, and, after an absence from england of about eighteen months, landed in jamaica with 352 bread fruit-trees, in a living state, having left many others at different places in his passage thither. from jamaica these trees were transferred to other islands; but the negroes, having a general and long established predilection for the plantain (270), the bread fruit is not much relished by them. where, however, it has not been generally introduced as an article of food, it is used as a delicacy; and whether employed as bread, or in the form of pudding, it is considered highly palatable by the european inhabitants. 221. _the jack fruit is a species of bread fruit that is grown in malabar and other parts of the east indies._ _the tree which produces this fruit_ (artocarpus integrifolia) _differs from the common bread fruit-tree, in having the leaves entire, each about a span in length, oblong, blunt, serrated at the edges, bright green, and very smooth on the upper surface, paler beneath, and clad with stiff hairs._ few of the fruits even of eastern climates are so large as this. its weight is sometimes upwards of thirty pounds; and it generally contains betwixt two and three hundred nuts or seeds. these are each about three times as large as an almond, of somewhat oval shape, blunt at one end, sharp at the other, and a little flatted on the sides. some varieties of the fruit, however, contain no nuts. the season in which the jack fruit is in perfection is about the month of december. though esteemed by many persons, it is so difficult of digestion, that great caution is requisite in eating it. the unripe fruit is sometimes pickled; it is sometimes cut into slices, and boiled as a vegetable for the table; and sometimes fried in palm-oil. the _nuts_ are eaten roasted, and the _wood_ serves for building materials. triandria. 222. _maize, or indian corn_ (zea mays, fig. 58), _is a species of grain much cultivated in america and other climates: the grains are of yellow colour, somewhat shaped like flattened peas, and grow closely set round the upper part of high perpendicular stalks._ to the inhabitants of many countries of warm climates the cultivation of maize is a very important pursuit. these plants are propagated by sowing the seed in rows, in march, april, or may: they generally produce two crops in the year, and yield, according to the soil, from fifteen to forty bushels per acre. as soon as they are ripe, the ears are gathered. they are shortly afterwards threshed, and the grain, when separated, is spread out to dry in the sun; for, if it were heaped together in this state, it would ferment, and sprout or grow. the american indians parch this kind of corn over a fire, in such manner as not to burn it. afterwards they pound it, sift the meal and preserve it for their chief food. they make it into puddings and cakes, or bread, the quality of which is extremely nutritive. maize is useful for poultry and cattle of every kind; and, if converted into malt, a wholesome beverage may be brewed from it. of the leafy _husk_ which surrounds the ear of the maize a beautiful kind of writing paper is manufactured at a paper-mill near rimini in italy; and a greyish paper may be manufactured from the whole plant. the _stalks_ are said to afford an excellent winter food for cattle. when the _young ears_ are beginning to form, they have a sweet and agreeable taste. if, in this state, the leaves be stripped off, and the ears be subjected to pressure, a pleasant and palatable milky juice may be obtained from them. it is supposed that maize might, with advantage, be cultivated in england. 223. _the common cucumber_ (cucumis sativus, fig. 59.) _is an oblong, rough, and cooling fruit, which is cultivated in our kitchen gardens, and is supposed to have been originally imported into this country from some part of the levant._ cucumbers are always eaten before they are ripe, and usually with vinegar, oil, pepper, and salt. they are sometimes stewed; and when young (under the name of _gerkins_), are pickled with vinegar and spices, or preserved in syrup as a sweetmeat. as the cucumber plants are too tender to sustain the coldness of our climate exposed to the open air, it is necessary to sow the seed in hot-beds, or under hand-glasses; though, in the beginning of summer, the glasses may, without danger, be removed. the fruit is much improved by putting a piece of slate or a tile under each, instead of allowing it to lie upon the naked ground. 224. _the common melon, or musk melon, is a species of cucumber, produced by a creeping herbaceous plant_ (cucumis melo), _which has leaves with rounded angles, and grows wild in tartary._ in hot climates this fruit attains great perfection and a peculiarly fine flavour; and even in england, where it is cultivated in hot-beds, and sheltered by glass frames, it is one of the coolest and most delicious summer fruits that we possess. its size and form vary beyond description. sometimes it is smooth, and only three or four inches in length: sometimes its whole surface is rugged, or netted, and is many pounds in weight. melons are, in colour, grey, yellowish, or green, externally; whilst their flesh is white, yellow, reddish, or green. they are usually eaten with sugar; sometimes with pepper or ginger, and salt; and sometimes alone. in france, they are often eaten as a sauce to boiled beef. the smaller kinds are pickled; and one particular sort of melons are filled with mustard seeds and shred garlic, and pickled under the name of _mangos_ (73). the propagation of melons is by seed, sown in february or march; and the cultivation is somewhat similar to that of the cucumber, but is attended with considerably more trouble and expense. 225. _the pumpkin, or pompion, is a species of gourd which grows to an enormous size, contains several cells, and numerous seeds with tumid margins, and is produced by a creeping plant, with lobed leaves_ (cucurbita pepo). _the shape of the pumpkin is generally globular, or flatted at top and bottom, and ribbed. the rind is glossy, and of yellow or green colour. the flesh is firm, but melting, and the whole weight is sometimes more than thirty pounds._ the germans cultivate this plant in extensive fields, for various economical purposes, but particularly for the feeding of swine, and other animals. they cut it into pieces, and throw it into fish-ponds, as food for carp. little trouble is required in its culture; and it will flourish on any tolerable soil, in a warm and sheltered situation. the pulp is served at table in various forms, but particularly in pies, and as an ingredient in puddings and pancakes. the americans frequently gather pumpkins when half grown, and eat them boiled as a sauce to meat. if the _seeds_ be subjected to pressure, they will yield a proportion of oil so great as nearly to amount to their own weight; and, when ground with water, they afford a cooling and nutritious kind of milk. 226. _the bottle gourd is an american fruit with woody rind, and of very various shape, belonging to the same tribe as the pumpkin, and produced by a creeping plant_ (cucurbita lagenaria) _with somewhat angular and downy leaves, each having two glands at the base underneath._ this fruit is at first green, but when ripe, it assumes a dull yellow colour; and the flesh is spongy and very white. its size and shape are so varied, that it would be impossible to describe them; sometimes it has a long slender part next the stalk, like the neck of a bottle; sometimes it is swollen, and sometimes of great length, and of form so curved as to be shaped almost like a bugle horn, or the musical instrument called a serpent. so hard and strong is the _rind_ of the bottle-gourd, that this, when freed from the pulp, is frequently converted by the americans, as well as the inhabitants of the west indies, into drinking cups, flagons, bottles, and other domestic utensils; but, on being first used, it communicates a disagreeable taste to the juices contained in it. the _pulp_, boiled with vinegar, is sometimes eaten. 227. _the water melon_ (cucurbita citrullus) _is a roundish or oblong species of gourd, with thin smooth rind, marked with star-like spots, the leaves deeply divided into lobes, and the flowers somewhat resembling those of the cucumber._ persons who have visited hot climates know well how to appreciate the grateful coolness and delicious flavour of the water melon, the flesh of which is so succulent that it melts in the mouth; and the central pulp of which is fluid, like that of the cocoa-nut, and may be sucked, or poured out through a hole in the rind, and thus made to afford a most refreshing beverage. to the inhabitants of egypt, china, the east indies, and other countries, where they are cultivated to a great extent, water melons are extremely valuable, both as food and physic. they are allowed to be eaten in fevers, and other inflammatory complaints. their flesh or pulp is, in general, of reddish colour; one kind, however, called by the french _pastèque_, has a whitish green pulp. the latter are frequently pickled in vinegar, like gerkins; and are eaten in fricassees, or baked in sweet wine. both these varieties may be grown in our gardens, under hot-bed frames, in the same manner as cucumbers. tetrandria. 228. _the birch_ (betula alba) _is a forest-tree, easily known by the smooth appearance and silvery colour of its bark, by its leaves being somewhat triangular, but acute, their smallness in comparison with those of other timber trees, and by the small branches being slender and flexible._ although the birch is by no means considered a valuable timber tree, yet its _wood_ is used for numerous purposes. being of white colour, and firm and tough in texture, it is variously employed by hoop-benders and wheel-wrights. turners use it for trenchers, bowls, ladles, and other wooden ware. ox yokes, small screws, women's shoe-heels, pattens, and, in france, wooden shoes are made of it. the north american indians use the wood of the birch-tree for canoes, boxes, buckets, baskets, kettles, and dishes, curiously joining it together with threads made of roots of the cedar-tree. birch-trees are not unfrequently planted with hazels, for the purpose of the wood being converted into charcoal for forges. this charcoal is much esteemed; and the soot which is formed on burning the wood constitutes a good black substance for printers' ink. nearly all the other parts of the birch-tree are applicable to useful purposes. the inhabitants of sweden employ the _bark_ in the tanning of leather; and, after burning it to a certain degree, they also use it as a cement for broken china and earthen ware. the navigators of the river volga construct of it portable boats, cradles, &c. it is serviceable in dyeing a yellow colour. in norway it is dried, ground, mixed with meal, and boiled with other food for swine. houses or huts, in many parts of the north of europe, are covered with the outward and thicker part of the bark, instead of slates, or tiles. it is spun into a coarse kind of rope, woven into shoes and hats; and, in kamschatka, even made into drinking cups. the laplanders fasten together large pieces of it as outer garments to keep off the rain. abounding with much resinous matter, slices of the bark are sometimes twisted together to make torches. during a scarcity of corn the bark of the birch-tree has, in several instances, been ground with bread corn, and successfully used as food by mankind. in most parts of england the _twigs_ of this tree are made into besoms. they are also made into the tops of fishing rods; and, when smeared with bird-lime (56), are used by bird-catchers. the norwegians frequently employ them as fodder for their horses. the _leaves_ afford a yellow dye. a wholesome wine is made from the _sap_ or juice of the birch-tree. the juice is obtained by boring holes in the trunks of the trees, about the beginning of march, before the leaves appear. into each of these holes a piece of elder stick, hollowed through the middle, by clearing out the pith, is placed. this conducts the juice, as it flows from the wound, into a vessel put to receive it. if a tree be large, it may be tapped in four or five places at once; and, from several trees, many gallons of juice may be obtained in a day. the juice thus procured is to be boiled with sugar, in the proportion of four pounds to a gallon, and treated in the same manner as other made wines. a good spirit might no doubt be obtained from the juice of the birch-tree by distillation. 229. _the alder, or owler_ (betula alnus, fig. 63), _is a tree which grows in wet situations, and is distinguished by its flower-stalks being branched, and its leaves being roundish, waved, serrated, and downy at the branching of the veins beneath._ there are few means of better employing swampy and morassy grounds than by planting them with alders; for although the growth of these trees is not rapid, the uses to which they are applicable are such as amply to repay the loss of time requisite before they come to perfection. the _wood_ of the alder, which is in great demand for machinery, is frequently wrought into cogs for mill-wheels, and is peculiarly adapted for all kinds of work which are to be constantly kept in water. it is consequently used for pumps, sluices, pipes, drains, and conduits of different description, and for the foundation of buildings situated in swamps. the water pipes which are laid under the streets of many of our large towns are made of alder; and, for its utility in the formation of sluices, it is much cultivated in holland. it is commonly used for bobbins; and women's shoe-heels, ploughmen's clogs, and numerous articles of turnery ware, are formed of it. this wood serves also for many domestic and rural uses, for spinning-wheels, troughs, the handles of tools, ladders, cart-wheels; and, as coppice wood, it is planted to be cut down every ninth or tenth year, for poles. the roots and knots furnish a beautifully veined wood, nearly of the colour of mahogany; and well adapted for cabinet work and furniture. the _bark_ may be advantageously used in the operations of tanning and leather-dressing; and by fishermen, for staining their nets. this, and the young twigs, are sometimes employed in dyeing, and yield different shades of yellow and red. the laplanders chew the bark of the alder, and dye their leather garments red with the saliva thus produced. with the addition of copperas, it yields a black dye, which the dyers of cotton use to considerable extent; and, for this purpose, it is purchaseable in some countries, at the rate of seven pence or eight pence per stone. in the highlands of scotland, we are informed that _young branches_ of the alder, cut down in the summer, spread over the fields, and left during the winter to decay, are found to answer the purpose of manure. the fresh gathered _leaves_, being covered with a glutinous moisture, are said to be sometimes strewed upon floors to destroy fleas, which become entangled in it, as birds are with bird-lime. but these agile and troublesome insects must be numerous indeed to render the setting of traps for them of any avail towards their destruction. 230. _the common nettle. there are two kinds of nettle common in england, one of which_ (urtica dioica) _has heart-shaped leaves, and the other_ (urtica urens) _has oval leaves._ although generally considered a noxious weed, the nettle is a plant of extensive utility. by the country people the young and tender _leaves_ and _tops_ are boiled for food, and are eaten as a substitute for greens and other pot-herbs. asses eagerly devour the leaves of nettles; and if these be boiled, and mixed with other food for poultry, they are said to promote their laying of eggs. a kind of rennet is made in the highlands of scotland, by adding a quart of salt to three pints of a liquor produced by the boiling of nettles. a tablespoonful of this is said to be sufficient to coagulate a bowl of milk. from the fibrous _stalks_ of the nettle, dressed in the manner of flax or hemp, cloth and paper may be made. the manufacture of these has been pursued with success in some parts of the continent; and in our own country a coarse kind of canvass has been produced from them. the _roots_, when boiled, communicate a yellow colour to woollen cloth, linen, and cotton. it must be remarked that the _stings_ of nettles, when examined by a microscope, are shown to be extremely curious objects. they consist of a slender, tapering, sharp, and hollow substance, with a minute hole at the point, and a bag at the base. when the sting is pressed, it perforates the skin, and the same pressure forces up from the bag, into the wound, a corrosive liquor, which forms there a blister, and excites a burning and painful inflammation. if the nettle be suddenly and strongly grasped, the stings are bent or broken, and, in this case, occasion no pain. in consequence of their stinging quality, nettles have been employed, with advantage, in restoring sensation to paralytic limbs, by whipping them with these plants. they were formerly much used as a styptic; and are said to have been found useful in jaundice, scurvy, gout, and other complaints; but most of the accounts that have been given of their great medicinal virtues have now little credit. the _flowers_ and _seeds_ are said to have been tried in italy, and found an efficacious substitute for peruvian bark (62) in agues and other complaints. a leaf of the nettle put upon the tongue, and then pressed against the roof of the mouth, is stated to be a remedy for bleeding at the nose. 231. _the mulberry-tree_ (morus nigra, fig. 72) _is a native of italy, and is known by its heart-shaped and rough leaves, and its large juicy berries, each consisting of several smaller ones._ the flowers of the mulberry appear in june, and the _fruit_ becomes ripe in september, the berries continuing to ripen in succession for about two months. these, if eaten before they are ripe, are astringent; but, when ripe, are pleasantly acid, though of very peculiar flavour. an agreeable syrup, made from the _juice_ of the ripe fruit, is kept in apothecaries' shops for medicinal uses. the juice itself is employed to impart a dark tinge to liquors and confections; and, when properly fermented, it becomes a pleasant wine. in cider counties it is not unusual to mix mulberries with the apples destined for cider, by which is made a delicious beverage called _mulberry cider_. mulberries stain the fingers, as well as linen, cotton, or woollen, of a red colour, which is difficult to be extracted; but which may be removed by verjuice, or the acid of lemons. in italy, and other countries where silkworms are bred, the _leaves_ of the mulberry-tree, but particularly those of the white mulberry, which is distinguished by its having obliquely heart-shaped and smooth leaves, are requisite for the feeding of these insects; and they are very extensively cultivated for this purpose. the _wood_ is hard and of yellow colour; and is applied to numerous uses in carving and turnery. the _bark_ is so fibrous that it may be manufactured into cordage, ropes, and coarse paper; and that of the root has an acrid and bitter taste, is powerful in its effects, and has been successfully used as a remedy against worms, particularly the tape-worm. mulberry-trees flourish best in a light and rich soil, and in open situations. 232. _the box-tree_ (buxus sempervirens) _is a shrubby evergreen tree, twelve or fifteen feet high, which has small, oval, and opposite leaves, and grows wild in several parts of britain._ it has been remarked that this tree was formerly so common in some parts of england, as to have given name to several places, particularly to box-hill in surrey, and boxley in kent; and, in 1815, there were cut down at box-hill as many of these trees as were sold for upwards of 10,000_l._, a circumstance perhaps unparalleled in their history. the box-tree was much admired by the ancient romans, and also by our own ancestors, on account of its being easily clipped into the form of animals, and other fantastic shapes. in the south of europe it is cultivated in gardens, and kept in flower-pots, with as much attention as we bestow upon myrtles. the _wood_ is of yellowish colour, close-grained, very hard and heavy, and admits of a beautiful polish. on these accounts it is much used by turners, by engravers on wood, carvers, and mathematical instrument makers. flutes and other wind instruments are formed of it; and furniture made of box-wood would be valuable were it not too heavy, as it would not only be very beautiful, but its bitter quality would secure it from the attacks of insects. in france it is much in demand for combs, knife-handles, and button-moulds; and it has been stated that the quantity of box-wood annually sent from spain to paris is alone estimated at the value of more than 10,000 livres. an oil distilled from the shavings of box-wood has been found to relieve the tooth-ache, and to be useful in other complaints; and the powdered _leaves_ destroy worms. hexandria. 233. _the cocoa-nut is a woody fruit, produced in nearly all the countries of hot climates; of oval shape, from three or four, to six or eight inches in length, covered with a fibrous husk, and lined internally with a white, firm, and fleshy kernel._ _the tree_ (cocos nucifera) _which produces the cocoa-nut is a kind of palm, from forty to sixty feet high. it has, on its summit only, a kind of leaves, which appear almost like immense feathers, each fourteen or fifteen feet long, three feet broad, and winged. of these the upper ones are erect, the middle ones horizontal, and the lower ones drooping. the trunk is straight, naked, and marked with the scars of the fallen leaves. the nuts hang down from the summit of the tree, in clusters of a dozen or more together._ the external rind of the cocoa-nut has a smooth surface, and is of somewhat triangular shape. this encloses an extremely fibrous substance of considerable thickness, which immediately surrounds the nut. the latter has a thick and hard shell, with three holes at the base, each closed by a black membrane. the kernel lines the shell; and is sometimes nearly an inch in thickness, and encloses a considerable quantity of watery liquid, of whitish colour, which has the name of _milk_. food, clothing, and the means of shelter and protection, are all afforded by the cocoa-nut-tree. the kernels of the _nuts_, which somewhat resemble the filbert in taste, but are of much firmer consistence, are used as food in various modes of dressing, and sometimes are cut into pieces and dried. when pressed in a mill, they yield an oil, which, in some countries, is the only oil used at table; and which, when fresh, is equal in quality to that of almonds. it, however, soon becomes rancid, and, in this state, is principally used by painters. the indians prepare an oil from cocoa-nuts, by steeping the kernels in water till they putrefy, and then boiling the pulp. in this operation the oil rises to the surface, and is skimmed off. this oil is used for anointing the hair, in cookery, for burning in lamps, and for various other purposes. the _milk_, or fluid, contained in the nuts, is an exceedingly cool and agreeable beverage, which, when good, somewhat resembles the kernel in flavour. cocoa-nut-trees flourish best in a sandy soil, and first produce fruit when six or seven years old; after which each tree yields from fifty to a hundred nuts annually. the fibrous coats or _husks_ which envelope the cocoa-nuts, after they have been soaked for some time in water, become soft. they are then beaten, to free them from the other substances with which they are intermixed, and which fall away like saw-dust, the stringy part only being left. this is spun into long yarns, woven into sail-cloth, and twisted into ropes and cables, even for large vessels. the cordage thus manufactured is valuable in several respects, but particularly for the advantages that are derived from its floating in water. the woody _shells_ of the nut are so hard as to be capable of receiving a high polish; and they are formed into drinking cups, and other domestic utensils, which are sometimes expensively mounted in silver. on the summit of the cocoa-nut-tree the tender _leaves_, at their first springing up, are folded over each other, so as somewhat to resemble a cabbage. these are occasionally eaten in place of culinary greens, and are a very delicious food; but, as they can only be obtained by the destruction of the tree that produces them, and which dies in consequence of their being removed, they are considered too expensive a treat for frequent use. the larger leaves are employed for the thatching of buildings, and are wrought into baskets, brooms, mats, sacks, hammocks, and many other useful articles. the _trunks_ are made into boats, and sometimes constitute timber for the construction of houses; and, when their central pith is cleared away, they form excellent gutters for the conveyance of water. if, whilst growing, the body of the tree be bored, a white and sweetish liquor exudes from the wound, which has the name of _toddy_. this is collected in vessels of earthen-ware, and is a favourite beverage in many countries where the trees grow. when fresh it is very sweet; in a few hours it becomes somewhat acid, and, in this state, is peculiarly agreeable; but in the space of twenty-four hours it is complete vinegar. by distillation this liquor yields an ardent spirit, which is sometimes called _rack_, or _arrack_; and is more esteemed than that obtained by distillation from rice or sugar, and merely fermented and flavoured with the cocoa-nut juice. if boiled with quick-lime, it thickens into a syrup, which is used by confectioners in the east indies, though it is much inferior to syrup produced from the sugarcane. polyandria. 234. _the common arum, cuckoo pint, or lords and ladies_ (arum maculatum), _is a well-known plant, which grows in shady hedge bottoms; and has, about the month of may, a club-shaped spike, frequently of purple colour at the top, issuing from a green sheath with which it is enveloped._ the acridity of every part of this common plant, whilst in a recent state, is such that, if tasted, there is left upon the tongue an intolerably disagreeable burning and pricking sensation, which continues for a long time afterwards; and which no one, who has once tasted it, will be inclined to experience a second time. if bruised and applied to the skin, a blister will shortly afterwards be raised. it was from this property that the _roots_, which are whitish, and each about the size of a nutmeg, were formerly used internally in medicine, as a powerful stimulant, and externally for blisters. in some parts of france they are employed in bleaching, from an opinion that, by their corrosive quality, they render the linen white. their acrimony is wholly dissipated by drying; and, in a dried state, they afford an almost tasteless farinaceous powder, which may even be made into bread. the powdered roots of the common arum are converted, by the french, into an harmless cosmetic, which is sold at a high price under the name of _cyprus powder_. in consequence of a premium which was offered by the society for encouragement of arts, manufactures, and commerce, for discovering a method of preparing starch from materials not used as food for man, an experiment was made, by mrs. jane gibbs, of portland, in dorsetshire, upon the roots of the common arum. a peck of the roots was found to produce about four pounds' weight of starch; and she prepared, in the whole, about two hundred weight. the process was to clean the roots, and pound them in a mortar with water: the pulp thus formed was strained, and after being allowed to settle, the water was poured off, and the starch remained at the bottom. whilst speaking of the arum, it may be stated that the flowers of some of the foreign species (_arum crinitum_ and _a. dracunculus_) have so strong a smell, like carrion, that even flesh-flies are attracted to deposit their eggs in them: and that the structure of the flowers is such that, when the insects attempt to retreat, they are prevented by the reversed hairs which are there found, and are destroyed. some of the species are considered wholesome food; one (_arum esculentum_) is much cultivated for this purpose in the west indies and south america. the leaves of this plant, when boiled, are much esteemed as potherbs, and the roots are eaten either baked or boiled. 235. _the sweet chesnut_ (fagus castanea, fig. 65) _is a stately tree, which grows wild in some of the southern and western parts of england, and is distinguished by having spear-shaped and pointed leaves, with tapering serratures at the edge._ _the flowers appear in long hanging spikes or clusters, about the month of may; and the fruit, which is ripe in september, is enveloped in a husk defended by a great number of complicated prickles._ notwithstanding the known durability of the oak, there does not appear any well-authenticated instance of the age of an oak being equal to that of the celebrated chesnut-tree, at tortworth, in gloucestershire, which was known as a boundary mark in the reign of king john. this tree is supposed to have then been more than 500 years old, making its age at this time to exceed 1100 years. the diameter of its trunk is fifteen feet, and it still continues to bear fruit. few of our forest trees are more beautiful than the chesnut. it is true that the generality of painters prefer the oak for its picturesque form; but in the landscapes of salvator rosa, and other celebrated masters, chesnut-trees are very conspicuous. the _timber_ of this tree was formerly much in use. the beams and rafters of many of our most ancient churches are formed of it; and its appearance so nearly resembles that of the oak, that it requires the eye of a good judge to distinguish them from each other. for the heads and staves of casks, the wood of the chesnut is considered peculiarly excellent; and pipes, made of it for the conveyance of water under ground, are said to be more durable than those either of elm or oak. for furniture it may be stained so as somewhat to resemble mahogany. hop-poles, and poles for espaliers and dead fences, made of young chesnut-trees, are preferred to most others. much of the _fruit_ of the chesnut is consumed as food by the poorer classes of people on the continent, but particularly by those of spain and italy; and, when dried and powdered, it is no mean substitute for flour, in bread and puddings. chesnuts are imported into this country in considerable quantities, both from france and spain, and are roasted and eaten in desserts: those which are grown here being much smaller than what we receive from abroad. on the continent they are sometimes used for making starch, and in the bleaching of linen. 236. _the beech_ (fagus sylvatica, fig. 64) _is a forest tree known by its waved and somewhat oval leaves, and its triangular fruit, consisting of three cells, and enclosed, by pairs, in a husk which is covered with simple prickles._ there are beech woods in many parts of england, but the trees flourish best in rich, calcareous soils. these woods, it has been observed, are peculiarly dry and pleasant to walk in; and, under their shade, afford to the botanist many interesting plants, such as the bird's nest (_monotropa_), winter green (_pyrola_), and some rare _orchideæ_. beech-trees bear lopping well, and may be trained so as to form lofty hedges, which are the more valuable for shelter, as the leaves, though faded, remain through the winter, and the twisted branches may be formed into a very strong fence. the _wood_ is hard and brittle, and, if exposed to the air, is liable soon to decay. it is, however, peculiarly useful to cabinet-makers and turners. carpenters' planes, tool-handles, and mallets, are made of it. when split into thin layers, it is used to make scabbards for swords. chairs, bedsteads, and other furniture, are occasionally formed of beech. the fruit of this tree, which has the name of _beech-mast_, and is ripe in september, is palatable to the taste; but, if eaten in great quantity, it occasions giddiness and head-aches. when, however, it is dried and powdered, it may be made into a wholesome bread. the inhabitants of scio, one of the ionian islands, were once enabled to endure a memorable siege by the beech-mast which their island supplied. this fruit has, occasionally, been roasted and used as a substitute for coffee. when subjected to pressure, it yields a sweet and palatable _oil_, which, if properly made, is equal, in quality, to the best olive-oil, and has the advantage of continuing longer than that without becoming rancid. beech-oil is manufactured in several parts of france; and is used by the lower classes of silesia instead of butter. the cakes which remain after the oil is extracted are a wholesome food, and may also be advantageously employed for the fattening of swine, poultry, and oxen. in some countries the _leaves_ of the beech-tree are collected in the autumn, before they have been injured, by the frosts, and are used instead of feathers for beds; and mattresses formed of them are said to be preferable to those either of straw or chaff. 237. _the oak_ (quercus robur, fig. 68) _is a well-known timber tree, of native growth in this country, as well as other countries in northern temperate climates._ it is to this valuable tree that our navy is indebted for its existence; and without it this invincible barrier of the country could not be supported. _oak timber_ being hard, tough, tolerably flexible, and not very liable to splinter, is, in europe, preferred to every other kind for the construction of ships of war. it is also well adapted to every purpose of rural and domestic economy, particularly for staves, laths, and the spokes of wheels. until the introduction of mahogany, it was very generally used for furniture; and, in large mansions, it was customary even to line the walls of rooms with _wainscot_, or panelling of oak. this tree is remarkable for the slowness of its growth, for its great longevity, and the dimensions to which it attains. it has, however, been remarked that the trunk of the oak seldom increases to a greater proportionate diameter than about fourteen inches in eighty years. as to its dimensions, it is stated that an oak belonging to lord powis, and growing, in 1764, in bromfield wood, near ludlow, measured sixty-eight feet in girth and twenty-three feet in height, and contained in the whole 1455 feet of timber. before oak timber is in a state to be used it is requisite that the trees should be barked, and suffered to stand uncut for three or four years, that they may become perfectly dry. the _bark_ thus obtained is extensively used in the tanning of leather; and afterwards it serves as fuel, and for making hot-beds for the growth of pines, and some other plants. the astringent properties of oak-bark render it of use for medical purposes. the _saw-dust_ of this tree, and even the _leaves_, though much inferior to the bark, have been found useful in tanning. the former of these is the principal vegetable production of this country, which is used in the dyeing of fustian. on the leaves and buds of the oak certain excrescences are formed, in consequence of the puncture of insects, as the lodgment for their eggs and a habitation for their future young. these are termed _galls_, and if, when arrived at a certain state, they are infused in a weak solution of vitriol, they impart to it a purple or violet tinge; and, after the whole colouring matter is extracted, this becomes perfectly black. considerable quantities of galls are used in dyeing, and for other purposes. _acorns_, or the seeds of the oak, possess an astringent quality, and have a bitter taste, both of which may be extracted by steeping them, for some time, in cold water, or by boiling them. after this simple process, they are not an unpalatable fruit. with the ancient britons they were an article in great request, and even constituted an important part of their food; and there can be little doubt that, carefully prepared, dried, and reduced to powder, they might, in times of scarcity, be adopted as a substitute for bread-corn. by pressure an oil is obtained from them which may be used for lamps; and a kind of coffee is prepared from them in some parts of the continent. the branches of the oak, as well as those of several other kinds of trees, are burned for the formation of _charcoal_; and it is a remarkable circumstance that the properties of charcoal, from whatever wood it may be made, are nearly the same. one of the most remarkable of these is, that it is not liable to decay by age. hence it was customary, with the ancients, to char or burn the outside of stakes, or other wood, which were to be driven into the ground, or placed in water. charcoal may be preserved without injury for an almost indefinite length of time; and, in the ancient tombs of the inhabitants of northern nations, entire pieces of charcoal are at this day frequently discovered. besides the great use of charcoal in the composition of gunpowder, and to artists and manufacturers of different kinds, it has lately been employed, with considerable success, in correcting the rancid and disagreeable smell of train oil, so as to render it fit to be burned in chamber lamps; and several manufactories of this oil have been established in the neighbourhood of london. newly-made charcoal, if rolled up in clothes which have contracted a disagreeable odour, will effectually destroy it; and if boiled with meat beginning to putrefy will take away the taint. this substance is used by artists in the polishing of brass and copper-plates, for the drawing of outlines, and numerous other purposes. when purified, it forms perhaps the best tooth-powder that is known. the mode of purifying it is to reduce it to powder, wash it repeatedly with water, and then dry it by means of a strong heat in close vessels. this heat expels the foreign contents with which it is impregnated; but however intense, if the vessels are closed, it in no respects alters the quality of the charcoal. the vapour of burning charcoal is extremely pernicious; and persons exposed to it in confined rooms are liable to be suffocated in a very short time. the best remedy is immediately to take them into the strongest draught of cold air that can be obtained, to loosen all their garments, and apply volatile spirits to their nostrils. 238. _cork is the external bark of a species of oak_ (quercus suber) _which grows in spain, portugal, and other southern parts of europe, and is distinguished by the fungous texture of its bark; and by its leaves being evergreen, oblong, somewhat oval, downy underneath, and waved._ the principal supply of the cork that is consumed in europe, is obtained from catalonia in spain; and the culture and the preparation of it yield to the inhabitants of that province near 250,000_l._ per annum. in the collecting of cork, it is customary to slit it with a knife, at certain distances, in a perpendicular direction from the top of the trees to the bottom; and to make two incisions across, one near the top and the other near the bottom of the trunk. for the purpose of stripping off the bark, a curved knife with a handle at each end is used. sometimes it is stripped in pieces the whole length, and sometimes in shorter pieces, cross cuts being made at certain intervals. in some instances the perpendicular and transverse incisions are made, and the cork is left upon the trees until, by the growth of the new bark beneath, it becomes sufficiently loose to be removed by the hand. after the pieces are detached they are soaked in water; and, when nearly dry, are placed over a fire of coals, which blackens their external surface. by the latter operation they are rendered smooth, and all the smaller blemishes are thereby concealed: the larger holes and cracks are filled up by the artful introduction of soot and dirt. the pieces are next loaded with weights to make them even; and lastly they are dried, stacked, or packed in bales for exportation. many of the uses of cork were well known to the ancients. its elasticity renders it peculiarly serviceable for the stopping of vessels of different kinds; and thus preventing either the liquids therein contained from running out, or the external air from passing in. the use of cork for stopping glass bottles is generally considered to have been introduced about the fifteenth century. the practice of employing this substance for jackets to assist in swimming is very ancient; and it has lately been applied in various ways towards the preservation of life, when endangered by shipwreck. the floats of nets used for fishing are frequently made of cork: pieces fastened together make buoys, which, by floating on the surface of the water, afford direction for vessels in harbours, rivers, and other places. in some parts of spain it is customary to line the walls of houses with cork, which not only renders them warm, but prevents the admission of moisture. the ancient egyptians sometimes made coffins of it. on account of its lightness, cork is used for false legs; and, from its being impervious by water, it is sometimes placed betwixt the soles of shoes to keep out moisture. when burned, it constitutes that light black substance known by the name of _spanish black_. in the cutting of corks for use, the only tool employed is a broad, thin, and sharp knife; and, as the cork tends very much to blunt this, it is sharpened upon a board by one whet, or stroke on each side, after every cut; and, now and then, upon a common whet-stone. the corks for bottles are cut in the length way of the bark, and consequently the pores lie across. bungs, and corks of large size, are cut in a contrary direction: the pores in these are therefore downward, a circumstance which renders them much more defective in stopping out the air than the others. the parings of cork are sold to the makers of spanish black. 239. _the walnut is a well-known shell fruit, produced by a tree_ (juglans regia, fig. 69), _which grows wild in the northern parts of china and persia, and has winged leaves; the leaflets, about nine in number, large, oblong, smooth, thick; and the end one with a stalk._ although greatly admired, both for the beauty of its foliage, and for the excellence of its fruit, the cultivation of the walnut-tree in england is by no means attended to so much as it was formerly, when its _wood_ was considered the most ornamental timber produced in our island. it is pleasingly veined, and admits of a fine polish, but its colour is much less rich than that of mahogany; and consequently, except for the making of gunstocks, it has, of late, been wholly superseded by that more favourite wood. on the continent, however, the walnut-tree is still in request for furniture of various kinds. the _fruit_ of the walnut-tree is covered externally with a thick and smooth green husk, the juice of which stains the fingers black. in an unripe state, before the shells are formed, the whole fruit may be made into a pickle, and also into ketchup. in medicine the unripe fruit is considered of use for the destruction of worms, and is usually administered in the form of an extract. walnuts become ripe about the beginning of october; and, as they grow in clusters, generally at the ends of the branches, it is customary to beat them down with long poles. the kernel, which is covered with a tough, yellow, and bitter skin, is more esteemed than that either of the hazel-nut or filbert. it yields, on pressure, a sweet kind of oil, which, in quantity, amounts to about half the weight of the kernel. there are several varieties of walnut, which are well known to the cultivators of that tree. 240. _the hickory-nut_ (juglans alba) _is a north american species of walnut, the shell of which is very hard, does not split asunder like that of the walnut, and is of smoother and lighter colour than that_. its kernel is sweet and well tasted, and affords a considerable portion of oil. 241. _the hazel-nut and filbert are well-known fruits, the former of a shrub_ (corylus avellana, fig. 67) _which grows in hedges and thickets; and the latter of a somewhat similar shrub, which is cultivated in orchards and kitchen gardens._ each of these kinds of _nuts_ is much esteemed, but particularly the latter; the flavour of its kernels being very delicious. they are, however, difficult of digestion, and, when eaten in considerable quantity, sometimes produce very unpleasant effects. the oil which is obtained from hazel-nuts by pressure is little inferior in flavour to that of almonds, and, under the name of _nut-oil_, is often used by painters. chemists employ it as the basis of fragrant oils artificially prepared, because it easily combines with and retains odours. this oil is found serviceable in obstinate coughs. if nuts be put into earthen pots and well closed, and afterwards buried eighteen inches or two feet deep in the earth, they may be kept sound through the winter. in many parts of the country _hazels_ are planted in coppices and hedge-rows for several useful purposes; but particularly to be cut down, periodically, for charcoal, for poles, fishing-rods, &c. being extremely tough and flexible, the branches of the hazel are used for making hurdles, crates, withs or bands, and springles to fasten down thatch. they are formed into spars, handles for implements of husbandry; and, when split, are bent into hoops for casks. charcoal made from hazel is much in request for forges; and, when prepared in a particular manner, is used by painters and engravers to draw their outlines. in countries where yeast is scarce, it is not unusual to twist loosely together the slender branches of this shrub, and to steep them in ale-yeast during its fermentation. they are then hung up to dry; and, at the next brewing, are put into the wort instead of yeast. the _roots_ are used by cabinet makers for veneering: and, in italy, the _chips_ of hazel are sometimes put into turbid wine for the purpose of fining it. 242. _the hornbeam_ (carpinus betulus, fig. 73) _is a forest tree which grows to the height of sixty or seventy feet, yet seldom exceeds fifteen or eighteen inches in diameter, has smooth white bark, marked with grey spots, and leaves about three inches long and two broad, oval, pointed, and serrated._ as a timber-tree the hornbeam is more esteemed on the continent than in this country. it grows readily in stiff soils, particularly on the sides of hills; and is easily transplanted. the _wood_, which is white, hard, and tough, is used by turners; and is wrought into cogs for mill-wheels, screw-presses, the heads of beetles, handles of working tools, and other instruments and machinery in which great strength is required. as fuel it is preferred, on account of its readier inflammability, to most other kinds of wood. the _inner bark_ is used, in some countries, for dyeing yellow. from the foliage of the hornbeam being luxuriant, and admitting of being clipped, without injury, into any of those forms which the old french garden style required, this tree was formerly much more planted in england than it is at present. it preserves a great portion of its withered leaves through the winter; and, if properly planted as a hedge, it forms an excellent fence. the german husbandman, when he erects a fence of hornbeam, throws up a parapet of earth, with a ditch on each side, and plants his sets (which he raises from layers) in such a manner that every two plants may be brought to intersect each other, in the form of a st. andrew's cross. in that part where the plants cross, he scrapes off the bark, and bends them closely together with straw. in consequence of this operation the two plants consolidate into a sort of indissoluble knot, and push, from the place of junction, horizontal slanting shoots, which form a living palisado or _chevaux de frise_; so that such a protection may be called a rural fortification. these hedges, being annually and carefully pruned, will, in a few years, become impenetrable in every part. it is not uncommon in germany, to see the high roads thus guarded for many miles together; and great advantage might be derived from adopting the same plan in many parts of our own kingdom. 243. _the plane-tree_ (platanus orientalis, fig. 71) _is distinguished by having broad leaves, each with about five principal divisions, and these subdivided into smaller ones._ by the ancient greeks and romans the plane-tree was highly valued, on account of its grateful shade; and the latter were much delighted by training it in such manner as to admit of their sitting beneath its branches. wherever they built their magnificent colleges for the exercise of youth, in the gymnastic arts, as riding, wrestling, running, leaping, throwing the discus, &c. and where also the gravest philosophers met to converse together and improve their studies, they planted avenues and walks of plane trees for refreshment and shade. though now frequently planted in parks and pleasure grounds, the sycamore (122) is, in many instances, preferred to it. the plane, though a native of asia and the southern parts of europe, is very hardy, grows rapidly, and will flourish in any common soil, and in any aspect. its _wood_, at a certain age, becomes much veined; and, consequently, is valuable for many kinds of domestic furniture, but particularly for tables. 244. _the cabbage-tree_ (areca oleracea) _is an american species of palm, which grows to the height of a hundred feet and upwards, and is destitute of leaves until within a few feet of the summit. the leaves, sometimes near twenty feet long, are winged, and the leaflets are entire._ such is the general elegance of this tree that it is frequently denominated the queen of woods. its _fruit_, which grows in bunches from the top, is an oblong and obtuse kind of berry, of bluish purple colour, and about the size of an olive. the sheaths of the flowers, and the floral leaves, when first developed, are folded round each other, enclosed in a thin, green, and spongy bark, eight or nine inches in circumference, and constitute the part which is denominated the _cabbage_. this is white, and, when boiled, is esteemed a great luxury. it is also eaten raw as a salad, and fried with butter; and its taste is said to resemble that of an artichoke. this part is likewise frequently made into a pickle with vinegar and spices. we are informed that the cabbage-tree was first introduced into jamaica by admiral knowles, when governor of that island; and that it has since been cultivated there with great attention. but it is chiefly planted for its beauty, being considered too valuable to be often cut down for the small portion of food which it thus affords, however delicious that may be. in the _leaves_ of this tree there is a thread-like substance, which is sometimes spun, like hemp, and made into different kinds of cordage. the sockets or grooves formed by the broad part of the footstalks of the leaves are used by the negroes as cradles for their children; and on the inner sides of the very young footstalks there are tender pellicles, which, when dried, may be converted into paper. the _trunks_, when cleared of the pith, serve as water pipes and gutters. of the _pith_ a kind of sago is made; and in this pith, after the trees are felled, there is bred a large species of caterpillar which the inhabitants of some of the west indian islands eat as a great delicacy. 245. _the catechu, areca, or betel-nut-tree_ (areca catechu), _is a species of palm which grows in the east indies._ _it is generally from thirty to forty feet high, and its trunk is six or eight inches in diameter. the leaves, which grow on the summit, are winged, having the leaflets folded back; and the fruit is a pulpy berry with thin skin, containing a nut about an inch in length, and of a rounded conical form._ the _kernel_ of the areca-nut, which is covered by a thin, smooth, and yellowish shell, is somewhat like a nutmeg, but contains, in the centre, a white, soft, greyish, and almost liquid substance, which becomes hard as the nut ripens. this fruit is in general use by the indians, who cut it into slices, mix it with other substances, wrap it in the leaves of betel (22), and chew it much in the same manner as the common people of our country chew tobacco. the consumption of these nuts in india is almost beyond calculation. they are an article of considerable trade, from port to port; and also from india to china, but they are seldom brought into england, though they might be of use in some of our manufactures. the drug called _catechu_, and formerly _terra japonica_, was supposed to be an extract prepared from the above nuts; but it is now ascertained to be made from the wood of a species of mimosa. monadelphia. 246. _the scots fir_ (pinus sylvestris), _which has its name from growing wild in different parts of scotland, is known from other trees of the same tribe by having its slender and somewhat needle-shaped leaves in pairs; its cones or seed-vessels somewhat egg-shaped, mostly in pairs, as long as the leaves, and the scales blunt._ this useful tree flourishes with greatest luxuriance on the north and north-east sides of hills, in a poor and sandy soil, especially where this is mixed with loam. if planted among rocks, or in bogs, it seldom attains a large size; in black soil it becomes diseased; and in chalky land it frequently pines away and dies. its _timber_, under the name of _deal_, is employed as the wood-work of houses; for rafters, flooring, doors, the frames of windows, tables, boxes, and other purposes, infinitely too various to be enumerated. frigates, and other ships of large size, have sometimes been constructed of deal but these are by no means so durable as vessels that are built of oak. much of the deal which we use is imported from norway, and other northern parts of europe. that from christiana, which is called _yellow deal_, or _red deal_, is frequently brought over in planks, but more commonly in boards, each about ten inches and half in width. the wood of such trees as are raised in england is equal to the foreign wood in weight and durability, but its grain is generally coarser. the _outer bark_ of the fir-tree may be used in the tanning of leather; and it is said that, in the northern parts of europe, the soft, white, and fibrous _inner bark_ is, in times of scarcity, made into a kind of bread. for this purpose it is dried over a fire, reduced to powder, kneaded with water, and a small portion of corn-flour, into cakes, and baked in an oven. children in norway are very fond of the fresh bark, in the spring of the year, either shaved off with a knife, or grated with a rasp. _common turpentine_ is the resinous juice chiefly of the scots fir, obtained by boring holes into the trunks of the trees, early in spring, and placing vessels beneath for its reception. it is of brown colour; and has a strong odour, and disagreeable taste. in the distillation of turpentine an essential oil is produced, called _oil of turpentine_, which is extremely pungent. when the distillation is continued to dryness, the substance which remains is known by the name of _common resin_ or _rosin_; but, if water be mixed with it, while yet fluid, and incorporated by violent agitation, a substance is formed called _yellow resin_. common turpentine is mostly employed as an ingredient in the plasters used by farriers. the oil is occasionally used in medicine; and, lately, it has been considered efficacious in cases of worms. it is much employed by painters for rendering their colours more fluid; as well as in the composition of different kinds of varnish used in floor-cloth, umbrella, and other manufactures. the noxious spirit called gin was formerly flavoured with juniper berries; but as these are now too expensive, oil of turpentine, the taste of which in a slight degree resembles that of juniper, is applied to the same purpose; and considerable quantities of turpentine are thus consumed. the common resin is used in plasters, for which its great adhesiveness renders it peculiarly applicable. it is also of considerable importance in the arts; and musicians rub the bows and strings of violins with it, to take off the greasy particles which are there collected, as well as to counteract the effects of moisture. yellow resin is used in plasters, and for other purposes in medicine. _tar_ is obtained from the roots and refuse parts of the fir-tree, by cutting them into billets, piling these, in a proper manner, in pits or ovens formed for the purpose, covering them partly over, and setting them on fire. during the burning, a black and thick matter, which is the tar, falls to the bottom, and is conducted thence into vessels which are placed to receive it, and from which it is afterwards poured into barrels for sale. tar is an article of great utility in manufactures, and for various economical purposes. it is much employed for smearing the rigging, and other external parts of ships, to prevent their receiving injury from moisture. it has been used in medicine both internally and externally; and particularly _tar-water_, or water impregnated with tar, was, some years ago, a popular remedy in various disorders, but its virtues have been too much extolled. although considerable quantities of tar are prepared in this country, these are insufficient to supply the demand; consequently we, every year, import great quantities of it from russia, sweden, america, and other countries. _pitch_ is usually made by melting together coarse hard resin and an equal quantity of tar; or, as some writers state, by boiling tar with a certain portion of water, until it becomes so thick that, on cooling, it forms a hard black mass. by the ancients pitch was much employed for giving flavour and fragrance to their wines. with us it is of extensive use to mechanics, and in numerous manufactures; but the principal demand for it is in ship-building, to secure the joints and crevices of the planks and timbers, and for other purposes. when mixed with a certain quantity of oil and suet, it is made into _shoe-makers' wax_; and, in conjunction with whale fat, forms _carriage-grease_, or the substance with which the wheels of carriages are smeared. the best pitch is imported from sweden and norway: and, is of a glossy black colour, perfectly dry, and very brittle. _lamp-black_ is a soot formed by burning the dregs and coarser parts of tar in furnaces constructed for that purpose. the smoke is conveyed through tubes into boxes, each covered with linen, in the form of a cone. upon this linen the soot is deposited: and it is, from time to time, beaten off into the boxes, and afterwards packed in barrels for sale. this substance is employed in printing and dyeing; and has its name from the practice that was formerly adopted of making it by means of lamps. 247. _the weymouth pine is chiefly distinguished by its leaves growing in fives, and its cones being smooth, cylindrical, and longer than the leaves._ this species of fir-tree grows wild in north america, and succeeds well in strong land in england. its _timber_ is white, of more open grain than scots fir, and not so heavy as that. in america it is principally used for the masts of ships, for which, by its toughness, it is peculiarly calculated. 248. _the spruce fir_ (pinus abies), _a native of norway, and other northern parts of europe, is known by its short, and four-sided leaves growing singly, and surrounding the branches; its cones being cylindrical, the scales somewhat square, flattened, and notched at the top_ the _wood_ of the spruce fir is what the english carpenters usually denominate _white deal_. it is considered next in value to that obtained from the scots fir; and is remarkable for having few knots. on account of its lightness it is peculiarly adapted for packing-cases and musical instruments. from incisions made into the trunk of the spruce fir-tree, a fine and clear _turpentine_ oozes, which, after being boiled in water, and strained through a linen cloth, acquires a somewhat solid consistence, and reddish brown colour; and is called _burgundy pitch_. this is employed as an ingredient in several kinds of ointments and plasters: and is principally manufactured in saxony. the article called _essence of spruce_, which is used in making spruce beer, is prepared from the branches of this tree, and from those of a species nearly allied to it which grows in america. 249. _the larch_ (pinus laryx), _a native of the alps, and the mountains of germany, is a species of fir, which has its leaves in tufts, and its cones oblong, and of somewhat oval shape, the margins of the scales bent back, and jagged._ the cultivation of larch-trees has of late been much recommended for adoption in this country, on account of the value of their _timber_, which for strength and durability, is equal to most kinds of deal. it is well calculated for masts, and the framework of vessels, being capable of sustaining much greater pressure even than oak. for wood-work constantly immersed in water, it is peculiarly calculated, as, in such situations, it is asserted to become almost as hard as stone. in petersburg larch timber is applied to no other use than that of ship-building. line-of-battle ships are constructed of it in archangel, and these generally last about fifteen years; though, in milder climates, it is imagined that they would last much longer. for gates, pales, and similar work, exposed to the vicissitudes of weather, they are admirably serviceable; and for flooring and other internal purposes are at least equally durable. buildings constructed of larch timber are said to have continued sound for 200 years; and, in some of the old palaces in venice, there are beams of larch yet existing that are as sound as when they were first placed. but the very combustible nature of this wood renders it objectionable for such uses. no wood with which we are acquainted affords more durable staves for casks than larch; and, in the opinion of many persons, it is further valuable by improving the flavour of the wine contained in them. the wood is of delicate colour, not unlike the cedar used for black-lead pencils, but is knotty almost throughout. from the _inner bark_ of the larch the russians manufacture a soft and fine kind of white gloves. the trunk, if tapped betwixt the months of march and september, yields an extremely pure turpentine, which has the name of _venice turpentine_; and is of considerable use in medicine. it is usually thinner than any other kind of turpentine, and of clear, whitish, or yellowish colour. the drug of this name, which is generally met with in the shops, is now imported from new england, but was formerly brought from venice. a brown gummy substance, known in russia by the name of _orenburgh gum_, is obtained by a curious process from the sap of the tree. on the large branches of the larch are produced small, sweetish grains, somewhat resembling sugar; which are frequently substituted for the drug called manna (275). the cultivation of the larch was first introduced into britain towards the conclusion of the seventeenth century. the trees will grow in almost any soil; and the proper season for felling them is the month of july. they, however, seldom attain any large size in this country; and they are said to decay and become covered with moss, when about forty years old. 250. _the cypress-tree_ (cupressus sempervirens) _is a dark-coloured evergreen, a native of the levant, the leaves of which are extremely small, and entirely cover all the slender branches, lying close upon them so as to give them a somewhat quadrangular shape._ _in some of the trees the branches diminish gradually in length from the bottom to the top, in such manner as to form a nearly pyramidal shape._ in many of the old gardens in this country cypress-trees are still to be found, but their generally sombre and gloomy appearance has caused them, of late years, to be much neglected. they are, however, very valuable on account of their _wood_, which is hard, compact, and durable, of pale or reddish colour, with deep veins, and pleasant smell. we are informed by pliny that the doors of the famous temple of diana, at ephesus, were of cypress wood, and that, although they were 400 years old at the time when he wrote, they appeared to be nearly as fresh as new. indeed this wood was so much esteemed by the ancients, that the image of jupiter in the capitol was made of it. the gates of st. peter's church at rome are stated to have been of cypress, and to have lasted more than 1000 years, from the time of the emperor constantine until that of pope eugenius the fourth, when gates of brass were erected in their stead. as this wood, in addition to its other qualities, takes a fine polish, and is not liable to suffer from the attacks of insects, it was formerly much esteemed for cabinet furniture. by the greeks, in the time of thucydides, it was used for the coffins of eminent warriors; and many of the chests which enclose egyptian mummies are made of it. the latter afford very decisive proof of its almost incorruptible nature. the name of this tree is derived from the island of cyprus, in the mediterranean, where it still grows in great luxuriance. its gloomy hue caused it to be consecrated by the ancients to pluto, and to be used at the funerals of people of eminence. pliny states that, in his time, it was customary to place branches of the cypress-tree before the houses in which persons lay dead. 251. _the cassava, or cassada_ (jatropha manihot) _is a south american shrub, about three feet in height, with broad, shining, and somewhat hand-shaped leaves, and beautiful white and rose-coloured flowers._ it is a very remarkable circumstance, that the _roots_ of the cassava, if eaten raw, are a fatal poison both to man and beast, and that, when prepared by heat, they yield a safe and valuable food; on which, indeed, many both of the indian and european inhabitants of south america almost wholly subsist. the roots are the only edible parts of the plant. these, which are white, soft, and farinaceous, from one to two feet in length, and five or six inches in circumference, are dug out of the earth, at a certain season of the year, washed, stripped of their rind, and ground to a pulp. the juice, or poisonous part, is pressed out, and carefully thrown away; as cattle, and other animals, which have accidentally drunk of it, have almost instantly died. the flour that remains, after pressure, is formed into thin round cakes and baked. to an european, accustomed to other bread, these, though sweetish, and not unpalatable, have an insipid taste. if placed in close vessels, and preserved from the attacks of insects, cassava bread may be kept for several months without injury. with the natives of south america, it is not unusual to throw a great number of cakes of cassava together to heat, after which they soak them in water, which causes a rapid fermentation to take place; and from the liquor thus obtained, they make a very sharp and disagreeable, but intoxicating beverage, which will not keep longer than twenty-four hours without spoiling. from the pure flour of cassava is formed the substance called _tapioca_, which is frequently imported into this country, and is used for jelly, puddings, and other culinary purposes. it is prepared from the fibrous part of the roots by taking a small quantity of the pulp, after the juice is extracted, and working it in the hand till a thick white cream appears on the surface. this, being separated, and washed in water, gradually subsides to the bottom. after the water is poured off, the remaining moisture is dissipated by a slow fire, the substance being constantly stirred, until at length it is formed into grains about the size of sago (266). these become hard by keeping, and are the purest and most wholesome part of the cassava. the roots of another species of this shrub, called _sweet cassava_, are usually eaten with butter, and merely after being roasted in hot ashes. they have much the flavour of chesnuts, and are an agreeable and nutritive food. 252. _the tallow tree_ (croton sebiferum) _is a native of china, and in habit somewhat resembles a cherry-tree, but has shining egg-shaped, and pointed leaves, that form tufts at the extremity of the branches._ the _fruit_ of this tree, from which the chinese obtain a kind of tallow for the manufacture of candles, is enclosed in a husk, not much unlike that of the chesnut, and consists of three round white kernels. all the preparation that is requisite is to melt these kernels, adding a little oil, to render them softer and more pliant than they would otherwise be. the candles made from this substance are very white, but are sometimes coloured by adding a little vermilion. they are more firm than those of tallow, but not equal in quality to candles either of wax or spermaceti. the wicks that are used are not, like ours, made of cotton, but consist of little rods of light, dry wood, with the pith of a rush entwined round them. 253. _indian rubber, or caoutchouc, is the dried juice of a large and much branched tree_ (siphonia elastica, fig. 60), _which grows in guiana, and other parts of south america._ _this tree has somewhat oval leaves, entire, veined, and smooth, arranged in threes, and on long foot-stalks._ _the flowers are small, in bunches, near the ends of the branches, and the fruit is triangular._ it was not until about the year 1736, that this very extraordinary natural production was made known in europe. it is obtained by making incisions through the bark of the tree, chiefly in wet weather. from the wounds thus formed the juice flows abundantly. it is of milky-white colour, and is conducted by a tube or leaf, supported by clay, into a vessel placed to receive it. some writers assert that, on mere exposure to the air, it gradually hardens; and others that, for this purpose, it goes through a certain process, which the indians keep a profound secret. it is usually brought to europe in the shape of pear-shaped bottles, which are formed by spreading the juice over a mould of clay. these are exposed to a dense smoke, or to a fire, till they become so dry as not to stick to the fingers; and then, by certain instruments of iron or wood, they are ornamented on the outside with various figures. this done, the clay in the inside is moistened with water and picked out. indian rubber is remarkable for the flexibility and elasticity which it acquires on attaining a solid state; and also for the numerous useful purposes to which it is capable of being applied. by the indians it is sometimes formed into boots, which are impenetrable by water, and which, when smoked, have the appearance of leather. bottles are made of it, to whose necks are fastened hollow reeds, through which the liquor contained in them can be squirted at pleasure. one of these, filled with water, is always presented to each of the guests at their entertainments. flambeaux are likewise formed of this substance, which give a very brilliant light; and it is said that a torch of indian rubber, an inch and a half in diameter, and two feet long, will burn twelve hours. the inhabitants of quito prepare a species of oil-cloth with the hardened juice of this tree. the principal uses to which indian rubber is applied by us are, for the effacing of black-lead marks; for flexible syringes, tubes, and other instruments used by surgeons and chemists; and for the formation, by means of turpentine or linseed oil, of a varnish for air-balloons. various experiments have been made to dissolve this substance, so that it may assume its naturally elastic state, under any figure that may be required. this has been effected by means of ether, but the process is too expensive for common use. a simple method of forming tubes of it is to split a piece of cane and to put between the pieces a slip of whalebone. if the indian rubber be cut into slips, and twisted closely round the cane, and the heat of boiling water be applied, the whole will become united into one piece or tube, from which the whalebone first, and afterwards the cane, may easily be separated. it has been proved that cloth of all kinds may be made impenetrable by water, if impregnated with the fresh juice of the indian rubber tree; and that boots, gloves, and other articles, made of cloth thus prepared, may be joined without sewing, and only by moistening the edges with the juice. these are not only more durable, but retain their shape better than such as are made of the juice without any connecting substance. it has lately been ascertained that, in prince of wales's island, and also in sumatra, there are trees of a class and order totally different from that above described, which yield a juice similar to this, and applicable to all the same purposes. 254. _the castor-oil plant_ (ricinus palma christi) _is a native both of the east and west indies, and has a stem from five to fifteen or sixteen feet in height, and large bluish-green leaves, divided into seven lobes, serrated and pointed, the footstalks long, and inserted into the disk._ _the flowers are produced in a terminating spike, and the seed-vessels are covered with spines, and contain each three flattish oblong seeds._ it is to the seeds of this plant that we are indebted for the drug called _castor-oil_. this is sometimes obtained by pressing the seeds, in the same way as is practised with respect to oil of almonds (152). but the mode chiefly adopted in the west indies, whence we principally import it, is first to strip the seeds of their husks or pods, and then to bruise them in a mortar; afterwards they are tied in linen bags, and boiled in water until the oil which they contain rises to the surface; this is carefully skimmed off, strained to free it from any accidental impurities, and bottled for use. the oil which is obtained by boiling is considered more mild than that obtained by pressure, but it sooner becomes rancid. the mildest and finest of the jamaica castor-oil is limpid, nearly colourless, and has scarcely more taste or smell than good olive-oil. the uses of castor-oil in medicine are well known. the plant is sufficiently hardy to grow and ripen its seeds in the open ground of gardens, in the south of england. ---class xxii.--dioecia. ---diandria. 255. _willow, osier, or withy._--of this very extensive tribe nearly fifty distinct species have been discovered in our own island. the slender branches of many of these are applied to useful purposes, but particularly for making baskets, bird-cages, and what is called wicker-work; springles for fastening down thatch, wheels or traps for catching lobsters and eels; hoops and crates. the _wood_ is useful for the handles of hatchets, prongs, spades, and other rural implements; and also furnishes shoemakers with cutting and whetting boards, on which they cut leather and sharpen the edges of their knives. as willows generally flourish in wet situations, some of the species are planted with a view to prevent the banks of rivers and brooks from being washed away by floods. the _bark_ of some kinds of willow has been applied, with effect, as a substitute for peruvian bark, in the cure of intermittent fevers. it has also been esteemed useful in the tanning of leather; and, in combination with alder, for striking a deep black colour, in the dyeing of linen. the bark of other species may be manufactured into paper. in the year 1788, mr. greaves of milbank, near warrington, lancashire, made fifteen reams of coarse paper from the bark of withen twigs, intermixed with a few nettles. the latter, however, he afterwards discovered, would better have been left out, as there was in them a woody substance, which does not well incorporate with other vegetables. the paper he made was considerably cheaper than paper of equal size and thickness made from ropes; and it was found that pasteboard, for book covers, made of withen bark, would be much cheaper than similar pasteboard manufactured from ropes. the process by which this paper and pasteboard were manufactured was as follows; the bark was stripped from the twigs in september, the time at which they are usually cut for making white baskets; it was then hackled, like flax or hemp, and dried in the sun, which gave it somewhat the appearance of brown hemp: but this having been attended with considerable trouble, other parts of the bark were dried with the leaves, as they were stripped off from the twigs, and were then submitted to the operation of the paper-mill. the flowering branches of one species, the _common sallow_ (_salix cineria_), are called palms, and are gathered by children, in many parts of england, on palm sunday. triandria. 256. _nutmegs are the kernels of a fruit produced in several islands of the east indies._ _they are each surrounded by the spice called_ mace, _and, externally, by a husk about half an inch in thickness, which has somewhat the appearance of a small peach_ (fig. 80). _the nutmeg-tree_ (myristica aromatica) _is not unlike our cherry-tree, both in growth and size. its leaves are nearly oval, but pointed, waved, obliquely nerved, of bright green colour above, and whitish beneath. the flowers are small, and hang upon slender stalks._ when this fruit is nearly ripe the husk opens at the end, and exposes a net-work of scarlet mace. underneath the mace is a black shell, about as thick as that of a filbert, and very hard; and in this is contained the nutmeg. the gathering of _nutmegs_ is performed by persons who ascend the trees for that purpose, and pull the branches to them with long hooks. the husks are stripped off in the woods, and the remaining part of the fruit, with its surrounding mace, is taken home. after the mace has been carefully stripped off, with a small knife, the nuts, which are still covered with their woody shell, are dried, first in the sun, and then upon a frame of split bamboos placed over a slow fire, until, when shaken, the kernels are heard to rattle within the shells. these now easily fly to pieces when beaten with small sticks; and the nutmegs, being taken out, are soaked in sea-water and lime, and are then thrown in great numbers together to heat, by which their vegetating principle is destroyed. the nutmegs are finally sorted into parcels, according to their quality, and packed in bags for sale and exportation. the nutmegs vended at the east india company's sales in 1804, amounted in weight to 117,936 pounds, and produced 54,733_l._ exclusive of the duties. this kind of spice has long been employed both for culinary and medicinal purposes. distilled with water, nutmegs afford a large portion of essential oil, which resembles, in flavour, the spice itself. when heated and pressed they yield a considerable quantity of limpid yellow oil. in the shops a thick and fragrant kind is sold, which, though called _oil of mace_, is, in reality, expressed from the nutmeg. the best oil of this description is imported from the east indies, in stone jars. _oil of nutmegs_ is chiefly made from the imperfect fruit, and such as would be unfit for the european market. _mace_, or the covering of the nutmeg, that lies betwixt the outer coat and the shell, is an unctuous membrane, first of a light red, and afterwards, when dried, and as we see it, of yellowish colour. after it is taken from the shell it is exposed to the sun, then moistened with sea-water, and finally so far dried as to allow of its being packed in bales for exportation. in these it is pressed closely down, by which its fragrance and peculiar qualities are preserved. mace is liable to seizure if imported in packages of less than 300 pounds' weight. we usually see it in flakes each about an inch in length, and presenting a great variety of ramifications. this spice has a very fragrant and agreeable odour, and, to most persons, a pleasant, though somewhat acrid, taste. it possesses nearly all the virtues of the nutmeg, but with less astringency; and, like that, is employed in numerous ways, both in culinary preparations and medicine. in the island of banda it is sometimes customary to boil the _entire fruit_ of the nutmeg-tree, and afterwards to preserve it in syrup, and also to pickle it in spiced vinegar, in nearly the same manner as we pickle walnuts. in several parts of the east the inhabitants preserve the _outer husk_ of the nutmeg as a sweetmeat, or eat it stewed with other food. 257. _the date is a fruit shaped somewhat like a large acorn, and covered externally with a yellowish membrane or skin, which contains a fine, soft, and sweetish pulp, and, in the centre, an oblong, hard stone._ _the trees_ (phoenix dactylifera) _which produce this fruit, grow chiefly on the shores of the mediterranean, are forty feet and upwards in height, have an upright stem, marked through their whole length with protuberances, and terminated at the summit with a cluster of winged leaves or branches, each eight or nine feet in length._ the cultivation of the date is attentively pursued on the african coast of the mediterranean; in several parts of persia, arabia, and even in spain. the latter country, however, is not sufficiently warm to ripen the fruit in perfection, without the constant labour of the cultivator. he is obliged to ascend the trees, from time to time, to examine the flowers and turn them towards the sun. this is chiefly done in the spring of the year; and, during the month of august, another and much more dangerous operation is requisite, namely, to tie all the branches into one bundle, and cover them over with broom. to make this bundle, the person employed is obliged to leap, as it were, over the flexible branches, for the purpose of surrounding and uniting them with a cord. this operation over, he places a ladder at the bottom of the tree, on which he stands to make a second band; he then places his ladder on this second band, ascends and ties the top with a third cord. his bundle being formed, he throws down his instruments, replaces his ladder by a gradation contrary to the former, and descends, from band to band, to the stem of the tree, down which he slides to the bottom. among the africans and egyptians the date constitutes a principal article of food, and, as such, it is considered both wholesome and nutritive. its name is a word, formed of _dacte_ or _dactylus_, implying a finger, from an imaginary resemblance which this fruit has to the end of the finger. although dates, in general, are of yellowish colour, some are black, some white, and others brown: some also are sweet, and others bitter. the best are called _royal dates_, and are imported into this country from tunis. each tree produces ten or twelve bunches of fruit, which, when gathered, are hung up in a dry place, until so much of their moisture is evaporated as to allow of their being packed in boxes for exportation. nearly all the parts of the date-tree are useful. the _wood_, though of spongy texture, is employed for the beams and rafters of houses, and for implements of husbandry, which are said to be very durable. the _pith_ of the young trees is eaten, as well as the young and tender _leaves_. from the old leaves and their stalks the women and children of valencia make mats, baskets, and other utensils; and from other filamentous parts, ropes and different kinds of cordage are manufactured. a considerable traffic is carried on in these leaves, which, under the name of _palms_, are sent to italy, to be used in the grand religious ceremonies of palm sunday. in persia an ardent spirit is distilled from the fruit; and, in many places, the _stones_ are ground to make oil, and the paste that is left is given as food to cattle and sheep. pentandria. 258. _mastic is a resinous substance, obtained from a low tree or shrub_ (pistacia lentiscus) _which grows in the levant._ _it has alternate winged leaves, consisting of several pairs of spear-shaped leaflets, and spikes of very small flowers, which issue from the junction of the leaves with the branches._ the mode in which this resin is obtained is by making incisions across the tree in different parts. from these the juice exudes in drops, that are suffered to run upon the ground, and there to remain until they are sufficiently hard to be collected for use. the season for this process commences in the dry weather at the beginning of august, and lasts until the end of september. the best mastic is that imported from the island of scio. we receive it in semi-transparent grains of yellowish colour. these emit an agreeable smell when heated; and, when chewed, they first crumble, and afterwards stick together, and become soft and white like wax. with the turkish women it is customary to chew this resin for the purpose of rendering their breath agreeable, and under a notion also that it tends to make their teeth white, and to strengthen the gums. they also mix it in fragrant waters, and burn it with other odoriferous substances, by way of perfume. it was formerly much used in medicine, as a remedy against pain in the teeth and gums; and, dissolved in spirit of wine, as a relief in obstinate and long continued coughs: but it is now almost wholly disused for these purposes; and is chiefly employed in the composition of varnish, and by dentists, for filling up the cavities of decayed teeth. the _wood_ of the mastic-tree is imported in thick knotty pieces, covered externally with an ash-coloured bark. this wood is accounted a mild, balsamic astringent; and a preparation of it, under the name of _aurum potabile_, is strongly recommended, by some of the german writers, in coughs, nausea, and weakness of the stomach. 259. _hemp is the fibrous part of the stalks of a plant_ (cannabis sativa, fig. 82) _which grows wild in the east indies, and is much cultivated in different parts of europe._ _it has the lower leaves in slender finger-like divisions; the male flowers in small loose spikes, at the end of the stem and branches; and the female flowers single, at the junction of the leaves and stem._ the principal country for hemp, as an article of commerce, is russia, few other countries of europe growing a quantity sufficient for their own consumption. it is cultivated in some parts of britain, but particularly in the counties of suffolk and norfolk. the soil best adapted to it is a moist but loose sandy loam, or the black mould of low lands near water. the seed is sown in april or may; and the plants, which attain the height of five or six feet, are in a state to be pulled up in three or four months; the male plant, or _fimble hemp_, as it is called, being ready some time before the female plants, which have the name of _karle_ or _seed-hemp_. as soon as the hemp is pulled, it is tied in bundles and set up to dry; and, at the end of about ten days, the bundles are loosened at the top, and the heads are held upon a hurdle by one person, whilst another, with a small threshing-flail, beats out the seed. in the preparation of hemp for the manufacturer two modes are pursued. one of these is to spread it out on stubble or pasture ground, that the fibrous parts may be rendered separable by the gradual operation of the weather; the other is to immerse the bundles, for some days, in stagnant water. the next process consists in separating the bark, or hemp, from the stalks: this is effected either by pulling out the stalk with the hand, or by machinery similar to that adopted in the preparation of flax (97). after some other operations the hemp is beaten in mills, and then combed or dressed by drawing it through instruments called _hackles_, which are somewhat similar to the combs of wool-manufacturers. thus prepared, the hemp is spun into thread, which is made into twine, ropes, and cordage of every description; and woven into canvas, and strong cloth of various kinds. indeed so great is the importance of this production, particularly for the cordage, cables, and the rigging of ships, that, to encourage its growth, an act of parliament was passed in 1783, directing a bounty of three pence per stone to be paid on all hemp raised in great britain; and imposing heavy duties on hemp imported from foreign countries. from _hemp-seed_ a valuable kind of _oil_ is procured, by pressure, which is peculiarly adapted for burning, as it is perfectly limpid and without smell: it is also used for making the soap called green soap. the seeds themselves are sometimes employed in the feeding of poultry, from a notion that they cause the hens to lay a greater number of eggs than they otherwise would do. they are also given as food to singing birds; but, if in great quantity, they are supposed to injure the plumage. the _stalks_, after the hemp is taken from them, afford an excellent fuel. the water in which hemp has been soaked is in a high degree poisonous. 260. _hops are the dried flower-buds of a climbing british plant_ (humulus lupulus, fig. 81), _with a rough and angular stem, and leaves generally in three or five lobes or divisions, and serrated._ although hops grow wild, in great abundance, on hedges in several parts of the south of england, there is reason to suppose that their use was first made known from the continent in the reign of henry the eighth. a hop plantation requires the growth of some years before it is in perfection. the plants begin to push up their young stems about the month of april. when these are three or four inches above the ground, poles about twenty feet high are driven in to support them during their growth. the season for picking hops usually commences about the middle of september. this work is performed by men, women, and children. proper baskets, bins, or cribs being in readiness, the plants are cut off close to the ground, and the poles are drawn up. these are placed upon the bins, with the plants upon them, and three or more persons on each side, pick off the hops. after this they are dried in a kiln, and, when dry, are carried into, and kept, for five or six days, in an apartment called the stowage-room, until they are in a state to be put into bags. this is done through a round hole, or trap, cut in the floor of the stowage-room, exactly equal in dimensions to the mouth of the bag, and immediately under which this mouth is fastened. in each of the lower corners of the bag a small handful of hops is tied; and a person, called the packer, places himself in it, and, by a heavy leaden weight, which he constantly moves round in the places where he is not treading, presses and forces the hops down, in a very close manner, into the bag, as fast as they are thrown to him by another labourer. the work thus proceeds till the bag is quite full, when each of the upper corners has a few hops tied in it, in the same manner as those at the bottom. these serve as handles for moving the bags. the bag is then taken away, and its mouth is properly sewed up and secured. the hops of finest colour and best sample are put into bags of finer manufacture than the others, under the denomination of _pockets_; and the inferior sorts are packed in canvas of coarser kind, called _bags_. when the hop-picking is completed, the poles are cleared from the binds or plants which adhered to them, and are stacked or piled together. the _binds_, when perfectly dried, are either stacked or placed in sheds, to be used as fuel in ovens, or otherwise. sometimes they are burnt upon the land, for the ashes to serve as manure, trodden in the farm-yard, or allowed to be taken away by the labourers for their own use. as the hop-plants are liable to be injured in various ways during their growth, they are considered a very precarious crop. they suffer from the attacks of insects, from honey-dew, from blight, from hot sunny weather after rain, and by winds and storms. the principal _use of hops_, in brewing, is for the preservation of malt liquor, and to communicate to it an agreeably aromatic bitter flavour. the best hops are used for ale and the finer kinds of malt liquor, and inferior kinds are used for porter. the odour of hops hung over a bed, or a pillow stuffed with hops, has been said to promote sleep, after the application of opium has failed. the _young shoots_ and tops are often gathered from the hedges, by poor people, and boiled and eaten in the manner of asparagus. of the woody part of the _hop-binds_, after having been steeped in water, and worked into a pulp, a coarse kind of paper may be made. hexandria. 261. _yams are an american and west indian root of very irregular shape, which possess properties somewhat similar to those of the potatoe, but they are less mealy, and, in a raw state, are very viscous._ _the plants_ (dioscorea bulbifera) _which produce these roots have heart-shaped leaves, and a stem that creeps along the ground like ivy._ in some of the rich lands of south america, yams are said to grow to the weight of fifty or sixty pounds each; and are so productive that an acre of ground planted with them has been known to produce roots to the weight of from 20,000 to 30,000 pounds. yams are propagated by setting the eyes, in the same manner as we plant potatoes; and, in six or eight months, they arrive at maturity. when they are dug out of the ground, they are, for a little while, exposed to the sun to dry; and if, after this, they be packed in casks full of dry sand, they may be preserved, without injury, for many months. they are consequently often used as sea-store for vessels about to sail on long voyages, and are frequently brought into england. several attempts have been made to cultivate yams in this island; and these have been attended with a certain degree of success in the counties of mid-lothian, perth, and stirling in scotland, where they are used for the feeding of cattle. there are two kinds, one red, and the other white. the former of these contain a more nutritive food than the latter, though their flavour is much less excellent. with the negroes, in the west indian islands, the yam is a very important article of food. when roasted, it is so wholesome and nutritive that it is preferred by them even to bread. like potatoes, yams may be converted into bread, by mixture with a portion of wheat or barley flour. they are sometimes made into soup, puddings, and other useful dishes. octandria. 262. _the abele, or great white poplar-tree_ (populus alba, fig. 74), _is a british tree which grows in hedges and woods, near brooks, and is known by its leaves being nearly triangular, irregularly jagged at the edges, and cottony underneath._ the quickness of growth of this tree is so great that it will sometimes make shoots from eighteen to twenty feet in length in one year; and the trees attain their full growth in the course of twenty years. the _wood_ is white and soft, but tough and of close grain, and not subject to warp or shrink. hence it has been found useful for the flooring of rooms, and for making laths and packing boxes. for turnery ware it is preferred to most other kinds of wood, on account of its peculiar whiteness, and the ease with which it is worked in the lathe. "of this wood," says evelyn, "people also made shields of defence, in sword and buckler days." the _bark_ of the abele-tree is said to be serviceable as a remedy in intermittent fevers; and dioscorides informs us that if it be chopped small and sowed in rills, well and richly manured, it will yield a plentiful crop of mushrooms. 263. _the aspen, or trembling poplar_ (populus tremula), _is a tree which grows in moist woods; has nearly circular leaves, toothed and angular at the edges, smooth on both sides, and attached to footstalks so long and slender as to be shaken by the slightest wind._ there is scarcely any situation in which the aspen will not flourish, but it succeeds best where the soil is moist and gravelly. its _wood_ is light, porous, soft, and of white colour; and, though inferior in excellence to that of the white poplar, is applicable to many useful purposes, particularly for field-gates, the frames of pack-saddles, for milk-pails, clogs, and the wood-work of patterns. it is improper for bedsteads, as it is liable to be infested by bugs. in some countries the _bark_ of the young trees is made into torches. 264. _the black poplar_ (populus nigra, fig. 75) _is a native tree of this country, known by its somewhat trowel-shaped leaves, which taper to a point, and are serrated, and smooth on both sides._ this tree grows rapidly, and attains a considerable size. its _wood_ is soft and light, and in some respects useful to engravers; and is occasionally sawed into boards, though these are not in general much esteemed. the _bark_ is so thick and light that it is not unfrequently used by fishermen as buoys or floats to support their nets. the inhabitants of kamtschatka dry and pulverise the _inner rind_ of the black poplar-tree, and use it as an ingredient in bread. the _buds_, when they first appear, are covered with and contain a viscous and fragrant juice, which may be advantageously used in plasters. 265. _the lombardy or italian poplar_ (populus dilatata) _grows wild in lombardy and the northern parts of italy, and is distinguished by its somewhat trowel-shaped and serrated leaves, being smooth on both sides, and wider than they are long._ from its slender and perpendicular growth the lombardy poplar is found useful for hop-poles, and may be formed into masts for small vessels. the wood, which is soft and free from knots, is employed by joiners, carpenters, and cartwrights. it is recommended as peculiarly valuable for the floors of granaries, some persons believing it so obnoxious to insects that weevils will not continue in such granaries. it may be wrought into very flexible shafts for carriages, or felloes for wheels; and, not being liable to split, is peculiarly adapted for packing cases. the growth of this tree is so rapid, and the space of ground which it occupies is so small, that it is in almost universal request as an ornamental tree, in places that are not sufficiently spacious to admit of trees of more spreading form. polyandria. 266. _sago is a granulated preparation from the pith of a species of palm-tree_ (cycas circinalis) _which grows in india and africa._ _this tree attains the height of thirty or forty feet; has a straight and somewhat slender stem, and winged leaves at the summit, each seven or eight feet long, with the leaflets long and narrow._ the preparation of sago, under different forms, constitutes a principal source of employment to the inhabitants of many parts of the coast of malabar, as well as those of several of the islands of the east indies. the trunk of the sago-tree contains a farinaceous pith, to obtain which it is sawn into pieces. after the pith is taken out, it is beaten in mortars, and, water being poured upon the mass, this is allowed to stand for some hours to settle; after which it is strained through a coarse cloth, and, the finest particles running through with the water, the grosser ones are left behind and thrown away, or washed over a hair sieve through which only the edible parts can pass. these are allowed to subside. the water is then poured off, and the flour, being properly dried, is made into cakes and baked for use, or is granulated in a manner somewhat similar to that adopted in the preparation of tapioca (251). it is in the latter state that sago is imported into europe, where it is much used as a nourishing and agreeable diet for sick persons, in puddings and other culinary preparations. 267. _the common juniper_ (juniperus communis) _is an evergreen shrub, with slender and pointed leaves, that grows on heaths in several parts of the south of england._ _the leaves grow in threes; each is tipped with a spine, and is longer than the ripe fruit, which is a blackish purple berry._ juniper _berries_ are at first green; and they continue upon the trees two years before they become ripe and assume their purple colour. when ripe they have a sweetish aromatic taste. the swedes prepare, from these berries, a beverage which they consider useful as a medicine; and in some parts of the continent juniper berries are roasted, ground, and adopted as a substitute for coffee. in sweden they are eaten at breakfast, in the form of a conserve; and, in germany, they are frequently used as a culinary spice, and especially for imparting their peculiar flavour to sour crout. spirits impregnated with an essential oil distilled from them have the name of juniper water or _gin_. but it is a common practice to adopt spirit of turpentine (246) instead of this. juniper-berries are imported into this country from holland and italy. their smell is strong, but not disagreeable; and their flavour is warm, pungent, and sweetish, leaving a bitter taste in the mouth. the essential oil of these berries, if mixed with nut-oil (241), makes an excellent varnish for pictures, woodwork, and iron. the _wood_ of the juniper-tree is of reddish colour, very hard, and so durable that it will last more than a hundred years without decay. it is employed in veneering, for making cabinets, and for ornamental furniture. charcoal formed from it affords a heat so lasting, that live embers are said to have been found in the ashes of juniper-trees after they have been covered up for more than twelve months. such is the fibrous nature of the _bark_ that it may be manufactured into ropes and other cordage. from the crevices of the bark, or through perforations made in it by insects, a resinous gum exudes, which has the name of _gum sandarach_. this, which is of pale yellowish colour, very brittle, and inflammable, possesses a pungent aromatic taste, and emits a fragrant odour when burnt. it is imported from the continent, in small pieces or tears, about the size of peas. when powdered and passed through a fine sieve, this is the substance called _pounce_, which is used for rubbing upon writing paper, in places where it has been scratched. considerable quantities of this gum are consumed in the preparation of varnish, and particularly of one kind, used by cabinet-makers and painters, called _vernis_. 268. _the red or common cedar is a species of juniper_ (juniperus virginiana) _which grows in north america and the west indies._ _it is distinguished by its leaves growing in threes, and being fixed by their base, the younger ones lying upon each other, and the older ones spreading._ the _wood_ of this tree is in much request for the outsides of black lead pencils. it is soft and incapable of high polish, but, on account of its powerful fragrance, and consequently resisting the attacks of insects, it not unfrequently used for the bottoms of drawers, and the inside of cabinets. some years ago it was in much request for wainscotting and cabinet work; but, since the introduction of mahogany, it has been in great measure neglected for these purposes. 269. _the yew is a well-known evergreen tree_ (taxus baccata), _which has dark, narrow, pointed, and prickly leaves, and red berries, in the hollow part of the extremity of which a green seed appears._ the cultivation of the yew was formerly very extensive throughout nearly the whole of the british dominions, since of the _wood_ of this tree, which is peculiarly hard, smooth, and tough, our ancestors manufactured their bows. hence, as well as on account of its gloomy and funereal aspect, it was usually planted in churchyards. but, when the introduction of fire-arms began to supersede the use of the bow, the yew was no longer cultivated than as an ornamental tree in parks and pleasure grounds. in the formal style of gardening which was anciently prevalent, few trees were more the subject of admiration than this, from its bearing to be clipped, without injury, into almost any form. yews were cut into the shape of men, quadrupeds, birds, ships, and other vegetable monsters, but such absurd fancies have of late years almost wholly disappeared. these trees are at present advantageously planted in hedges, as a fence for orchards and shrubberies, which nothing can injure. the _wood_ of the yew-tree is hard, beautifully veined, and susceptible of high polish. hence it is valuable as a wood for veneering, and is much used for card boxes, small cabinets, and other articles. it is frequently used by turners and cabinet-makers; and might perhaps be advantageously substituted for box (232) by engravers and other artists in that wood. from its hardness and durability, it may be made into cogs for mill-wheels, into axle-trees, and flood-gates for fish-ponds, which are scarcely susceptible of decay. the _berries_ are sweet and clammy, and are often eaten by children without inconvenience; though when eaten to excess, and particularly if the stones be swallowed, they are injurious. an ardent spirit might no doubt be obtained from them by distillation. the _leaves_ of the yew-tree are extremely poisonous both to the human species and to cattle. ---class xxiii.--polygamia. ---monoecia. 270. _the plantain-tree_ (musa paradisiaca), _which is much cultivated in the west indies and south america, has a soft stem, fifteen or twenty feel high, with several leaves on the summit; and bears a fruit of pale yellow colour, somewhat shaped like a cucumber, about a foot in length, and two inches thick._ _the leaves are frequently eight feet long, and more than two feet broad, and are so thin and tender that they are often torn by the wind. the fruit is produced in bunches so large as each to weigh forty pounds and upwards._ to the negroes of the west indian islands the plantain is an invaluable fruit, and, like bread to the europeans, is with them denominated the staff of life. in jamaica alone many thousand acres are planted with these trees. this fruit is usually gathered before it is ripe, and, after the skin has been peeled off, is roasted for a little while in a clear fire; it is then scraped and eaten as bread, for which it is an excellent substitute. plantains are sometimes boiled, and eaten with salt meat; they are also cut into slices and fried, pounded, and made into puddings, and used in various other ways. horses, cattle, swine, and other domestic animals, are fattened with them. when ripe they may be eaten raw, and, in this state, they have somewhat the taste of a ripe pear. the _leaves_ of the plantain-tree, being soft and smooth, are sometimes employed as dressings after blisters; and, when green, are used as food for hogs. the vegetation of this tree is so rapid that if a line or thread be drawn across, and on a level with the top of one of the leaves, when it begins to expand, it will be seen, in the course of an hour, to have grown nearly an inch. 271. _the banana is a valuable plant_ (musa sapientum) _which grows in the west indies and other tropical countries, and has leaves about six feet in length, and a foot broad in the middle; and fruit four or five inches long, and about the shape of a cucumber._ when ripe, the banana is an agreeable _fruit_, with a soft and luscious pulp; and is frequently introduced in desserts in the west indies. the spaniards have a superstitious dislike to cut this fruit across; they always slice it from end to end, because, in the former case, the section presents an imaginary resemblance to the instruments of our saviour's crucifixion. the banana is sometimes fried in slices as fritters. if the pulp of this fruit be squeezed through a fine sieve, it may be formed into small loaves, which, after having been properly dried, may be kept for a great length of time. 272. _millet is a small yellowish seed of a grassy plant_ (holcus sorghum), _with large and compact stalks which rise to the height of seven or eight feet, and is much cultivated in several parts of india and africa._ in some countries millet _seed_ is ground into flour and converted into bread; but this is brown and heavy. it is, however, useful in other respects as food, and is an excellent seed for the fattening of poultry. a good vinegar has been made from it, by fermentation; and, on distillation, it yields a strong spirit. millet seed is imported into this country from the east indies, for the purpose chiefly of puddings; and, by many persons, it is preferred to rice. the _stalks_ of the millet plant, if subjected to the same process that is adopted with the sugar-cane, yield a sweet juice, from which an excellent kind of sugar may be made. 273. _gum arabic is a well-known drug, obtained from a tree_ (mimosa nilotica) _which grows in egypt._ _this tree has leaves doubly winged, with spines at the base, and small flowers, of globular shape, growing four or five together on slender footstalks._ the principal supply of gum arabic in this country is obtained from barbary, turkey, and the persian gulf. the average quantity imported from the persian gulf, betwixt 1804 and 1808, was about 7500 hundred weight per annum, and the price for which it was vended at the east india company's sales was about 3_l._ per hundred weight. it used formerly to be packed in skins, but it is now brought in large casks. the trees which yield it grow abundantly in numerous parts of africa and asia, but the gum does not freely exude from them except in tropical regions. it issues from clefts in the bark, in the same manner as the gum of the cherry and plum trees of our orchards and gardens: and, by exposure to the air, it soon becomes hard and solid. we are informed that, in some parts of egypt, the inhabitants procure this gum, by boiling pieces of the roots of the trees, and afterwards separating it from the water. we receive gum arabic in small irregular masses, or rough pieces, of pale yellowish colour, and roundish shape. it is, however, to be remarked, that, by far the greatest part of the gum which is sold in the shops under this name is not such, but is the production of another species of tree (_mimosa senegal_), and is properly called _gum senegal_, the latter is imported from senegal, guinea, and other parts of africa. it is generally seen in large rough pieces, of roundish figure, and brownish hue, more or less pure; possesses similar properties to the other, and is much cheaper. on account of their mucilaginous qualities, these two kinds of gum, under the name of gum arabic, were formerly used for several purposes in medicine; and, in coughs and hoarsenesses, were considered of great service. they are now principally in request by the manufacturers of water-colours; by dyers, and artificers of different kinds. in africa the latter constitutes a principal ingredient in the food of the inhabitants. they sometimes dissolve it in milk: and this solution of it is esteemed a favourite repast by some of the tribes. the dried _juice_ of the _unripe fruit_ of egyptian mimosa is called _acacia_, and is to this day much used in medicine by the egyptians. it is sometimes imported into this country in roundish masses, wrapped in thin bladders; and is externally of deep brown colour, and of a yellowish or reddish brown within. 274. _myrrh is a gummy, resinous substance, obtained from a tree which grows in abyssinia, arabia, and other countries of the east, but respecting which we are hitherto possessed of no certain account. mr. bruce, however, imagined it to be a species of mimosa._ this drug is generally imported in a kind of grains, of irregular form; of brownish or reddish yellow colour, and somewhat transparent. its smell is aromatic; and its taste is pungent and bitter. in its medicinal effects, myrrh, when taken into the stomach, is supposed to warm and strengthen it, and also to strengthen the other viscera. it is believed to resist putrefaction in all parts of the body; and, hence, has been recommended as a medicine in malignant, putrid, and pestilential fevers; and in small-pox. at the east india company's sales this drug is sold at the rate of about twenty pounds per hundred weight. it is, however, liable to great abuses. the larger masses, in particular, are frequently an artificial composition, skilfully incrusted with a coat of myrrh. dioecia. 275. _manna is a concrete or dried juice, procured from several species of ash-tree, but particularly from the_ flowering ash (fraxinus ornus, fig. 76), _which is much cultivated in calabria and sicily._ _this tree somewhat resembles the common ash. it has winged leaves, with an odd one at the end, the leaflets oblong, pointed, serrated, and veined, standing on footstalks, and of bright green colour. the flowers are whitish, and appear in close bunches, about the month of may or june._ the trees that are cultivated for the production of manna are chiefly planted on the eastern sides of hills. this substance exudes spontaneously from them; but as the supply thus obtained would be insufficient for the demand, incisions are made in the bark to obtain it more copiously. these incisions are formed, in the summer time, lengthwise in the tree, and each about a span long. they are begun at the lower part of the trunk, and repeated upward, at a little distance from each other, as high as the branches. one side of the tree is first cut; the other side being reserved until the ensuing year, when it undergoes a similar treatment. from the wounds thus made a thick whitish juice immediately begins to flow, which gradually hardens on the bark, and in the course of a few days acquires a sufficient consistence to be taken off. it is collected in baskets, and afterwards packed in chests or boxes. sometimes the manna flows in such abundance that it runs upon the ground, and thus becomes mixed with various impurities, unless it be prevented, as is sometimes the case, by placing for its reception large leaves, stones, chips of wood, or straw. the collecting of manna generally terminates about the end of september. this substance is known by druggists under different names, according to its purity, rather than from any essential difference in the article itself. the best calabrian manna is imported in oblong, light, and crumbly flakes or pieces of whitish or pale yellow colour, and somewhat transparent appearance. the inferior sorts are moist, unctuous, and of darker colour. manna is a mild and agreeable laxative medicine, particularly with the addition of a little cinnamon water, or other warm aromatic: and it is useful in asthmatic complaints, as well as in inflammatory affections of the breast. it is sometimes counterfeited by a composition of sugar and honey, mixed with a small portion of scammony. the miraculous substance mentioned in the old testament by the name of manna, cannot, of course, be considered to have any alliance whatever with the manna thus produced. this remark would not have been made, did not young persons sometimes inconsiderately confound the two substances. 276. _the ash-tree_ (fraxinus excelsior, fig. 79) _is a well-known british tree, with winged leaves; the leaflets in four or five pairs, with an odd one, serrated, and without footstalks; and the flowers without petals._ of late years this valuable tree has been much planted in several parts of england. it is of hardy nature, and thrives even in barren soils. if planted in moist situations, the roots, spreading wide in every direction near the surface, have a tendency to render the ground dry and firm. the _timber_, which has the rare advantage of being nearly as good when young as when old, is white, and so hard and tough as generally to be esteemed next in value to oak. it is much used by coach-makers, wheel-wrights, and cart-wrights; and is made into ploughs, axle-trees, felloes of wheels, harrows, ladders, and other implements of husbandry. it is likewise used by ship-builders for various purposes, and by coopers for the hoops of tubs and barrels. where, by frequent cutting, the wood has become knotty, irregular, and veined, it is in much request for cabinet-work by mechanics on the continent. the best season for felling ash-trees is from november to february. as fuel, this tree burns better whilst wet and green than other wood. we are informed that, in the northern parts of lancashire, when grass is scarce, the small farmers frequently cut off the tops of ash-trees to feed their cows with the _leaves_ and tender branches; but these are said to spoil the taste of the milk. mr. pennant states that, in the reign of queen elizabeth, the inhabitants of colton and hawkshead-fells remonstrated against the number of forges then lately erected in that part of the country, because they consumed the loppings of the trees, which formed the sole winter food for their cattle. the leaves of ash-trees were formerly much used in the adulteration of tea, under the name of _smouch_; but this practice has of late been prohibited by act of parliament. the _bark_ of the ash-tree is employed in the tanning of calf-skins, and sometimes in dyeing black and other colours. the _inner bark_ has been proposed as a substitute for peruvian bark, in the cure of intermittent fevers. 277. _ebony is the wood of a species of palm-tree_ (diospiros ebenum), _which grows in the island of ceylon, and has smooth, leathery, oblong, and pointed leaves, and rough-haired buds._ the black and valuable substance known to us by the name of ebony, is the centre part only of the trees. the outside wood is white and soft, and either decays soon, or is destroyed by insects, which leave the black part untouched. ebony is imported into this country from the east indies. it is exceedingly hard and heavy, admits of being highly polished, and is principally used by cabinet-makers and inlayers for the veneering of cabinets and other ornamental work. the wood of the pear-tree, stained black, is frequently substituted for ebony. the ripe _fruit_ of the ebony tree is eaten by the natives of ceylon; but it is astringent, and not very palatable. linnæus was of opinion that ebony was the wood of a shrub (_ebenus cretica_) which grows in the island of crete, and has silky leaves and rose-coloured flowers. 278. _the pawpaw is a fruit about the size of a small melon, but of very various shape, the production of a species of palm-tree_ (carica papaya), _which grows in tropical climates, both of the eastern and western parts of the world._ _the tree is twenty feet and upwards in height; naked almost to the summit; and marked, through its whole length, with the scars of fallen leaves. its leaves are on foot-stalks two feet in length, and deeply divided into seven, nine, or eleven large lobes. the flowers are axillary, white, and sweet scented._ in shape the _fruit_ of the pawpaw-tree is sometimes angular, and flattened at both ends; sometimes oval or round; and sometimes pyramidal. when ripe it is of yellow colour; and contains a yellow succulent pulp, of sweetish taste, and aromatic smell, with many black or brown and furrowed seeds. this fruit is seldom eaten raw, but when boiled it is esteemed a wholesome sauce for fresh meat. the inhabitants of the countries where it is found sometimes preserve it in sugar, with oranges, and small citrons. thus prepared, it may be kept a long time; and, in this state, it is not unfrequently brought into europe. when about half grown, the pawpaw is sometimes pickled in vinegar with spices. the fruit of the trifid-fruited custard apple (_annona triloba_) is called pawpaw in some parts of america. the _bark_ of the pawpaw-tree is manufactured by the indians into cordage. the _leaves_ are used in place of soap; and water-pipes are sometimes made of the _stem_ of the tree. trioecia. 279. _the fig is the pulpy fruit of a shrub, or low tree_ (ficus carica, fig. 83), _which is a native of the south of europe, and some parts of asia._ _fig-trees are branched from the bottom, and the leaves are large, smooth, and irregularly divided into from three to five deep and rounded lobes. the fruit grows on short and thick stalks, of purplish colour, and contains a soft, sweet, and fragrant pulp, intermixed with numerous small seeds._ it appears from history, both sacred and profane, that the fig-tree was an object of attention in the earliest times. this fruit was one of the most common and favourite aliments of the ancient greeks, and constituted a very valuable food with the peasants of some parts of italy. fig-trees are now much cultivated in turkey, italy, and the levant, as well as in spain and some of the southern parts of france. all the islands of the archipelago yield figs in abundance, but these are in general of very inferior quality. the trees are propagated either by suckers, by layers, or by cuttings; and the process of increasing and ripening the fruit is an art which requires much attention. this, as it is practised in the levant, is called _caprification_, and is performed by wounding the buds of the figs, with a straw or feather dipped in sweet oil at a certain period of their growth. figs are dried either by a furnace or in the sun, after having been dipped in a scalding ley made of the ashes of the fig-tree. in this state they are used both in medicine, and as food; and are considered more wholesome and more easy of digestion than when fresh. they form a considerable branch of commerce, and are exported, in boxes of different size and shape, to nearly all the northern parts of europe. when we receive them, their surface is usually covered with a saccharine matter which has exuded from the fruit. a small and cheap kind of fig is imported in small frails or baskets from faro. there are numerous varieties of the fig, but the common purple kind is the hardiest of the whole. this is frequently cultivated in our gardens; and, if screened from the north-east winds, it ripens, even: with us, in tolerable perfection. the wood of the fig-tree is of spongy texture, and, when charged with oil and emery, is much used on the continent by locksmiths, gun-smiths, and other artificers in iron and steel, to polish their work. it is almost indestructible, and on this account was formerly employed in eastern countries as coffins for embalmed bodies. ---class xxiv.--cryptogamia. --- 280. _fern, or brake_ (pteris aquilina), _is a well-known cryptogamous plant, which grows wild on heaths, in woods, and in barren places._ though this plant is an extremely troublesome weed to the farmer, from the roots penetrating deep into the ground, it is applied to various uses in rural oeconomy. when cut and properly dried, it serves as litter for horses and cattle; and it supplies the place of thatch for covering the roofs of cottages and stacks. where coal is scarce, it is used for the heating of ovens and burning of lime-stone. the _ashes_ of fern, from their yielding a tolerably pure alkali, are frequently used by manufacturers of glass, particularly in france. and, in some parts of our own country, the poor people mix these ashes with water, and form them into round masses which they call _fern balls_. these are afterwards heated in a fire, and then, with water, are made into a ley for the scouring of linen. they thus furnish a cheap substitute for soap. swine are fond of the roots of fern, and will feed freely upon them. we are even informed that, with the inhabitants of palma, one of the canary islands, they are sometimes made to supply the place of bread. it is deserving of remark that, when the root of the fern is cut obliquely across, it presents a kind of figure of the imperial or russian eagle; from which circumstance linnæus was induced to name it _pteris aquilina_, or "eagle brake." 281. _the_ lichens _constitute a very numerous family of plants, which grow on the bark of trees, on rocks, stones, and other substances; and have an indistinct fructification, in scattered wart-like tubercles, or excrescences, and smooth saucers or shields, in which the seeds are imbedded._ _some of them have a powdery appearance, and others are crustaceous, leaf-like, shrub-like, herbaceous, or gelatinous._ 282. _the calcareous lichen_ (lichen calcareus) _consists of a white crust with black tubercles._ this plant, which is found on lime-stone rocks in wales, and the north of england, is used in dyeing woollen and other cloths a scarlet colour. 283. _crab's-eye lichen_ (lichen parellus) _is a crustaceous, whitish, and granulated vegetable substance, with cups of the same colour, which have a thick and blunt border._ from this lichen, which is found on rocks and stones in mountainous countries, and sometimes on stones near the sea-shore, is prepared the bluish pigment called _litmus_. it is chiefly collected from rocks in the north of england, packed in casks, and sent to london for sale. 284. _tartareous lichen_ (lichen tartareus) _is a whitish, crustaceous, vegetable production, with yellow cups or shields, which have a whitish border._ the inhabitants of the highlands of scotland gather this species of lichen from the rocks, and, after cleaning, and some further preparation, which is kept a secret by the manufacturers, they form it into cakes. these, when dried, are pulverized, and sold to dyers by the name of _cudbear_, which is a corruption of cuthbert, the name of its inventor. in conjunction with alum, the powder of the tartareous lichen is used in dyeing scarlet, and also for striking a purple dye; but the colour produced by it is not very permanent. 285. _archell, or purple rock lichen_ (lichen omphalodes), _is a vegetable production, of somewhat crustaceous consistence, and leaf-like form; the segments with many lobes, and of dark purplish brown colour, with dull purple saucers._ this kind of lichen grows upon rocks on the high stony moors of several parts of england, wales, and scotland. when properly prepared, it imparts to woollen cloth a reddish brown colour, or a dull but durable crimson. if wool that has been dyed with it be dipped into a blue vat, it will acquire a beautiful purple tinge. it is sometimes used as a styptic; and was formerly applied as a remedy in inflammatory fevers and other complaints; but, in the latter respect, it is now entirely neglected. 286. _orchall, or dyer's lichen_ (lichen rocella), _is a somewhat crustaceous and shrub-like vegetable production, of nearly cylindrical form, solid, without leaves, but little branched, and with blackish brown alternate tubercles._ in the canary and cape de verd islands, as well as in the grecian archipelago, orchall is found in great abundance. it likewise grows in guernsey and in some parts of england, and is employed by dyers chiefly for giving a bloom to other colours. this is effected by passing the dyed cloth or silk through hot water slightly impregnated with it; but the bloom thus communicated soon decays after it has been exposed to the air. when prepared in a peculiar manner, orchall yields a rich purple tincture, fugitive indeed, but very beautiful. mixed with a solution of tin it is said to dye a permanent scarlet. orchall is the substance generally adopted for colouring the spirits of thermometers. and it is a remarkable circumstance that, as exposure to the air destroys its colour upon cloth, so the exclusion of the air produces, in a few years, a like effect upon the fluid in those tubes; but on breaking the tubes the colour is restored. 287. _iceland lichen_ (lichen islandicus) _is a leafy, membranous, vegetable production, of brownish green colour, jagged at the edges, and fringed, having large and purplish brown saucers or shields._ the name of this lichen is derived from that of the island in which it chiefly grows. it is, however, also found in the highlands of scotland, and in some of the northern parts both of england and wales. it abounds with nutritious mucilage; and, after having been steeped in water to extract its bitter and laxative qualities, it is sometimes used as medicine in coughs and consumptions. one ounce of iceland lichen, boiled in a pint of water, yields about seven ounces of mucilage. the inhabitants of iceland prepare from it a kind of gruel, which they mix with milk. they also boil it in several waters, and then dry and make it into bread. in germany a durable brown dye is made by means of it; and, under another mode of preparation, it imparts an excellent black tinge to white woollen yarn. 288. _bladder fucus_ (fucus vesiculosus) _is a species of sea-weed, of flat shape, with a middle rib, the edges entire, forked, and sometimes tumid at the ends, and furnished with several air bladders imbedded in the substance of the plant._ by far the most important application of this, one of the commonest of all our marine plants, is for the making of _kelp_, which, in scotland, affords employment to many industrious families. so lucrative and so highly esteemed is the bladder fucus, and some other plants nearly allied to it, that the natives of several parts of the western islands have rolled large masses of stone into the sea, with a view to promote and extend their growth. for the preparation of kelp these plants are dried, by exposure for some time to the sun and air. they are then burnt by degrees in a kelp furnace, which is generally a round hole dug in the earth. when the furnace is nearly filled with the remains of the burnt sea-weeds, the whole is briskly agitated with a rake or hook, till it is compacted, or becomes of a shining glutinous consistence, in appearance not unlike melted iron. it is then allowed to cool, and is afterwards placed in storehouses for exportation. in this state it is an impure kind of carbonat of soda. in the orkney islands every consideration is sacrificed to the making of kelp, nearly 3,000 tons of which are annually sent to market and sold at leith, newcastle, and other places, at the rate of from seven to ten pounds per ton of twenty-one hundred weight. the inhabitants of gothland boil this plant with coarse meal, as food for swine; and the poorer classes of scania thatch their cottages with it, and also employ it as fuel. in the hebrides it is customary to dry cheese, without using any salt, by covering it with the ashes of the bladder fucus, which abound in saline particles. this and other sea-weeds serve as a winter food for cattle, which regularly frequent the shores for them at the ebb of the tide: they are also used as manure for land. a soapy liquor which is found in the bladders of this plant is sometimes externally applied as a medicine for dispersing scrofulous and scorbutic swellings, by simply bruising them in the hand and rubbing them on the parts affected. when this plant is calcined or burnt in the open air, a black and saline powder is produced, which, under the name of _vegetable æthiops_, has been recommended as a dentrifice, and for other uses. 289. _eatable winged fucus, or bladderlocks_ (fucus esculentus), _is a simple, undivided, and sword-shaped sea-weed, which is olive-coloured, and sometime several yards in length_. _its stem is four-cornered, runs through the whole length of the leaf, and is winged at the base._ this plant, which is very common on some of the shores of scotland, and also on those of cornwall, and several parts of north wales, is a grateful food to cattle; and its stalk, when boiled, constitutes a very favourite dish in scotland. the proper season for gathering it is the month of september, when it is in higher perfection than at any other time of the year. 290. _sweet fucus_ (fucus saccharinus) _is a simple, undivided, and sword-shaped sea-weed, without any rib, of leathery consistence, and tawny green colour; and frequently five or six feet in length_. _its stalk is round and hard._ this plant abounds on all our sea-shores: and, if slightly washed from the sea-water, and dried in the air, it becomes covered with a sweet powdery efflorescence. it is edible either in a raw state, or boiled as a pot-herb. sometimes it is hung up to serve the purpose of an hygrometer, which it does in some degree by becoming flaccid during a moist state of the atmosphere, and hard in dry weather. 291. _dulse, or red palmate fucus_ (fucus palmatus), _is a flat, membranous, and hand-shaped, sea-weed, of brownish crimson colour, smooth on both sides, and without any mid-rib._ in the markets of edinburgh, and other parts of scotland, this plant, which is common on most of the british shores, is exposed for sale as an article of food. after having been washed in fresh water, it is eaten raw, by itself, in salad, or by poor people with other provisions. sometimes it is boiled and used as a pot-herb. if gradually dried, it gives out a whitish powdery substance, which covers the whole plant, and has a sweet and agreeable taste, somewhat resembling that of violets. in this state it is frequently packed in casks for exportation. some persons chew it as tobacco. in scotland it is occasionally used as a medicine, and it is supposed to sweeten the breath and destroy worms. 292. _green or edible laver_ (ulva lactuca) _is a thin, membranous, pellucid, and green vegetable substance, which is found on rocks, stones, and shells, in the sea and salt-water ditches in nearly all parts of great britain._ of late years this plant, stewed with lemon juice, has been introduced to the tables of the luxurious, as a sauce to be eaten with roast meat. though in a recent state it has a salt and bitterish flavour, and even when thus prepared is not always relished at first, yet by habit most persons become partial to it. the laver which is consumed in london is chiefly prepared in the west of england, and packed in pots in a state ready for the table. some persons use laver medicinally, and it is esteemed wholesome for scrofulous habits; but it can scarcely be taken in sufficient quantity to do much good, without having too strong an effect on the bowels. 293. _the morell_ (phallus esculentus, fig. 84) _is a kind of fungus with a naked and wrinkled stem, and an egg-shaped head, full of cells on its external surface._ as an ingredient for thickening and heightening the flavour of sauces and soups, morells, which are chiefly found in woods and hedges in a loamy soil, are in great esteem. for this purpose, after they are gathered, they are strung upon pack-thread to be dried; and, when dry, they may be kept without injury for many months. in germany, the persons employed in gathering morells found that they always grew most abundantly in woods that had been burnt: and, with a view of promoting their increase, they were accustomed to set fire to the woods, until this practice was prohibited by the government. useful and palatable as these plants are, it has been ascertained that, if gathered after having been exposed for some days to wet weather, they are extremely pernicious. 294. _the truffle_ (tuber cibarium) _is a globular, solid, and warty fungus, without root, which grows at the depth of four or five inches beneath the surface of the earth, and is from the size of a pea to that of a potatoe._ this, one of the best of the edible funguses, is chiefly found in hilly woods and pastures, which have a sandy or clayey bottom; and occurs on the downs of wiltshire, hampshire, and kent. truffles are generally discovered by means of dogs, which are taught to hunt for them by scent; and wherever they smell one of them, they bark, and scratch it up. in italy they are hunted, in somewhat similar manner, by pigs. truffles are either served at table roasted in a fresh state like potatoes, or they are cut into slices and dried, as an ingredient for sauces and soups. those that are most delicious are internally of white colour, and have somewhat the odour of garlic. in england truffles seldom exceed the weight of four or five ounces; whilst on the continent they are known to weigh as much as fifteen or sixteen ounces each. 295. _the puff-ball_ (lycoperdon bovista) _is a round kind of fungus, which is filled with a soft whitish flesh when young, and a fine brown powder when ripe._ the _powder_ of the puff-ball is sometimes used as a styptic, to prevent the bleeding of recent wounds. this powder is extremely subtile, and is very injurious to the eyes. instances have occurred of persons who, having had it blown into their face, have thereby been deprived of their sight for a considerable time; and have also been affected with violent pain and inflammation. there is a curious experiment of taking a shilling from the bottom of a vessel of water, without wetting the hand. this is said to be effected by strewing a small quantity of the dust of the puff-ball on the surface; it so strongly repels the fluid as to form a covering for the fingers, and defend them from the contact of the water. the fumes of the puff-ball, when burnt, have a powerfully narcotic quality; and, on this account, they are sometimes used to take the combs from hives without destroying the bees. 296. _the common mushroom_ (agaricus campestris) _is a fungus consisting of a white cylindrical stalk and a convex cover of white or brownish colour, which has beneath an irregular arrangement of gills, pinky when young, but afterwards of dark liver colour._ _when it first appears above ground the mushroom is smooth and nearly globular, and in this state it is called a_ button. in england mushrooms are in great demand for the table. they are found wild in parks, and other pastures where the turf has not been ploughed for many years; and the best time for gathering them is in the months of august and september. they are eaten fresh, either stewed or broiled; and are preserved for use either by drying, by being pickled, or in powder. they are also employed in making the well-known sauce called mushroom ketchup. as an article of food, however, mushrooms are by no means wholesome, being so tough, and having so great a resemblance to soft leather, as to be almost indigestible. this is particularly the case when they are of large size. mushrooms may be raised artificially on beds constructed for the purpose, even in cellars; for if they have only warmth and moisture, the plants will vegetate without light; but the most proper situations for them are under sheds in the open air. the plants thus grown, however, have more toughness than such as grow wild in the fields; and, in other respects, are much inferior to them. 297. there is a kind of mushroom (_agaricus georgii_) which is yellowish, with yellowish white gills, and when full grown is sometimes so large as to measure eighteen inches across. this is occasionally eaten, but, in many instances, the use of it has been attended with injurious consequences. 298. in covent garden market a tall and spongy kind of mushroom (_agaricus procerus_), with white gills, and a large horizontal ring round the stem, is frequently exposed for sale about the month of september. 299. on hedge-banks, in pastures, and in what are called fairy-rings, there is a species of mushroom (_agaricus orcades_), with brownish or watery white gills, two or four in a set, a pale brown, convex, and irregular cover, and a whitish stem. these are considered by many persons to be the _champignons_ of the french cooks. they have a much higher flavour than the common mushroom: but from their leathery nature are indigestible, except in the form of powder, with sauces, or in ketchup, in all of which they are very admirable. with respect to the plants of the mushroom tribe, it ought to be observed that, though several of them are edible, many are extremely poisonous. instances of the fatal effects arising from an indiscriminate adoption of them are innumerable. great caution, therefore, is requisite that such only shall be used as are ascertained to be wholesome, particularly as, in many instances, the poisonous species can scarcely be distinguished by the eye from such as are innoxious. in cases of injury arising from poisonous funguses, the best remedy that can be administered is an emetic. 300. _spunk, or touchwood_ (boletus igniarius), _is a fungus somewhat shaped like a horse's hoof, with pores on the under side, and the upper part very hard and smooth, but marked with circular bands or ridges of different colours._ _it grows horizontally on the trunks and large branches of several kinds of trees, when old and decayed._ in germany, and in some parts of england, this fungus is used as tinder, for which, on account of its readily catching fire, it is well adapted. it is prepared by being boiled in a strong ley, dried, and again boiled in a solution of salt-petre. in franconia pieces of the inner substance of the spunk are beaten so as to resemble leather, and are sewed together for making garments. the inhabitants of lapland frequently burn it about their cottages, to keep off a species of gad-fly which is peculiarly injurious to the young rein-deer. this fungus is often employed as a styptic for the stopping of blood. when intended for this use, the exterior hard substance is pared off, and the coat underneath is separated from the porous part, and well beaten with a hammer, until it becomes pliable. thus prepared it is kept dry, in slices of convenient size, for use; and, although it is not so much esteemed in this country as it was some years ago, many of the continental surgeons have a very high opinion of its efficacy. index to the second volume. --- abele. see poplar, great white. acacia, 262 acorns, uses of, 223 alder, wood, bark, branches, and leaves, uses of, 211 alkanet, description, properties, and uses of, 42 alligator pear, description and uses of, 120 all-spice. see pimento. almond, common or sweet, description of, 140 ----, whence obtained, how imported, and uses of, 140 ----, oil and milk of, how prepared, 141 ----, bitter, description and uses of, 141 aloe, american, description, culture, and uses of, 96, 97 aloes, description of several kinds, 93, 94 ----, leaves, stems, and juice, uses of, 93, 94 ----, socotrine, description, culture, preparation, and uses of, 94 ----, barbadoes, common, or hepatic, 95 ----, caballine, or horse, 96 anise-seeds, description and uses of, 81 apple, fruit and wood, uses of, 147, 148 apricot, fruit, kernels, gum, and wood, uses of, 143 archell, description and use of, 270 areca, description and uses of, 231, 232 arnatto, or annotta, description of, how prepared, and uses of, 157 arrack, from what prepared, 106, 218 arrow-root, what it is, how prepared, and uses of, 9, 10 ----, how adulterated, 10 artichoke, flowers, leaves, and stalks, uses of, 197 ----, jerusalem, description, culture, and uses of, 201 arum, common, description and uses of, 218, 219 asafoetida, description and uses of, 77 ----, how obtained and exported, 77, 78 ash-tree, wood, leaves, and bark, uses of, 264 asparagus, description, cultivation, and uses of, 92, 93 aspen. see poplar, trembling. b. balsam, friar's, or turlington's, from what made, 130 bamboo canes, description and uses of, 100, 101 banana, description and uses of, 269 barberry, fruit, bark, and roots, uses of, 100 barilla, description of, and how prepared for use, 73 barley, cultivation and uses of, 27 ----, pearl, how made, and uses of, 28 ----, sugar, how made, 22 bay, common sweet, description and uses of, 119, 120 bay plum. see guava. beans, culture and uses of, 184 beech-tree, wood, fruit, and leaves, uses of, 220 beet, description and uses of, 71, 72 benjamin, gum. see benzoin. bent-grass, 32 benzoin, description of, how prepared, and uses of, 129, 131 bergamot, how prepared, 195 betel, what it is, and use of, 15 betel-nut. see areca. bilberries, uses of, 113 birch-tree, wood, bark, twigs, leaves, and sap, uses of, 210 bird-lime, how made, uses and properties of, 41 blackberries, uses of, 152 bleaberries. see bilberries. blend-corn, 28 boabab. see sour gourd. bore cole, 176 bottle gourd, description and uses of, 209 box-tree, value and uses of, 215 brake, description and uses of, 268 bran, uses of, 26 brandy, whence obtained, and how made, 69 ----, distilled from potatoes and carrots, 55, 75 brank. see buck wheat. bread, prepared from turnips, arum roots, acorns, cassava, and sago, 175, 219, 224, 239, 256 bread-fruit, description and uses of, 203, 204 ----, tree, bark, juice, and flowers, uses of, 204, 205 brocoli, 176 broom, common, twigs, seeds, bark, &c., uses of, 181 ----, spanish, description and uses of, 181 buck-bean, or bog-bean, description and uses of, 43 buck-thorn, syrup, and bark, uses of, 56 buck-wheat, description, cultivation, and uses of, 114 bullace plums, description and uses of, 144 ---cheese, from what prepared, 144 bull-rush, uses of, 31 burgundy wine, 64 burgundy pitch, of what made, and uses of, 236 c. cabbage, common, culture and uses of, 176 ---tree, description and uses of, 230 cacao. see chocolate. ----, butter of, 192 cajeput oil, what it is, and uses of, 195, 196 calabash tree, description and uses of, 170 ----, african. see sour gourd. calyx, or flower-cup, 1 camomile, description and uses of, 199, 200 camphor, description, how obtained, and uses of, 117-119 canary wine, 68 ---grass, 33 canes, walking, description of, and whence obtained, 100 ----, rattan, description and uses, 100 ----, bamboo, description and uses, 100-102 caoutchouc. see indian rubber. cape madeira wine, 68 capers, description of, how prepared, and uses of, 153 ----, substitutes for, 154, 181 capsicum, different kinds and uses of, 56 carraway, how cultivated, and uses of, 81 cardamoms, description, culture, and uses of, 8, 9 cardoon, description and uses of, 198 carriage grease, of what made, 235 carrot, cultivation and uses of, 74, 75 cashew-nut-tree and fruit, description and uses of, 121-123 cassava, or cassada, description and uses of, 238 cassia, and cassia buds, description and uses of, 117 ----, officinal, description and uses of, 126, 127 castor-oil, how prepared, and uses of, 242 catechu. see areca. cauliflower, 176 cayenne pepper, how made, and uses of, 56, 57 cedar, red or common, description and uses of, 257 celery, uses of, 82 champaigne wine, 66 champignons, description and use of, 277 charcoal, durability and uses of, 224 ----, vapour of, in what respect pernicious, 225 cherry-tree, fruit, wood, and gum, uses of, 142 ---brandy, how made, 142 chesnut, horse, fruit, husks, wood, and bark, uses of, 106 ----, sweet, wood and fruit, properties and uses of, 220 china, broken, how to cement, 89 chives, description and uses of, 91 chocolate, description, cultivation, preparation, and use of, 190, 191 cider, and cider wine, how made, 148 cinnamon, description, preparation, and uses of, 115, 117 ----, oil of, 116 ----, wild. see cassia. citron, description and uses of, 192 claret, 66 clover, cultivation and use of, 187 cloves, description, culture, preparation, and uses of, 164 ----, oil of, 165 cocoa-nut-tree and fruit, kernels, milk, husks, shells, &c, uses of, 216 coffee-tree, description of, and how cultivated, 47 ----, history of the use of, 48, 49 ----, mocha, west india, and java, 49 ----, how roasted, and use of, 49 ----, substitutes for, 181, 184 cole-seed. see rape-seed. colewort, 176 constantia wine, 68 copal, description, preparation, and use of, 83 ----, varnish, how made, 83 coriander, cultivation and uses of, 79 corinths. see currants. cork, how collected and prepared for use, and uses of, 225 cork cutting, how performed, 226 corolla or blossom, 2 côte rotie wine, 66 cotton, description, culture, and preparation of, 179 ----, uses of, and trade in, 180 court plaster, how made, 130 cowage, or cow-itch, description and uses of, 182, 183 cowslip, use of, flowers, roots, and leaves, 43 crab-tree fruit, uses of, 147 cracow groats, 26 cranberries, description and uses of, 112 cuckoo fruit. see arum. cucumber, common, culture and uses of, 207 currants, dried, what they are, and whence obtained, 70 ----, how cultivated and prepared for use, 71 ----, red, juice, and inner bark, uses of, 60, 61 currants, black, leaves and berries, uses of, 61 curry powder, of what made, 9 cypress powder, of what made, 219 cypress-tree, description and uses of, 237 d. date-tree, description, cultivation, and management of, 246, 247 ----, fruit, wood, pith, and leaves, uses of, 247, 248 deals, yellow and red, 233 dragon's-blood-tree, description and uses of, 98, 99 dulse, description, preparation, and use of, 273 dutch pink, from what prepared, 136 e. ebony, description and uses of, 265 eschalote. see shallot. elder, common, wood, bark, leaves, flowers, berries, &c. uses of, 83 elm-trees, timber, bark, and leaves, uses of, 73 endive, culture and uses of, 199 f. fan-palm, description and uses of, 98 fennel leaves, stalks, seeds, and roots, uses of, 80 fern, description and uses of, 268 ferula, stalks of, how anciently used, 78 fig-trees and figs, description, cultivation, and uses of, 267 filbert, 228 fir, scots, description of, timber and bark, uses of, 232, 233 ----, turpentine, resin, tar and pitch, how obtained from, 232, 233 ----, spruce, description and uses of, 235 flax, description of, cultivation, preparation, and uses of, 85 ----, oil made from the seeds of, 86 flummery, what it is, and how made, 23 fox-glove, description and uses of, 169 frontignac wine, 66 fructification of vegetables, 1 fucus, bladder, description and use of, 271 ----, eatable, winged, 272 ----, sweet, and red palmate, 273 furze, uses of, 182 g. galls, use of, 223 gamboge, description of, how obtained, and uses of, 135 garlic, description and uses of, 89 gentian, description and uses of, 74, 75 gerkins, 207 gilead, balm or balsam of, how obtained, and uses of, 108 gin, with what flavoured, 257 ginger, description, cultivation, preparation, and uses of, 7 glass, broken, how to cement, 89 gooseberries, uses of, 61 gorze, uses of, 182 grafting of fruit-trees, how performed, and use of, 147 grapes, uses of, 69, 70 grass, sweet-scented vernal, uses of, 30 ----, cotton, meadow, fox-tail, and timothy or meadow cat's tail, 31 ----, fiorin or orcheston long, 32 ----, meadow soft, or yorkshire white canary, purple melic, and reed meadow, 33 ----, smooth-stalked meadow, and annual meadow, 34 ----, crested dog's tail, sheep's fescue, hard fescue, and flote fescue, 35 ----, rye or ray, 37 ----, couch or squitch, 38 grits or groats, what they are, 23 guava, description and uses of, 137 guiacum, gum, how obtained, and uses of, 127 gum arabic, how and whence obtained, and uses of, 261 ----, senegal, 262 ----, sandarach, 257 h. hazel nut tree and fruit, uses of, 228 heath, common, stalks, tops, flowers, leaves, and seeds, uses of, 113 hemp, description of, how cultivated and prepared for use, 249 ----, fimble, karle, or seed, 249 ----, seed and stalks, uses of, 249 heps, conserve of, 151 hermitage wine, 66 hickory nut, 227 hock wine, 68 holly-tree, wood, leaves, berries, and bark, uses of, 14 hops, description and mode of culture of, 250, 251 ----, how picked, dried, and prepared for use, and uses of, 251 ----, substitutes for, in brewing, 43, 135 hornbeam, description and uses of, 229 horse-radish, description and uses of, 172 i. j. iceland lichen, description, preparation, and use of, 271 indian corn. see maize. indian rubber-tree, description of, 240 ----, how obtained and prepared for use, and uses of, 241 indigo, description, cultivation, preparation, and uses of, 188, 189 ipecacuanha, description, history, and use of, 62, 63 iris, common, description and uses of, 18 jack-fruit, description and uses of, 205, 206 jalap, description of, whence obtained, and uses of, 43 jasmine, oil of, how prepared, 12 jesuit's bark. see peruvian bark. jesuit's drops, from what made, 130 juniper, berries, wood, bark, and gum, uses of, 256 k. kale, dorsetshire, 176 ----, sea, description, cultivation, and uses of, 171 kelp, preparation, value, and uses of, 271 l. lachryma christi wine, 67 ladanum, or labdanum, how collected, and uses of, 166 lamp black, how made, and uses of, 235 larch, wood, bark, and sap, uses of, 236 laudanum, how prepared, and uses of, 156 lavender, description and culture of, 167 ----, flowers, oil, and spirit of, 168 ----, water, how prepared, 168 laver, green or edible, description, preparation, and use of, 274 leeks, description and uses of, 89 lemon, description and uses of, 192 ----, essential salt of, from what prepared, 193 lettuce, culture and uses of, 198 lichen, calcareous, description and uses of, 269 ----, crab's eye, and tartareous, 269 ----, purple rock, and dyer's, 270 ----, iceland, 271 lignum vitæ, wood, resin, bark, and flowers, use& of, 127 lime, a species of lemon, description and uses of, 194 lime, or linden-tree, flowers, wood, juice, leaves, and seed, uses of, 158 line-seeds, what they are, and uses of, 86 linseed oil, how prepared, and use of, 86 ling. see heath. liquorice, description, cultivation, and uses of, 186, 187 ----, spanish, how made, and uses of, 187 lisbon wine, 65 logwood, description of, how obtained, and uses of, 131, 132 lords and ladies. see arum. lucern, description, cultivation, and uses of, 188 m. macaroni, of what made, and uses of, 26 mace, what it is, how prepared for use, and uses of, 246 madder, description, preparation, property, and uses of, 39 madeira wine, 68 mahogany, description of, and how obtained, 132 ----, honduras and jamaica, 133 ----, when first introduced, and uses of, 134 maize, description and culture of, 206 ----, seed, husks, stalks, &c. uses of, 206, 207 malaga wine, 66 malmsey madeira, 66 malt, how made, and used, 27 mangel wurzel, description and uses of, 72 mangoes, description and use of, 59 ----, imitations of, 59, 207 manna, description of, how obtained, and uses of, 263 ----, seeds, what they are, and uses of, 36 maple, common, description and uses of, 110 ----, sugar, description of, 110 -------, juice and wood, uses of, 111 maslin, what it is, 28 mastic, description of, mode of obtaining, and uses of, 248 ----, wood and varnish, 249 matweed, sea, uses of, 37 medlar, description and uses of, 146 melon, common or musk, description, culture, and uses of, 207 ----, water, description and uses of, 209 millet, description and use of, 260 mint, common or spear, description and uses of, 168 ----, pepper, description and uses of, 169 molasses, how made, 21 morell, description and use of, 274 moselle wine, 67 mulberry-tree, fruit, juice, leaves, and bark, uses of, 214 ----, cider, how made, 214 ----, white, 215 muscadel wine, 66 mushroom, common, description of, how grown, and use of, 276 ----, description and uses of various kinds, 276, 277 mustard, description and uses of, and how adulterated, 172 myrrh, what it is, whence obtained, and uses of, 262 myrtle common, description and use of, 137 n. nankeen dye (scot's), of what made, 157 nectarine, 140 nettle, common, leaves, tops, stalks, roots, flowers, and seed, uses of, 213, 214 nettle stings, description of, 214 nightshade, deadly, description, injurious effects, and uses of, 53, 54 nutmeg tree, description of, 244 nutmegs, how gathered and prepared for use, and uses of, 245 nut-oil, from what prepared, 228 nux vomica, description and uses of, 58 o. oak tree, wood, bark, saw-dust, and acorns, uses of, 222-225 oatmeal, uses of, 24 oats, mode of cultivation and uses of, 24 oil-cake, of what made, and uses of, 87, 174 olive tree, description and uses of, 11, 12 ---oil, how prepared and uses of, 11 olives, how prepared for use, and uses of, 11 onion, canadian or tree, description and uses of, 90 ----, common, description and uses of, 91 ----, portugal and spanish, 91 opium, how obtained, properties and uses of, 154, 155 ----, how cultivated in england, 155 ----, how adulterated, 154 orange, flowers, juice and peel, uses of, 194, 195 ----, seville or bitter, 195 orchall, description, preparation, and use of, 270 orders of plants, 4 orenberg gum, of what made, 237 orris root, description and uses of, 17 osier, wood and bark, uses of, 243 ottar of roses, from what made and how adulterated, 150 owler. see alder. p. paddy. see rice. paper made from vegetable productions of different kinds, 18, 28, 101, 185, 215, 243 papyrus, description, preparation, and uses of, 18, 19 parsley, leaves, roots, and seed, uses of, 82 parsnips, how cultivated, and uses of, 79 pawpaw, description and uses of, fruit, bark, leaves, and stem, 266 peach, fruit, kernels, flowers, and leaves, uses of, 139 pear, fruit, wood, and leaves, uses of, 146 pearl barley, how made, and uses of, 28 peas, cultivation and uses of, 185, 186 ----, everlasting, use of, 186 pepper, black, how cultivated and prepared for use, 13 ----, white, what it is, and how prepared, 13 ----, uses of, and how adulterated, 14 ----, long, description and uses of, 14, 15 ----, guinea, description and uses of, 57 perry, of what made, 147 peruvian bark, whence obtained, how prepared for, use, and uses of, 45 petals, 2 pimento, description and cultivation of, 138, 139 ----, how collected and prepared for use, and uses of, 138 pine, weymouth, description and uses of, 235 pines, fruit, description, history, cultivation, and uses of, 87 pistil, 2 pitch, how prepared, and uses of, 234, 235 plane tree, description and uses of, 230 plantain tree, description and uses of, 259 plum, common, description and uses of, 143 ----, french, 44 ----, bullace, fruit, flowers, and wood, uses of, 144 pomegranate, description and uses of, 141, 142 pontac wine, 66 pontefract cakes, how made, and uses of, 187 poplar, great white, description and uses of, 253, 254 ----, trembling, 254 ----, black, 254 ----, lombardy or italian, 255 poppy, white, description, cultivation, and uses of, 154, 155 port-wine, 65 potatoe, roots, stalks, and apples, uses of, 54-56 pounce, from what prepared, 257 prunes, 144 puff-ball, description and use of, 275 pumpkin or pompion, description and uses of, 208 q. quassia, description, history, and uses of, 134, 135 quince, description and uses of, 149, 150 quincy berries. see currants, black. r. rack or arrack, from what prepared, 218 raisins, how prepared, and uses of, 70 rape, culture and uses of, 70 raspberry, uses of, 152 ----, brandy, how made, 152 rattan, description and uses of, 100 receptacle, 3 reed, common, uses of, 36 resin, common and yellow, how prepared, and uses of, 233 rhenish wine, 67 rhubarb, officinal or turkey, how obtained, and uses of, 123 ----, how cultivated in england, 124 rhubarb, common, description and uses of, 125 rice, description, culture, and preparation of, 104-106 ----, uses of, 105 rush, common, description, preparation, and uses of, 102 root of scarcity. see mangel wurzel. rose, common garden, uses of, 150 ----, hep or wild briar, flowers, fruit, and leaves, 151 ----, red officinal, uses of, 152 roses, ottar or oil of, how made, 150 ----, conserve and syrup of, 150 ----, honey of, 152 rose wood, description and uses of, 110 rosin. see resin. rotang. see dragon's blood-tree. rota wine, 66 rum, how prepared, 23 rye, uses of, 28 s. saffron, description, culture, preparation, and uses of, 16, 17 sago, description, preparation, and uses of, 255 saint-foin, description, cultivation, and uses of, 187 salad oil. see olive oil. salep, what it is, how prepared, and uses of, 202 sallow, common, 244 saloop, what it is, 121 samphire, rock, how obtained and uses of, 76 ----, marsh, 76 sandal wood, description and use of, 40 sap-green, of what made, 57 sassafras, description and uses of, 121 saunders, yellow, description and use of, 40 saxon, blue and green, what made from, 189 scammony, what, how obtained, and uses of, 44 sea kale, description, mode of culture, and uses of, 171 seed vessel, 2 semolina, of what made, and use of, 26 senna, description and uses of, 125 shaddock, description and uses of, 195 shalot, description and uses of, 90 sherry wine, 66 shoe-maker's wax, of what made, 235 sloe, fruit, flowers, bark, leaves, and wood, uses of, 145 smouch, what it is, 164 snuff, how made, 52 soda. see barilla. sour-crout, of what made, 176 sour-gourd, description and uses of, 178 sowins, 24 soy, description, preparation, and use of, 133 spanish black, of what made, 226 spart. see broom. spruce, essence of, from what prepared, and uses of, 236 spunk or touchwood, description and use of, 277 squinancy berries. see currants, black. stamens, 2 starch, prepared from different vegetable productions, 25, 55, 107, 219, 221 stone blue, what made from, 189 storax, description, mode of obtaining, and use of, 131 stramonium, description, properties, and uses of, 50 strawberries, uses of, 153 sugar, how manufactured, 19, 20 ----, muscovado or raw, and clayed, 21 ----, how refined, 21 ----, loaf or lump, 22 ----, candy, how made, 22 ----, uses of, 22 ----, cane, description and cultivation of, 19 ----, mode of obtaining sugar from, 20 sunflowers, description and uses of, 201 sycamore tree, description and uses of, 111, 112 t. tallow tree, description and uses of, 240 tamarinds, description, preparation, and use of, 177 tapioca, description, preparation, and use of, 239 tar, how prepared, and uses of, 234 ----, water, 234 tarragon, description and use of, 200 ----, vinegar, how prepared, 200 tea, tree, description and culture of, 159, 160 ----, how collected, dried, and packed, 159 ----, how used by the chinese and japanese, 160 ----, difference between black and green, 160 ----, green, how prepared, 162 ----, bohea, why so called, and how prepared, 160 ----, congo, souchong, and pekoe, 161, 162 ----, singlo, hyson, and gunpowder, 162, 163 ----, history of the use of in europe, 163 ----, trade and uses of, 163 ----, how adulterated, 164 teak tree, description and uses of, 59 teasel, description and uses of, 38 teneriffe wine, 68 tent wine, 67 tobacco, description, culture, preparation, and uses of, 50 toddy, from what prepared, 218 tokay wine, how made, 67 tolu, balsam, how obtained, and uses of, 128 touchwood, description and use of, 277 treacle, how made, 21 truffles, description of, how procured, and use of, 275 tulip tree, description and uses of, 167 turmeric, description and use of, 9 turnips, cultivation and uses of, 174, 175 turpentine, common, how obtained, and uses of, 233 ----, oil of, 233 ----, venice, of what prepared, and use of, 237 v. varnish, black, of china, what, 123 ----, copal, how prepared and use of, 83 vegetables, 1 verjuice, from what prepared, and uses, 69, 147 vermicelli, how made, and use of, 27 vermix, 256 vetches, description, culture, and uses of, 185 vin de grave, 66 vine, twigs, leaves, tendrils, and wood, uses of, 69 vines and vineyards, account of, 63, 64 vomic nut. see nux vomica. w. walnut-tree, wood and fruit, uses of, 227 water-flag, yellow, description and uses of, 18 weld, description and uses of, 136 wheat, cultivation and uses of, 24 ----, starch and sugar prepared from, 25 ----, bran and straw, uses of, 26 ----, macaroni and semolina prepared from, 26 willow. see osier. wine, how made, 64 ----, portuguese, 65 ----, french and spanish, 65 ----, italian and german, 67 ----, madeira and teneriffe, 68 ----, cape, 69 withy. see osier. woad, description, culture, preparation, and use of, 171 wortleberries, use of, 113 y. yams, description and uses of, 252 ----, cultivated in scotland, 253 yeast, how to preserve for use, 228 yew tree, description, uses, and poisonous qualities of, 257 end of vol. ii. c. baldwin, printer, new bridge-street, london. notes [1] _ammomum cardamomum_, linn.--_eletteria cardamomum_, maton in linn. tran. x. p. 254. [2] the grasses are so numerous, and the describing of them in such manner as to be understood by an inexperienced person would be attended with so much difficulty, that it has been considered more advantageous to the reader, to admit, in this place, only some of the most important kinds; and merely to speak of their uses, referring to the figures for their further illustration. [3] this grass has only two stamens, and consequently belongs to the class diandria, but it is placed here for the sake of general uniformity. [4] several other trees besides this produce the red kind of resin called dragon's blood. transcriber's note: a few typographical errors have been corrected: they are listed at the end of the text. the errata on page viii, which were in the original book, have been applied to this e-text. page numbers within curly brackets (such as {iii} and {27} have been included so that the reader might use the index. the variation of animals and plants under domestication. by charles darwin, m.a., f.r.s., &c. in two volumes.--vol. ii. with illustrations. london: john murray, albemarle street. 1868. the right of translation is reserved. london: printed by william clowes and sons, stamford street, and charing cross. {iii} contents of volume ii. chapter xii. inheritance. wonderful nature of inheritance--pedigrees of our domesticated animals--inheritance not due to chance--trifling characters inherited--diseases inherited--peculiarities in the eye inherited--diseases in the horse--longevity and vigour--asymmetrical deviations of structure--polydactylism and regrowth of supernumerary digits after amputation--cases of several children similarly affected from non-affected parents--weak and fluctuating inheritance: in weeping trees, in dwarfness, colour of fruit and flowers, colour of horses--non-inheritance in certain cases--inheritance of structure and habits overborne by hostile conditions of life, by incessantly recurring variability, and by reversion--conclusion ... page 1 chapter xiii. inheritance _continued_--reversion or atavism. different forms of reversion--in pure or uncrossed breeds, as in pigeons, fowls, hornless cattle and sheep, in cultivated plants--reversion in feral animals and plants--reversion in crossed varieties and species--reversion through bud-propagation, and by segments in the same flower or fruit--in different parts of the body in the same animal--the act of crossing a direct cause of reversion, various cases of, with instincts--other proximate causes of reversion--latent characters--secondary sexual characters--unequal development of the two sides of the body--appearance with advancing age of characters derived from a cross--the germ with all its latent characters a wonderful object--monstrosities--peloric flowers due in some cases to reversion ... page 28 chapter xiv. inheritance _continued_--fixedness of character--prepotency--sexual limitation--correspondence of age. fixedness of character apparently not due to antiquity of inheritance--prepotency of transmission in individuals of the same family, in crossed breeds and species; often stronger in one sex than the other; sometimes due to the same character being present and visible in one breed and latent in the other--inheritance as limited by sex--newly-acquired characters in our domesticated animals often transmitted by one sex alone, sometimes lost by one sex alone--inheritance at corresponding periods of life--the importance of the principle with respect to embryology; as exhibited in domesticated animals; as exhibited in the appearance and disappearance of inherited diseases; sometimes supervening earlier in the child than in the parent--summary of the three preceding chapters ... page 62 {iv} chapter xv. on crossing. free intercrossing obliterates the differences between allied breeds--when the numbers of two commingling breeds are unequal, one absorbs the other--the rate of absorption determined by prepotency of transmission, by the conditions of life, and by natural selection--all organic beings occasionally intercross; apparent exceptions--on certain characters incapable of fusion; chiefly or exclusively those which have suddenly appeared in the individual--on the modification of old races, and the formation of new races, by crossing--some crossed races have bred true from their first production--on the crossing of distinct species in relation to the formation of domestic races ... page 85 chapter xvi. causes which interfere with the free crossing of varieties--influence of domestication on fertility. difficulties in judging of the fertility of varieties when crossed--various causes which keep varieties distinct, as the period of breeding and sexual preference--varieties of wheat said to be sterile when crossed--varieties of maize, verbascum, hollyhock, gourds, melons, and tobacco, rendered in some degree mutually sterile--domestication eliminates the tendency to sterility natural to species when crossed--on the increased fertility of uncrossed animals and plants from domestication and cultivation ... page 100 chapter xvii. on the good effects of crossing, and on the evil effects of close interbreeding. definition of close interbreeding--augmentation of morbid tendencies--general evidence on the good effects derived from crossing, and on the evil effects from close interbreeding--cattle, closely interbred; half-wild cattle long kept in the same parks--sheep--fallow-deer--dogs--rabbits--pigs--man, origin of his abhorrence of incestuous marriages--fowls--pigeons--hive-bees--plants, general considerations on the benefits derived from crossing--melons, fruit-trees, peas, cabbages, wheat, and forest-trees--on the increased size of hybrid plants, not exclusively due to their sterility--on certain plants which either normally or abnormally are self-impotent, but are fertile, both on the male and female side, when crossed with distinct individuals either of the same or another species--conclusion ... page 114 {v} chapter xviii. on the advantages and disadvantages of changed conditions of life: sterility from various causes. on the good derived from slight changes in the conditions of life--sterility from changed conditions, in animals, in their native country and in menageries--mammals, birds, and insects--loss of secondary sexual characters and of instincts--causes of sterility--sterility of domesticated animals from changed conditions--sexual incompatibility of individual animals--sterility of plants from changed conditions of life--contabescence of the anthers--monstrosities as a cause of sterility--double flowers--seedless fruit--sterility from the excessive development of the organs of vegetation--from long-continued propagation by buds--incipient sterility the primary cause of double flowers and seedless fruit ... page 145 chapter xix. summary of the four last chapters, with remarks on hybridism. on the effects of crossing--the influence of domestication on fertility--close interbreeding--good and evil results from changed conditions of life--varieties when crossed not invariably fertile--on the difference in fertility between crossed species and varieties--conclusions with respect to hybridism--light thrown on hybridism by the illegitimate progeny of dimorphic and trimorphic plants--sterility of crossed species due to differences confined to the reproductive system--not accumulated through natural selection--reasons why domestic varieties are not mutually sterile--too much stress has been laid on the difference in fertility between crossed species and crossed varieties--conclusion ... page 173 chapter xx. selection by man. selection a difficult art--methodical, unconscious, and natural selection--results of methodical selection--care taken in selection--selection with plants--selection carried on by the ancients, and by semi-civilised people--unimportant characters often attended to--unconscious selection--as circumstances slowly change, so have our domesticated animals changed through the action of unconscious selection--influence of different breeders on the same sub-variety--plants as affected by unconscious selection--effects of selection as shown by the great amount of difference in the parts most valued by man ... page 192 {vi} chapter xxi. selection--_continued._ natural selection as affecting domestic productions--characters which appear of trifling value often of real importance--circumstances favourable to selection by man--facility in preventing crosses, and the nature of the conditions--close attention and perseverance indispensable--the production of a large number of individuals especially favourable--when no selection is applied, distinct races are not formed--highly-bred animals liable to degeneration--tendency in man to carry the selection of each character to an extreme point, leading to divergence of character, rarely to convergence--characters continuing to vary in the same direction in which they have already varied--divergence of character, with the extinction of intermediate varieties, leads to distinctness in our domestic races--limit to the power of selection--lapse of time important--manner in which domestic races have originated--summary ... page 224 chapter xxii. causes of variability. variability does not necessarily accompany reproduction--causes assigned by various authors--individual differences--variability of every kind due to changed conditions of life--on the nature of such changes--climate, food, excess of nutriment--slight changes sufficient--effects of grafting on the variability of seedling-trees--domestic productions become habituated to changed conditions--on the accumulative action of changed conditions--close interbreeding and the imagination of the mother supposed to cause variability--crossing as a cause of the appearance of new characters--variability from the commingling of characters and from reversion--on the manner and period of action of the causes which either directly, or indirectly through the reproductive system, induce variability ... page 250 chapter xxiii. direct and definite action of the external conditions of life. slight modifications in plants from the definite action of changed conditions, in size, colour, chemical properties, and in the state of the tissues--local diseases--conspicuous modifications from changed climate or food, etc.--plumage of birds affected by peculiar nutriment, and by the inoculation of poison--land-shells--modifications of organic beings in a state of nature through the definite action of external conditions--comparison of american and european trees--galls--effects of parasitic fungi--considerations opposed to the belief in the potent influence of changed external conditions--parallel series of varieties--amount of variation does not correspond with the degree of change in the conditions--bud-variation--monstrosities produced by unnatural treatment--summary ... page 271 {vii} chapter xxiv. laws of variation--use and disuse, etc. nisus formativus, or the co-ordinating power of the organisation--on the effects of the increased use and disuse of organs--changed habits of life--acclimatisation with animals and plants--various methods by which this can be effected--arrests of development--rudimentary organs ... page 293 chapter xxv. laws of variation, _continued_--correlated variability. explanation of term--correlation as connected with development--modifications correlated with the increased or decreased size of parts--correlated variation of homologous parts--feathered feet in birds assuming the structure of the wings--correlation between the head and the extremities--between the skin and dermal appendages--between the organs of sight and hearing--correlated modifications in the organs of plants--correlated monstrosities--correlation between the skull and ears--skull and crest of feathers--skull and horns--correlation of growth complicated by the accumulated effects of natural selection--colour as correlated with constitutional peculiarities ... page 319 chapter xxvi. laws of variation, _continued_--summary. on the affinity and cohesion of homologous parts--on the variability of multiple and homologous parts--compensation of growth--mechanical pressure--relative position of flowers with respect to the axis of the plant, and of seeds in the capsule, as inducing variation--analogous or parallel varieties--summary of the three last chapters ... page 339 chapter xxvii. provisional hypothesis of pangenesis. preliminary remarks--first part:--the facts to be connected under a single point of view, namely, the various kinds of reproduction--the direct action of the male element on the female--development--the functional independence of the elements or units of the body--variability--inheritance--reversion. second part:--statement of the hypothesis--how far the necessary assumptions are improbable--explanation by aid of the hypothesis of the several classes of facts specified in the first part--conclusion ... page 357 {viii} chapter xxviii. concluding remarks. domestication--nature and causes of variability--selection--divergence and distinctness of character--extinction of races--circumstances favourable to selection by man--antiquity of certain races--the question whether each particular variation has been specially preordained ... page 405 index ... page 433 * * * * * errata. vol. ii., pp. 18, 232, 258, for cratægus oxycantha, read oxyacantha. ,, p. 98, 8 lines from top, for dianthus armoria read armeria. ,, ,, 156, 15 lines from bottom, for casuarinus read casuarius. ,, ,, ,, 4 lines from bottom, for grus cineria read cinerea. ,, ,, 168, 11 lines from top, for oesculus read æsculus. ,, ,, 300, 3 lines from top, for anastomising read anastomosing. ,, ,, ,, foot-note, for birckell read brickell. * * * * * {1} the variation of animals and plants under domestication. * * * * * chapter xii. inheritance. wonderful nature of inheritance--pedigrees of our domesticated animals--inheritance not due to chance--trifling characters inherited--diseases inherited--peculiarities in the eye inherited--diseases in the horse--longevity and vigour--asymmetrical deviations of structure--polydactylism and regrowth of supernumerary digits after amputation--cases of several children similarly affected from non-affected parents--weak and fluctuating inheritance: in weeping trees, in dwarfness, colour of fruit and flowers, colour of horses--non-inheritance in certain cases--inheritance of structure and habits overborne by hostile conditions of life, by incessantly recurring variability, and by reversion--conclusion. the subject of inheritance is an immense one, and has been treated by many authors. one work alone, 'de l'hérédité naturelle,' by dr. prosper lucas, runs to the length of 1562 pages. we must confine ourselves to certain points which have an important bearing on the general subject of variation, both with domestic and natural productions. it is obvious that a variation which is not inherited throws no light on the derivation of species, nor is of any service to man, except in the case of perennial plants, which can be propagated by buds. if animals and plants had never been domesticated, and wild ones alone had been observed, we should probably never have heard the saying, that "like begets like." the proposition would have been as self-evident, as that all the buds on the same tree are alike, though neither proposition is strictly true. for, as has often been remarked, probably no two individuals are {2} identically the same. all wild animals recognise each other, which shows that there is some difference between them; and when the eye is well practised, the shepherd knows each sheep, and man can distinguish a fellow-man out of millions on millions of other men. some authors have gone so far as to maintain that the production of slight differences is as much a necessary function of the powers of generation, as the production of offspring like their parents. this view, as we shall see in a future chapter, is not theoretically probable, though practically it holds good. the saying that "like begets like" has in fact arisen from the perfect confidence felt by breeders, that a superior or inferior animal will generally reproduce its kind; but this very superiority or inferiority shows that the individual in question has departed slightly from its type. the whole subject of inheritance is wonderful. when a new character arises, whatever its nature may be, it generally tends to be inherited, at least in a temporary and sometimes in a most persistent manner. what can be more wonderful than that some trifling peculiarity, not primordially attached to the species, should be transmitted through the male or female sexual cells, which are so minute as not to be visible to the naked eye, and afterwards through the incessant changes of a long course of development, undergone either in the womb or in the egg, and ultimately appear in the offspring when mature, or even when quite old, as in the case of certain diseases? or again, what can be more wonderful than the well-ascertained fact that the minute ovule of a good milking cow will produce a male, from whom a cell, in union with an ovule, will produce a female, and she, when mature, will have large mammary glands, yielding an abundant supply of milk, and even milk of a particular quality? nevertheless, the real subject of surprise is, as sir h. holland has well remarked,[1] not that a character should be inherited, but that any should ever fail to be inherited. in a future chapter, devoted to an hypothesis which i have termed pangenesis, an attempt will be made to show the means by which characters of all kinds are transmitted from generation to generation. {3} some writers,[2] who have not attended to natural history, have attempted to show that the force of inheritance has been much exaggerated. the breeders of animals would smile at such simplicity; and if they condescended to make any answer, might ask what would be the chance of winning a prize if two inferior animals were paired together? they might ask whether the half-wild arabs were led by theoretical notions to keep pedigrees of their horses? why have pedigrees been scrupulously kept and published of the shorthorn cattle, and more recently of the hereford breed? is it an illusion that these recently improved animals safely transmit their excellent qualities even when crossed with other breeds? have the shorthorns, without good reason, been purchased at immense prices and exported to almost every quarter of the globe, a thousand guineas having been given for a bull? with greyhounds pedigrees have likewise been kept, and the names of such dogs, as snowball, major, &c., are as well known to coursers as those of eclipse and herod on the turf. even with the gamecock pedigrees of famous strains were formerly kept, and extended back for a century. with pigs, the yorkshire and cumberland breeders "preserve and print pedigrees;" and to show how such highly-bred animals are valued, i may mention that mr. brown, who won all the first prizes for small breeds at birmingham in 1850, sold a young sow and boar of his breed to lord ducie for 43 guineas; the sow alone was afterwards sold to the rev. f. thursby for 65 guineas; who writes, "she paid me very well, having sold her produce for 300_l_., and having now four breeding sows from her."[3] hard cash paid down, over and over again, is an excellent test of inherited superiority. in fact, the whole art of breeding, from which such great results have been attained during the present century, depends on the inheritance of each small {4} detail of structure. but inheritance is not certain; for if it were, the breeder's art[4] would be reduced to a certainty, and there would be little scope left for all that skill and perseverance shown by the men who have left an enduring monument of their success in the present state of our domesticated animals. it is hardly possible, within a moderate compass, to impress on the mind of those who have not attended to the subject, the full conviction of the force of inheritance which is slowly acquired by rearing animals, by studying the many treatises which have been published on the various domestic animals, and by conversing with breeders. i will select a few facts of the kind, which, as far as i can judge, have most influenced my own mind. with man and the domestic animals, certain peculiarities have appeared in an individual, at rare intervals, or only once or twice in the history of the world, but have reappeared in several of the children and grandchildren. thus lambert, "the porcupine-man," whose skin was thickly covered with warty projections, which were periodically moulted, had all his six children and two grandsons similarly affected.[5] the face and body being covered with long hair, accompanied by deficient teeth (to which i shall hereafter refer), occurred in three successive generations in a siamese family; but this case is not unique, as a woman[6] with a completely hairy face was exhibited in london in 1663, and another instance has recently occurred. colonel hallam[7] has described a race of two-legged pigs, "the hinder extremities being entirely wanting;" and this deficiency was transmitted through three generations. in fact, all races presenting any remarkable peculiarity, such as solid-hoofed swine, mauchamp sheep, niata cattle, &c., are instances of the long-continued inheritance of rare deviations of structure. when we reflect that certain extraordinary peculiarities have {5} thus appeared in a single individual out of many millions, all exposed in the same country to the same general conditions of life, and, again, that the same extraordinary peculiarity has sometimes appeared in individuals living under widely different conditions of life, we are driven to conclude that such peculiarities are not directly due to the action of the surrounding conditions, but to unknown laws acting on the organisation or constitution of the individual;--that their production stands in hardly closer relation to the conditions than does life itself. if this be so, and the occurrence of the same unusual character in the child and parent cannot be attributed to both having been exposed to the same unusual conditions, then the following problem is worth consideration, as showing that the result cannot be due, as some authors have supposed, to mere coincidence, but must be consequent on the members of the same family inheriting something in common in their constitution. let it be assumed that, in a large population, a particular affection occurs on an average in one out of a million, so that the _à priori_ chance that an individual taken at random will be so affected is only one in a million. let the population consist of sixty millions, composed, we will assume, of ten million families, each containing six members. on these data, professor stokes has calculated for me that the odds will be no less than 8333 millions to 1 that in the ten million families there will not be even a single family in which one parent and two children will be affected by the peculiarity in question. but numerous cases could be given, in which several children have been affected by the same rare peculiarity with one of their parents; and in this case, more especially if the grandchildren be included in the calculation, the odds against mere coincidence become something prodigious, almost beyond enumeration. in some respects the evidence of inheritance is more striking when we consider the reappearance of trifling peculiarities. dr. hodgkin formerly told me of an english family in which, for many generations, some members had a single lock differently coloured from the rest of the hair. i knew an irish gentleman, who, on the right side of his head, had a small white lock in the midst of his dark hair: he assured me that his grandmother had {6} a similar lock on the same side, and his mother on the opposite side. but it is superfluous to give instances; every shade of expression, which may often be seen alike in parents and children, tells the same story. on what a curious combination of corporeal structure, mental character, and training, must handwriting depend! yet every one must have noted the occasional close similarity of the handwriting in father and son, although the father had not taught his son. a great collector of franks assured me that in his collection there were several franks of father and son hardly distinguishable except by their dates. hofacker, in germany, remarks on the inheritance of handwriting; and it has even been asserted that english boys when taught to write in france naturally cling to their english manner of writing.[8] gait, gestures, voice, and general bearing are all inherited, as the illustrious hunter and sir a. carlisle have insisted.[9] my father communicated to me two or three striking instances, in one of which a man died during the early infancy of his son, and my father, who did not see this son until grown up and out of health, declared that it seemed to him as if his old friend had risen from the grave, with all his highly peculiar habits and manners. peculiar manners pass into tricks, and several instances could be given of their inheritance; as in the case, often quoted, of the father who generally slept on his back, with his right leg crossed over the left, and whose daughter, whilst an infant in the cradle, followed exactly the same habit, though an attempt was made to cure her.[10] i will give one instance which has fallen under my own observation, and which is curious from being a trick associated with a peculiar state of mind, namely, pleasurable emotion. a boy had the singular habit, when pleased, of rapidly moving his fingers parallel to each other, and, when much excited, of raising both hands, with the fingers still moving, to the sides of his face on a level with the eyes; this boy, when almost an old man, could still hardly resist this trick when much pleased, but from its absurdity concealed it. he had eight children. of these, a girl, when {7} pleased, at the age of four and a half years, moved her fingers in exactly the same way, and what is still odder, when much excited, the raised both her hands, with her fingers still moving, to the sides of her face, in exactly the same manner as her father had done, and sometimes even still continued to do when alone. i never heard of any one excepting this one man and his little daughter who had this strange habit; and certainly imitation was in this instance out of the question. some writers have doubted whether those complex mental attributes, on which genius and talent depend, are inherited, even when both parents are thus endowed. but he who will read mr. galton's able paper[11] on hereditary talent will have his doubts allayed. unfortunately it matters not, as far as inheritance is concerned, how injurious a quality or structure may be if compatible with life. no one can read the many treatises[12] on hereditary disease and doubt this. the ancients were strongly of this opinion, or, as ranchin expresses it, _omnes græci, arabes, et latini in eo consentiunt_. a long catalogue could be given of all sorts of inherited malformations and of predisposition to various diseases. with gout, fifty per cent. of the cases observed in hospital practice are, according to dr. garrod, inherited, and a greater percentage in private practice. every one knows how often insanity runs in families, and some of the cases given by mr. sedgwick are awful,--as of a surgeon, whose brother, father, and four paternal uncles were all insane, the latter dying by suicide; of a jew, whose father, mother, and six brothers and sisters were all mad; and in some other cases several members of the same family, during three or four successive generations, have committed suicide. striking instances {8} have been recorded of epilepsy, consumption, asthma, stone in the bladder, cancer, profuse bleeding from the slightest injuries, of the mother not giving milk, and of bad parturition being inherited. in this latter respect i may mention an odd case given by a good observer,[13] in which the fault lay in the offspring, and not in the mother: in a part of yorkshire the farmers continued to select cattle with large hind-quarters, until they made a strain called "dutch-buttocked," and "the monstrous size of the buttocks of the calf was frequently fatal to the cow, and numbers of cows were annually lost in calving." instead of giving numerous details on various inherited malformations and diseases, i will confine myself to one organ, that which is the most complex, delicate, and probably best-known in the human frame, namely, the eye, with its accessory parts. to begin with the latter: i have heard of a family in which parents and children were affected by drooping eyelids, in so peculiar a manner, that they could not see without throwing their heads backwards; and sir a. carlisle[14] specifies a pendulous fold to the eyelids as inherited. "in a family," says sir h. holland,[15] "where the father had a singular elongation of the upper eyelid, seven or eight children were born with the same deformity; two or three other children having it not." many persons, as i year from mr. paget, have two or three of the hairs in their eyebrows (apparently corresponding with the vibrissæ of the lower animals) much longer than the others; and even so trifling a peculiarity as this certainly runs in families. with respect to the eye itself, the highest authority in england, mr. bowman, has been so kind as to give me the following remarks on certain inherited imperfections. first, hypermetropia, or morbidly long sight: in this affection, the organ, instead of being spherical, is too flat from front to back, and is often altogether too small, so that the retina is brought too forward for the focus of the humours; consequently a convex glass is required for clear vision of near objects, and frequently even of distant ones. this state occurs congenitally, or at a very early age, often in several children of the same family, where one of the parents has presented it.[16] secondly, myopia, or short-sight, in which the eye is egg-shaped, and too long from front to back; the retina in this case lies behind the focus, and is therefore fitted to see distinctly only very near objects. this condition is not commonly congenital, but comes on in youth, the liability to it being well known to be transmissible from parent to child. the change from the spherical to the ovoidal shape seems the immediate {9} consequence of something like inflammation of the coats, under which they yield, and there is ground for believing that it may often originate in causes acting directly on the individual affected, and may thenceforward become transmissible. when both parents are myopic mr. bowman has observed the hereditary tendency in this direction to be heightened, and some of the children to be myopic at an earlier age or in a higher degree than their parents. thirdly, squinting is a familiar example of hereditary transmission: it is frequently a result of such optical defects as have been above mentioned; but the more primary and uncomplicated forms of it are also sometimes in a marked degree transmitted in a family. fourthly, _cataract_, or opacity of the crystalline lens, is commonly observed in persons whose parents have been similarly affected, and often at an earlier age in the children than in the parents. occasionally more than one child in a family is thus afflicted, one of whose parents or other relation presents the senile form of the complaint. when cataract affects several members of a family in the same generation, it is often seen to commence at about the same age in each; _e.g._, in one family several infants or young persons may suffer from it; in another, several persons of middle age. mr. bowman also informs me that he has occasionally seen, in several members of the same family, various defects in either the right or left eye; and mr. white cooper has often seen peculiarities of vision confined to one eye reappearing in the same eye in the offspring.[17] the following cases are taken from an able paper by mr. w. sedgwick, and from dr. prosper lucas.[18] amaurosis, either congenital or coming on late in life, and causing total blindness, is often inherited; it has been observed in three successive generations. congenital absence of the iris has likewise been transmitted for three generations, a cleft-iris for four generations, being limited in this latter case to the males of the family. opacity of the cornea and congenital smallness of the eyes have been inherited. portal records a curious case, in which a father and two sons were rendered blind, whenever the head was bent downwards, apparently owing to the crystalline lens, with its capsule, slipping through an unusually large pupil into the anterior chamber of the eye. day-blindness, or imperfect vision under a bright light, is inherited, as is night-blindness, or an incapacity to see except under a strong light: a case has been recorded, by m. cunier, of this latter defect having affected eighty-five members of the same family during six generations. the singular incapacity of distinguishing colours, which has been called _daltonism_, is notoriously hereditary, and has been traced through five generations, in which it was confined to the female sex. with respect to the colour of the iris: deficiency of colouring matter is well known to be hereditary in albinoes. the iris of one eye being of a different colour from that of the other, and the iris being spotted, are cases which have been inherited. mr. sedgwick gives, in addition, on the {10} authority of dr. osborne,[19] the following curious instance of strong inheritance: a family of sixteen sons and five daughters all had eyes "resembling in miniature the markings on the back of a tortoiseshell cat." the mother of this large family had three sisters and a brother all similarly marked, and they derived this peculiarity from their mother, who belonged to a family notorious for transmitting it to their posterity. finally, dr. lucas emphatically remarks that there is not one single faculty of the eye which is not subject to anomalies; and not one which is not subjected to the principle of inheritance. mr. bowman agrees with the general truth of this proposition; which of course does not imply that all malformations are necessarily inherited; this would not even follow if both parents were affected by an anomaly which in most cases was transmissible. even if no single fact had been known with respect to the inheritance of disease and malformations by man, the evidence would have been ample in the case of the horse. and this might have been expected, as horses breed much quicker than man, are matched with care, and are highly valued. i have consulted many works, and the unanimity of the belief by veterinaries of all nations in the transmission of various morbid tendencies is surprising. authors, who have had wide experience, give in detail many singular cases, and assert that contracted feet, with the numerous contingent evils, of ring-bones, curbs, splints, spavin, founder and weakness of the front legs, roaring or broken and thick wind, melanosis, specific ophthalmia, and blindness (the great french veterinary hazard going so far as to say that a blind race could soon be formed), crib-biting, jibbing, and ill-temper, are all plainly hereditary. youatt sums up by saying "there is scarcely a malady to which the horse is subject which is not hereditary;" and m. bernard adds that the doctrine "that there is scarcely a disease which does not run in the stock, is gaining new advocates every day."[20] so it {11} is in regard to cattle, with consumption, good and bad teeth, fine skin, &c. &c. but enough, and more than enough, has been said on disease. andrew knight, from his own experience, asserts that disease is hereditary with plants; and this assertion is endorsed by lindley.[21] seeing how hereditary evil qualities are, it is fortunate that good health, vigour, and longevity are equally inherited. it was formerly a well-known practice, when annuities were purchased to be received during the lifetime of a nominee, to search out a person belonging to a family of which many members had lived to extreme old age. as to the inheritance of vigour and endurance, the english race-horse offers an excellent instance. eclipse begot 334, and king herod 497 winners. a "cock-tail" is a horse not purely bred, but with only one-eighth or one-sixteenth impure blood in his veins, yet very few instances have ever occurred of such horses having won a great race. they are sometimes as fleet for short distances as thoroughbreds, but as mr. robson, the great trainer, asserts, they are deficient in wind, and cannot keep up the pace. mr. lawrence also remarks, "perhaps no instance has ever occurred of a three-part-bred horse saving his '_distance_' in running two miles with thoroughbred racers." it has been stated by cecil, that when unknown horses, whose parents were not celebrated, have unexpectedly won great races, as in the case of priam, they can always be proved to be descended on both sides, through many generations, from first-rate ancestors. on the continent, baron cameronn challenges, in a german veterinary periodical, the opponents of the english race-horse, to name one good horse on the continent which has not some english race-blood in his veins.[22] with respect to the transmission of the many slight, but {12} infinitely diversified characters, by which the domestic races of animals and plants are distinguished, nothing need be said; for the very existence of persistent races proclaims the power of inheritance. a few special cases, however, deserve some consideration. it might have been anticipated, that deviations from the law of symmetry would not have been inherited. but anderson[23] states that a rabbit produced in a litter a young animal having only one ear; and from this animal a breed was formed which steadily produced one-eared rabbits. he also mentions a bitch, with a single leg deficient, and she produced several puppies with the same deficiency. from hofacker's account[24] it appears that a one-horned stag was seen in 1781 in a forest in germany, in 1788 two, and afterwards, from year to year, many were observed with only one horn on the right side of the head. a cow lost a horn by suppuration,[25] and she produced three calves which had on the same side of the head, instead of a horn, a small bony lump attached merely to the skin; but we here approach the doubtful subject of inherited mutilations. a man who is left-handed, and a shell in which the spire turns in the wrong direction, are departures from the normal though a symmetrical condition, and they are well known to be inherited. _polydactylism._--supernumerary fingers and toes are eminently liable, as various authors have insisted, to transmission, but they are noticed here chiefly on account of their occasional regrowth after amputation. polydactylism graduates[26] by multifarious steps from a mere cutaneous appendage, not including any bone, to a double hand. but an additional digit, supported on a metacarpal bone, and furnished with all the proper muscles, nerves, and vessels, is sometimes so perfect, that it escapes detection, unless the fingers are actually counted. occasionally there are several supernumerary digits; but usually only one, making the total number six. this one may represent either a thumb or finger, being attached to the inner or outer margin of the hand. generally, through the law of correlation, both hands and feet are similarly affected. i have tabulated the cases recorded in various works or privately communicated {13} to me, of forty-six persons with extra digits on one or both hands and feet; if in each case all four extremities had been similarly affected, the table would have shown a total of ninety-two hands and ninety-two feet each with six digits. as it is, seventy-three hands and seventy-five feet were thus affected. this proves, in contradiction to the result arrived at by dr. struthers,[27] that the hands are not more frequently affected than the feet. the presence of more than five digits is a great anomaly, for this number is not normally exceeded by any mammal, bird, or existing reptile.[28] nevertheless, supernumerary digits are strongly inherited; they have been transmitted through five generations; and in some cases, after disappearing for one, two, or even three generations, have reappeared through reversion. these facts are rendered, as professor huxley has observed, more remarkable from its being known in most cases that the affected person had not married one similarly affected. in such cases the child of the fifth generation would have only 1-32nd part of the blood of his first sedigitated ancestor. other cases are rendered remarkable by the affection gathering force, as dr. struthers has shown, in each generation, though in each the affected person had married one not affected; moreover such additional digits are often amputated soon after birth, and can seldom have been strengthened by use. dr. struthers gives the following instance: in the first generation an additional digit appeared on one hand; in the second, on both hands; in the third, three brothers had both hands, and one of the brothers a foot affected; and in the fourth generation all four limbs were affected. yet we must not over-estimate the force of inheritance. dr. struthers asserts that cases of non-inheritance and of the first appearance of additional digits in unaffected families are much more frequent than cases of inheritance. many other deviations of structure, of a nature almost as anomalous as supernumerary digits, such as deficient phalanges, thickened joints, crooked fingers, &c., are in like manner strongly inherited, and are equally subject to intermission with reversion, though in such cases there is no reason to suppose that both parents had been similarly affected.[29] {14} additional digits have been observed in negroes as well as in other races of man, and in several of the lower animals. six toes have been described on the hind feet of the newt (_salamandra cristata_), and, as it is said, of the frog. it deserves notice from what follows, that the six-toed newt, though adult, had preserved some of its larval characters; for part of the hyoidal apparatus, which is properly absorbed during the act of metamorphosis, was retained. in the dog, six toes on the hinder feet have been transmitted through three generations; and i have heard of a race of six-toed cats. in several breeds of the fowl the hinder toe is double, and is generally transmitted truly, as is well shown when dorkings are crossed with common four-toed breeds.[30] with animals which have properly less than five digits, the number is sometimes increased to five, especially in the front legs, though rarely carried beyond that number; but this is due to the development of a digit already existing in a more or less rudimentary state. thus the dog has properly four toes behind, but in the larger breeds a fifth toe is commonly, though not perfectly, developed. horses, which properly have one toe alone fully developed with rudiments of the others, have been described with each foot bearing two or three small separate hoofs: analogous facts have been noticed with sheep, goats, and pigs.[31] the most interesting point with respect to supernumerary digits is their occasional regrowth after amputation. mr. white[32] describes a child, three years old, with a thumb double from the first joint. he removed the lesser thumb, which was furnished with a nail; but to his astonishment it grew again, and reproduced a nail. the child was then taken to an eminent london surgeon, and the newly-grown thumb was wholly removed by its socket-joint, but again it grew and reproduced a nail. dr. struthers mentions a case of partial regrowth of an additional thumb, amputated when the child was three months old; and the late dr. falconer communicated to me an analogous case which had fallen under his own observation. a gentleman, who first called my attention to this subject, has given me the following facts which occurred in his own family. he himself, two brothers, and a sister were born with an extra digit to each extremity. his parents were not affected, and there was no tradition in the family, or in the village in which the family had long resided, of any member having been thus affected. whilst a child, both additional toes, which were attached by bones, were rudely cut off; but the stump of one grew again, and a second operation was performed in his thirty-third year. {15} he has had fourteen children, of whom three have inherited additional digits; and one of them, when about six weeks old, was operated on by an eminent surgeon. the additional finger, which was attached by bone to the outer side of the hand, was removed at the joint; the wound healed, but immediately the digit began growing; and in about three months' time the stump was removed for the second time by the root. but it has since grown again, and is now fully a third of an inch in length, including a bone; so that it will for the third time have to be operated on. now the normal digits in adult man and other mammals, in birds, and, as i believe, in true reptiles, have no power of regrowth. the nearest approach to this power is exhibited by the occasional reappearance in man of imperfect nails on the stumps of his fingers after amputation.[33] but man in his embryonic condition has a considerable power of reproduction, for sir j. simpson[34] has several times observed arms which had been cut off in the womb by bands of false membrane, and which had grown again to a certain extent. in one instance, the extremity was "divided into three minute nodules, on two of which small points of nails could be detected;" so that these nodules clearly represented fingers in process of regrowth. when, however, we descend to the lower vertebrate classes, which are generally looked at as representing the higher classes in their embryonic condition, we find ample powers of regrowth. spallanzani[35] cut off the legs and tail of a salamander six times, and bonnet eight times, successively, and they were reproduced. an additional digit beyond the proper number was occasionally formed after bonnet had cut off or had divided longitudinally the hand or foot, and in one instance three additional digits were thus formed.[36] these latter cases appear at first sight quite distinct from the congenital production of additional digits in the higher animals; but theoretically, as we shall see in a future chapter, they probably present no real difference. the larvæ or tadpoles of the tailless batrachians, but not the adults,[37] are capable of reproducing lost members.[38] lastly, as i have been informed by mr. j. j. briggs and mr. f. buckland, when portions of the pectoral and tail fins of various {16} fresh-water fish are cut off, they are perfectly reproduced in about six weeks' time. from these several facts we may infer that supernumerary digits in man retain to a certain extent an embryonic condition, and that they resemble in this respect the normal digits and limbs in the lower vertebrate classes. they also resemble the digits of some of the lower animals in the number exceeding five; for no mammal, bird, existing reptile, or amphibian (unless the tubercle on the hind feet of the toad and other tailless batrachians be viewed as a digit) has more than five; whilst fishes sometimes have in their pectoral fins as many as twenty metacarpal and phalangeal bones, which, together with the bony filaments, apparently represent our digits with their nails. so, again, in certain extinct reptiles, namely, the ichthyopterygia, "the digits may be seven, eight, or nine in number, a significant mark," says professor owen, "of piscine affinity."[39] we encounter much difficulty in attempting to reduce these various facts to any rule or law. the inconstant number of the additional digits--their irregular attachment to either the inner or outer margin of the hand--the gradation which can be traced from a mere loose rudiment of a single digit to a completely double hand--the occasional appearance of additional digits in the salamander after a limb has been amputated--these various facts appear to indicate mere fluctuating monstrosity; and this perhaps is all that can be safely said. nevertheless, as supernumerary digits in the higher animals, from their power of regrowth and from the number thus acquired exceeding five, partake of the nature of the digits in the lower vertebrate animals;--as they occur by no means rarely, and are transmitted with remarkable strength, though perhaps not more strongly than some other anomalies;--and as with animals which have fewer than five digits, when an additional one appears it is generally due to the development of a visible rudiment;--we are led in all cases to suspect, that, although no actual rudiment can be detected, yet that a latent tendency to the formation of an additional digit exists in all mammals, including man. on this view, as we shall more plainly see in the {17} next chapter when discussing latent tendencies, we should have to look at the whole case as one of reversion to an enormously remote, lowly-organised, and multidigitate progenitor. * * * * * i may here allude to a class of facts closely allied to, but somewhat different from, ordinary cases of inheritance. sir h. holland[40] states that brothers and sisters of the same family are frequently affected, often at about the same age, by the same peculiar disease, not known to have previously occurred in the family. he specifies the occurrence of diabetes in three brothers under ten years old; he also remarks that children of the same family often exhibit in common infantile diseases the same peculiar symptoms. my father mentioned to me the case of four brothers who died between the ages of sixty and seventy, in the same highly peculiar comatose state. an instance has been already given of supernumerary digits appearing in four children out of six in a previously unaffected family. dr. devay states[41] that two brothers married two sisters, their first-cousins, none of the four nor any relation being an albino; but the seven children produced from this double marriage were all perfect albinoes. some of these cases, as mr. sedgwick[42] has shown, are probably the result of reversion to a remote ancestor, of whom no record had been preserved; and all these cases are so far directly connected with inheritance that no doubt the children inherited a similar constitution from their parents, and, from being exposed to nearly similar conditions of life, it is not surprising that they should be affected in the same manner and at the same period of life. * * * * * most of the facts hitherto given have served to illustrate the force of inheritance, but we must now consider cases, grouped as well as the subject allows into classes, showing how feeble, capricious, or deficient the power of inheritance sometimes is. when a new peculiarity first appears, we can never predict whether it will be inherited. if both parents from their birth present {18} the same peculiarity, the probability is strong that it will be transmitted to at least some of their offspring. we have seen that variegation is transmitted much more feebly by seed from a branch which had become variegated through bud-variation, than from plants which were variegated as seedlings. with most plants the power of transmission notoriously depends on some innate capacity in the individual: thus vilmorin[43] raised from a peculiarly coloured balsam some seedlings, which all resembled their parent; but of these seedlings some failed to transmit the new character, whilst others transmitted it to all their descendants during several successive generations. so again with a variety of the rose, two plants alone out of six were found by vilmorin to be capable of transmitting the desired character. the weeping or pendulous growth of trees is strongly inherited in some cases, and, without any assignable reason, feebly in other cases. i have selected this character as an instance of capricious inheritance, because it is certainly not proper to the parent-species, and because, both sexes being borne on the same tree, both tend to transmit the same character. even supposing that there may have been in some instances crossing with adjoining trees of the same species, it is not probable that all the seedlings would have been thus affected. at moccas court there is a famous weeping oak; many of its branches "are 30 feet long, and no thicker in any part of this length than a common rope:" this tree transmits its weeping character, in a greater or less degree, to all its seedlings; some of the young oaks being so flexible that they have to be supported by props; others not showing the weeping tendency till about twenty years old.[44] mr. rivers fertilized, as he informs me, the flowers of a new belgian weeping thorn (_cratægus oxyacantha_) with pollen from a crimson not-weeping variety, and three young trees, "now six or seven years old, show a decided tendency to be pendulous, but as yet are not so much so as the mother-plant." according to mr. macnab,[45] seedlings from a magnificent weeping birch (_betula alba_), in the botanic garden at edinburgh, grew for the first ten or fifteen years upright, but then all became weepers like their parent. a peach with pendulous branches, like those of the weeping willow, has been found capable of propagation by seed.[46] lastly, a weeping and almost prostrate yew (_taxus baccata_) was found in a hedge in shropshire; it was a male, but one branch bore female flowers, and produced berries; these, {19} being sown, produced seventeen trees, all of which had exactly the same peculiar habit with the parent-tree.[47] these facts, it might have been thought, would have been sufficient to render it probable that a pendulous habit would in all cases be strictly inherited. but let us look to the other side. mr. macnab[48] sowed seeds of the weeping beech (_fagus sylvanica_), but succeeded in raising only common beeches. mr. rivers, at my request, raised a number of seedlings from three distinct varieties of weeping elm; and at least one of the parent-trees was so situated that it could not have been crossed by any other elm; but none of the young trees, now about a foot or two in height, show the least signs of weeping. mr. rivers formerly sowed above twenty thousand seeds of the weeping ash (_fraxinus excelsior_), and not a single seedling was in the least degree pendulous: in germany, m. borchmeyer raised a thousand seedlings, with the same result. nevertheless, mr. anderson, of the chelsea botanic garden, by sowing seed from a weeping ash, which was found before the year 1780, in cambridgeshire, raised several pendulous trees.[49] professor henslow also informs me that some seedlings from a female weeping ash in the botanic garden at cambridge were at first a little pendulous, but afterwards became quite upright: it is probable that this latter tree, which transmits to a certain extent its pendulous habit, was derived by a bud from the same original cambridgeshire stock; whilst other weeping ashes may have had a distinct origin. but the crowning case, communicated to me by mr. rivers, which shows how capricious is the inheritance of a pendulous habit, is that a variety of another species of ash (_f. lentiscifolia_) which was formerly pendulous, "now about twenty years old has long lost this habit, every shoot being remarkably erect; but seedlings formerly raised from it were perfectly prostrate, the stems not rising more than two inches above the ground." thus the weeping variety of the common ash, which has been extensively propagated by buds during a long period, did not, with mr. rivers, transmit its character to one seedling out of above twenty thousand; whereas the weeping variety of a second species of ash, which could not, whilst grown in the same garden, retain its own weeping character, transmitted to its seedlings the pendulous habit in excess! many analogous facts could be given, showing how apparently capricious is the principle of inheritance. all the seedlings from a variety of the barberry (_b. vulgaris_) with red leaves inherited the same character; only about one-third of the seedlings of the copper beech (_fagus sylvatica_) had purple leaves. not one out of a hundred seedlings of a variety of the _cerasus padus_, with yellow fruit, bore yellow fruit: one-twelfth of the seedlings of the variety of _cornus mascula_, with yellow fruit, came true:[50] and lastly, all the trees raised by my father from a yellow-berried holly (_ilex aquifolium_), {20} found wild, produced yellow berries. vilmorin[51] observed in a bed of _saponaria calabrica_ an extremely dwarf variety, and raised from it a large number of seedlings; some of these partially resembled their parent, and he selected their seed; but the grandchildren were not in the least dwarfed: on the other hand, he observed a stunted and bushy variety of _tagetes signata_ growing in the midst of the common varieties by which it was probably crossed; for most of the seedlings raised from this plant were intermediate in character, only two perfectly resembling their parent; but seed saved from these two plants reproduced the new variety so truly, that hardly any selection has since been necessary. flowers transmit their colour truly, or most capriciously. many annuals come true: thus i purchased german seeds of thirty-four named sub-varieties of one _race_ of ten-week stocks (_matthiola annua_), and raised a hundred and forty plants, all of which, with the exception of a single plant, came true. in saying this, however, it must be understood that i could distinguish only twenty kinds out of the thirty-four named sub-varieties; nor did the colour of the flower always correspond with the name affixed to the packet; but i say that they came true, because in each of the thirty-six short rows every plant was absolutely alike, with the one single exception. again, i procured packets of german seed of twenty-five named varieties of common and quilled asters, and raised a hundred and twenty-four plants; of these, all except ten were true in the above limited sense; and i considered even a wrong shade of colour as false. it is a singular circumstance that white varieties generally transmit their colour much more truly than any other variety. this fact probably stands in close relation with one observed by verlot,[52] namely, that flowers which are normally white rarely vary into any other colour. i have found that the white varieties of _delphinium consolida_ and of the stock are the truest. it is, indeed, sufficient to look through a nurseryman's seed-list, to see the large number of white varieties which can be propagated by seed. the several coloured varieties of the sweet-pea (_lathyrus odoratus_) are very true; but i hear from mr. masters, of canterbury, who has particularly attended to this plant, that the white variety is the truest. the hyacinth, when propagated by seed, is extremely inconstant in colour, but "white hyacinths almost always give by seed white-flowered plants;"[53] and mr. masters informs me that the yellow varieties also reproduce their colour, but of different shades. on the other hand, pink and blue varieties, the latter being the natural colour, are not nearly so true: hence, as mr. masters has remarked to me, "we see that a garden variety may acquire a more permanent habit than a natural species;" but it should have been added, that this occurs under cultivation, and therefore under changed conditions. with many flowers, especially perennials, nothing can be more fluctuating than the colour of the seedlings, as is notoriously the case with verbenas, carnations, dahlias, cinerarias, and others.[54] i sowed seed of twelve {21} named varieties of snapdragon (_antirrhinum majus_), and utter confusion was the result. in most cases the extremely fluctuating colour of seedling plants is probably in chief part due to crosses between differently-coloured varieties during previous generations. it is almost certain that this is the case with the polyanthus and coloured primrose (_primula veris_ and _vulgaris_), from their reciprocally dimorphic structure;[55] and these are plants which florists speak of as never come true by seed: but if care be taken to prevent crossing, neither species is by any means very inconstant in colour; thus i raised twenty-three plants from a purple primrose, fertilised by mr. j. scott with its own pollen, and eighteen came up purple of different shades, and only five reverted to the ordinary yellow colour: again, i raised twenty plants from a bright-red cowslip, similarly treated by mr. scott, and every one perfectly resembled its parent in colour, as likewise did, with the exception of a single plant, 73 grandchildren. even with the most variable flowers, it is probable that each delicate shade of colour might be permanently fixed so as to be transmitted by seed, by cultivation in the same soil, by long-continued selection, and especially by the prevention of crosses. i infer this from certain annual larkspurs (_delphinium consolida_ and _ajacis_), of which common seedlings present a greater diversity of colour than any other plant known to me; yet on procuring seed of five named german varieties of _d. consolida_, only nine plants out of ninety-four were false; and the seedlings of six varieties of _d. ajacis_ were true in the same manner and degree as with the stocks above described. a distinguished botanist maintains that the annual species of delphinium are always self-fertilised; therefore i may mention that thirty-two flowers on a branch of _d. consolida_, enclosed in a net, yielded twenty-seven capsules, with an average of 17.2 seed in each; whilst five flowers, under the same net, which were artificially fertilised, in the same manner as must be effected by bees during their incessant visits, yielded five capsules with an average of 35.2 fine seed; and this shows that the agency of insects is necessary for the full fertility of this plant. analogous facts could be given with respect to the crossing of many other flowers, such as carnations, &c., of which the varieties fluctuate much in colour. as with flowers, so with our domesticated animals, no character is more variable than colour, and probably in no animal more so than with the horse. yet with a little care in breeding, it appears that races of any colour might soon be formed. hofacker gives the result of matching two hundred and sixteen mares of four different colours with like-coloured stallions, without regard to the colour of their ancestors; and of the two hundred and sixteen colts born, eleven alone failed to inherit the colour of their parents: autenrieth and ammon assert that, after two generations, colts of a uniform colour are produced with certainty.[56] in a few rare cases peculiarities fail to be inherited, apparently from the force of inheritance being too strong. i have been assured by breeders of the canary-bird that to get a good {22} jonquil-coloured bird it does not answer to pair two jonquils, as the colour then comes out too strong, or is even brown. so again, if two crested canaries are paired, the young birds rarely inherit this character:[57] for in crested birds a narrow space of bare skin is left on the back of the head, where the feathers are up-turned to form the crest, and, when both parents are thus characterised, the bareness becomes excessive, and the crest itself fails to be developed. mr. hewitt, speaking of laced sebright bantams, says[58] that, "why this should be so, i know not, but i am confident that those that are best laced frequently produce offspring very far from perfect in their markings, whilst those exhibited by myself, which have so often proved successful, were bred from the union of heavily-laced birds with those that were scarcely sufficiently laced." it is a singular fact that, although several deaf-mutes often occur in the same family, and though their cousins and other relations are often in the same condition, yet their parents are very rarely deaf-mutes. to give a single instance: not one scholar out of 148, who were at the same time in the london institution, was the child of parents similarly afflicted. so again, when a male or a female deaf-mute marries a sound person, their children are most rarely affected: in ireland out of 203 children thus produced one alone was mute. even when both parents have been deaf-mutes, as in the case of forty-one marriages in the united states and of six in ireland, only two deaf and dumb children were produced. mr. sedgwick,[59] in commenting on this remarkable and fortunate failure in the power of transmission in the direct line, remarks that it may possibly be owing to "excess having reversed the action of some natural law in development." but it is safer in the present state of our knowledge to look at the whole case as simply unintelligible. * * * * * with respect to the inheritance of structures mutilated by injuries or altered by disease it is difficult to come to any {23} definite conclusion. in some cases mutilations have been practised for a vast number of generations without any inherited result. godron has remarked[60] that different races of man have from time immemorial knocked out their upper incisors, cut off joints of their fingers, made holes of immense size through the lobes of their ears or through their nostrils, made deep gashes in various parts of their bodies, and there is no reason whatever to suppose that these mutilations have ever been inherited. adhesions due to inflammation and pits from the small-pox (and formerly many consecutive generations must have been thus pitted) are not inherited. with respect to jews, i have been assured by three medical men of the jewish faith that circumcision, which has been practised for so many ages, has produced no inherited effect; blumenbach, on the other hand, asserts[61] that in germany jews are often born in a condition rendering circumcision difficult, so that a name is here applied to them signifying "born circumcised." the oak and other trees must have borne galls from primeval times, yet they do not produce inherited excrescences; many other such facts could be adduced. on the other hand, various cases have been recorded of cats, dogs, and horses, which have had their tails, legs, &c., amputated or injured, producing offspring with the same parts ill-formed; but as it is not at all rare for similar malformations to appear spontaneously, all such cases may be due to mere coincidence. nevertheless, dr. prosper lucas has given, on good authorities, such a long list of inherited injuries, that it is difficult not to believe in them. thus, a cow that had lost a horn from an accident with consequent suppuration, produced three calves which were hornless on the same side of the head. with the horse, there seems hardly a doubt that bony exostoses on the legs, caused by too much travelling on hard roads, are inherited. blumenbach records the case of a man who had his little finger on the right hand almost cut off, and which in consequence grew crooked, and his sons had the same finger on the same hand similarly crooked. a soldier, fifteen years before his marriage, lost his left eye from purulent ophthalmia, and his {24} two sons were microphthalmic on the same side.[62] in all such cases, if truthfully reported, in which the parent has had an organ injured on one side, and more than one child has been born with the same organ affected on the same side, the chances against mere coincidence are enormous. but perhaps the most remarkable and trustworthy fact is that given by dr. brown-séquard,[63] namely, that many young guinea-pigs inherited an epileptic tendency from parents which had been subjected to a particular operation, inducing in the course of a few weeks a convulsive disease like epilepsy: and it should be especially noted that this eminent physiologist bred a large number of guinea-pigs from animals which had not been operated on, and not one of these manifested the epileptic tendency. on the whole, we can hardly avoid admitting, that injuries and mutilations, especially when followed by disease, or perhaps exclusively when thus followed, are occasionally inherited. although many congenital monstrosities are inherited, of which examples have already been given, and to which may be added the lately recorded case of the transmission during a century of hare-lip with a cleft-palate in the writer's own family,[64] yet other malformations are rarely or never inherited. of these later cases, many are probably due to injuries in the womb or egg, and would come under the head of non-inherited injuries or mutilations. with plants, a long catalogue of inherited monstrosities of the most serious and diversified nature could easily be given; and with plants, there is no reason to suppose that monstrosities are caused by direct injuries to the seed or embryo. _causes of non-inheritance._ a large number of cases of non-inheritance are intelligible on the principle, that a strong tendency to inheritance does exist, but {25} that it is overborne by hostile or unfavourable conditions of life. no one would expect that our improved pigs, if forced during several generations to travel about and root in the ground for their own subsistence, would transmit, as truly as they now do, their tendency to fatten, and their short muzzles and legs. dray-horses assuredly would not long transmit their great size and massive limbs, if compelled to live on a cold, damp mountainous region; we have indeed evidence of such deterioration in the horses which have run wild on the falkland islands. european dogs in india often fail to transmit their true character. our sheep in tropical countries lose their wool in a few generations. there seems also to be a close relation between certain peculiar pastures and the inheritance of an enlarged tail in fat-tailed sheep, which form one of the most ancient breeds in the world. with plants, we have seen that the american varieties of maize lose their proper character in the course of two or three generations, when cultivated in europe. our cabbages, which here come so true by seed, cannot form heads in hot countries. under changed circumstances, periodical habits of life soon fail to be transmitted, as the period of maturity in summer and winter wheat, barley, and vetches. so it is with animals; for instance, a person whose statement i can trust, procured eggs of aylesbury ducks from that town, where they are kept in houses and are reared as early as possible for the london market; the ducks bred from these eggs in a distant part of england, hatched their first brood on january 24th, whilst common ducks, kept in the same yard and treated in the same manner, did not hatch till the end of march; and this shows that the period of hatching was inherited. but the grandchildren of these aylesbury ducks completely lost their early habit of incubation, and hatched their eggs at the same time with the common ducks of the same place. many cases of non-inheritance apparently result from the conditions of life continually inducing fresh variability. we have seen that when the seeds of pears, plums, apples, &c., are sown, the seedlings generally inherit some degree of family likeness from the parent-variety. mingled with these seedlings, a few, and sometimes many, worthless, wild-looking plants commonly appear; and their appearance may be attributed to the principle of reversion. but scarcely a single seedling will be found {26} perfectly to resemble the parent-form; and this, i believe, may be accounted for by constantly recurring variability induced by the conditions of life. i believe in this, because it has been observed that certain fruit-trees truly propagate their kind whilst growing on their own roots, but when grafted on other stocks, and by this process their natural state is manifestly affected, they produce seedlings which vary greatly, departing from the parental type in many characters.[65] metzger, as stated in the ninth chapter, found that certain kinds of wheat brought from spain and cultivated in germany, failed during many years to reproduce themselves truly; but that at last, when accustomed to their new conditions, they ceased to be variable,--that is, they became amenable to the power of inheritance. nearly all the plants which cannot be propagated with any approach to certainty by seed, are kinds which have long been propagated by buds, cuttings, offsets, tubers, &c., and have in consequence been frequently exposed during their individual lives to widely diversified conditions of life. plants thus propagated become so variable, that they are subject, as we have seen in the last chapter, even to bud-variation. our domesticated animals, on the other hand, are not exposed during their individual lives to such extremely diversified conditions, and are not liable to such extreme variability; therefore they do not lose the power of transmitting most of their characteristic features. in the foregoing remarks on non-inheritance, crossed breeds are of course excluded, as their diversity mainly depends on the unequal development of characters derived from either parent, modified by the principles of reversion and prepotency. _conclusion._ it has, i think, been shown in the early part of this chapter how strongly new characters of the most diversified nature, whether normal or abnormal, injurious or beneficial, whether affecting organs of the highest or most trifling importance, are inherited. contrary to the common opinion, it is often sufficient for the inheritance of some peculiar character, that one parent alone should possess it, as in most cases in which the rarer {27} anomalies have been transmitted. but the power of transmission is extremely variable: in a number of individuals descended from the same parents, and treated in the same manner, some display this power in a perfect manner, and in some it is quite deficient; and for this difference no reason can be assigned. in some cases the effects of injuries or mutilations apparently are inherited; and we shall see in a future chapter that the effects of the long-continued use and disuse of parts are certainly inherited. even those characters which are considered the most fluctuating, such as colour, are with rare exceptions transmitted much more forcibly than is generally supposed. the wonder, indeed, in all cases is not that any character should be transmitted, but that the power of inheritance should ever fail. the checks to inheritance, as far as we know them, are, firstly, circumstances hostile to the particular character in question; secondly, conditions of life incessantly inducing fresh variability; and lastly, the crossing of distinct varieties during some previous generation, together with reversion or atavism--that is, the tendency in the child to resemble its grand-parents or more remote ancestors instead of its immediate parents. this latter subject will be fully discussed in the following chapter. * * * * * {28} chapter xiii. inheritance _continued_--reversion or atavism. different forms of reversion--in pure or uncrossed breeds, as in pigeons, fowls, hornless cattle and sheep, in cultivated plants--reversion in feral animals and plants--reversion in crossed varieties and species--reversion through bud-propagation, and by segments in the same flower or fruit--in different parts of the body in the same animal--the act of crossing a direct cause of reversion, various cases of, with instincts--other proximate causes of reversion--latent characters--secondary sexual characters--unequal development of the two sides of the body--appearance with advancing age of characters derived from a cross--the germ with all its latent characters a wonderful object--monstrosities--peloric flowers due in some cases to reversion. the great principle of inheritance to be discussed in this chapter has been recognised by agriculturists and authors of various nations, as shown by the scientific term _atavism_, derived from atavus, an ancestor; by the english terms of _reversion_, or _throwing back_; by the french _pas-en-arrière_; and by the german _rück-schlag_, or _rück-schritt_. when the child resembles either grandparent more closely than its immediate parents, our attention is not much arrested, though in truth the fact is highly remarkable; but when the child resembles some remote ancestor, or some distant member in a collateral line,--and we must attribute the latter case to the descent of all the members from a common progenitor,--we feel a just degree of astonishment. when one parent alone displays some newly-acquired and generally inheritable character, and the offspring do not inherit it, the cause may lie in the other parent having the power of prepotent transmission. but when both parents are similarly characterised, and the child does not, whatever the cause may be, inherit the character in question, but resembles its grandparents, we have one of the simplest cases of reversion. we continually see another and even more simple case of atavism, though not generally included under this head, namely, when {29} the son more closely resembles his maternal than his paternal grandsire in some male attribute, as in any peculiarity in the beard of man, the horns of the bull, the hackles or comb of the cock, or, as in certain diseases necessarily confined to the male sex; for the mother cannot possess or exhibit such male attributes, yet the child has inherited them, through her blood, from his maternal grandsire. the cases of reversion may be divided into two main classes, which, however, in some instances, blend into each other; namely, first, those occurring in a variety or race which has not been crossed, but has lost by variation some character that it formerly possessed, and which afterwards reappears. the second class includes all cases in which a distinguishable individual, sub-variety, race, or species, has at some former period been crossed with a distinct form, and a character derived from this cross, after having disappeared during one or several generations, suddenly reappears. a third class, differing only in the manner of reproduction, might be formed to include all cases of reversion effected by means of buds, and therefore independent of true or seminal generation. perhaps even a fourth class might be instituted, to include reversions by segments in the same individual flower or fruit, and in different parts of the body in the same individual animal as it grows old. but the two first main classes will be sufficient for our purpose. * * * * * _reversion to lost characters by pure or uncrossed forms._--striking instances of this first class of cases were given in the sixth chapter, namely, of the occasional reappearance, in variously-coloured pure breeds of the pigeon, of blue birds with all the marks which characterise the wild _columba livia_. similar cases were given in the case of the fowl. with the common ass, as we now know that the legs of the wild progenitor are striped, we may feel assured that the occasional appearance of such stripes in the domestic animal is a case of simple reversion. but i shall be compelled to refer again to these cases, and therefore will here pass them over. the aboriginal species from which our domesticated cattle and sheep are descended, no doubt possessed horns; but several hornless breeds are now well established. yet in these--for instance, {30} in southdown sheep--"it is not unusual to find among the male lambs some with small horns." the horns, which thus occasionally reappear in other polled breeds, either "grow to the full size, or are curiously attached to the skin alone and hang loosely down, or drop off."[66] the galloways and suffolk cattle have been hornless for the last 100 or 150 years, but a horned calf, with the horn often loosely attached, is occasionally born.[67] there is reason to believe that sheep in their early domesticated condition were "brown or dingy black;" but even in the time of david certain flocks were spoken of as white as snow. during the classical period the sheep of spain are described by several ancient authors as being black, red, or tawny.[68] at the present day, notwithstanding the great care which is taken to prevent it, particoloured lambs and some entirely black are occasionally dropped by our most highly improved and valued breeds, such as the southdowns. since the time of the famous bakewell, during the last century, the leicester sheep have been bred with the most scrupulous care; yet occasionally grey-faced, or black-spotted, or wholly black lambs appear.[69] this occurs still more frequently with the less improved breeds, such as the norfolks.[70] as bearing on this tendency in sheep to revert to dark colours, i may state (though in doing so i trench on the reversion of crossed breeds, and likewise on the subject of prepotency) that the rev. w. d. fox was informed that seven white southdown ewes were put to a so-called spanish ram, which had two small black spots on his sides, and they produced thirteen lambs, all perfectly black. mr. fox believes that this ram belonged to a breed which he has himself kept, and which is always spotted with black and white; and he finds that leicester sheep crossed by rams of this breed always produce black lambs: he has gone on recrossing these crossed sheep with pure white leicesters during three successive {31} generations, but always with the same result. mr. fox was also told by the friend from whom the spotted breed was procured, that he likewise had gone on for six or seven generations crossing with white sheep, but still black lambs were invariably produced. similar facts could be given with respect to tailless breeds of various animals. for instance, mr. hewitt[71] states that chickens bred from some rumpless fowls, which were reckoned so good that they won a prize at an exhibition, "in a considerable number of instances were furnished with fully developed tail-feathers." on inquiry, the original breeder of these fowls stated that, from the time when he had first kept them, they had often produced fowls furnished with tails; but that these latter would again reproduce rumpless chickens. analogous cases of reversion occur in the vegetable kingdom; thus "from seeds gathered from the finest cultivated varieties of heartsease (_viola tricolor_), plants perfectly wild both in their foliage and their flowers are frequently produced;"[72] but the reversion in this instance is not to a very ancient period, for the best existing varieties of the heartsease are of comparatively modern origin. with most of our cultivated vegetables there is some tendency to reversion to what is known to be, or may be presumed to be, their aboriginal state; and this would be more evident if gardeners did not generally look over their beds of seedlings, and pull up the false plants or "rogues" as they are called. it has already been remarked, that some few seedling apples and pears generally resemble, but apparently are not identical with, the wild trees from which they are descended. in our turnip[73] and carrot-beds a few plants often "break"--that is, flower too soon; and their roots are generally found to be hard and stringy, as in the parent-species. by the aid of a little selection, carried on during a few generations, most of our cultivated plants could probably be brought back, without any great change in their conditions of life, to a wild or nearly wild condition: mr. buckman has effected this with the parsnip;[74] {32} and mr. hewett c. watson, as he informs me, selected, during three generations, "the most diverging plants of scotch kail, perhaps one of the least modified varieties of the cabbage; and in the third generation some of the plants came very close to the forms now established in england about old castle-walls, and called indigenous." * * * * * _reversion in animals and plants which have run wild._--in the cases hitherto considered, the reverting animals and plants have not been exposed to any great or abrupt change in their conditions of life which could have induced this tendency; but it is very different with animals and plants which have become feral or run wild. it has been repeatedly asserted in the most positive manner by various authors, that feral animals and plants invariably return to their primitive specific type. it is curious on what little evidence this belief rests. many of our domesticated animals could not subsist in a wild state; thus, the more highly improved breeds of the pigeon will not "field" or search for their own food. sheep have never become feral, and would be destroyed by almost every beast of prey. in several cases we do not know the aboriginal parent-species, and cannot possibly tell whether or not there has been any close degree of reversion. it is not known in any instance what variety was first turned out; several varieties have probably in some cases run wild, and their crossing alone would tend to obliterate their proper character. our domesticated animals and plants, when they run wild, must always be exposed to new conditions of life, for, as mr. wallace[75] has well remarked, they have to obtain their own food, and are exposed to competition with the native productions. under these circumstances, if our domesticated animals did not undergo change of some kind, the result would be quite opposed to the conclusions arrived at in this work. nevertheless, i do not doubt that the simple fact of animals and plants becoming feral, does cause some tendency to reversion to the primitive state; though this tendency has been much exaggerated by some authors. {33} i will briefly run through the recorded cases. with neither horses nor cattle is the primitive stock known; and it has been shown in former chapters that they have assumed different colours in different countries. thus the horses which have run wild in south america are generally brownish-bay, and in the east dun-coloured; their heads have become larger and coarser, and this may be due to reversion. no careful description has been given of the feral goat. dogs which have run wild in various countries have hardly anywhere assumed a uniform character; but they are probably descended from several domestic races, and aboriginally from several distinct species. feral cats, both in europe and la plata, are regularly striped; in some cases they have grown to an unusually large size, but do not differ from the domestic animal in any other character. when variously-coloured tame rabbits are turned out in europe, they generally reacquire the colouring of the wild animal; there can be no doubt that this does really occur, but we should remember that oddly-coloured and conspicuous animals would suffer much from beasts of prey and from being easily shot; this at least was the opinion of a gentleman who tried to stock his woods with a nearly white variety; and when thus destroyed, they would in truth be supplanted by, instead of being transformed into, the common rabbit. we have seen that the feral rabbits of jamaica, and especially of porto santo, have assumed new colours and other new characters. the best known case of reversion, and that on which the widely-spread belief in its universality apparently rests, is that of pigs. these animals have run wild in the west indies, south america, and the falkland islands, and have everywhere acquired the dark colour, the thick bristles, and great tusks of the wild boar; and the young have reacquired longitudinal stripes. but even in the case of the pig, roulin describes the half-wild animals in different parts of south america as differing in several respects. in louisiana the pig[76] has run wild, and is said to differ a little in form, and much in colour, from the domestic animal, yet does not closely resemble the wild boar of europe. with pigeons and fowls,[77] it is not known what variety was first turned out, nor what character the feral birds have assumed. the guinea-fowl in the west indies, when feral, seems to vary more than in the domesticated state. with respect to plants run wild, dr. hooker[78] has strongly insisted on what slight evidence the common belief in their power of reversion rests. godron[79] describes wild turnips, carrots, and celery; but these plants in their cultivated state hardly differ from their wild prototypes, except in the {34} succulency and enlargement of certain parts,--characters which would be surely lost by plants growing in a poor soil and struggling with other plants. no cultivated plant has run wild on so enormous a scale as the cardoon (_cynara cardunculus_) in la plata. every botanist who has seen it growing there, in vast beds, as high as a horse's back, has been struck with its peculiar appearance; but whether it differs in any important point from the cultivated spanish form, which is said not to be prickly like its american descendant, or whether it differs from he wild mediterranean species, which is said not to be social, i do not know. * * * * * _reversion to characters derived from a cross, in the case of sub-varieties, races, and species._--when an individual having some recognizable peculiarity unites with another of the same sub-variety, not having the peculiarity in question, it often reappears in the descendants after an interval of several generations. every one must have noticed, or heard from old people of children closely resembling in appearance or mental disposition, or in so small and complex a character as expression, one of their grandparents, or some more distant collateral relation. very many anomalies of structure and diseases,[80] of which instances have been given in the last chapter, have come into a family from one parent, and have reappeared in the progeny after passing over two or three generations. the following case has been communicated to me on good authority, and may, i believe, be fully trusted: a pointer-bitch produced seven puppies; four were marked with blue and white, which is so unusual a colour with pointers that she was thought to have played false with one of the greyhounds, and the whole litter was condemned; but the gamekeeper was permitted to save one as a curiosity. two years afterwards a friend of the owner saw the young dog, and declared that he was the image of his old pointer-bitch sappho, the only blue and white pointer of pure descent which he had ever seen. this led to close inquiry, and it was proved that he was the great-great-grandson of sappho; so that, according to the common expression, he had only 1-16th of her blood in his veins. here it can hardly be doubted that a character derived from a cross with an individual of the same variety reappeared after passing over three generations. {35} when two distinct races are crossed, it is notorious that the tendency in the offspring to revert to one or both parent-forms is strong, and endures for many generations. i have myself seen the clearest evidence of this in crossed pigeons and with various plants. mr. sidney[81] states that, in a litter of essex pigs, two young ones appeared which were the image of the berkshire boar that had been used twenty-eight years before in giving size and constitution to the breed. i observed in the farmyard at betley hall some fowls showing a strong likeness to the malay breed, and was told by mr. tollet that he had forty years before crossed his birds with malays; and that, though he had at first attempted to get rid of this strain, he had subsequently given up the attempt in despair, as the malay character would reappear. this strong tendency in crossed breeds to revert has given rise to endless discussions in how many generations after a single cross, either with a distinct breed or merely with an inferior animal, the breed may be considered as pure, and free from all danger of reversion. no one supposes that less than three generations suffices, and most breeders think that six, seven, or eight are necessary, and some go to still greater lengths.[82] but neither in the case of a breed which has been contaminated by a single cross, nor when, in the attempt to form an intermediate breed, half-bred animals have been matched together during many generations, can any rule be laid down how soon the tendency to reversion will be obliterated. it depends on the difference in the strength or prepotency of transmission in the two parent-forms, on their actual amount of difference, and on the nature of the conditions of life to which the crossed offspring are exposed. but we must be careful not to confound these cases of reversion to characters gained from a cross, with those given under the first class, in which characters originally common to _both_ parents, but lost at some former period, reappear; for such characters may recur after an almost indefinite number of generations. {36} the law of reversion is equally powerful with hybrids, when they are sufficiently fertile to breed together, or when they are repeatedly crossed with either pure parent-form, as with mongrels. it is not necessary to give instances, for in the case of plants almost every one who has worked on this subject from the time of kölreuter to the present day has insisted on this tendency. gärtner has recorded some good instances; but no one has given more striking cases than naudin.[83] the tendency differs in degree or strength in different groups, and partly depends, as we shall presently see, on the fact of the parent-plants having been long cultivated. although the tendency to reversion is extremely general with nearly all mongrels and hybrids, it cannot be considered as invariably characteristic of them; there is, also, reason to believe that it may be mastered by long-continued selection; but these subjects will more properly be discussed in a future chapter on crossing. from what we see of the power and scope of reversion, both in pure races and when varieties or species are crossed, we may infer that characters of almost every kind are capable of reappearance after having been lost for a great length of time. but it does not follow from this that in each particular case certain characters will reappear: for instance, this will not occur when a race is crossed with another endowed with prepotency of transmission. in some few cases the power of reversion wholly fails, without our being able to assign any cause for the failure: thus it has been stated that in a french family in which 85 out of above 600 members, during six generations, had been subject to night-blindness, "there has not been a single example of this affection in the children of parents who were themselves free from it."[84] * * * * * _reversion through bud-propagation--partial reversion, by segments in the same flower or fruit, or in different parts of the {37} body in the same individual animal._--in the eleventh chapter, many cases of reversion by buds, independently of seminal generation, were given--as when a leaf-bud on a variegated, curled, or laciniated variety suddenly reassumes its proper character; or as when a provence-rose appears on a moss-rose, or a peach on a nectarine-tree. in some of these cases only half the flower or fruit, or a smaller segment, or mere stripes, reassumed their former character; and here we have with buds reversion by segments. vilmorin[85] has also recorded several cases with plants derived from seed, of flowers reverting by stripes or blotches to their primitive colours: he states that in all such cases a white or pale-coloured variety must first be formed, and, when this is propagated for a length of time by seed, striped seedlings occasionally make their appearance; and these can afterwards by care be multiplied by seed. the stripes and segments just referred to are not due, as far as is known, to reversion to characters derived from a cross, but to characters lost by variation. these cases, however, as naudin[86] insists in his discussion on disjunction of character, are closely analogous with those given in the eleventh chapter, in which crossed plants are known to have produced half-and-half or striped flowers and fruit, or distinct kinds of flowers on the same root resembling the two parent-forms. many piebald animals probably come under this same head. such cases, as we shall see in the chapter on crossing, apparently result from certain characters not readily blending together, and, as a consequence of this incapacity for fusion, the offspring either perfectly resemble one of their two parents, or resemble one parent in one part and the other parent in another part; or whilst young are intermediate in character, but with advancing age revert wholly or by segments to either parent-form, or to both. thus young trees of the _cytisus adami_ are intermediate in foliage and flowers between the two parent-forms; but when older the buds continually revert either partially or wholly to both forms. the cases given in the eleventh chapter on the changes which occurred during growth {38} in crossed plants of tropæolum, cereus, datura, and lathyrus are all analogous. as however these plants are hybrids of the first generation, and as their buds after a time come to resemble their parents and not their grandparents, these cases do not at first appear to come under the law of reversion in the ordinary sense of the word; nevertheless, as the change is effected through a succession of bud-generations on the same plant, they may be thus included. analogous facts have been observed in the animal kingdom, and are more remarkable, as they occur strictly in the same individual, and not as with plants through a succession of bud-generations. with animals the act of reversion, if it can be so designated, does not pass over a true generation, but merely over the early stages of growth in the same individual. for instance, i crossed several white hens with a black cock, and many of the chickens were during the first year perfectly white, but acquired during the second year black feathers; on the other hand, some of the chickens which were at first black became during the second year piebald with white. a great breeder[87] says, that a pencilled brahma hen which has any of the blood of the light brahma in her, will "occasionally produce a pullet well pencilled during the first year, but she will most likely moult brown on the shoulders and become quite unlike her original colours in the second year." the same thing occurs with light brahmas if of impure blood. i have observed exactly similar cases with the crossed offspring from differently coloured pigeons. but here is a more remarkable fact: i crossed a turbit, which has a frill formed by the feathers being reversed on its breast, with a trumpeter; and one of the young pigeons thus raised showed at first not a trace of the frill, but, after moulting thrice, a small yet unmistakably distinct frill appeared on its breast. according to girou,[88] calves produced from a red cow by a black bull, or from a black cow by a red bull, are not rarely born red, and subsequently become black. in the foregoing cases, the characters which appear with advancing age are the result of a cross in the previous or some {39} former generation; but in the following cases, the characters which thus reappear formerly appertained to the species, and were lost at a more or less remote epoch. thus, according to azara,[89] the calves of a hornless race of cattle which originated in corrientes, though at first quite hornless, as they become adult sometimes acquire small, crooked, and loose horns; and these in succeeding years occasionally become attached to the skull. white and black bantams, both of which generally breed true, sometimes assume as they grow old a saffron or red plumage. for instance, a first-rate black bantam has been described, which during three seasons was perfectly black, but then annually became more and more red; and it deserves notice that this tendency to change, whenever it occurs in a bantam, "is almost certain to prove hereditary."[90] the cuckoo or blue-mottled dorking cock, when old, is liable to acquire yellow or orange hackles in place of his proper bluish-grey hackles.[91] now, as _gallus bankiva_ is coloured red and orange, and as dorking fowls and both kinds of bantams are descended from this species, we can hardly doubt that the change which occasionally occurs in the plumage of these birds as their age advances, results from a tendency in the individual to revert to the primitive type. * * * * * _crossing as a direct cause of reversion._--it has long been notorious that hybrids and mongrels often revert to both or to one of their parent-forms, after an interval of from two to seven or eight, or according to some authorities even a greater number of generations. but that the act of crossing in itself gives an impulse towards reversion, as shown by the reappearance of long-lost characters, has never, i believe, been hitherto proved. the proof lies in certain peculiarities, which do not characterise the immediate parents, and therefore cannot have been derived from them, frequently appearing in the offspring of two breeds when crossed, which peculiarities never appear, or appear with extreme rarity, in these same breeds, as long as they are {40} precluded from crossing. as this conclusion seems to me highly curious and novel, i will give the evidence in detail. my attention was first called to this subject, and i was led to make numerous experiments, by mm. boitard and corbié having stated that, when they crossed certain breeds, pigeons coloured like the wild _c. livia_, or the common dovecot, namely, slaty-blue, with double black wing-bars, sometimes chequered with black, white loins, the tail barred with black, with the outer feathers edged with white, were almost invariably produced. the breeds which i crossed, and the remarkable results attained, have been fully described in the sixth chapter. i selected pigeons, belonging to true and ancient breeds, which had not a trace of blue or any of the above specified marks; but when crossed, and their mongrels recrossed, young birds were continually produced, more or less plainly coloured slaty-blue, with some or all of the proper characteristic marks. i may recall to the reader's memory one case, namely, that of a pigeon, hardly distinguishable from the wild shetland species, the grandchild of a red-spot, white fantail, and two black barbs, from any of which, when purely-bred, the production of a pigeon coloured like the wild _c. livia_ would have been almost a prodigy. i was thus led to make the experiments, recorded in the seventh chapter, on fowls. i selected long-established, pure breeds, in which there was not a trace of red, yet in several of the mongrels feathers of this colour appeared; and one magnificent bird, the offspring of a black spanish cock and white silk hen, was coloured almost exactly like the wild _gallus bankiva_. all who know anything of the breeding of poultry will admit that tens of thousands of pure spanish and of pure white silk fowls might have been reared without the appearance of a red feather. the fact, given on the authority of mr. tegetmeier, of the frequent appearance, in mongrel fowls, of pencilled or transversely-barred feathers, like those common to many gallinaceous birds, is likewise apparently a case of reversion to a character formerly possessed by some ancient progenitor of the family. i owe to the kindness of this same excellent observer the inspection of some neck-hackles and tail-feathers from a hybrid between the common fowl and a very distinct species, the _gallus varius_; and these feathers are transversely striped in a conspicuous manner with dark metallic blue and grey, a character which could not have been derived from either immediate parent. i have been informed by mr. b. p. brent, that he crossed a white aylesbury drake and a black so-called labrador duck, both of which are true breeds, and he obtained a young drake closely like the mallard (_a. boschas_). of the musk-duck (_a. moschata_, linn.) there are two sub-breeds, namely, white and slate-coloured; and these i am informed breed true, or nearly true. but the rev. w. d. fox tells me that, by putting a white drake to a slate-coloured duck, black birds, pied with white, like the wild musk-duck, were always produced. we have seen in the fourth chapter, that the so-called himalayan rabbit, with its snow-white body, black ears, nose, tail, and feet, breeds {41} perfectly true. this race is known to have been formed by the union of two varieties of silver-grey rabbits. now, when a himalayan doe was crossed by a sandy-coloured buck, a silver-grey rabbit was produced; and this is evidently a case of reversion to one of the parent varieties. the young of the himalayan rabbit are born snow-white, and the dark marks do not appear until some time subsequently; but occasionally young himalayan rabbits are born of a light silver-grey, which colour soon disappears; so that here we have a trace of reversion, during an early period of life, to the parent-varieties, independently of any recent cross. in the third chapter is was shown that at an ancient period some breeds of cattle in the wilder parts of britain were white with dark ears, and that the cattle now kept half wild in certain parks, and those which have run quite wild in two distant parts of the world, are likewise thus coloured. now, an experienced breeder, mr. j. beasley, of northamptonshire,[92] crossed some carefully selected west highland cows with purely-bred shorthorn bulls. the bulls were red, red and white, or dark roan; and the highland cows were all of a red colour, inclining to a light or yellow shade. but a considerable number of the offspring--and mr. beasley calls attention to this as a remarkable fact--were white, or white with red ears. bearing in mind that none of the parents were white, and that they were purely-bred animals, it is highly probable that here the offspring reverted, in consequence of the cross, to the colour either of the aboriginal parent-species or of some ancient and half-wild parent-breed. the following case, perhaps, comes under the same head: cows in their natural state have their udders but little developed, and do not yield nearly so much milk as our domesticated animals. now there is some reason to believe[93] that cross-bred animals between two kinds, both of which are good milkers, such as alderneys and shorthorns, often turn out worthless in this respect. in the chapter on the horse reasons were assigned for believing that the primitive stock was striped and dun-coloured; and details were given, showing that in all parts of the world stripes of a dark colour frequently appear along the spine, across the legs, and on the shoulders, where they are occasionally double or treble, and even sometimes on the face and body of horses of all breeds and of all colours. but the stripes appear most frequently on the various kinds of duns. they may sometimes plainly be seen on foals, and subsequently disappear. the dun-colour and the stripes are strongly transmitted when a horse thus characterised is crossed with any other; but i was not able to prove that striped duns are generally produced from the crossing of two distinct breeds, neither of which are duns, though this does sometimes occur. the legs of the ass are often striped, and this may be considered as a reversion to the wild parent-form, the _asinus tæniopus_ of abyssinia,[94] which is thus striped. in the domestic animal the stripes on the shoulder are occasionally double, or forked at the extremity, as in certain zebrine {42} species. there is reason to believe that the foal is frequently more plainly striped on the legs than the adult animal. as with the horse, i have not acquired any distinct evidence that the crossing of differently-coloured varieties of the ass brings out the stripes. but now let us turn to the result of crossing the horse and ass. although mules are not nearly so numerous in england as asses, i have seen a much greater number with striped legs, and with the stripes far more conspicuous than in either parent-form. such mules are generally light-coloured, and might be called fallow-duns. the shoulder-stripe in one instance was deeply forked at the extremity, and in another instance was double, though united in the middle. mr. martin gives a figure of a spanish mule with strong zebra-like marks on its legs,[95] and remarks, that mules are particularly liable to be thus striped on their legs. in south america, according to roulin,[96] such stripes are more frequent and conspicuous in the mule than in the ass. in the united states, mr. gosse,[97] speaking of these animals, says, "that in a great number, perhaps in nine out of every ten, the legs are banded with transverse dark stripes." many years ago i saw in the zoological gardens a curious triple hybrid, from a bay mare, by a hybrid from a male ass and female zebra. this animal when old had hardly any stripes; but i was assured by the superintendent, that when young it had shoulder-stripes, and faint stripes on its flanks and legs. i mention this case more especially as an instance of the stripes being much plainer during youth than in old age. as the zebra has such conspicuously striped legs, it might have been expected that the hybrids from this animal and the common ass would have had their legs in some degree striped; but it appears from the figures given in dr. gray's 'knowsley gleanings,' and still more plainly from that given by geoffroy and f. cuvier,[98] that the legs are much more conspicuously striped than the rest of the body; and this fact is intelligible only on the belief that the ass aids in giving, through the power of reversion, this character to its hybrid offspring. the quagga is banded over the whole front part of its body like a zebra, but has no stripes on its legs, or mere traces of them. but in the famous hybrid bred by lord morton,[99] from a chesnut, nearly purely-bred, arabian mare, by a male quagga, the stripes were "more strongly defined and darker than those on the legs of the quagga." the mare was subsequently put to a black arabian horse, and bore two colts, both of which, as formerly stated, were plainly striped on the legs, and one of them likewise had stripes on the neck and body. the _asinus indicus_[100] is characterised by a spinal stripe, without shoulder {43} or leg stripes; but traces of these latter stripes may occasionally be seen even in the adult;[101] and colonel s. poole, who has had ample opportunities for observation, informs me that in the foal, when first born, the head and legs are often striped, but the shoulder-stripe is not so distinct as in the domestic ass; all these stripes, excepting that along the spine, soon disappear. now a hybrid, raised at knowsley[102] from a female of this species by a male domestic ass, had all four legs transversely and conspicuously striped, had three short stripes on each shoulder, and had even some zebra-like stripes on its face! dr. gray informs me that he has seen a second hybrid of the same parentage similarly striped. from these facts we see that the crossing of the several equine species tends in a marked manner to cause stripes to appear on various parts of the body, especially on the legs. as we do not know whether the primordial parent of the genus was striped, the appearance of the stripes can only hypothetically be attributed to reversion. but most persons, after considering the many undoubted cases of variously coloured marks reappearing by reversion in crossed pigeons, fowls, ducks, &c., will come to the same conclusion with respect to the horse-genus; and in this case we must admit that the progenitor of the group was striped on the legs, shoulders, face, and probably over the whole body, like a zebra. if we reject this view, the frequent and almost regular appearance of stripes in the several foregoing hybrids is left without any explanation. * * * * * it would appear that with crossed animals a similar tendency to the recovery of lost characters holds good even with instincts. there are some breeds of fowls which are called "everlasting layers," because they have lost the instinct of incubation; and so rare is it for them to incubate that i have seen notices published in works on poultry, when hens of such breeds have taken to sit.[103] yet the aboriginal species was of course a good incubator; for with birds in a state of nature hardly any {44} instinct is so strong as this. now, so many cases have been recorded of the crossed offspring from two races, neither of which are incubators, becoming first-rate sitters, that the reappearance of this instinct must be attributed to reversion from crossing. one author goes so far as to say, "that a cross between two non-sitting varieties almost invariably produces a mongrel that becomes broody, and sits with remarkable steadiness."[104] another author, after giving a striking example, remarks that the fact can be explained only on the principle that "two negatives make a positive." it cannot, however, be maintained that hens produced from a cross between two non-sitting breeds invariably recover their lost instinct, any more than that crossed fowls or pigeons invariably recover the red or blue plumage of their prototypes. i raised several chickens from a polish hen by a spanish cock,--breeds which do not incubate,--and none of the young hens at first recovered their instinct, and this appeared to afford a well-marked exception to the foregoing rule; but one of these hens, the only one which was preserved, in the third year sat well on her eggs and reared a brood of chickens. so that here we have the appearance with advancing age of a primitive instinct, in the same manner as we have seen that the red plumage of the _gallus bankiva_ is sometimes reacquired by crossed and purely-bred fowls of various kinds as they grow old. the parents of all our domesticated animals were of course aboriginally wild in disposition; and when a domesticated species is crossed with a distinct species, whether this is a domesticated or only tamed animal, the hybrids are often wild {45} to such a degree, that the fact is intelligible only on the principle that the cross has caused a partial return to the primitive disposition. the earl of powis formerly imported some thoroughly domesticated humped cattle from india, and crossed them with english breeds, which belong to a distinct species; and his agent remarked to me, without any question having been asked, how oddly wild the cross-bred animals were. the european wild boar and the chinese domesticated pig are almost certainly specifically distinct: sir f. darwin crossed a sow of the latter breed with a wild alpine boar which had become extremely tame, but the young, though having half-domesticated blood in their veins, were "extremely wild in confinement, and would not eat swill like common english pigs." mr. hewitt, who has had great experience in crossing tame cock-pheasants with fowls belonging to five breeds, gives as the character of all "extraordinary wildness;"[105] but i have myself seen one exception to this rule. mr. s. j. salter,[106] who raised a large number of hybrids from a bantam-hen by _gallus sonneratii_, states that "all were exceedingly wild." mr. waterton[107] bred some wild ducks from eggs hatched under a common duck, and the young were allowed to cross freely both amongst themselves and with the tame ducks; they were "half wild and half tame; they came to the windows to be fed, but still they had a wariness about them quite remarkable." on the other hand, mules from the horse and ass are certainly not in the least wild, yet they are notorious for obstinacy and vice. mr. brent, who has crossed canary-birds with many kinds of finches, has not observed, as he informs me, that the hybrids were in any way remarkably wild. hybrids are often raised between the common and musk duck, and i have been assured by three persons, who have kept these crossed birds, that they were not wild; but mr. garnett[108] observed that his female hybrids exhibited "migratory propensities," of which there is not a vestige in the common or musk duck. no case is {46} known of this latter bird having escaped and become wild in europe or asia, except, according to pallas, on the caspian sea; and the common domestic duck only occasionally becomes wild in districts where large lakes and fens abound. nevertheless, a large number of cases have been recorded[109] of hybrids from these two ducks, although so few are reared in comparison with purely-bred birds of either species, having been shot in a completely wild state. it is improbable that any of these hybrids could have acquired their wildness from the musk-duck having paired with a truly wild duck; and this is known not to be the case in north america; hence we must infer that they have reacquired, through reversion, their wildness, as well as renewed powers of flight. these latter facts remind us of the statements, so frequently made by travellers in all parts of the world, on the degraded state and savage disposition of crossed races of man. that many excellent and kind-hearted mulattos have existed no one will dispute; and a more mild and gentle set of men could hardly be found than the inhabitants of the island of chiloe, who consist of indians commingled with spaniards in various proportions. on the other hand, many years ago, long before i had thought of the present subject, i was struck with the fact that, in south america, men of complicated descent between negroes, indians, and spaniards, seldom had, whatever the cause might be, a good expression.[110] livingstone,--and a more unimpeachable authority cannot be quoted,--after speaking of a half-caste man on the zambesi, described by the portuguese as a rare monster of inhumanity, remarks, "it is unaccountable why half-castes, such as he, are so much more cruel than the portuguese, but such is undoubtedly the case." an inhabitant remarked to livingstone, "god made white men, and god made black men, but the devil made half-castes."[111] when two races, both {47} low in the scale, are crossed, the progeny seems to be eminently bad. thus the noble-hearted humboldt, who felt none of that prejudice against the inferior races now so current in england, speaks in strong terms of the bad and savage disposition of zambos, or half-castes between indians and negroes; and this conclusion has been arrived at by various observers.[112] from these facts we may perhaps infer that the degraded state of so many half-castes is in part due to reversion to a primitive and savage condition, induced by the act of crossing, as well as to the unfavourable moral conditions under which they generally exist. * * * * * _summary on the proximate causes leading to reversion._--when purely-bred animals or plants reassume long-lost characters,--when the common ass, for instance, is born with striped legs, when a pure race of black or white pigeons throws a slaty-blue bird, or when a cultivated heartsease with large and rounded flowers produces a seedling with small and elongated flowers,--we are quite unable to assign any proximate cause. when animals run wild, the tendency to reversion, which, though it has been greatly exaggerated, no doubt exists, is sometimes to a certain extent intelligible. thus, with feral pigs, exposure to the weather will probably favour the growth of the bristles, as is known to be the case with the hair of other domesticated animals, and through correlation the tusks will tend to be redeveloped. but the reappearance of coloured longitudinal stripes on young feral pigs cannot be attributed to the direct action of external conditions. in this case, and in many others, we can only say that changed habits of life apparently have favoured a tendency, inherent or latent in the species, to return to the primitive state. it will be shown in a future chapter that the position of flowers on the summit of the axis, and the position of seeds within the capsule, sometimes determine a tendency towards reversion; and this apparently depends on the amount of sap or nutriment which the flower-buds and seeds receive. the position, also, of buds, either on branches or on roots, sometimes determines, as was formerly shown, the transmission of the {48} proper character of the variety, or its reversion to a former state. we have seen in the last section that when two races or species are crossed there is the strongest tendency to the reappearance in the offspring of long-lost characters, possessed by neither parent nor immediate progenitor. when two white, or red, or black pigeons, of well-established breeds, are united, the offspring are almost sure to inherit the same colours; but when differently-coloured birds are crossed, the opposed forces of inheritance apparently counteract each other, and the tendency which is inherent in both parents to produce slaty-blue offspring becomes predominant. so it is in several other cases. but when, for instance, the ass is crossed with _a. indicus_ or with the horse,--animals which have not striped legs,--and the hybrids have conspicuous stripes on their legs and even on their faces, all that can be said is, that an inherent tendency to reversion is evolved through some disturbance in the organisation caused by the act of crossing. another form of reversion is far commoner, indeed is almost universal with the offspring from a cross, namely, to the characters proper to either pure parent-form. as a general rule, crossed offspring in the first generation are nearly intermediate between their parents, but the grandchildren and succeeding generations continually revert, in a greater or lesser degree, to one or both of their progenitors. several authors have maintained that hybrids and mongrels include all the characters of both parents, not fused together, but merely mingled in different proportions in different parts of the body; or, as naudin[113] has expressed it, a hybrid is a living mosaic-work, in which the eye cannot distinguish the discordant elements, so completely are they intermingled. we can hardly doubt that, in a certain sense, this is true, as when we behold in a hybrid the elements of both species segregating themselves into segments in the same flower or fruit, by a process of self-attraction or self-affinity; this segregation taking place either by seminal or by bud-propagation. naudin further believes that the segregation of the two specific elements or essences is eminently liable to occur in the male and female reproductive matter; and he thus explains the almost {49} universal tendency to reversion in successive hybrid generations. for this would be the natural result of the union of pollen and ovules, in both of which the elements of the same species had been segregated by self-affinity. if, on the other hand, pollen which included the elements of one species happened to unite with ovules including the elements of the other species, the intermediate or hybrid state would still be retained, and there would be no reversion. but it would, as i suspect, be more correct to say that the elements of both parent-species exist in every hybrid in a double state, namely, blended together and completely separate. how this is possible, and what the term specific essence or element may be supposed to express, i shall attempt to show in the hypothetical chapter on pangenesis. but naudin's view, as propounded by him, is not applicable to the reappearance of characters lost long ago by variation; and it is hardly applicable to races or species which, after having been crossed at some former period with a distinct form, and having since lost all traces of the cross, nevertheless occasionally yield an individual which reverts (as in the case of the great-great-grandchild of the pointer sappho) to the crossing form. the most simple case of reversion, namely, of a hybrid or mongrel to its grandparents, is connected by an almost perfect series with the extreme case of a purely-bred race recovering characters which had been lost during many ages; and we are thus led to infer that all the cases must be related by some common bond. gärtner believed that only those hybrid plants which are highly sterile exhibit any tendency to reversion to their parent-forms. it is rash to doubt so good an observer, but this conclusion must i think be an error; and it may perhaps be accounted for by the nature of the genera observed by him, for he admits that the tendency differs in different genera. the statement is also directly contradicted by naudin's observations, and by the notorious fact that perfectly fertile mongrels exhibit the tendency in a high degree,--even in a higher degree, according to gärtner himself, than hybrids.[114] gärtner further states that reversions rarely occur with {50} hybrid plants raised from species which have not been cultivated, whilst, with those which have been long cultivated, they are of frequent occurrence. this conclusion explains a curious discrepancy: max wichura,[115] who worked exclusively on willows, which had not been subjected to culture, never saw an instance of reversion; and he goes so far as to suspect that the careful gärtner had not sufficiently protected his hybrids from the pollen of the parent-species: naudin, on the other hand, who chiefly experimented on cucurbitaceous and other cultivated plants, insists more strenuously than any other author on the tendency to reversion in all hybrids. the conclusion that the condition of the parent-species, as affected by culture, is one of the proximate causes leading to reversion, agrees fairly well with the converse case of domesticated animals and cultivated plants being liable to reversion when they become feral; for in both cases the organisation or constitution must be disturbed, though in a very different way. finally, we have seen that characters often reappear in purely-bred races without our being able to assign any proximate cause; but when they become feral this is either indirectly or directly induced by the change in their conditions of life. with crossed breeds, the act of crossing in itself certainly leads to the recovery of long-lost characters, as well as of those derived from either parent-form. changed conditions, consequent on cultivation, and the relative position of buds, flowers, and seeds on the plant, all apparently aid in giving this same tendency. reversion may occur either through seminal or bud generation, generally at birth, but sometimes only with an advance of age. segments or portions of the individual may alone be thus affected. that a being should be born resembling in certain characters an ancestor removed by two or three, and in some cases by hundreds or even thousands of generations, is assuredly a wonderful fact. in these cases the child is commonly said to inherit such characters directly from its grandparents or more remote ancestors. but this view is hardly conceivable. if, however, we suppose that every character is derived {51} exclusively from the father or mother, but that many characters lie latent in both parents during a long succession of generations, the foregoing facts are intelligible. in what manner characters may be conceived to lie latent, will be considered in a future chapter to which i have lately alluded. * * * * * _latent characters._--but i must explain what is meant by characters lying latent. the most obvious illustration is afforded by secondary sexual characters. in every female all the secondary male characters, and in every male all the secondary female characters, apparently exist in a latent state, ready to be evolved under certain conditions. it is well known that a large number of female birds, such as fowls, various pheasants, partridges, peahens, ducks, &c., when old or diseased, or when operated on, partly assume the secondary male characters of their species. in the case of the hen-pheasant this has been observed to occur far more frequently during certain seasons than during others.[116] a duck ten years old has been known to assume both the perfect winter and summer plumage of the drake.[117] waterton[118] gives a curious case of a hen which had ceased laying, and had assumed the plumage, voice, spurs, and warlike disposition of the cock; when opposed to an enemy she would erect her hackles and show fight. thus every character, even to the instinct and manner of fighting, must have lain dormant in this hen as long as her ovaria continued to act. the females of two kinds of deer, when old, have been known to acquire horns; and, as hunter has remarked, we see something of an analogous nature in the human species. on the other hand, with male animals, it is notorious that the secondary sexual characters are more or less completely lost when they are subjected to castration. thus, if the operation be performed on a young cock, he never, as yarrell states, crows {52} again; the comb, wattles, and spurs do not grow to their full size, and the hackles assume an intermediate appearance between true hackles and the feathers of the hen. cases are recorded of confinement alone causing analogous results. but characters properly confined to the female are likewise acquired; the capon takes to sitting on eggs, and will bring up chickens; and what is more curious, the utterly sterile male hybrids from the pheasant and the fowl act in the same manner, "their delight being to watch when the hens leave their nests, and to take on themselves the office of a sitter."[119] that admirable observer réaumur[120] asserts that a cock, by being long confined in solitude and darkness, can be taught to take charge of young chickens; he then utters a peculiar cry, and retains during his whole life this newly acquired maternal instinct. the many well-ascertained cases of various male mammals giving milk, show that their rudimentary mammary glands retain this capacity in a latent condition. we thus see that in many, probably in all cases, the secondary characters of each sex lie dormant or latent in the opposite sex, ready to be evolved under peculiar circumstances. we can thus understand how, for instance, it is possible for a good milking cow to transmit her good qualities through her male offspring to future generations; for we may confidently believe that these qualities are present, though latent, in the males of each generation. so it is with the game-cock, who can transmit his superiority in courage and vigour through his female to his male offspring; and with man it is known [121] that diseases, such as hydrocele, necessarily confined to the male sex, can be transmitted through the female to the grandson. such cases as these offer, as was remarked at the commencement of this chapter, the simplest possible examples of reversion; and they are intelligible on the belief that characters common to the grandparent and grandchild of the same sex are present, though latent, in the intermediate parent of the opposite sex. the subject of latent characters is so important, as we shall see in a future chapter, that i will give another illustration. {53} many animals have the right and left sides of their body unequally developed: this is well known to be the case with flat-fish, in which the one side differs in thickness and colour, and in the shape of the fins, from the other; and during the growth of the young fish one eye actually travels, as shown by steenstrup, from the lower to the upper surface.[122] in most flat-fishes the left is the blind side, but in some it is the right; though in both cases "wrong fishes," which are developed in a reversed manner to what is usual, occasionally occur, and in _platessa flesus_ the right or left side is indifferently developed, the one as often as the other. with gasteropods or shell-fish, the right and left sides are extremely unequal; the far greater number of species are dextral, with rare and occasional reversals of development, and some few are normally sinistral; but certain species of bulimus, and, many achatinellæ,[123] are as often sinistral as dextral. i will give an analogous case in the great articulate kingdom: the two sides of verruca[124] are so wonderfully unlike, that without careful dissection it is extremely difficult to recognise the corresponding parts on the opposite sides of the body; yet it is apparently a mere matter of chance whether it be the right or the left side that undergoes so singular an amount of change. one plant is known to me[125] in which the flower, according as it stands on the one or other side of the spike, is unequally developed. in all the foregoing cases the two sides of the animal are perfectly symmetrical at an early period of growth. now, whenever a species is as liable to be unequally developed on the one as on the other side, we may infer that the capacity for such development is present, though latent, in the undeveloped side. and as a reversal of development occasionally occurs in animals of many kinds, this latent capacity is probably very common. the best yet simplest instances of characters lying dormant are, perhaps, those previously given, in which chickens and {54} young pigeons, raised from a cross between differently coloured birds, are at first of one colour, but in a year or two acquire feathers of the colour of the other parent; for in this case the tendency to a change of plumage is clearly latent in the young bird. so it is with hornless breeds of cattle, some of which acquire, as they grow old, small horns. purely bred black and white bantams, and some other fowls, occasionally assume, with advancing years, the red feathers of the parent-species. i will here add a somewhat different case, as it connects in a striking manner latent characters of two classes. mr. hewitt[126] possessed an excellent sebright gold-laced hen bantam, which, as she became old, grew diseased in her ovaria, and assumed male characters. in this breed the males resemble the females in all respects except in their combs, wattles, spurs, and instincts; hence it might have been expected that the diseased hen would have assumed only those masculine characters which are proper to the breed, but she acquired, in addition, well-arched tail sickle-feathers quite a foot in length, saddle-feathers on the loins, and hackles on the neck,--ornaments which, as mr. hewitt remarks, "would be held as abominable in this breed." the sebright bantam is known[127] to have originated about the year 1800 from a cross between a common bantam and a polish fowl, recrossed by a hen-tailed bantam, and carefully selected; hence there can hardly be a doubt that the sickle-feathers and hackles which appeared in the old hen were derived from the polish fowl or common bantam; and we thus see that not only certain masculine characters proper to the sebright bantam, but other masculine characters derived from the first progenitors of the breed, removed by a period of above sixty years, were lying latent in this hen-bird, ready to be evolved as soon as her ovaria became diseased. from these several facts it must be admitted that certain characters, capacities, and instincts may lie latent in an individual, and even in a succession of individuals, without our being able to detect the least signs of their presence. we have {55} already seen that the transmission of a character from the grandparent to the grandchild, with its apparent omission in the intermediate parent of the opposite sex, becomes simple on this view. when fowls, pigeons, or cattle of different colours are crossed, and their offspring change colour as they grow old, or when the crossed turbit acquired the characteristic frill after its third moult, or when purely-bred bantams partially assume the red plumage of their prototype, we cannot doubt that these qualities were from the first present, though latent, in the individual animal, like the characters of a moth in the caterpillar. now, if these animals had produced offspring before they had acquired with advancing age their new characters, nothing is more probable than that they would have transmitted them to some of their offspring, which in this case would in appearance have received such characters from their grandparents or more distant progenitors. we should then have had a case of reversion, that is, of the reappearance in the child of an ancestral character, actually present, though during youth completely latent, in the parent; and this we may safely conclude is what occurs with reversions of all kinds to progenitors however remote. this view of the latency in each generation of all the characters which appear through reversion, is also supported by their actual presence in some cases during early youth alone, or by their more frequent appearance and greater distinctness at this age than during maturity. we have seen that this is often the case with the stripes on the legs and faces of the several species of the horse-genus. the himalayan rabbit, when crossed, sometimes produces offspring which revert to the parent silver-grey breed, and we have seen that in purely bred animals pale-grey fur occasionally reappears during early youth. black cats, we may feel assured, would occasionally produce by reversion tabbies; and on young black kittens, with a pedigree[128] known to have been long pure, faint traces of stripes may almost always be seen which afterwards disappear. hornless suffolk cattle occasionally produce by reversion horned animals; and youatt[129] asserts that even in hornless individuals {56} "the rudiment of a horn may be often felt at an early age." no doubt it appears at first sight in the highest degree improbable that in every horse of every generation there should be a latent capacity and tendency to produce stripes, though these may not appear once in a thousand generations; that in every white, black, or other coloured pigeon, which may have transmitted its proper colour during centuries, there should be a latent capacity in the plumage to become blue and to be marked with certain characteristic bars; that in every child in a six-fingered family there should be the capacity for the production of an additional digit; and so in other cases. nevertheless there is no more inherent improbability in this being the case than in a useless and rudimentary organ, or even in only a tendency to the production of a rudimentary organ, being inherited during millions of generations, as is well known to occur with a multitude of organic beings. there is no more inherent improbability in each domestic pig, during a thousand generations, retaining the capacity and tendency to develop great tusks under fitting conditions, than in the young calf having retained for an indefinite number of generations rudimentary incisor teeth, which never protrude through the gums. i shall give at the end of the next chapter a summary of the three preceding chapters; but as isolated and striking cases of reversion have here been chiefly insisted on, i wish to guard the reader against supposing that reversion is due to some rare or accidental combination of circumstances. when a character, lost during hundreds of generations, suddenly reappears, no doubt some such combination must occur; but reversions may be constantly observed, at least to the immediately preceding generations, in the offspring of most unions. this has been universally recognised in the case of hybrids and mongrels, but it has been recognised simply from the difference between the united forms rendering the resemblance of the offspring to their grandparents or more remote progenitors of easy detection. reversion is likewise almost invariably the rule, as mr. sedgwick has shown, with certain diseases. hence we must conclude that a tendency to this peculiar form of transmission is an integral part of the general law of inheritance. {57} * * * * * _monstrosities._--a large number of monstrous growths and of lesser anomalies are admitted by every one to be due to an arrest of development, that is to the persistence of an embryonic condition. if every horse or ass had striped legs whilst young, the stripes which occasionally appear on these animals when adult would have to be considered as due to the anomalous retention of an early character, and not as due to reversion. now, the leg-stripes in the horse-genus, and some other characters in analogous cases, are apt to occur during early youth and then to disappear; thus the persistence of early characters and reversion are brought into close connexion. but many monstrosities can hardly be considered as the result of an arrest of development; for parts of which no trace can be detected in the embryo, but which occur in other members of the same class of animals or plants, occasionally appear, and these may probably with truth be attributed to reversion. for instance: supernumerary mammæ, capable of secreting milk, are not extremely rare in women; and as many as five have been observed. when four are developed, they are generally arranged symmetrically on each side of the chest; and in one instance a woman (the daughter of another with supernumerary mammæ) had one mamma, which yielded milk, developed in the inguinal region. this latter case, when we remember the position of the mammæ in some of the lower animals on both the chest and inguinal region, is highly remarkable, and leads to the belief that in all cases the additional mammæ in woman are due to reversion. the facts given in the last chapter on the tendency in supernumerary digits to regrowth after amputation, indicate their relation to the digits of the lower vertebrate animals, and lead to the suspicion that their appearance may in some manner be connected with reversion. but i shall have to recur, in the chapter on pangenesis, to the abnormal multiplication of organs, and likewise to their occasional transposition. the occasional development in man of the coccygeal vertebræ into a short and free tail, though it thus becomes in one sense more perfectly developed, may at the same time be considered as an arrest of development, and as a case of reversion. the greater frequency of a monstrous kind of proboscis in the pig than in any other mammal, considering the position of the pig {58} in the mammalian series, has likewise been attributed, perhaps truly, to reversion.[130] when flowers which are properly irregular in structure become regular or peloric, the change is generally looked at by botanists as a return to the primitive state. but dr. maxwell masters,[131] who has ably discussed this subject, remarks that when, for instance, all the sepals of a tropæolum become green and of the same shape, instead of being coloured with one alone prolonged into a spur, or when all the petals of a linaria become simple and regular, such cases may be due merely to an arrest of development; for in these flowers all the organs during their earliest condition are symmetrical, and, if arrested at this stage of growth, they would not become irregular. if, moreover, the arrest were to take place at a still earlier period of development, the result would be a simple tuft of green leaves; and no one probably would call this a case of reversion. dr. masters designates the cases first alluded to as regular peloria; and others, in which all the corresponding parts assume a similar form of irregularity, as when all the petals in a linaria become spurred, as irregular peloria. we have no right to attribute these latter cases to reversion, until it can be shown to be probable that the parent-form, for instance, of the genus linaria had had all its petals spurred; for a change of this nature might result from the spreading of an anomalous structure, in accordance with the law, to be discussed in a future chapter, of homologous parts tending to vary in the same manner. but as both forms of peloria frequently occur on the same individual plant of the linaria,[132] they probably stand in some close relation to each other. on the doctrine that peloria is simply the result of an arrest of development, it is difficult to understand how an organ arrested at a very early period of growth should acquire its full functional perfection;--how a petal, supposed to be thus arrested, should acquire its brilliant colours, and serve as an envelope to the flower, or a stamen produce efficient pollen; yet this occurs with many peloric flowers. that pelorism is not due to mere chance variability, but either to an arrest of development or to reversion, we may infer from an observation made by ch. morren,[133] namely, that families which have irregular flowers often "return by these monstrous growths to their regular form; whilst we never see a regular flower realise the structure of an irregular one." some flowers have almost certainly become more or less completely peloric through reversion. _corydalis tuberosa_ properly has one of its two nectaries colourless, destitute of nectar, only half the size of the other, and {59} therefore, to a certain extent, in a rudimentary state; the pistil is curved towards the perfect nectary, and the hood, formed of the inner petals, slips off the pistil and stamens in one direction alone, so that, when a bee sucks the perfect nectary, the stigma and stamens are exposed and rubbed against the insect's body. in several closely allied genera, as in dielytra, &c., there are two perfect nectaries, the pistil is straight, and the hood slips off on either side, according as the bee sucks either nectary. now, i have examined several flowers of _corydalis tuberosa_, in which both nectaries were equally developed and contained nectar; in this we see only the redevelopment of a partially aborted organ; but with this redevelopment the pistil becomes straight, and the hood slips off in either direction; so that these flowers have acquired the perfect structure, so well adapted for insect agency, of dielytra and its allies. we cannot attribute these coadapted modifications to chance, or to correlated variability; we must attribute them to reversion to a primordial condition of the species. the peloric flowers of pelargonium have their five petals in all respects alike, and there is no nectary; so that they resemble the symmetrical flowers of the closely allied geranium-genus; but the alternate stamens are also sometimes destitute of anthers, the shortened filaments being left as rudiments, and in this respect they resemble the symmetrical flowers of the closely allied genus, erodium. hence we are led to look at the peloric flowers of pelargonium as having probably reverted to the state of some primordial form, the progenitor of the three closely related genera of pelargonium, geranium, and erodium. in the peloric form of _antirrhinum majus_, appropriately called the "_wonder_," the tubular and elongated flowers differ wonderfully from those of the common snapdragon; the calyx and the mouth of the corolla consist of six equal lobes, and include six equal instead of four unequal stamens. one of the two additional stamens is manifestly formed by the development of a microscopically minute papilla, which may be found at the base of the upper lip of the flower in all common snapdragons, at least in nineteen plants examined by me. that this papilla is a rudiment of a stamen was well shown by its various degrees of development in crossed plants between the common and peloric antirrhinum. again, a peloric _galeobdolon luteum_, growing in my garden, had five equal petals, all striped like the ordinary lower lip, and included five equal instead of four unequal stamens; but mr. r. keeley, who sent me this plant, informs me that the flowers vary greatly, having from four to six lobes to the corolla, and from three to six stamens.[134] now, as the members of the two great families to which the antirrhinum and galeobdolon belong are properly pentamerous, with some of the parts confluent and others suppressed, we ought not to look at the sixth stamen and the sixth lobe to the corolla in either case as due to reversion, any more than the additional petals in double flowers in these same two families. but the case is different with the fifth stamen in the peloric antirrhinum, which {60} is produced by the redevelopment of a rudiment always present, and which probably reveals to us the state of the flower, as far as the stamens are concerned, at some ancient epoch. it is also difficult to believe that the other four stamens and the petals, after an arrest of development at a very early embryonic age, would have come to full perfection in colour, structure, and function, unless these organs had at some former period normally passed through a similar course of growth. hence it appears to me probable that the progenitor of the genus antirrhinum must at some remote epoch have included five stamens and borne flowers in some degree resembling those now produced by the peloric form. lastly, i may add that many instances have been recorded of flowers, not generally ranked as peloric, in which certain organs, normally few in number, have been abnormally augmented. as such an increase of parts cannot be looked at as an arrest of development, nor as due to the redevelopment of rudiments, for no rudiments are present, and as these additional parts bring the plant into closer relationship with its natural allies, they ought probably to be viewed as reversions to a primordial condition. these several facts show us in an interesting manner how intimately certain abnormal states are connected together; namely, arrests of development causing parts to become rudimentary or to be wholly suppressed,--the redevelopment of parts at present in a more or less rudimentary condition,--the reappearance of organs of which not a vestige can now be detected,--and to these may be added, in the case of animals, the presence during youth, and subsequent disappearance, of certain characters which occasionally are retained throughout life. some naturalists look at all such abnormal structures as a return to the ideal state of the group to which the affected being belongs; but it is difficult to conceive what is meant to be conveyed by this expression. other naturalists maintain, with greater probability and distinctness of view, that the common bond of connection between the several foregoing cases is an actual, though partial, return to the structure of the ancient progenitor of the group. if this view be correct, we must believe that a vast number of characters, capable of evolution, lie hidden in every organic being. but it would be a mistake to suppose that the number is equally great in all beings. we know, for instance, that plants of many orders occasionally become peloric; but many more cases have been observed in the labiatæ and scrophulariaceæ than in any other order; and in one genus of the scrophulariaceæ, namely linaria, no less {61} than thirteen species have been described in a peloric condition.[135] on this view of the nature of peloric flowers, and bearing in mind what has been said with respect to certain monstrosities in the animal kingdom, we must conclude that the progenitors of most plants and animals, though widely different in structure, have left an impression capable of redevelopment on the germs of their descendants. the fertilised germ of one of the higher animals, subjected as it is to so vast a series of changes from the germinal cell to old age,--incessantly agitated by what quatrefages well calls the _tourbillon vital_,--is perhaps the most wonderful object in nature. it is probable that hardly a change of any kind affects either parent, without some mark being left on the germ. but on the doctrine of reversion, as given in this chapter, the germ becomes a far more marvellous object, for, besides the visible changes to which it is subjected, we must believe that it is crowded with invisible characters, proper to both sexes, to both the right and left side of the body, and to a long line of male and female ancestors separated by hundreds or even thousands of generations from the present time; and these characters, like those written on paper with invisible ink, all lie ready to be evolved under certain known or unknown conditions. * * * * * {62} chapter xiv. inheritance _continued_--fixedness of character--prepotency--sexual limitation--correspondence of age. fixedness of character apparently not due to antiquity of inheritance--prepotency of transmission in individuals of the same family, in crossed breeds and species; often stronger in one sex than the other; sometimes due to the same character being present and visible in one breed and latent in the other--inheritance as limited by sex--newly-acquired characters in our domesticated animals often transmitted by one sex alone, sometimes lost by one sex alone--inheritance at corresponding periods of life--the importance of the principle with respect to embryology; as exhibited in domesticated animals; as exhibited in the appearance and disappearance of inherited diseases; sometimes supervening earlier in the child than in the parent--summary of the three preceding chapters. in the two last chapters the nature and force of inheritance, the circumstances which interfere with its power, and the tendency to reversion, with its many remarkable contingencies, were discussed. in the present chapter some other related phenomena will be treated of, as fully as my materials permit. _fixedness of character._ it is a general belief amongst breeders that the longer any character has been transmitted by a breed, the more firmly it will continue to be transmitted. i do not wish to dispute the truth of the proposition, that inheritance gains strength simply through long continuance, but i doubt whether it can be proved. in one sense the proposition is little better than a truism; if any character has remained constant during many generations, it will obviously be little likely, the conditions of life remaining the same, to vary during the next generation. so, again, in improving a breed, if care be taken for a length of time to exclude all inferior individuals, the breed will obviously tend to become truer, as it will not have been crossed during many generations by an inferior animal. we have previously seen, {63} but without being able to assign any cause, that, when a new character appears, it is occasionally from the first well fixed, or fluctuates much, or wholly fails to be transmitted. so it is with the aggregate of slight differences which characterise a new variety, for some propagate their kind from the first much truer than others. even with plants multiplied by bulbs, layers, &c., which may in one sense be said to form parts of the same individual, it is well known that certain varieties retain and transmit through successive bud-generations their newly-acquired characters more truly than others. in none of these, nor in the following cases, does there appear to be any relation between the force with which a character is transmissible and the length of time during which it has already been transmitted. some varieties, such as white and yellow hyacinths and white sweet-peas, transmit their colours more faithfully than do the varieties which have retained their natural colour. in the irish family, mentioned in the twelfth chapter, the peculiar tortoiseshell-like colouring of the eyes was transmitted far more faithfully than any ordinary colour. ancon and mauchamp sheep and niata cattle, which are all comparatively modern breeds, exhibit remarkably strong powers of inheritance. many similar cases could be adduced. as all domesticated animals and cultivated plants have varied, and yet are descended from aboriginally wild forms, which no doubt had retained the same character from an immensely remote epoch, we see that scarcely any degree of antiquity ensures a character being transmitted perfectly true. in this case, however, it may be said that changed conditions of life induce certain modifications, and not that the power of inheritance fails; but in every case of failure, some cause, either internal or external, must interfere. it will generally be found that the parts in our domesticated productions which have varied, or which still continue to vary,--that is, which fail to retain their primordial state,--are the same with the parts which differ in the natural species of the same genus. as, on the theory of descent with modification, the species of the same genus have been modified since they branched off from a common progenitor, it follows that the characters by which they differ from each other have varied whilst other parts of the organisation have remained unchanged; and it might be argued that {64} these same characters now vary under domestication, or fail to be inherited, owing to their lesser antiquity. but we must believe structures, which have already varied, would be more liable to go on varying, rather than structures which during an immense lapse of time have remained unaltered; and this variation is probably the result of certain relations between the conditions of life and the organisation, quite independently of the greater or less antiquity of each particular character. fixedness of character, or the strength of inheritance, has often been judged of by the preponderance of certain characters in the crossed offspring between distinct races; but prepotency of transmission here comes into play, and this, as we shall immediately see, is a very different consideration from the strength or weakness of inheritance. it has often been observed[136] that breeds of animals inhabiting wild and mountainous countries cannot be permanently modified by our improved breeds; and as these latter are of modern origin, it has been thought that the greater antiquity of the wilder breeds has been the cause of their resistance to improvement by crossing; but it is more probably due to their structure and constitution being better adapted to the surrounding conditions. when plants are first subjected to culture, it has been found that, during several generations, they transmit their characters truly, that is, do not vary, and this has been attributed to ancient characters being strongly inherited; but it may with equal or greater probability be consequent on changed conditions of life requiring a long time for their accumulative action. notwithstanding these considerations, it would perhaps be rash to deny that characters become more strongly fixed the longer they are transmitted; but i believe that the proposition resolves itself into this,--that all characters of all kinds, whether new or old, tend to be inherited, and that those which have already withstood all counteracting influences and been truly transmitted, will, as a general rule, continue to withstand them, and consequently be faithfully inherited. {65} _prepotency in the transmission of character._ when individuals distinct enough to be recognised, but of the same family, or when two well-marked races, or two species, are crossed, the usual result, as stated in the previous chapter, is, that the offspring in the first generation are intermediate between their parents, or resemble one parent in one part and the other parent in another part. but this is by no means the invariable rule; for in many cases it is found that certain individuals, races, and species are prepotent in transmitting their likeness. this subject has been ably discussed by prosper lucas,[137] but is rendered extremely complicated by the prepotency sometimes running equally in both sexes, and sometimes more strongly in one sex than in the other; it is likewise complicated by the presence of secondary sexual characters, which render the comparison of mongrels with their parent-breeds difficult. it would appear that in certain families some one ancestor, and after him others in the same family, must have had great power in transmitting their likeness through the male line; for we cannot otherwise understand how the same features should so often be transmitted after marriages with various females, as has been the case with the austrian emperors, and as, according to niebuhr, formerly occurred in certain roman families with their mental qualities.[138] the famous bull favourite is believed[139] to have had a prepotent influence on the shorthorn race. it has also been observed[140] with english race-horses that certain mares have generally transmitted their own character, whilst other mares of equally pure blood have allowed the character of the sire to prevail. the truth of the principle of prepotency comes out more clearly when certain races are crossed. the improved shorthorns, notwithstanding that the breed is comparatively modern, are generally acknowledged to possess great power in impressing their likeness on all other breeds; and it is chiefly in consequence of this power that they are so highly valued {66} for exportation.[141] godine has given a curious case of a ram of a goat-like breed of sheep from the cape of good hope, which produced offspring hardly to be distinguished from himself, when crossed with ewes of twelve other breeds. but two of these half-bred ewes, when put to a merino ram, produced lambs closely resembling the merino breed. girou de buzareingues[142] found that of two races of french sheep the ewes of one, when crossed during successive generations with merino rams, yielded up their character far sooner than the ewes of the other race. sturm and girou have given analogous cases with other breeds of sheep and with cattle, the prepotency running in these cases through the male side; but i was assured on good authority in south america, that when niata cattle are crossed with common cattle, though the niata breed is prepotent whether males or females are used, yet that the prepotency is strongest through the female line. the manx cat is tailless and has long hind legs; dr. wilson crossed a male manx with common cats, and, out of twenty-three kittens, seventeen were destitute of tails; but when the female manx was crossed by common male cats all the kittens had tails, though they were generally short and imperfect.[143] in making reciprocal crosses between pouter and fantail pigeons, the pouter-race seemed to be prepotent through both sexes over the fantail. but this is probably due to weak power in the fantail rather than to any unusually strong power in the pouter, for i have observed that barbs also preponderated over fantails. this weakness of transmission in the fantail, though the breed is an ancient one, is said[144] to be general; but i have observed one exception to the rule, namely, in a cross between a fantail and laugher. the most curious instance known to me of weak power in both sexes is in the trumpeter pigeon. this breed has been well known for at least 130 years: it breeds perfectly true, as i have been assured by those who have long kept many birds: it is characterised by a peculiar tuft of feathers over the beak, by a crest on the head, by a most peculiar coo quite unlike that of any other breed, and by much-feathered feet. i have crossed both sexes with turbits of two sub-breeds, with almond tumblers, spots, and runts, and reared many mongrels and recrossed them; and though the crest on the head and feathered feet were inherited (as is generally the case with most breeds), i have never seen a vestige of the tuft over the beak or heard the peculiar coo. boitard and corbié[145] assert that this is the invariable result of crossing trumpeters with any other breed: neumeister,[146] however, states that in germany mongrels have been obtained, though very rarely, which were furnished with the tuft and would trumpet: but a pair of these mongrels with a tuft, which i imported, never trumpeted. mr. brent states[147] that the crossed offspring of a trumpeter were crossed {67} with trumpeters for three generations, by which time the mongrels had 7-8ths of this blood in their veins, yet the tuft over the beak did not appear. at the fourth generation the tuft appeared, but the birds, though now having 15-16ths trumpeter's blood, still did not trumpet. this case well shows the wide difference between inheritance and prepotency; for here we have a well-established old race which transmits it characters faithfully, but which, when crossed with any other race, has the feeblest power of transmitting its two chief characteristic qualities. i will give one other instance with fowls and pigeons of weakness and strength in the transmission of the same character to their crossed offspring. the silk-fowl breeds true, and there is reason to believe is a very ancient race; but when i reared a large number of mongrels from a silk-hen by a spanish cock, not one exhibited even a trace of the so-called silkiness. mr. hewitt also asserts that in no instance are the silky feathers transmitted by this breed when crossed with any other variety. but three birds out of many raised by mr. orton from a cross between a silk-cock and a bantam-hen, had silky feathers.[148] so that it is certain that this breed very seldom has the power of transmitting its peculiar plumage to its crossed progeny. on the other hand, there is a silk sub-variety of the fantail pigeon, which has its feathers in nearly the same state as in the silk-fowl: now we have already seen that fantails, when crossed, possess singularly weak power in transmitting their general qualities; but the silk sub-variety when crossed with any other small-sized race invariably transmits its silky feathers![149] the law of prepotency comes into action when species are crossed, as with races and individuals. gärtner has unequivocally shown[150] that this is the case with plants. to give one instance: when _nicotiana paniculata_ and _vincæflora_ are crossed, the character of _n. paniculata_ is almost completely lost in the hybrid; but if _n. quadrivalvis_ be crossed with _n. vincæflora_, this later species, which was before so prepotent, now in its turn almost disappears under the power of _n. quadrivalvis_. it is remarkable that the prepotency of one species over another in transmission is quite independent, as shown by gärtner, of the greater or less facility with which the one fertilises the other. with animals, the jackal is prepotent over the dog, as is stated by flourens who made many crosses between these animals; and this was likewise the case with a hybrid which i once saw between a jackal and terrier. i cannot doubt, from the observations of colin and others, that the ass is prepotent over the horse; the prepotency in this instance running more strongly through the male than through the female ass; so that the mule resembles the ass more closely than does the hinny.[151] the {68} male pheasant, judging from mr. hewitt's descriptions,[152] and from the hybrids which i have seen, preponderates over the domestic fowl; but the latter, as far as colour is concerned, has considerable power of transmission, for hybrids raised from five differently coloured hens differed greatly in plumage. i formerly examined some curious hybrids in the zoological gardens, between the penguin variety of the common duck and the egyptian goose (_tadorna ægyptiaca_); and although i will not assert that the domesticated variety preponderated over the natural species, yet it had strongly impressed its unnatural upright figure on these hybrids. i am aware that such cases as the foregoing have been ascribed by various authors, not to one species, race, or individual being prepotent over the other in impressing it character on its crossed offspring, but to such rules as that the father influences the external characters and the mother the internal or vital organs. but the great diversity of the rules given by various authors almost proves their falseness. dr. prosper lucas has fully discussed this point, and has shown[153] that none of the rules (and i could add others to those quoted by him) apply to all animals. similar rules have been enounced for plants, and have been proved by gärtner[154] to be all erroneous. if we confine our view to the domesticated races of a single species, or perhaps even to the species of the same genus, some such rules may hold good; for instance, it seems that in reciprocally crossing various breeds of fowls the male generally gives colour;[155] but conspicuous exceptions have passed under my own eyes. in sheep it seems that the ram usually gives its peculiar horns and fleece to its crossed offspring, and the bull the presence or absence of horns. in the following chapter on crossing i shall have occasion to show that certain characters are rarely or never blended by crossing, but are {69} transmitted in an unmodified state from either parent-form; i refer to this fact here because it is sometimes accompanied on the one side by prepotency, which thus acquires the false appearance of unusual strength. in the same chapter i shall show that the rate at which a species or breed absorbs and obliterates another by repeated crosses, depends in chief part on prepotency in transmission. in conclusion, some of the cases above given,--for instance, that of the trumpeter pigeon,--prove that there is a wide difference between mere inheritance and prepotency. this latter power seems to us, in our ignorance, to act in most cases quite capriciously. the very same character, even though it be an abnormal or monstrous one, such as silky feathers, may be transmitted by different species, when crossed, either with prepotent force or singular feebleness. it is obvious, that a purely-bred form of either sex, in all cases in which prepotency does not run more strongly in one sex than the other, will transmit its character with prepotent force over a mongrelized and already variable form.[156] from several of the above-given cases we may conclude that mere antiquity of character does not by any means necessarily make it prepotent. in some cases prepotency apparently depends on the same character being present and visible in one of the two breeds which are crossed, and latent or invisible in the other breed; and in this case it is natural that the character which is potentially present in both should be prepotent. thus, we have reason to believe that there is a latent tendency in all horses to be dun-coloured and striped; and when a horse of this kind is crossed with one of any other colour, it is said that the offspring are almost sure to be striped. sheep have a similar latent tendency to become dark-coloured, and we have seen with what prepotent force a ram with a few black spots, when crossed with sheep of various breeds, coloured its offspring. all pigeons have a latent tendency to become slaty-blue, with certain characteristic marks, and it is known that, when a bird thus coloured is crossed with one of any other colour, it is most difficult afterwards to eradicate the blue tint. a nearly parallel case is offered by those black bantams which, as they grow {70} old, develop a latent tendency to acquire red feathers. but there are exceptions to the rule: hornless breeds of cattle possess a latent capacity to reproduce horns, yet when crossed with horned breeds they do not invariably produce offspring bearing horns. we meet with analogous cases with plants. striped flowers, though they can be propagated truly by seed, have a latent tendency to become uniformly coloured, but when once crossed by a uniformly coloured variety, they ever afterwards fail to produce striped seedlings.[157] another case is in some respects more curious: plants bearing peloric or regular flowers have so strong a latent tendency to reproduce their normally irregular flowers, that this often occurs by buds when a plant is transplanted into poorer or richer soil.[158] now i crossed the peloric snapdragon (_antirrhinum majus_), described in the last chapter, with pollen of the common form; and the latter, reciprocally, with peloric pollen. i thus raised two great beds of seedlings, and not one was peloric. naudin[159] obtained the same result from crossing a peloric linaria with the common form. i carefully examined the flowers of ninety plants of the crossed antirrhinum in the two beds, and their structure had not been in the least affected by the cross, except that in a few instances the minute rudiment of the fifth stamen, which is always present, was more fully or even completely developed. it must not be supposed that this entire obliteration of the peloric structure in the crossed plants can be accounted for by any incapacity of transmission; for i raised a large bed of plants from the peloric antirrhinum, artificially fertilised by its own pollen, and sixteen plants, which alone survived the winter, were all as perfectly peloric as the parent-plant. here we have a good instance of the wide difference between the inheritance of a character and the power of transmitting it to crossed offspring. the crossed plants, which perfectly resembled the common snapdragon, were allowed to sow themselves, and, out of a hundred and twenty-seven seedlings, eighty-eight proved to be common snapdragons, two were in an intermediate condition between the peloric and normal state, {71} and thirty-seven were perfectly peloric, having reverted to the structure of their one grandparent. this case seems at first sight to offer an exception to the rule formerly given, namely, that a character which is present in one form and latent in the other is generally transmitted with prepotent force when the two forms are crossed. for in all the scrophulariaceæ, and especially in the genera antirrhinum and linaria, there is, as was shown in the last chapter, a strong latent tendency to become peloric; and there is also, as we have just seen, a still stronger tendency in all peloric plants to reacquire their normal irregular structure. so that we have two opposed latent tendencies in the same plants. now, with the crossed antirrhinums the tendency to produce normal or irregular flowers, like those of the common snapdragon, prevailed in the first generation; whilst the tendency to pelorism, appearing to gain strength by the intermission of a generation, prevailed to a large extent in the second set of seedlings. how it is possible for a character to gain strength by the intermission of a generation, will be considered in the chapter on pangenesis. on the whole, the subject of prepotency is extremely intricate,--from its varying so much in strength, even in regard to the same character, in different animals,--from its running either equally in both sexes, or, as frequently is the case with animals, but not with plants, much stronger in the one sex than the other,--from the existence of secondary sexual characters,--from the transmission of certain characters being limited, as we shall immediately see, by sex,--from certain characters not blending together,--and, perhaps, occasionally from the effects of a previous fertilisation on the mother. it is therefore not surprising that every one hitherto has been baffled in drawing up general rules on the subject of prepotency. _inheritance as limited by sex._ new characters often appear in one sex, and are afterwards transmitted to the same sex, either exclusively or in a much greater degree than to the other. this subject is important, because with animals of many kinds in a state of nature, both high and low in the scale, secondary sexual characters, not in {72} any way directly connected with the organs of reproduction, are often conspicuously present. with our domesticated animals, also, these same secondary characters are often found to differ greatly from the state in which they exist in the parent-species. and the principle of inheritance as limited by sex shows how such characters might have been first acquired and subsequently modified. dr. p. lucas, who has collected many facts on this subject, shows[160] that when a peculiarity, in no manner connected with the reproductive organs, appears in either parent, it is often transmitted exclusively to the offspring of the same sex, or to a much greater number of them than of the opposite sex. thus, in the family of lambert, the horn-like projections on the skin were transmitted from the father to his sons and grandsons alone; so it has been with other cases of ichthyosis, with supernumerary digits, with a deficiency of digits and phalanges, and in a lesser degree with various diseases, especially with colour-blindness, and a hæmorrhagic diathesis, that is, an extreme liability to profuse and uncontrollable bleeding from trifling wounds. on the other hand, mothers have transmitted, during several generations, to their daughters alone, supernumerary and deficient digits, colour-blindness, and other peculiarities. so that we see that the very same peculiarity may become attached to either sex, and be long inherited by that sex alone; but the attachment in certain cases is much more frequent to one than the other sex. the same peculiarities also may be promiscuously transmitted to either sex. dr. lucas gives other cases, showing that the male occasionally transmits his peculiarities to his daughters alone, and the mother to her sons alone; but even in this case we see that inheritance is to a certain extent, though inversely, regulated by sex. dr. lucas, after weighing the whole evidence, comes to the conclusion that every peculiarity, according to the sex in which it first appears, tends to be transmitted in a greater or lesser degree to that sex. a few details from the many cases collected by mr. sedgwick,[161] may be here given. colour-blindness, from some unknown cause, shows itself much oftener in males than in females; in upwards of two hundred cases collected by mr. sedgwick, nine-tenths related to men; but it is eminently liable to be transmitted through women. in the case given by dr. earle, members of eight related families were affected during five generations: these families consisted of sixty-one individuals, namely, of thirty-two males, of whom nine-sixteenths were incapable of distinguishing colour, and of twenty-nine females, of whom only one-fifteenth were thus affected. {73} although colour-blindness thus generally clings to the male sex, nevertheless, in one instance in which it first appeared in a female, it was transmitted during five generations to thirteen individuals, all of whom were females. a hæmorrhagic diathesis, often accompanied by rheumatism, has been known to affect the males alone during five generations, being transmitted, however, through the females. it is said that deficient phalanges in the fingers have been inherited by the females alone during ten generations. in another case, a man thus deficient in both hands and feet, transmitted the peculiarity to his two sons and one daughter; but in the third generation, out of nineteen grandchildren, twelve sons had the family defect, whilst the seven daughters were free. in ordinary cases of sexual limitation, the sons or daughters inherit the peculiarity, whatever it may be, from their father or mother, and transmit it to their children of the same sex; but generally with the hæmorrhagic diathesis, and often with colour-blindness, and in some other cases, the sons never inherit the peculiarity directly from their fathers, but the daughters, and the daughters alone, transmit the latent tendency, so that the sons of the daughters alone exhibit it. thus, the father, grandson, and great-great-grandson will exhibit a peculiarity,--the grandmother, daughter, and great-granddaughter having transmitted it in a latent state. hence we have, as mr. sedgwick remarks, a double kind of atavism or reversion; each grandson apparently receiving and developing the peculiarity from his grandfather, and each daughter apparently receiving the latent tendency from her grandmother. from the various facts recorded by dr. prosper lucas, mr. sedgwick, and others, there can be no doubt that peculiarities first appearing in either sex, though not in any way necessarily or invariably connected with that sex, strongly tend to be inherited by the offspring of the same sex, but are often transmitted in a latent state through the opposite sex. turning now to domesticated animals, we find that certain characters not proper to the parent-species are often confined to, and inherited by, one sex alone; but we do not know the history of the first appearance of such characters. in the chapter on sheep, we have seen that the males of certain races differ greatly from the females in the shape of their horns, these being absent in the ewes of some breeds, in the development of fat in the tail in certain fat-tailed breeds, and in the outline of the forehead. these differences, judging from the character of the allied wild species, cannot be accounted for by supposing that they have been derived from distinct parent-forms. there is, also, a great difference between the horns of the two sexes in one indian breed of goats. the bull zebu is said to have a larger hump than the cow. in the scotch deer-hound the two sexes differ in size more than in any other variety of the dog,[162] and, judging from analogy, more than in the aboriginal parent-species. the peculiar colour called tortoise-shell is very rarely seen in a male cat; the males of this variety being of a rusty tint. a tendency to baldness in man before the advent of old age is certainly inherited; and in the european, or at least in the {74} englishman, is an attribute of the male sex, and may almost be ranked as an incipient secondary sexual character. in various breeds of the fowl the males and females often differ greatly; and these differences are far from being the same with those which distinguish the two sexes in the parent-species, the _gallus bankiva_; and consequently have originated under domestication. in certain sub-varieties of the game race we have the unusual case of the hens differing from each other more than the cocks. in an indian breed of a white colour stained with soot, the hens invariably have black skins, and their bones are covered by a black periosteum, whilst the cocks are never or most rarely thus characterised. pigeons offer a more interesting case; for the two sexes rarely differ throughout the whole great family, and the males and females of the parent-form, the _c. livia_, are undistinguishable; yet we have seen that with pouters the male has the characteristic quality of pouting more strongly developed than the female; and in certain sub-varieties[163] the males alone are spotted or striated with black. when male and female english carrier-pigeons are exhibited in separate pens, the difference in the development of the wattle over the beak and round the eyes is conspicuous. so that here we have instances of the appearance of secondary sexual characters in the domesticated races of a species in which such differences are naturally quite absent. on the other hand, secondary sexual characters which properly belong to the species are sometimes quite lost, or greatly diminished, under domestication. we see this in the small size of the tusks in our improved breeds of the pig, in comparison with those of the wild boar. there are sub-breeds of fowls in which the males have lost the fine flowing tail-feathers and hackles; and others in which there is no difference in colour between the two sexes. in some cases the barred plumage, which in gallinaceous birds is commonly the attribute of the hen, has been transferred to the cock, as in the cuckoo sub-breeds. in other cases masculine characters have been partly transferred to the female, as with the splendid plumage of the golden-spangled hamburgh hen, the enlarged comb of the spanish hen, the pugnacious disposition of the game hen, and as in the well-developed spurs which occasionally appear in the hens of various breeds. in polish fowls both sexes are ornamented with a topknot, that of the male being formed of hackle-like feathers, and this is a new male character in the genus gallus. on the whole, as far as i can judge, new characters are more apt {75} to appear in the males of our domesticated animals than in the females, and afterwards to be either exclusively or more strongly inherited by the males. finally, in accordance with the principle of inheritance as limited by sex, the appearance of secondary sexual characters in natural species offers no especial difficulty, and their subsequent increase and modification, if of any service to the species, would follow through that form of selection which in my 'origin of species' i have called sexual selection. _inheritance at corresponding periods of life._ this is an important subject. since the publication of my 'origin of species,' i have seen no reason to doubt the truth of the explanation there given of perhaps the most remarkable of all the facts in biology, namely, the difference between the embryo and the adult animal. the explanation is, that variations do not necessarily or generally occur at a very early period of embryonic growth, and that such variations are inherited at a corresponding age. as a consequence of this the embryo, even when the parent-form undergoes a great amount of modification, is left only slightly modified; and the embryos of widely-different animals which are descended from a common progenitor remain in many important respects like each other and their common progenitor. we can thus understand why embryology should throw a flood of light on the natural system of classification, for this ought to be as far as possible genealogical. when the embryo leads an independent life, that is, becomes a larva, it has to be adapted to the surrounding conditions in its structure and instincts, independently of those of its parents; and the principle of inheritance at corresponding periods of life renders this possible. this principle is, indeed, in one way so obvious that it escapes attention. we possess a number of races of animals and plants, which, when compared with each other and with their parent-forms, present conspicuous differences, both in the immature and mature states. look at the seeds of the several kinds of peas, beans, maize, which can be propagated truly, and see how they differ in size, colour, and shape, whilst the {76} full-grown plants differ but little. cabbages on the other hand differ greatly in foliage and manner of growth, but hardly at all in their seeds; and generally it will be found that the differences between cultivated plants at different periods of growth are not necessarily closely connected together, for plants may differ much in their seeds and little when full-grown, and conversely may yield seeds hardly distinguishable, yet differ much when full-grown. in the several breeds of poultry, descended from a single species, differences in the eggs and chickens, in the plumage at the first and subsequent moults, in the comb and wattles during maturity, are all inherited. with man peculiarities in the milk and second teeth, of which i have received the details, are inheritable, and with man longevity is often transmitted. so again with our improved breeds of cattle and sheep, early maturity, including the early development of the teeth, and with certain breeds of fowl the early appearance of secondary sexual characters, all come under the same head of inheritance at corresponding periods. numerous analogous facts could be given. the silk-moth, perhaps, offers the best instance; for in the breeds which transmit their characters truly, the eggs differ in size, colour, and shape;--the caterpillars differ, in moulting three or four times, in colour, even in having a dark-coloured mark like an eyebrow, and in the loss of certain instincts;--the cocoons differ in size, shape, and in the colour and quality of the silk; these several differences being followed by slight or barely distinguishable differences in the mature moth. but it may be said that, if in the above cases a new peculiarity is inherited, it must be at the corresponding stage of development; for an egg or seed can resemble only an egg or seed, and the horn in a full-grown ox can resemble only a horn. the following cases show inheritance at corresponding periods more plainly, because they refer to peculiarities which might have supervened, as far as we can see, earlier or later in life, yet are inherited at the same period at which they first appeared. in the lambert family the porcupine-like excrescences appeared in the father and sons at the same age, namely, about nine weeks after {77} birth.[164] in the extraordinary hairy family described by mr. crawfurd,[165] children were produced during three generations with hairy ears; in the father the hair began to grow over his body at six years old; in his daughter somewhat earlier, namely, at one year; and in both generations the milk teeth appeared late in life, the permanent teeth being afterwards singularly deficient. greyness of hair at an unusually early age has been transmitted in some families. these cases border on diseases inherited at corresponding periods of life, to which i shall immediately refer. it is a well-known peculiarity with almond-tumbler pigeons, that the full beauty and peculiar character of the plumage does not appear until the bird has moulted two or three times. neumeister describes and figures a breed of pigeons in which the whole body is white except the breast, neck, and head; but before the first moult all the white feathers acquire coloured edges. another breed is more remarkable: its first plumage is black, with rusty-red wing-bars and a crescent-shaped mark on the breast; these marks then became white, and remain so during three or four moults; but after this period the white spreads over the body, and the bird loses its beauty.[166] prize canary-birds have their wings and tail black: "this colour, however, is only retained until the first moult, so that they must be exhibited ere the change takes place. once moulted, the peculiarity has ceased. of course all the birds emanating from this stock have black wings and tails the first year."[167] a curious and somewhat analogous account has been given[168] of a family of wild pied rooks which were first observed in 1798, near chalfont, and which every year from that date up to the period of the published notice, viz. 1837, "have several of their brood particoloured, black and white. this variegation of the plumage, however, disappears with the first moult; but among the next young families there are always a few pied ones." these changes of plumage, which appear and are inherited at various corresponding periods of life in the pigeon, canary-bird, and rook, are remarkable, because the parent-species undergo no such change. inherited diseases afford evidence in some respects of less value than the foregoing cases, because diseases are not necessarily connected with any change in structure; but in other respects of more value, because the periods have been more carefully observed. certain diseases are communicated to the child apparently by a process like inoculation, and the child is from the first affected; such cases may be here passed over. large classes of diseases usually appear at certain ages, such as st. vitus's dance in youth, consumption in early mid-life, gout later, and apoplexy still later; and these are naturally inherited at the same period. but even in diseases of this class, instances have been recorded, as with st. vitus's {78} dance, showing that an unusually early or late tendency to the disease is inheritable.[169] in most cases the appearance of any inherited disease is largely determined by certain critical periods in each person's life, as well as by unfavourable conditions. there are many other diseases, which are not attached to any particular period, but which certainly tend to appear in the child at about the same age at which the parent was first attacked. an array of high authorities, ancient and modern, could be given in support of this proposition. the illustrious hunter believed in it; and piorry[170] cautions the physician to look closely to the child at the period when any grave inheritable disease attacked the parent. dr. prosper lucas,[171] after collecting facts from every source, asserts that affections of all kinds, though not related to any particular period of life, tend to reappear in the offspring at whatever period of life they first appeared in the progenitor. as the subject is important, it may be well to give a few instances, simply as illustrations, not as proof; for proof, recourse must be had to the authorities above quoted. some of the following cases have been selected for the sake of showing that, when a slight departure from the rule occurs, the child is affected somewhat earlier in life than the parent. in the family of le compte blindness was inherited during three generations, and no less than thirty-seven children and grandchildren were all affected at about the same age, namely seventeen or eighteen.[172] in another case a father and his four children all became blind at twenty-one years old; in another, a grandmother grew blind at thirty-five, her daughter at nineteen, and three grandchildren at the ages of thirteen and eleven.[173] so with deafness, two brothers, their father and paternal grandfather, all became deaf at the age of forty.[174] esquirol gives several striking instances of insanity coming on at the same age, as that of a grandfather, father, and son, who all committed suicide near their fiftieth year. many other cases could be given, as of a whole family who became insane at the age of forty.[175] other cerebral affections sometimes follow the same rule,--for instance, epilepsy and apoplexy. a woman died of the latter disease when sixty-three years old; one of her daughters at forty-three, and the other at sixty-seven: the latter had twelve children, who all died from tubercular meningitis.[176] i mention this latter case because it illustrates a frequent occurrence, namely, a change in the precise nature of an inherited disease, though still affecting the same organ. {79} asthma has attacked several members of the same family when forty years old, and other families during infancy. the most different diseases, as angina pectoris, stone in the bladder, and various affections of the skin, have appeared in successive generations at nearly the same age. the little finger of a man began from some unknown cause to grow inwards, and the same finger in his two sons began at the same age to bend inwards in a similar manner. strange and inexplicable neuralgic affections have caused parents and children to suffer agonies at about the same period of life.[177] i will give only two other cases, which are interesting as illustrating the disappearance as well as the appearance of disease at the same age. two brothers, their father, their paternal uncles, seven cousins, and their paternal grandfather, were all similarly affected by a skin-disease, called pityriasis versicolor; "the disease, strictly limited to the males of the family (though transmitted through the females), usually appeared at puberty, and disappeared at about the age of forty or forty-five years." the second case is that of four brothers, who when about twelve years old suffered almost every week from severe headaches, which were relieved only by a recumbent position in a dark room. their father, paternal uncles, paternal grandfather, and paternal granduncles all suffered in the same way from headaches, which ceased at the age of fifty-four or fifty-five in all those who lived so long. none of the females of the family were affected.[178] it is impossible to read the foregoing accounts, and the many others which have been recorded, of diseases coming on during three or even more generations, at the same age in several members of the same family, especially in the case of rare affections in which the coincidence cannot be attributed to chance, and doubt that there is a strong tendency to inheritance in disease at corresponding periods of life. when the rule fails, the disease is apt to come on earlier in the child than in the parent; the exceptions in the other direction being vey much rarer. dr. lucas[179] alludes to several cases of inherited diseases coming on at an earlier period. i have already given one striking instance with blindness during three generations; and mr. bowman remarks that this frequently occurs with cataract. with cancer there seems to be a peculiar liability to earlier inheritance: mr. paget, who has particularly {80} attended to this subject, and tabulated a large number of cases, informs me that he believes that in nine cases out of ten the later generation suffers from the disease at an earlier period than the previous generation. he adds, "in the instances in which the opposite relation holds, and the members of later generations have cancer at a later age than their predecessors, i think it will be found that the non-cancerous parents have lived to extreme old ages." so that the longevity of a non-affected parent seems to have the power of determining in the offspring the fatal period; and we thus apparently get another element of complexity in inheritance. the facts, showing that with certain diseases the period of inheritance occasionally or even frequently advances, are important with respect to the general descent-theory, for they render it in some degree probable that the same thing would occur with ordinary modifications of structure. the final result of a long series of such advances would be the gradual obliteration of characters proper to the embryo and larva, which would thus come to resemble more and more closely the mature parent-form. but any structure which was of service to the embryo or larva would be preserved by the destruction at this stage of growth of each individual which manifested any tendency to lose at too early an age its own proper character. finally, from the numerous races of cultivated plants and domestic animals, in which the seed or eggs, the young or old, differ from each other and from their parent-species;--from the cases in which new characters have appeared at a particular period, and afterwards have been inherited at the same period;--and from what we know with respect to disease, we must believe in the truth of the great principle of inheritance at corresponding periods of life. * * * * * _summary of the three preceding chapters._--strong as is the force of inheritance, it allows the incessant appearance of new characters. these, whether beneficial or injurious, of the most trifling importance, such as a shade of colour in a flower, a coloured lock of hair, or a mere gesture; or of the highest importance, as when affecting the brain or an organ so perfect {81} and complex as the eye; or of so grave a nature as to deserve to be called a monstrosity, or so peculiar as not to occur normally in any member of the same natural class, are all sometimes strongly inherited by man, the lower animals, and plants. in numberless cases it suffices for the inheritance of a peculiarity that one parent alone should be thus characterised. inequalities in the two sides of the body, though opposed to the law of symmetry, may be transmitted. there is a considerable body of evidence showing that even mutilations, and the effects of accidents, especially or perhaps exclusively when followed by disease, are occasionally inherited. there can be no doubt that the evil effects of long-continued exposure in the parent to injurious conditions are sometimes transmitted to the offspring. so it is, as we shall see in a future chapter, with the effects of the use and disuse of parts, and of mental habits. periodical habits are likewise transmitted, but generally, as it would appear, with little force. hence we are led to look at inheritance as the rule, and non-inheritance as the anomaly. but this power often appears to us in our ignorance to act capriciously, transmitting a character with inexplicable strength or feebleness. the very same peculiarity, as the weeping habit of trees, silky-feathers, &c., may be inherited either firmly or not at all by different members of the same group, and even by different individuals of the same species, though treated in the same manner. in this latter case we see that the power of transmission is a quality which is merely individual in its attachment. as with single characters, so it is with the several concurrent slight differences which distinguish sub-varieties or races; for of these, some can be propagated almost as truly as species, whilst others cannot be relied on. the same rule holds good with plants, when propagated by bulbs, offsets, &c., which in one sense still form parts of the same individual, for some varieties retain or inherit through successive bud-generations their character far more truly than others. some characters not proper to the parent-species have certainly been inherited from an extremely remote epoch, and may therefore be considered as firmly fixed. but it is doubtful whether length of inheritance in itself gives fixedness of character; {82} though the chances are obviously in favour of any character which has long been transmitted true or unaltered, still being transmitted true as long as the conditions of life remain the same. we know that many species, after having retained the same character for countless ages, whilst living under their natural conditions, when domesticated have varied in the most diversified manner, that is, have failed to transmit their original form; so that no character appears to be absolutely fixed. we can sometimes account for the failure of inheritance by the conditions of life being opposed to the development of certain characters; and still oftener, as with plants cultivated by grafts and buds, by the conditions causing new and slight modifications incessantly to appear. in this latter case it is not that inheritance wholly fails, but that new characters are continually superadded. in some few cases, in which both parents are similarly characterised, inheritance seems to gain so much force by the combined action of the two parents, that it counteracts its own power, and a new modification is the result. in many cases the failure of the parents to transmit their likeness is due to the breed having been at some former period crossed; and the child takes after his grandparent or more remote ancestor of foreign blood. in other cases, in which the breed has not been crossed, but some ancient character has been lost through variation, it occasionally reappears through reversion, so that the parents apparently fail to transmit their own likeness. in all cases, however, we may safely conclude that the child inherits all its characters from its parents, in whom certain characters are latent, like the secondary sexual characters of one sex in the other. when, after a long succession of bud-generations, a flower or fruit becomes separated into distinct segments, having the colours or other attributes of both parent-forms, we cannot doubt that these characters were latent in the earlier buds, though they could not then be detected, or could be detected only in an intimately commingled state. so it is with animals of crossed parentage, which with advancing years occasionally exhibit characters derived from one of their two parents, of which not a trace could at first be perceived. certain monstrosities, which resemble what naturalists call the typical form of the group in question, {83} apparently come under the same law of reversion. it is assuredly an astonishing fact that the male and female sexual elements, that buds, and even full-grown animals, should retain characters, during several generations in the case of crossed breeds, and during thousands of generations in the case of pure breeds, written as it were in invisible ink, yet ready at any time to be evolved under the requisite conditions. what these conditions are, we do not in many cases at all know. but the act of crossing in itself, apparently from causing some disturbance in the organisation, certainly gives a strong tendency to the reappearance of long-lost characters, both corporeal and mental, independently of those derived from the cross. a return of any species to its natural conditions of life, as with feral animals and plants, favours reversion; though it is certain that this tendency exists, we do not know how far it prevails, and it has been much exaggerated. on the other hand, the crossed offspring of plants which have had their organisation disturbed by cultivation, are more liable to reversion than the crossed offspring of species which have always lived under their natural conditions. when distinguishable individuals of the same family, or races, or species are crossed, we see that the one is often prepotent over the other in transmitting its own character. a race may possess a strong power of inheritance, and yet when crossed, as we have seen with trumpeter-pigeons, yield to the prepotency of every other race. prepotentcy of transmission may be equal in the two sexes of the same species, but often runs more strongly in one sex. it plays an important part in determining the rate at which one race can be modified or wholly absorbed by repeated crosses with another. we can seldom tell what makes one race or species prepotent over another; but it sometimes depends on the same character being present and visible in one parent, and latent or potentially present in the other. characters may first appear in either sex, but oftener in the male than in the female, and afterwards be transmitted to the offspring of the same sex. in this case we may feel confident that the peculiarity in question is really present though latent in the opposite sex; hence the father may transmit through his daughter any character to his grandson; and the mother {84} conversely to her granddaughter. we thus learn, and the fact is an important one, that transmission and development are distinct powers. occasionally these two powers seem to be antagonistic, or incapable of combination in the same individual; for several cases have been recorded in which the son has not directly inherited a character from his father, or directly transmitted it to his son, but has received it by transmission through his non-affected mother, and transmitted it through his non-affected daughter. owing to inheritance being limited by sex, we can see how secondary sexual characters may first have arisen under nature; their preservation and accumulation being dependent on their service to either sex. at whatever period of life a new character first appears, it generally remains latent in the offspring until a corresponding age is attained, and then it is developed. when this rule fails, the child generally exhibits the character at an earlier period than the parent. on this principle of inheritance at corresponding periods, we can understand how it is that most animals display from the germ to maturity such a marvellous succession of characters. finally, though much remains obscure with respect to inheritance, we may look at the following laws as fairly well established. firstly, a tendency in every character, new and old, to be transmitted by seminal and bud generation, though often counteracted by various known and unknown causes. secondly, reversion or atavism, which depends on transmission and development being distinct powers: it acts in various degrees and manners through both seminal and bud generation. thirdly, prepotency of transmission, which may be confined to one sex, or be common to both sexes of the prepotent form. fourthly, transmission, limited by sex, generally to the same sex in which the inherited character first appeared. fifthly, inheritance at corresponding periods of life, with some tendency to the earlier development of the inherited character. in these laws of inheritance, as displayed under domestication, we see an ample provision for the production, through variability and natural selection, of new specific forms. * * * * * {85} chapter xv. on crossing. free intercrossing obliterates the differences between allied breeds--when the numbers of two commingling breeds are unequal, one absorbs the other--the rate of absorption determined by prepotency of transmission, by the conditions of life, and by natural selection--all organic beings occasionally intercross; apparent exceptions--on certain characters incapable of fusion; chiefly or exclusively those which have suddenly appeared in the individual--on the modification of old races, and the formation of new races, by crossing--some crossed races have bred true from their first production--on the crossing of distinct species in relation to the formation of domestic races. in the two previous chapters, when discussing reversion and prepotency, i was necessarily led to give many facts on crossing. in the present chapter i shall consider the part which crossing plays in two opposed directions,--firstly, in obliterating characters, and consequently in preventing the formation of new races; and secondly, in the modification of old races, or in the formation of new and intermediate races, by a combination of characters. i shall also show that certain characters are incapable of fusion. the effects of free or uncontrolled breeding between the members of the same variety or of closely allied varieties are important; but are so obvious that they need not be discussed at much length. it is free intercrossing which chiefly gives uniformity, both under nature and under domestication, to the individuals of the same species or variety, when they live mingled together and are not exposed to any cause inducing excessive variability. the prevention of free crossing, and the intentional matching of individual animals, are the corner-stones of the breeder's art. no man in his senses would expect to improve or modify a breed in any particular manner, or keep an old breed true and distinct, unless he separated his animals. the killing of inferior animals in each generation comes to the {86} same thing as their separation. in savage and semi-civilised countries, where the inhabitants have not the means of separating their animals, more than a single breed of the same species rarely or never exists. in former times, even in a country so civilised as north america, there were no distinct races of sheep, for all had been mingled together.[180] the celebrated agriculturist marshall[181] remarks that "sheep that are kept within fences, as well as shepherded flocks in open countries, have generally a similarity, if not a uniformity, of character in the individuals of each flock;" for they breed freely together, and are prevented from crossing with other kinds; whereas in the unenclosed parts of england the unshepherded sheep, even of the same flock, are far from true or uniform, owing to various breeds having mingled and crossed. we have seen that the half-wild cattle in the several british parks are uniform in character in each; but in the different parks, from not having mingled and crossed during many generations, they differ in a slight degree. we cannot doubt that the extraordinary number of varieties and sub-varieties of the pigeon, amounting to at least one hundred and fifty, is partly due to their remaining, differently from other domesticated birds, paired for life when once matched. on the other hand, breeds of cats imported into this country soon disappear, for their nocturnal and rambling habits render it hardly possible to prevent free crossing. rengger[182] gives an interesting case with respect to the cat in paraguay: in all the distant parts of the kingdom it has assumed, apparently from the effects of the climate, a peculiar character, but near the capital this change has been prevented, owing, as he asserts, to the native animal frequently crossing with cats imported from europe. in all cases like the foregoing, the effects of an occasional cross will be augmented by the increased vigour and fertility of the crossed offspring, of which fact evidence will hereafter be given; for this will lead to the mongrels increasing more rapidly than the pure parent-breeds. {87} when distinct breeds are allowed to cross freely, the result will be a heterogenous body; for instance, the dogs in paraguay are far from uniform, and can no longer be affiliated to their parent-races.[183] the character which a crossed body of animals will ultimately assume must depend on several contingencies,--namely, on the relative numbers of the individuals belonging to the two or more races which are allowed to mingle; on the prepotency of one race over the other in the transmission of character; and on the conditions of life to which they are exposed. when two commingled breeds exist at first in nearly equal numbers, the whole will sooner or later become intimately blended, but not so soon, both breeds being equally favoured in all respects, as might have been expected. the following calculation[184] shows that this is the case: if a colony with an equal number of black and white men were founded, and we assume that they marry indiscriminately, are equally prolific, and that one in thirty annually dies and is born; then "in 65 years the number of blacks, whites, and mulattoes would be equal. in 91 years the whites would be 1-10th, the blacks 1-10th, and the mulattoes, or people of intermediate degrees of colour, 8-10ths of the whole number. in three centuries not 1-100th part of the whites would exist." when one of two mingled races exceeds the other greatly in number, the latter will soon be wholly, or almost wholly, absorbed and lost.[185] thus european pigs and dogs have been largely introduced into the islands of the pacific ocean, and the native races have been absorbed and lost in the course of about fifty or sixty years;[186] but the imported races no doubt were favoured. rats may be considered as semi-domesticated animals. some snake-rats (_mus alexandrinus_) escaped in the zoological gardens of london, "and for a long time afterwards the keepers frequently caught cross-bred rats, at first half-breds, afterwards with less and less of the character of the snake-rat, till at length all traces of it disappeared."[187] on the other hand, {88} in some parts of london, especially near the docks, where fresh rats are frequently imported, an endless variety of intermediate forms may be found between the brown, black, and snake rat, which are all three usually ranked as distinct species. how many generations are necessary for one species or race to absorb another by repeated crosses has often been discussed;[188] and the requisite number has probably been much exaggerated. some writers have maintained that a dozen, or score, or even more generations, are necessary; but this in itself is improbable, for in the tenth generation there will be only 1-1024th part of foreign blood in the offspring. gärtner found,[189] that with plants one species could be made to absorb another in from three to five generations, and he believes that this could always be effected in from six to seventh generations. in one instance, however, kölreuter[190] speaks of the offspring of _mirabilis vulgaris_, crossed during eight successive generations by _m. longiflora_, as resembling this latter species so closely, that the most scrupulous observer could detect "vix aliquam notabilem differentiam;"--he succeeded, as he says, "ad plenariam fere transmutationem." but this expression shows that the act of absorption was not even then absolutely complete, though these crossed plants contained only the 1-256th part of _m. vulgaris_. the conclusions of such accurate observers as gärtner and kölreuter are of far higher worth than those made without scientific aim by breeders. the most remarkable statement which i have met with of the persistent endurance of the effects of a single cross is given by fleischmann,[191] who, in reference to german sheep, says "that the original coarse sheep have 5500 fibres of wool on a square inch; grades of the third or fourth merino cross produced about 8000, the twentieth cross 27,000, the perfect pure merino blood 40,000 to 48,000." so that in this case common german sheep crossed twenty times successively with merinos have not by any means acquired wool as fine as that of the pure breed. in all cases, the rate of absorption will {89} depend largely on the conditions of life being favourable to any particular character; and we may suspect that there would be under the climate of germany a constant tendency to degeneration in the wool of merinos, unless prevented by careful selection; and thus perhaps the foregoing remarkable case may be explained. the rate of absorption must also depend on the amount of distinguishable difference between the two forms which are crossed, and especially, as gärtner insists, on prepotency of transmission in the one form over the other. we have seen in the last chapter that one of two french breeds of sheep yielded up its character, when crossed with merinos, very much slower than the other; and the common german sheep referred to by fleischmann may present an analogous case. but in all cases there will be during many subsequent generations more or less liability to reversion, and it is this fact which has probably led authors to maintain that a score or more of generations are requisite for one race to absorb another. in considering the final result of the commingling of two or more breeds, we must not forget that the act of crossing in itself tends to bring back long-lost characters not proper to the immediate parent-forms. with respect to the influence of the conditions of life on any two breeds which are allowed to cross freely, unless both are indigenous and have long been accustomed to the country where they live, they will, in all probability, be unequally affected by the conditions, and this will modify the result. even with indigenous breeds, it will rarely or never occur that both are equally well adapted to the surrounding circumstances; more especially when permitted to roam freely, and not carefully tended, as will generally be the case with breeds allowed to cross. as a consequence of this, natural selection will to a certain extent come into action, and the best fitted will survive, and this will aid in determining the ultimate character of the commingled body. how long a time it would require before such a crossed body of animals would assume within a limited area a uniform character no one can say; that they would ultimately become uniform from free intercrossing, and from the survival of the fittest, we may feel assured; but the character thus acquired would rarely or never, as we may infer from the several previous {90} considerations, be exactly intermediate between that of the two parent-breeds. with respect to the very slight differences by which the individuals of the same sub-variety, or even of allied varieties, are characterised, it is obvious that free crossing would soon obliterate such small distinctions. the formation of new varieties, independently of selection, would also thus be prevented; except when the same variation continually recurred from the action of some strongly predisposing cause. hence we may conclude that free crossing has in all cases played an important part in giving to all the members of the same domestic race, and of the same natural species, uniformity of character, though largely modified by natural selection and by the direct action of the surrounding conditions. _on the possibility of all organic beings occasionally intercrossing._--but it may be asked, can free crossing occur with hermaphrodite animals and plants? all the higher animals, and the few insects which have been domesticated, have separated sexes, and must inevitably unite for each birth. with respect to the crossing of hermaphrodites, the subject is too large for the present volume, and will be more properly treated in a succeeding work. in my 'origin of species,' however, i have given a short abstract of the reasons which induce me to believe that all organic beings occasionally cross, though perhaps in some cases only at long intervals of time.[192] i will here just recall the fact that many plants, though hermaphrodite in structure, are unisexual in function;--such as those called by c. k. sprengel _dichogamous_, in which the pollen and stigma of the same flower are matured at different periods; or those called by me _reciprocally dimorphic_, in which the flower's own pollen is not fitted to fertilise its own stigma; or again, the many kinds in which curious mechanical contrivances exist, effectually preventing self-fertilisation. there are, however, many hermaphrodite plants which are not in any way specially constructed to favour intercrossing, but which nevertheless commingle almost as freely as animals with separated sexes. this is the case with cabbages, radishes, and onions, as i know from {91} having experimented on them: even the peasants of liguria say that cabbages must be prevented "from falling in love" with each other. in the orange tribe, gallesio[193] remarks that the amelioration of the various kinds is checked by their continual and almost regular crossing. so it is with numerous other plants. nevertheless some cultivated plants can be named which rarely intercross, as the common pea, or which never intercross, as i have reason to believe is the case with the sweet-pea (_lathyrus odoratus_); yet the structure of these flowers certainly favours an occasional cross. the varieties of the tomato and aubergine (_solanum_) and pimenta (_pimenta vulgaris?_) are said[194] never to cross, even when growing alongside each other. but it should be observed that these are all exotic plants, and we do not know how they would behave in their native country when visited by the proper insects. it must also be admitted that some few natural species appear under our present state of knowledge to be perpetually self-fertilised, as in the case of the bee ophrys (_o. apifera_), though adapted in its structure to be occasionally crossed. the _leersia oryzoides_ produces minute enclosed flowers which cannot possibly be crossed, and these alone, to the exclusion of the ordinary flowers, have as yet been known to yield seed.[195] a few additional and analogous cases could be advanced. but these facts do not make me doubt that it is a general law of nature that the individuals of the same species occasionally intercross, and that some great advantage is derived from this act. it is well known (and i shall hereafter have to give instances) that some plants, both indigenous and naturalised, rarely or never produce flowers; or, if they flower, never produce seeds. but no one is thus led to doubt that it is a general law of nature that phanerogamic plants should produce flowers, and that these flowers should produce seed. when they fail, we believe that such plants would perform their proper functions under different conditions, or that they formerly did so and will do so again. on analogous grounds, i believe that the few flowers {92} which do not now intercross, either would do so under different conditions, or that they formerly fertilised each other at intervals--the means for effecting this being generally still retained--and they will do so again at some future period, unless indeed they become extinct. on this view alone, many points in the structure and action of the reproductive organs in hermaphrodite plants and animals are intelligible,--for instance, the male and female organs never being so completely enclosed as to render access from without impossible. hence we may conclude that the most important of all the means for giving uniformity to the individuals of the same species, namely, the capacity of occasionally intercrossing, is present, or has been formerly present, with all organic beings. _on certain characters not blending._--when two breeds are crossed their characters usually become intimately fused together; but some characters refuse to blend, and are transmitted in an unmodified state either from both parents or from one. when grey and white mice are paired, the young are not piebald nor of an intermediate tint, but are pure white or of the ordinary grey colour: so it is when white and common collared turtle-doves are paired. in breeding game fowls, a great authority, mr. j. douglas, remarks, "i may here state a strange fact: if you cross a black with a white game, you get birds of both breeds of the clearest colour." sir r. heron crossed during many years white, black, brown, and fawn-coloured angora rabbits, and never once got these colours mingled in the same animal, but often all four colours in the same litter.[196] additional cases could be given, but this form of inheritance is very far from universal even with respect to the most distinct colours. when turnspit dogs and ancon sheep, both of which have dwarfed limbs, are crossed with common breeds, the offspring are not intermediate in structure, but take after either parent. when tailless or hornless animals are crossed with perfect animals, it frequently, but by no means invariably, happens that the offspring are {93} either perfectly furnished with these organs or are quite destitute of them. according to rengger, the hairless condition of the paraguay dog is either perfectly or not at all transmitted to its mongrel offspring; but i have seen one partial exception in a dog of this parentage which had part of its skin hairy, and part naked; the parts being distinctly separated as in a piebald animal. when dorking fowls with five toes are crossed with other breeds, the chickens often have five toes on one foot and four on the other. some crossed pigs raised by sir r. heron between the solid-hoofed and common pig had not all four feet in an intermediate condition, but two feet were furnished with properly divided, and two with united hoofs. analogous facts have been observed with plants: major trevor clarke crossed the little, glabrous-leaved, annual stock (_matthiola_), with pollen of a large, red-flowered, rough-leaved, biennial stock, called _cocardeau_ by the french, and the result was that half the seedlings had glabrous and the other half rough leaves, but none had leaves in an intermediate state. that the glabrous seedlings were the product of the rough-leaved variety, and not accidentally of the mother-plant's own pollen, was shown by their tall and strong habit of growth.[197] in the succeeding generations raised from the rough-leaved crossed seedlings, some glabrous plants appeared, showing that the glabrous character, though incapable of blending with and modifying the rough leaves, was all the time latent in this family of plants. the numerous plants formerly referred to, which i raised from reciprocal crosses between the peloric and common antirrhinum, offer a nearly parallel case; for in the first generation all the plants resembled the common form, and in the next generation, out of one hundred and thirty-seven plants, two alone were in an intermediate condition, the others perfectly resembling either the peloric or common form. major trevor clarke also fertilised the above-mentioned red-flowered stock with pollen from the purple queen stock, and about half the seedlings scarcely differed in habit, and not at all in the red colour of the flower, from the mother-plant, the other half bearing blossoms of a rich purple, closely like those of the paternal plant. gärtner crossed many white and yellow-flowered species and varieties of verbascum; and these colours were never blended, but the offspring bore either pure white or pure yellow blossoms; the former in the larger proportion.[198] dr. herbert raised many seedlings, as he informed me, from swedish turnips crossed by two other varieties, and these never produced flowers of an intermediate tint, but always like one of their parents. i fertilised the purple sweet-pea (_lathyrus odoratus_), which has a dark reddish-purple standard-petal and violet-coloured wings and keel, with pollen of the painted-lady sweet-pea, which has a pale cherry-coloured standard, and almost white wings and keel; and from the same pod i twice raised plants perfectly resembling both sorts; the greater number resembling the father. so perfect was the resemblance, that i should have thought there had {94} been some mistake, if the plants which were at first identical with the paternal variety, namely, the painted-lady, had not later in the season produced, as mentioned in a former chapter, flowers blotched and streaked with dark purple. i raised grandchildren and great-grandchildren from these crossed plants, and they continued to resemble the painted-lady, but during the later generations became rather more blotched with purple, yet none reverted completely to the original mother-plant, the purple sweet-pea. the following case is slightly different, but still shows the same principle: naudin[199] raised numerous hybrids between the yellow _linaria vulgaris_ and the purple _l. purpurea_, and during three successive generations the colours kept distinct in different parts of the same flower. from such cases as the foregoing, in which the offspring of the first generation perfectly resemble either parent, we come by a small step to those cases in which differently coloured flowers borne on the same root resemble both parents, and by another step to those in which the same flower or fruit is striped or blotched with the two parental colours, or bears a single stripe of the colour or other characteristic quality of one of the parent-forms. with hybrids and mongrels it frequently or even generally happens that one part of the body resembles more or less closely one parent and another part the other parent; and here again some resistance to fusion, or, what comes to the same thing, some mutual affinity between the organic atoms of the same nature, apparently comes into play, for otherwise all parts of the body would be equally intermediate in character. so again, when the offspring of hybrids or mongrels, which are themselves nearly intermediate in character, revert either wholly or by segments to their ancestors, the principle of the affinity of similar, or the repulsion of dissimilar atoms, must come into action. to this principle, which seems to be extremely general, we shall recur in the chapter on pangenesis. it is remarkable, as has been strongly insisted upon by isidore geoffroy st. hilaire in regard to animals, that the transmission of characters without fusion occurs most rarely when species are crossed; i know of one exception alone, namely, with the hybrids naturally produced between the common and hooded crow (_corvus corone_ and _cornix_), which, however, are closely allied species, differing in nothing except colour. nor have i met with any well-ascertained cases of transmission of this kind, even when one form is strongly prepotent over another, when two races are crossed which have been slowly formed by man's selection, and therefore resemble to a certain extent natural species. such cases as puppies in the same litter closely resembling two distinct breeds, are probably due to super-foetation,--that is, to the influence of two fathers. all the characters above enumerated, which are transmitted in a perfect state to some of the offspring and not to others,--such as distinct colours, nakedness of skin, smoothness of leaves, absence of horns or tail, additional toes, pelorism, dwarfed structure, &c.,--have all been known to appear suddenly in individual animals and plants. from this fact, and from the several slight, aggregated differences which distinguish domestic races and species from {95} each other, not being liable to this peculiar form of transmission, we may conclude that it is in some way connected with the sudden appearance of the characters in question. _on the modification of old races and the formation of new races by crossing._--we have hitherto chiefly considered the effects of crossing in giving uniformity of character; we must now look to an opposite result. there can be no doubt that crossing, with the aid of rigorous selection during several generations, has been a potent means in modifying old races, and in forming new ones. lord orford crossed his famous stud of greyhounds once with the bulldog, which breed was chosen from being deficient in scenting powers, and from having what was wanted, courage and perseverance. in the course of six or seven generations all traces of the external form of the bulldog were eliminated, but courage and perseverance remained. certain pointers have been crossed, as i hear from the rev. w. d. fox, with the foxhound, to give them dash and speed. certain strains of dorking fowls have had a slight infusion of game blood; and i have known a great fancier who on a single occasion crossed his turbit-pigeons with barbs, for the sake of gaining greater breadth of beak. in the foregoing cases breeds have been crossed once, for the sake of modifying some particular character; but with most of the improved races of the pig, which now breed true, there have been repeated crosses,--for instance, the improved essex owes its excellence to repeated crosses with the neapolitan, together probably with some infusion of chinese blood.[200] so with our british sheep: almost all the races, except the southdown, have been largely crossed; "this, in fact, has been the history of our principal breeds."[201] to give an example, the "oxfordshire downs" now rank as an established breed.[202] they were produced about the year 1830 by crossing "hampshire and in some instances southdown ewes with cotswold rams:" now the hampshire ram was itself produced by repeated crosses between the native {96} hampshire sheep and southdowns; and the long-woolled cotswold were improved by crosses with the leicester, which latter again is believed to have been a cross between several long-woolled sheep. mr. spooner, after considering the various cases which have been carefully recorded, concludes "that from a judicious pairing of cross-bred animals it is practicable to establish a new breed." on the continent the history of several crossed races of cattle and of other animals has been well ascertained. to give one instance: the king of wurtemberg, after twenty-five years' careful breeding, that is after six or seven generations, made a new breed of cattle from a cross between a dutch and swiss breed, combined with other breeds.[203] the sebright bantam, which breeds as true as any other kind of fowl, was formed about sixty years ago by a complicated cross.[204] dark brahmas, which are believed by some fanciers to constitute a distinct species, were undoubtedly formed[205] in the united states, within a recent period, by a cross between chittagongs and cochins. with plants i believe there is little doubt that some kinds of turnips, now extensively cultivated, are crossed races; and the history of a variety of wheat which was raised from two very distinct varieties, and which after six years' culture presented an even sample, has been recorded on good authority.[206] until quite lately, cautious and experienced breeders, though not averse to a single infusion of foreign blood, were almost universally convinced that the attempt to establish a new race, intermediate between two widely distinct races, was hopeless: "they clung with superstitious tenacity to the doctrine of purity of blood, believing it to be the ark in which alone true safety could be found."[207] nor was this conviction unreasonable: when two distinct races are crossed, the offspring of the first generation are generally nearly uniform in character; but even this sometimes fails to be the case, especially with crossed dogs and fowls, the young of which from the first are sometimes much {97} diversified. as cross-bred animals are generally of large size and vigorous, they have been raised in great numbers for immediate consumption. but for breeding they are found to be utterly useless; for though they may be themselves uniform in character, when paired together they yield during many generations offspring astonishingly diversified. the breeder is driven to despair, and concludes that he will never form an intermediate race. but from the cases already given, and from others which have been recorded, it appears that patience alone is necessary; as mr. spooner remarks, "nature opposes no barrier to successful admixture; in the course of time, by the aid of selection and careful weeding, it is practicable to establish a new breed." after six or seven generations the hoped-for result will in most cases be obtained; but even then an occasional reversion, or failure to keep true, may be expected. the attempt, however, will assuredly fail if the conditions of life be decidedly unfavourable to the characters of either parent-breed.[208] although the grandchildren and succeeding generations of cross-bred animals are generally variable in an extreme degree, some curious exceptions to the rule have been observed, both with crossed races and species. thus boitard and corbié[209] assert that from a pouter and a runt "a cavalier will appear, which we have classed amongst pigeons of pure race, because it transmits all its qualities to its posterity." the editor of the 'poultry chronicle'[210] bred some bluish fowls from a black spanish cock and a malay hen; and these remained true to colour "generation after generation." the himalayan breed of rabbits was certainly formed by crossing two sub-varieties of the silver-grey rabbit; although it suddenly assumed its present character, which differs much from that of either parent-breed, yet it has ever since been easily and truly propagated. i crossed some labrador and penguin ducks, and recrossed the mongrels with penguins; afterwards, most of the ducks reared during three generations were nearly uniform in character, being brown with a white crescentic mark on the lower part of the breast, {98} and with some white spots at the base of the beak; so that by the aid of a little selection a new breed might easily have been formed. in regard to crossed varieties of plants, mr. beaton remarks[211] that "melville's extraordinary cross between the scotch kale and an early cabbage is as true and genuine as any on record;" but in this case no doubt selection was practised. gärtner[212] has given five cases of hybrids, in which the progeny kept constant; and hybrids between _dianthus armeria_ and _deltoides_ remained true and uniform to the tenth generation. dr. herbert likewise showed me a hybrid from two species of loasa which from its first production had kept constant during several generations. we have seen in the earlier chapters, that some of our domesticated animals, such as dogs, cattle, pigs, &c., are almost certainly descended from more than one species, or wild race, if any one prefers to apply this latter term to forms which were enabled to keep distinct in a state of nature. hence the crossing of aboriginally distinct species probably came into play at an early period in the formation of our present races. from rütimeyer's observations there can be little doubt that this occurred with cattle; but in most cases some one of the forms which were allowed to cross freely, will, it is probable, have absorbed and obliterated the others. for it is not likely that semi-civilized men would have taken the necessary pains to modify by selection their commingled, crossed, and fluctuating stock. nevertheless, those animals which were best adapted to their conditions of life would have survived through natural selection; and by this means crossing will often have indirectly aided in the formation of primeval domesticated breeds. within recent times, as far as animals are concerned, the crossing of distinct species has done little or nothing in the formation or modification of our races. it is not yet known whether the species of silk-moth which have been recently crossed in france will yield permanent races. in the fourth chapter i alluded with some hesitation to the statement that a new breed, between the hare and rabbit, called leporides, had been formed in france, and was found capable of propagating {99} itself; but it is now positively affirmed[213] that this is an error. with plants which can be multiplied by buds and cuttings, hybridisation has done wonders, as with many kinds of roses, rhododendrons, pelargoniums, calceolarias, and petunias. nearly all these plants can be propagated by seed; most of them freely; but extremely few or none come true by seed. some authors believe that crossing is the chief cause of variability,--that is, of the appearance of absolutely new characters. some have gone so far as to look at it as the sole cause; but this conclusion is disproved by some of the facts given in the chapter on bud-variation. the belief that characters not present in either parent or in their ancestors frequently originate from crossing is doubtful; that they occasionally thus arise is probable; but this subject will be more conveniently discussed in a future chapter on the causes of variability. a condensed summary of this and of the three following chapters, together with some remarks on hybridism, will be given in the nineteenth chapter. * * * * * {100} chapter xvi. causes which interfere with the free crossing of varieties--influence of domestication on fertility. difficulties in judging of the fertility of varieties when crossed--various causes which keep varieties distinct, as the period of breeding and sexual preference--varieties of wheat said to be sterile when crossed--varieties of maize, verbascum, hollyhock, gourds, melons, and tobacco, rendered in some degree mutually sterile--domestication eliminates the tendency to sterility natural to species when crossed--on the increased fertility of uncrossed animals and plants from domestication and cultivation. the domesticated races of both animals and plants, when crossed, are with extremely few exceptions quite prolific,--in some cases even more so than the purely bred parent-races. the offspring, also, raised from such crosses are likewise, as we shall see in the following chapter, generally more vigorous and fertile than their parents. on the other hand, species when crossed, and their hybrid offspring, are almost invariability in some degree sterile; and here there seems to exist a broad and insuperable distinction between races and species. the importance of this subject as bearing on the origin of species is obvious; and we shall hereafter recur to it. it is unfortunate how few precise observations have been made on the fertility of mongrel animals and plants during several successive generations. dr. broca[214] has remarked that no one has observed whether, for instance, mongrel dogs, bred _inter se_, are indefinitely fertile; yet, if a shade of infertility be detected by careful observation in the offspring of natural forms when crossed, it is thought that their specific distinction is proved. but so many breeds of sheep, cattle, pigs, dogs, and poultry, have been crossed and recrossed in various ways, that any sterility, if it had existed, would from being injurious {101} almost certainly have been observed. in investigating the fertility of crossed varieties many sources of doubt occur. whenever the least trace of sterility between two plants, however closely allied, was observed by kölreuter, and more especially by gärtner, who counted the exact number of seed in each capsule, the two forms were at once ranked as distinct species; and if this rule be followed, assuredly it will never be proved that varieties when crossed are in any degree sterile. we have formerly seen that certain breeds of dogs do not readily pair together; but no observations have been made whether, when paired, they produce the full number of young, and whether the latter are perfectly fertile _inter se_; but, supposing that some degree of sterility were found to exist, naturalists would simply infer that these breeds were descended from aboriginally distinct species; and it would be scarcely possible to ascertain whether or not this explanation was the true one. the sebright bantam is much less prolific than any other breed of fowls, and is descended from a cross between two very distinct breeds, recrossed by a third sub-variety. but it would be extremely rash to infer that the loss of fertility was in any manner connected with its crossed origin, for it may with more probability be attributed either to long-continued close interbreeding, or to an innate tendency to sterility correlated with the absence of hackles and sickle tail-feathers. before giving the few recorded cases of forms, which must be ranked as varieties, being in some degree sterile when crossed, i may remark that other causes sometimes interfere with varieties freely intercrossing. thus they may differ too greatly in size, as with some kinds of dogs and fowls: for instance, the editor of the 'journal of horticulture, &c.,'[215] says that he can keep bantams with the larger breeds without much danger of their crossing, but not with the smaller breeds, such as games, hamburgs, &c. with plants a difference in the period of flowering serves to keep varieties distinct, as with the various kinds of maize and wheat: thus colonel le couteur[216] remarks, "the talavera wheat, from flowering much earlier than any other kind, is sure to continue pure." in different parts of {102} the falkland islands the cattle are breaking up into herds of different colours; and those on the higher ground, which are generally white, usually breed, as i am informed by admiral sulivan, three months earlier than those on the lowlands; and this would manifestly tend to keep the herds from blending. certain domestic races seem to prefer breeding with their own kind; and this is a fact of some importance, for it is a step towards that instinctive feeling which helps to keep closely allied species in a state of nature distinct. we have now abundant evidence that, if it were not for this feeling, many more hybrids would be naturally produced than is the case. we have seen in the first chapter that the alco dog of mexico dislikes dogs of other breeds; and the hairless dog of paraguay mixes less readily with the european races, than the latter do with each other. in germany the female spitz-dog is said to receive the fox more readily than will other dogs; a female australian dingo in england attracted the wild male foxes. but these differences in the sexual instinct and attractive power of the various breeds may be wholly due to their descent from distinct species. in paraguay the horses have much freedom, and an excellent observer[217] believes that the native horses of the same colour and size prefer associating with each other, and that the horses which have been imported from entre rios and banda oriental into paraguay likewise prefer associating together. in circassia six sub-races of the horse are known and have received distinct names; and a native proprietor of rank[218] asserts that horses of three of these races, whilst living a free life, almost always refuse to mingle and cross, and will even attack each other. it has been observed, in a district stocked with heavy lincolnshire and light norfolk sheep, that both kinds, though bred together, when turned out, "in a short time separate to a sheep;" the lincolnshires drawing off to the rich soil, and the norfolks to their own dry light soil; and as long as there is plenty of grass, "the two breeds keep themselves as distinct as rooks and pigeons." in this case different habits of {103} life tend to keep the races distinct. on one of the faroe islands, not more than half a mile in diameter, the half-wild native black sheep are said not to have readily mixed with the imported white sheep. it is a more curious fact that the semi-monstrous ancon sheep of modern origin "have been observed to keep together, separating themselves from the rest of the flock, when put into enclosures with other sheep."[219] with respect to fallow deer, which live in a semi-domesticated condition, mr. bennett[220] states that the dark and pale coloured herds, which have long been kept together in the forest of dean, in high meadow woods, and in the new forest, have never been known to mingle: the dark-coloured deer, it may be added, are believed to have been first brought by james i. from norway, on account of their greater hardiness. i imported from the island of porto santo two of the feral rabbits, which differ, as described in the fourth chapter, from common rabbits; both proved to be males, and, though they lived during some years in the zoological gardens, the superintendent, mr. bartlett, in vain endeavoured to make them breed with various tame kinds; but whether this refusal to breed was due to any change in instinct, or simply to their extreme wildness; or whether confinement had rendered them sterile, as often occurs, cannot be told. whilst matching for the sake of experiment many of the most distinct breeds of pigeons, it frequently appeared to me that the birds, though faithful to their marriage vow, retained some desire after their own kind. accordingly i asked mr. wicking, who has kept a larger stock of various breeds together than any man in england, whether he thought that they would prefer pairing with their own kind, supposing that there were males and females enough of each; and he without hesitation answered that he was convinced that this was the case. it has often been noticed that the dovecot pigeon seems to have an actual aversion towards the several fancy breeds;[221] yet all have {104} certainly sprung from a common progenitor. the rev. w. d. fox informs me that his flocks of white and common chinese geese kept distinct. these facts and statements, though some of them are incapable of proof, resting only on the opinion of experienced observers, show that some domestic races are led by different habits of life to keep to a certain extent separate, and that others prefer coupling with their own kind, in the same manner as species in a state of nature, though in a much less degree. with respect to sterility from the crossing of domestic races, i know of no well-ascertained case with animals. this fact, seeing the great difference in structure between some breeds of pigeons, fowls, pigs, dogs, &c., is extraordinary, in contrast with the sterility of many closely allied natural species when crossed; but we shall hereafter attempt to show that it is not so extraordinary as it at first appears. and it may be well here to recall to mind that the amount of external difference between two species will not safely guide us in foretelling whether or not they will breed together,--some closely allied species when crossed being utterly sterile, and others which are extremely unlike being moderately fertile. i have said that no case of sterility in crossed races rests on satisfactory evidence; but here is one which at first seems trustworthy. mr. youatt,[222] and a better authority cannot be quoted, states, that formerly in lancashire crosses were frequently made between longhorn and shorthorn cattle; the first cross was excellent, but the produce was uncertain; in the third or fourth generation the cows were bad milkers; "in addition to which, there was much uncertainty whether the cows would conceive; and full one-third of the cows among some of these half-breds failed to be in calf." this at first seems a good case; but mr. wilkinson states,[223] that a breed derived from this same cross was actually established in another part of england; and if it had failed in fertility, the fact would surely have been noticed. moreover, supposing that mr. youatt had proved his case, it might be argued that the sterility was wholly due to the two parent-breeds being descended from primordially distinct species. i will give a case with plants, to show how difficult it is to get sufficient evidence. mr. sheriff, who has been so successful in the formation of new races of wheat, fertilised the hopetoun with the talavera; in the first and second generations the produce was intermediate in character, but in the fourth generation "it was found to consist of many varieties; nine-tenths of the florets proved barren, and many of the seeds seemed shrivelled abortions, void of vitality, and the whole race was evidently verging to extinction."[224] now, considering how little these {105} varieties of wheat differ in any important character, it seems to me very improbable that the sterility resulted, as mr. sheriff thought, from the cross, but from some quite distinct cause. until such experiments are many times repeated, it would be rash to trust them; but unfortunately they have been rarely tried even once with sufficient care. gärtner has recorded a more remarkable and trustworthy case: he fertilised thirteen panicles (and subsequently nine others) on a dwarf maize bearing yellow seed[225] with pollen of a tall maize having red seed; and one head alone produced good seed, only five in number. though these plants are monoecious, and therefore do not require castration, yet i should have suspected some accident in the manipulation had not gärtner expressly stated that he had during many years grown these two varieties together, and they did not spontaneously cross; and this, considering that the plants are monoecious and abound with pollen, and are well known generally to cross freely, seems explicable only on the belief that these two varieties are in some degree mutually infertile. the hybrid plants raised from the above five seed were intermediate in structure, extremely variable, and perfectly fertile.[226] no one, i believe, has hitherto suspected that these varieties of maize are distinct species; but had the hybrids been in the least sterile, no doubt gärtner would at once have so classed them. i may here remark, that with undoubted species there is not necessarily any close relation between the sterility of a first cross and that of the hybrid offspring. some species can be crossed with facility, but produce utterly sterile hybrids; others can be crossed with extreme difficulty, but the hybrids when produced are moderately fertile. i am not aware, however, of any instance quite like this of the maize with natural species, namely, of a first cross made with difficulty, but yielding perfectly fertile hybrids. the following case is much more remarkable, and evidently perplexed gärtner, whose strong wish it was to draw a broad line of distinction between species and varieties. in the genus verbascum, he made, during eighteen years, a vast number of experiments, and crossed no less than 1085 flowers and counted their seeds. many of these experiments consisted in crossing white and yellow varieties of both _v. lychnitis_ and _v. blattaria_ with nine other species and their hybrids. that the white and yellow flowered plants of these two species are really varieties, no one has doubted; and gärtner actually raised in the case of both species one variety from the seed of the other. now in two of his works[227] he distinctly asserts that crosses between similarly-coloured flowers yield more seed than between dissimilarly-coloured; so that the yellow-flowered variety of either species (and conversely with the white-flowered variety), when crossed with pollen of its own kind, yields more seed than when crossed with that of the white variety; and so it is when differently coloured species are crossed. the general results may be seen in the table at the {106} end of his volume. in one instance he gives[228] the following details; but i must premise that gärtner, to avoid exaggerating the degree of sterility in his crosses, always compares the _maximum_ number obtained from a cross with the _average_ number naturally given by the pure mother-plant. the white-variety of _v. lychnitis_, naturally fertilised by its own pollen, gave from an _average_ of twelve capsules ninety-six good seeds in each; whilst twenty flowers fertilised with pollen from the yellow variety of this same species, gave as the _maximum_ only eighty-nine good seed; so that we have the proportion of 1000 to 908, according to gärtner's usual scale. i should have thought it possible that so small a difference in fertility might have been accounted for by the evil effects of the necessary castration; but gärtner shows that the white variety of _v. lychnitis_, when fertilised first by the white variety of _v. blattaria_, and then by the yellow variety of this species, yielded seed in the proportion of 622 to 438; and in both these cases castration was performed. now the sterility which results from the crossing of the differently coloured varieties of the same species, is fully as great as that which occurs in many cases when distinct species are crossed. unfortunately gärtner compared the results of the first unions alone, and not the sterility of the two sets of hybrids produced from the white variety of _v. lychnitis_ when fertilised by the white and yellow varieties of _v. blattaria_, for it is probable that they would have differed in this respect. mr. j. scott has given me the results of a series of experiments on verbascum, made by him in the botanic gardens of edinburgh. he repeated some of gärtner's experiments on distinct species, but obtained only fluctuating results; some confirmatory, but the greater number contradictory; nevertheless these seem hardly sufficient to overthrow the conclusions arrived at by gärtner from experiments tried on a much larger scale. in the second place mr. scott experimented on the relative fertility of unions between similarly and dissimilarly-coloured varieties of the same species. thus he fertilised six flowers of the yellow variety of _v. lychnitis_ by its own pollen, and obtained six capsules, and calling, for the sake of having a standard of comparison, the average number of good seed in each one hundred, he found that this same yellow variety, when fertilised by the white variety, yielded from seven capsules an average of ninety-four seed. on the same principle, the white variety of _v. lychnitis_ by its own pollen (from six capsules), and by the pollen of the yellow variety (eight capsules), yielded seed in the proportion of 100 to 82. the yellow variety of _v. thapsus_ by its own pollen (eight capsules), and by that of the white variety (only two capsules), yielded seed in the proportion of 100 to 94. lastly, the white variety of _v. blattaria_ by its own pollen (eight capsules), and by that of the yellow variety (five capsules), yielded seed in the proportion of 100 to 79. so that in every case the unions of dissimilarly-coloured varieties of the same species were less fertile than the unions of similarly-coloured varieties; when all the cases are grouped together, the difference of fertility is as 86 to 100. some additional trials were made, and altogether thirty-six similarly-coloured unions yielded thirty-five good {107} capsules; whilst thirty-five dissimilarly-coloured unions yielded only twenty-six good capsules. besides the foregoing experiments, the purple _v. phoeniceum_ was crossed by a rose-coloured and a white variety of the same species; these two varieties were also crossed together, and these several unions yielded less seed than _v. phoeniceum_ by its own pollen. hence it follows from mr. scott's experiments, that in the genus verbascum the similarly and dissimilarly-coloured varieties of the same species behave, when crossed, like closely allied but distinct species.[229] this remarkable fact of the sexual affinity of similarly-coloured varieties, as observed by gärtner and mr. scott, may not be of very rare occurrence; for the subject has not been attended to by others. the following case is worth giving, partly to show how difficult it is to avoid error. dr. herbert[230] has remarked that variously-coloured double varieties of the hollyhock (_althæa rosea_) may be raised with certainty by seed from plants growing close together. i have been informed that nurserymen who raise seed for sale do not separate their plants; accordingly i procured seed of eighteen named varieties; of these, eleven varieties produced sixty-two plants all perfectly true to their kind; and seven produced forty-nine plants, half of which were true and half false. mr. masters of canterbury has given me a more striking case; he saved seed from a great bed of twenty-four named varieties planted in closely adjoining rows, and each variety reproduced itself truly with only sometimes a shade of difference in tint. now in the hollyhock the pollen, which is abundant, is matured and nearly all shed before the stigma of the same flower is ready to receive it;[231] and as bees covered with pollen incessantly fly from plant to plant, it would appear that adjoining varieties could not escape being crossed. as, however, this does not occur, it appeared to me probable that the pollen {108} of each variety was prepotent on its own stigma over that of all other varieties. but mr. c. turner of slough, well known for his success in the cultivation of this plant, informs me that it is the doubleness of the flowers which prevents the bees gaining access to the pollen and stigma; and he finds that it is difficult even to cross them artificially. whether this explanation will fully account for varieties in close proximity propagating themselves so truly by seed, i do not know. the following cases are worth giving, as they relate to monoecious forms, which do not require, and consequently have not been injured by, castration. girou de buzareingues crossed what he designates three varieties of gourd,[232] and asserts that their mutual fertilisation is less easy in proportion to the difference which they present. i am aware how imperfectly the forms in this group were until recently known; but sageret,[233] who ranked them according to their mutual fertility, considers the three forms above alluded to as varieties, as does a far higher authority, namely, m. naudin.[234] sageret[235] has observed that certain melons have a greater tendency, whatever the cause may be, to keep true than others; and m. naudin, who has had such immense experience in this group, informs me that he believes that certain varieties intercross more readily than others of the same species; but he has not proved the truth of this conclusion; the frequent abortion of the pollen near paris being one great difficulty. nevertheless, he has grown close together, during seven years, certain forms of citrullus, which, as they could be artificially crossed with perfect facility and produced fertile offspring, are ranked as varieties; but these forms when not artificially crossed kept true. many other varieties, on the other hand, in the same group cross with such facility, as m. naudin repeatedly insists, that without being grown far apart they cannot be kept in the least true. another case, though somewhat different, may be here given, as it is highly remarkable, and is established on excellent evidence. kölreuter minutely describes five varieties of the common tobacco,[236] which were reciprocally crossed, and the offspring were intermediate in character and as fertile as their parents: from this fact kölreuter inferred that they are really varieties; and no one, as far as i can discover, seems to have doubted that such is the case. he also crossed reciprocally these five varieties with _n. glutinosa_, and they yielded very sterile hybrids; but those raised from the _var. perennis_, whether used as the father or mother plant, were not so sterile as the hybrids from the four other varieties.[237] so that the sexual {109} capacity of this one variety has certainly been in some degree modified, so as to approach in nature that of _n. glutinosa_.[238] these facts with respect to plants show that in some few cases certain varieties have had their sexual powers so far modified, that they cross together less readily and yield less seed than other varieties of the same species. we shall presently see that the sexual functions of most animals and plants are eminently liable to be affected by the conditions of life to which they are exposed; and hereafter we shall briefly discuss the conjoint bearing of this and other facts on the difference in fertility between crossed varieties and crossed species. _domestication eliminates the tendency to sterility which is general with species when crossed._ this hypothesis was first propounded by pallas,[239] and has been adopted by several authors. i can find hardly any direct facts in its support; but unfortunately no one has compared, in the case of either animals or plants, the fertility of anciently domesticated varieties, when crossed with a distinct species, with that of the wild parent-species when similarly crossed. no one has compared, for instance, the fertility of _gallus bankiva_ and of the domesticated fowl, when crossed with a distinct species of gallus or phasianus; and the {110} experiment would in all cases be surrounded by many difficulties. dureau de la malle, who has so closely studied classical literature, states[240] that in the time of the romans the common mule was produced with more difficulty than at the present day; but whether this statement may be trusted i know not. a much more important, though somewhat different, case is given by m. groenland,[241] namely, that plants, known from their intermediate character and sterility to be hybrids between ægilops and wheat, have perpetuated themselves under culture since 1857, _with a rapid but varying increase of fertility in each generation_. in the fourth generation the plants, still retaining their intermediate character, had become as fertile as common cultivated wheat. the indirect evidence in favour of the pallasian doctrine appears to me to be extremely strong. in the earlier chapters i have attempted to show that our various breeds of dogs are descended from several wild species; and this probably is the case with sheep. there can no longer be any doubt that the zebu or humped indian ox belongs to a distinct species from european cattle: the latter, moreover, are descended from two or three forms, which may be called either species or wild races, but which co-existed in a state of nature and kept distinct. we have good evidence that our domesticated pigs belong to at least two specific types, _s. scrofa_ and _indica_, which probably lived together in a wild state in south-eastern europe. now, a widely-extended analogy leads to the belief that if these several allied species, in the wild state or when first reclaimed, had been crossed, they would have exhibited, both in their first unions and in their hybrid offspring, some degree of sterility. nevertheless the several domesticated races descended from them are now all, as far as can be ascertained, perfectly fertile together. if this reasoning be trustworthy, and it is apparently sound, we must admit the pallasian doctrine that long-continued domestication tends to eliminate that sterility which is natural to species when crossed in their aboriginal state. {111} _on increased fertility from domestication and cultivation._ increased fertility from domestication, without any reference to crossing, may be here briefly considered. this subject bears indirectly on two or three points connected with the modification of organic beings. as buffon long ago remarked,[242] domestic animals breed oftener in the year and produce more young at a birth than wild animals of the same species; they, also, sometimes breed at an earlier age. the case would hardly have deserved further notice, had not some authors lately attempted to show that fertility increases and decreases in an inverse ratio with the amount of food. this strange doctrine has apparently arisen from individual animals when supplied with an inordinate quantity of food, and from plants of many kinds when grown on excessively rich soil, as on a dunghill, becoming sterile; but to this latter point i shall have occasion presently to return. with hardly an exception, our domesticated animals, which have long been habituated to a regular and copious supply of food, without the labour of searching for it, are more fertile than the corresponding wild animals. it is notorious how frequently cats and dogs breed, and how many young they produce at a birth. the wild rabbit is said generally to breed four times yearly, and to produce from four to eight young; the tame rabbit breeds six or seven times yearly, and produces from four to eleven young. the ferret, though generally so closely confined, is more prolific than its supposed wild prototype. the wild sow is remarkably prolific, for she often breeds twice in the year, and produces from four to eight and sometimes even twelve young at a birth; but the domestic sow regularly breeds twice a year, and would breed oftener if permitted; and a sow that produces less than eight at a birth "is worth little, and the sooner she is fattened for the butcher the better." the amount of food affects the fertility even of the same individual: thus sheep, which on mountains never produce more than one lamb at a birth, when brought {112} down to lowland pastures frequently bear twins. this difference apparently is not due to the cold of the higher land, for sheep and other domestic animals are said to be extremely prolific in lapland. hard living, also, retards the period at which animals conceive; for it has been found disadvantageous in the northern islands of scotland to allow cows to bear calves before they are four years old.[243] birds offer still better evidence of increased fertility from domestication: the hen of the wild _gallus bankiva_ lays from six to ten eggs, a number which would be thought nothing of with the domestic hen. the wild duck lays from five to ten eggs; the tame one in the course of the year from eighty to one hundred. the wild grey-lag goose lays from five to eight eggs; the tame from thirteen to eighteen, and she lays a second time; as mr. dixon has remarked, "high-feeding, care, and moderate warmth induce a habit of prolificacy which becomes in some measure hereditary." whether the semi-domesticated dovecot pigeon is more fertile than the wild rock-pigeon _c. livia_, i know not; but the more thoroughly domesticated breeds are nearly twice as fertile as dovecots: the latter, however, when caged and highly fed, become equally fertile with house pigeons. the peahen alone of domesticated birds is rather more fertile, according to some accounts, when wild in its native indian home, than when domesticated in europe and exposed to our much colder climate.[244] with respect to plants, no one would expect wheat to tiller more, and each ear to produce more grain, in poor than in rich soil; or to get in poor soil a heavy crop of peas or beans. seeds vary so much in number {113} that it is difficult to estimate them; but on comparing beds of carrots saved for seed in a nursery garden with wild plants, the former seemed to produce about twice as much seed. cultivated cabbages yielded thrice as many pods by measure as wild cabbages from the rocks of south wales. the excess of berries produced by the cultivated asparagus in comparison with the wild plant is enormous. no doubt many highly cultivated plants, such as pears, pineapples, bananas, sugar-cane, &c., are nearly or quite sterile; and i am inclined to attribute this sterility to excess of food and to other unnatural conditions; but to this subject i shall presently recur. in some cases, as with the pig, rabbit, &c., and with those plants which are valued for their seed, the direct selection of the more fertile individuals has probably much increased their fertility; and in all cases this may have occurred indirectly, from the better chance of the more numerous offspring produced by the more fertile individuals having survived. but with cats, ferrets, and dogs, and with plants like carrots, cabbages, and asparagus, which are not valued for their prolificacy, selection can have played only a subordinate part; and their increased fertility must be attributed to the more favourable conditions of life under which they have long existed. * * * * * {114} chapter xvii. on the good effects of crossing, and on the evil effects of close interbreeding. definition of close interbreeding--augmentation of morbid tendencies--general evidence on the good effects derived from crossing, and on the evil effects from close interbreeding--cattle, closely interbred; half-wild cattle long kept in the same parks--sheep--fallow-deer--dogs--rabbits--pigs--man, origin of his abhorrence of incestuous marriages--fowls--pigeons--hive-bees--plants, general considerations on the benefits derived from crossing--melons, fruit-trees, peas, cabbages, wheat, and forest-trees--on the increased size of hybrid plants, not exclusively due to their sterility--on certain plants which either normally or abnormally are self-impotent, but are fertile, both on the male and female side, when crossed with distinct individuals either of the same or another species--conclusion. the gain in constitutional vigour, derived from an occasional cross between individuals of the same variety, but belonging to distinct families, or between distinct varieties, has not been so largely or so frequently discussed, as have the evil effects of too close interbreeding. but the former point is the more important of the two, inasmuch as the evidence is more decisive. the evil results from close interbreeding are difficult to detect, for they accumulate slowly, and differ much in degree with different species; whilst the good effects which almost invariably follow a cross are from the first manifest. it should, however, be clearly understood that the advantage of close interbreeding, as far as the retention of character is concerned, is indisputable, and often outweighs the evil of a slight loss of constitutional vigour. in relation to the subject of domestication, the whole question is of some importance, as too close interbreeding interferes with the improvement of old races, and especially with the formation of new ones. it is important as indirectly bearing on hybridism; and perhaps on the extinction of species, when any form has become so rare that only a few individuals {115} remain within a confined area. it bears in an important manner on the influence of free intercrossing, in obliterating individual differences, and thus giving uniformity of character to the individuals of the same race or species; for if additional vigour and fertility be thus gained, the crossed offspring will multiply and prevail, and the ultimate result will be far greater than otherwise would have occurred. lastly, the question is of high interest, as bearing on mankind. hence i shall discuss this subject at full length. as the facts which prove the evil effects of close interbreeding are more copious, though less decisive, than those on the good effects of crossing, i shall, under each group of beings, begin with the former. there is no difficulty in defining what is meant by a cross; but this is by no means easy in regard to "breeding in and in" or "too close interbreeding," because, as we shall see, different species of animals are differently affected by the same degree of interbreeding. the pairing of a father and daughter, or mother and son, or brothers and sisters, if carried on during several generations, is the closest possible form of interbreeding. but some good judges, for instance sir j. sebright, believe that the pairing of a brother and sister is closer than that of parents and children; for when the father is matched with his daughter he crosses, as is said, with only half his own blood. the consequences of close interbreeding carried on for too long a time, are, as is generally believed, loss of size, constitutional vigour, and fertility, sometimes accompanied by a tendency to malformation. manifest evil does not usually follow from pairing the nearest relations for two, three, or even four generations; but several causes interfere with our detecting the evil--such as the deterioration being very gradual, and the difficulty of distinguishing between such direct evil and the inevitable augmentation of any morbid tendencies which may be latent or apparent in the related parents. on the other hand, the benefit from a cross, even when there has not been any very close interbreeding, is almost invariably at once conspicuous. there is reason to believe, and this was the opinion of that most experienced observer sir j. sebright,[245] that the evil effects of close interbreeding may be checked by the related individuals {116} being separated during a few generations and exposed to different conditions of life. that evil directly follows from any degree of close interbreeding has been denied by many persons; but rarely by any practical breeder; and never, as far as i know, by one who has largely bred animals which propagate their kind quickly. many physiologists attribute the evil exclusively to the combination and consequent increase of morbid tendencies common to both parents: that this is an active source of mischief there can be no doubt. it is unfortunately too notorious that men and various domestic animals endowed with a wretched constitution, and with a strong hereditary disposition to disease, if not actually ill, are fully capable of procreating their kind. close interbreeding, on the other hand, induces sterility; and this indicates something quite distinct from the augmentation of morbid tendencies common to both parents. the evidence immediately to be given convinces me that it is a great law of nature, that all organic beings profit from an occasional cross with individuals not closely related to them in blood; and that, on the other hand, long-continued close interbreeding is injurious. various general considerations have had much influence in leading me to this conclusion; but the reader will probably rely more on special facts and opinions. the authority of experienced observers, even when they do not advance the grounds of their belief, is of some little value. now almost all men who have bred many kinds of animals and have written on the subject, such as sir j. sebright, andrew knight, &c.,[246] have expressed the strongest conviction on the impossibility of long-continued close interbreeding. those who have compiled works on agriculture, and have associated much with breeders, such as the sagacious youatt, low, &c., have strongly declared their opinion to the same effect. prosper lucas, trusting largely to french authorities, has come to a similar conclusion. the distinguished german agriculturist hermann von nathusius, who has written the most able treatise on this subject which i have met with, concurs; and as i shall have to quote from {117} this treatise, i may state that nathusius is not only intimately acquainted with works on agriculture in all languages, and knows the pedigrees of our british breeds better than most englishmen, but has imported many of our improved animals, and is himself an experienced breeder. evidence of the evil effects of close interbreeding can most readily be acquired in the case of animals, such as fowls, pigeons, &c., which propagate quickly, and, from being kept in the same place, are exposed to the same conditions. now i have inquired of very many breeders of these birds, and i have hitherto not met with a single man who was not thoroughly convinced that an occasional cross with another strain of the same sub-variety was absolutely necessary. most breeders of highly-improved or fancy birds value their own strain, and are most unwilling, at the risk, in their opinion, of deterioration, to make a cross. the purchase of a first-rate bird of another strain is expensive, and exchanges are troublesome; yet all breeders, as far as i can hear, excepting those who keep large stocks at different places for the sake of crossing, are driven after a time to take this step. another general consideration which has had great influence on my mind is, that with all hermaphrodite animals and plants, which it might have been thought would have perpetually fertilised themselves, and thus have been subjected for long ages to the closest interbreeding, there is no single species, as far as i can discover, in which the structure ensures self-fertilisation. on the contrary, there are in a multitude of cases, as briefly stated in the fifteenth chapter, manifest adaptations which favour or inevitably lead to an occasional cross between one hermaphrodite and another of the same species; and these adaptive structures are utterly purposeless, as far as we can see, for any other end. with _cattle_ there can be no doubt that extremely close interbreeding may be long carried on, advantageously with respect to external characters and with no manifestly apparent evil as far as constitution is concerned. the same remark is applicable to sheep. whether these animals have gradually been rendered less susceptible than others to this evil, in order to permit them to live in herds,--a habit which leads the old and vigorous males to expel all intruders, and in consequence often to pair with their own daughters, i will not pretend to decide. the case of bakewell's long-horns, which were closely interbred for a long period, has often been {118} quoted; yet youatt says[247] the breed "had acquired a delicacy of constitution inconsistent with common management," and "the propagation of the species was not always certain." but the shorthorns offer the most striking case of close interbreeding; for instance, the famous bull favourite (who was himself the offspring of a half-brother and sister from foljambe) was matched with his own daughter, granddaughter, and great-granddaughter; so that the produce of this last union, or the great-great-granddaughter, had 15-16ths, or 93.75 per cent. of the blood of favourite in her veins. this cow was matched with the bull wellington, having 62.5 per cent. of favourite blood in his veins, and produced clarissa; clarissa was matched with the bull lancaster, having 68.75 of the same blood, and she yielded valuable offspring.[248] nevertheless collings, who reared these animals, and was a strong advocate for close breeding, once crossed his stock with a galloway, and the cows from this cross realised the highest prices. bates's herd was esteemed the most celebrated in the world. for thirteen years he bred most closely in and in; but during the next seventeen years, though he had the most exalted notion of the value of his own stock, he thrice infused fresh blood into his herd: it is said that he did this, not to improve the form of his animals, but on account of their lessened fertility. mr. bates's own view, as given by a celebrated breeder,[249] was, that "to breed in and in from a bad stock was ruin and devastation; yet that the practice may be safely followed within certain limits when the parents so related are descended from first-rate animals." we thus see that there has been extremely close interbreeding with shorthorns; but nathusius, after the most careful study of their pedigrees, says that he can find no instance of a breeder who has strictly followed this practice during his whole life. from this study and his own experience, he concludes that close interbreeding is necessary to ennoble the stock; but that in effecting this the greatest care is necessary, on account of the tendency to infertility and weakness. it may be added, that another high authority[250] asserts that many more calves are born cripples from shorthorns than from other and less closely interbred races of cattle. although by carefully selecting the best animals (as nature effectually does by the law of battle) close interbreeding may be long carried on with cattle, yet the good effects of a cross between almost any two breeds is at once shown by the greater size and vigour of the offspring; as mr. spooner writes to me, "crossing distinct breeds certainly improves cattle for the butcher." such crossed animals are of course of no value to the breeder; but they have been raised during many years in several {119} parts of england to be slaughtered;[251] and their merit is now so fully recognised, that at fat-cattle shows a separate class has been formed for their reception. the best fat ox at the great show at islington in 1862 was a crossed animal. the half-wild cattle, which have been kept in british parks probably for 400 or 500 years, or even for a longer period, have been advanced by culley and others as a case of long-continued interbreeding within the limits of the same herd without any consequent injury. with respect to the cattle at chillingham, the late lord tankerville owned that they were bad breeders.[252] the agent, mr. hardy, estimates (in a letter to me, dated may, 1861) that in the herd of about fifty the average number annually slaughtered, killed by fighting, and dying, is about ten, or one in five. as the herd is kept up to nearly the same average number, the annual rate of increase must be likewise about one in five. the bulls, i may add, engage in furious battles, of which battles the present lord tankerville has given me a graphic description, so that there will always be rigorous selection of the most vigorous males. i procured in 1855 from mr. d. gardner, agent to the duke of hamilton, the following account of the wild cattle kept in the duke's park in lanarkshire, which is about 200 acres in extent. the number of cattle varies from sixty-five to eighty; and the number annually killed (i presume by all causes) is from eight to ten; so that the annual rate of increase can hardly be more than one in six. now in south america, where the herds are half-wild, and therefore offer a nearly fair standard of comparison, according to azara the natural increase of the cattle on an estancia is from one-third to one-fourth of the total number, or one in between three and four; and this, no doubt, applies exclusively to adult animals fit for consumption. hence the half-wild british cattle which have long interbred within the limits of the same herd are relatively far less fertile. although in an unenclosed country like paraguay there must be some crossing between the different herds, yet even there the inhabitants believe that the occasional introduction of animals from distant localities is necessary to prevent "degeneration in size and diminution of fertility."[253] the decrease in size from ancient times in the chillingham and hamilton cattle must have been prodigious, for professor rütimeyer has shown that they are almost certainly the descendants of the gigantic _bos primigenius_. no doubt this decrease in size may be largely attributed to less favourable conditions of life; yet animals roaming over large parks, and fed during severe winters, can hardly be considered as placed under very unfavourable conditions. with _sheep_ there has often been long-continued interbreeding within the limits of the same flock; but whether the nearest relations have been matched so frequently as in the case of shorthorn cattle, i do not know. the messrs. brown during fifty years have never infused fresh blood into their excellent flock of leicesters. since 1810 mr. barford has acted on the same principle with the foscote flock. he asserts that half a century {120} of experience has convinced him that when two nearly related animals are quite sound in constitution, in-and-in breeding does not induce degeneracy; but he adds that he "does not pride himself on breeding from the nearest affinities." in france the naz flock has been bred for sixty years without the introduction of a single strange ram.[254] nevertheless, most great breeders of sheep have protested against close interbreeding prolonged for too great a length of time.[255] the most celebrated of recent breeders, jonas webb, kept five separate families to work on, thus "retaining the requisite distance of relationship between the sexes."[256] although by the aid of careful selection the near interbreeding of sheep may be long continued without any manifest evil, yet it has often been the practice with farmers to cross distinct breeds to obtain animals for the butcher, which plainly shows that good is derived from this practice. mr. spooner sums up his excellent essay on crossing by asserting that there is a direct pecuniary advantage in judicious cross-breeding, especially when the male is larger than the female. a former celebrated breeder, lord somerville, distinctly states that his half-breeds from ryelands and spanish sheep were larger animals than either the pure ryelands or pure spanish sheep.[257] as some of our british parks are ancient, it occurred to me that there must have been long-continued close interbreeding with the fallow deer (_cervus dama_) kept in them; but on inquiry i find that it is a common practice to infuse new blood by procuring bucks from other parks. mr. shirley,[258] who has carefully studied the management of deer, admits that in some parks there has been no admixture of foreign blood from a time beyond the memory of man. but he concludes "that in the end the constant breeding in-and-in is sure to tell to the disadvantage of the whole herd, though it may take a very long time to prove it; moreover, when we find, as is very constantly the case, that the introduction of fresh blood has been of the very greatest use to deer, both by improving their size and appearance, and particularly by being of service in removing the taint of 'rickback,' if not of other diseases, to which deer are sometimes subject when the blood has not been changed, there can, i think, be no doubt but that a judicious cross with a good stock is of the greatest consequence, and is indeed essential, sooner or later, to the prosperity of every well-ordered park." mr. meynell's famous foxhounds have been adduced, as showing that no ill effects follow from close interbreeding; and sir j. sebright ascertained from him that he frequently bred from father and daughter, mother and {121} son, and sometimes even from brothers and sisters. sir j. sebright, however, declares,[259] that by breeding _in-and-in_, by which he means matching brothers and sisters, he has actually seen strong spaniels become weak and diminutive lapdogs. the rev. w. d. fox has communicated to me the case of a small lot of bloodhounds, long kept in the same family, which had become very bad breeders, and nearly all had a bony enlargement in the tail. a single cross with a distinct strain of bloodhounds restored their fertility, and drove away the tendency to malformation in the tail. i have heard the particulars of another case with bloodhounds, in which the female had to be held to the male. considering how rapid is the natural increase of the dog, it is difficult to understand the high price of most highly improved breeds, which almost implies long-continued close interbreeding, except on the belief that this process lessens fertility and increases liability to distemper and other diseases. a high authority, mr. scrope, attributes the rarity and deterioration in size of the scotch deerhound (the few individuals now existing throughout the country being all related) in large part to close interbreeding. with all highly-bred animals there is more or less difficulty in getting them to procreate quickly, and all suffer much from delicacy of constitution; but i do not pretend that these effects ought to be wholly attributed to close interbreeding. a great judge of rabbits[260] says, "the long-eared does are often too highly bred or forced in their youth to be of much value as breeders, often turning out barren or bad mothers." again: "very long-eared bucks will also sometimes prove barren." these highly-bred rabbits often desert their young, so that it is necessary to have nurse-rabbits. with _pigs_ there is more unanimity amongst breeders on the evil effects of close interbreeding than, perhaps, with any other large animal. mr. druce, a great and successful breeder of the improved oxfordshires (a crossed race), writes, "without a change of boars of a different tribe, but of the same breed, constitution cannot be preserved." mr. fisher hobbs, the raiser of the celebrated improved essex breed, divided his stock into three separate families, by which means he maintained the breed for more than twenty years, "by judicious selection from the _three distinct families_."[261] lord western was the first importer of a neapolitan boar and sow. "from this pair he bred in-and-in, until the breed was in danger of becoming extinct, a sure result (as mr. sidney remarks) of in-and-in breeding." lord western then crossed his neapolitan pigs with the old essex, and made the first great step towards the improved essex breed. here is a more interesting case. mr. j. wright, well known as a breeder, crossed[262] the same boar with the daughter, granddaughter, and great-granddaughter, and so on for seven generations. the result was, that in many instances the offspring failed to breed; in others they produced few that lived; and of the latter many were idiotic, without sense {122} even to suck, and when attempting to move could not walk straight. now it deserves especial notice, that the two last sows produced by this long course of interbreeding were sent to other boars, and they bore several litters of healthy pigs. the best sow in external appearance produced during the whole seven generations was one in the last stage of descent; but the litter consisted of this one sow. she would not breed to her sire, yet bred at the first trial to a stranger in blood. so that, in mr. wright's case, long-continued and extremely close interbreeding did not affect the external form or merit of the young; but with many of them the general constitution and mental powers, and especially the reproductive functions, were seriously affected. nathusius gives[263] an analogous and even more striking case: he imported from england a pregnant sow of the large yorkshire breed, and bred the product closely in-and-in for three generations: the result was unfavourable, as the young were weak in constitution, with impaired fertility. one of the latest sows, which he esteemed a good animal, produced, when paired with her own uncle (who was known to be productive with sows of other breeds), a litter of six, and a second time a litter of only five weak young pigs. he then paired this sow with a boar of a small black breed, which he had likewise imported from england, and which boar, when matched with sows of his own breed, produced from seven to nine young: now, the sow of the large breed, which was so unproductive when paired with her own uncle, yielded to the small black boar, in the first litter twenty-one, and in the second litter eighteen young pigs; so that in one year she produced thirty-nine fine young animals! as in the case of several other animals already mentioned, even when no injury is perceptible from moderately close interbreeding, yet, to quote the words of mr. coate, a most successful breeder (who five times won the annual gold medal of the smithfield club show for the best pen of pigs), "crosses answer well for profit to the farmer, as you get more constitution and quicker growth; but for me, who sell a great number of pigs for breeding purposes, i find it will not do, as it requires many years to get anything like purity of blood again."[264] before passing on to birds, i ought to refer to man, though i am unwilling to enter on this subject, as it is surrounded by natural prejudices. it has moreover been discussed by various authors under many points of view.[265] mr. tylor[266] has shown {123} that with widely different races, in the most distant quarters of the world, marriages between relations--even between distant relations--have been strictly prohibited. a few exceptional cases can be specified, especially with royal families; and these have been enlarged on in a learned article[267] by mr. w. adam, and formerly in 1828 by hofacker. mr. tylor is inclined to believe that the almost universal prohibition of closely-related marriages has arisen from their evil effects having been observed, and he ingeniously explains some apparent anomalies in the prohibition not extending equally to the relations on both the male and female side. he admits, however, that other causes, such as the extension of friendly alliances, may have come into play. mr. w. adam, on the other hand, concludes that related marriages are prohibited and viewed with repugnance from the confusion which would thus arise in the descent of property, and from other still more recondite reasons; but i cannot accept this view, seeing that the savages of australia and south america,[268] who have no property to bequeath or fine moral feelings to confuse, hold the crime of incest in abhorrence. it would be interesting to know, if it could be ascertained, as throwing light on this question with respect to man, what occurs with the higher anthropomorphous apes--whether the young males and females soon wander away from their parents, or whether the old males become jealous of their sons and expel them, or whether any inherited instinctive feeling, from being beneficial, has been generated, leading the young males and females of the same family to prefer pairing with distinct families, and to dislike pairing with each other. a considerable body of evidence has already been advanced, showing that the offspring from parents which are not related are more vigorous and fertile than those from parents which are closely related; hence any slight feeling, arising from the sexual excitement of novelty or other cause, which led to the former rather than to the latter unions, would be augmented through natural selection, and thus might become instinctive; for those individuals which had an innate preference of this kind would increase in number. it seems more probable, that degraded savages should {124} thus unconsciously have acquired their dislike and even abhorrence of incestuous marriages, rather than that they should have discovered by reasoning and observation the evil results. the abhorrence occasionally failing is no valid argument against the feeling being instinctive, for any instinct may occasionally fail or become vitiated, as sometimes occurs with parental love and the social sympathies. in the case of man, the question whether evil follows from close interbreeding will probably never be answered by direct evidence, as he propagates his kind so slowly and cannot be subjected to experiment; but the almost universal practice of all races at all times of avoiding closely-related marriages is an argument of considerable weight; and whatever conclusion we arrive at in regard to the higher animals may be safely extended to man. turning now to birds: in the case of the _fowl_ a whole array of authorities could be given against too close interbreeding. sir j. sebright positively asserts that he made many trials, and that his fowls, when thus treated, became long in the legs, small in the body, and bad breeders.[269] he produced the famous sebright bantams by complicated crosses, and by breeding in-and-in; and since his time there has been much close interbreeding with these bantams; and they are now notoriously bad breeders. i have seen silver bantams, directly descended from his stock, which had become almost as barren as hybrids; for not a single chicken had been that year hatched from two full nests of eggs. mr. hewitt says that with these bantams the sterility of the male stands, with rare exceptions, in the closest relation with their loss of certain secondary male characters: he adds, "i have noticed, as a general rule, that even the slightest deviation from feminine character in the tail of the male sebright--say the elongation by only half an inch of the two principal tail-feathers--brings with it improved probability of increased fertility."[270] mr. wright states[271] that mr. clark, "whose fighting-cocks were so notorious, continued to breed from his own kind till they lost their disposition to fight, but stood to be cut up without making any resistance, and were so reduced in size as to be under those weights required for the best prizes; but on obtaining a cross from mr. leighton, they again resumed their former courage and weight." it should be borne in mind that game-cocks before they fought were always weighed, so that nothing was left to the imagination about any reduction or increase of {125} weight. mr. clark does not seem to have bred from brothers and sisters, which is the most injurious kind of union; and he found, after repeated trials, that there was a greater reduction in weight in the young from a father paired with his daughter, than from a mother with her son. i may add that mr. eyton, of eyton, the well-known ornithologist, who is a large breeder of grey dorkings, informs me that they certainly diminish in size, and become less prolific, unless a cross with another strain is occasionally obtained. so it is with malays, according to mr. hewitt, as far as size is concerned.[272] an experienced writer[273] remarks that the same amateur, as is well known, seldom long maintains the superiority of his birds; and this, he adds, undoubtedly is due to all his stock "being of the same blood;" hence it is indispensable that he should occasionally procure a bird of another strain. but this is not necessary with those who keep a stock of fowls at different stations. thus, mr. ballance, who has bred malays for thirty years, and has won more prizes with these birds than any other fancier in england, says that breeding in-and-in does not necessarily cause deterioration; "but all depends upon how this is managed." "my plan has been to keep about five or six distinct runs, and to rear about two hundred or three hundred chickens each year, and select the best birds from each run for crossing. i thus secure sufficient crossing to prevent deterioration."[274] we thus see that there is almost complete unanimity with poultry-breeders that, when fowls are kept at the same place, evil quickly follows from interbreeding carried on to an extent which would be disregarded in the case of most quadrupeds. on the other hand, it is a generally received opinion that cross-bred chickens are the hardiest and most easily reared.[275] mr. tegetmeier, who has carefully attended to poultry of all breeds, says[276] that dorking hens, allowed to run with houdan or crevecoeur cocks, "produce in the early spring chickens that for size, hardihood, early maturity, and fitness for the market, surpass those of any pure breed that we have ever raised." mr. hewitt gives it as a general rule with fowls, that crossing the breed increases their size. he makes this remark after stating that hybrids from the pheasant and fowl are considerably larger than either progenitor: so again, hybrids from the male golden pheasant and hen common pheasant "are of far larger size than either parent-bird."[277] to this subject of the increased size of hybrids i shall presently return. with _pigeons_, breeders are unanimous, as previously stated, that it is absolutely indispensable, notwithstanding the trouble and expense thus caused, occasionally to cross their much-prized birds with individuals of another strain, but belonging, of course, to the same variety. it deserves {126} notice that, when large size is one of the desired characters, as with pouters,[278] the evil effects of close interbreeding are much sooner perceived than when small birds, such as short-faced tumblers, are valued. the extreme delicacy of the high fancy breeds, such as these tumblers and improved english carriers, is remarkable; they are liable to many diseases, and often die in the egg or during the first moult; and their eggs have generally to be hatched under foster-mothers. although these highly-prized birds have invariably been subjected to much close interbreeding, yet their extreme delicacy of constitution cannot perhaps be thus fully explained. mr. yarrell informed me that sir j. sebright continued closely interbreeding some owl-pigeons, until from their extreme sterility he as nearly as possible lost the whole family. mr. brent[279] tried to raise a breed of trumpeters, by crossing a common pigeon, and recrossing the daughter, granddaughter, great-granddaughter, and great-great-granddaughter, with the same male trumpeter, until he obtained a bird with 15/16ths of trumpeter's blood; but then the experiment failed, for "breeding so close stopped reproduction." the experienced neumeister[280] also asserts that the offspring from dovecotes and various other breeds are "generally very fertile and hardy birds:" so again, mm. boitard and corbié,[281] after forty-five years' experience, recommend persons to cross their breeds for amusement; for, if they fail to make interesting birds, they will succeed under an economical point of view, "as it is found that mongrels are more fertile than pigeons of pure race." i will refer only to one other animal, namely, the hive-bee, because a distinguished entomologist has advanced this as a case of inevitable close interbreeding. as the hive is tenanted by a single female, it might have been thought that her male and female offspring would always have bred together, more especially as bees of different hives are hostile to each other; a strange worker being almost always attacked when trying to enter another hive. but mr. tegetmeier has shown[282] that this instinct does not apply to drones, which are permitted to enter any hive; so that there is no _à priori_ improbability of a queen receiving a foreign drone. the fact of the union invariably and necessarily taking place on the wing, during the queen's nuptial flight, seems to be a special provision against continued interbreeding. however this may be, experience has shown, since the introduction of the yellow-banded ligurian race into germany and england, that bees freely cross: mr. woodbury, who introduced ligurian bees into devonshire, found during a single season that three stocks, at distances of from one to two miles from his hives, were crossed by his drones. in one case the ligurian drones must have flown over the city of exeter, and over several intermediate hives. on another occasion several common black queens were crossed by ligurian drones at a distance of from one to three and a half miles.[283] {127} _plants._ when a single plant of a new species is introduced into any country, if propagated by seed, many individuals will soon be raised, so that if the proper insects be present there will be crossing. with newly-introduced trees or other plants not propagated by seed we are not here concerned. with old-established plants it is an almost universal practice occasionally to make exchanges of seed, by which means individuals which have been exposed to different conditions of life,--and this, as we have seen, diminishes the evil from close interbreeding,--will occasionally be introduced into each district. experiments have not been tried on the effects of fertilising flowers with their own pollen during _several_ generations. but we shall presently see that certain plants, either normally or abnormally, are more or less sterile, even in the first generation, when fertilised by their own pollen. although nothing is directly known on the evil effects of long-continued close interbreeding with plants, the converse proposition that great good is derived from crossing is well established. with respect to the crossing of individuals belonging to the same sub-variety, gärtner, whose accuracy and experience exceeded that of all other hybridisers, states[284] that he has many times observed good effects from this step, especially with exotic genera, of which the fertility is somewhat impaired, such as passiflora, lobelia, and fuchsia. herbert also says,[285] "i am inclined to think that i have derived advantage from impregnating the flower from which i wished to obtain seed with pollen from another individual of the same variety, or at least from another flower, rather than with its own." again, professor lecoq asserts that he has ascertained that crossed offspring are more vigorous and robust than their parents.[286] general statements of this kind, however, can seldom be fully trusted; consequently i have begun a series of experiments, which, if they continue to give the same results as hitherto, will for ever settle the question of the good effects of crossing two distinct plants of the same variety, and of the evil effects of self-fertilisation. a clear light will thus also be thrown on the fact that flowers are invariably constructed so as to permit, or favour, or necessitate the union of two individuals. we shall clearly understand why monoecious and dioecious,--why dimorphic and trimorphic plants exist, and many other such cases. the plan which i have followed in my experiments is to grow plants in the same pot, or in pots of the same size, or close together in the open ground; to carefully exclude insects; and then to fertilise some of the flowers with pollen from the same flower, and others on the same plant with pollen from a distinct but adjoining plant. in many, but not all, of these experiments, the crossed plants yielded much more seed than the self-fertilised plants; and i have never seen the {128} reversed case. the self-fertilised and crossed seeds thus obtained were allowed to germinate in the same glass vessel on damp sand; and as the seeds successively germinated, they were planted in pairs on opposite sides of the same pot, with a superficial partition between them, and were placed so as to be equally exposed to the light. in other cases the self-fertilised and crossed seeds were simply sown on opposite sides of the same small pot. i have, in short, followed different plans, but in every case have taken all the precautions which i could think of, so that the two lots should be equally favoured. now, i have carefully observed the growth of plants raised from crossed and self-fertilised seed, from their germination to maturity, in species of the following genera, namely, brassica, lathyrus, lupinus, lobelia, lactuca, dianthus, myosotis, petunia, linaria, calceolaria, mimulus, and ipomoea, and the difference in their powers of growth, and of withstanding in certain cases unfavourable conditions, was most manifest and strongly marked. it is of importance that the two lots of seed should be sown or planted on opposite sides of the same pot, so that the seedlings may struggle against each other; for if sown separately in ample and good soil, there is often but little difference in their growth. i will briefly describe the two most striking cases as yet observed by me. six crossed and six self-fertilised seeds of _ipomoea purpurea_, from plants treated in the manner above described, were planted as soon as they had germinated, in pairs on opposite sides of two pots, and rods of equal thickness were given them to twine up. five of the crossed plants grew from the first more quickly than the opposed self-fertilised plants; the sixth, however, was weakly and was for a time beaten, but at last its sounder constitution prevailed and it shot ahead of its antagonist. as soon as each crossed plant reached the top of its seven-foot rod its fellow was measured, and the result was that, when the crossed plants were seven feet high, the self-fertilised had attained the average height of only five feet four and a half inches. the crossed plants flowered a little before, and more profusely than the self-fertilised plants. on opposite sides of another _small_ pot a large number of crossed and self-fertilised seeds were sown, so that they had to struggle for bare existence; a single rod was given to each lot: here again the crossed plants showed from the first their advantage; they never quite reached the summit of the seven-foot rod, but relatively to the self-fertilised plants their average height was as seven feet to five feet two inches. the experiment was repeated in the two following generations with plants raised from the self-fertilised and crossed plants, treated in exactly the same manner, and with nearly the same result. in the second generation, the crossed plants, which were again crossed, produced 121 seed-capsules, whilst the self-fertilised plants, again self-fertilised, produced only 84 capsules. some flowers of the _mimulus luteus_ were fertilised with their own pollen, and others were crossed with pollen from distinct plants growing in the same pot. the seeds after germinating were thickly planted on opposite sides of a pot. the seedlings were at first equal in height; but when the young crossed plants were exactly half an inch, the {129} self-fertilised plants were only a quarter of an inch high. but this inequality did not continue, for, when the crossed plants were four and a half inches high, the self-fertilised were three inches; and they retained the same relative difference till their growth was complete. the crossed plants looked far more vigorous than the uncrossed, and flowered before them; they produced also a far greater number of flowers, which yielded capsules (judging, however, from only a few) containing more seeds. as in the former case, the experiment was repeated in the same manner during the next two generations, and with exactly the same result. had i not watched these plants of the mimulus and ipomoea during their whole growth, i could not have believed it possible, that a difference apparently so slight, as that of the pollen being taken from the same flower, and from a distinct plant growing in the same small pot, could have made so wonderful a difference in the growth and vigour of the plants thus produced. this, under a physiological point of view, is a most remarkable phenomenon. * * * * * with respect to the benefit derived from crossing distinct varieties, plenty of evidence has been published. sageret[287] repeatedly speaks in strong terms of the vigour of melons raised by crossing different varieties, and adds that they are more easily fertilised than common melons, and produce numerous good seed. here follows the evidence of an english gardener:[288] "i have this summer met with better success in my cultivation of melons, in an unprotected state, from the seeds of hybrids (_i.e._ mongrels) obtained by cross impregnation, than with old varieties. the offspring of three different hybridisations (one more especially, of which the parents were the two most dissimilar varieties i could select) each yielded more ample and finer produce than any one of between twenty and thirty established varieties." andrew knight[289] believed that his seedlings from crossed varieties of the apple exhibited increased vigour and luxuriance; and m. chevreul[290] alludes to the extreme vigour of some of the crossed fruit-trees raised by sageret. by crossing reciprocally the tallest and shortest peas, knight[291] says, "i had in this experiment a striking instance of the stimulative effects of crossing the breeds; for the smallest variety, whose height rarely exceeded two feet, was increased to six feet; whilst the height of the large and luxuriant kind was very little diminished." mr. laxton gave me seed-peas produced from crosses between four distinct kinds; and the plants thus raised were extraordinarily vigorous, being in each case from one to two or three feet taller than the parent-forms growing close alongside them. {130} wiegmann[292] made many crosses between several varieties of cabbage; and he speaks with astonishment of the vigour and height of the mongrels, which excited the amazement of all the gardeners who beheld them. mr. chaundy raised a great number of mongrels by planting together six distinct varieties of cabbage. these mongrels displayed an infinite diversity of character; "but the most remarkable circumstance was, that, while all the other cabbages and borecoles in the nursery were destroyed by a severe winter, these hybrids were little injured, and supplied the kitchen when there was no other cabbage to be had." mr. maund exhibited before the royal agricultural society[293] specimens of crossed wheat, together with their parent varieties; and the editor states that they were intermediate in character, "united with that greater vigour of growth, which it appears, in the vegetable as in the animal world, is the result of a first cross." knight also crossed several varieties of wheat,[294] and he says "that in the years 1795 and 1796, when almost the whole crop of corn in the island was blighted, the varieties thus obtained, and these only, escaped in this neighbourhood, though sown in several different soils and situations." here is a remarkable case: m. clotzsch[295] crossed _pinus sylvestris_ and _nigricans_, _quercus robur_ and _pedunculata, alnus glutinosa_ and _incana_, _ulmus campestris_ and _effusa_; and the cross-fertilised seeds, as well as seeds of the pure parent-trees, were all sown at the same time and in the same place. the result was, that after an interval of eight years, the hybrids were one-third taller than the pure trees! * * * * * the facts above given refer to undoubted varieties, excepting the trees crossed by clotzsch, which are ranked by various botanists as strongly-marked races, sub-species, or species. that true hybrids raised from entirely distinct species, though they lose in fertility, often gain in size and constitutional vigour, is certain. it would be superfluous to quote any facts; for all experimenters, kölreuter, gärtner, herbert, sageret, lecoq, and naudin, have been struck with the wonderful vigour, height, size, tenacity of life, precocity, and hardiness of their hybrid productions. gärtner[296] sums up his conviction on this head in the strongest terms. kölreuter[297] gives numerous precise measurements of the weight and height of his hybrids in comparison with measurements of both parent-forms; and speaks with astonishment of their "_statura portentosa_," their "_ambitus vastissimus ac altitudo valde conspicua_." some exceptions to the rule in the case of very sterile hybrids have, however, been noticed by gärtner and {131} herbert; but the most striking exceptions are given by max wichura,[298] who found that hybrid willows were generally tender in constitution, dwarf, and short-lived. kölreuter explains the vast increase in the size of the roots, stems, &c., of his hybrids, as the result of a sort of compensation due to their sterility, in the same way as many emasculated animals are larger than the perfect males. this view seems at first sight extremely probable, and has been accepted by various authors;[299] but gärtner[300] has well remarked that there is much difficulty in fully admitting it; for with many hybrids there is no parallelism between the degree of their sterility and their increased size and vigour. the most striking instances of luxuriant growth have been observed with hybrids which were not sterile in any extreme degree. in the genus mirabilis, certain hybrids are unusually fertile, and their extraordinary luxuriance of growth, together with their enormous roots,[301] have been transmitted to their progeny. the increased size of the hybrids produced between the fowl and pheasant, and between the distinct species of pheasants, has been already noticed. the result in all cases is probably in part due to the saving of nutriment and vital force through the sexual organs not acting, or acting imperfectly, but more especially to the general law of good being derived from a cross. for it deserves especial attention that mongrel animals and plants, which are so far from being sterile that their fertility is often actually augmented, have, as previously shown, their size, hardiness, and constitutional vigour generally increased. it is not a little remarkable that an accession of vigour and size should thus arise under the opposite contingencies of increased and diminished fertility. it is a perfectly well ascertained fact[302] that hybrids will invariably breed more readily with either pure parent, and not rarely with a distinct species, than with each other. herbert is inclined to explain even this fact by the advantage derived from a cross; but gärtner more justly accounts for it by the pollen of the hybrid, and probably its ovules, being in some degree vitiated, whereas the pollen and ovules of both pure parents and of any third species are sound. nevertheless there are some well-ascertained and remarkable facts, which, as we shall immediately see, show that the act of crossing in itself undoubtedly tends to increase or re-establish the fertility of hybrids. _on certain hermaphrodite plants which, either normally or abnormally, require to be fertilised by pollen from a distinct individual or species._ the facts now to be given differ from those hitherto detailed, as the self-sterility does not here result from long-continued, {132} close interbreeding. these facts are, however, connected with our present subject, because a cross with a distinct individual is shown to be either necessary or advantageous. dimorphic and trimorphic plants, though they are hermaphrodites, must be reciprocally crossed, one set of forms by the other, in order to be fully fertile, and in some cases to be fertile in any degree. but i should not have noticed these plants, had it not been for the following cases given by dr. hildebrand:[303]- _primula sinensis_ is a reciprocally dimorphic species: dr. hildebrand fertilised twenty-eight flowers of both forms, each by pollen of the other form, and obtained the full number of capsules containing on an average 42.7 seed per capsule; here we have complete and normal fertility. he then fertilised forty-two flowers of both forms with pollen of the same form, but taken from a distinct plant, and all produced capsules containing on an average only 19.6 seed. lastly, and here we come to our more immediate point, he fertilised forty-eight flowers of both forms with pollen of the same form, taken from the same flower, and now he obtained only thirty-two capsules, and these contained on an average 18.6 seed, or one less per capsule than in the former case. so that, with these illegitimate unions, the act of impregnation is less assured, and the fertility slightly less, when the pollen and ovules belong to the same flower, than when belonging to two distinct individuals of the same form. dr. hildebrand has recently made analogous experiments on the long-styled form of _oxalis rosea_, with the same result.[304] it has recently been discovered that certain plants, whilst growing in their native country under natural conditions, cannot be fertilised with pollen from the same plant. they are sometimes so utterly self-impotent, that, though they can readily be fertilised by the pollen of a distinct species or even distinct genus, yet, wonderful as the fact is, they never produce a single seed by their own pollen. in some cases, moreover, the plant's own pollen and stigma mutually act on each other in a deleterious manner. most of the facts to be given relate to orchids, but i will commence with a plant belonging to a widely different family. sixty-three flowers of _corydalis cava_, borne on distinct plants, were fertilised by dr. hildebrand[305] with pollen from other plants of the same species; and fifty-eight capsules were obtained, including on an average {133} 4.5 seed in each. he then fertilised sixteen flowers produced by the same raceme, one with another, but obtained only three capsules, one of which alone contained any good seeds, namely, two in number. lastly, he fertilised twenty-seven flowers, each with its own pollen; he left also fifty-seven flowers to be spontaneously fertilised, and this would certainly have ensued if it had been possible, for the anthers not only touch the stigma, but the pollen-tubes were seen by dr. hildebrand to penetrate it; nevertheless these eighty-four flowers did not produce a single seed-capsule! this whole case is highly instructive, as it shows how widely different the action of the same pollen is, according as it is placed on the stigma of the same flower, or on that of another flower on the same raceme, or on that of a distinct plant. with exotic orchids several analogous cases have been observed, chiefly by mr. john scott.[306] _oncidium sphacelatum_ has effective pollen, for with it mr. scott fertilised two distinct species; its ovules are likewise capable of impregnation, for they were readily fertilised by the pollen of _o. divaricatum_; nevertheless, between one and two hundred flowers fertilised by their own pollen did not produce a single capsule, though the stigmas were penetrated by the pollen-tubes. mr. robinson munro, of the royal botanic gardens of edinburgh, also informs me (1864) that a hundred and twenty flowers of this same species were fertilised by him with their own pollen, and did not produce a capsule, but eight flowers fertilised by the pollen of _o. divaricatum_ produced four fine capsules: again, between two and three hundred flowers of _o. divaricatum_, fertilised by their own pollen, did not set a capsule, but twelve flowers fertilised by _o. flexuosum_ produced eight fine capsules: so that here we have three utterly self-impotent species, with their male and female organs perfect, as shown by their mutual fertilisation. in these cases fertilisation was effected only by the aid of a distinct species. but, as we shall presently see, distinct plants, raised from seed, of _oncidium flexuosum_, and probably of the other species, would have been perfectly capable of fertilising each other, for this is the natural process. again, mr. scott found that the pollen of a plant of _o. microchilum_ was good, for with it he fertilised two distinct species; he found its ovules good, for they could be fertilised by the pollen of one of these species, and by the pollen of a distinct plant of _o. microchilum_; but they could not be fertilised by pollen of the same plant, though the pollen-tubes penetrated the stigma. an analogous case has been recorded by m. rivière,[307] with two plants of _o. cavendishianum_, which were both self-sterile, but reciprocally fertilised each other. all these cases refer to the genus oncidium, but mr. scott found that _maxillaria atro-rubens_ was "totally insusceptible of fertilisation with its own pollen," but fertilised, and was fertilised by, a widely distinct species, viz. _m. squalens_. as these orchids had grown under unnatural conditions, in {134} hot-houses, i concluded without hesitation that their self-sterility was due to this cause. but fritz müller informs me that at desterro, in brazil, he fertilised above one hundred flowers of the above-mentioned _oncidium flexuosum_, which is there endemic, with its own pollen, and with that taken from distinct plants; all the former were sterile, whilst those fertilised by pollen from any _other plant_ of the same species were fertile. during the first three days there was no difference in the action of the two kinds of pollen: that placed on the stigma of the same plant separated in the usual manner into grains, and emitted tubes which penetrated the column, and the stigmatic chamber shut itself; but the flowers alone which had been fertilised by pollen taken from a distinct plant produced seed-capsules. on a subsequent occasion these experiments were repeated on a large scale with the same result. fritz müller found that four other endemic species of oncidium were in like manner utterly sterile with their own pollen, but fertile with that from any other plant: some of them likewise produced seed-capsules when impregnated with pollen of widely distinct genera, such as leptotes, cyrtopodium, and rodriguezia! _oncidium crispum_, however, differs from the foregoing species in varying much in its self-sterility; some plants producing fine pods with their own pollen, others failing to do so; in two or three instances, fritz müller observed that the pods produced by pollen taken from a distinct flower on the same plant, were larger than those produced by the flower's own pollen. in _epidendrum cinnabarinum_, an orchid belonging to another division of the family, fine pods were produced by the plant's own pollen, but they contained by weight only about half as much seed as the capsules which had been fertilized by pollen from a distinct plant, and in one instance from a distinct species; moreover, a very large proportion, and in some cases nearly all the seed produced by the plant's own pollen, was embryonless and worthless. some self-fertilized capsules of a maxillaria were in a similar state. another observation made by fritz müller is highly remarkable, namely, that with various orchids the plant's own pollen not only fails to impregnate the flower, but acts on the stigma, and is acted on, in an injurious or poisonous manner. this is shown by the surface of the stigma in contact with the pollen, and by the pollen itself, becoming in from three to five days dark brown, and then decaying. the discolouration and decay are not caused by parasitic cryptogams, which were observed by fritz müller in only a single instance. these changes are well shown by placing on the same stigma, at the same time, the plant's own pollen and that from a distinct plant of the same species, or of another species, or even of another and widely remote genus. thus, on the stigma of _oncidium flexuosum_, the plant's own pollen and that from a distinct plant were placed side by side, and in five days' time the latter was perfectly fresh, whilst the plant's own pollen was brown. on the other hand, when the pollen of a distinct plant of the _oncidium flexuosum_, and of the _epidendrum zebra_ (_nov. spec.?_), were placed together on the same stigma, they behaved in exactly the same manner, the grains separating, emitting tubes, and penetrating the stigma, so that the two {135} pollen-masses, after an interval of eleven days, could not be distinguished except by the difference of their caudicles, which, of course, undergo no change. fritz müller has, moreover, made a large number of crosses between orchids belonging to distinct species and genera, and he finds that in all cases when the flowers are not fertilised their footstalks first begin to wither; and the withering slowly spreads upwards until the germens fall off, after an interval of one or two weeks, and in one instance of between six and seven weeks; but even in this latter case, and in most other cases, the pollen and stigma remained in appearance fresh. occasionally, however, the pollen becomes brownish, generally on the external surface, and not in contact with the stigma, as is invariably the case when the plant's own pollen is applied. fritz müller observed the poisonous action of the plant's own pollen in the above-mentioned _oncidium flexuosum_, _o. unicorne, pubes_ (_?_), and in two other unnamed species. also in two species of rodriguezia, in two of notylia, in one of burlingtonia, and of a fourth genus in the same group. in all these cases, except the last, it was proved that the flowers were, as might have been expected, fertile with pollen from a distinct plant of the same species. numerous flowers of one species of notylia were fertilized with pollen from the same raceme; in two days' time they all withered, the germens began to shrink, the pollen-masses became dark brown, and not one pollen-grain emitted a tube. so that in this orchid the injurious action of the plant's own pollen is more rapid than with _oncidium flexuosum_. eight other flowers on the same raceme were fertilized with pollen from a distinct plant of the same species: two of these were dissected, and their stigmas were found to be penetrated by numberless pollen-tubes; and the germens of the other six flowers became well developed. on a subsequent occasion many other flowers were fertilized with their own pollen, and all fell off dead in a few days; whilst some flowers on the same raceme which had been left simply unfertilised adhered and long remained fresh. we have seen that in cross-unions between extremely distinct orchids the pollen long remains undecayed; but notylia behaved in this respect differently; for when its pollen was placed on the stigma of _oncidium flexuosum_, both the stigma and pollen quickly became dark brown, in the same manner as if the plant's own pollen had been applied. fritz müller suggests that, as in all these cases the plant's own pollen is not only impotent (thus effectually preventing self-fertilization), but likewise prevents, as was ascertained in the case of the notylia and _oncidium flexuosum_, the action of subsequently applied pollen from a distinct individual, it would be an advantage to the plant to have its own pollen rendered more and more deleterious; for the germens would thus quickly be killed, and, dropping off, there would be no further waste in nourishing a part which ultimately could be of no avail. fritz müller's discovery that a plant's own pollen and stigma in some cases act on each other as if mutually poisonous, is certainly most remarkable. we now come to cases closely analogous with those just {136} given, but different, inasmuch as individual plants alone of the species are self-impotent. this self-impotence does not depend on the pollen or ovules being in a state unfit for fertilisation, for both have been found effective in union with other plants of the same or of a distinct species. the fact of these plants having spontaneously acquired so peculiar a constitution, that they can be fertilised more readily by the pollen of a distinct species than by their own, is remarkable. these abnormal cases, as well as the foregoing normal cases, in which certain orchids, for instance, can be much more easily fertilised by the pollen of a distinct species than by their own, are exactly the reverse of what occurs with all ordinary species. for in these latter the two sexual elements of the same individual plant are capable of freely acting on each other; but are so constituted that they are more or less impotent when brought into union with the sexual elements of a distinct species, and produce more or less sterile hybrids. it would appear that the pollen or ovules, or both, of the individual plants which are in this abnormal state, have been affected in some strange manner by the conditions to which they themselves or their parents have been exposed; but whilst thus rendered self-sterile, they have retained the capacity common to most species of partially fertilizing and being partially fertilized by allied forms. however this may be, the subject, to a certain extent, is related to our general conclusion that good is derived from the act of crossing. gärtner experimented on two plants of _lobelia fulgens_, brought from separate places, and found[308] that their pollen was good, for he fertilised with it _l. cardinalis_ and _syphilitica_; their ovules were likewise good, for they were fertilised by the pollen of these same two species; but these two plants of _l. fulgens_ could not be fertilised by their own pollen, as can generally be effected with perfect ease with this species. again, the pollen of a plant of _verbascum nigrum_ grown in a pot was found by gärtner[309] capable of fertilising _v. lychnitis_ and _v. austriacum_; the ovules could be fertilised by the pollen of _v. thapsus_; but the flowers could not be fertilised by their own pollen. kölreuter, also,[310] gives the case of three {137} garden plants of _verbascum phoeniceum_, which bore during two years many flowers; these he successfully fertilised by the pollen of no less than four distinct species, but they produced not a seed with their own apparently good pollen; subsequently these same plants, and others raised from seed, assumed a strangely fluctuating condition, being temporarily sterile on the male or female side, or on both sides, and sometimes fertile on both sides; but two of the plants were perfectly fertile throughout the summer. it appears[311] that certain flowers on certain plants of _lilium candidum_ can be fertilised more easily by pollen from a distinct individual than by their own. so, again, with the varieties of the potato. tinzmann,[312] who made many trials with this plant, says that pollen from another variety sometimes "exerts a powerful influence, and i have found sorts of potatoes which would not bear seed from impregnation with the pollen of their own flowers, would bear it when impregnated with other pollen." it does not, however, appear to have been proved that the pollen which failed to act on the flower's own stigma was in itself good. in the genus passiflora it has long been known that several species do not produce fruit, unless fertilised by pollen taken from distinct species: thus, mr. mowbray[313] found that he could not get fruit from _p. alata_ and _racemosa_ except by reciprocally fertilising them with each other's pollen. similar facts have been observed in germany and france;[314] and i have received two authentic accounts of _p. quadrangularis_, which never produced fruit with its own pollen, but would do so freely when fertilised in one case with the pollen of _p. coerulea_, and in another case with that of _p. edulis_. so again, with respect to _p. laurifolia_, a cultivator of much experience has recently remarked[315] that the flowers "must be fertilised with the pollen of _p. coerulea_, or of some other common kind, as their own pollen will not fertilise them." but the fullest details on this subject have been given by mr. scott:[316] plants of _passiflora racemosa_, _coerulea_, and _alata_ flowered profusely during many years in the botanic gardens of edinburgh, and, though repeatedly fertilised by mr. scott and by others with their own pollen, never produced any seed; yet this occurred at once with all three species when they were crossed together in various ways. but in the case of _p. coerulea_, three plants, two of which grew in the botanic gardens, were all rendered fertile, merely by impregnating the one with pollen of the other. the same result was attained in the same manner with _p. alata_, but only with one plant out of three. as so many self-sterile species have been mentioned, it may be stated that in the case of _p. gracilis_, which is an annual, the flowers are nearly as fertile with their own pollen as with that from a distinct plant; thus sixteen flowers {138} spontaneously self-fertilised produced fruit, each containing on an average 21.3 seed, whilst fruit from fourteen crossed flowers contained 24.1 seed. returning to _p. alata_, i have received (1866) some interesting details from mr. robinson munro. three plants, including one in england, have already been mentioned which were inveterately self-sterile, and mr. munro informs me of several others which, after repeated trials during many years, have been found in the same predicament. at some other places, however, this species fruits readily when fertilised with its own pollen. at taymouth castle there is a plant which was formerly grafted by mr. donaldson on a distinct species, name unknown, and ever since the operation it has produced fruit in abundance by its own pollen; so that this small and unnatural change in the state of this plant has restored its self-fertility! some of the seedlings from the taymouth castle plant were found to be not only sterile with their own pollen, but with each other's pollen, and with the pollen of distinct species. pollen from the taymouth plant failed to fertilise certain plants of the same species, but was successful on one plant in the edinburgh botanic gardens. seedlings were raised from this latter union, and some of their flowers were fertilised by mr. munro with their own pollen; but they were found to be as self-impotent as the mother-plant had always proved, except when fertilised by the grafted taymouth plant, and except, as we shall see, when fertilised by her own seedlings. for mr. munro fertilised eighteen flowers on the self-impotent mother-plant with pollen from these her own self-impotent seedlings, and obtained, remarkable as the fact is, eighteen fine capsules full of excellent seed! i have met with no case in regard to plants which shows so well as this of _p. alata_, on what small and mysterious causes complete fertility or complete sterility depends. the facts hitherto given relate to the much-lessened or completely destroyed fertility of pure species when impregnated with their own pollen, in comparison with their fertility when impregnated by distinct individuals or distinct species; but closely analogous facts have been observed with hybrids. herbert states[317] that having in flower at the same time nine hybrid hippeastrums, of complicated origin, descended from several species, he found that "almost every flower touched with pollen from another cross produced seed abundantly, and those which were touched with their own pollen either failed entirely, or formed slowly a pod of inferior size, with fewer seeds." in the 'horticultural journal' he adds that, "the admission of the pollen of another cross-bred hippeastrum (however complicated the cross) to any _one_ flower of the number, is almost sure to check the fructification of the others." in a letter written to me in 1839, dr. herbert says that he had already tried these experiments during five consecutive years, and he subsequently repeated them, with the same invariable result. {139} he was thus led to make an analogous trial on a pure species, namely, on the _hippeastrum aulicum_, which he had lately imported from brazil: this bulb produced four flowers, three of which were fertilised by their own pollen, and the fourth by the pollen of a triple cross between _h. bulbulosum_, _reginæ_, and _vittatum_; the result was, that "the ovaries of the three first flowers soon ceased to grow, and after a few days perished entirely: whereas the pod impregnated by the hybrid made vigorous and rapid progress to maturity, and bore good seed, which vegetated freely." this is, indeed, as herbert remarks, "a strange truth," but not so strange as it then appeared. as a confirmation of these statements, i may add that mr. m. mayes,[318] after much experience in crossing the species of amaryllis (hippeastrum), says, "neither the species nor the hybrids will, we are well aware, produce seed so abundantly from their own pollen as from that of others." so, again, mr. bidwell, in new south wales,[319] asserts that _amaryllis belladonna_ bears many more seeds when fertilised by the pollen of _brunswigia_ (_amaryllis_ of some authors) _josephinæ_ or of _b. multiflora_, than when fertilised by its own pollen. mr. beaton dusted four flowers of a cyrtanthus with their own pollen, and four with the pollen of _vallota_ (_amaryllis_) _purpurea_; on the seventh day "those which received their own pollen slackened their growth, and ultimately perished; those which were crossed with the vallota held on."[320] these latter cases, however, relate to uncrossed species, like those before given with respect to passiflora, orchids, &c., and are here referred to only because the plants belong to the same group of amaryllidaceæ. in the experiments on the hybrid hippeastrums, if herbert had found that the pollen of two or three kinds alone had been more efficient on certain kinds than their own pollen, it might have been argued that these, from their mixed parentage, had a closer mutual affinity than the others; but this explanation is inadmissible, for the trials were made reciprocally backwards and forwards on nine different hybrids; and a cross, whichever way taken, always proved highly beneficial. i can add a striking and analogous case from experiments made by the rev. a. rawson, of bromley common, with some complex hybrids of gladiolus. this skilful horticulturist possessed a number of french varieties, differing from each other only in the colour and size of the flowers, all descended from gandavensis, a well-known old hybrid, said to be descended from _g. natalensis_ by the pollen of _g. oppositiflorus_.[321] mr. rawson, after repeated trials, found that none of the varieties would set seed with their own pollen, although {140} taken from distinct plants of the same variety, which had, of course, been propagated by bulbs, but that they all seeded freely with pollen from any other variety. to give two examples: ophir did not produce a capsule with its own pollen, but when fertilised with that of janire, brenchleyensis, vulcain, and linné, it produced ten fine capsules; but the pollen of ophir was good, for when linné was fertilised by it seven capsules were produced. this later variety, on the other hand, was utterly barren with its own pollen, which we have seen was perfectly efficient on ophir. altogether, mr. rawson, in the year 1861, fertilised twenty-six flowers borne by four varieties with pollen taken from other varieties, and every single flower produced a fine seed-capsule; whereas fifty-two flowers on the same plants, fertilised at the same time with their own pollen, did not yield a single seed-capsule. mr. rawson fertilised, in some cases, the alternate flowers, and in other cases all those down one side of the spike, with pollen of other varieties, and the remaining flowers with their own pollen; i saw these plants when the capsules were nearly mature, and their curious arrangement at once brought full conviction to the mind that an immense advantage had been derived from crossing these hybrids. lastly, i have heard from dr. e. bornet, of antibes, who has made numerous experiments in crossing the species of cistus, but as not yet published the results, that, when any of these hybrids are fertile, they may be said to be, in regard to function, dioecious; "for the flowers are always sterile when the pistil is fertilised by pollen taken from the same flower or from flowers on the same plant. but they are often fertile if pollen be employed from a distinct individual of the same hybrid nature, or from a hybrid made by a reciprocal cross." _conclusion._--the facts just given, which show that certain plants are self-sterile, although both sexual elements are in a fit state for reproduction when united with distinct individuals of the same or other species, appear at first sight opposed to all analogy. the sexual elements of the same flower have become, as already remarked, differentiated in relation to each other, almost like those of two distinct species. with respect to the species which, whilst living under their natural conditions, have their reproductive organs in this peculiar state, we may conclude that it has been naturally acquired for the sake of effectually preventing self-fertilisation. the case is closely analous with dimorphic and trimorphic plants, which can be fully fertilised only by plants belong to the opposite form, and not, as in the foregoing cases, in differently by any other plant. some of these dimorphic plants are completely sterile with pollen taken from the same plant or from the same {141} form. it is interesting to observe the graduated series from plants which, when fertilised by their own pollen, yield the full number of seed, but with the seedlings a little dwarfed in stature--to plants which when self-fertilised yield few seeds--to those with yield none--and, lastly, to those in which the plant's own pollen and stigma act on each other like poison. this peculiar state of the reproductive organs, when occurring in certain individuals alone, is evidently abnormal; and as it chiefly affects exotic plants, or indigenous plants cultivated in pots, we may attribute it to some change in the conditions of life, acting on the plants themselves or on their parents. the self-impotent _passiflora alata_, which recovered its self-fertility after having been grafted on a distinct stock, shows how small a change is sufficient to act powerfully on the reproductive system. the possibility of a plant becoming under culture self-impotent is interesting as throwing light on the occurrence of this same condition in natural species. a cultivated plant in this state generally remains so during its whole life; and from this fact we may infer that the state is probably congenital. kölreuter, however, has described some plants of verbascum which varied in this respect even during the same season. as in all the normal cases, and in many, probably in most, of the abnormal cases, any two self-impotent plants can reciprocally fertilize each other, we may infer that a very slight difference in the nature of their sexual elements suffices to give fertility; but in other instances, as with some passifloras and the hybrid gladioli, a greater degree of differentiation appears to be necessary, for with these plants fertility is gained only by the union of distinct species, or of hybrids of distinct parentage. these facts all point to the same general conclusion, namely, that good is derived from a cross between individuals, which either innately, or from exposure to dissimilar conditions, have come to differ in sexual constitution. exotic animals confined in menageries are sometimes in nearly the same state as the above-described self-impotent plants; for, as we shall see in the following chapter, certain monkeys, the larger carnivora, several finches, geese, and pheasants, cross together, quite as freely as, or even more freely than, the individuals of the same species breed together. cases will, {142} also, be given of sexual incompatibility between certain male and female domesticated animals, which, nevertheless, are fertile when matched with any other individual of the same kind. in the early part of this chapter it was shown that the crossing of distinct forms, whether closely or distantly allied, gives increased size and constitutional vigour, and, except in the case of crossed species, increased fertility, to the offspring. the evidence rests on the universal testimony of breeders (for it should be observed that i am not here speaking of the evil results of close interbreeding), and is practically exemplified in the higher value of cross-bred animals for immediate consumption. the good results of crossing have also been demonstrated, in the case of some animals and of numerous plants, by actual weight and measurement. although animals of pure blood will obviously be deteriorated by crossing, as far as their characteristic qualities are concerned, there seems to be no exception to the rule that advantages of the kind just mentioned are thus gained, even when there has not been any previous close interbreeding. the rule applies to all animals, even to cattle and sheep, which can long resist breeding in-and-in between the nearest blood-relations. it applies to individuals of the same sub-variety but of distinct families, to varieties or races, to sub-species, as well as to quite distinct species. in this latter case, however, whilst size, vigour, precocity, and hardiness are, with rare exceptions, gained, fertility, in a greater or less degree, is lost; but the gain cannot be exclusively attributed to the principle of compensation; for there is no close parallelism between the increased size and vigour of the offspring and their sterility. moreover it has been clearly proved that mongrels which are perfectly fertile gain these same advantages as well as sterile hybrids. the evil consequences of long-continued close interbreeding are not so easily recognised as the good effects from crossing, for the deterioration is gradual. nevertheless it is the general opinion of those who have had most experience, especially with animals which propagate quickly, that evil does inevitably follow sooner or later, but at different rates with different animals. no doubt a false belief may widely prevail like a superstition; yet it is difficult to suppose that so many acute and original {143} observers have all been deceived at the expense of much cost and trouble. a male animal may sometimes be paired with his daughter, granddaughter, and so on, even for seven generations, without any manifest bad result; but the experiment has never been tried of matching brothers and sisters, which is considered the closest form of interbreeding, for an equal number of generations. there is good reason to believe that by keeping the members of the same family in distinct bodies, especially if exposed to somewhat different conditions of life, and by occasionally crossing these families, the evil results may be much diminished, or quite eliminated. these results are loss of constitutional vigour, size, and fertility; but there is no necessary deterioration in the general form of the body, or in other good qualities. we have seen that with pigs first-rate animals have been produced after long-continued close interbreeding, though they had become extremely infertile when paired with their near relations. the loss of fertility, when it occurs, seems never to be absolute, but only relative to animals of the same blood; so that this sterility is to a certain extent analogous with that of self-impotent plants which cannot be fertilised by their own pollen, but are perfectly fertile with pollen of any other plant of the same species. the fact of infertility of this peculiar nature being one of the results of long-continued interbreeding, shows that interbreeding does not act merely by combining and augmenting various morbid tendencies common to both parents; for animals with such tendencies, if not at the time actually ill, can generally propagate their kind. although offspring descended from the nearest blood-relations are not necessarily deteriorated in structure, yet some authors[322] believe that they are eminently liable to malformations; and this is not improbable, as everything which lessens the vital powers acts in this manner. instances of this kind have been recorded in the case of pigs, bloodhounds, and some other animals. finally, when we consider the various facts now given which plainly show that good follows from crossing, and less plainly {144} that evil follows from close interbreeding, and when we bear in mind that throughout the whole organic world elaborate provision has been made for the occasional union of distinct individuals, the existence of a great law of nature is, if not proved, at least rendered in the highest degree probable; namely, that the crossing of animals and plants which are not closely related to beach other is highly beneficial or even necessary, and that interbreeding prolonged during many generations is highly injurious. * * * * * {145} chapter xviii. on the advantages and disadvantages of changed conditions of life: sterility from various causes. on the good derived from slight changes in the conditions of life--sterility from changed conditions, in animals, in their native country and in menageries--mammals, birds, and insects--loss of secondary sexual characters and of instincts--causes of sterility--sterility of domesticated animals from changed conditions--sexual incompatibility of individual animals--sterility of plants from changed conditions of life--contabescence of the anthers--monstrosities as a cause of sterility--double flowers--seedless fruit--sterility from the excessive development of the organs of vegetation--from long-continued propagation by buds--incipient sterility the primary cause of double flowers and seedless fruit. _on the good derived from slight changes in the conditions of life._--in considering whether any facts were known which might throw light on the conclusion arrived at in the last chapter, namely, that benefits ensue from crossing, and that it is a law of nature that all organic beings should occasionally cross, it appeared to me probable that the good derived from slight changes in the conditions of life, from being an analogous phenomenon, might serve this purpose. no two individuals, and still less no two varieties, are absolutely alike in constitution and structure; and when the germ of one is fertilised by the male element of another, we may believe that it is acted on in a somewhat similar manner as an individual when exposed to slightly changed conditions. now, every one must have observed the remarkable influence on convalescents of a change of residence, and no medical man doubts the truth of this fact. small farmers who hold but little land are convinced that their cattle derive great benefit from a change of pasture. in the case of plants, the evidence is strong that a great advantage is derived from exchanging seeds, tubers, bulbs, and cuttings from one soil or place to another as different as possible. {146} the belief that plants are thus benefited, whether or not well founded, has been firmly maintained from the time of columella, who wrote shortly after the christian era, to the present day; and it now prevails in england, france, and germany.[323] a sagacious observer, bradley, writing in 1724,[324] says, "when we once become masters of a good sort of seed, we should at least put it into two or three hands, where the soils and situations are as different as possible; and every year the parties should change with one another; by which means, i find the goodness of the seed will be maintained for several years. for want of this use many farmers have failed in their crops and been great losers." he then gives his own practical experience on this head. a modern writer[325] asserts, "nothing can be more clearly established in agriculture than that the continual growth of any one variety in the same district makes it liable to deterioration either in quality or quantity." another writer states that he sowed close together in the same field two lots of wheat-seed, the product of the same original stock, one of which had been grown on the same land, and the other at a distance, and the difference in favour of the crop from the latter seed was remarkable. a gentleman in surrey who has long made it his business to raise wheat to sell for seed, and who has constantly realised in the market higher prices than others, assures me that he finds it indispensable continually to change his seed; and that for this purpose he keeps two farms differing much in soil and elevation. with respect to the tubers of the potato, i find that at the present day the practice of exchanging sets is almost everywhere followed. the great growers of potatoes in lancashire formerly used to get tubers from scotland, but they found that "a change from the moss-lands, and _vice versâ_, was generally sufficient." in former times in france the crop of potatoes in the vosges had become reduced in the course of fifty or sixty years in the proportion from 120-150 to 30-40 bushels; and the famous oberlin attributed the surprising good which he effected in large part to changing the sets.[326] a well-known practical gardener, mr. robson[327] positively states that he has himself witnessed decided advantage from obtaining bulbs of the onion, tubers of the potato, and various seeds, all of the same kind, from different soils and distant parts of england. he further states that with {147} plants propagated by cuttings, as with the pelargonium, and especially the dahlia, manifest advantage is derived from getting plans of the same variety, which have been cultivated in another place; or, "where the extent of the place allows, to take cuttings from one description of soil to plant on another, so as to afford the change that seems so necessary to the well-being of the plants." he maintains that after a time an exchange of this nature is "forced on the grower, whether he be prepared for it or not." similar remarks have been made by another excellent gardener, mr. fish, namely, that cuttings of the same variety of calceolaria, which he obtained from a neighbour, "showed much greater vigour than some of his own that were treated in exactly the same manner," and he attributed this solely to his own plants having become "to a certain extent worn out or tired of their quarters." something of this kind apparently occurs in grafting and budding fruit-trees; for, according to mr. abbey, grafts or buds generally take on a distinct variety or even species, or on a stock previously grafted, with greater facility than on stocks raised from seeds of the variety which is to be grafted; and he believes this cannot be altogether explained by the stocks in question being better adapted to the soil and climate of the place. it should, however, be added, that varieties grafted or budded on very distinct kinds, though they may take more readily and grow at first more vigorously than when grafted on closely allied stocks, afterwards often become unhealthy. i have studied m. tessier's careful and elaborate experiments,[328] made to disprove the common belief that good is derived from a change of seed; and he certainly shows that the same seed may with care be cultivated on the same farm (it is not stated whether on exactly the same soil) for ten consecutive years without loss. another excellent observer, colonel le couteur,[329] has come to the same conclusion; but then he expressly adds, if the same seed be used, "that which is grown on land manured from the mixen one year becomes seed for land prepared with lime, and that again becomes seed for land dressed with ashes, then for land dressed with mixed manure, and so on." but this in effect is a systematic exchange of seed, within the limits of the same farm. on the whole the belief, which has long been held by many skilful cultivators, that good follows from exchanging seed, tubers, &c., seems to be fairly well founded. considering the small size of most seeds, it seems hardly credible that the advantage thus derived can be due to the seeds obtaining in one soil some chemical element deficient in the other soil. as plants after once germinating naturally become fixed to the same spot, it might have been anticipated that they would show the good effects of a change more plainly than animals, which continually wander about; and this apparently is the {148} case. life depending on, or consisting in, an incessant play of the most complex forces, it would appear that their action is in some way stimulated by slight changes in the circumstances to which each organism is exposed. all forces throughout nature, as mr. herbert spencer[330] remarks, tend towards an equilibrium, and for the life of each being it is necessary that this tendency should be checked. if these views and the foregoing facts can be trusted, they probably throw light, on the one hand, on the good effects of crossing the breed, for the germ will be thus slightly modified or acted on by new forces; and on the other hand, on the evil effects of close interbreeding prolonged during many generations, during which the germ will be acted on by a male having almost identically the same constitution. _sterility from changed conditions of life._ i will now attempt to show that animals and plants, when removed from their natural conditions, are often rendered in some degree infertile or completely barren; and this occurs even when the conditions have not been greatly changed. this conclusion is not necessarily opposed to that at which we have just arrived, namely, that lesser changes of other kinds are advantageous to organic beings. our present subject is of some importance, from having an intimate connexion with the causes of variability. indirectly it perhaps bears on the sterility of species when crossed: for as, on the one hand, slight changes in the conditions of life are favourable to plants and animals, and the crossing of varieties adds to the size, vigour, and fertility of their offspring; so, on the other hand, certain other changes in the conditions of life cause sterility; and as this likewise ensues from crossing much-modified forms or species, we have a parallel and double series of facts, which apparently stand in close relation to each other. it is notorious that many animals, though perfectly tamed, {149} refuse to breed in captivity. isidore geoffroy st. hilaire[331] consequently has drawn a broad distinction between tamed animals which will not breed under captivity, and truly domesticated animals which breed freely--generally more freely, as shown in the sixteenth chapter, than in a state of nature. it is possible and generally easy to tame most animals; but experience has shown that it is difficult to get them to breed regularly, or even at all. i shall discuss this subject in detail; but will give only those cases which seem most illustrative. my materials are derived from notices scattered through various works, and especially from a report, drawn up for me by the kindness of the officers of the zoological society of london, which has especial value, as it records all the cases, during nine years from 1838-46, in which the animals were seen to couple but produced no offspring, as well as the cases in which they never, as far as known, coupled. this ms. report i have corrected by the annual reports subsequently published. many facts are given on the breeding of the animals in that magnificent work, 'gleanings from the menageries of knowsley hall,' by dr. gray. i made, also, particular inquiries from the experienced keeper of the birds in the old surrey zoological gardens. i should premise that a slight change in the treatment of animals sometimes makes a great difference in their fertility; and it is probable that the results observed in different menageries would differ. indeed some animals in our zoological gardens have become more productive since the year 1846. it is, also, manifest from f. cuvier's account of the jardin des plantes,[332] that the animals formerly bred much less freely there than with us; for instance, in the duck tribe, which is highly prolific, only one species had at that period produced young. the most remarkable cases, however, are afforded by animals kept in their native country, which, though perfectly tamed, quite healthy, and allowed some freedom, are absolutely incapable of breeding. rengger,[333] who in paraguay particularly attended to this subject, specifies six quadrupeds in this condition; and he mentions two or three others which most rarely {150} breed. mr. bates, in his admirable work on the amazons, strongly insists on similar cases;[334] and he remarks, that the fact of thoroughly tamed native mammals and birds not breeding when kept by the indians, cannot be wholly accounted for by their negligence or indifference, for the turkey is valued by them, and the fowl has been adopted by the remotest tribes. in almost every part of the world--for instance, in the interior of africa, and in several of the polynesian islands--the natives are extremely fond of taming the indigenous quadrupeds and birds; but they rarely or never succeed in getting them to breed. the most notorious case of an animal not breeding in captivity is that of the elephant. elephants are kept in large numbers in their native indian home, live to old age, and are vigorous enough for the severest labour; yet, with one or two exceptions, they have never been known even to couple, though both males and females have their proper periodical seasons. if, however, we proceed a little eastward to ava, we hear from mr. crawfurd[335] that their "breeding in the domestic state, or at least in the half-domestic state in which the female elephants are generally kept, is of every-day occurrence;" and mr. crawfurd informs me that he believes that the difference must be attributed solely to the females being allowed to roam the forests with some degree of freedom. the captive rhinoceros, on the other hand, seems from bishop heber's account[336] to breed in india far more readily than the elephant. four wild species of the horse genus have bred in europe, though here exposed to a great change in their natural habits of life; but the species have generally been crossed one with another. most of the members of the pig family breed readily in our menageries: even the red river hog (_potamochoerus penicillatus_), from the sweltering plains of west africa, has bred twice in the zoological gardens. here also the peccary (_dicotyles torquatus_) has bred several times; but another species, the _d. labiatus_, though rendered so tame as to be half-domesticated, breeds so rarely in its native country of paraguay, that according to rengger[337] the fact requires confirmation. mr. bates remarks that the tapir, though often kept tame in amazonia by the indians, never breeds. ruminants generally breed quite freely in england, though brought from widely different climates, as may be seen in the annual reports of the zoological gardens, and in the gleanings from lord derby's menagerie. the carnivora, with the exception of the plantigrade division, generally breed (though with capricious exceptions) almost as freely as ruminants. many species of felidæ have bred in various menageries, although imported from various climates and closely confined. mr. bartlett, the present superintendent of the zoological gardens,[338] remarks that the lion appears to breed more frequently and to bring forth more young at a birth than any other species of the family. he adds that the tiger has rarely bred; {151} "but there are several well-authenticated instances of the female tiger breeding with the lion." strange as the fact may appear, many animals under confinement unite with distinct species and produce hybrids quite as freely as, or even more freely than, with their own species. on inquiring from dr. falconer and others, it appears that the tiger when confined in india does not breed, though it has been known to couple. the cheetah (_felis jubata_) has never been known by mr. bartlett to breed in england, but it has bred at frankfort; nor does it breed in india, where it is kept in large numbers for hunting; but no pains would be taken to make them breed, as only those animals which have hunted for themselves in a state of nature are serviceable and worth training.[339] according to rengger, two species of wild cats in paraguay, though thoroughly tamed, have never bred. although so many of the felidæ breed readily in the zoological gardens, yet conception by no means always follows union: in the nine-year report, various species are specified which were observed to couple seventy-three times, and no doubt this must have passed many times unnoticed; yet from the seventy-three unions only fifteen births ensued. the carnivora in the zoological gardens were formerly less freely exposed to the air and cold than at present, and this change of treatment, as i was assured by the former superintendent, mr. miller, greatly increased their fertility. mr. bartlett, and there cannot be a more capable judge, says, "it is remarkable that lions breed more freely in travelling collections than in the zoological gardens; probably the constant excitement and irritation produced by moving from place to place, or change of air, may have considerable influence in the matter." many members of the dog family breed readily when confined. the dhole is one of the most untameable animals in india, yet a pair kept there by dr. falconer produced young. foxes, on the other hand, rarely breed, and i have never heard of such an occurrence with the european fox: the silver fox of north america (_canis argentatus_), however, has bred several times in the zoological gardens. even the otter has bred there. every one knows how readily the semi-domesticated ferret breeds, though shut up in miserably small cages; but other species of viverra and paradoxurus absolutely refuse to breed in the zoological gardens. the genetta has bred both here and in the jardin des plantes, and produced hybrids. the _herpestes fasciatus_ has likewise bred; but i was formerly assured that the _h. griseus_, though many were kept in the gardens, never bred. the plantigrade carnivora breed under confinement much less freely, without our being able to assign any reason, than other members of the group. in the nine-year report it is stated that the bears had been seen in the zoological gardens to couple freely, but previously to 1848 had most rarely conceived. in the reports published since this date three species have produced young (hybrids in one case), and, wonderful to relate, the white polar bear has produced young. the badger (_meles taxus_) has bred several times in the gardens; but i have not heard of this {152} occurring elsewhere in england, and the event must be very rare, for an instance in germany has been thought worth recording.[340] in paraguay the native nasua, though kept in pairs during many years and perfectly tamed, has never been known, according to rengger, to breed or show any sexual passion; nor, as i hear from mr. bates, does this animal, or the cercoleptes, breed in the region of the amazons. two other plantigrade genera, procyon and gulo, though often kept tame in paraguay, never breed there. in the zoological gardens species of nasua and procyon have been seen to couple; but they did not produce young. as domesticated rabbits, guinea-pigs, and white mice breed so abundantly when closely confined under various climates, it might have been thought that most other members of the rodent order would have bred in captivity, but this is not the case. it deserves notice, as showing how the capacity to breed sometimes goes by affinity, that the one native rodent of paraguay, which there breeds _freely_ and has yielded successive generations, is the _cavia aperea_; and this animal is so closely allied to the guinea-pig, that it has been erroneously thought to be the parent-form.[341] in the zoological gardens, some rodents have coupled, but have never produced young; some have neither coupled nor bred; but a few have bred, as the porcupine more than once, the barbary mouse, lemming, chinchilla, and the agouti (_dasyprocta aguti_), several times. this latter animal has also produced young in paraguay, though they were born dead and ill-formed; but in amazonia, according to mr. bates, it never breeds, though often kept tame about the houses. nor does the paca (_coelogenys paca_) breed there. the common hare when confined has, i believe, never bred in europe;[342] though, according to a recent statement, it has crossed with the rabbit. i have never heard of the dormouse breeding in confinement. but squirrels offer a more curious case: with one exception, no species has ever bred in the zoological gardens, yet as many as fourteen individuals of _s. palmarum_ were kept together during several years. the _s. cinerea_ has been seen to couple, but it did not produce young; nor has this species, when rendered extremely tame in its native country, north america, been ever known to breed.[343] at lord derby's menagerie squirrels of many kinds were kept in numbers, but mr. thompson, the superintendent, told me that none had ever bred there, or elsewhere as far as he knew. i have never heard of the english squirrel breeding in confinement. but the species which has bred more than once in the zoological gardens is the one which perhaps might have been least expected, namely, the flying squirrel (_sciuropterus volucella_): it has, also, bred several times {153} near birmingham; but the female never produced more than two young at a birth, whereas in its native american home she bears from three to six young.[344] monkeys, in the nine-year report from the zoological gardens, are stated to unite most freely, but during this period, though many individuals were kept, there were only seven births. i have heard of one american monkey alone, the ouistiti, breeding in europe.[345] a macacus, according to flourens, bred in paris; and more than one species of this genus has produced young in london, especially the _macacus rhesus_, which everywhere shows a special capacity to breed under confinement. hybrids have been produced both in paris and london from this same genus. the arabian baboon, or _cynocephalus hamadryas_,[346] and a cercopithecus have bred in the zoological gardens, and the latter species at the duke of northumberland's. several members of the family of lemurs have produced hybrids in the zoological gardens. it is much more remarkable that monkeys very rarely breed when confined in their native country; thus the cay (_cebus azaræ_) is frequently and completely tamed in paraguay, but rengger[347] says that it breeds so rarely, that he never saw more than two females which had produced young. a similar observation has been made with respect to the monkeys which are frequently tamed by the aborigines in brazil.[348] in the region of the amazons, these animals are so often kept in a tame state, that mr. bates in walking through the streets of parà counted thirteen species; but, as he asserts, they have never been known to breed in captivity.[349] _birds._ birds offer in some respects better evidence than quadrupeds, from their breeding more rapidly and being kept in greater numbers. we have seen that carnivorous animals are more fertile under confinement than most other mammals. the reverse holds good with carnivorous birds. it is said[350] that as many as eighteen species have been used in europe for hawking, and several others in persia and india;[351] they have been kept in their native country in the finest condition, and have been flown during six, eight, or nine years;[352] yet there is no record of their having ever produced young. as these birds were formerly caught whilst young, at great expense, being imported from iceland, norway, and sweden, there can {154} be little doubt that, if possible, they would have been propagated. in the jardin des plantes, no bird of prey has been known to couple.[353] no hawk, vulture, or owl has ever produced fertile eggs in the zoological gardens, or in the old surrey gardens, with the exception, in the former place on one occasion, of a condor and a kite (_milvus niger_). yet several species, namely, the _aquila fusca_, _haliætus leucocephalus_, _falco tinnunculus_, _f. subbuteo_, and _buteo vulgaris_, have been seen to couple in the zoological gardens. mr. morris[354] mentions as a unique fact that a kestrel (_falco tinnunculus_) bred in an aviary. the one kind of owl which has been known to couple in the zoological gardens was the eagle owl (_bubo maximus_); and this species shows a special inclination to breed in captivity; for a pair at arundel castle, kept more nearly in a state of nature "than ever fell to the lot of an animal deprived of its liberty,"[355] actually reared their young. mr. gurney has given another instance of this same owl breeding in confinement; and he records the case of a second species of owl, the _strix passerina_, breeding in captivity.[356] of the smaller graminivorous birds, many kinds have been kept tame in their native countries, and have lived long; yet, as the highest authority on cage-birds[357] remarks, their propagation is "uncommonly difficult." the canary-bird shows that there is no inherent difficulty in these birds breeding freely in confinement; and audubon says[358] that the _fringilla_ (_spiza_) _ciris_ of north america breeds as perfectly as the canary. the difficulty with the many finches which have been kept in confinement is all the more remarkable as more than a dozen species could be named which have yielded hybrids with the canary; but hardly any of these, with the exception of the siskin (_fringilla spinus_), have reproduced their own kind. even the bullfinch (_loxia pyrrhula_) has bred as frequently with the canary, though belonging to a distinct genus, as with its own species.[359] with respect to the skylark (_alauda arvensis_), i have heard of birds living for seven years in an aviary, which never produced young; and a great london bird-fancier assured me that he had never known an instance of their breeding; nevertheless one case has been recorded.[360] in the nine-year report from the zoological society, twenty-four incessorial species are enumerated which had not bred, and of these only four were known to have coupled. parrots are singularly long-lived birds; and humboldt mentions the curious fact of a parrot in south america, which spoke the language of {155} an extinct indian tribe, so that this bird preserved the sole relic of a lost language. even in this country there is reason to believe[361] that parrots have lived to the age of nearly one hundred years; yet, though many have been kept in europe, they breed so rarely that the event has been thought worth recording in the gravest publications.[362] according to bechstein[363] the african _psittacus erithacus_ breeds oftener than any other species: the _p. macoa_ occasionally lays fertile eggs, but rarely succeeds in hatching them; this bird, however, has the instinct of incubation sometimes so strongly developed, that it will hatch the eggs of fowls or pigeons. in the zoological gardens and in the old surrey gardens some few species have coupled, but, with the exception of three species of parrakeets, none have bred. it is a much more remarkable fact that in guiana parrots of two kinds, as i am informed by sir e. schomburgk, are often taken from the nests by the indians and reared in large numbers; they are so tame that they fly freely about the houses, and come when called to be fed, like pigeons; yet he has never heard of a single instance of their breeding.[364] in jamaica, a resident naturalist, mr. r. hill,[365] says, "no birds more readily submit to human dependence than the parrot-tribe, but no instance of a parrot breeding in this tame life has been known yet." mr. hill specifies a number of other native birds kept tame in the west indies, which never breed in this state. the great pigeon family offers a striking contrast with parrots: in the nine-year report thirteen species are recorded as having bred, and, what is more noticeable, only two were seen to couple without any result. since the above date every annual report gives many cases of various pigeons breeding. the two magnificent crowned pigeons (_goura coronata_ and _victoriæ_) produced hybrids; nevertheless, of the former species more than a dozen birds were kept, as i am informed by mr. crawfurd, in a park at penang, under a perfectly well-adapted climate, but never once bred. the _columba migratoria_ in its native country, north america, invariably lays two eggs, but in lord derby's menagerie never more than one. the same fact has been observed with the _c. leucocephala_.[366] gallinaceous birds of many genera likewise show an eminent capacity for breeding under captivity. this is particularly the case with pheasants; yet our english species seldom lays more than ten eggs in confinement; whilst from eighteen to twenty is the usual number in the wild state.[367] with the gallinaceæ, as with all other orders, there are marked and {156} inexplicable exceptions in regard to the fertility of certain species and genera under confinement. although many trials have been made with the common partridge, it has rarely bred, even when reared in large aviaries; and the hen will never hatch her own eggs.[368] the american tribe of guans or cracidæ are tamed with remarkable ease, but are very shy breeders in this country;[369] but with care various species were formerly made to breed rather freely in holland.[370] birds of this tribe are often kept in a perfectly tamed condition in their native country by the indians, but they never breed.[371] it might have been expected that grouse from their habits of life would not have bred in captivity, more especially as they are said soon to languish and die.[372] but many cases are recorded of their breeding: the capercailzie (_tetrao urogallus_) has bred in the zoological gardens; it breeds without much difficulty when confined in norway, and in russia five successive generations have been reared: _tetrao tetrix_ has likewise bred in norway; _t. scoticus_ in ireland; _t. umbellus_ at lord derby's; and _t. cupido_ in north america. it is scarcely possible to imagine a greater change in habits than that which the members of the ostrich family must suffer, when cooped up in small enclosures under a temperate climate, after freely roaming over desert and tropical plains or entangled forests. yet almost all the kinds, even the mooruk (_casuarius bennettii_) from new ireland, has frequently produced young in the various european menageries. the african ostrich, though perfectly healthy and living long in the south of france, never lays more than from twelve to fifteen eggs, though in its native country it lays from twenty-five to thirty.[373] here we have another instance of fertility impaired, but not lost, under confinement, as with the flying squirrel, the hen-pheasant, and two species of american pigeons. most waders can be tamed, as the rev. e. s. dixon informs me, with remarkable facility; but several of them are short-lived under confinement, so that their sterility in this state is not surprising. the cranes breed more readily than other genera: _grus montigresia_ has bred several times in paris and in the zoological gardens, as has _g. cinerea_ at the latter place, and _g. antigone_ at calcutta. of other members of this great order, _tetrapteryx paradisea_ has bred at knowsley, a porphyrio in sicily, and the _gallinula chloropus_ in the zoological gardens. on the other hand, several {157} birds belonging to this order will not breed in their native country, jamaica; and the psophia, though often kept by the indians of guiana about their houses, "is seldom or never known to breed."[374] no birds breed with such complete facility under confinement as the members of the great duck family; yet, considering their aquatic and wandering habits, and the nature of their food, this could not have been anticipated. even some time ago above two dozen species had bred in the zoological gardens; and m. selys-longchamps has recorded the production of hybrids from forty-four different members of the family; and to these professor newton has added a few more cases.[375] "there is not," says mr. dixon,[376] "in the wide world, a goose which is not in the strict sense of the word domesticable;" that is, capable of breeding under confinement; but this statement is probably too bold. the capacity to breed sometimes varies in individuals of the same species; thus audubon[377] kept for more than eight years some wild geese (_anser canadensis_), but they would not mate; whilst other individuals of the same species produced young during the second year. i know of but one instance in the whole family of a species which absolutely refuses to breed in captivity, namely, the _dendrocygna viduata_, although, according to sir r. schomburgk,[378] it is easily tamed, and is frequently kept by the indians of guiana. lastly, with respect to gulls, though many have been kept in the zoological gardens and in the old surrey gardens, no instance was known before the year 1848 of their coupling or breeding; but since that period the herring gull (_larus argentatus_) has bred many times in the zoological gardens and at knowsley. there is reason to believe that insects are affected by confinement like the higher animals. it is well known that the sphingidæ rarely breed when thus treated. an entomologist[379] in paris kept twenty-five specimens of _saturnia pyri_, but did not succeed in getting a single fertile egg. a number of females of _orthosia munda_ and of _mamestra suasa_ reared in confinement were unattractive to the males.[380] mr. newport kept nearly a hundred individuals of two species of vanessa, but not one paired; this, however, might have been due to their habit of coupling on the wing.[381] mr. atkinson could never succeed in india in making the tarroo silk-moth breed in confinement.[382] it appears that a number of moths, especially the sphingidæ, when hatched in the autumn out of their proper season, {158} are completely barren; but this latter case is still involved in some obscurity.[383] independently of the fact of many animals under confinement not coupling, or, if they couple, not producing young, there is evidence of another kind, that their sexual functions are thus disturbed. for many cases have been recorded of the loss by male birds when confined of their characteristic plumage. thus the common linnet (_linota cannabina_) when caged does not acquire the fine crimson colour on its breast, and one of the buntings (_emberiza passerina_) loses the black on its head. a pyrrhula and an oriolus have been observed to assume the quiet plumage of the hen-bird; and the _falco albidus_ returned to the dress of an earlier age.[384] mr. thomson, the superintendent of the knowsley menagerie, informed me that he had often observed analogous facts. the horns of a male deer (_cervus canadensis_) during the voyage from america were badly developed; but subsequently in paris perfect horns were produced. when conception takes place under confinement, the young are often born dead, or die soon, or are ill-formed. this frequently occurs in the zoological gardens, and, according to rengger, with native animals confined in paraguay. the mother's milk often fails. we may also attribute to the disturbance of the sexual functions the frequent occurrence of that monstrous instinct which leads the mother to devour her own offspring,--a mysterious case of perversion, as it at first appears. sufficient evidence has now been advanced to prove that animals when first confined are eminently liable to suffer in their reproductive systems. we feel at first naturally inclined to attribute the result to loss of health, or at least to loss of vigour; but this view can hardly be admitted when we reflect how healthy, long-lived, and vigorous many animals are under {159} captivity, such as parrots, and hawks when used for hawking, chetahs when used for hunting, and elephants. the reproductive organs themselves are not diseased; and the diseases, from which animals in menageries usually perish, are not those which in any way affect their fertility. no domestic animal is more subject too disease than the sheep, yet it is remarkably prolific. the failure of animals to breed under confinement has been sometimes attributed exclusively to a failure in their sexual instincts: this may occasionally come into play, but there is no obvious reason why this instinct should be especially liable to be affected with perfectly tamed animals, except indeed indirectly through the reproductive system itself being disturbed. moreover, numerous cases have been given of various animals which couple freely under confinement, but never conceive; or, if they conceive and produce young, these are fewer in number than is natural to the species. in the vegetable kingdom instinct of course can play no part; and we shall presently see that plants when removed from their natural conditions are affected in nearly the same manner as animals. change of climate cannot be the cause of the loss of fertility, for, whilst many animals imported into europe from extremely different climates breed freely, many others when confined in their native land are completely sterile. change of food cannot be the chief cause; for ostriches, ducks, and many other animals, which must have undergone a great change in this respect, breed freely. carnivorous birds when confined are extremely sterile; whilst most carnivorous mammals, except plantigrades, are moderately fertile. nor can the amount of food be the cause; for a sufficient supply will certainly be given to valuable animals; and there is no reason to suppose that much more food would be given to them, than to our choice domestic productions which retain their full fertility. lastly, we may infer from the case of the elephant, chetah, various hawks, and of many animals which are allowed to lead an almost free life in their native land, that want of exercise is not the sole cause. it would appear that any change in the habits of life, whatever these habits may be, if great enough, tends to affect in an inexplicable manner the powers of reproduction. the result {160} depends more on the constitution of the species than on the nature of the change; for certain whole groups are affected more than others; but exceptions always occur, for some species in the most fertile groups refuse to breed, and some in the most sterile groups breed freely. those animals which usually breed freely under confinement, rarely breed, as i was assured, in the zoological gardens, within a year or two after their first importation. when an animal which is generally sterile under confinement happens to breed, the young apparently do not inherit this power; for had this been the case, various quadrupeds and birds, which are valuable for exhibition, would have become common. dr. broca even affirms[385] that many animals in the jardin des plantes, after having produced young for three or four successive generations, become sterile; but this may be the result of too close interbreeding. it is a remarkable circumstance that many mammals and birds have produced hybrids under confinement quite as readily as, or even more readily than, they have procreated their own kind. of this fact many instances have been given;[386] and we are thus reminded of those plants which when cultivated refuse to be fertilised by their own pollen, but can easily be fertilised by that of a distinct species. finally, we must conclude, limited as the conclusion is, that changed conditions of life have an especial power of acting injuriously on the reproductive system. the whole case is quite peculiar, for these organs, though not diseased, are thus rendered incapable of performing their proper functions, or perform them imperfectly. _sterility of domesticated animals from changed conditions._--with respect to domesticated animals, as their domestication mainly depends on the accident of their breeding freely under captivity, we ought not to expect that their reproductive system would be affected by any moderate degree of change. those orders of quadrupeds and birds, of which the wild species breed most readily in our menageries, have afforded us the greatest number of domesticated productions. savages in most parts of the world are fond of taming animals;[387] and if any of these regularly produced {161} young, and were at the same time useful, they would be at once domesticated. if, when their masters migrated into other countries, they were in addition found capable of withstanding various climates, they would be still more valuable; and it appears that the animals which breed readily in captivity can generally withstand different climates. some few domesticated animals, such as the reindeer and camel, offer an exception to this rule. many of our domesticated animals can bear with undiminished fertility the most unnatural conditions; for instance, rabbits, guinea-pigs, and ferrets breed in miserably confined hutches. few european dogs of any kind withstand without degeneration the climate of india; but as long as they survive, they retain, as i hear from mr. falconer, their fertility; so it is, according to dr. daniell, with english dogs taken to sierra leone. the fowl, a native of the hot jungles of india, becomes more fertile than its parent-stock in every quarter of the world, until we advance as far north as greenland and northern siberia, where this bird will not breed. both fowls and pigeons, which i received during the autumn direct from sierra leone, were at once ready to couple.[388] i have, also, seen pigeons breeding as freely as the common kinds within a year after their importation from the upper nile. the guinea-fowl, an aboriginal of the hot and dry deserts of africa, whilst living under our damp and cool climate, produces a large supply of eggs. nevertheless, our domesticated animals under new conditions occasionally show signs of lessened fertility. roulin asserts that in the hot valleys of the equatorial cordillera sheep are not fully fecund;[389] and according to lord somerville,[390] the merino-sheep which he imported from spain were not at first perfectly fertile. it is said[391] that mares brought up on dry food in the stable, and turned out to grass, do not at first breed. the peahen, as we have seen, is said not to lay so many eggs in england as in india. it was long before the canary-bird was fully fertile, and even now first-rate breeding birds are not common.[392] in the hot and dry province of delhi, the eggs of the turkey, as i hear from dr. falconer, though placed under a hen, are extremely liable to fail. according to roulin, geese taken within a recent period to the lofty plateau of bogota, at first laid seldom, and then only a few eggs; of these scarcely a fourth were hatched, and half the young birds died: in the second generation they were more fertile; and when roulin wrote they were becoming as {162} fertile as our geese in europe. in the philippine archipelago the goose, it is asserted, will not breed or even lay eggs.[393] a more curious case is that of the fowl, which, according to roulin, when first introduced would not breed at cusco in bolivia, but subsequently became quite fertile; and the english game fowl, lately introduced, had not as yet arrived a its full fertility, for to raise two or three chickens from a nest of eggs was thought fortunate. in europe close confinement has a marked effect on the fertility of the fowl: it has been found in france that with fowls allowed considerable freedom only twenty per cent. of the eggs failed; when allowed less freedom forty per cent. failed; and in close confinement sixty out of the hundred were not hatched.[394] so we see that unnatural and changed conditions of life produce some effect on the fertility of our most thoroughly domesticated animals, in the same manner, though in a far less degree, as with captive wild animals. it is by no means rare to find certain males and females which will not breed together, though both are known to be perfectly fertile with other males and females. we have no reason to suppose that this is caused by these animals having been subjected to any change in their habits of life; therefore such cases are hardly related to our present subject. the cause apparently lies in an innate sexual incompatibility of the pair which are matched. several instances have been communicated to me by mr. w. c. spooner (well known for his essay on cross-breeding), by mr. eyton of eyton, by mr. wicksted and othe breeders, and especially by mr. waring of chelsfield, in relation to horses, cattle, pigs, foxhounds, other dogs, and pigeons.[395] in these cases, females, which either previously or subsequently were proved to be fertile, failed to breed with certain males, with whom it was particularly desired to match them. a change in the constitution of the female may sometimes have occurred before she was put to the second male; but in other cases this explanation is hardly tenable, for a female, known not to be barren, has been unsuccessfully paired seven or eight times with the same male likewise known to be perfectly fertile. with cart-mares, which sometimes will not breed with stallions of pure blood, but subsequently have bred with cart-stallions, mr. spooner is inclined to attribute the failure to the lesser sexual power of the race-horse. but i have heard from the greatest breeder of race-horses at the present day, through mr. waring, that "it frequently occurs with a mare to be put several times during one or two seasons to a particular stallion of acknowledged power, and yet prove barren; the mare afterwards breeding at once with some other horse." these facts are worth recording, as they show, like so many previous facts, on what slight constitutional differences the fertility of an animal often depends. {163} _sterility of plants from changed conditions of life, and from other causes._ in the vegetable kingdom cases of sterility frequently occur, analogous with those previously given in the animal kingdom. but the subject is obscured by several circumstances, presently to be discussed, namely, the contabescence of the anthers, as gärtner has named a certain affection--monstrosities--doubleness of the flower--much-enlarged fruit--and long-continued or excessive propagation by buds. it is notorious that many plants in our gardens and hot-houses, though preserved in the most perfect health, rarely or never produce seed. i do not allude to plants which run to leaves, from being kept too damp, or too warm, or too much manured; for these do not produce the reproductive individual or flower, and the case may be wholly different. nor do i allude to fruit not ripening from want of heat, or rotting from too much moisture. but many exotic plants, with their ovules and pollen appearing perfectly sound, will not set any seed. the sterility in many cases, as i know from my own observation, is simply due to the absence of the proper insects for carrying the pollen to the stigma. but after excluding the several cases just specified, there are many plants in which the reproductive system has been seriously affected by the altered conditions of life to which they have been subjected. it would be tedious to enter on many details. linnæus long ago observed[396] that alpine plants, although naturally laded with seed, produce either few or none when cultivated in gardens. but exceptions often occur: the _draba sylvestris_, one of our most thoroughly alpine plants, multiplies itself by seed in mr. h. c. watson's garden, near london; and kerner, who has particularly attended to the cultivation of alpine plants, found that various kinds, when cultivated, spontaneously sowed themselves.[397] many plants which naturally grow in peat-earth are entirely sterile in our gardens. i have noticed the same fact with several liliaceous plants, which nevertheless grew vigorously. too much manure renders some kinds utterly sterile, as i have myself observed. the tendency to sterility from this cause runs in families; thus, according to gärtner,[398] it is hardly possible to give too much manure to most gramineæ, cruciferæ, and leguminosæ, whilst succulent and bulbous-rooted plants are easily affected. extreme poverty of soil is less {164} apt to induce sterility; but dwarfed plants of _trifolium minus_ and _repens_, growing on a lawn often mown and never manured, did not produce any seed. the temperature of the soil, and the season at which plants are watered, often have a marked effect on their fertility, as was observed by kölreuter in the case of mirabilis.[399] mr. scott in the botanic gardens of edinburgh observed that _oncidium divaricatum_ would not set seed when grown in a basket in which it throve, but was capable of fertilisation in a pot where it was a little damper. _pelargonium fulgidum_, for many years after its introduction, seeded freely; it then became sterile; now it is fertile[400] if kept in a dry stove during the winter. other varieties of pelargonium are sterile and others fertile without our being able to assign any cause. very slight changes in the position of a plant, whether planted on a bank or at its base, sometimes make all the difference in its producing seed. temperature apparently has a much more powerful influence on the fertility of plants than on that of animals. nevertheless it is wonderful what changes some few plants will withstand with undiminished fertility: thus the _zephyranthes candida_, a native of the moderately warm banks of the plata, sows itself in the hot dry country near lima, and in yorkshire resists the severest frosts, and i have seen seeds gathered from pods which had been covered with snow during three weeks.[401] _berberis wallichii_, from the hot khasia range in india, is uninjured by our sharpest frosts, and ripens its fruit under our cool summers. nevertheless i presume we must attribute to change of climate the sterility of many foreign plants; thus the persian and chinese lilacs (_syringa persica_ and _chinensis_), though perfectly hardly, never here produce a seed; the common lilac (_s. vulgaris_) seeds with us moderately well, but in parts of germany the capsules never contain seed.[402] some of the cases, given in the last chapter, of self-impotent plants, which are fertile both on the male and female side when united with distinct individuals or species, might have been here introduced; for as this peculiar form of sterility generally occurs with exotic plants or with endemic plants cultivated in pots, and as it disappeared in the _passiflora alata_ when grafted, we may conclude that in these cases it is the result of the treatment to which the plants or their parents have been exposed. the liability of plants to be affected in their fertility by slightly changed conditions is the more remarkable, as the pollen when once in process of formation is not easily injured; a plant may be transplanted, or a branch with flower-buds be cut off and placed in water, and the pollen will be matured. pollen, also, when once mature, may be kept for weeks or even months.[403] the female organs are more sensitive, for gärtner[404] found that dicotyledonous plants, when carefully removed so that they did not in the least flag, could seldom be fertilised; this occurred even with potted {165} plants if the roots had grown out of the hole at the bottom. in some few cases, however, as with digitalis, transplantation did not prevent fertilisation; and according to the testimony of mawz, _brassica rapa_, when pulled up by its roots and placed in water, ripened its seed. flower-stems of several monocotyledonous plants when cut off and placed in water likewise produce seed. but in these cases i presume that the flowers had been already fertilised, for herbert[405] found with the crocus that the plants might be removed or mutilated after the act of fertilisation, and would still perfect their seeds; but that, if transplanted before being fertilised, the application of pollen was powerless. plants which have been long cultivated can generally endure with undiminished fertility various and great changes; but not in most cases so great a change of climate as domesticated animals. it is remarkable that many plants under these circumstances are so much affected that the proportions and the nature of their chemical ingredients are modified, yet their fertility is unimpaired. thus, as dr. falconer informs me, there is a great difference in the character of the fibre in hemp, in the quantity of oil in the seed of the linum, in the proportion of narcotin to morphine in the poppy, in gluten to starch in wheat, when these plants are cultivated on the plains and on the mountains of india; nevertheless, they all remain fully fertile. _contabescence._--gärtner has designated by this term a peculiar condition of the anthers in certain plants, in which they are shrivelled, or become brown and tough, and contain no good pollen. when in this state they exactly resemble the anthers of the most sterile hybrids. gärtner,[406] in his discussion on this subject, has shown that plants of many orders are occasionally thus affected; but the caryophyllaceæ and liliaceæ suffer most, and to these orders, i think, the ericaceæ may be added. contabescence varies in degree, but on the same plant all the flowers are generally affected to nearly the same extent. the anthers are affected at a very early period in the flower-bud, and remain in the same state (with one recorded exception) during the life of the plant. the affection cannot be cured by any change of treatment, and is propagated by layers, cuttings, &c., and perhaps even by seed. in contabescent plants the female organs are seldom affected, or merely become precocious in their development. the cause of this affection is doubtful, and is different in different cases. until i read gärtner's discussion i attributed it, as apparently did herbert, to the unnatural treatment of the plants; but its permanence under changed conditions, and the female organs not being affected, seem incompatible with this view. the fact of several endemic plants becoming contabescent in our gardens seems, at first sight, equally incompatible with this view; but kölreuter believes that this is the result of their transplantation. the contabescent plants of dianthus and verbascum, found wild by wiegmann, grew on a dry and sterile bank. the fact that exotic {166} plants are eminently liable to this affection also seems to show that it is in some manner caused by their unnatural treatment. in some instances, as with silene, gärtner's view seems the most probable, namely, that it is caused by an inherent tendency in the species to become dioecious. i can add another cause, namely, the illegitimate unions of reciprocally dimorphic or trimorphic plants, for i have observed seedlings of three species of primula and of _lythrum salicaria_, which had been raised from plants illegitimately fertilised by their own-form pollen, with some or all their anthers in a contabescent state. there is perhaps an additional cause, namely, self-fertilisation; for many plants of dianthus and lobelia, which had been raised from self-fertilised seeds, had their anthers in this state; but these instances are not conclusive, as both genera are liable from other causes to this affection. cases of an opposite nature likewise occur, namely, plants with the female organs struck with sterility, whilst the male organs remain perfect. _dianthus japonicus_, a passiflora, and nicotiana, have been described by gärtner[407] as being in this unusual condition. _monstrosities as a cause of sterility._--great deviations of structure, even when the reproductive organs themselves are not seriously affected, sometimes cause plants to become sterile. but in other cases plants may become monstrous to an extreme degree and yet retain their full fertility. gallesio, who certainly had great experience,[408] often attributes sterility to this cause; but it may be suspected that in some of his cases sterility was the cause, and not the result, of the monstrous growths. the curious st. valery apple, although it bears fruit, rarely produces seed. the wonderfully anomalous flowers of _begonia frigida_, formerly described, though they appear fit for fructification, are sterile.[409] species of primulæ, in which the calyx is brightly coloured, are said[410] to be often sterile, though i have known them to be fertile. on the other hand, verlot gives several cases of proliferous flowers which can be propagated by seed. this was the case with a poppy, which had become monopetalous by the union of its petals.[411] another extraordinary poppy, with the stamens replaced by numerous small supplementary capsules, likewise reproduces itself by seed. this has also occurred with a plant of _saxifraga geum_, in which a series of adventitious carpels, bearing ovules on their margins, had been developed between the stamens and the normal carpels.[412] lastly, with respect to peloric flowers, which depart wonderfully from the natural structure,--those of _linaria vulgaris_ seem generally to be more or less sterile, whilst those before described of _antirrhinum majus_, when artificially fertilised with their own pollen, are perfectly {167} fertile, though sterile when left to themselves, for bees are unable to crawl into the narrow tubular flower. the peloric flowers of _corydalis solida_, according to godron,[413] are barren; whilst those of gloxinia are well known to yield plenty of seed. in our greenhouse pelargoniums, the central flower of the truss is often peloric, and mr. masters informs me that he tried in vain during several years to get seed from these flowers. i likewise made many vain attempts, but sometimes succeeded in fertilising them with pollen from a normal flower of another variety; and conversely i several times fertilised ordinary flowers with peloric pollen. only once i succeeded in raising a plant from a peloric flower fertilised by pollen from a peloric flower borne by another variety; but the plant, it may be added, presented nothing particular in its structure. hence we may conclude that no general rule can be laid down; but any great deviation from the normal structure, even when the reproductive organs themselves are not seriously affected, certainly often leads to sexual impotence. _double flowers._--when the stamens are converted into petals, the plant becomes on the male side sterile; when both stamens and pistils are thus changed, the plant becomes completely barren. symmetrical flowers having numerous stamens and petals are the most liable to become double, as perhaps follows from all multiple organs being the most subject to variability. but flowers furnished with only a few stamens, and others which are asymmetrical in structure, sometimes become double, as we see with the double gorse or ulex, petunia, and antirrhinum. the compositæ bear what are called double flowers by the abnormal development of the corolla of their central florets. doubleness is sometimes connected with prolification,[414] or the continued growth of the axis of the flower. doubleness is strongly inherited. no one has produced, as lindley remarks,[415] double flowers by promoting the perfect health of the plant. on the contrary, unnatural conditions of life favour their production. there is some reason to believe that seeds kept during many years, and seeds believed to be imperfectly fertilised, yield double flowers more freely than fresh and perfectly fertilised seed.[416] long-continued cultivation in rich soil seems to be the commonest exciting cause. a double narcissus and a double _anthemis nobilis_, transplanted into very poor soil, have been observed to become single;[417] and i have seen a completely double white primrose rendered permanently single by being divided and transplanted whilst in full flower. it has been observed by professor morren that doubleness of the flowers and variegation of the leaves are antagonistic states; but so many exceptions to the rule have lately been recorded,[418] that, though general, it cannot be looked at as invariable. {168} variegation seems generally to result from a feeble or atrophied condition of the plant, and a large proportion of the seedlings raised from parents both of which are variegated usually perish at an early age; hence we may perhaps infer that doubleness, which is the antagonistic state, commonly arises from a plethoric condition. on the other hand, extremely poor soil sometimes, though rarely, appears to cause doubleness: i formerly described[419] some completely double, bud-like, flowers produced in large numbers by stunted wild plants of _gentiana amarella_ growing on a poor chalky bank. i have also noticed a distinct tendency to doubleness in the flowers of a ranunculus, horse-chesnut, and bladder-nut (_ranunculus repens_, _æsculus pavia_, and _staphylea_), growing under very unfavourable conditions. professor lehman[420] found several wild plants growing near a hot spring with double flowers. with respect to the cause of doubleness, which arises, as we see, under widely different circumstances, i shall presently attempt to show that the most probable view is that unnatural conditions first give a tendency to sterility, and that then, on the principle of compensation, as the reproductive organs do not perform their proper functions, they either become developed into petals, or additional petals are formed. this view has lately been supported by mr. laxton,[421] who advances the case of some common peas, which, after long-continued heavy rain, flowered a second time, and produced double flowers. _seedless fruit._--many of our most valuable fruits, although consisting in a homological sense of widely different organs, are either quite sterile, or produce extremely few seeds. this is notoriously the case with our best pears, grapes, and figs, with the pine-apple, banana, bread-fruit, pomegranate, azarole, date-palms, and some members of the orange-tribe. poorer varieties of these same fruits either habitually or occasionally yield seed.[422] most horticulturists look at the great size and anomalous development of the fruit as the cause, and sterility as the result; but the opposite view, as we shall presently see, is more probable. _sterility from the excessive development of the organs of growth or vegetation._--plants which from any cause grow too luxuriantly, and produce leaves, stems, runners, suckers, tubers, bulbs, &c., in excess, sometimes do not flower, or if they flower do not yield seed. to make european vegetables under the hot climate of india yield seed, it is necessary to check their growth; and, when one-third grown, they are taken up, and their stems and {169} tap-roots are cut or mutilated.[423] so it is with hybrids; for instance, prof. lecoq[424] had three plants of mirabilis, which, though they grew luxuriantly and flowered, were quite sterile; but after beating one with a stick until a few branches alone were left, these at once yielded good seed. the sugar-cane, which grows vigorously and produces a large supply of succulent stems, never, according to various observers, bears seed in the west indies, malaga, india, cochin china, or the malay archipelago.[425] plants which produce a large number of tubers are apt to be sterile, as occurs, to a certain extent, with the common potato; and mr. fortune informs me that the sweet potato (_convolvulus batatas_) in china never, as far as he has seen, yields seed. dr. royle remarks[426] that in india the _agave vivipara_, when grown in rich soil, invariably produces bulbs, but no seeds; whilst a poor soil and dry climate leads to an opposite result. in china, according to mr. fortune, an extraordinary number of little bulbs are developed in the axils of the leaves of the yam, and this plant does not bear seed. whether in these cases, as in those of double flowers and seedless fruit, sexual sterility from changed conditions of life is the primary cause which leads to the excessive development of the organs of vegetation, is doubtful; though some evidence might be advanced in favour of this view. it is perhaps a more probable view that plants which propagate themselves largely by one method, namely by buds, have not sufficient vital power or organised matter for the other method of sexual generation. several distinguished botanists and good practical judges believe that long-continued propagation by cuttings, runners, tubers, bulbs, &c., independently of any excessive development of these parts, is the cause of many plants failing to produce flowers and of others failing to produce fertile flowers,--it is as if they had lost the habit of sexual generation.[427] that many plants when thus propagated are sterile there can be no doubt, but whether the long continuance of this form of propagation is the actual cause of their sterility, i will not venture, from the want of sufficient evidence, to express an opinion. that plants may be propagated for long periods by buds, without the aid of sexual generation, we may safely infer from this being the case with many plants which must have long survived in a state of nature. as i have had occasion before to allude to this subject, i will here give such cases as i have collected. many alpine plants ascend mountains beyond the height at which they can produce seed.[428] certain species of {170} poa and festuca, when growing on mountain-pastures, propagate themselves, as i hear from mr. bentham, almost exclusively by bulblets. kalm gives a more curious instance[429] of several american trees, which grow so plentifully in marshes or in thick woods, that they are certainly well adapted for these stations, yet scarcely ever produce seeds; but when accidentally growing on the outside of the marsh or wood, are loaded with seed. the common ivy is found in northern sweden and russia, but flowers and fruits only in the southern provinces. the _acorus calamus_ extends over a large portion of the globe, but so rarely perfects its fruit that this has been seen but by few botanists.[430] the _hypericum calycinum_, which propagates itself so freely in our shrubberies by rhizomas and is naturalised in ireland, blossoms profusely, but sets no seed; nor did it set any when fertilised in my garden by pollen from plants growing at a distance. the _lysimachia nummularia_, which is furnished with long runners, so seldom produces seed-capsules, that prof. decaisne,[431] who has especially attended to this plant, has never seen it in fruit. the _carex rigida_ often fails to perfect its seed in scotland, lapland, greenland, germany, and new hampshire in the united states.[432] the periwinkle (_vinca minor_), which spreads largely by runners, is said scarcely ever to produce fruit in england;[433] but this plant requires insect-aid for its fertilisation, and the proper insects may be absent or rare. the _jussiæa grandiflora_ has become naturalised in southern france, and has spread by its rhizomas so extensively as to impede the navigation of the waters, but never produces fertile seed.[434] the horse-radish (_cochlearia armoracia_) spreads pertinaciously and is naturalised in various parts of europe; though it bears flowers, these rarely produce capsules: professor caspary also informs me that he has watched this plant since 1851, but has never seen its fruit; nor is this surprising, as he finds scarcely a grain of good pollen. the common little _ranunculus ficaria_ rarely, and some say never, bears seed in england, france, or switzerland; but in 1863 i observed seeds on several plants growing near my house. according to m. chatin, there are two forms of this ranunculus; and it is the bulbiferous form which does not yield seed from producing no pollen.[435] other cases {171} analogous with the foregoing could be given; for instance, some kinds of mosses and lichens have never been seen to fructify in france. some of these endemic and naturalised plants are probably rendered sterile from excessive multiplication by buds, and their consequent incapacity to produce and nourish seed. but the sterility of others more probably depends on the peculiar conditions under which they live, as in the case of the ivy in the northern parts of europe, and of the trees in the swamps of the united states; yet these plants must be in some respects eminently well adapted for the stations which they occupy, for they hold their places against a host of competitors. finally, when we reflect on the sterility which accompanies the doubling of flowers,--the excessive development of fruit,--and a great increase in the organs of vegetation, we must bear in mind that the whole effect has seldom been caused at once. an incipient tendency is observed, and continued selection completes the work, as is known to be the case with our double flowers and best fruits. the view which seems the most probable, and which connects together all the foregoing facts and brings them within our present subject, is, that changed and unnatural conditions of life first give a tendency to sterility; and in consequence of this, the organs of reproduction being no longer able fully to perform their proper functions, a supply of organised matter, not required for the development of the seed, flows either into these same organs and renders them foliaceous, or into the fruit, stems, tubers, &c., increasing their size and succulency. but i am far from wishing to deny that there exists, independently of any incipient sterility, an antagonism between the two forms of reproduction, namely, by seed and by buds, when either is carried to an extreme degree. that incipient sterility plays an important part in the doubling of flowers, and in the other cases just specified, i infer chiefly from the following facts. when fertility is lost from a wholly different cause, namely, from hybridism, there is a strong tendency, as gärtner[436] affirms, for flowers to become double, and this tendency is inherited. moreover it is notorious that with hybrids the male organs become sterile before the female organs, and with double flowers the stamens first become {172} foliaceous. this latter fact is well shown by the male flowers of dioecious plants, which, according to gallesio,[437] first become double. again, gärtner[438] often insists that the flowers of even utterly sterile hybrids, which do not produce any seed, generally yield perfect capsules or fruit,--a fact which has likewise been repeatedly observed by naudin with the cucurbitaceæ; so that the production of fruit by plants rendered sterile through any other and distinct cause is intelligible. kölreuter has also expressed his unbounded astonishment at the size and development of the tubers in certain hybrids; and all experimentalists[439] have remarked on the strong tendency in hybrids to increase by roots, runners, and suckers. seeing that hybrid plants, which from their nature are more or less sterile, thus tend to produce double flowers; that they have the parts including the seed, that is the fruit, perfectly developed, even when containing no seed; that they sometimes yield gigantic roots; that they almost invariably tend to increase largely by suckers and other such means;--seeing this, and knowing, from the many facts given in the earlier parts of this chapter, that almost all organic beings when exposed to unnatural conditions tend to become more or less sterile, it seems much the most probable view that with cultivated plants sterility is the exciting cause, and double flowers, rich seedless fruit, and in some cases largely-developed organs of vegetation, &c., are the indirect results--these results having been in most cases largely increased through continued selection by man. * * * * * {173} chapter xix. summary of the four last chapters, with remarks on hybridism. on the effects of crossing--the influence of domestication on fertility--close interbreeding--good and evil results from changed conditions of life--varieties when crossed not invariably fertile--on the difference in fertility between crossed species and varieties--conclusions with respect to hybridism--light thrown on hybridism by the illegitimate progeny of dimorphic and trimorphic plants--sterility of crossed species due to differences confined to the reproductive system--not accumulated through natural selection--reasons why domestic varieties are not mutually sterile--too much stress has been laid on the difference in fertility between crossed species and crossed varieties--conclusion. it was shown in the fifteenth chapter that when individuals of the same variety, or even of a distinct variety, are allowed freely to intercross, uniformity of character is ultimately acquired. some few characters, however, are incapable of fusion, but these are unimportant, as they are almost always of a semi-monstrous nature, and have suddenly appeared. hence, to preserve our domesticated breeds true, or to improve them by methodical selection, it is obviously necessary that they should be kept separate. nevertheless, through unconscious selection, a whole body of individuals may be slowly modified, as we shall see in a future chapter, without separating them into distinct lots. domestic races have often been intentionally modified by one or two crosses, made with some allied race, and occasionally even by repeated crosses with very distinct races; but in almost all such cases, long-continued and careful selection has been absolutely necessary, owing to the excessive variability of the crossed offspring, due to the principle of reversion. in a few instances, however, mongrels have retained a uniform character from their first production. when two varieties are allowed to cross freely, and one is {174} much more numerous than the other, the former will ultimately absorb the latter. should both varieties exist in nearly equal numbers, it is probable that a considerable period would elapse before the acquirement of a uniform character; and the character ultimately acquired would largely depend on prepotency of transmission, and on the conditions of life; for the nature of these conditions would generally favour one variety more than another, so that a kind of natural selection would come into play. unless the crossed offspring were slaughtered by man without the least discrimination, some degree of unmethodical selection would likewise come into action. from these several considerations we may infer, that when two or more closely allied species first came into the possession of the same tribe, their crossing will not have influenced, in so great a degree as has often been supposed, the character of the offspring in future times; although in some cases it probably has had a considerable effect. domestication, as a general rule, increases the prolificness of animals and plants. it eliminates the tendency to sterility which is common to species when first taken from a state of nature and crossed. on this latter head we have no direct evidence; but as our races of dogs, cattle, pigs, &c., are almost certainly descended from aboriginally distinct stocks, and as these races are now fully fertile together, or at least incomparably more fertile than most species when crossed, we may with much confidence accept this conclusion. abundant evidence has been given that crossing adds to the size, vigour, and fertility of the offspring. this holds good when there has been no previous close interbreeding. it applies to the individuals of the same variety but belonging to different families, to distinct varieties, sub-species, and partially even to species. in the latter case, though size is often gained, fertility is lost; but the increased size, vigour, and hardiness of many hybrids cannot be accounted for solely on the principle of compensation from the inaction of the reproductive system. certain plants, both of pure and hybrid origin, though perfectly healthy, have become self-impotent, apparently from the unnatural conditions to which they have been exposed; and such plants, as well as others in their normal state, can be stimulated to {175} fertility only by crossing them with other individuals of the same species or even of a distinct species. on the other hand, long-continued close interbreeding between the nearest relations diminishes the constitutional vigour, size, and fertility of the offspring; and occasionally leads to malformations, but not necessarily to general deterioration of form or structure. this failure of fertility shows that the evil results of interbreeding are independent of the augmentation of morbid tendencies common to both parents, though this augmentation no doubt is often highly injurious. our belief that evil follows from close interbreeding rests to a large extent on the experience of practical breeders, especially of those who have reared many animals of the kinds which can be propagated quickly; but it likewise rests on several carefully recorded experiments. with some animals close interbreeding may be carried on for a long period with impunity by the selection of the most vigorous and healthy individuals; but sooner or later evil follows. the evil, however, comes on so slowly and gradually that it easily escapes observation, but can be recognised by the almost instantaneous manner in which size, constitutional vigour, and fertility are regained when animals that have long been interbred are crossed with a distinct family. these two great classes of facts, namely, the good derived from crossing, and the evil from close interbreeding, with the consideration of the innumerable adaptations throughout nature for compelling, or favouring, or at least permitting, the occasional union of distinct individuals, taken together, lead to the conclusion that it is a law of nature that organic beings shall not fertilise themselves for perpetuity. this law was first plainly hinted at in 1799, with respect to plants, by andrew knight,[440] and, not long afterwards, that sagacious observer kölreuter, after showing how well the malvaceæ are adapted for {176} crossing, asks, "an id aliquid in recessu habeat, quod hujuscemodi flores nunquam proprio suo pulvere, sed semper eo aliarum suæ speciei impregnentur, merito quæritur? certe natura nil facit frustra." although we may demur to kölreuter's saying that nature does nothing in vain, seeing how many organic beings retain rudimentary and useless organs, yet undoubtedly the argument from the innumerable contrivances, which favour the crossing of distinct individuals of the same species, is of the greatest weight. the most important result of this law is that it leads to uniformity of character in the individuals of the same species. in the case of certain hermaphrodites, which probably intercross only at long intervals of time, and with unisexual animals inhabiting somewhat separated localities, which can only occasionally come into contact and pair, the greater vigour and fertility of the crossed offspring will ultimately prevail in giving uniformity of character to the individuals of the same species. but when we go beyond the limits of the same species, free intercrossing is barred by the law of sterility. in searching for facts which might throw light on the cause of the good effects from crossing, and of the evil effects from close interbreeding, we have seen that, on the one hand, it is a widely prevalent and ancient belief that animals and plants profit from slight changes in their condition of life; and it would appear that the germ, in a somewhat analogous manner, is more effectually stimulated by the male element, when taken from a distinct individual, and therefore slightly modified in nature, than when taken from a male having the same identical constitution. on the other hand, numerous facts have been given, showing that when animals are first subjected to captivity, even in their native land, and although allowed much liberty, their reproductive functions are often greatly impaired or quite annulled. some groups of animals are more affected than others, but with apparently capricious exceptions in every group. some animals never or rarely couple: some couple freely, but never or rarely conceive. the secondary male characters, the maternal functions and instincts, are occasionally affected. with plants, when first subjected to cultivation, analogous facts have been observed. we probably owe our double flowers, rich seedless {177} fruits, and in some cases greatly developed tubers, &c., to incipient sterility of the above nature combined with a copious supply of nutriment. animals which have long been domesticated, and plants which have long been cultivated, can generally withstand with unimpaired fertility great changes in their conditions of life; though both are sometimes slightly affected. with animals the somewhat rare capacity of breeding freely under confinement has mainly determined, together with their utility, the kinds which have been domesticated. we can in no case precisely say what is the cause of the diminished fertility of an animal when first captured, or of a plant when first cultivated; we can only infer that it is caused by a change of some kind in the natural conditions of life. the remarkable susceptibility of the reproductive system to such changes,--a susceptibility not common to any other organ,--apparently has an important bearing on variability, as we shall see in a future chapter. it is impossible not to be struck with the double parallelism between the two classes of facts just alluded to. on the one hand, slight changes in the conditions of life, and crosses between slightly modified forms or varieties, are beneficial as far as prolificness and constitutional vigour are concerned. on the other hand, changes in the conditions greater in degree, or of a different nature, and crosses between forms which have been slowly and greatly modified by natural means,--in other words, between species,--are highly injurious, as far as the reproductive system is concerned, and in some few instances as far as constitutional vigour is concerned. can this parallelism be accidental? does it not rather indicate some real bond of connection? as a fire goes out unless it be stirred up, so the vital forces are always tending, according to mr. herbert spencer, to a state of equilibrium, unless disturbed and renovated through the action of other forces. in some few cases varieties tend to keep distinct, by breeding at different periods, by great differences in size, or by sexual preference,--in this latter respect more especially resembling species in a state of nature. but the actual crossing of varieties, far from diminishing, generally adds to the fertility of both the first union and the mongrel offspring. whether all {178} the most widely distinct domestic varieties are invariably quite fertile when crossed, we do not positively know; much time and trouble would be requisite for the necessary experiments, and many difficulties occur, such as the descent of the various races from aboriginally distinct species, and the doubts whether certain forms ought to be ranked as species or varieties. nevertheless, the wide experience of practical breeders proves that the great majority of varieties, even if some should hereafter prove not to be indefinitely fertile _inter se_, are far more fertile when crossed, than the vast majority of closely allied natural species. a few remarkable cases have, however, been given on the authority of excellent observers, showing that with plants certain forms, which undoubtedly must be ranked as varieties, yield fewer seeds when crossed than is natural to the parent-species. other varieties have had their reproductive powers so far modified that they are either more or less fertile than are their parents, when crossed with a distinct species. nevertheless, the fact remains indisputable that domesticated varieties of animals and of plants, which differ greatly from each other in structure, but which are certainly descended from the same aboriginal species, such as the races of the fowl, pigeon, many vegetables, and a host of other productions, are extremely fertile when crossed; and this seems to make a broad and impassable barrier between domestic varieties and natural species. but, as i will now attempt to show, the distinction is not so great and overwhelmingly important as it at first appears. _on the difference in fertility between varieties and species when crossed._ this work is not the proper place for fully treating the subject of hybridism, and i have already given in my 'origin of species' a moderately full abstract. i will here merely enumerate the general conclusions which may be relied on, and which bear on our present point. _firstly_, the laws governing the production of hybrids are identical, or nearly identical, in the animal and vegetable kingdoms. _secondly_, the sterility of distinct species when first united, {179} and that of their hybrid offspring, graduates, by an almost infinite number of steps, from zero, when the ovule is never impregnated and a seed-capsule is never formed, up to complete fertility. we can only escape the conclusion that some species are fully fertile when crossed, by determining to designate as varieties all the forms which are quite fertile. this high degree of fertility is, however, rare. nevertheless plants, which have been exposed to unnatural conditions, sometimes become modified in so peculiar a manner, that they are much more fertile when crossed by a distinct species than when fertilised by their own pollen. success in effecting a first union between two species, and the fertility of their hybrids, depends in an eminent degree on the conditions of life being favourable. the innate sterility of hybrids of the same parentage and raised from the same seed-capsule often differs much in degree. _thirdly_, the degree of sterility of a first cross between two species does not always run strictly parallel with that of their hybrid offspring. many cases are known of species which can be crossed with ease, but yield hybrids excessively sterile; and conversely some which can be crossed with great difficulty, but produce fairly fertile hybrids. this is an inexplicable fact, on the view that species have been specially endowed with mutual sterility in order to keep them distinct. _fourthly_, the degree of sterility often differs greatly in two species when reciprocally crossed; for the first will readily fertilise the second; but the latter is incapable, after hundreds of trials, of fertilising the former. hybrids produced from reciprocal crosses between the same two species, likewise sometimes differ in their degree of sterility. these cases also are utterly inexplicable on the view of sterility being a special endowment. _fifthly_, the degree of sterility of first crosses and of hybrids runs, to a certain extent, parallel with the general or systematic affinity of the forms which are united. for species belonging to distinct genera can rarely, and those belonging to distinct families can never, be crossed. the parallelism, however, is far from complete; for a multitude of closely allied species will not unite, or unite with extreme difficulty, whilst other species, widely different from each other, can be crossed with perfect facility. nor does the difficulty depend on ordinary {180} constitutional differences, for annual and perennial plants, deciduous and evergreen trees, plants flowering at different seasons, inhabiting different stations, and naturally living under the most opposite climates, can often be crossed with ease. the difficulty or facility apparently depends exclusively on the sexual constitution of the species which are crossed; or on their sexual elective affinity, _i. e._ _wahlverwandtschaft_ of gärtner. as species rarely or never become modified in one character, without being at the same time modified in many, and as systematic affinity includes all visible resemblances and dissimilarities, any difference in sexual constitution between two species would naturally stand in more or less close relation with their systematic position. _sixthly_, the sterility of species when first crossed, and that of hybrids, may possibly depend to a certain extent on distinct causes. with pure species the reproductive organs are in a perfect condition, whilst with hybrids they are often plainly deteriorated. a hybrid embryo which partakes of the constitution of its father and mother is exposed to unnatural conditions, as long as it is nourished within the womb, or egg, or seed of the mother-form; and as we know that unnatural conditions often induce sterility, the reproductive organs of the hybrid might at this early age be permanently affected. but this cause has no bearing on the infertility of first unions. the diminished number of the offspring from first unions may often result, as is certainly sometimes the case, from the premature death of most of the hybrid embryos. but we shall immediately see that a law of an unknown nature apparently exists, which causes the offspring from unions, which are infertile, to be themselves more or less infertile; and this at present is all that can be said. _seventhly_, hybrids and mongrels present, with the one great exception of fertility, the most striking accordance in all other respects; namely, in the laws of their resemblance to their two parents, in their tendency to reversion, in their variability, and in being absorbed through repeated crosses by either parent-form. since arriving at the foregoing conclusions, condensed from my former work, i have been led to investigate a subject which throws considerable light on hybridism, namely, the fertility of {181} reciprocally dimorphic and trimorphic plants, when illegitimately united. i have had occasion several times to allude to these plants, and i may here give a brief abstract[441] of my observations. several plants belonging to distinct orders present two forms, which exist in about equal numbers, and which differ in no respect except in their reproductive organs; one form having a long pistil with short stamens, the other a short pistil with long stamens; both with differently sized pollen-grains. with trimorphic plants there are three forms likewise differing in the lengths of their pistils and stamens, in the size and colour of the pollen-grains, and in some other respects; and as in each of the three forms there are two sets of stamens, there are altogether six sets of stamens and three kinds of pistils. these organs are so proportioned in length to each other that, in any two of the forms, half the stamens in each stand on a level with the stigma of the third form. now i have shown, and the result has been confirmed by other observers, that, in order to obtain full fertility with these plants, it is necessary that the stigma of the one form should be fertilised by pollen taken from the stamens of corresponding height in the other form. so that with dimorphic species two unions, which may be called legitimate, are fully fertile, and two, which may be called illegitimate, are more or less infertile. with trimorphic species six unions are legitimate or fully fertile, and twelve are illegitimate or more or less infertile. the infertility which may be observed in various dimorphic and trimorphic plants, when they are illegitimately fertilised, that is, by pollen taken from stamens not corresponding in height with the pistil, differs much in degree, up to absolute and utter sterility; just in the same manner as occurs in crossing distinct species. as the degree of sterility in the latter case depends in an eminent degree on the conditions of life being more or less favourable, so i have found it with illegitimate unions. it is well known that if pollen of a distinct species be placed on the stigma of a flower, and its own pollen be afterwards, even {182} after a considerable interval of time, placed on the same stigma, its action is so strongly prepotent that it generally annihilates the effect of the foreign pollen; so it is with the pollen of the several forms of the same species, for legitimate pollen is strongly prepotent over illegitimate pollen, when both are placed on the same stigma. i ascertained this by fertilising several flowers, first illegitimately, and twenty-four hours afterwards legitimately, with pollen taken from a peculiarly coloured variety, and all the seedlings were similarly coloured; this shows that the legitimate pollen, though applied twenty-four hours subsequently, had wholly destroyed or prevented the action of the previously applied illegitimate pollen. again, as, in making reciprocal crosses between the same two species, there is occasionally a great difference in the result, so something analogous occurs with dimorphic plants; for a short-styled cowslip (_p. veris_) yields more seed when fertilised by the long-styled form, and less seed when fertilised by its own form, compared with a long-styled cowslip when fertilised in the two corresponding methods. in all these respects the forms of the same undoubted species, when illegitimately united, behave in exactly the same manner as do two distinct species when crossed. this led me carefully to observe during four years many seedlings, raised from several illegitimate unions. the chief result is that these illegitimate plants, as they may be called, are not fully fertile. it is possible to raise from dimorphic species, both long-styled and short-styled illegitimate plants, and from trimorphic plants all three illegitimate forms. these can then be properly united in a legitimate manner. when this is done, there is no apparent reason why they should not yield as many seeds as did their parents when legitimately fertilised. but such is not the case; they are all infertile, but in various degrees; some being so utterly and incurably sterile that they did not yield during four seasons a single seed or even seed-capsule. these illegitimate plants, which are so sterile, although united with each other in a legitimate manner, may be strictly compared with hybrids when crossed _inter se_, and it is well known how sterile these latter generally are. when, on the other hand, a hybrid is crossed with either pure parent-species, the sterility is usually much lessened: and so it is when an illegitimate plant is fertilised by {183} a legitimate plant. in the same manner as the sterility of hybrids does not always run parallel with the difficulty of making the first cross between the two parent species, so the sterility of certain illegitimate plants was unusually great, whilst the sterility of the union from which they were derived was by no means great. with hybrids raised from the same seed-capsule the degree of sterility is innately variable, so it is in a marked manner with illegitimate plants. lastly, many hybrids are profuse and persistent flowerers, whilst other and more sterile hybrids produce few flowers, and are weak, miserable dwarfs; exactly similar cases occur with the illegitimate offspring of various dimorphic and trimorphic plants. altogether there is the closest identity in character and behaviour between illegitimate plants and hybrids. it is hardly an exaggeration to maintain that the former are hybrids, but produced within the limits of the same species by the improper union of certain forms, whilst ordinary hybrids are produced from an improper union between so-called distinct species. we have already seen that there is the closest similarity in all respects between first illegitimate unions, and first crosses between distinct species. this will perhaps be made more fully apparent by an illustration: we may suppose that a botanist found two well-marked varieties (and such occur) of the long-styled form of the trimorphic _lythrum salicaria_, and that he determined to try by crossing whether they were specifically distinct. he would find that they yielded only about one-fifth of the proper number of seed, and that they behaved in all the other above-specified respects as if they had been two distinct species. but to make the case sure, he would raise plants from his supposed hybridised seed, and he would find that the seedlings were miserably dwarfed and utterly sterile, and that they behaved in all other respects like ordinary hybrids. he might then maintain that he had actually proved, in accordance with the common view, that his two varieties were as good and as distinct species as any in the world; but he would be completely mistaken. the facts now given on dimorphic and trimorphic plants are important, because they show us, firstly, that the physiological {184} test of lessened fertility, both in first crosses and in hybrids, is no safe criterion of specific distinction; secondly, because we may conclude that there must be some unknown law or bond connecting the infertility of illegitimate unions with that of their illegitimate offspring, and we are thus led to extend this view to first crosses and hybrids; thirdly, because we find, and this seems to me of especial importance, that with trimorphic plants three forms of the same species exist, which when crossed in a particular manner are infertile, and yet these forms differ in no respect from each other, except in their reproductive organs,--as in the relative length of the stamens and pistils, in the size, form, and colour of the pollen-grains, in the structure of the stigma, and in, the number and size of the seeds. with these differences and no others, either in organisation or constitution, we find that the illegitimate unions and the illegitimate progeny of these three forms are more or less sterile, and closely resemble in a whole series of relations the first unions and hybrid offspring of distinct species. from this we may infer that the sterility of species when crossed and of their hybrid progeny is likewise in all probability exclusively due to differences confined to the reproductive system. we have indeed been brought to a similar conclusion by observing that the sterility of crossed species does not strictly coincide with their systematic affinity, that is, with the sum of their external resemblances; nor does it coincide with their similarity in general constitution. but we are more especially led to this same conclusion by considering reciprocal crosses, in which the male of one species cannot be united, or can be united with extreme difficulty, with the female of a second species, whilst the converse cross can be effected with perfect facility; for this difference in the facility of making reciprocal crosses, and in the fertility of their offspring, must be attributed either to the male or female element in the first species having been differentiated with reference to the sexual element of the second species in a higher degree than in the converse case. in so complex a subject as hybridism it is of considerable importance thus to arrive at a definitive conclusion, namely, that the sterility which almost invariably follows the union of distinct {185} species depends exclusively on differences in their sexual constitution. * * * * * on the principle which makes it necessary for man, whilst he is selecting and improving his domestic varieties, to keep them separate, it would clearly be advantageous to varieties in a state of nature, that is to incipient species, if they could be kept from blending, either through sexual aversion, or by becoming mutually sterile. hence it at one time appeared to me probable, as it has to others, that this sterility might have been acquired through natural selection. on this view we must suppose that a shade of lessened fertility first spontaneously appeared, like any other modification, in certain individuals of a species when crossed with other individuals of the same species; and that successive slight degrees of infertility, from being advantageous, were slowly accumulated. this appears all the more probable, if we admit that the structural differences between the forms of dimorphic and trimorphic plants, as the length and curvature of the pistil, &c., have been co-adapted through natural selection; for if this be admitted, we can hardly avoid extending the same conclusion to their mutual infertility. sterility moreover has been acquired through natural selection for other and widely different purposes, as with neuter insects in reference to their social economy. in the case of plants, the flowers on the circumference of the truss in the guelder-rose (_viburnum opulus_) and those on the summit of the spike in the feather-hyacinth (_muscari comosum_) have been rendered conspicuous, and apparently in consequence sterile, in order that insects might easily discover and visit the other flowers. but when we endeavour to apply the principle of natural selection to the acquirement by distinct species of mutual sterility, we meet with great difficulties. in the first place, it may be remarked that separate regions are often inhabited by groups of species or by single species, which when brought together and crossed are found to be more or less sterile; now it could clearly have been of no advantage to such separated species to have been rendered mutually sterile, and consequently this could not have been effected through natural selection; but it may perhaps be argued, that, if a species were rendered sterile with {186} some one compatriot, sterility with other species would follow as a necessary consequence. in the second place, it is as much opposed to the theory of natural selection, as to the theory of special creation, that in reciprocal crosses the male element of one form should have been rendered utterly impotent on a second form, whilst at the same time the male element of this second form is enabled freely to fertilise the first form; for this peculiar state of the reproductive system could not possibly be advantageous to either species. in considering the probability of natural selection having come into action in rendering species mutually sterile, one great difficulty will be found to lie in the existence of many graduated steps from slightly lessened fertility to absolute sterility. it may be admitted, on the principle above explained, that it would profit an incipient species if it were rendered in some slight degree sterile when crossed with its parent-form or with some other variety; for thus fewer bastardised and deteriorated offspring would be produced to commingle their blood with the new species in process of formation. but he who will take the trouble to reflect on the steps by which this first degree of sterility could be increased through natural selection to that higher degree which is common to so many species, and which is universal with species which have been differentiated to a generic or family rank, will find the subject extraordinarily complex. after mature reflection it seems to me that this could not have been effected through natural selection; for it could have been of no direct advantage to an individual animal to breed badly with another individual of a different variety, and thus leave few offspring; consequently such individuals could not have been preserved or selected. or take the case of two species which in their present state, when crossed, produce few and sterile offspring; now, what is there which could favour the survival of those individuals which happened to be endowed in a slightly higher degree with mutual infertility and which thus approached by one small step towards absolute sterility? yet an advance of this kind, if the theory of natural selection be brought to bear, must have incessantly occurred with many species, for a multitude are mutually quite barren. with sterile neuter insects we have reason to {187} believe that modifications in their structure have been slowly accumulated by natural selection, from an advantage having been thus indirectly given to the community to which they belonged over other communities of the same species; but an individual animal, if rendered slightly sterile when crossed with some other variety, would not thus in itself gain any advantage, or indirectly give any advantage to its nearest relatives or to other individuals of the same variety, leading to their preservation. i infer from these considerations that, as far as animals are concerned, the various degrees of lessened fertility which occur with species when crossed cannot have been slowly accumulated by means of natural selection. with plants, it is possible that the case may be somewhat different. with many kinds, insects constantly carry pollen from neighbouring plants to the stigmas of each flower; and with some species this is effected by the wind. now, if the pollen of a variety, when deposited on the stigma of the same variety, should become by spontaneous variation in ever so slight a degree prepotent over the pollen of other varieties, this would certainly be an advantage to the variety; for its own pollen would thus obliterate the effects of the pollen of other varieties, and prevent deterioration of character. and the more prepotent the variety's own pollen could be rendered through natural selection, the greater the advantage would be. we know from the researches of gärtner that, with species which are mutually sterile, the pollen of each is always prepotent on its own stigma over that of the other species; but we do not know whether this prepotency is a consequence of the mutual sterility, or the sterility a consequence of the prepotency. if the latter view be correct, as the prepotency became stronger through natural selection, from being advantageous to a species in process of formation, so the sterility consequent on prepotency would at the same time be augmented; and the final result would be various degrees of sterility, such as occurs with existing species. this view might be extended to animals, if the female before each birth received several males, so that the sexual element of the prepotent male of her own variety obliterated the effects of the access of previous males belonging to other varieties; but we have no reason to believe, at least {188} with terrestrial animals, that this is the ease; as most males and females pair for each birth, and some few for life. on the whole we may conclude that with animals the sterility of crossed species has not been slowly augmented through natural selection; and as this sterility follows the same general laws in the vegetable as in the animal kingdom, it is improbable, though apparently possible, that with plants crossed species should have been rendered sterile by a different process. from this consideration, and remembering that species which have never co-existed in the same country, and which therefore could not have received any advantage from having been rendered mutually infertile, yet are generally sterile when crossed; and bearing in mind that in reciprocal crosses between the same two species there is sometimes the widest difference in their sterility, we must give up the belief that natural selection has come into play. as species have not been rendered mutually infertile through the accumulative action of natural selection, and as we may safely conclude, from the previous as well as from other and more general considerations, that they have not been endowed through an act of creation with this quality, we must infer that it has arisen incidentally during their slow formation in connection with other and unknown changes in their organisation. by a quality arising incidentally, i refer to such cases as different species of animals and plants being differently affected by poisons to which they are not naturally exposed; and this difference in susceptibility is clearly incidental on other and unknown differences in their organisation. so again the capacity in different kinds of trees to be grafted on each other, or on a third species, differs much, and is of no advantage to these trees, but is incidental on structural or functional differences in their woody tissues. we need not feel surprise at sterility incidentally resulting from crosses between distinct species,--the modified descendants of a common progenitor,--when we bear in mind how easily the reproductive system is affected by various causes--often by extremely slight changes in the conditions of life, by too close interbreeding, and by other agencies. it is well to bear in mind such cases, as that of the _passiflora alata_, which recovered its self-fertility from {189} being grafted on a distinct species--the cases of plants which normally or abnormally are self-impotent, but can readily be fertilised by the pollen of a distinct species--and lastly the cases of individual domesticated animals which evince towards each other sexual incompatibility. * * * * * we now at last come to the immediate point under discussion: how is it that, with some few exceptions in the case of plants, domesticated varieties, such as those of the dog, fowl, pigeon, several fruit-trees, and culinary vegetables, which differ from each other in external characters more than many species, are perfectly fertile when crossed, or even fertile in excess, whilst closely allied species are almost invariably in some degree sterile? we can, to a certain extent, give a satisfactory answer to this question. passing over the fact that the amount of external difference between two species is no sure guide to their degree of mutual sterility, so that similar differences in the case of varieties would be no sure guide, we know that with species the cause lies exclusively in differences in their sexual constitution. now the conditions to which domesticated animals and cultivated plants have been subjected, have had so little tendency towards modifying the reproductive system in a manner leading to mutual sterility, that we have good grounds for admitting the directly opposite doctrine of pallas, namely, that such conditions generally eliminate this tendency; so that the domesticated descendants of species, which in their natural state would have been in some degree sterile when crossed, become perfectly fertile together. with plants, so far is cultivation from giving a tendency towards mutual sterility, that in several well-authenticated cases, already often alluded to, certain species have been affected in a very different manner, for they have become self-impotent, whilst still retaining the capacity of fertilising, and being fertilised by, distinct species. if the pallasian doctrine of the elimination of sterility through long-continued domestication be admitted, and it can hardly be rejected, it becomes in the highest degree improbable that similar circumstances should commonly both induce and eliminate the same tendency; though in certain cases, with species having a peculiar constitution, sterility might occasionally be thus {190} induced. thus, as i believe, we can understand why with domesticated animals varieties have not been produced which are mutually sterile; and why with plants only a few such cases have been observed, namely, by gärtner, with certain varieties of maize and verbascum, by other experimentalists with varieties of the gourd and melon, and by kölreuter with one kind of tobacco. with respect to varieties which have originated in a state of nature, it is almost hopeless to expect to prove by direct evidence that they have been rendered mutually sterile; for if even a trace of sterility could be detected, such varieties would at once be raised by almost every naturalist to the rank of distinct species. if, for instance, gärtner's statement were fully confirmed, that the blue and red-flowered forms of the pimpernel (_anagallis arvensis_) are sterile when crossed, i presume that all the botanists who now maintain on various grounds that these two forms are merely fleeting varieties, would at once admit that they were specifically distinct. the real difficulty in our present subject is not, as it appears to me, why domestic varieties have not become mutually infertile when crossed, but why this has so generally occurred with natural varieties as soon as they have been modified in a sufficient and permanent degree to take rank as species. we are far from precisely knowing the cause; nor is this surprising, seeing how profoundly ignorant we are in regard to the normal and abnormal action of the reproductive system. but we can see that species, owing to their struggle for life with numerous competitors, must have been exposed to more uniform conditions during long periods of time, than have been domestic varieties; and this may well make a wide difference in the result. for we know how commonly wild animals and plants, when taken from their natural conditions and subjected to captivity, are rendered sterile; and the reproductive functions of organic beings which have always lived and been slowly modified under natural conditions would probably in like manner be eminently sensitive to the influence of an unnatural cross. domesticated productions, on the other hand, which, as shown by the mere fact of their domestication, were not originally highly sensitive to changes in their conditions of life, and which can now generally resist {191} with undiminished fertility repeated changes of conditions, might be expected to produce varieties, which would be little liable to have their reproductive powers injuriously affected by the act of crossing with other varieties which had originated in a like manner. certain naturalists have recently laid too great stress, as it appears to me, on the difference in fertility between varieties and species when crossed. some allied species of trees cannot be grafted on each other,--all varieties can be so grafted. some allied animals are affected in a very different manner by the same poison, but with varieties no such case until recently was known, but now it has been proved that immunity from certain poisons stands in some cases in correlation with the colour of the hair. the period of gestation generally differs much with distinct species, but with varieties until lately no such difference had been observed. the time required for the germination of seeds differs in an analogous manner, and i am not aware that any difference in this respect has as yet been detected with varieties. here we have various physiological differences, and no doubt others could be added, between one species and another of the same genus, which do not occur, or occur with extreme rarity, in the case of varieties; and these differences are apparently wholly or in chief part incidental on other constitutional differences, just in the same manner as the sterility of crossed species is incidental on differences confined to the sexual system. why, then, should these latter differences, however serviceable they may indirectly be in keeping the inhabitants of the same country distinct, be thought of such paramount importance, in comparison with other incidental and functional differences? no sufficient answer to this question can be given. hence the fact that the most distinct domestic varieties are, with rare exceptions, perfectly fertile when crossed, and produce fertile offspring, whilst closely allied species are, with rare exceptions, more or less sterile, is not nearly so formidable an objection as it appears at first to the theory of the common descent of allied species. * * * * * {192} chapter xx. selection by man. selection a difficult art--methodical, unconscious, and natural selection--results of methodical selection--care taken in selection--selection with plants--selection carried on by the ancients, and by semi-civilized people--unimportant characters often attended to--unconscious selection--as circumstances slowly change, so have our domesticated animals changed through the action of unconscious selection--influence of different breeders on the same sub-variety--plants as affected by unconscious selection--effects of selection as shown by the great amount of difference in the parts most valued by man. the power of selection, whether exercised by man, or brought into play under nature through the struggle for existence and the consequent survival of the fittest, absolutely depends on the variability of organic beings. without variability nothing can be effected; slight individual differences, however, suffice for the work, and are probably the sole differences which are effective in the production of new species. hence our discussion on the causes and laws of variability ought in strict order to have preceded our present subject, as well as the previous subjects of inheritance, crossing, &c.; but practically the present arrangement has been found the most convenient. man does not attempt to cause variability; though he unintentionally effects this by exposing organisms to new conditions of life, and by crossing breeds already formed. but variability being granted, he works wonders. unless some degree of selection be exercised, the free commingling of the individuals of the same variety soon obliterates, as we have previously seen, the slight differences which may arise, and gives to the whole body of individuals uniformity of character. in separated districts, long-continued exposure to different conditions of life may perhaps produce new races without the aid of selection; but to this difficult subject {193} of the direct action of the conditions of life we shall in a future chapter recur. when animals or plants are born with some conspicuous and firmly inherited new character, selection is reduced to the preservation of such individuals, and to the subsequent prevention of crosses; so that nothing more need be said on the subject. but in the great majority of cases a new character, or some superiority in an old character, is at first faintly pronounced, and is not strongly inherited; and then the full difficulty of selection is experienced. indomitable patience, the finest powers of discrimination, and sound judgment must be exercised during many years. a clearly predetermined object must be kept steadily in view. few men are endowed with all these qualities, especially with that of discriminating very slight differences; judgment can be acquired only by long experience; but if any of these qualities be wanting, the labour of a life may be thrown away. i have been astonished when celebrated breeders, whose skill and judgment have been proved by their success at exhibitions, have shown me their animals, which appeared all alike, and have assigned their reasons for matching this and that individual. the importance of the great principle of selection mainly lies in this power of selecting scarcely appreciable differences, which nevertheless are found to be transmissible, and which can be accumulated until the result is made manifest to the eyes of every beholder. the principle of selection may be conveniently divided into three kinds. _methodical selection_ is that which guides a man who systematically endeavours to modify a breed according to some predetermined standard. _unconscious selection_ is that which follows from men naturally preserving the most valued and destroying the less valued individuals, without any thought of altering the breed; and undoubtedly this process slowly works great changes. unconscious selection graduates into methodical, and only extreme cases can be distinctly separated; for he who preserves a useful or perfect animal will generally breed from it with the hope of getting offspring of the same character; but as long as he has not a predetermined purpose to improve the breed, he may be said to be selecting {194} unconsciously.[442] lastly, we have _natural selection_, which implies that the individuals which are best fitted for the complex, and in the course of ages changing conditions to which they are exposed, generally survive and procreate their kind. with domestic productions, with which alone we are here strictly concerned, natural selection comes to a certain extent into action, independently of, and even in opposition to, the will of man. * * * * * _methodical selection._--what man has effected within recent times in england by methodical selection is clearly shown by our exhibitions of improved quadrupeds and fancy birds. with respect to cattle, sheep, and pigs, we owe their great improvement to a long series of well-known names--bakewell, colling, ellman, bates, jonas webb, lords leicester and western, fisher hobbs, and others. agricultural writers are unanimous on the power of selection: any number of statements to this effect could be quoted; a few will suffice. youatt, a sagacious and experienced observer, writes,[443] the principle of selection is "that which enables the agriculturist, not only to modify the character of his flock, but to change it altogether." a great breeder of shorthorns[444] says, "in the anatomy of the shoulder modern breeders have made great improvements on the ketton shorthorns by correcting the defect in the knuckle or shoulder-joint, and by laying the top of the shoulder more snugly into the crop, and thereby filling up the hollow behind it.... the eye has its fashion at different periods: at one time the eye high and outstanding from the head, and at another time the sleepy eye sunk into the head; but these extremes have merged into the medium of a full, clear, and prominent eye with a placid look." again, hear what an excellent judge of pigs[445] says: "the legs {195} should be no longer than just to prevent the animal's belly from trailing on the ground. the leg is the least profitable portion of the hog, and we therefore require no more of it than is absolutely necessary for the support of the rest." let any one compare the wild-boar with any improved breed, and he will see how effectually the legs have been shortened. few persons, except breeders, are aware of the systematic care taken in selecting animals, and of the necessity of having a clear and almost prophetic vision into futurity. lord spencer's skill and judgment were well known; and he writes,[446] "it is therefore very desirable, before any man commences to breed either cattle or sheep, that he should make up his mind to the shape and qualities he wishes to obtain, and steadily pursue this object." lord somerville, in speaking of the marvellous improvement of the new leicester sheep, effected by bakewell and his successors, says, "it would seem as if they had first drawn a perfect form, and then given it life." youatt[447] urges the necessity of annually drafting each flock, as many animals will certainly degenerate "from the standard of excellence, which the breeder has established in his own mind." even with a bird of such little importance as the canary, long ago (1780-1790) rules were established, and a standard of perfection was fixed, according to which the london fanciers tried to breed the several sub-varieties.[448] a great winner of prizes at the pigeon-shows,[449] in describing the short-faced almond tumbler, says, "there are many first-rate fanciers who are particularly partial to what is called the goldfinch-beak, which is very beautiful; others say, take a full-size round cherry, then take a barley-corn, and judiciously placing and thrusting it into the cherry, form as it were your beak; and that is not all, for it will form a good head and beak, provided, as i said before, it is judiciously done; others take an oat; but as i think the goldfinch-beak the handsomest, i would advise the inexperienced fancier to get the head of a goldfinch, and keep it by him for his observation." wonderfully different as is the beak of the rock-pigeon and goldfinch, undoubtedly, as far as {196} external shape and proportions are concerned, the end has been nearly gained. not only should our animals be examined with the greatest care whilst alive, but, as anderson remarks,[450] their carcases should be scrutinised, "so as to breed from the descendants of such only as, in the language of the butcher, cut up well." the "grain of the meat" in cattle, and its being well marbled with fat,[451] and the greater or less accumulation of fat in the abdomen of our sheep, have been attended to with success. so with poultry, a writer,[452] speaking of cochin-china fowls, which are said to differ much in the quality of their flesh, says, "the best mode is to purchase two young brother-cocks, kill, dress, and serve up one; if he be indifferent, similarly dispose of the other, and try again; if, however, he be fine and well-flavoured, his brother will not be amiss for breeding purposes for the table." the great principle of the division of labour has been brought to bear on selection. in certain districts[453] "the breeding of bulls is confined to a very limited number of persons, who by devoting their whole attention to this department, are able from year to year to furnish a class of bulls which are steadily improving the general breed of the district." the rearing and letting of choice rams has long been, as is well known, a chief source of profit to several eminent breeders. in parts of germany this principle is carried with merino sheep to an extreme point.[454] "so important is the proper selection of breeding animals considered, that the best flock-masters do not trust to their own judgment, or to that of their shepherds, but employ persons called 'sheep-classifiers,' who make it their special business to attend to this part of the management of several flocks, and thus to preserve, or if possible to improve, the best qualities of both parents in the lambs." in saxony, "when the lambs are weaned, each in his turn is placed upon a table that his wool and form may be minutely observed. {197} the finest are selected for breeding and receive a first mark. when they are one year old, and prior to shearing them, another close examination of those previously marked takes place: those in which no defect can be found receive a second mark, and the rest are condemned. a few months afterwards a third and last scrutiny is made; the prime rams and ewes receive a third and final mark, but the slightest blemish is sufficient to cause the rejection of the animal." these sheep are bred and valued almost exclusively for the fineness of their wool; and the result corresponds with the labour bestowed on their selection. instruments have been invented to measure accurately the thickness of the fibres; and "an austrian fleece has been produced of which twelve hairs equalled in thickness one from a leicester sheep." throughout the world, wherever silk is produced, the greatest care is bestowed on selecting the cocoons from which the moths for breeding are to be reared. a careful cultivator[455] likewise examines the moths themselves, and destroys those that are not perfect. but what more immediately concerns us is that certain families in france devote themselves to raising eggs for sale.[456] in china, near shanghai, the inhabitants of two small districts have the privilege of raising eggs for the whole surrounding country, and that they may give up their whole time to this business, they are interdicted by law from producing silk.[457] the care which successful breeders take in matching their birds is surprising. sir john sebright, whose fame is perpetuated by the "sebright bantam," used to spend "two and three days in examining, consulting, and disputing with a friend which were the best of five or six birds."[458] mr. bult, whose pouter-pigeons won so many prizes and were exported to north america under the charge of a man sent on purpose, told me that he always deliberated for several days before he matched each pair. hence we can understand the advice of an eminent fancier, who writes,[459] "i would here particularly guard {198} you against having too great a variety of pigeons, otherwise you will know a little of all, but nothing about one as it ought to be known." apparently it transcends the power of the human intellect to breed all kinds: "it is possible that there may be a few fanciers that have a good general knowledge of fancy pigeons; but there are many more who labour under the delusion of supposing they know what they do not." the excellence of one sub-variety, the almond tumbler, lies in the plumage, carriage, head, beak, and eye; but it is too presumptuous in the beginner to try for all these points. the great judge above quoted says, "there are some young fanciers who are over-covetous, who go for all the above five properties at once; they have their reward by getting nothing." we thus see that breeding even fancy pigeons is no simple art: we may smile at the solemnity of these precepts, but he who laughs will win no prizes. what methodical selection has effected for our animals is sufficiently proved, as already remarked, by our exhibitions. so greatly were the sheep belonging to some of the earlier breeders, such as bakewell and lord western, changed, that many persons could not be persuaded that they had not been crossed. our pigs, as mr. corringham remarks,[460] during the last twenty years have undergone, through rigorous selection together with crossing, a complete metamorphosis. the first exhibition for poultry was held in the zoological gardens in 1845; and the improvement effected since that time has been great. as mr. baily, the great judge, remarked to me, it was formerly ordered that the comb of the spanish cock should be upright, and in four or five years all good birds had upright combs; it was ordered that the polish cock should have no comb or wattles, and now a bird thus furnished would be at once disqualified; beards were ordered, and out of fifty-seven pens lately (1860) exhibited at the crystal palace, all had beards. so it has been in many other cases. but in all cases the judges order only what is occasionally produced and what can be improved and rendered constant by selection. the steady increase of weight during the last few years in our {199} fowls, turkeys, ducks, and geese is notorious; "six-pound ducks are now common, whereas four pounds was formerly the average." as the actual time required to make a change has not often been recorded, it may be worth mentioning that it took mr. wicking thirteen years to put a clean white head on an almond tumbler's body, "a triumph," says another fancier, "of which he may be justly proud."[461] mr. tollet, of betley hall, selected cows, and especially bulls, descended from good milkers, for the sole purpose of improving his cattle for the production of cheese; he steadily tested the milk with the lactometer, and in eight years he increased, as i was informed by him, the product in the proportion of four to three. here is a curious case[462] of steady but slow progress, with the end not as yet fully attained: in 1784 a race of silkworms was introduced into france, in which one hundred out of the thousand failed to produce white cocoons; but now, after careful selection during sixty-five generations, the proportion of yellow cocoons has been reduced to thirty-five in the thousand. with plants selection has been followed with the same good results as with animals. but the process is simpler, for plants in the great majority of cases bear both sexes. nevertheless, with most kinds it is necessary to take as much care to prevent crosses as with animals or unisexual plants; but with some plants, such as peas, this care does not seem to be necessary. with all improved plants, excepting of course those which are propagated by buds, cuttings, &c., it is almost indispensable to examine the seedlings and destroy those which depart from the proper type. this is called "roguing," and is, in fact, a form of selection, like the rejection of inferior animals. experienced horticulturists and agriculturists incessantly urge every one to preserve the finest plants for the production of seed. although plants often present much more conspicuous variations than animals, yet the closest attention is generally requisite to detect each slight and favourable change. mr. masters relates[463] how "many a patient hour was devoted," whilst he was {200} young, to the detection of differences in peas intended for seed. mr. barnet[464] remarks that the old scarlet american strawberry was cultivated for more than a century without producing a single variety; and another writer observes how singular it was that when gardeners first began to attend to this fruit it began to vary; the truth no doubt being that it had always varied, but that, until slight varieties were selected and propagated by seed, no conspicuous result was obtained. the finest shades of difference in wheat have been discriminated and selected with almost as much care, as we see in colonel le couteur's works, as in the case of the higher animals; but with our cereals the process of selection has seldom or never been long continued. it may be worth while to give a few examples of methodical selection with plants; but in fact the great improvement of all our anciently cultivated plants may be attributed to selection long carried on, in part methodically, and in part unconsciously. i have shown in a former chapter how the weight of the gooseberry has been increased by systematic selection and culture. the flowers of the heartsease have been similarly increased in size and regularity of outline. with the cineraria, mr. glenny[465] "was bold enough, when the flowers were ragged and starry and ill defined in colour, to fix a standard which was then considered outrageously high and impossible, and which, even if reached, it was said, we should be no gainers by, as it would spoil the beauty of the flowers. he maintained that he was right; and the event has proved it to be so." the doubling of flowers has several times been effected by careful selection: the rev. w. williamson,[466] after sowing during several years seed of _anemone coronaria_, found a plant with one additional petal; he sowed the seed of this, and by perseverance in the same course obtained several varieties with six or seven rows of petals. the single scotch rose was doubled, and yielded eight good varieties in nine or ten years.[467] the canterbury bell (_campanula medium_) was doubled by careful selection in four generations.[468] in four years mr. buckman,[469] by culture and {201} careful selection, converted parsnips, raised from wild seed, into a new and good variety. by selection during a long course of years, the early maturity of peas has been hastened from ten to twenty-one days.[470] a more curious case is offered by the beet-plant, which, since its cultivation in france, has almost exactly doubled its yield of sugar. this has been effected by the most careful selection; the specific gravity of the roots being regularly tested, and the best roots saved for the production of seed.[471] _selection by ancient and semi-civilised people._ in attributing so much importance to the selection of animals and plants, it may be objected that methodical selection would not have been carried on during ancient times. a distinguished naturalist considers it as absurd to suppose that semi-civilised people should have practised selection of any kind. undoubtedly the principle has been systematically acknowledged and followed to a far greater extent within the last hundred years than at any former period, and a corresponding result has been gained; but it would be a great error to suppose, as we shall immediately see, that its importance was not recognised and acted on during the most ancient times, and by semi-civilised people. i should premise that many facts now to be given only show that care was taken in breeding; but when this is the case, selection is almost sure to be practised to a certain extent. we shall hereafter be enabled better to judge how far selection, when only occasionally carried on, by a few of the inhabitants of a country, will slowly produce a great effect. in a well-known passage in the thirtieth chapter of genesis, rules are given for influencing, as was then thought possible, the colour of sheep; and speckled and dark breeds are spoken of as being kept separate. by the time of david the fleece was likened to snow. youatt,[472] who has discussed all the passages in relation to breeding in the old testament, concludes that {202} at this early period "some of the best principles of breeding must have been steadily and long pursued." it was ordered, according to moses, that "thou shalt not let thy cattle gender with a diverse kind;" but mules were purchased,[473] so that at this early period other nations must have crossed the horse and ass. it is said[474] that erichthonius, some generations before the trojan war, had many brood-mares, "which by his care and judgment in the choice of stallions produced a breed of horses superior to any in the surrounding countries." homer (book v.) speaks of æneas's horses as bred from mares which were put to the steeds of laomedon. plato, in his 'republic,' says to glaucus, "i see that you raise at your house a great many dogs for the chase. do you take care about breeding and pairing them? among animals of good blood, are there not always some which are superior to the rest?" to which glaucus answers in the affirmative.[475] alexander the great selected the finest indian cattle to send to macedonia to improve the breed.[476] according to pliny,[477] king pyrrhus had an especially valuable breed of oxen; and he did not suffer the bulls and cows to come together till four years old, that the breed might not degenerate. virgil, in his georgics (lib. iii.), gives as strong advice as any modern agriculturist could do, carefully to select the breeding stock; "to note the tribe, the lineage, and the sire; whom to reserve for husband of the herd;"--to brand the progeny;--to select sheep of the purest white, and to examine if their tongues are swarthy. we have seen that the romans kept pedigrees of their pigeons, and this would have been a senseless proceeding had not great care been taken in breeding them. columella gives detailed instructions about breeding fowls: "let the breeding hens therefore be of a choice colour, a robust body, square-built, full-breasted, with large heads, with upright and bright-red combs. those are believed to be the best bred which have five toes."[478] according to tacitus, the celts attended to the races of their domestic animals; {203} and cæsar states that they paid high prices to merchants for fine imported horses.[479] in regard to plants, virgil speaks of yearly culling the largest seeds; and celsus says, "where the corn and crop is but small, we must pick out the best ears of corn, and of them lay up our seed separately by itself."[480] coming down the stream of time, we may be brief. at about the beginning of the ninth century charlemagne expressly ordered his officers to take great care of his stallions; and if any proved bad or old, to forewarn him in good time before they were put to the mares.[481] even in a country so little civilised as ireland during the ninth century, it would appear from some ancient verses,[482] describing a ransom demanded by cormac, that animals from particular places, or having a particular character, were valued. thus it is said,- two pigs of the pigs of mac lir, a ram and ewe both round and red, i brought with me from aengus. i brought with me a stallion and a mare from the beautiful stud of manannan, a bull and a white cow from druim cain. athelstan, in 930, received as a present from germany, running-horses; and he prohibited the exportation of english horses. king john imported "one hundred chosen stallions from flanders."[483] on june 16th, 1305, the prince of wales wrote to the archbishop of canterbury, begging for the loan of any choice stallion, and promising its return at the end of the season.[484] there are numerous records at ancient periods in english history of the importation of choice animals of various kinds, and of foolish laws against their exportation. in the reigns of henry vii. and viii. it was ordered that the magistrates, at michaelmas, should scour the heaths and commons, and destroy all mares beneath a certain size.[485] some of our earlier kings passed laws against the slaughtering rams of any good breed before they were seven years old, so that they {204} might have time to breed. in spain cardinal ximenes issued, in 1509, regulations on the _selection_ of good rams for breeding.[486] the emperor akbar khan before the year 1600 is said to have "wonderfully improved" his pigeons by crossing the breeds; and this necessarily implies careful selection. about the same period the dutch attended with the greatest care to the breeding of these birds. belon in 1555 says that good managers in france examined the colour of their goslings in order to get geese of a white colour and better kinds. markham in 1631 tells the breeder "to elect the largest and goodliest conies," and enters into minute details. even with respect to seeds of plants for the flower-garden, sir j. hanmer writing about the year 1660[487] says, in "choosing seed, the best seed is the most weighty, and is had from the lustiest and most vigorous stems;" and he then gives rules about leaving only a few flowers on plants for seed; so that even such details were attended to in our flower-gardens two hundred years ago. in order to show that selection has been silently carried on in places where it would not have been expected, i may add that in the middle of the last century, in a remote part of north america, mr. cooper improved by careful selection all his vegetables, "so that they were greatly superior to those of any other person. when his radishes, for instance, are fit for use, he takes ten or twelve that he most approves, and plants them at least 100 yards from others that blossom at the same time. in the same manner he treats all his other plants, varying the circumstances according to their nature."[488] in the great work on china published in the last century by the jesuits, and which is chiefly compiled from ancient chinese encyclopædias, it is said that with sheep "improving the breed consists in choosing with particular care the lambs which are destined for propagation, in nourishing them well, and in keeping the flocks separate." the same principles were applied by the chinese to various plants and fruit-trees.[489] an {205} imperial edict recommends the choice of seed of remarkable size; and selection was practised even by imperial hands, for it is said that the ya-mi, or imperial rice, was noticed at an ancient period in a field by the emperor khang-hi, was saved and cultivated in his garden, and has since become valuable from being the only kind which will grow north of the great wall.[490] even with flowers, the tree pæony (_p. moutan_) has been cultivated, according to chinese traditions, for 1400 years; between 200 and 300 varieties have been raised, which are cherished like tulips formerly were by the dutch.[491] turning now to semi-civilised people and to savages: it occurred to me, from what i had seen of several parts of south america, where fences do not exist, and where the animals are of little value, that there would be absolutely no care in breeding or selecting them; and this to a large extent is true. roulin,[492] however, describes in colombia a naked race of cattle, which are not allowed to increase, on account of their delicate constitution. according to azara[493] horses are often born in paraguay with curly hair; but, as the natives do not like them, they are destroyed. on the other hand, azara states that a hornless bull, born in 1770, was preserved and propagated its race. i was informed of the existence in banda oriental of a breed with reversed hair; and the extraordinary niata cattle first appeared and have since been kept distinct in la plata. hence certain conspicuous variations have been preserved, and others have been habitually destroyed, in these countries, which are so little favourable for careful selection. we have also seen that the inhabitants sometimes introduce cattle on their estates to prevent the evil effects of close interbreeding. on the other hand, i have heard on reliable authority that the gauchos of the pampas never take any pains in selecting the best bulls or stallions for breeding; and this probably accounts for the cattle and horses being remarkably uniform in character throughout the immense range of the argentine republic. looking to the old world, in the sahara desert "the touareg is as careful in the selection of his breeding mahari {206} (a fine race of the dromedary) as the arab is in that of his horse. the pedigrees are handed down, and many a dromedary can boast a genealogy far longer than the descendants of the darley arabian."[494] according to pallas the mongolians endeavour to breed the yaks or horse-tailed buffaloes with white tails, for these are sold to the chinese mandarins as fly-flappers; and moorcroft, about seventy years after pallas, found that white-tailed animals were still selected for breeding.[495] we have seen in the chapter on the dog that savages in different parts of north america and in guiana cross their dogs with wild canidæ, as did the ancient gauls, according to pliny. this was done to give their dogs strength and vigour, in the same way as the keepers in large warrens now sometimes cross their ferrets (as i have been informed by mr. yarrell) with the wild polecat, "to give them more devil." according to varro, the wild ass was formerly caught and crossed with the tame animal to improve the breed, in the same manner as at the present day the natives of java sometimes drive their cattle into the forests to cross with the wild banteng (_bos sondaicus_).[496] in northern siberia, among the ostyaks the dogs vary in markings in different districts, but in each place they are spotted black and white in a remarkably uniform manner;[497] and from this fact alone we may infer careful breeding, more especially as the dogs of one locality are famed throughout the country for their superiority. i have heard of certain tribes of esquimaux who take pride in their teams of dogs being uniformly coloured. in guiana, as sir r. schomburgk informs me,[498] the dogs of the turuma indians are highly valued and extensively bartered: the price of a good one is the same as that given for a wife: they are kept in a sort of cage, and the indians "take great care when the female is in season to prevent her uniting with a dog of an inferior description." the indians told sir robert that, if a dog proved bad or useless, {207} he was not killed, but was left to die from sheer neglect. hardly any nation is more barbarous than the fuegians, but i hear from mr. bridges, the catechist to the mission, that, "when these savages have a large, strong, and active bitch, they take care to put her to a fine dog, and even take care to feed her well, that her young may be strong and well favoured." in the interior of africa, negroes, who have not associated with white men, show great anxiety to improve their animals: they "always choose the larger and stronger males for stock:" the malakolo were much pleased at livingstone's promise to send them a bull, and some bakalolo carried a live cock all the way from loanda into the interior.[499] further south on the same continent, andersson states that he has known a damara give two fine oxen for a dog which struck his fancy. the damaras take great delight in having whole droves of cattle of the same colour, and they prize their oxen in proportion to the size of their horns. "the namaquas have a perfect mania for a uniform team; and almost all the people of southern africa value their cattle next to their women, and take a pride in possessing animals that look high-bred." "they rarely or never make use of a handsome animal as a beast of burden."[500] the power of discrimination which these savages possess is wonderful, and they can recognise to which tribe any cattle belong. mr. andersson further informs me that the natives frequently match a particular bull with a particular cow. the most curious case of selection by semi-civilised people, or indeed by any people, which i have found recorded, is that given by garcilazo de la vega, a descendant of the incas, as having been practised in peru before the country was subjugated by the spaniards.[501] the incas annually held great hunts, when all the wild animals were driven from an immense circuit to a central point. the beasts of prey were first destroyed as injurious. the wild guanacos and vicunas were sheared; the old males and females killed, and the others set at liberty. the various kinds of deer were examined; the old males and females {208} were likewise killed; "but the young females, with a certain number of males, selected from the most beautiful and strong," were given their freedom. here, then, we have selection by man aiding natural selection. so that the incas followed exactly the reverse system of that which our scottish sportsmen are accused of following, namely, of steadily killing the finest stags, thus causing the whole race to degenerate.[502] in regard to the domesticated llamas and alpacas, they were separated in the time of the incas according to colour; and if by chance one in a flock was born of the wrong colour, it was eventually put into another flock. in the genus auchenia there are four forms,--the guanaco and vicuna, found wild and undoubtedly distinct species; the llama and alpaca, known only in a domesticated condition. these four animals appear so different, that most professed naturalists, especially those who have studied these animals in their native country, maintain that they are specifically distinct, notwithstanding that no one pretends to have seen a wild llama or alpaca. mr. ledger, however, who has closely studied these animals both in peru and during their exportation to australia, and who has made many experiments on their propagation, adduces arguments[503] which seem to me conclusive, that the llama is the domesticated descendant of the guanaco, and the alpaca of the vicuna. and now that we know that these animals many centuries ago were systematically bred and selected, there is nothing surprising in the great amount of change which they have undergone. it appeared to me at one time probable that, though ancient and semi-civilised people might have attended to the improvement of their more useful animals in essential points, yet that they would have disregarded unimportant characters. but human nature is the same throughout the world: fashion everywhere reigns supreme, and man is apt to value whatever he may chance to possess. we have seen that in south america the niata cattle, which certainly are not made useful by their shortened faces and upturned nostrils, have been preserved. the damaras of south africa value their cattle for uniformity {209} of colour and enormously long horns. the mongolians value their yaks for their white tails. and i shall now show that there is hardly any peculiarity in our most useful animals which, from fashion, superstition, or some other motive, has not been valued, and consequently preserved. with respect to cattle, "an early record," according to youatt,[504] "speaks of a hundred white cows with red ears being demanded as a compensation by the princes of north and south wales. if the cattle were of a dark or black colour, 150 were to be presented." so that colour was attended to in wales before its subjugation by england. in central africa, an ox that beats the ground with its tail is killed; and in south africa some of the damaras will not eat the flesh of a spotted ox. the kaffirs value an animal with a musical voice; and "at a sale in british kaffraria the low of a heifer excited so much admiration that a sharp competition sprung up for her possession, and she realised a considerable price."[505] with respect to sheep, the chinese prefer rams without horns; the tartars prefer them with spirally wound horns, because the hornless are thought to lose courage.[506] some of the damaras will not eat the flesh of hornless sheep. in regard to horses, at the end of the fifteenth century animals of the colour described as _liart pommé_ were most valued in france. the arabs have a proverb, "never buy a horse with four white feet, for he carries his shroud with him;"[507] the arabs also, as we have seen, despise dun-coloured horses. so with dogs, xenophon and others at an ancient period were prejudiced in favour of certain colours; and "white or slate-coloured hunting dogs were not esteemed."[508] turning to poultry, the old roman gourmands thought that the liver of a white goose was the most savoury. in paraguay black-skinned fowls are kept because they are thought to be more productive, and their flesh the most proper for invalids.[509] in guiana, as i am informed by sir r. schomburgk, the aborigines will not eat the flesh or eggs of the fowl, but two {210} races are kept distinct merely for ornament. in the philippines, no less than nine sub-varieties of the game cock are kept and named, so that they must be separately bred. at the present time in europe, the smallest peculiarities are carefully attended to in our most useful animals, either from fashion, or as a mark of purity of blood. many examples could be given, two will suffice. "in the western counties of england the prejudice against a white pig is nearly as strong as against a black one in yorkshire." in one of the berkshire sub-breeds, it is said, "the white should be confined to four white feet, a white spot between the eyes, and a few white hairs behind each shoulder." mr. saddler possessed "three hundred pigs, every one of which was marked in this manner."[510] marshall, towards the close of the last century, in speaking of a change in one of the yorkshire breeds of cattle, says the horns have been considerably modified, as "a clean, small, sharp horn has been _fashionable_ for the last twenty years."[511] in a part of germany the cattle of the race de gfoehl are valued for many good qualities, but they must have horns of a particular curvature and tint, so much so that mechanical means are applied if they take a wrong direction; but the inhabitants "consider it of the highest importance that the nostrils of the bull should be flesh-coloured, and the eyelashes light; this is an indispensable condition. a calf with blue nostrils would not be purchased, or purchased at a very low price."[512] therefore let no man say that any point or character is too trifling to be methodically attended to and selected by breeders. * * * * * _unconscious selection._--by this term i mean, as already more than once explained, the preservation by man of the most valued, and the destruction of the least valued individuals, without any conscious intention on his part of altering the breed. it is difficult to offer direct proofs of the results which follow from this kind of selection; but the indirect evidence is abundant. in fact, except that in the one case man acts intentionally, and in the other unintentionally, there is little difference between {211} methodical and unconscious selection. in both cases man preserves the animals which are most useful or pleasing to him, and destroys or neglects the others. but no doubt a far more rapid result follows from methodical than from unconscious selection. the "roguing" of plants by gardeners, and the destruction by law in henry viii.'s reign of all under-sized mares, are instances of a process the reverse of selection in the ordinary sense of the word, but leading to the same general result. the influence of the destruction of individuals having a particular character is well shown by the necessity of killing every lamb with a trace of black about it, in order to keep the flock white; or again, by the effects on the average height of the men of france of the destructive wars of napoleon, by which many tall men were killed, the short ones being left to be the fathers of families. this at least is the conclusion of those who have closely studied the subject of the conscription; and it is certain that since napoleon's time the standard for the army has been lowered two or three times. unconscious selection so blends into methodical that it is scarcely possible to separate them. when a fancier long ago first happened to notice a pigeon with an unusually short beak, or one with the tail-feathers unusually developed, although he bred from these birds with the distinct intention of propagating the variety, yet he could not have intended to make a short-faced tumbler or a fantail, and was far from knowing that he had made the first step towards this end. if he could have seen the final result, he would have been struck with astonishment, but, from what we know of the habits of fanciers, probably not with admiration. our english carriers, barbs, and short-faced tumblers have been greatly modified in the same manner, as we may infer both from the historical evidence given in the chapters on the pigeon, and from the comparison of birds brought from distant countries. so it has been with dogs; our present fox-hounds differ from the old english hound; our greyhounds have become lighter; the wolf-dog, which belonged to the greyhound class, has become extinct; the scotch deer-hound has been modified, and is now rare. our bulldogs differ from those which were formerly used for baiting bulls. our pointers and newfoundlands do not {212} closely resemble any native dog now found in the countries whence they were brought, these changes have been effected partly by crosses; but in every case the result has been governed by the strictest selection. nevertheless there is no reason to suppose that man intentionally and methodically made the breeds exactly what they now are. as our horses became fleeter, and the country more cultivated and smoother, fleeter fox-hounds were desired and produced, but probably without any one distinctly foreseeing what they would become. our pointers and setters, the latter almost certainly descended from large spaniels, have been greatly modified in accordance with fashion and the desire for increased speed. wolves have become extinct, deer have become rarer, bulls are no longer baited, and the corresponding breeds of the dog have answered to the change. but we may feel almost sure that when, for instance, bulls were no longer baited, no man said to himself, i will now breed my dogs of smaller size, and thus create the present race. as circumstances changed, men unconsciously and slowly modified their course of selection. with race-horses selection for swiftness has been followed methodically, and our horses can now easily beat their progenitors. the increased size and different appearance of the english race-horse led a good observer in india to ask, "could any one in this year of 1856, looking at our race-horses, conceive that they were the result of the union of the arab horse and the african mare?"[513] this change has, it is probable, been largely effected through unconscious selection, that is, by the general wish to breed as fine horses as possible in each generation, combined with training and high feeding, but without any intention to give to them their present appearance. according to youatt,[514] the introduction in oliver cromwell's time of three celebrated eastern stallions speedily affected the english breed; "so that lord harleigh, one of the old school, complained that the great horse was fast disappearing." this is an excellent proof how carefully selection must have been attended to; for without such care, all traces of so small an infusion of eastern blood would soon have been absorbed and {213} lost. notwithstanding that the climate of england has never been esteemed particularly favourable to the horse, yet long-continued selection, both methodical and unconscious, together with that practised by the arabs during a still longer and earlier period, has ended in giving us the best breed of horses in the world. macaulay[515] remarks, "two men whose authority on such subjects was held in great esteem, the duke of newcastle and sir john fenwick, pronounced that the meanest hack ever imported from tangier would produce a finer progeny than could be expected from the best sire of our native breed. they would not readily have believed that a time would come when the princes and nobles of neighbouring lands would be as eager to obtain horses from england as ever the english had been to obtain horses from barbary." the london dray-horse, which differs so much in appearance from any natural species, and which from its size has so astonished many eastern princes, was probably formed by the heaviest and most powerful animals having been selected during many generations in flanders and england, but without the least intention or expectation of creating a horse such as we now see. if we go back to an early period of history, we behold in the antique greek statues, as schaaffhausen has remarked,[516] a horse equally unlike a race or dray horse, and differing from any existing breed. the results of unconscious selection, in an early stage, are well shown in the difference between the flocks descended from the same stock, but separately reared by careful breeders. youatt gives an excellent instance of this fact in the sheep belonging to messrs. buckley and burgess, which "have been purely bred from the original stock of mr. bakewell for upwards of fifty years. there is not a suspicion existing in the mind of any one at all acquainted with the subject that the owner of either flock has deviated in any one instance from the pure blood of mr. bakewell's flock; yet the difference between the sheep possessed by these two gentlemen is so great, that they have the appearance of being quite different varieties."[517] i have seen several analogous and {214} well-marked cases with pigeons: for instance, i had a family of barbs, descended from those long bred by sir j. sebright, and another family long bred by another fancier, and the two families plainly differed from each other. nathusius--and a more competent witness could not be cited--observes that, though the shorthorns are remarkably uniform inn appearance (except in colouring), yet that the individual character and wishes of each breeder become impressed on his cattle, so that different herds differ slightly from each other.[518] the hereford cattle assumed their present well-marked character soon after the year 1769, through careful selection by mr. tomkins,[519] and the breed has lately split into two strains--one strain having a white face, and differing slightly, it is said,[520] in some other points; but there is no reason to believe that this split, the origin of which is unknown, was intentionally made; it may with much more probability be attributed to different breeders having attended to different points. so again, the berkshire breed of swine in the year 1810 had greatly changed from what it had been in 1780; and since 1810 at least two distinct sub-breeds have borne this same name.[521] when we bear in mind how rapidly all animals increase, and that some must be annually slaughtered and some saved for breeding, then, if the same breeder during a long course of years deliberately settles which shall be saved and which shall be killed, it is almost inevitable that his individual frame of mind will influence the character of his stock, without his having had any intention to modify the breed or form a new strain. unconscious selection in the strictest sense of the word, that is, the saving of the more useful animals and the neglect or slaughter of the less useful, without any thought of the future, must have gone on occasionally from the remotest period and amongst the most barbarous nations. savages often suffer from famines, and are sometimes expelled by war from their own homes. in such cases it can hardly be doubted that they would save their most useful animals. when the fuegians {215} are hard pressed by want, they kill their old women for food rather than their dogs; for, as we were assured, "old women no use--dogs catch otters." the same sound sense would surely lead them to preserve their more useful dogs when still harder pressed by famine. mr. oldfield, who has seen so much of the aborigines of australia, informs me that "they are all very glad to get a european kangaroo dog, and several instances have been known of the father killing his own infant that the mother might suckle the much-prized puppy." different kinds of dogs would be useful to the australian for hunting opossums and kangaroos, and to the fuegian for catching fish and otters; and the occasional preservation in the two countries of the most useful animals would ultimately lead to the formation of two widely distinct breeds. * * * * * with plants, from the earliest dawn of civilisation, the best variety which at each period was known would generally have been cultivated and its seeds occasionally sown; so that there will have been some selection from an extremely remote period, but without any prefixed standard of excellence or thought of the future. we at the present day profit by a course of selection occasionally and unconsciously carried on during thousands of years. this is proved in an interesting manner by oswald heer's researches on the lake-inhabitants of switzerland, as given in a former chapter; for he shows that the grain and seed of our present varieties of wheat, barley, oats, peas, beans, lentils, and poppy, exceed in size those which were cultivated in switzerland during the neolithic and bronze periods. these ancient people, during the neolithic period, possessed also a crab considerably larger than that now growing wild on the jura.[522] the pears described by pliny were evidently extremely inferior in quality to our present pears. we can realise the effects of long-continued selection and cultivation in another way, for would any one in his senses expect to raise a first-rate apple from the seed of a truly wild crab, or a luscious melting pear from the wild pear? alphonse de candolle informs me that he has lately seen on an ancient mosaic at rome a representation of {216} the melon; and as the romans, who were such gourmands, are silent on this fruit, he infers that the melon has been greatly ameliorated since the classical period. coming to later times, buffon,[523] on comparing the flowers, fruit, and vegetables which were then cultivated, with some excellent drawings made a hundred and fifty years previously, was struck with surprise at the great improvement which had been effected; and remarks that these ancient flowers and vegetables would now be rejected, not only by a florist but by a village gardener. since the time of buffon the work of improvement has steadily and rapidly gone on. every florist who compares our present flowers with those figured in books published not long since, is astonished at the change. a well-known amateur,[524] in speaking of the varieties of pelargonium raised by mr. garth only twenty-two years before, remarks, "what a rage they excited: surely we had attained perfection, it was said; and now not one of the flowers of those days will be looked at. but none the less is the debt of gratitude which we owe to those who saw what was to be done, and did it." mr. paul, the well-known horticulturist, in writing of the same flower,[525] says he remembers when young being delighted with the portraits in sweet's work; "but what are they in point of beauty compared with the pelargoniums of this day? here again nature did not advance by leaps; the improvement was gradual, and, if we had neglected those very gradual advances, we must have foregone the present grand results." how well this practical horticulturist appreciates and illustrates the gradual and accumulative force of selection! the dahlia has advanced in beauty in a like manner; the line of improvement being guided by fashion, and by the successive modifications which the flower slowly underwent.[526] a steady and gradual change has been noticed in many other flowers: thus an old florist,[527] after describing the leading varieties of the pink which were grown in 1813, adds, "the pinks of those days would now be scarcely grown as border-flowers." the improvement of {217} so many flowers and the number of the varieties which have been raised is all the more striking when we hear that the earliest known flower-garden in europe, namely at padua, dates only from the year 1545.[528] * * * * * _effects of selection, as shown by the parts most valued by man presenting the greatest amount of difference._--the power of long-continued selection, whether methodical or unconscious, or both combined, is well shown in a general way, namely, by the comparison of the differences between the varieties of distinct species, which are valued for different parts, such as for the leaves, or stems, or tubers, the seed, or fruit, or flowers. whatever part man values most, that part will be found to present the greatest amount of difference. with trees cultivated for their fruit, sageret remarks that the fruit is larger than in the parent-species, whilst with those cultivated for the seed, as with nuts, walnuts, almonds, chesnuts, &c., it is the seed itself which is larger; and he accounts for this fact by the fruit in the one case, and by the seed in the other, having been carefully attended to and selected during many ages. gallesio has made the same observation. godron insists on the diversity of the tuber in the potato, of the bulb in the onion, and of the fruit in the melon; and on the close similarity in these same plants of the other parts.[529] in order to judge how far my own impression on this subject was correct, i cultivated numerous varieties of the same species close to each other. the comparison of the amount of difference between widely different organs is necessarily vague; i will therefore give the results in only a few cases. we have previously seen in the ninth chapter how greatly the varieties of the cabbage differ in their foliage and stems, which are the selected parts, and how closely they resembled each other in their flowers, capsules, and seeds. in seven varieties of the radish, the roots differed greatly in colour and shape, but no difference {218} whatever could be detected in their foliage, flowers, or seeds. now what a contrast is presented, if we compare the flowers of the varieties of these two plants with those of any species cultivated in our flower-gardens for ornament; or if we compare their seeds with those of the varieties of maize, peas, beans, &c., which are valued and cultivated for their seeds. in the ninth chapter it was shown that the varieties of the pea differ but little except in the tallness of the plant, moderately in the shape of the pod, and greatly in the pea itself, and these are all selected points. the varieties, however, of the _pois sans parchemin_ differ much more in their pods, and these are eaten and valued. i cultivated twelve varieties of the common bean; one alone, the dwarf fan, differed considerably in general appearance; two differed in the colour of their flowers, one being an albino, and the other being wholly instead of partially purple; several differed considerably in the shape and size of the pod, but far more in the bean itself, and this is the valued and selected part. toker's bean, for instance, is twice-and-a-half as long and broad as the horse-bean, and is much thinner and of a different shape. the varieties of the gooseberry, as formerly described, differ much in their fruit, but hardly perceptibly in their flowers or organs of vegetation. with the plum, the differences likewise appear to be greater in the fruit than in the flowers or leaves. on the other hand, the seed of the strawberry, which corresponds with the fruit of the plum, differs hardly at all; whilst every one knows how greatly the fruit--that is, the enlarged receptacle--differs in the several varieties. in apples, pears, and peaches the flowers and leaves differ considerably, but not, as far as i can judge, in proportion with the fruit. the chinese double-flowering peaches, on the other hand, show that varieties of this tree have been formed, which differ more in the flower than in fruit. if, as is highly probable, the peach is the modified descendant of the almond, a surprising amount of change has been effected in the same species, in the fleshy covering of the former and in the kernels of the latter. when parts stand in such close relation to each other as the fleshy covering of the fruit (whatever its homological nature may be) and the seed, when one part is modified, so generally is the other, but by no means necessarily in the same degree. with {219} the plum-tree, for instance, some varieties produce plums which are nearly alike, but include stones extremely dissimilar in shape; whilst conversely other varieties produce dissimilar fruit with barely distinguishable stones; and generally the stones, though they have never been subjected to selection, differ greatly in the several varieties of the plum. in other cases organs which are not manifestly related, through some unknown bond vary together, and are consequently liable, without any intention on man's part, to be simultaneously acted on by selection. thus the varieties of the stock (matthiola) have been selected solely for the beauty of their flowers, but the seeds differ greatly in colour and somewhat in size. varieties of the lettuce have been selected solely on account of their leaves, yet produce seeds which likewise differ in colour. generally, through the law of correlation, when a variety differs greatly from its fellow-varieties in any one character, it differs to a certain extent in several other characters. i observed this fact when i cultivated together many varieties of the same species, for i used first to make a list of the varieties which differed most from each other in their foliage and manner of growth, afterwards of those that differed most in their flowers, then in their seed-capsules, and lastly in their mature seed; and i found that the same names generally occurred in two, three, or four of the successive lists. nevertheless the greatest amount of difference between the varieties was always exhibited, as far as i could judge, by that part or organ for which the plant was cultivated. when we bear in mind that each plant was at first cultivated because useful to man, and that its variation was a subsequent, often a long subsequent, event, we cannot explain the greater amount of diversity in the valuable parts by supposing that species endowed with an especial tendency to vary in any particular manner, were originally chosen. we must attribute the result to the variations in these parts having been successively preserved, and thus continually augmented; whilst other variations, excepting such as inevitably appeared through correlation, were neglected and lost. hence we may infer that most plants might be made, through long-continued selection, to yield races as different from each other in any character {220} as they now are in those parts for which they are valued and cultivated. with animals we see something of the same kind; but they have not been domesticated in sufficient number or yielded sufficient varieties for a fair comparison. sheep are valued for their wool, and the wool differs much more in the several races than the hair in cattle. neither sheep, goats, european cattle, nor pigs are valued for their fleetness or strength; and we do not possess breeds differing in these respects like the race-horse and dray-horse. but fleetness and strength are valued in camels and dogs; and we have with the former the swift dromedary and heavy camel; with the latter the greyhound and mastiff. but dogs are valued even in a higher degree for their mental qualities and senses; and every one knows how greatly the races differ in these respects. on the other hand, where the dog is valued solely to serve for food, as in the polynesian islands and china, it is described as an extremely stupid animal.[530] blumenbach remarks that "many dogs, such as the badger-dog, have a build so marked and so appropriate for particular purposes, that i should find it very difficult to persuade myself that this astonishing figure was an accidental consequence of degeneration."[531] but had blumenbach reflected on the great principle of selection, he would not have used the term degeneration, and he would not have been astonished that dogs and other animals should become excellently adapted for the service of man. on the whole we may conclude that whatever part or character is most valued--whether the leaves, stems, tubers, bulbs, flowers, fruit, or seed of plants, or the size, strength, fleetness, hairy covering, or intellect of animals--that character will almost invariably be found to present the greatest amount of difference both in kind and degree. and this result may be safely attributed to man having preserved during a long course of generations the variations which were useful to him, and neglected the others. i will conclude this chapter by some remarks on an important subject. with animals such as the giraffe, of which {221} the whole structure is admirably co-ordinated for certain purposes, it has been supposed that all the parts must have been simultaneously modified; and it has been argued that, on the principle of natural selection, this is scarcely possible. but in thus arguing, it has been tacitly assumed that the variations must have been abrupt and great. no doubt, if the neck of a ruminant were suddenly to become greatly elongated, the fore limbs and back would have to be simultaneously strengthened and modified; but it cannot be denied that an animal might have its neck, or head, or tongue, or fore-limbs elongated a very little without any corresponding modification in other parts of the body; and animals thus slightly modified would, during a dearth, have a slight advantage, and be enabled to browse on higher twigs, and thus survive. a few mouthfuls more or less every day would make all the difference between life and death. by the repetition of the same process, and by the occasional intercrossing of the survivors, there would be some progress, slow and fluctuating though it would be, towards the admirably co-ordinated structure of the giraffe. if the short-faced tumbler-pigeon, with its small conical beak, globular head, rounded body, short wings, and small feet--characters which appear all in harmony--had been a natural species, its whole structure would have been viewed as well fitted for its life; but in this case we know that inexperienced breeders are urged to attend to point after point, and not to attempt improving the whole structure at the same time. look at the greyhound, that perfect image of grace, symmetry, and vigour; no natural species can boast of a more admirably co-ordinated structure, with its tapering head, slim body, deep chest, tucked-up abdomen, rat-like tail, and long muscular limbs, all adapted for extreme fleetness, and for running down weak prey. now, from what we see of the variability of animals, and from what we know of the method which different men follow in improving their stock--some chiefly attending to one point, others to another point, others again correcting defects by crosses, and so forth--we may feel assured that if we could see the long line of ancestors of a first-rate greyhound, up to its wild wolf-like progenitor, we should behold an infinite number of the finest gradations, sometimes in one character and sometimes in another, but all leading towards our {222} present perfect type. by small and doubtful steps such as these, nature, as we may confidently believe, has progressed on her grand march of improvement and development. a similar line of reasoning is as applicable to separate organs as to the whole organisation. a writer[532] has recently maintained that "it is probably no exaggeration to suppose that, in order to improve such an organ as the eye at all, it must be improved in ten different ways at once. and the improbability of any complex organ being produced and brought to perfection in any such way is an improbability of the same kind and degree as that of producing a poem or a mathematical demonstration by throwing letters at random on a table." if the eye were abruptly and greatly modified, no doubt many parts would have to be simultaneously altered, in order that the organ should remain serviceable. but is this the case with smaller changes? there are persons who can see distinctly only in a dull light, and this condition depends, i believe, on the abnormal sensitiveness of the retina, and is known to be inherited. now, if a bird, for instance, received some great advantage from seeing well in the twilight, all the individuals with the most sensitive retina would succeed best and be the most likely to survive; and why should not all those which happened to have the eye itself a little larger, or the pupil capable of greater dilatation, be likewise preserved, whether or not these modifications were strictly simultaneous? these individuals would subsequently intercross and blend their respective advantages. by such slight successive changes, the eye of a diurnal bird would be brought into the condition of that of an owl, which has often been advanced as an excellent instance of adaptation. short-sight, which is often inherited, permits a person to see distinctly a minute object at so near a distance that it would be indistinct to ordinary eyes; and here we have a capacity which might be serviceable under certain conditions, abruptly gained. the fuegians on board the {223} beagle could certainly see distant objects more distinctly than our sailors with all their long practice; i do not know whether this depends on nervous sensitiveness or on the power of adjustment in the focus; but this capacity for distant vision might, it is probable, be slightly augmented by successive modifications of either kind. amphibious animals, which are enabled to see both in the water and in the air, require and possess, as m. plateau has shown,[533] eyes constructed on the following plan: "the cornea is always flat, or at least much flattened in front of the crystalline and over a space equal to the diameter of that lens, whilst the lateral portions may be much curved." the crystalline is very nearly a sphere, and the humours have nearly the same density as water. now, as a terrestrial animal slowly became more and more aquatic in its habits, very slight changes, first in the curvature of the cornea or crystalline, and then in the density of the humours, or conversely, might successively occur, and would be advantageous to the animal whilst under water, without serious detriment to its power of vision in the air. it is of course impossible to conjecture by what steps the fundamental structure of the eye in the vertebrata was originally acquired, for we know absolutely nothing about this organ in the first progenitors of the class. with respect to the lowest animals in the scale, the transitional states through which the eye at first probably passed, can by the aid of analogy be indicated, as i have attempted to show in my 'origin of species.'[534] * * * * * {224} chapter xxi. selection, _continued_. natural selection as affecting domestic productions--characters which appear of trifling value often of real importance--circumstances favourable to selection by man--facility in preventing crosses, and the nature of the conditions--close attention and perseverance indispensable--the production of a large number of individuals especially favourable--when no selection is applied, distinct races are not formed--highly-bred animals liable to degeneration--tendency in man to carry the selection of each character to an extreme point, leading to divergence of character, rarely to convergence--characters continuing to vary in the same direction in which they have already varied--divergence of character, with the extinction of intermediate varieties, leads to distinctness in our domestic races--limit to the power of selection--lapse of time important--manner in which domestic races have originated--summary. _natural selection, or the survival of the fittest, as affecting domestic productions._--we know little on this head. but as animals kept by savages have to provide their own food, either entirely or to a large extent, throughout the year, it can hardly be doubted that, in different countries, varieties differing in constitution and in various characters would succeed best, and so be naturally selected. hence perhaps it is that the few domesticated animals kept by savages partake, as has been remarked by more than one writer, of the wild appearance of their masters, and likewise resemble natural species. even in long-civilised countries, at least in the wilder parts, natural selection must act on our domestic races. it is obvious that varieties, having very different habits, constitution, and structure, would succeed best on mountains and on rich lowland pastures. for example, the improved leicester sheep were formerly taken to the lammermuir hills; but an intelligent sheep-master reported that "our coarse lean pastures were unequal to the task of supporting such heavy-bodied sheep; and they gradually dwindled away into less and less bulk: {225} each generation was inferior to the preceding one; and when the spring was severe, seldom more than two-thirds of the lambs survived the ravages of the storms."[535] so with the mountain cattle of north wales and the hebrides, it has been found that they could not withstand being crossed with the larger and more delicate lowland breeds. two french naturalists, in describing the horses of circassia, remark that, subjected as they are to extreme vicissitudes of climate, having to search for scanty pasture, and exposed to constant danger from wolves, the strongest and most vigorous alone survive.[536] every one must have been struck with the surpassing grace, strength, and vigour of the game-cock, with its bold and confident air, its long, yet firm neck, compact body, powerful and closely pressed wings, muscular thighs, strong beak massive at the base, dense and sharp spurs set low on the legs for delivering the fatal blow, and its compact, glossy, and mail-like plumage serving as a defence. now the english game-cock has not only been improved during many years by man's careful selection, but in addition, as mr. tegetmeier has remarked,[537] by a kind of natural selection, for the strongest, most active and courageous birds have stricken down their antagonists in the cockpit, generation after generation, and have subsequently served as the progenitors of their kind. in great britain, in former times, almost every district had its own breed of cattle and sheep; "they were indigenous to the soil, climate, and pasturage of the locality on which they grazed: they seemed to have been formed for it and by it."[538] but in this case we are quite unable to disentangle the effects of the direct action of the conditions of life,--of use or habit--of natural selection--and of that kind of selection which we have seen is occasionally and unconsciously followed by man even during the rudest periods of history. let us now look to the action of natural selection on special characters. although nature is difficult to resist, yet man often strives against her power, and sometimes, as we shall see, with {226} success. from the facts to be given, it will also be seen that natural selection would powerfully affect many of our domestic productions if left unprotected. this is a point of much interest, for we thus learn that differences apparently of very slight importance would certainly determine the survival of a form when forced to struggle for its own existence. it may have occurred to some naturalists, as it formerly did to me, that, though selection acting under natural conditions would determine the structure of all important organs, yet that it could not affect characters which are esteemed by us of little importance; but this is an error to which we are eminently liable, from our ignorance of what characters are of real value to each living creature. when man attempts to breed an animal with some serious defect in structure, or in the mutual relation of parts, he will either partially or completely fail, or encounter much difficulty; and this is in fact a form of natural selection. we have seen that the attempt was once made in yorkshire to breed cattle with enormous buttocks, but the cows perished so often in bringing forth their calves, that the attempt had to be given up. in rearing short-faced tumblers, mr. eaton says,[539] "i am convinced that better head and beak birds have perished in the shell than ever were hatched; the reason being that the amazingly short-faced bird cannot reach and break the shell with its beak, and so perishes." here is a more curious case, in which natural selection comes into play only at long intervals of time: during ordinary seasons the niata cattle can graze as well as others, but occasionally, as from 1827 to 1830, the plains of la plata suffer from long-continued droughts and the pasture is burnt up; at such times common cattle and horses perish by the thousand, but many survive by browsing on twigs, reeds, &c.; this the niata cattle cannot so well effect from their upturned jaws and the shape of their lips; consequently, if not attended to, they perish before the other cattle. in colombia, according to roulin, there is a breed of nearly hairless cattle, called pelones; these succeed in their native hot district, but are found too tender for the cordillera; in this case, natural selection {227} determines only the range of the variety. it is obvious that a host of artificial races could never survive in a state of nature;--such as italian greyhounds,--hairless and almost toothless turkish dogs,--fantail pigeons, which cannot fly well against a strong wind,--barbs with their vision impeded by their eye-wattle,--polish fowls with their vision impeded by their great topknots,--hornless bulls and rams which consequently cannot cope with other males, and thus have a poor chance of leaving offspring,--seedless plants, and many other such cases. colour is generally esteemed by the systematic naturalist as unimportant: let us, therefore, see how far it indirectly affects our domestic productions, and how far it would affect them if they were left exposed to the full force of natural selection. in a future chapter i shall have to show that constitutional peculiarities of the strangest kind, entailing liability to the action of certain poisons, are correlated with the colour of the skin. i will here give a single case, on the high authority of professor wyman; he informs me that, being surprised at all the pigs in a part of virginia being black, he made inquiries, and ascertained that these animals feed on the roots of the _lachnanthes tinctoria_, which colours their bones pink, and, excepting in the case of the black varieties, causes the hoofs to drop off. hence, as one of the squatters remarked, "we select the black members of the litter for raising, as they alone have a good chance of living." so that here we have artificial and natural selection working hand in hand. i may add that in the tarentino the inhabitants keep black sheep alone, because the _hypericum crispum_ abounds there; and this plant does not injure black sheep, but kills the white ones in about a fortnight's time.[540] complexion, and liability to certain diseases, are believed to run together in man and the lower animals. thus white terriers suffer more than terriers of any other colour from the fatal distemper.[541] in north america plum-trees are liable to a disease which downing[542] believes is not caused by insects; the kinds bearing purple fruit are most affected, "and we have never known the green or yellow fruited varieties infected {228} until the other sorts had first become filled with the knots." on the other hand, peaches in north america suffer much from a disease called the _yellows_, which seems to be peculiar to that continent, and "more than nine-tenths of the victims, when the disease first appeared, were the yellow-fleshed peaches. the white-fleshed kinds are much more rarely attacked; in some parts of the country never." in mauritius, the white sugar-canes have of late years been so severely attacked by a disease, that many planters have been compelled to give up growing this variety (although fresh plants were imported from china for trial), and cultivate only red canes.[543] now, if these plants had been forced to struggle with other competing plants and enemies, there cannot be a doubt that the colour of the flesh or skin of the fruit, unimportant as these characters are considered, would have rigorously determined their existence. liability to the attacks of parasites is also connected with colour. it appears that white chickens are certainly more subject than dark-coloured chickens to the _gapes_, which is caused by a parasitic worm in the trachea.[544] on the other hand, experience has shown that in france the caterpillars which produce white cocoons resist the deadly fungus better than those producing yellow cocoons.[545] analogous facts have been observed with plants: a new and beautiful white onion, imported from france, though planted close to other kinds, was alone attacked by a parasitic fungus.[546] white verbenas are especially liable to mildew.[547] near malaga, during an early period of the vine-disease, the green sorts suffered most; "and red and black grapes, even when interwoven with the sick plants, suffered not at all." in france whole groups of varieties were comparatively free, and others, such as the chasselas, did not afford a single fortunate exception; but i do not know whether any correlation between colour and liability to disease was here observed.[548] in a former chapter it was shown how curiously liable one variety of the strawberry is to mildew. {229} it is certain that insects regulate in many cases the range and even the existence of the higher animals, whilst living under their natural conditions. under domestication light-coloured animals suffer most: in thuringia[549] the inhabitants do not like grey, white, or pale cattle, because they are much more troubled by various kinds of flies than the brown, red, or black cattle. an albino negro, it has been remarked,[550] was peculiarly sensitive to the bites of insects. in the west indies[551] it is said that "the only horned cattle fit for work are those which have a good deal of black in them. the white are terribly tormented by the insects; and they are weak and sluggish in proportion to the white." in devonshire there is a prejudice against white pigs, because it is believed that the sun blisters them when turned out;[552] and i knew a man who would not keep white pigs in kent, for the same reason. the scorching of flowers by the sun seems likewise to depend much on colour; thus, dark pelargoniums suffer most; and from various accounts it is clear that the cloth-of-gold variety will not withstand a degree of exposure to sunshine which other varieties enjoy. another amateur asserts that not only all dark-coloured verbenas, but likewise scarlets, suffer from the sun; "the paler kinds stand better, and pale blue is perhaps the best of all." so again with the heartsease (_viola tricolor_); hot weather suits the blotched sorts, whilst it destroys the beautiful markings of some other kinds.[553] during one extremely cold season in holland all red-flowered hyacinths were observed to be very inferior in quality. it is believed by many agriculturists that red wheat is hardier in northern climates than white wheat.[554] with animals, white varieties from being conspicuous are the most liable to be attacked by beasts and birds of prey. in parts of france and germany where hawks abound, persons are advised not to keep white pigeons; for, as parmentier says, "it {230} is certain that in a flock the white always first fall victims to the kite." in belgium, where so many societies have been established for the flight of carrier-pigeons, white is the one colour which for the same reason is disliked.[555] on the other hand, it is said that the sea-eagle (_falco ossifragus_, linn.) on the west coast of ireland picks out the black fowls, so that "the villagers avoid as much as possible rearing birds of that colour." m. daudin,[556] speaking of white rabbits kept in warrens in russia, remarks that their colour is a great disadvantage, as they are thus more exposed to attack, and can be seen during bright nights from a distance. a gentleman in kent, who failed to stock his woods with a nearly white and hardy kind of rabbit, accounted in the same manner for their early disappearance. any one who will watch a white cat prowling after her prey will soon perceive under what a disadvantage she lies. the white tartarian cherry, "owing either to its colour being so much like that of the leaves, or to the fruit always appearing from a distance unripe," is not so readily attacked by birds as other sorts. the yellow-fruited raspberry, which generally comes nearly true by seed, "is very little molested by birds, who evidently are not fond of it; so that nets may be dispensed with in places where nothing else will protect the red fruit."[557] this immunity, though a benefit to the gardener, would be a disadvantage in a state of nature both to the cherry and raspberry, as their dissemination depends on birds. i noticed during several winters that some trees of the yellow-berried holly, which were raised from seed from a wild tree found by my father, remained covered with fruit, whilst not a scarlet berry could be seen on the adjoining trees of the common kind. a friend informs me that a mountain-ash (_pyrus aucuparia_) growing in his garden bears berries which, though not differently coloured, are always devoured by birds before those on the other trees. this variety of the mountain-ash would thus be more freely disseminated, and the yellow-berried variety of the holly less freely, than the common varieties of these two trees. {231} independently of colour, other trifling differences are sometimes found to be of importance to plants under cultivation, and would be of paramount importance if they had to fight their own battle and to struggle with many competitors. the thin-shelled peas, called _pois sans parchemin_, are attacked by birds[558] much more than common peas. on the other hand, the purple-podded pea, which has a hard shell, escaped the attacks of tomtits (_parus major_) in my garden far better than any other kind. the thin-shelled walnut likewise suffers greatly from the tomtit.[559] these same birds have been observed to pass over and thus favour the filbert, destroying only the other kinds of nuts which grew in the same orchard.[560] certain varieties of the pear have soft bark, and these suffer severely from boring wood-beetles; whilst other varieties are known to resist their attacks much better.[561] in north america the smoothness, or absence of down on the fruit, makes a great difference in the attacks of the weevil, "which is the uncompromising foe of all smooth stone-fruits;" and the cultivator "has the frequent mortification of seeing nearly all, or indeed often the whole crop, fall from the trees when half or two-thirds grown." hence the nectarine suffers more than the peach. a particular variety of the morello cherry, raised in north america, is without any assignable cause more liable to be injured by this same insect than other cherry-trees.[562] from some unknown cause, the winter majetin apple enjoys the great advantage of not being infested by the coccus. on the other hand, a particular case has been recorded in which aphides confined themselves to the winter nelis pear, and touched no other kind in an extensive orchard.[563] the existence of minute glands on the leaves of peaches, nectarines, and apricots, would not be esteemed by botanists as a character of the least importance, for they are present or absent in closely related sub-varieties, descended from the same parent-tree; yet there is good evidence[564] that the {232} absence of glands leads to mildew, which is highly injurious to these trees. a difference either in flavour or in the amount of nutriment in certain varieties causes them to be more eagerly attacked by various enemies than other varieties of the same species. bullfinches (_pyrrhula vulgaris_) injure our fruit-trees by devouring the flower-buds, and a pair of these birds have been seen "to denude a large plum-tree in a couple of days of almost every bud;" but certain varieties[565] of the apple and thorn (_cratægus oxyacantha_) are more especially liable to be attacked. a striking instance of this was observed in mr. rivers's garden, in which two rows of a particular variety of plum[566] had to be carefully protected, as they were usually stripped of all their buds during the winter, whilst other sorts growing near them escaped. the root (or enlarged stem) of laing's swedish turnip is preferred by hares, and therefore suffers more than other varieties. hares and rabbits eat down common rye before st. john's-day-rye, when both grow together.[567] in the south of france, when an orchard of almond-trees is formed, the nuts of the bitter variety are sown, "in order that they may not be devoured by field-mice;"[568] so we see the use of the bitter principle in almonds. other slight differences, which would be thought quite unimportant, are no doubt sometimes of great service both to plants and animals. the whitesmith's gooseberry, as formerly stated, produces its leaves later than other varieties, and, as the flowers are thus left unprotected, the fruit often fails. in one variety of the cherry, according to mr. rivers,[569] the petals are much curled backwards, and in consequence of this the stigmas were observed to be killed by a severe frost; whilst at the same time, in another variety with incurved petals, the stigmas were not in the least injured. the straw of the fenton wheat is remarkably unequal in height; and a competent observer believes that this variety is highly productive, partly because the ears, from being distributed at various heights above the ground, {233} are less crowded together. the same observer maintains that in the upright varieties the divergent awns are serviceable by breaking the shocks when the ears are dashed together by the wind.[570] if several varieties of a plant are grown together, and the seed is indiscriminately harvested, it is clear that the hardier and more productive kinds will, by a sort of natural selection, gradually prevail over the others; this takes place, as colonel le couteur believes,[571] in our wheat-fields, for, as formerly shown, no variety is quite uniform in character. the same thing, as i am assured by nurserymen, would take place in our flower-gardens, if the seed of the different varieties were not separately saved. when the eggs of the wild and tame duck are hatched together, the young wild ducks almost invariably perish, from being of smaller size and not getting their fair share of food.[572] facts in sufficient number have now been given showing that natural selection often checks, but occasionally favours, man's power of selection. these facts teach us, in addition, a valuable lesson, namely, that we ought to be extremely cautious in judging what characters are of importance in a state of nature to animals and plants, which have to struggle from the hour of their birth to that of their death for existence,--their existence depending on conditions, about which we are profoundly ignorant. _circumstances favourable to selection by man._ the possibility of selection rests on variability, and this, as we shall see in the following chapters, mainly depends on changed conditions of life, but is governed by infinitely complex, and, to a great extent, unknown laws. domestication, even when long continued, occasionally causes but a small amount of variability, as in the case of the goose and turkey. the slight differences, however, which characterise each individual animal and plant would in most, probably in all cases, suffice for the production of distinct races through careful and prolonged selection. we see what selection, though acting on mere individual differences, can effect when families of cattle, sheep, {234} pigeons, &c., of the same race, have been separately bred during a number of years by different men without any wish on their part to modify the breed. we see the same fact in the difference between hounds bred for hunting in different districts,[573] and in many other such cases. in order that selection should produce any result, it is manifest that the crossing of distinct races must be prevented; hence facility in pairing, as with the pigeon, is highly favourable for the work; and difficulty in pairing, as with cats, prevents the formation of distinct breeds. on nearly the same principle the cattle of the small island of jersey have been improved in their milking qualities "with a rapidity that could not have been obtained in a widely extended country like france."[574] although free crossing is a danger on the one side which every one can see, too close interbreeding is a hidden danger on the other side. unfavourable conditions of life overrule the power of selection. our improved heavy breeds of cattle and sheep could not have been formed on mountainous pastures; nor could dray-horses have been raised on a barren and inhospitable land, such as the falkland islands, where even the light horses of la plata rapidly decrease in size. nor could the wool of sheep have been much increased in length within the tropics; yet selection has kept merino sheep nearly true under diversified and unfavourable conditions of life. the power of selection is so great, that breeds of the dog, sheep, and poultry, of the largest and least size, long and short beaked pigeons, and other breeds with opposite characters, have had their characteristic qualities augmented, though treated in every way alike, being exposed to the same climate and fed on the same food. selection, however, is either checked or favoured by the effects of use or habit. our wonderfully-improved pigs could never have been formed if they had been forced to search for their own food; the english racehorse and greyhound could not have been improved up to their present high standard of excellence without constant training. as conspicuous deviations of structure occur rarely, the improvement of each breed is generally the result, as already {235} remarked, of the selection of slight individual differences. hence the closest attention, the sharpest powers of observation, and indomitable perseverance, are indispensable. it is, also, highly important that many individuals of the breed which is to be improved should be raised; for thus there will be a better chance of the appearance of variations in the right direction, and individuals varying in an unfavourable manner may be freely rejected or destroyed. but that a large number of individuals should be raised, it is necessary that the conditions of life should favour the propagation of the species. had the peacock been bred as easily as the fowl, we should probably ere this have had many distinct races. we see the importance of a large number of plants, from the fact of nursery gardeners almost always beating amateurs in the exhibition of new varieties. in 1845 it was estimated[575] that between 4000 and 5000 pelargoniums were annually raised from seed in england, yet a decidedly improved variety is rarely obtained. at messrs. carter's grounds, in essex, where such flowers as the lobelia, nemophila, mignonette, &c., are grown by the acre for seed, "scarcely a season passes without some new kinds being raised, or some improvement affected on old kinds."[576] at kew, as mr. beaton remarks, where many seedlings of common plants are raised, "you see new forms of laburnums, spiræas, and other shrubs."[577] so with animals: marshall,[578] in speaking of the sheep in one part of yorkshire, remarks, "as they belong to poor people, and are mostly in small lots, they never can be improved." lord rivers, when asked how he succeeded in always having first-rate greyhounds, answered, "i breed many, and hang many." this, as another man remarks, "was the secret of his success; and the same will be found in exhibiting fowls,--successful competitors breed largely, and keep the best."[579] it follows from this that the capacity of breeding at an early age and at short successive intervals, as with pigeons, rabbits, &c., facilitates selection; for the result is thus soon made visible, and perseverance in the work is encouraged. it can hardly be {236} accidental that the great majority of the culinary and agricultural plants which have yielded numerous races are annuals or biennials, which therefore are capable of rapid propagation and thus of improvement. sea-kale, asparagus, common and jerusalem artichokes, potatoes, and onions, alone are perennials. onions are propagated like annuals, and of the other plants just specified, none, with the exception of the potato, have yielded more than one or two varieties. no doubt fruit-trees, which cannot be propagated quickly by seed, have yielded a host of varieties, though not permanent races; but these, judging from pre-historic remains, were produced at a later and more civilised epoch than the races of culinary and agricultural plants. a species may be highly variable, but distinct races will not be formed, if from any cause selection be not applied. the carp is highly variable, but it would be extremely difficult to select slight variations in fishes whilst living in their natural state, and distinct races have not been formed;[580] on the other hand, a closely allied species, the gold-fish, from being reared in glass or open vessels, and from having been carefully attended to by the chinese, has yielded many races. neither the bee, which has been semi-domesticated from an extremely remote period, nor the cochineal insect, which was cultivated by the aboriginal mexicans, has yielded races; and it would be impossible to match the queen-bee with any particular drone, and most difficult to match cochineal insects. silk-moths, on the other hand, have been subjected to rigorous selection, and have produced a host of races. cats, which from their nocturnal habits cannot be selected for breeding, do not, as formerly remarked, yield distinct races in the same country. the ass in england varies much in colour and size; but it is an animal of little value, bred by poor people; consequently there has been no selection, and distinct races have not been formed. we must not attribute the inferiority of our asses to climate, for in india they are of even smaller size than in europe. but when selection is brought to bear on the ass, all is changed. near cordova, as i am informed (feb. 1860) by mr. w. e. webb, c.e., they are carefully bred, as much as 200l. having been paid for a stallion ass, {237} and they have been immensely improved. in kentucky, asses have been imported (for breeding mules) from spain, malta, and france; these "seldom averaged more than fourteen hands high; but the kentuckians, by great care, have raised them up to fifteen hands, and sometimes even to sixteen. the prices paid for these splendid animals, for such they really are, will prove how much they are in request. one male, of great celebrity, was sold for upwards of one thousand pounds sterling." these choice asses are sent to cattle-shows, one day being given to their exhibition.[581] analogous facts have been observed with plants: the nutmeg-tree in the malay archipelago is highly variable, but there has been no selection, and there are no distinct races.[582] the common mignonette (_reseda odorata_), from bearing inconspicuous flowers, valued solely for their fragrance, "remains in the same unimproved condition as when first introduced."[583] our common forest-trees are very variable, as may be seen in every extensive nursery-ground; but as they are not valued like fruit-trees, and as they seed late in life, no selection has been applied to them; consequently, as mr. patrick matthews remarks,[584] they have not yielded distinct races, leafing at different periods, growing to different sizes, and producing timber fit for different purposes. we have gained only some fanciful and semi-monstrous varieties, which no doubt appeared suddenly as we now see them. some botanists have argued that plants cannot have so strong a tendency to vary as is generally supposed, because many species long grown in botanic gardens, or unintentionally cultivated year after year mingled with our corn crops, have not produced distinct races; but this is accounted for by slight variations not having been selected and propagated. let a plant which is now grown in a botanic garden, or any common weed, be cultivated on a large scale, and let a sharp-sighted gardener look out for each slight variety and sow the seed, and then, if distinct races are not produced, the argument will be valid. {238} the importance of selection is likewise shown by considering special characters. for instance, with most breeds of fowls the form of the comb and the colour of the plumage have been attended to, and are eminently characteristic of each race; but in dorkings, fashion has never demanded uniformity of comb or colour; and the utmost diversity in these respects prevails. rose-combs, double-combs, cup-combs, &c., and colours of all kinds, may be seen in purely-bred and closely related dorking fowls, whilst other points, such as the general form of body, and the presence of an additional toe, have been attended to, and are invariably present. it has also been ascertained that colour can be fixed in this breed, as well as in any other.[585] * * * * * during the formation or improvement of a breed, its members will always be found to vary much in those characters to which especial attention is directed, and of which each slight improvement is eagerly sought and selected. thus with short-faced tumbler-pigeons, the shortness of the beak, shape of head and plumage,--with carriers, the length of the beak and wattle,--with fantails, the tail and carriage,--with spanish fowls, the white face and comb,--with long-eared rabbits, the length of ear, are all points which are eminently variable. so it is in every case, and the large price paid for first-rate animals proves the difficulty of breeding them up to the highest standard of excellence. this subject has been discussed by fanciers,[586] and the greater prizes given for highly improved breeds, in comparison with those given for old breeds which are not now undergoing rapid improvement, has been fully justified. nathusius makes[587] a similar remark when discussing the less uniform character of improved shorthorn cattle and of the english horse, in comparison, for example, with the unennobled cattle of hungary, or with the horses of the asiatic steppes. this want of uniformity in the parts which at the time are undergoing selection, chiefly depends on the strength of the principle of reversion but it likewise depends to a certain extent on the continued {239} variability of the parts which have recently varied. that the same parts do continue varying in the same manner we must admit, for, if it were not so, there could be no improvement beyond an early standard of excellence, and we know that such improvement is not only possible, but is of general occurrence. as a consequence of continued variability, and more especially of reversion, all highly improved races, if neglected or not subjected to incessant selection, soon degenerate. youatt gives a curious instance of this in some cattle formerly kept in glamorganshire; but in this case the cattle were not fed with sufficient care. mr. baker, in his memoir on the horse, sums up: "it must have been observed in the preceding pages that, whenever there has been neglect, the breed has proportionally deteriorated."[588] if a considerable number of improved cattle, sheep, or other animals of the same race, were allowed to breed freely together, with no selection, but with no change in their condition of life, there can be no doubt that after a score or hundred generations they would be very far from excellent of their kind; but, from what we see of the many common races of dogs, cattle, fowls, pigeons, &c., which without any particular care have long retained nearly the same character, we have no grounds for believing that they would altogether depart from their type. it is a general belief amongst breeders that characters of all kinds become fixed by long-continued inheritance. but i have attempted to show in the fourteenth chapter that this belief apparently resolves itself into the following proposition, namely, that all characters whatever, whether recently acquired or ancient, tend to be transmitted, but that those which have already long withstood all counteracting influences, will, as a general rule, continue to withstand them, and consequently be faithfully transmitted. _tendency in man to carry the practice of selection to an extreme point._ it is an important principle that in the process of selection man almost invariably wishes to go to an extreme point. thus, in useful qualities, there is no limit to his desire to breed certain {240} horses and dogs as fleet as possible, and others as strong as possible; certain kinds of sheep for extreme fineness, and others for extreme length of wool; and he wishes to produce fruit, grain, tubers, and other useful parts of plants, as large and excellent as possible. with animals bred for amusement, the same principle is even more powerful; for fashion, as we see even in our dress, always runs to extremes. this view has been expressly admitted by fanciers. instances were given in the chapters on the pigeon, but here is another: mr. eaton, after describing a comparatively new variety, namely, the archangel, remarks, "what fanciers intend doing with this bird i am at a loss to know, whether they intend to breed it down to the tumbler's head and beak, or carry it out to the carrier's head and beak; leaving it as they found it, is not progressing." ferguson, speaking of fowls, says, "their peculiarities, whatever they may be, must necessarily be fully developed: a little peculiarity forms nought but ugliness, seeing it violates the existing laws of symmetry." so mr. brent, in discussing the merits of the sub-varieties of the belgian canary-bird, remarks, "fanciers always go to extremes; they do not admire indefinite properties."[589] this principle, which necessarily leads to divergence of character, explains the present state of various domestic races. we can thus see how it is that race-horses and dray-horses, greyhounds and mastiffs, which are opposed to each other in every character,--how varieties so distinct as cochin-china fowls and bantams, or carrier-pigeons with very long beaks, and tumblers with excessively short beaks, have been derived from the same stock. as each breed is slowly improved, the inferior varieties are first neglected and finally lost. in a few cases, by the aid of old records, or from intermediate varieties still existing in countries where other fashions have prevailed, we are enabled partially to trace the graduated changes through which certain breeds have passed. selection, whether methodical or unconscious, always tending towards an extreme point, together with the neglect and slow extinction of the intermediate and less-valued forms, is the key which unlocks the mystery how man has produced such wonderful results. {241} in a few instances selection, guided by utility for a single purpose, has led to convergence of character. all the improved and different races of the pig, as nathusius has well shown,[590] closely approach each other in character, in their shortened legs and muzzles, their almost hairless, large, rounded bodies, and small tusks. we see some degree of convergence in the similar outline of the body in well-bred cattle belonging to distinct races.[591] i know of no other such cases. continued divergence of character depends on, and is indeed a clear proof, as previously remarked, of the same parts continuing to vary in the same direction. the tendency to mere general variability or plasticity of organisation can certainly be inherited, even from one parent, as has been shown by gärtner and kölreuter, in the production of varying hybrids from two species, of which one alone was variable. it is in itself probable that, when an organ has varied in any manner, it will again vary in the same manner, if the conditions which first caused the being to vary remain, as far as can be judged, the same. this is either tacitly or expressly admitted by all horticulturists: if a gardener observes one or two additional petals in a flower, he feels confident that in a few generations he will be able to raise a double flower, crowded with petals. some of the seedlings from the weeping moccas oak were so prostrate that they only crawled along the ground. a seedling from the fastigate or upright irish yew is described as differing greatly from the parent-form "by the exaggeration of the fastigate habit of its branches."[592] mr. sheriff, who has been more successful than any other man in raising new kinds of wheat, remarks, "a good variety may safely be regarded as the forerunner of a better one."[593] a great rose-grower, mr. rivers, has made the same remark with respect to roses. sageret,[594] who had large experience, in speaking of the future progress of fruit-trees, observes that the most important principle is "that the more plants have departed from their original type, the more they tend to depart from it." there is apparently much truth in this {242} remark; for we can in no other way understand the surprising amount of difference between varieties in the parts or qualities which are valued, whilst other parts retain nearly their original character. the foregoing discussion naturally leads to the question, what is the limit to the possible amount of variation in any part or quality, and, consequently, is there any limit to what selection can effect? will a race-horse ever be reared fleeter than eclipse? can our prize-cattle and sheep be still further improved? will a gooseberry ever weigh more than that produced by "london" in 1852? will the beet-root in france yield a greater percentage of sugar? will future varieties of wheat and other grain produce heavier crops than our present varieties? these questions cannot be positively answered; but it is certain that we ought to be cautious in answering by a negative. in some lines of variation the limit has probably been reached. youatt believes that the reduction of bone in some of our sheep has already been carried so far that it entails great delicacy of constitution.[595] but seeing the great improvement within recent times in our cattle and sheep, and especially in our pigs; seeing the wonderful increase in weight in our poultry of all kinds during the last few years; he would be a bold man who would assert that perfection has been reached. eclipse perhaps may never be beaten until all our race-horses have been rendered swifter, through the selection of the best horses during many generations; and then the old eclipse may possibly be eclipsed; but, as mr. wallace has remarked, there must be an ultimate limit to the fleetness of every animal, whether under nature or domestication; and with the horse this limit has perhaps been reached. until our fields are better manured, it may be impossible for a new variety of wheat to yield a heavier crop. but in many cases those who are best qualified to judge do not believe that the extreme point has as yet been reached even with respect to characters which have already been carried to a high standard of perfection. for instance, the short-faced tumbler-pigeon has been greatly modified; nevertheless, according to mr. eaton,[596] "the field is still as open for fresh competitors as it was one hundred years ago." over and over again it has been said that {243} perfection had been attained with our flowers, but a higher standard has soon been reached. hardly any fruit has been more improved than the strawberry, yet a great authority remarks,[597] "it must not be concealed that we are far from the extreme limits at which we may arrive." time is an important element in the formation of our domestic races, as it permits innumerable individuals to be born, and these when exposed to diversified conditions are rendered variable. methodical selection has been occasionally practised from an ancient period to the present day, even by semi-civilised people, and during former times will have produced some effect. unconscious selection will have been still more effective; for during a lengthened period the more valuable individual animals will occasionally have been saved, and the less valuable neglected. in the course, also, of time, different varieties, especially in the less civilised countries, will have been more or less modified through natural selection. it is generally believed, though on this head we have little or no evidence, that new characters in time become fixed; and after having long remained fixed it seems possible that under new conditions they might again be rendered variable. how great the lapse of time has been since man first domesticated animals and cultivated plants, we begin dimly to see. when the lake-buildings of switzerland were inhabited during the neolithic period, several animals were already domesticated and various plants cultivated. if we may judge from what we now see of the habits of savages, it is probable that the men of the earlier stone period--when many great quadrupeds were living which are now extinct, and when the face of the country was widely different from what it now is--possessed at least some few domesticated animals, although their remains have not as yet been discovered. if the science of language can be trusted, the art of ploughing and sowing the land was followed, and the chief animals had been already domesticated, at an epoch so immensely remote, that the sanskrit, greek, latin, gothic, celtic, and sclavonic languages had not as yet diverged from their common parent-tongue.[598] {244} it is scarcely possible to overrate the effects of selection occasionally carried on in various ways and places during thousands of generations. all that we know, and, in a still stronger degree, all that we do not know,[599] of the history of the great majority of our breeds, even of our more modern breeds, agrees with the view that their production, through the action of unconscious and methodical selection, has been almost insensibly slow. when a man attends rather more closely than is usual to the breeding of his animals, he is almost sure to improve them to a slight extent. they are in consequence valued in his immediate neighbourhood, and are bred by others; and their characteristic features, whatever these may be, will then slowly but steadily be increased, sometimes by methodical and almost always by unconscious selection. at last a strain, deserving to be called a sub-variety, becomes a little more widely known, receives a local name, and spreads. the spreading will have been extremely slow during ancient and less civilised times, but now is rapid. by the time that the new breed had assumed a somewhat distinct character, its history, hardly noticed at the time, will have been completely forgotten; for, as low remarks,[600] "we know how quickly the memory of such events is effaced." as soon as a new breed is thus formed, it is liable through the same process to break up into new strains and sub-varieties. for different varieties are suited for, and are valued under, different circumstances. fashion changes, but, should a fashion last for even a moderate length of time, so strong is the principle of inheritance, that some effect will probably be impressed on the breed. thus varieties go on increasing in number, and history shows us how wonderfully they have increased since the earliest records.[601] as each new variety is produced, the earlier, intermediate, and less valuable forms will be neglected, and perish. when a breed, from not being valued, is kept in small numbers, its extinction almost inevitably follows sooner or later, either from accidental causes of destruction or from close interbreeding; and this is an event which, in the case of well-marked breeds, excites attention. the birth or production of a new domestic race is so slow a process that it {245} escapes notice; its death or destruction is comparatively sudden, is often recorded, and when too late sometimes regretted. several authors have drawn a wide distinction between artificial and natural races. the latter are more uniform in character, possessing in a high degree the character of natural species, and are of ancient origin. they are generally found in less civilised countries, and have probably been largely modified by natural selection, and only to a small extent by man's unconscious and methodical selection. they have, also, during a long period, been directly acted on by the physical conditions of the countries which they inhabit. the so-called artificial races, on the other hand, are not so uniform in character; some have a semi-monstrous character, such as "the wry-legged terriers so useful in rabbit-shooting,"[602] turnspit dogs, ancon sheep, niata oxen, polish fowls, fantail-pigeons, &c.; their characteristic features have generally been acquired suddenly, though subsequently increased in many cases by careful selection. other races, which certainly must be called artificial, for they have been largely modified by methodical selection and by crossing, as the english race-horse, terrier-dogs, the english game-cock, antwerp carrier-pigeons, &c., nevertheless cannot be said to have an unnatural appearance; and no distinct line, as it seems to me, can be drawn between natural and artificial races. it is not surprising that domestic races should generally present a different aspect from natural species. man selects and propagates modifications solely for his own use or fancy, and not for the creature's own good. his attention is struck by strongly marked modifications, which have appeared suddenly, due to some great disturbing cause in the organisation. he attends almost exclusively to external characters; and when he succeeds in modifying internal organs,--when for instance he reduces the bones and offal, or loads the viscera with fat, or gives early maturity, &c.,--the chances are strong that he will at the same time weaken the constitution. on the other hand, when an animal has to struggle throughout its life with many competitors and enemies, under circumstances inconceivably complex and liable to change, modifications of the most varied nature--in the internal organs as well as in external characters, in the {246} functions and mutual relations of parts--will be rigorously tested, preserved, or rejected. natural selection often checks man's comparatively feeble and capricious attempts at improvement; and if this were not so, the result of his work, and of nature's work, would be even still more different. nevertheless, we must not overrate the amount of difference between natural species and domestic races; the most experienced naturalists have often disputed whether the latter are descended from one or from several aboriginal stocks, and this clearly shows that there is no palpable difference between species and races. domestic races propagate their kind far more truly, and endure for much longer periods, than most naturalists are willing to admit. breeders feel no doubt on this head; ask a man who has long reared shorthorn or hereford cattle, leicester or southdown sheep, spanish or game poultry, tumbler or carrier-pigeons, whether these races may not have been derived from common progenitors, and he will probably laugh you to scorn. the breeder admits that he may hope to produce sheep with finer or longer wool and with better carcases, or handsomer fowls, or carrier-pigeons with beaks just perceptibly longer to the practised eye, and thus be successful at an exhibition. thus far he will go, but no farther. he does not reflect on what follows from adding up during a long course of time many, slight, successive modifications; nor does he reflect on the former existence of numerous varieties, connecting the links in each divergent line of descent. he concludes, as was shown in the earlier chapters, that all the chief breeds to which he has long attended are aboriginal productions. the systematic naturalist, on the other hand, who generally knows nothing of the art of breeding, who does not pretend to know how and when the several domestic races were formed, who cannot have seen the intermediate gradations, for they do not now exist, nevertheless feels no doubt that these races are sprung from a single source. but ask him whether the closely allied natural species which he has studied may not have descended from a common progenitor, and he in his turn will perhaps reject the notion with scorn. thus the naturalist and breeder may mutually learn a useful lesson from each other. * * * * * _summary on selection by man._--there can be no doubt that {247} methodical selection has effected and will effect wonderful results. it was occasionally practised in ancient times, and is still practised by semi-civilised people. characters of the highest importance, and others of trifling value, have been attended to, and modified. i need not here repeat what has been so often said on the part which unconscious selection has played: we see its power in the difference between flocks which have been separately bred, and in the slow changes, as circumstances have slowly changed, which many animals have undergone in the same country, or when transported into a foreign land. we see the combined effects of methodical and unconscious selection in the great amount of difference between varieties in those parts or qualities which are valued by man, in comparison with those which are not valued, and consequently have not been attended to. natural selection often determines man's power of selection. we sometimes err in imagining that characters, which are considered as unimportant by the systematic naturalist, could not be affected by the struggle for existence, and therefore be acted on by natural selection; but striking cases have been given, showing how great an error this is. the possibility of selection coming into action rests on variability; and this is mainly caused, as we shall hereafter see, by changes in the conditions of life. selection is sometimes rendered difficult, or even impossible, by the conditions being opposed to the desired character or quality. it is sometimes checked by the lessened fertility and weakened constitution which follow from long-continued close interbreeding. that methodical selection may be successful, the closest attention and discernment, combined with unwearied patience, are absolutely necessary; and these same qualities, though not indispensable, are highly serviceable in the case of unconscious selection. it is almost necessary that a large number of individuals should be reared; for thus there will be a fair chance of variations of the desired nature arising, and every individual with the slightest blemish or in any degree inferior may be freely rejected. hence length of time is an important element of success. thus, also, propagation at an early age and at short intervals favours the work. facility in pairing animals, or their inhabiting a confined area, is advantageous as a check to free crossing. whenever and {248} wherever selection is not practised, distinct races are not formed. when any one part of the body or quality is not attended to, it remains either unchanged or varies in a fluctuating manner, whilst at the same time other parts and other qualities may become permanently and greatly modified. but from the tendency to reversion and to continued variability, those parts or organs which are now undergoing rapid improvement through selection, are likewise found to vary much. consequently highly-bred animals, when neglected, soon degenerate; but we have no reason to believe that the effects of long-continued selection would, if the conditions of life remained the same, be soon and completely lost. man always tends to go to an extreme point in the selection, whether methodical or unconscious, of all useful and pleasing qualities. this is an important principle, as it leads to continued divergence, and in some rare cases to convergence of character. the possibility of continued divergence rests on the tendency in each part or organ to go on varying in the same manner in which it has already varied; and that this occurs, is proved by the steady and gradual improvement of many animals and plants during lengthened periods. the principle of divergence of character, combined with the neglect and final extinction of all previous, less-valued, and intermediate varieties, explains the amount of difference and the distinctness of our several races. although we may have reached the utmost limit to which certain characters can be modified, yet we are far from having reached, as we have good reason to believe, the limit in the majority of cases. finally, from the difference between selection as carried on by man and by nature, we can understand how it is that domestic races often, though by no means always, differ in general aspect from closely allied natural species. throughout this chapter and elsewhere i have spoken of selection as the paramount power, yet its action absolutely depends on what we in our ignorance call spontaneous or accidental variability. let an architect be compelled to build an edifice with uncut stones, fallen from a precipice. the shape of each fragment may be called accidental; yet the shape of each has been determined by the force of gravity, the nature {249} of the rock, and the slope of the precipice,--events and circumstances, all of which depend on natural laws; but there is no relation between these laws and the purpose for which each fragment is used by the builder. in the same manner the variations of each creature are determined by fixed and immutable laws; but these bear no relation to the living structure which is slowly built up through the power of selection, whether this be natural or artificial selection. if our architect succeeded in rearing a noble edifice, using the rough wedge-shaped fragments for the arches, the longer stones for the lintels, and so forth, we should admire his skill even in a higher degree than if he had used stones shaped for the purpose. so it is with selection, whether applied by man or by nature; for though variability is indispensably necessary, yet, when we look at some highly complex and excellently adapted organism, variability sinks to a quite subordinate position in importance in comparison with selection, in the same manner as the shape of each fragment used by our supposed architect is unimportant in comparison with his skill. * * * * * {250} chapter xxii. causes of variability. variability does not necessarily accompany reproduction--causes assigned by various authors--individual differences--variability of every kind due to changed conditions of life--on the nature of such changes--climate, food, excess of nutriment--slight changes sufficient--effects of grafting on the variability of seedling-trees--domestic productions become habituated to changed conditions--on the accumulative action of changed conditions--close interbreeding and the imagination of the mother supposed to cause variability--crossing as a cause of the appearance of new characters--variability from the commingling of characters and from reversion--on the manner and period of action of the causes which either directly, or indirectly through the reproductive system, induce variability. we will now consider, as far as we can, the causes of the almost universal variability of our domesticated productions. the subject is an obscure one; but it may be useful to probe our ignorance. some authors, for instance dr. prosper lucas, look at variability as a necessary contingent on reproduction, and as much an aboriginal law, as growth or inheritance. others have of late encouraged, perhaps unintentionally, this view by speaking of inheritance and variability as equal and antagonistic principles. pallas maintained, and he has had some followers, that variability depends exclusively on the crossing of primordially distinct forms. other authors attribute the tendency to variability to an excess of food, and with animals to an excess relatively to the amount of exercise taken, or again to the effects of a more genial climate. that these causes are all effective is highly probable. but we must, i think, take a broader view, and conclude that organic beings, when subjected during several generations to any change whatever in their conditions, tend to vary; the kind of variation which ensues depending in a far higher degree on the nature or constitution of the being, than on the nature of the changed conditions. {251} those authors who believe that it is a law of nature that each individual should differ in some slight degree from every other, may maintain, apparently with truth, that this is the fact, not only with all domesticated animals and cultivated plants, but likewise with all organic beings in a state of nature. the laplander by long practice knows and gives a name to each reindeer, though, as linnæus remarks, "to distinguish one from another among such multitudes was beyond my comprehension, for they were like ants on an ant-hill." in germany shepherds have won wagers by recognising each sheep in a flock of a hundred, which they had never seen until the previous fortnight. this power of discrimination, however, is as nothing compared to that which some florists have acquired. verlot mentions a gardener who could distinguish 150 kinds of camellia, when not in flower; and it has been positively asserted that the famous old dutch florist voorhelm, who kept above 1200 varieties of the hyacinth, was hardly ever deceived in knowing each variety by the bulb alone. hence we must conclude that the bulbs of the hyacinth and the branches and leaves of the camellia, though appearing to an unpractised eye absolutely undistinguishable, yet really differ.[603] as linnæus has compared the reindeer in number to ants, i may add that each ant knows its fellow of the same community. several times i carried ants of the same species (_formica rufa_) from one ant-hill to another, inhabited apparently by tens of thousands of ants; but the strangers were instantly detected and killed. i then put some ants taken from a very large nest into a bottle strongly perfumed with assafoetida, and after an interval of twenty-four hours returned them to their home; they were at first threatened by their fellows, but were soon recognised and allowed to pass. hence each ant certainly recognises, independently of odour, its fellow; and if all the ants of the same community have not some countersign or watchword, they must present to each other's senses some distinguishable character. {252} the dissimilarity of brothers or sisters of the same family, and of seedlings from the same capsule, may be in part accounted for by the unequal blending of the characters of the two parents, and by the more or less complete recovery through reversion of ancestral characters on either side; but we thus only push the difficulty further back in time, for what made the parents or their progenitors different? hence the belief[604] that an innate tendency to vary exists, independently of external conditions, seems at first sight probable. but even the seeds nurtured in the same capsule are not subjected to absolutely uniform conditions, as they draw their nourishment from different points; and we shall see in a future chapter that this difference sometimes suffices greatly to affect the character of the future plant. the less close similarity of the successive children of the same family in comparison with human twins, which often resemble each other in external appearance, mental disposition, and constitution, in so extraordinary a manner, apparently proves that the state of the parents at the exact period of conception, or the nature of the subsequent embryonic development, has a direct and powerful influence on the character of the offspring. nevertheless, when we reflect on the {253} individual differences between organic beings in a state of nature, as shown by every wild animal knowing its mate; and when we reflect on the infinite diversity of the many varieties of our domesticated productions, we may well be inclined to exclaim, though falsely as i believe, that variability must be looked at as an ultimate fact, necessarily contingent on reproduction. those authors who adopt this latter view would probably deny that each separate variation has its own proper exciting cause. although we can seldom trace the precise relation between cause and effect, yet the considerations presently to be given lead to the conclusion that each modification must have its own distinct cause. when we hear of an infant born, for instance, with a crooked finger, a misplaced tooth, or other slight deviation of structure, it is difficult to bring the conviction home to the mind that such abnormal cases are the result of fixed laws, and not of what we blindly call accident. under this point of view the following case, which has been carefully examined and communicated to me by dr. william ogle, is highly instructive. two girls, born as twins, and in all respects extremely alike, had their little fingers on both hands crooked; and in both children the second bicuspid tooth in the upper jaw, of the second dentition, was misplaced; for these teeth, instead of standing in a line with the others, grew from the roof of the mouth behind the first bicuspids. neither the parents nor any other member of the family had exhibited any similar peculiarity. now, as both these children were affected in exactly the same manner by both deviations of structure, the idea of accident is at once excluded; and we are compelled to admit that there must have existed some precise and sufficient cause which, if it had occurred a hundred times, would have affected a hundred children. we will now consider the general arguments, which appear to me to have great weight, in favour of the view that variations of all kinds and degrees are directly or indirectly caused by the conditions of life to which each being, and more especially its ancestors, have been exposed. no one doubts that domesticated productions are more variable than organic beings which have never been removed from their {254} natural conditions. monstrosities graduate so insensibly into mere variations that it is impossible to separate them; and all those who have studied monstrosities believe that they are far commoner with domesticated than with wild animals and plants;[605] and in the case of plants, monstrosities would be equally noticeable in the natural as in the cultivated state. under nature, the individuals of the same species are exposed to nearly uniform conditions, for they are rigorously kept to their proper places by a host of competing animals and plants; they have, also, long been habituated to their conditions of life; but it cannot be said that they are subject to quite uniform conditions, and they are liable to a certain amount of variation. the circumstances under which our domestic productions are reared are widely different: they are protected from competition; they have not only been removed from their natural conditions and often from their native land, but they are frequently carried from district to district, where they are treated differently, so that they never remain during a considerable length of time exposed to closely similar conditions. in conformity with this, all our domesticated productions, with the rarest exceptions, vary far more than natural species. the hive-bee, which feeds itself and follows in most respects its natural habits of life, is the least variable of all domesticated animals, and probably the goose is the next least variable; but even the goose varies more than almost any wild bird, so that it cannot be affiliated with perfect certainty to any natural species. hardly a single plant can be named, which has long been cultivated and propagated by seed, that is not highly variable; common rye (_secale cereale_) has afforded fewer and less marked varieties than almost any other cultivated plant;[606] but it may be doubted whether the variations of this, the least valuable of all our cereals, have been closely observed. bud-variation, which was fully discussed in a former chapter, shows us that variability may be quite independent of seminal reproduction, and likewise of reversion to long-lost ancestral characters. no one will maintain that the sudden appearance {255} of a moss-rose on a provence-rose is a return to a former state, for mossiness of the calyx has been observed in no natural species; the same argument is applicable to variegated and laciniated leaves; nor can the appearance of nectarines on peach-trees be accounted for with any probability on the principle of reversion. but bud-variations more immediately concern us, as they occur far more frequently on plants which have been highly cultivated during a length of time, than on other and less highly cultivated plants; and very few well-marked instances have been observed with plants growing under strictly natural conditions. i have given one instance of an ash-tree growing in a gentleman's pleasure-grounds; and occasionally there may be seen, on beech and other trees, twigs leafing at a different period from the other branches. but our forest trees in england can hardly be considered as living under strictly natural conditions; the seedlings are raised and protected in nursery-grounds, and must often be transplanted into places where wild trees of the kind would not naturally grow. it would be esteemed a prodigy if a dog-rose growing in a hedge produced by bud-variation a moss-rose, or a wild bullace or wild cherry-tree yielded a branch bearing fruit of a different shape and colour from the ordinary fruit. the prodigy would be enhanced if these varying branches were found capable of propagation, not only by grafts, but sometimes by seed; yet analogous cases have occurred with many of our highly cultivated trees and herbs. these several considerations alone render it probable that variability of every kind is directly or indirectly caused by changed conditions of life. or, to put the case under another point of view, if it were possible to expose all the individuals of a species during many generations to absolutely uniform conditions of life, there would be no variability. _on the nature of the changes in the conditions of life which induce variability._ from a remote period to the present day, under climates and circumstances as different as it is possible to conceive, organic beings of all kinds, when domesticated or cultivated, have {256} varied. we see this with the many domestic races of quadrupeds and birds belonging to different orders, with gold-fish and silkworms, with plants of many kinds, raised in various quarters of the world. in the deserts of northern africa the date-palm has yielded thirty-eight varieties; in the fertile plains of india it is notorious how many varieties of rice and of a host of other plants exist; in a single polynesian island, twenty-four varieties of the bread-fruit, the same number of the banana, and twenty-two varieties of the arum, are cultivated by the natives; the mulberry-tree in india and europe has yielded many varieties serving as food for the silkworm; and in china sixty-three varieties of the bamboo are used for various domestic purposes.[607] these facts alone, and innumerable others could be added, indicate that a change of almost any kind in the conditions of life suffices to cause variability--different changes acting on different organisms. andrew knight[608] attributed the variation of both animals and plants to a more abundant supply of nourishment, or to a more favourable climate, than that natural to the species. a more genial climate, however, is far from necessary; the kidney-bean, which is often injured by our spring frosts, and peaches, which require the protection of a wall, have varied much in england, as has the orange-tree in northern italy, where it is barely able to exist.[609] nor can we overlook the fact, though not immediately connected with our present subject, that the plants and shells of the arctic regions are eminently variable.[610] moreover, it does not appear that a change of climate, whether more or less genial, is one of the most potent causes of variability; for in regard to plants alph. de candolle, in his 'géographie {257} botanique,' repeatedly shows that the native country of a plant, where in most cases it has been longest cultivated, is that where it has yielded the greatest number of varieties. it is doubtful whether a change in the nature of the food is a potent cause of variability. scarcely any domesticated animal has varied more than the pigeon or the fowl, but their food, especially that of highly-bred pigeons, is generally the same. nor can our cattle and sheep have been subjected to any great change in this respect. but in all these cases the food probably is much less varied in kind than that which was consumed by the species in its natural state.[611] of all the causes which induce variability, excess of food, whether or not changed in nature, is probably the most powerful. this view was held with regard to plants by andrew knight, and is now held by schleiden, more especially in reference to the inorganic elements of the food.[612] in order to give a plant more food it suffices in most cases to grow it separately, and thus prevent other plants robbing its roots. it is surprising, as i have often seen, how vigorously our common wild plants flourish when planted by themselves, though not in highly manured land. growing plants separately is, in fact, the first step in cultivation. we see the converse of the belief that excess of food induces variability in the following statement by a great raiser of seeds of all kinds.[613] "it is a rule invariably with us, when we desire to keep a true stock of any one kind of seed, to grow it on poor land without dung; but when we grow for quantity, we act contrary, and sometimes have dearly to repent of it." in the case of animals the want of a proper amount of exercise, as bechstein has remarked, has perhaps played, independently of the direct effects of the disuse of any particular organ, an important part in causing variability. we can see in a vague manner that, when the organised and nutrient fluids of the body are not used during growth, or by the wear and tear of the tissues, {258} they will be in excess; and as growth, nutrition, and reproduction are intimately allied processes, this superfluity might disturb the due and proper action of the reproductive organs, and consequently affect the character of the future offspring. but it may be argued that neither an excess of food nor a superfluity in the organised fluids of the body necessarily induces variability. the goose and the turkey have been well fed for many generations, yet have varied very little. our fruit-trees and culinary plants, which are so variable, have been cultivated from an ancient period, and, though they probably still receive more nutriment than in their natural state, yet they must have received during many generations nearly the same amount; and it might be thought that they would have become habituated to the excess. nevertheless, on the whole, knight's view, that excess of food is one of the most potent causes of variability, appears, as far as i can judge, probable. whether or not our various cultivated plants have received nutriment in excess, all have been exposed to changes of various kinds. fruit-trees are grafted on different stocks, and grown in various soils. the seeds of culinary and agricultural plants are carried from place to place; and during the last century the rotation of our crops and the manures used have been greatly changed. slight changes of treatment often suffice to induce variability. the simple fact of almost all our cultivated plants and domesticated animals having varied in all places and at all times, leads to this conclusion. seeds taken from common english forest-trees, grown under their native climate, not highly manured or otherwise artificially treated, yield seedlings which vary much, as may be seen in every extensive seed-bed. i have shown in a former chapter what a number of well marked and singular varieties the thorn (_cratægus oxyacantha_) has produced; yet this tree has been subjected to hardly any cultivation. in staffordshire i carefully examined a large number of two british plants, namely, _geranium phæum_ and _pyrenaicum_, which have never been highly cultivated. these plants had spread spontaneously by seed from a common garden into an open plantation; and the seedlings varied in almost every single character, both in their flowers and foliage, to a degree which {259} i have never seen exceeded; yet they could not have been exposed to any great change in their conditions. with respect to animals, azara has remarked with much surprise,[614] that, whilst the feral horses on the pampas are always of one of three colours, and the cattle always of a uniform colour, yet these animals, when bred on the unenclosed estancias, though kept in a state which can hardly be called domesticated, and apparently exposed to almost identically the same conditions as when they are feral, nevertheless display a great diversity of colour. so again in india several species of fresh-water fish are only so far treated artificially, that they are reared in great tanks; but this small change is sufficient to induce much variability.[615] some facts on the effects of grafting, in regard to the variability of trees, deserve attention. cabanis asserts that when certain pears are grafted on the quince, their seeds yield more varieties than do the seeds of the same variety of pear when grafted on the wild pear.[616] but as the pear and quince are distinct species, though so closely related that the one can be readily grafted and succeeds admirably on the other, the fact of variability being thus caused is not surprising; we are, however, here enabled to see the cause, namely, the different nature of the stock with its roots and the rest of the tree. several north american varieties of the plum and peach are well known to reproduce themselves truly by seed; but downing asserts,[617] "that when a graft is taken from one of these trees and placed upon another stock, this grafted tree is found to lose its singular property of producing the same variety by seed, and becomes like all other worked trees;"--that is, its seedlings become highly variable. another case is worth giving: the lalande variety of the walnut-tree leafs between april 20th and may 15th, and its seedlings invariably inherit the same habit; whilst several other varieties of the walnut leaf in june. now, if seedlings are raised from the may-leafing lalande variety, grafted on another may-leafing variety, though both stock and graft have the same early habit of leafing, yet the seedlings leaf at various times, {260} even as late as the 5th of june.[618] such facts as these are well fitted to show, on what obscure and slight causes variability rests. i may here just allude to the appearance of new and valuable varieties of fruit-trees and of wheat in woods and waste places, which at first sight seems a most anomalous circumstance. in france a considerable number of the best pears have been discovered in woods; and this has occurred so frequently, that poiteau asserts that "improved varieties of our cultivated fruits rarely originate with nurserymen."[619] in england, on the other hand, no instance of a good pear having been found wild has been recorded; and mr. rivers informs me that he knows of only one instance with apples, namely, the bess poole, which was discovered in a wood in nottinghamshire. this difference between the two countries may be in part accounted for by the more favourable climate of france, but chiefly from the great number of seedlings which spring up there in the woods. i infer that this is the case from a remark made by a french gardener,[620] who regards it as a national calamity that such a number of pear-trees are periodically cut down for firewood, before they have borne fruit. the new varieties which thus spring up in the woods, though they cannot have received any excess of nutriment, will have been exposed to abruptly changed conditions, but whether this is the cause of their production is very doubtful. these varieties, however, are probably all descended[621] from old cultivated kinds growing in adjoining orchards,--a circumstance which will account for their variability; and out of a vast number of varying trees there will always be a good chance of the appearance of a valuable kind. in north america, where fruit-trees frequently spring up in waste places, the washington pear was found in a hedge, and the emperor peach in a wood.[622] with respect to wheat, some writers have spoken[623] as if it were an ordinary event for new varieties to be found in waste places; the fenton wheat was certainly discovered growing on a pile of basaltic detritus in a quarry, but in such a situation the plant would probably receive a sufficient amount {261} of nutriment. the chidham wheat was raised from an ear found _on_ a hedge; and hunter's wheat was discovered _by_ the roadside in scotland, but it is not said that this latter variety grew where it was found.[624] whether our domestic productions would ever become so completely habituated to the conditions under which they now live, as to cease varying, we have no sufficient means for judging. but, in fact, our domestic productions are never exposed for a great length of time to uniform conditions, and it is certain that our most anciently cultivated plants, as well as animals, still go on varying, for all have recently undergone marked improvement. in some few cases, however, plants have become habituated to new conditions. thus metzger, who cultivated in germany during many years numerous varieties of wheat, brought from different countries,[625] states that some kinds were at first extremely variable, but gradually, in one instance after an interval of twenty-five years, became constant; and it does not appear that this resulted from the selection of the more constant forms. * * * * * _on the accumulative action of changed conditions of life._--we have good grounds for believing that the influence of changed conditions accumulates, so that no effect is produced on a species until it has been exposed during several generations to continued cultivation or domestication. universal experience shows us that when new flowers are first introduced into our gardens they do not vary; but ultimately all, with the rarest exceptions, vary to a greater or less extent. in a few cases the requisite number of generations, as well as the successive steps in the progress of variation, have been recorded, as in the often-quoted instance of the dahlia.[626] after several years' culture the zinnia has only lately (1860) begun to vary in any great degree. "in the first seven or eight years of high cultivation the swan river daisy (_brachycome iberidifolia_) kept to its original colour; it then varied into lilac and purple and other minor shades."[627] analogous facts have been recorded with the scotch rose. in discussing the variability of plants several experienced horticulturists have spoken to the {262} same general effect. mr. salter[628] remarks, "every one knows that the chief difficulty is in breaking through the original form and colour of the species, and every one will be on the look-out for any natural sport, either from seed or branch; that being once obtained, however trifling the change may be, the result depends upon himself." m. de jonghe, who has had so much success in raising new varieties of pears and strawberries,[629] remarks with respect to the former, "there is another principle, namely, that the more a type has entered into a state of variation, the greater is its tendency to continue doing so; and the more it has varied from the original type, the more it is disposed to vary still farther." we have, indeed, already discussed this latter point when treating of the power which man possesses, through selection, of continually augmenting in the same direction each modification; for this power depends on continued variability of the same general kind. the most celebrated horticulturist in france, namely, vilmorin,[630] even maintains that, when any particular variation is desired, the first step is to get the plant to vary in any manner whatever, and to go on selecting the most variable individuals, even though they vary in the wrong direction; for the fixed character of the species being once broken, the desired variation will sooner or later appear. as nearly all our animals were domesticated at an extremely remote epoch, we cannot, of course, say whether they varied quickly or slowly when first subjected to new conditions. but dr. bachman[631] states that he has seen turkeys raised from the eggs of the wild species lose their metallic tints and become spotted with white in the third generation. mr. yarrell many years ago informed me that the wild ducks bred on the ponds in st. james's park, which had never been crossed, as it is believed, with domestic ducks, lost their true plumage after a few generations. an excellent observer,[632] who has often reared birds from the eggs of the wild duck, and who took precautions {263} that there should be no crossing with domestic breeds, has given, as previously stated, full details on the changes which they gradually undergo. he found that he could not breed these wild ducks true for more than five or six generations, "as they then proved so much less beautiful. the white collar round the neck of the mallard became much broader and more irregular, and white feathers appeared in the ducklings' wings." they increased also in size of body; their legs became less fine, and they lost their elegant carriage. fresh eggs were then procured from wild birds; but again the same result followed. in these cases of the duck and turkey we see that animals, like plants, do not depart from their primitive type until they have been subjected during several generations to domestication. on the other hand, mr. yarrell informed me that the australian dingos, bred in the zoological gardens, almost invariably produced in the first generation puppies marked with white and other colours; but these introduced dingos had probably been procured from the natives, who keep them in a semi-domesticated state. it is certainly a remarkable fact that changed conditions should at first produce, as far as we can see, absolutely no effect; but that they should subsequently cause the character of the species to change. in the chapter on pangenesis i shall attempt to throw a little light on this fact. * * * * * returning now to the causes which are supposed to induce variability. some authors[633] believe that close interbreeding gives this tendency, and leads to the production of monstrosities. in the seventeenth chapter some few facts were advanced, showing that monstrosities are, as it appears, occasionally thus caused; and there can be no doubt that close interbreeding induces lessened fertility and a weakened constitution; hence it may lead to variability: but i have not sufficient evidence on this head. on the other hand, close interbreeding, if not carried to an injurious extreme, far from causing variability, tends to fix the character of each breed. it was formerly a common belief, still held by some persons, that the imagination of the mother affects the child in {264} the womb.[634] this view is evidently not applicable to the lower animals, which lay unimpregnated eggs, or to plants. dr. william hunter, in the last century, told my father that during many years every woman in a large london lying-in hospital was asked before her confinement whether anything had specially affected her mind, and the answer was written down; and it so happened that in no one instance could a coincidence be detected between the woman's answer and any abnormal structure; but when she knew the nature of the structure, she frequently suggested some fresh cause. the belief in the power of the mother's imagination may perhaps have arisen from the children of a second marriage resembling the previous father, as certainly sometimes occurs, in accordance with the facts given in the eleventh chapter. * * * * * _crossing as a cause of variability._--in an early part of this chapter it was stated that pallas[635] and a few other naturalists maintain that variability is wholly due to crossing. if this means that new characters never spontaneously appear in our domestic races, but that they are all directly derived from certain aboriginal species, the doctrine is little less than absurd; for it implies that animals like italian greyhounds, pug-dogs, bull-dogs, pouter and fantail pigeons, &c., were able to exist in a state of nature. but the doctrine may mean something widely different, namely, that the crossing of distinct species is the sole cause of the first appearance of new characters, and that without this aid man could not have formed his various breeds. as, however, new characters have appeared in certain cases by bud-variation, we may conclude with certainty that crossing is not necessary for variability. it is, moreover, almost certain that the breeds of various animals, such as of the rabbit, pigeon, duck, &c., and the varieties of several plants, are the modified descendants of a single wild species. nevertheless, it is probable that the crossing of two forms, when one or both have long been domesticated or cultivated, adds to the variability of the offspring, independently of the commingling of the characters derived from the two parent-forms; and this implies {265} that new characters actually arise. but we must not forget the facts advanced in the thirteenth chapter, which clearly prove that the act of crossing often leads to the reappearance or reversion of long-lost characters; and in most cases it would be impossible to distinguish between the reappearance of ancient characters and the first appearance of new characters. practically, whether new or old, they would be new to the breed in which they reappeared. gärtner declares,[636] and his experience is of the highest value on such a point, that, when he crossed native plants which had not been cultivated, he never once saw in the offspring any new character; but that from the odd manner in which the characters derived from the parents were combined, they sometimes appeared as if new. when, on the other hand, he crossed cultivated plants, he admits that new characters occasionally appeared, but he is strongly inclined to attribute their appearance to ordinary variability, not in any way to the cross. an opposite conclusion, however, appears to me the more probable. according to kölreuter, hybrids in the genus mirabilis vary almost infinitely, and he describes new and singular characters in the form of the seeds, in the colour of the anthers, in the cotyledons being of immense size, in new and highly peculiar odours, in the flowers expanding early in the season, and in their closing at night. with respect to one lot of these hybrids, he remarks that they presented characters exactly the reverse of what might have been expected from their parentage.[637] prof. lecoq[638] speaks strongly to the same effect in regard to this same genus, and asserts that many of the hybrids from _mirabilis jalapa_ and _multiflora_ might easily be mistaken for distinct species, and adds that they differed in a greater degree, than the other species of the genus, from _m. jalapa_. herbert, also, has described[639] the offspring from a hybrid rhododendron as being "as _unlike all others_ in foliage, as if they had been a separate species." the common experience of floriculturists proves that the crossing and recrossing of distinct but allied plants, such as the species of petunia, calceolaria, fuchsia, verbena, &c., induces excessive variability; hence the appearance of quite new characters is probable. m. carrière[640] has lately discussed this subject: he states that _erythrina cristagalli_ had been multiplied by seed for many years, but had not yielded any varieties: it was then crossed with the allied _e. herbacea_, and "the resistance was now overcome, and varieties were produced with flowers of extremely different size, form, and colour." from the general and apparently well-founded belief that the crossing {266} of distinct species, besides commingling their characters, adds greatly to their variability, it has probably arisen that some botanists have gone so far as to maintain[641] that, when a genus includes only a single species, this when cultivated never varies. the proposition made so broadly cannot be admitted; but it is probably true that the variability of cultivated monotypic genera is much less than that of genera including numerous species, and this quite independently of the effects of crossing. i have stated in my 'origin of species,' and in a future work shall more fully show, that the species belonging to small genera generally yield a less number of varieties in a state of nature than those belonging to large genera. hence the species of small genera would, it is probable, produce fewer varieties under cultivation than the already variable species of larger genera. although we have not at present sufficient evidence that the crossing of species, which have never been cultivated, leads to the appearance of new characters, this apparently does occur with species which have been already rendered in some degree variable through cultivation. hence crossing, like any other change in the conditions of life, seems to be an element, probably a potent one, in causing variability. but we seldom have the means of distinguishing, as previously remarked, between the appearance of really new characters and the reappearance of long-lost characters, evoked through the act of crossing. i will give an instance of the difficulty in distinguishing such cases. the species of datura may be divided into two sections, those having white flowers with green stems, and those having purple flowers with brown stems: now naudin[642] crossed _datura lævis_ and _ferox_, both of which belong to the white section, and raised from them 205 hybrids. of these hybrids, every one had brown stems and bore purple flowers; so that they resembled the species of the other section of the genus, and not their own two parents. naudin was so much astonished at this fact, that he was led carefully to observe both parent-species, and he discovered that the pure seedlings of _d. ferox_, immediately after germination, had dark purple stems, extending from the young roots up to the cotyledons, and that this tint remained ever afterwards as a ring round the base of the stem of the plant when old. now i have shown in the thirteenth chapter that the retention or exaggeration of an early character is so intimately related to reversion, that it evidently comes under the same principle. hence probably we ought to look at the purple flowers and brown stems of these hybrids, not as new characters due to variability, but as a return to the former state of some ancient progenitor. independently of the appearance of new characters from crossing, a few words may be added to what has been said in former chapters on the unequal combination and transmission of the characters proper to the two parent-forms. when two species or races are crossed, the offspring of {267} the first generation are generally uniform, but subsequently they display an almost infinite diversity of character. he who wishes, says kölreuter,[643] to obtain an endless number of varieties from hybrids should cross and recross them. there is also much variability when hybrids or mongrels are reduced or absorbed by repeated crosses with either pure parent-form; and a still higher degree of variability when three distinct species, and most of all when four species, are blended together by successive crosses. beyond this point gärtner,[644] on whose authority the foregoing statements are made, never succeeded in effecting a union; but max wichura[645] united six distinct species of willows into a single hybrid. the sex of the parent-species affects in an inexplicable manner the degree of variability of hybrids; for gärtner[646] repeatedly found that when a hybrid was used as the father, and either one of the pure parent-species, or a third species, was used as the mother, the offspring were more variable than when the same hybrid was used as the mother, and either pure parent or the same third species as the father: thus seedlings from _dianthus barbatus_ crossed by the hybrid _d. chinensi-barbatus_ were more variable than those raised from this latter hybrid fertilised by the pure _d. barbatus_. max wichura[647] insists strongly on an analogous result with his hybrid willows. again gärtner[648] asserts that the degree of variability sometimes differs in hybrids raised from reciprocal crosses between the same two species; and here the sole difference is, that the one species is first used as the father and then as the mother. on the whole we see that, independently of the appearance of new characters, the variability of successive crossed generations is extremely complex, partly from the offspring partaking unequally of the characters of the two parent-forms, and more especially from their unequal tendency to revert to these same characters or to those of more ancient progenitors. * * * * * _on the manner and on the period of action of the causes which induce variability._--this is an extremely obscure subject, and we need here only briefly consider, firstly, whether inherited variations are caused by the organisation being directly acted on, or indirectly through the reproductive system; and secondly, at what period of life or growth they are primarily caused. we shall see in the two following chapters that various agencies, such as an abundant supply of food, exposure to a different climate, increased use or disuse of parts, &c., prolonged during several generations, certainly modify either the whole organisation or certain organs. this direct action of changed conditions perhaps comes into play much more frequently than can be proved, and it is at least clear that in all cases of {268} bud-variation the action cannot have been through the reproductive system. with respect to the part which the reproductive system takes in causing variability, we have seen in the eighteenth chapter that even slight changes in the conditions of life have a remarkable power in causing a greater or less degree of sterility. hence it seems not improbable that being generated though a system so easily affected should themselves be affected, or should fail to inherit, or inherit in excess, characters proper to their parents. we know that certain groups of organic beings, but with exceptions in each group, have their reproductive systems much more easily affected by changed conditions than other groups; for instance, carnivorous birds more readily than carnivorous mammals, and parrots more readily than pigeons; and this fact harmonizes with the apparently capricious manner and degree in which various groups of animals and plants vary under domestication. kölreuter[649] was struck with the parallelism between the excessive variability of hybrids when crossed and recrossed in various ways,--these hybrids having their reproductive powers more or less affected,--and the variability of anciently cultivated plants. max wichura[650] has gone one step farther, and shows that with many of our highly cultivated plants, such as the hyacinth, tulip, auricula, snapdragon, potato, cabbage, &c., which there is no reason to believe have been hybridized, the anthers contain many irregular pollen-grains, in the same state as in hybrids. he finds also in certain wild forms, the same coincidence between the state of the pollen and a high degree of variability, as in many species of rubus; but in _r. cæsius_ and _idæus_, which are not highly variable species, the pollen is sound. it is also notorious that many cultivated plants, such as the banana, pine-apple, breadfruit, and others previously mentioned, have their reproductive organs so seriously affected as to be generally quite sterile; and when they do yield seed, the seedlings, judging from the large number of cultivated races which exist, must be variable in an extreme degree. these facts indicate that there is some relation between the state of the reproductive organs and a tendency to variability; but we must not conclude that the relation is strict. although many of our highly cultivated plants may have their pollen in a deteriorated condition, yet, as we have previously seen, they yield more seed, and our anciently domesticated animals are more prolific, than the corresponding species in a state of nature. the peacock is almost the only bird which is believed to be less fertile under domestication than in its native state, and it has varied in a remarkably small degree. from these considerations it would seem that changes in the conditions of life lead either to sterility or to variability, or to both; and not that sterility induces variability. on the whole it is probable that any cause affecting the organs of reproduction would likewise affect their product,--that is, the offspring thus generated. {269} the period of life at which the causes that induce variability act, is another obscure subject, which has been discussed by various authors.[651] in some of the cases, to be given in the following chapter, of modifications from the direct action of changed conditions, which are inherited, there can be no doubt that the causes have acted on the mature or nearly mature animal. on the other hand, monstrosities, which cannot be distinctly separated from lesser variations, are often caused by the embryo being injured whilst in the mother's womb or in the egg. thus i. geoffroy st. hilaire[652] asserts that poor women who work hard during their pregnancy, and the mothers of illegitimate children troubled in their minds and forced to conceal their state, are far more liable to give birth to monsters than women in easy circumstances. the eggs of the fowl when placed upright or otherwise treated unnaturally frequently produce monstrous chickens. it would, however, appear that complex monstrosities are induced more frequently during a rather late than during a very early period of embryonic life; but this may partly result from some one part, which has been injured during an early period, affecting by its abnormal growth other parts subsequently developed; and this would be less likely to occur with parts injured at a later period.[653] when any part or organ becomes monstrous through abortion, a rudiment is generally left, and this likewise indicates that its development had already commenced. insects sometimes have their antennæ or legs in a monstrous condition, and yet the larvæ from which they are metamorphosed do not possess either antennæ or legs; and in those cases, as quatrefages[654] believes, we are enabled to see the precise period at which the normal progress of development has been troubled. but the nature of the food given to a caterpillar sometimes affects the colours of the moth, without the caterpillar itself being affected; therefore it seems possible that other characters in the mature insect might be indirectly modified through the larvæ. there is no reason to suppose that organs which have been rendered monstrous have always been acted on during their development; the cause may have acted on the organisation at a much earlier stage. it is even probable that either the male or female sexual elements, or both, before their union, may be affected in such a manner as to lead to modifications in organs developed at a late period of life; in nearly the same manner as a child may inherit from his father a disease which does not appear until old age. in accordance with the facts above given, which prove that in many cases a close relation exists between variability and the sterility following from changed conditions, we may conclude that the exciting cause often acts at the earliest possible period, namely, on the sexual elements, before impregnation has taken place. that an affection of the female sexual element may induce variability we may likewise infer as probable from the occurrence of bud-variations; for a bud seems to be the analogue of an ovule. but the male element is apparently much oftener affected by changed {270} conditions, at least in a visible manner, than the female element or ovule; and we know from gärtner's and wichura's statements that a hybrid used as the father and crossed with a pure species gives a greater degree of variability to the offspring, than does the same hybrid when used as the mother. lastly, it is certain that variability may be transmitted through either sexual element, whether or not originally excited in them, for kölreuter and gärtner[655] found that when two species were crossed, if either one was variable, the offspring were rendered variable. * * * * * _summary._--from the facts given in this chapter, we may conclude that the variability of organic beings under domestication, although so general, is not an inevitable contingent on growth and reproduction, but results from the conditions to which the parents have been exposed. changes of any kind in the conditions of life, even extremely slight changes, often suffice to cause variability. excess of nutriment is perhaps the most efficient single exciting cause. animals and plants continue to be variable for an immense period after their first domestication; but the conditions to which they are exposed never long remain quite constant. in the course of time they can be habituated to certain changes, so as to become less variable; and it is possible that when first domesticated they may have been even more variable than at present. there is good evidence that the power of changed conditions accumulates; so that two, three, or more generations must be exposed to new conditions before any effect is visible. the crossing of distinct forms, which have already become variable, increases in the offspring the tendency to further variability, by the unequal commingling of the characters of the two parents, by the reappearance of long-lost characters, and by the appearance of absolutely new characters. some variations are induced by the direct action of the surrounding conditions on the whole organisation, or on certain parts alone, and other variations are induced indirectly through the reproductive system being affected in the same manner as is so common with organic beings when removed from their natural conditions. the causes which induce variability act on the mature organism, on the embryo, and, as we have good reason to believe, on both sexual elements before impregnation has been effected. * * * * * {271} chapter xxiii. direct and definite action of the external conditions of life. slight modifications in plants from the definite action of changed conditions in size, colour, chemical properties, and in the state of the tissues--local diseases--conspicuous modifications from changed climate or food, etc.--plumage of birds affected by peculiar nutriment, and by the inoculation of poison--land-shells--modifications of organic beings in a state of nature through the definite action of external conditions--comparison of american and european trees--galls--effects of parasitic fungi--considerations opposed to the belief in the potent influence of changed external conditions--parallel series of varieties--amount of variation does not correspond with the degree of change in the conditions--bud-variation--monstrosities produced by unnatural treatment--summary. if we ask ourselves why this or that character has been modified under domestication, we are, in most cases lost in utter darkness. many naturalists, especially of the french school, attribute every modification to the "monde ambiant," that is, to changed climate, with all its diversities of heat and cold, dampness and dryness, light and electricity, to the nature of the soil, and to varied kinds and amount of food. by the term definite action, as used in this chapter, i mean an action of such a nature that, when many individuals of the same variety are exposed during several generations to any change in their physical conditions of life, all, or nearly all the individuals, are modified in the same manner. a new sub-variety would thus be produced without the aid of selection. i do not include under the term of definite action the effects of habit or of the increased use and disuse of various organs. modifications of this nature, no doubt, are definitely caused by the conditions to which the beings are subjected; but they depend much less on the nature of the conditions than on the laws of growth; hence they are included under a distinct head in the {272} following chapter. we know, however, far too little of the causes and laws of variation to make a sound classification. the direct action of the conditions of life, whether leading to definite or indefinite results, is a totally distinct consideration from the effects of natural selection; for natural selection depends on the survival under various and complex circumstances of the best-fitted individuals, but has no relation whatever to the primary cause of any modification of structure. i will first give in detail all the facts which i have been able to collect, rendering it probable that climate, food, &c., have acted so definitely and powerfully on the organisation of our domesticated productions, that they have sufficed to form new sub-varieties or races, without the aid of selection by man or of natural selection. i will then give the facts and considerations opposed to this conclusion, and finally we will weigh, as fairly as we can, the evidence on both sides. when we reflect that distinct races of almost all our domesticated animals exist in each kingdom of europe, and formerly even in each district of england, we are at first strongly inclined to attribute their origin to the definite action of the physical conditions of each country; and this has been the conclusion of many authors. but we should bear in mind that man annually has to choose which animals shall be preserved for breeding, and which shall be slaughtered. we have also seen that both methodical and unconscious selection were formerly practised, and are now occasionally practised by the most barbarous races, to a much greater extent than might have been anticipated. hence it is very difficult to judge how far the difference in conditions between, for instance, the several districts in england, could have sufficed without the aid of selection to modify the breeds which have been reared in each. it may be argued that, as numerous wild animals and plants have ranged during many ages throughout great britain, and still retain the same character, the difference in conditions between the several districts could not have modified in so marked a manner the various native races of cattle, sheep, pigs, and horses. the same difficulty of distinguishing between selection and the definite effects of the conditions of life, is encountered in a still higher degree when we compare closely allied natural {273} forms, inhabiting two countries, such as north america and europe, which do not differ greatly in climate, nature of soil, &c., for in this case natural selection will inevitably and rigorously have acted during a long succession of ages. from the importance of the difficulty just alluded to, it will be advisable to give as large a body of facts as possible, showing that extremely slight differences in treatment, either in different parts of the same country, or during different seasons, certainly cause an appreciable effect, at least on varieties which are already in an unstable condition. ornamental flowers are good for this purpose, as they are highly variable, and are carefully observed. all floriculturists are unanimous that certain varieties are affected by very slight differences in the nature of the artificial compost in which they are grown, and by the natural soil of the district, and by the season. thus, a skilful judge, in writing on carnations and picotees,[656] asks "where can admiral curzon be seen possessing the colour, size, and strength which it has in derbyshire? where can flora's garland be found equal to those at slough? where do high-coloured flowers revel better than at woolwich and birmingham? yet in no two of these districts do the same varieties attain an equal degree of excellence, although each may be receiving the attention of the most skilful cultivators." the same writer then recommends every cultivator to keep five different kinds of soil and manure, "and to endeavour to suit the respective appetites of the plants you are dealing with, for without such attention all hope of general success will be vain." so it is with the dahlia:[657] the lady cooper rarely succeeds near london, but does admirably in other districts; the reverse holds good with other varieties; and again, there are others which succeed equally well in various situations. a skilful gardener[658] states that he procured cuttings of an old and well-known variety (pulchella) of verbena, which from having been propagated in a different situation presented a slightly different shade of colour; the two varieties were afterwards multiplied by cuttings, being carefully kept distinct; but in the second year they could hardly be distinguished, and in the third year no one could distinguish them. the nature of the season has an especial influence on certain varieties of the dahlia: in 1841 two varieties were pre-eminently good, and the next year these same two were pre-eminently bad. a famous amateur[659] asserts that in 1861 many varieties of the rose came so untrue in character, "that it was hardly possible to recognise them, and the thought was not seldom entertained that the grower had lost his tally." the same amateur[660] states that in 1862 two-thirds of his auriculas produced central trusses of flowers, and these are remarkable from not keeping true; {274} and he adds that in some seasons certain varieties of this plant all prove good, and the next season all prove bad; whilst exactly the reverse happens with other varieties. in 1845 the editor of the 'gardener's chronicle'[661] remarked how singular it was that this year many calceolarias tended to assume a tubular form. with heartsease[662] the blotched sorts do not acquire their proper character until hot weather sets in; whilst other varieties lose their beautiful marks as soon as this occurs. analogous facts have been observed with leaves: mr. beaton asserts[663] that he raised at shrubland, during six years, twenty thousand seedlings from the punch pelargonium, and not one had variegated leaves; but at surbiton, in surrey, one-third, or even a greater proportion, of the seedlings from this same variety were more or less variegated. the soil of another district in surrey has a strong tendency to cause variegation, as appears from information given me by sir f. pollock. verlot[664] states that the variegated strawberry retains its character as long as grown in a dryish soil, but soon loses it when planted in fresh and humid soil. mr. salter, who is well known for his success in cultivating variegated plants, informs me that rows of strawberries were planted in his garden in 1859, in the usual way; and at various distances in one row, several plants simultaneously became variegated, and what made the case more extraordinary, all were variegated in precisely the same manner. these plants were removed, but during the three succeeding years other plants in the same row became variegated, and in no instance were the plants in any adjoining row affected. the chemical qualities, odours, and tissues of plants are often modified by a change which seems to us slight. the hemlock is said not to yield conicine in scotland. the root of the _aconitum napellus_ becomes innocuous in frigid climates. the medicinal properties of the digitalis are easily affected by culture. the rhubarb flourishes in england, but does not produce the medicinal substance which makes the plant so valuable in chinese tartary. as the _pistacia lentiscus_ grows abundantly in the south of france, the climate must suit it, but it yields no mastic. the _laurus sassafras_ in europe loses the odour proper to it in north america.[665] many similar facts could be given, and they are remarkable because it might have been thought that definite chemical compounds would have been little liable to change either in quality or quantity. the wood of the american locust-tree (_robinia_) when grown in england is nearly worthless, as is that of the oak-tree when grown at the cape of good hope.[666] hemp and flax, as i hear from dr. falconer, flourish and yield plenty of seed on the plains of india, but their fibres are brittle {275} and useless. hemp, on the other hand, fails to produce in england that resinous matter which is so largely used in india as an intoxicating drug. the fruit of the melon is greatly influenced by slight differences in culture and climate. hence it is generally a better plan, according to naudin, to improve an old kind than to introduce a new one into any locality. the seed of the persian melon produces near paris fruit inferior to the poorest market kinds, but at bordeaux yields delicious fruit.[667] seed is annually brought from thibet to kashmir,[668] and produces fruit weighing from four to ten pounds, but plants raised from seed saved in kashmir next year give fruit weighing only from two to three pounds. it is well known that american varieties of the apple produce in their native land magnificent and brightly-coloured fruit, but in england of poor quality and a dull colour. in hungary there are many varieties of the kidney-bean, remarkable for the beauty of their seeds, but the rev. m. j. berkeley[669] found that their beauty could hardly ever be preserved in england, and in some cases the colour was greatly changed. we have seen in the ninth chapter, with respect to wheat, what a remarkable effect transportal from the north to the south of france, and reversely, produced on the weight of the grain. when man can perceive no change in plants or animals which have been exposed to a new climate or to different treatment, insects can sometimes perceive a marked change. the same species of cactus has been carried to india from canton, manilla, mauritius, and from the hot-houses of kew, and there is likewise a so-called native kind, formerly introduced from south america; all these plants are alike in appearance, but the cochineal insect flourishes only on the native kind, on which it thrives prodigiously.[670] humboldt remarks[671] that white men "born in the torrid zone walk barefoot with impunity in the same apartment where a european, recently landed, is exposed to the attacks of the _pulex penetrans_." this insect, the too well-known chigoe, must therefore be able to distinguish what the most delicate chemical analysis fails to distinguish, namely, a difference between the blood or tissues of a european and those of a white man born in the country. but the discernment of the chigoe is not so surprising as it at first appears; for {276} according to liebig[672] the blood of men with different complexions, though inhabiting the same country, emits a different odour. diseases peculiar to certain localities, heights, or climates, may be here briefly noticed, as showing the influence of external circumstances on the human body. diseases confined to certain races of man do not concern us, for the constitution of the race may play the more important part, and this may have been determined by unknown causes. the plica polonica stands, in this respect, in a nearly intermediate position; for it rarely affects germans, who inhabit the neighbourhood of the vistula, where so many poles are grievously affected; and on the other hand, it does not affect russians, who are said to belong to the same original stock with the poles.[673] the elevation of a district often governs the appearance of diseases; in mexico the yellow fever does not extend above 924 mètres; and in peru, people are affected with the _verugas_ only between 600 and 1600 mètres above the sea; many other such cases could be given. a peculiar cutaneous complaint, called the _bouton d'alep_, affects in aleppo and some neighbouring districts almost every native infant, and some few strangers; and it seems fairly well established that this singular complaint depends on drinking certain waters. in the healthy little island of st. helena the scarlet-fever is dreaded like the plague; analogous facts have been observed in chili and mexico.[674] even in the different departments of france it is found that the various infirmities which render the conscript unfit for serving in the army, prevail with remarkable inequality, revealing, as boudin observes, that many of them are endemic, which otherwise would never have been suspected.[675] any one who will study the distribution of disease will be struck with surprise at what slight differences in the surrounding circumstances govern the nature and severity of the complaints by which man is at least temporarily affected. the modifications as yet referred to have been extremely slight, and in most cases have been caused, as far as we can judge, by equally slight changes in the conditions. but can it be safely maintained that such changed conditions, if acting during a long series of generations, would not produce a marked effect? it is commonly believed that the people of the united states differ in appearance from the parent anglo-saxon race; and selection cannot have come into action within so short a period. a good observer[676] states that a general absence of fat, {277} a thin and elongated neck, stiff and lank hair, are the chief characteristics. the change in the nature of the hair is supposed to be caused by the dryness of the atmosphere. if immigration into the united states were now stopped, who can say that the character of the whole people would not be greatly modified in the course of two or three thousand years? the direct and definite action of changed conditions, in contradistinction to the accumulation of indefinite variations, seems to me so important that i will give a large additional body of miscellaneous facts. with plants, a considerable change of climate sometimes produces a conspicuous result. i have given in detail in the ninth chapter the most remarkable case known to me, namely, that in germany several varieties of maize brought from the hotter parts of america were transformed in the course of only two or three generations. dr. falconer informs me that he has seen the english ribston-pippin apple, a himalayan oak, prunus and pyrus, all assume in the hotter parts of india a fastigate or pyramidal habit; and this fact is the more interesting, as a chinese tropical species of pyrus naturally has this habit of growth. although in these cases the changed manner of growth seems to have been directly caused by the great heat, we know that many fastigate trees have originated in their temperate homes. in the botanic gardens of ceylon the apple-tree[677] "sends out numerous runners under ground, which continually rise into small stems, and form a growth around the parent-tree." the varieties of the cabbage which produce heads in europe fail to do so in certain tropical countries.[678] the _rhododendron ciliatum_ produced at kew flowers so much larger and paler-coloured than those which it bears on its native himalayan mountain, that dr. hooker[679] would hardly have recognised the species by the flowers alone. many similar facts with respect to the colour and size of flowers could be given. the experiments of vilmorin and buckman on carrots and parsnips prove that abundant nutriment produces a definite and inheritable effect on the so-called roots, with scarcely any change in other parts of the plant. alum directly influences the colour of the flowers of the hydrangea.[680] dryness seems generally to favour the hairyness or villosity of plants. gärtner found that hybrid verbascums became extremely woolly when grown in pots. mr. masters, on the other hand, states that the _opuntia leucotricha_ "is well clothed with beautiful white hairs when grown in a damp heat; but in a dry heat exhibits none of this peculiarity."[681] slight variations of many kinds, not worth specifying in detail, are retained only as {278} long as plants are grown in certain soils, of which sageret[682] gives from his own experience some instances. odart, who insists strongly on the permanence of the varieties of the grape, admits[683] that some varieties, when grown under a different climate or treated differently, vary in an extremely slight degree, as in the tint of the fruit and in the period of ripening. some authors have denied that grafting causes even the slightest difference in the scion; but there is sufficient evidence that the fruit is sometimes slightly affected in size and flavour, the leaves in duration, and the flowers in appearance.[684] with animals there can be no doubt, from the facts given in the first chapter, that european dogs deteriorate in india, not only in their instincts but in structure; but the changes which they undergo are of such a nature, that they may be partly due to reversion to a primitive form, as in the case of feral animals. in parts of india the turkey becomes reduced in size, "with the pendulous appendage over the beak enormously developed."[685] we have seen how soon the wild duck, when domesticated, loses its true character, from the effects of abundant or changed food, or from taking little exercise. from the direct action of a humid climate and poor pasture the horse rapidly decreases in size in the falkland islands. from information which i have received, this seems likewise to be the case to a certain extent with sheep in australia. climate definitely influences the hairy covering of animals; in the west indies a great change is produced in the fleece of sheep, in about three generations. dr. falconer states[686] that the thibet mastiff and goat, when brought down from the himalaya to kashmir, lose their fine wool. at angora not only goats, but shepherd-dogs and cats, have fine fleecy hair, and mr. ainsworth[687] attributes the thickness of the fleece to the severe winters, and its silky lustre to the hot summers. burnes states positively[688] that the karakool sheep lose their peculiar black curled fleeces when removed into any other country. even within the limits of england, i have been assured that with two breeds of sheep the wool was slightly changed by the flocks being pastured in different localities.[689] it has been asserted on good authority[690] that horses kept during several years in the deep coal-mines of belgium become covered with velvety hair, almost like that on the mole. these cases probably stand in close relation to the natural change of coat in winter and summer. naked varieties of several domestic animals have occasionally appeared; but there is no reason to {279} believe that this is in any way related to the nature of the climate to which they have been exposed.[691] it appears at first sight probable that the increased size, the tendency to fatten, the early maturity and altered forms of our improved cattle, sheep, and pigs, have directly resulted from their abundant supply of food. this is the opinion of many competent judges, and probably is to a great extent true. but as far as form is concerned, we must not overlook the equal or more potent influence of lessened use on the limbs and lungs. we see, moreover, as far as size is concerned, that selection is apparently a more powerful agent than a large supply of food, for we can thus only account for the existence, as remarked to me by mr. blyth, of the largest and smallest breeds of sheep in the same country, of cochin-china fowls and bantams, of small tumbler and large runt pigeons, all kept together and supplied with abundant nourishment. nevertheless there can be little doubt that our domesticated animals have been modified, independently of the increased or lessened use of parts, by the conditions to which they have been subjected, without the aid of selection. for instance, prof. rütimeyer[692] shows that the bones of all domesticated quadrupeds can be distinguished from those of wild animals by the state of their surface and general appearance. it is scarcely possible to read nathusius's excellent 'vorstudien,'[693] and doubt that, with the highly improved races of the pig, abundant food has produced a conspicuous effect on the general form of the body, on the breadth of the head and face, and even on the teeth. nathusius rests much on the case of a purely bred berkshire pig, which when two months old became diseased in its digestive organs, and was preserved for observation until nineteen months old; at this age it had lost several characteristic features of the breed, and had acquired a long, narrow head, of large size relatively to its small body, and elongated legs. but in this case and in some others we ought not to assume that, because certain characters are lost, perhaps through reversion, under one course of treatment, therefore that they had been at first directly produced by an opposite course. in the case of the rabbit, which has become feral on the island of porto santo, we are at first strongly tempted to attribute the whole change--the greatly reduced size, the altered tints of the fur, and the loss of certain characteristic marks--to the definite action of the new conditions to which it has been exposed. but in all such cases we have to consider in addition the tendency to reversion to progenitors more or less remote, and the natural selection of the finest shades of difference. the nature of the food sometimes either definitely induces certain peculiarities, or stands in some close relation with them. pallas long ago asserted that the fat-tailed sheep of siberia degenerated and lost their enormous tails when removed from certain saline pastures; and recently {280} erman[694] states that this occurs with the kirgisian sheep when brought to orenburgh. it is well known that hemp-seed causes bullfinches and certain other birds to become black. mr. wallace has communicated to me some much more remarkable facts of the same nature. the natives of the amazonian region feed the common green parrot (_chrysotis festiva_, linn.) with the fat of large siluroid fishes, and the birds thus treated become beautifully variegated with red and yellow feathers. in the malayan archipelago, the natives of gilolo alter in an analogous manner the colours of another parrot, namely, the _lorius garrulus_, linn., and thus produce the _lori rajah_ or king-lory. these parrots in the malay islands and south america, when fed by the natives on natural vegetable food, such as rice and plantains, retain their proper colours. mr. wallace has, also, recorded[695] a still more singular fact. "the indians (of s. america) have a curious art by which they change the colours of the feathers of many birds. they pluck out those from the part they wish to paint, and inoculate the fresh wound with the milky secretion from the skin of a small toad. the feathers grow of a brilliant yellow colour, and on being plucked out, it is said, grow again of the same colour without any fresh operation." bechstein[696] does not entertain any doubt that seclusion from light affects, at least temporarily, the colours of cage-birds. it is well known that the shells of land-mollusca are affected by the abundance of lime in different districts. isidore geoffroy st. hilaire[697] gives the case of _helix lactea_, which has recently been carried from spain to the south of france and to the rio plata, and in both these countries now presents a distinct appearance, but whether this has resulted from food or climate is not known. with respect to the common oyster, mr. f. buckland informs me that he can generally distinguish the shells from different districts; young oysters brought from wales and laid down in beds where "_natives_" are indigenous, in the short space of two months begin to assume the "native" character. m. costa[698] has recorded a much more remarkable case of the same nature, namely, that young shells taken from the shores of england and placed in the mediterranean, at once altered their manner of growth and formed prominent diverging rays, like those on the shells of the proper mediterranean oyster. the same individual shell, showing both forms of growth, was exhibited before a society in paris. lastly, it is well known that caterpillars fed on different food sometimes either themselves acquire a different colour or produce moths different in colour.[699] {281} it would be travelling beyond my proper limits here to discuss how far organic beings in a state of nature are definitely modified by changed conditions. in my 'origin of species' i have given a brief abstract of the facts bearing on this point, and have shown the influence of light on the colours of birds, and of residence near the sea on the lurid tints of insects, and on the succulency of plants. mr. herbert spencer[700] has recently discussed with much ability this whole subject on broad and general grounds. he argues, for instance, that with all animals the external and internal tissues are differently acted on by the surrounding conditions, and they invariably differ in intimate structure. so again the upper and lower surfaces of true leaves, as well as of stems and petioles, when these assume the function and occupy the position of leaves, are differently circumstanced with respect to light, &c., and apparently in consequence differ in structure. but, as mr. herbert spencer admits, it is most difficult in all such cases to distinguish between the effects of the definite action of physical conditions and the accumulation through natural selection of inherited variations which are serviceable to the organism, and which have arisen independently of the definite action of these conditions. although we are not here concerned with organic beings in a state of nature, yet i may call attention to one case. mr. meehan,[701] in a remarkable paper, compares twenty-nine kinds of american trees, belonging to various orders, with their nearest european allies, all grown in close proximity in the same garden and under as nearly as possible the same conditions. in the american species mr. meehan finds, with the rarest exceptions, that the leaves fall earlier in the season, and assume before falling a brighter tint; that they are less deeply toothed or serrated; that the buds are smaller; that the trees are more diffuse in growth and have fewer branchlets; and, lastly, that the seeds are smaller--all in comparison with the corresponding european species. now, considering that these trees belong to distinct orders, it is out of the question that the peculiarities just specified should have been inherited in the one continent from one progenitor, and in the other from another progenitor; and considering that the trees inhabit widely different stations, these peculiarities can hardly be supposed to be of any special {282} service to the two series in the old and new worlds; therefore these peculiarities cannot have been naturally selected. hence we are led to infer that they have been definitely caused by the long-continued action of the different climate of the two continents on the trees. _galls._--another class of facts, not relating to cultivated plants, deserves attention. i allude to the production of galls. every one knows the curious, bright-red, hairy productions on the wild rose-tree, and the various different galls produced by the oak. some of the latter resemble fruit, with one face as rosy as the rosiest apple. these bright colours can be of no service either to the gall-forming insect or to the tree, and probably are the direct result of the action of the light, in the same manner as the apples of nova scotia or canada are brighter coloured than english apples. the strongest upholder of the doctrine that organic beings are created beautiful to please mankind would not, i presume, extend this view to galls. according to osten sacken's latest revision, no less than fifty-eight kinds of galls are produced on the several species of oak, by cynips with its sub-genera; and mr. b. d. walsh[702] states that he can add many others to the list. one american species of willow, the _salix humilis_, bears ten distinct kinds of galls. the leaves which spring from the galls of various english willows differ completely in shape from the natural leaves. the young shoots of junipers and firs, when punctured by certain insects, yield monstrous growths like flowers and cones; and the flowers of some plants become from the same cause wholly changed in appearance. galls are produced in every quarter of the world; of several sent to me by mr. thwaites from ceylon, some were as symmetrical as a composite flower when in bud, others smooth and spherical like a berry; some protected by long spines, others clothed with yellow wool formed of long cellular hairs, others with regularly tufted hairs. in some galls the internal structure is simple, but in others it is highly complex; thus m. lucaze-duthiers[703] has figured in the common ink-gall no less than seven concentric layers, composed of distinct tissue, {283} namely, the epidermic, sub-epidermic, spongy, intermediate, and the hard protective layer formed of curiously thickened woody cells, and, lastly, the central mass abounding with starch-granules on which the larvæ feed. galls are produced by insects of various orders, but the greater number by species of cynips. it is impossible to read m. lucaze-duthier's discussion and doubt that the poisonous secretion of the insect causes the growth of the gall, and every one knows how virulent is the poison secreted by wasps and bees, which belong to the same order with cynips. galls grow with extraordinary rapidity, and it is said that they attain their full size in a few days;[704] it is certain that they are almost completely developed before the larvæ are hatched. considering that many gall-insects are extremely small, the drop of secreted poison must be excessively minute; it probably acts on one or two cells alone, which, being abnormally stimulated, rapidly increase by a process of self-division. galls, as mr. walsh[705] remarks, afford good, constant, and definite characters, each kind keeping as true to form as does any independent organic being. this fact becomes still more remarkable when we hear that, for instance, seven out of the ten different kinds of galls produced on _salix humilis_ are formed by gall-gnats (_cecidomyidæ_) which, "though essentially distinct species, yet resemble one another so closely that in almost all cases it is difficult, and in some cases impossible, to distinguish the full-grown insects one from the other."[706] for in accordance with a wide-spread analogy we may safely infer that the poison secreted by insects so closely allied would not differ much in nature; yet this slight difference is sufficient to induce widely different results. in some few cases the same species of gall-gnat produces on distinct species of willows galls which cannot be distinguished; the _cynips fecundatrix_, also, has been known to produce on the turkish oak, to which it is not properly attached, exactly the same kind of gall as on the european oak.[707] these latter facts apparently prove that the nature of the poison is a much more powerful {284} agent in determining the form of the gall than the specific character of the tree which is acted on. as the poisonous secretion of insects belonging to various orders has the special power of affecting the growth of various plants;--as a slight difference in the nature of the poison suffices to produce widely different results;--and lastly, as we know that the chemical compounds secreted by plants are eminently liable to be modified by changed conditions of life, we may believe it possible that various parts of a plant might be modified through the agency of its own altered secretions. compare, for instance, the mossy and viscid calyx of a moss-rose, which suddenly appears through bud-variation on a provence-rose, with the gall of red moss growing from the inoculated leaf of a wild rose, with each filament symmetrically branched like a microscopical spruce-fir, bearing a glandular tip and secreting odoriferous gummy matter.[708] or compare, on the one hand, the fruit of the peach, with its hairy skin, fleshy covering, hard shell and kernel, and on the other hand one of the more complex galls with its epidermic, spongy, and woody layers, surrounding tissue loaded with starch granules. these normal and abnormal structures manifestly present a certain degree of resemblance. or, again, reflect on the cases above given of parrots which have had their plumage brightly decorated through some change in their blood, caused by having been fed on certain fishes, or locally inoculated with the poison of a toad. i am far from wishing to maintain that the moss-rose or the hard shell of the peach-stone or the bright colours of birds are actually due to any chemical change in the sap or blood; but these cases of galls and of parrots are excellently adapted to show us how powerfully and singularly external agencies may affect structure. with such facts before us, we need feel no surprise at the appearance of any modification in any organic being. i may, also, here allude to the remarkable effects which parasitic fungi sometimes produce on plants. reissek[709] has described a thesium, affected by an oecidium, which was greatly modified, and assumed some of the {285} characteristic features of certain allied species, or even genera. suppose, says reissek, "the condition originally caused by the fungus to become constant in the course of time, the plant would, if found growing wild, be considered as a distinct species or even as belonging to a new genus." i quote this remark to show how profoundly, yet in how natural a manner, this plant must have been modified by the parasitic fungus. _facts and considerations opposed to the belief that the conditions of life act in a potent manner in causing definite modifications of structure._ i have alluded to the slight differences in species when naturally living in distinct countries under different conditions; and such differences we feel at first inclined, probably to a limited extent with justice, to attribute to the definite action of the surrounding conditions. but it must be borne in mind that there are a far greater number of animals and plants which range widely and have been exposed to great diversities of conditions, yet remain nearly uniform in character. some authors, as previously remarked, account for the varieties of our culinary and agricultural plants by the definite action of the conditions to which they have been exposed in the different parts of great britain; but there are about 200 plants[710] which are found in every single english county; these plants must have been exposed for an immense period to considerable differences of climate and soil, yet do not differ. so, again, some birds, insects, other animals, and plants range over large portions of the world, yet retain the same character. notwithstanding the facts previously given on the occurrence of highly peculiar local diseases and on the strange modifications of structure in plants caused by the inoculated poison of insects, and other analogous cases; still there are a multitude of variations--such as the modified skull of the niata ox and bulldog, the long horns of caffre cattle, the conjoined toes of the solid-hoofed swine, the immense crest and protuberant skull of polish fowls, the crop of the pouter-pigeon, and a host of other such cases--which we can hardly attribute to the definite action, in the sense before specified, of the external conditions of life. no doubt in every case there must have been some exciting cause; but as we see innumerable individuals exposed to nearly the same conditions, and one alone is affected, we may conclude that the constitution of the individual is of far higher {286} importance than the conditions to which it has been exposed. it seems, indeed, to be a general rule that conspicuous variations occur rarely, and in one individual alone out of many thousands, though all may have been exposed, as far as we can judge, to nearly the same conditions. as the most strongly marked variations graduate insensibly into the most trifling, we are led by the same train of thought to attribute each slight variation much more to innate differences of constitution, however caused, than to the definite action of the surrounding conditions. we are led to the same conclusion by considering the cases, formerly alluded to, of fowls and pigeons, which have varied and will no doubt go on varying in directly opposite ways, though kept during many generations under nearly the same conditions. some, for instance, are born with their beaks, wings, tails, legs, &c., a little longer, and others with these same parts a little shorter. by the long-continued selection of such slight individual differences, which occur in birds kept in the same aviary, widely different races could certainly be formed; and long-continued selection, important as is the result, does nothing but preserve the variations which appear to us to arise spontaneously. in these cases we see that domesticated animals vary in an indefinite number of particulars, though treated as uniformly as is possible. on the other hand, there are instances of animals and plants, which, though exposed to very different conditions, both under nature and domestication, have varied in nearly the same manner. mr. layard informs me that he has observed amongst the caffres of south africa a dog singularly like an arctic esquimaux dog. pigeons in india present nearly the same wide diversities of colour as in europe; and i have seen chequered and simply barred pigeons, and pigeons with blue and white loins, from sierra leone, madeira, england, and india. new varieties of flowers are continually raised in different parts of great britain, but many of these are found by the judges at our exhibitions to be almost identical with old varieties. a vast number of new fruit-trees and culinary vegetables have been produced in north america: these differ from european varieties in the same general manner as the several varieties raised in europe differ from each other; and no one has ever pretended that the climate of america has given to the many american varieties any general character by which they can be recognised. nevertheless, from the facts previously advanced on the authority of mr. meehan with respect to american and european forest-trees, it would be rash to affirm that varieties raised in the two countries would not in the course of ages assume a distinctive character. mr. masters has recorded a striking fact[711] bearing on this subject: he raised numerous plants of _hybiscus syriacus_ from seed collected in south carolina and the holy land, where the parent-plants must have been exposed to considerably different conditions; yet the seedlings from both localities broke into two similar strains, one with obtuse leaves and purple or crimson flowers, and the other with elongated leaves and more or less pink flowers. {287} we may, also, infer the prepotent influence of the constitution of the organism over the definite action of the conditions of life, from the several cases given in the earlier chapters of parallel series of varieties,--an important subject, hereafter to be more fully discussed. sub-varieties of the several kinds of wheat, gourds, peaches, and other plants, and to a certain limited extent sub-varieties of the fowl, pigeon, and dog, have been shown either to resemble or to differ from each other in a closely corresponding and parallel manner. in other cases, a variety of one species resembles a distinct species; or the varieties of two distinct species resemble each other. although these parallel resemblances no doubt often result from reversion to the former characters of a common progenitor; yet in other cases, when new characters first appear, the resemblance must be attributed to the inheritance of a similar constitution, and consequently to a tendency to vary in the same manner. we see something of a similar kind in the same monstrosity appearing and reappearing many times in the same animal, and, as dr. maxwell masters has remarked to me, in the same plant. we may at least conclude thus far, that the amount of modification which animals and plants have undergone under domestication, does not correspond with the degree to which they have been subjected to changed circumstances. as we know the parentage of domesticated birds far better than of most quadrupeds, we will glance through the list. the pigeon has varied in europe more than almost any other bird; yet it is a native species, and has not been exposed to any extraordinary change of conditions. the fowl has varied equally, or almost equally, with the pigeon, and is a native of the hot jungles of india. neither the peacock, a native of the same country, nor the guinea-fowl, an inhabitant of the dry deserts of africa, has varied at all, or only in colour. the turkey, from mexico, has varied but little. the duck, on the other hand, a native of europe, has yielded some well-marked races; and as this is an aquatic bird, it must have been subjected to a far more serious change in its habits than the pigeon or even the fowl, which nevertheless have varied in a much higher degree. the goose, a native of europe and aquatic like the duck, has varied less than any other domesticated bird, except the peacock. bud-variation is, also, important under our present point of view. in some few cases, as when all the eyes or buds on the same tuber of the potato, or all the fruit on the same plum-tree, or all the flowers on the same plant, have suddenly varied in the same manner, it might be argued that the {288} variation had been definitely caused by some change in the conditions to which the plants had been exposed; yet, in other cases, such an admission is extremely difficult. as new characters sometimes appear by bud-variation, which do not occur in the parent-species or in any allied species, we may reject, at least in these cases, the idea that they are due to reversion. now it is well worth while to reflect maturely on some striking case of bud-variation, for instance that of the peach. this tree has been cultivated by the million in various parts of the world, has been treated differently, grown on its own roots and grafted on various stocks, planted as a standard, against a wall, and under glass; yet each bud of each sub-variety keeps true to its kind. but occasionally, at long intervals of time, a tree in england, or under the widely-different climate of virginia, produces a single bud, and this yields a branch which ever afterwards bears nectarines. nectarines differ, as every one knows, from peaches in their smoothness, size, and flavour; and the difference is so great, that some botanists have maintained that they are specifically distinct. so permanent are the characters thus suddenly acquired, that a nectarine produced by bud-variation has propagated itself by seed. to guard against the supposition that there is some fundamental distinction between bud and seminal variation, it is well to bear in mind that nectarines have likewise been produced from the stone of the peach; and, reversely, peaches from the stone of the nectarine. now is it possible to conceive external conditions more closely alike than those to which the buds on the same tree are exposed? yet one bud alone, out of the many thousands borne by the same tree, has suddenly without any apparent cause produced a nectarine. but the case is even stronger than this, for the same flower-bud has yielded a fruit, one-half or one-quarter a nectarine, and the other half or three-quarters a peach. again, seven or eight varieties of the peach have yielded by bud-variation nectarines: the nectarines thus produced, no doubt, differ a little from each other; but still they are nectarines. of course there must be some cause, internal or external, to excite the peach-bud to change its nature; but i cannot imagine a class of facts better adapted to force on our minds the conviction that what we call the external conditions of life are quite insignificant in {289} relation to any particular variation, in comparison with the organisation or constitution of the being which varies. it is known from the labours of geoffroy st. hilaire, and recently from those of dareste and others, that eggs of the fowl, if shaken, placed upright, perforated, covered in part with varnish, &c., produce monstrous chickens. now these monstrosities may be said to be directly caused by such unnatural conditions, but the modifications thus induced are not of a definite nature. an excellent observer, m. camille dareste,[712] remarks "that the various species of monstrosities are not determined by specific causes; the external agencies which modify the development of the embryo act solely in causing a perturbation--a perversion in the normal course of development." he compares the result to what we see in illness: a sudden chill, for instance, affects one individual alone out of many, causing either a cold, or sore-throat, rheumatism, or inflammation of the lungs or pleura. contagious matter acts in an analogous manner.[713] we may take a still more specific instance: seven pigeons were struck by rattle-snakes;[714] some suffered from convulsions; some had their blood coagulated, in others it was perfectly fluid; some showed ecchymosed spots on the heart, others on the intestines, &c.; others again showed no visible lesion in any organ. it is well known that excess in drinking causes different diseases in different men; but men living under a cold and tropical climate are differently affected:[715] and in this case we see the definite influence of opposite conditions. the foregoing facts apparently give us as good an idea as we are likely for a long time to obtain, how in many cases external conditions act directly, though not definitely, in causing modifications of structure. * * * * * _summary._--there can be no doubt, from the facts given in the early part of this chapter, that extremely slight changes in {290} the conditions of life sometimes act in a definite manner on our already variable domesticated productions; and, as the action of changed conditions in causing general or indefinite variability is accumulative, so it may be with their definite action. hence it is possible that great and definite modifications of structure may result from altered conditions acting during a long series of generations. in some few instances a marked effect has been produced quickly on all, or nearly all, the individuals which have been exposed to some considerable change of climate, food, or other circumstance. this has occurred, and is now occurring, with european men in the united states, with european dogs in india, with horses in the falkland islands, apparently with various animals at angora, with foreign oysters in the mediterranean, and with maize grown in europe from tropical seed. we have seen that the chemical compounds secreted by plants and the state of their tissues are readily affected by changed conditions. in some cases a relation apparently exists between certain characters and certain conditions, so that if the latter be changed the character is lost--as with cultivated flowers, with some few culinary plants, with the fruit of the melon, with fat-tailed sheep, and other sheep having peculiar fleeces. the production of galls, and the change of plumage in parrots when fed on peculiar food or when inoculated by the poison of a toad, prove to us what great and mysterious changes in structure and colour may be the definite result of chemical changes in the nutrient fluids or tissues. we have also reason to believe that organic beings in a state of nature may be modified in various definite ways by the conditions to which they have been long exposed, as in the case of american trees in comparison with their representatives in europe. but in all such cases it is most difficult to distinguish between the definite results of changed conditions, and the accumulation through natural selection of serviceable variations which have arisen independently of the nature of the conditions. if, for instance, a plant had to be modified so as to become fitted to inhabit a humid instead of an arid station, we have no reason to believe that variations of the right kind would occur more frequently if the parent-plant inhabited a station a little more {291} humid than usual. whether the station was unusually dry or humid, variations adapting the plant in a slight degree for directly opposite habits of life would occasionally arise, as we have reason to believe from what we know in other cases. in most, perhaps in all cases, the organisation or constitution of the being which is acted on, is a much more important element than the nature of the changed conditions, in determining the nature of the variation. we have evidence of this in the appearance of nearly similar modifications under different conditions, and of different modifications under apparently nearly the same conditions. we have still better evidence of this in closely parallel varieties being frequently produced from distinct races, or even distinct species, and in the frequent recurrence of the same monstrosity in the same species. we have also seen that the degree to which domesticated birds have varied, does not stand in any close relation with the amount of change to which they have been subjected. to recur once again to bud-variations. when we reflect on the millions of buds which many trees have produced, before some one bud has varied, we are lost in wonder what the precise cause of each variation can be. let us recall the case given by andrew knight of the forty-year-old tree of the yellow magnum bonum plum, an old variety which has been propagated by grafts on various stocks for a very long period throughout europe and north america, and on which a single bud suddenly produced the red magnum bonum. we should also bear in mind that distinct varieties, and even distinct species,--as in the case of peaches, nectarines, and apricots,--of certain roses and camellias,--although separated by a vast number of generations from any progenitor in common, and although cultivated under diversified conditions, have yielded by bud-variation closely analogous varieties. when we reflect on these facts we become deeply impressed with the conviction that in such cases the nature of the variation depends but little on the conditions to which the plant has been exposed, and not in any especial manner on its individual character, but much more on the general nature or constitution, inherited from some remote progenitor, of the whole group of allied beings to which the plant belongs. we are thus driven to conclude that in most {292} cases the conditions of life play a subordinate part in causing any particular modification; like that which a spark plays, when a mass of combustibles bursts into flame--the nature of the flame depending on the combustible matter, and not on the spark. no doubt each slight variation must have its efficient cause; but it is as hopeless an attempt to discover the cause of each as to say why a chill or a poison affects one man differently from another. even with modifications resulting from the definite action of the conditions of life, when all or nearly all the individuals, which have been similarly exposed, are similarly affected, we can rarely see the precise relation between cause and effect. in the next chapter it will be shown that the increased use or disuse of various organs, produces an inherited effect. it will further be seen that certain variations are bound together by correlation and other laws. beyond this we cannot at present explain either the causes or manner of action of variation. finally, as indefinite and almost illimitable variability is the usual result of domestication and cultivation, with the same part or organ varying in different individuals in different or even in directly opposite ways; and as the same variation, if strongly pronounced, usually recurs only after long intervals of time, any particular variation would generally be lost by crossing, reversion, and the accidental destruction of the varying individuals, unless carefully preserved by man. hence, although it must be admitted that new conditions of life do sometimes definitely affect organic beings, it may be doubted whether well-marked races have often been produced by the direct action of changed conditions without the aid of selection either by man or nature. * * * * * {293} chapter xxiv. laws of variation--use and disuse, etc. nisus formativus, or the co-ordinating power of the organisation--on the effects of the increased use and disuse of organs--changed habits of life--acclimatisation with animals and plants--various methods by which this can be effected--arrests of development--rudimentary organs. in this and the two following chapters i shall discuss, as well as the difficulty of the subject permits, the several laws which govern variability. these may be grouped under the effects of use and disuse, including changed habits and acclimatisation--arrests of development--correlated variation--the cohesion of homologous parts--the variability of multiple parts--compensation of growth--the position of buds with respect to the axis of the plant--and lastly, analogous variation. these several subjects so graduate into each other that their distinction is often arbitrary. it may be convenient first briefly to discuss that co-ordinating and reparative power which is common, in a higher or lower degree, to all organic beings, and which was formerly designated by physiologists as the _nisus formativus_. blumenbach and others[716] have insisted that the principle which permits a hydra, when cut into fragments, to develop itself into two or more perfect animals, is the same with that which causes a wound in the higher animals to heal by a cicatrice. such cases as that of the hydra are evidently analogous with the spontaneous division or fissiparous generation of the lowest animals, and likewise with the budding of plants. between these extreme cases and that of a mere cicatrice we have every gradation. spallanzani,[717] by cutting off the legs and tail of a salamander, got in the course of three months six crops of these members; so that 687 perfect bones were reproduced by one animal during one season. at whatever {294} point the limb was cut off, the deficient part, and no more, was exactly reproduced. even with man, as we have seen in the twelfth chapter, when treating of polydactylism, the entire limb whilst in an embryonic state, and supernumerary digits, are occasionally, though imperfectly, reproduced after amputation. when a diseased bone has been removed, a new one sometimes "gradually assumes the regular form, and all the attachments of muscles, ligaments, &c., become as complete as before."[718] this power of regrowth does not, however, always act perfectly: the reproduced tail of a lizard differs in the forms of the scales from the normal tail: with certain orthopterous insects the large hind legs are reproduced of smaller size:[719] the white cicatrice which in the higher animals unites the edges of a deep wound is not formed of perfect skin, for elastic tissue is not produced till long afterwards.[720] "the activity of the _nisus formativus_," says blumenbach, "is in an inverse ratio to the age of the organised body." to this may be added that its power is greater in animals the lower they are in the scale of organisation; and animals low in the scale correspond with the embryos of higher animals belonging to the same class. newport's observations[721] afford a good illustration of this fact, for he found that "myriapods, whose highest development scarcely carries them beyond the larvæ of perfect insects, can regenerate limbs and antennæ up to the time of their last moult;" and so can the larvæ of true insects, but not the mature insect. salamanders correspond in development with the tadpoles or larvæ of the tailless batrachians, and both possess to a large extent the power of regrowth; but not so the mature tailless batrachians. absorption often plays an important part in the repairs of injuries. when a bone is broken, and does not unite, the ends are absorbed and rounded, so that a false joint is formed; or if the ends unite, but overlap, the projecting parts are removed.[722] but absorption comes into action, as virchow remarks, during the normal growth of bones; parts which are solid during youth become hollowed out for the medullary tissue as the bone increases in size. in trying to understand the many well-adapted cases of regrowth when aided by absorption, we should remember that most parts of the organisation, even whilst retaining the same form, undergo constant renewal; so that a part which was not renewed would naturally be liable to complete absorption. some cases, usually classed under the so-called _nisus formativus_, at first appear to come under a distinct head; for not only are old structures reproduced, but structures which appear new are formed. thus, after inflammation "false membranes," furnished with blood-vessels, lymphatics, and nerves, are developed; or a foetus escapes from the fallopian tubes, and falls into the abdomen, "nature pours out a quantity of plastic lymph, which forms itself into organised membrane, richly supplied with blood-vessels," and the foetus is nourished for a time. in certain cases of {295} hydrocephalus the open and dangerous spaces in the skull are filled up with new bones, which interlock by perfect serrated sutures.[723] but most physiologists, especially on the continent, have now given up the belief in plastic lymph or blastema, and virchow[724] maintains that every structure, new or old, is formed by the proliferation of pre-existing cells. on this view false membranes, like cancerous or other tumours, are merely abnormal developments of normal growths; and we can thus understand how it is that they resemble adjoining structures; for instance, that "false membrane in the serous cavities acquires a covering of epithelium exactly like that which covers the original serous membrane; adhesions of the iris may become black apparently from the production of pigment-cells like those of the uvea."[725] no doubt the power of reparation, though not always quite perfect, is an admirable provision, ready for various emergencies, even for those which occur only at long intervals of time.[726] yet this power is not more wonderful than the growth and development of every single creature, more especially of those which are propagated by fissiparous generation. this subject has been here noticed, because we may infer that, when any part or organ is either greatly increased in size or wholly suppressed through variation and continued selection, the co-ordinating power of the organisation will continually tend to bring all the parts again into harmony with each other. _on the effects of the increased use and disuse of organs._ it is notorious, and we shall immediately adduce proofs, that increased use or action strengthens muscles, glands, sense-organs, &c.; and that disuse, on the other hand, weakens them. i have not met with any clear explanation of this fact in works on physiology. mr. herbert spencer[727] maintains that when muscles are much used, or when intermittent pressure is applied to the epidermis, an excess of nutritive matter exudes from the vessels, and that this gives additional development to the adjoining parts. that an increased flow of blood towards an organ leads to its greater development is probable, if not certain. mr. paget[728] thus accounts for the long, thick, and dark-coloured hair which occasionally grows, even in young children, near old-standing inflamed surfaces or fractured bones. when hunter {296} inserted the spur of a cock into the comb, which is well supplied with blood-vessels, it grew in one case in a spiral direction to a length of six inches, and in another case forward, like a horn, so that the bird could not touch the ground with its beak. but whether mr. herbert spencer's view of the exudation of nutritive matter due to increased movement and pressure, will fully account for the augmented size of bones, ligaments, and especially of internal glands and nerves, seems doubtful. according to the interesting observations of m. sedillot,[729] when a portion of one bone of the leg or fore-arm of an animal is removed and is not replaced by growth, the associated bone enlarges till it attains a bulk equal to that of the two bones, of which it has to perform the functions. this is best exhibited in dogs in which the tibia has been removed; the companion bone, which is naturally almost filiform and not one-fifth the size of the other, soon acquires a size equal to or greater than the tibia. now, it is at first difficult to believe that increased weight acting on a straight bone could, by alternately increased and diminished pressure, cause nutritive matter to exude from the vessels which permeate the periosteum. nevertheless, the observations adduced by mr. spencer,[730] on the strengthening of the bowed bones of rickety children, along their concave sides, leads to the belief that this is possible. mr. h. spencer has also shown that the ascent of the sap in trees is aided by the rocking movement caused by the wind; and the sap strengthens the trunk "in proportion to the stress to be borne; since the more severe and the more repeated the strains, the greater must be the exudation from the vessels into the surrounding tissue, and the greater the thickening of this tissue by secondary deposits."[731] but woody trunks may be formed of hard tissue without their having been subjected to any movement, as we see with ivy closely attached to old walls. in all these cases, it is very difficult to disentangle the effects of long-continued selection from those consequent on the increased action or movement of the part. mr. h. spencer[732] acknowledges this difficulty, and gives as an instance the spines {297} or thorns of trees, and the shells of nuts. here we have extremely hard woody tissue without the possibility of any movement to cause exudation, and without, as far as we can see, any other directly exciting cause; and as the hardness of these parts is of manifest service to the plant, we may look at the result as probably due to the selection of so-called spontaneous variations. every one knows that hard work thickens the epidermis on the hands; and when we hear that with infants long before their birth the epidermis is thicker on the palms and soles of the feet than on any other part of the body, as was observed with admiration by albinus,[733] we are naturally inclined to attribute this to the inherited effects of long-continued use or pressure. we are tempted to extend the same view even to the hoofs of quadrupeds; but who will pretend to determine how far natural selection may have aided in the formation of structures of such obvious importance to the animal? that use strengthens the muscles may be seen in the limbs of artisans who follow different trades; and when a muscle is strengthened, the tendons, and the crests of bone to which they are attached, become enlarged; and this must likewise be the case with the blood-vessels and nerves. on the other hand, when a limb is not used, as by eastern fanatics, or when the nerve supplying it with nervous power is effectually destroyed, the muscles wither. so again, when the eye is destroyed the optic nerve becomes atrophied, sometimes even in the course of a few months.[734] the proteus is furnished with branchiæ as well as with lungs: and schreibers[735] found that when the animal was compelled to live in deep water the branchiæ were developed to thrice their ordinary size, and the lungs were partially atrophied. when, on the other hand, the animal was compelled to live in shallow water, the lungs became larger and more vascular, whilst the branchiæ disappeared in a more or less complete degree. such modifications as these are, however, of comparatively little value for us, as we do not actually know that they tend to be inherited. in many cases there is reason to believe that the lessened use of various organs has affected the corresponding parts in the offspring. but there is no good evidence that this ever follows in the course of a single generation. it appears, as in the case of general or indefinite variability, that several generations must be subjected to changed habits for any appreciable result. our domestic fowls, ducks, and geese have almost lost, not {298} only in the individual but in the race, their power of flight; for we do not see a chicken, when frightened, take flight like a young pheasant. hence i was led carefully to compare the limb-bones of fowls, ducks, pigeons, and rabbits, with the same bones in the wild parent-species. as the measurements and weights were fully given in the earlier chapters, i need here only recapitulate the results. with domestic pigeons, the length of the sternum, the prominence of its crest, the length of the scapulæ and furcula, the length of the wings as measured from tip to tip of the radius, are all reduced relatively to the same parts in the wild pigeon. the wing and tail feathers, however, are increased in length, but this may have as little connection with the use of the wings or tail, as the lengthened hair on a dog with the amount of exercise which the breed has habitually taken. the feet of pigeons, except in the long-beaked races, are reduced in size. with fowls the crest of the sternum is less prominent, and is often distorted or monstrous; the wing-bones have become lighter relatively to the leg-bones, and are apparently a little shorter in comparison with those of the parent-form, the _gallus bankiva_. with ducks, the crest of the sternum is affected in the same manner as in the foregoing cases: the furcula, coracoids, and scapulæ are all reduced in weight relatively to the whole skeleton: the bones of the wings are shorter and lighter, and the bones of the legs longer and heavier, relatively to each other, and relatively to the whole skeleton, in comparison with the same bones in the wild-duck. the decreased weight and size of the bones, in the foregoing cases, is probably the indirect result of the reaction of the weakened muscles on the bones. i failed to compare the feathers of the wings of the tame and wild duck; but gloger[736] asserts that in the wild duck the tips of the wing-feathers reach almost to the end of the tail, whilst in the domestic duck they often hardly reach to its base. he remarks, also, on the greater thickness of the legs, and says that the swimming membrane between the toes is reduced; but i was not able to detect this latter difference. with the domesticated rabbit the body, together with the whole skeleton, is generally larger and heavier than in the wild animal, and the leg-bones are heavier in due proportion; but whatever standard of comparison be taken, neither the leg-bones nor the scapulæ have increased in length proportionally with the increased dimensions of the rest of the skeleton. the skull has become in a marked manner narrower, and, from the measurements of its capacity formerly given, we may conclude, that this narrowness results from the decreased size of the brain, consequent on the mentally inactive life led by these closely-confined animals. we have seen in the eighth chapter that silk-moths, which have been kept during many centuries closely confined, emerge from their cocoons with their wings distorted, incapable of flight, often greatly reduced in size, or even, according to quatrefages, quite rudimentary. this condition of the wings may be largely owing to the same kind of monstrosity which often affects wild lepidoptera when artificially reared from the cocoon; or it may {299} be in part due to an inherent tendency, which is common to the females of many bombycidæ, to have their wings in a more or less rudimentary state; but part of the effect may probably be attributed to long-continued disuse. from the foregoing facts there can be no doubt that certain parts of the skeleton in our anciently domesticated animals, have been modified in length and weight by the effects of decreased or increased use; but they have not been modified, as shown in the earlier chapters, in shape or structure. we must, however, be cautious in extending this latter conclusion to animals living a free life; for these will occasionally be exposed during successive generations to the severest competition. with wild animals it would be an advantage in the struggle for life that every superfluous and useless detail of structure should be removed or absorbed; and thus the reduced bones might ultimately become changed in structure. with highly-fed domesticated animals, on the other hand, there is no economy of growth; nor any tendency to the elimination of trifling and superfluous details of structure. turning now to more general observations, nathusius has shown that, with the improved races of the pig, the shortened legs and snout, the form of the articular condyles of the occiput, and the position of the jaws with the upper canine teeth projecting in a most anomalous manner in front of the lower canines, may be attributed to these parts not having been fully exercised. for the highly-cultivated races do not travel in search of food, nor root up the ground with their ringed muzzles. these modifications of structure, which are all strictly inherited, characterise several improved breeds, so that they cannot have been derived from any single domestic or wild stock.[737] with respect to cattle, professor tanner has remarked that the lungs and liver in the improved breeds "are found to be considerably reduced in size when compared with those possessed by animals having perfect liberty;"[738] and the reduction of these organs affects the general shape of the body. the cause of the reduced lungs in highly-bred animals which take little exercise is {300} obvious; and perhaps the liver may be affected by the nutritious and artificial food on which they largely subsist. it is well known that, when an artery is tied, the anastomosing branches, from being forced to transmit more blood, increase in diameter; and this increase cannot be accounted for by mere extension, as their coats gain in strength. mr. herbert spencer[739] has argued that with plants the flow of sap from the point of supply to the growing part first elongates the cells in this line; and that the cells then become confluent, thus forming the ducts; so that, on this view, the vessels in plants are formed by the mutual reaction of the flowing sap and cellular tissue. dr. w. turner has remarked,[740] with respect to the branches of arteries, and likewise to a certain extent with nerves, that the great principle of compensation frequently comes into play; for "when two nerves pass to adjacent cutaneous areas, an inverse relation as regards size may subsist between them; a deficiency in one may be supplied by an increase in the other, and thus the area of the former may be trespassed on by the latter nerve." but how far in these cases the difference in size in the nerves and arteries is due to original variation, and how far to increased use or action, is not clear. in reference to glands, mr. paget observes that "when one kidney is destroyed the other often becomes much larger, and does double work."[741] if we compare the size of the udders and their power of secretion in cows which have been long domesticated, and in certain goats in which the udders nearly touch the ground, with the size and power of secretion of these organs in wild or half-domesticated animals, the difference is great. a good cow with us daily yields more than five gallons, or forty pints of milk, whilst a first-rate animal, kept, for instance, by the damaras of south africa,[742] "rarely gives more than two or three pints of milk daily, and, should her calf be taken from her, she absolutely refuses to give any." we may attribute the excellence of our cows, and of certain goats, partly to the continued selection of the best milking animals, and partly to the inherited effects of the increased action, through man's art, of the secreting glands. it is notorious, as was remarked in the twelfth chapter, that short-sight is inherited; and if we compare watchmakers or engravers with, for instance, sailors, we can hardly doubt that vision continually directed towards a near object permanently affects the structure of the eye. veterinarians are unanimous that horses become affected with spavins, splints, ringbones, &c., from being shod, and from travelling on hard roads, and they are almost equally unanimous that these injuries are transmitted. formerly horses were not shod in north carolina, and it has been asserted that they did not then suffer from these diseases of the legs and feet.[743] {301} our domesticated quadrupeds are all descended, as far as is known, from species having erect ears; yet few kinds can be named, of which at least one race has not drooping ears. cats in china, horses in parts of russia, sheep in italy and elsewhere, the guinea-pig in germany, goats and cattle in india, rabbits, pigs, and dogs in all long-civilised countries, have dependent ears. with wild animals, which constantly use their ears like funnels to catch every passing sound, and especially to ascertain the direction whence it comes, there is not, as mr. blyth has remarked, any species with drooping ears except the elephant. hence the incapacity to erect the ears is certainly in some manner the result of domestication; and this incapacity has been attributed by various authors[744] to disuse, for animals protected by man are not compelled habitually to use their ears. col. hamilton smith[745] states that in ancient effigies of the dog, "with the exception of one egyptian instance, no sculpture of the earlier grecian era produces representations of hounds with completely drooping ears; those with them half pendulous are missing in the most ancient; and this character increases, by degrees, in the works of the roman period." godron also has remarked that "the pigs of the ancient egyptians had not their ears enlarged and pendent."[746] but it is remarkable that the drooping of the ears, though probably the effect of disuse, is not accompanied by any decrease in size; on the contrary, when we remember that animals so different as fancy rabbits, certain indian breeds of the goat, our petted spaniels, bloodhounds, and other dogs, have enormously elongated ears, it would appear as if disuse actually caused an increase in length. with rabbits, the drooping of the much elongated ears has affected even the structure of the skull. the tail of no wild animal, as remarked to me by mr. blyth, is curled; whereas pigs and some races of dogs have their tails much curled. this deformity, therefore, appears to be the result of domestication, but whether in any way connected with the lessened use of the tail is doubtful. {302} the epidermis on our hands is easily thickened, as every one knows, by hard work. in a district of ceylon the sheep have "horny callosities that defend their knees, and which arise from their habit of kneeling down to crop the short herbage, and this distinguishes the jaffna flocks from those of other portions of the island;" but it is not stated whether this peculiarity is inherited.[747] the mucous membrane which lines the stomach is continuous with the external skin of the body; therefore it is not surprising that its texture should be affected by the nature of the food consumed, but other and more interesting changes likewise follow. hunter long ago observed that the muscular coat of the stomach of a gull (_larus tridactylus_) which had been fed for a year chiefly on grain was thickened; and, according to dr. edmondston, a similar change periodically occurs in the shetland islands in the stomach of the _larus argentatus_, which in the spring frequents the corn-fields and feeds on the seed. the same careful observer has noticed a great change in the stomach of a raven which had been long fed on vegetable food. in the case of an owl (_strix grallaria_) similarly treated, menetries states that the form of the stomach was changed, the inner coat became leathery, and the liver increased in size. whether these modifications in the digestive organs would in the course of generations become inherited is not known.[748] the increased or diminished length of the intestines, which apparently results from changed diet, is a more remarkable case, because it is characteristic of certain animals in their domesticated condition, and therefore must be inherited. the complex absorbent system, the blood-vessels, nerves, and muscles, are necessarily all modified together with the intestines. according to daubenton, the intestines of the domestic cat are one-third longer than those of the wild cat of europe; and although this species is not the parent-stock of the domestic animal, yet, as isidore geoffroy has remarked, the several species {303} of cats are so closely allied that the comparison is probably a fair one. the increased length appears to be due to the domestic cat being less strictly carnivorous in its diet than any wild feline species; i have seen a french kitten eating vegetables as readily as meat. according to cuvier, the intestines of the domesticated pig exceed greatly in proportionate length those of the wild boar. in the tame and wild rabbit the change is of an opposite nature, and probably results from the nutritious food given to the tame rabbit.[749] * * * * * _changed habits of life, independently of the use or disuse of particular organs._--this subject, as far as the mental powers of animals are concerned, so blends into instinct, on which i shall treat in a future work, that i will here only remind the reader of the many cases which occur under domestication, and which are familiar to every one--for instance the tameness of our animals--the pointing or retrieving of dogs--their not attacking the smaller animals kept by man--and so forth. how much of these changes ought to be attributed to inherited habit, and how much to the selection of individuals which have varied in the desired manner, irrespectively of the special circumstances under which they have been kept, can seldom be told. we have already seen that animals may be habituated to a changed diet; but a few additional instances may here be given. in the polynesian islands and in china the dog is fed exclusively on vegetable matter, and the taste for this kind of food is to a certain extent inherited.[750] our sporting dogs will not touch the bones of game birds, whilst other dogs devour them with greediness. in some parts of the world sheep have been largely fed on fish. the domestic hog is fond of barley, the wild boar is said to disdain it; and the disdain is partially inherited, for some young wild pigs bred in captivity showed an aversion for this grain, whilst others of the same brood relished it.[751] one of my relations bred some young pigs from {304} a chinese sow by a wild alpine boar; they lived free in the park, and were so tame that they came to the house to be fed; but they would not touch swill, which was devoured by the other pigs. an animal when once accustomed to an unnatural diet, which can generally be effected only during youth, dislikes its proper food, as spallanzani found to be the case with a pigeon which had been long fed on meat. individuals of the same species take to new food with different degrees of readiness; one horse, it is stated, soon learned to eat meat, whilst another would have perished from hunger rather than have partaken of it.[752] the caterpillars of the _bombyx hesperus_ feed in a state of nature on the leaves of the _café diable_, but, after having been reared on the ailanthus, they would not touch the _café diable_, and actually died of hunger.[753] it has been found possible to accustom marine fish to live in fresh water; but as such changes in fish, and other marine animals, have been chiefly observed in a state of nature, they do not properly belong to our present subject. the period of gestation and of maturity, as shown in the earlier chapters,--the season and the frequency of the act of breeding,--have all been greatly modified under domestication. with the egyptian goose the rate of change in the season has been recorded.[754] the wild drake pairs with one female, the domestic drake is polygamous. certain breeds of fowls have lost the habit of incubation. the paces of the horse, and the manner of flight in certain breeds of the pigeon, have been modified, and are inherited. the voice differs much in certain fowls and pigeons. some breeds are clamorous and others silent, as in the call and common duck, or in the spitz and pointer dog. every one knows how dogs differ from each other in their manner of hunting, and in their ardour after different kinds of game or vermin. with plants the period of vegetation is easily changed and is inherited, as in the case of summer and winter wheat, barley, {305} and vetches; but to this subject we shall immediately return under acclimatisation. annual plants sometimes become perennial under a new climate, as i hear from dr. hooker is the case with the stock and mignonette in tasmania. on the other hand, perennials sometimes become annuals, as with the ricinus in england, and as, according to captain mangles, with many varieties of the heartsease. von berg[755] raised from seed of _verbascum phoenicium_, which is usually a biennial, both annual and perennial varieties. some deciduous bushes become evergreen in hot countries.[756] rice requires much water, but there is one variety in india which can be grown without irrigation.[757] certain varieties of the oat and of our other cereals are best fitted for certain soils.[758] endless similar facts could be given in the animal and vegetable kingdoms. they are noticed here because they illustrate analogous differences in closely allied natural species, and because such changed habits of life, whether due to use and disuse, or to the direct action of external conditions, or to so-called spontaneous variation, would be apt to lead to modifications of structure. * * * * * _acclimatisation._--from the previous remarks we are naturally led to the much disputed subject of acclimatisation. there are two distinct questions: do varieties descended from the same species differ in their power of living under different climates? and secondly, if they so differ, how have they become thus adapted? we have seen that european dogs do not succeed well in india, and it is asserted,[759] that no one has succeeded in there keeping the newfoundland long alive; but then it may be argued, probably with truth, that these northern breeds are specifically distinct from the native dogs which flourish in india. the same remark may be made with respect to different breeds of sheep, of which, according to youatt,[760] not one brought "from a torrid climate lasts out the second year," in the zoological gardens. but sheep are capable of some degree of acclimatisation, for merino sheep bred at the cape of good hope have been found {306} far better adapted for india than those imported from england.[761] it is almost certain that the breeds of the fowl are descended from the same species; but the spanish breed, which there is good reason to believe originated near the mediterranean,[762] though so fine and vigorous in england, suffers more from frost than any other breed. the arrindy silk-moth introduced from bengal, and the ailanthus moth from the temperate province of shan tung, in china, belong to the same species, as we may infer from their identity in the caterpillar, cocoon, and mature states;[763] yet they differ much in constitution: the indian form "will flourish only in warm latitudes," the other is quite hardy and withstands cold and rain. plants are more strictly adapted to climate than are animals. the latter when domesticated withstand such great diversities of climate, that we find nearly the same species in tropical and temperate countries; whilst the cultivated plants are widely dissimilar. hence a larger field is open for inquiry in regard to the acclimatisation of plants than of animals. it is no exaggeration to say that with almost every plant which has long been cultivated varieties exist, which are endowed with constitutions fitted for very different climates; i will select only a few of the more striking cases, as it would be tedious to give all. in north america numerous fruit-trees have been raised, and in horticultural publications,--for instance, in downing,--lists are given of the varieties which are best able to withstand the severe climate of the northern states and canada. many american varieties of the pear, plum, and peach are excellent in their own country, but until recently hardly one was known that succeeded in england; and with apples,[764] not one succeeds. though the american varieties can withstand a severer winter than ours, the summer here is not hot enough. fruit-trees have originated in europe as in america with different constitutions, but they are not here much noticed, as the same nurserymen do not supply a wide area. the forelle pear flowers early, and when the flowers have just set, and this is the critical period, they have been observed, both in france and england, to withstand with complete impunity a frost of 18° and even 14° fahr., which killed the flowers, whether fully expanded or in bud, of all other kinds of pears.[765] this power in the flower of resisting cold and afterwards producing fruit does not invariably depend, as we know on good authority,[766] on general constitutional vigour. {307} in proceeding northward, the number of varieties which are enabled to resist the climate rapidly decreases, as may be seen in the list of the varieties of the cherry, apple, and pear, which can be cultivated in the neighbourhood of stockholm.[767] near moscow, prince troubetzkoy planted for experiment in the open ground several varieties of the pear, but one alone, the _poire sans pepins_, withstood the cold of winter.[768] we thus see that our fruit-trees, like distinct species of the same genus, certainly differ from each other in their constitutional adaptation to different climates. with the varieties of many plants, the adaptation to climate is often very close. thus it has been proved by repeated trials "that few if any of the english varieties of wheat are adapted for cultivation in scotland;"[769] but the failure in this case is at first only in the quantity, though ultimately in the quality, of the grain produced. the rev. j. m. berkeley sowed wheat-seed from india, and got "the most meagre ears," on land which would certainly have yielded a good crop from english wheat.[770] in these cases varieties have been carried from a warmer to a cooler climate; in the reverse case, as "when wheat was imported directly from france into the west indian islands, it produced either wholly barren spikes or furnished with only two or three miserable seeds, while west indian seed by its side yielded an enormous harvest."[771] here is another case of close adaptation to a slightly cooler climate; a kind of wheat which in england may be used indifferently either as a winter or summer variety, when sown under the warmer climate of grignan, in france, behaved exactly as if it had been a true winter wheat.[772] botanists believe that all the varieties of maize belong to the same species; and we have seen that in north america, in proceeding northward, the varieties cultivated in each zone produce their flowers and ripen their seed within shorter and shorter periods. so that the tall, slowly maturing southern varieties do not succeed in new england, and the new english varieties do not succeed in canada. i have not met with any statement that the southern varieties are actually injured or killed by a degree of cold which the northern varieties withstand with impunity, though this is probable; but the production of early flowering and early seeding varieties deserves to be considered as one form of acclimatisation. hence it has been found possible, according to kalm, to cultivate maize further and further northwards in america. in europe, also, as we learn from the evidence given by alph. de candolle, the culture of maize has extended since the end of the last century thirty leagues north of its former boundary.[773] on the authority of the great linnæus,[774] i may quote an {308} analogous case, namely, that in sweden tobacco raised from home-grown seed ripens its seed a month sooner and is less liable to miscarry than plants raised from foreign seed. with the vine, differently from the maize, the line of practical culture has retreated a little southward since the middle ages;[775] but this seems due to commerce, including that of wine, being now freer or more easy. nevertheless the fact of the vine not having spread northward shows that acclimatisation has made no progress during several centuries. there is, however, a marked difference in the constitution of the several varieties,--some being hardy, whilst others, like the muscat of alexandria, require a very high temperature to come to perfection. according to labat,[776] vines taken from france to the west indies succeed with extreme difficulty, whilst those imported from madeira, or the canary islands, thrive admirably. gallesio gives a curious account of the naturalisation of the orange in italy. daring many centuries the sweet orange was propagated exclusively by grafts, and so often suffered from frosts that it required protection. after the severe frost of 1709, and more especially after that of 1763, so many trees were destroyed that seedlings from the sweet orange were raised, and, to the surprise of the inhabitants, their fruit was found to be sweet. the trees thus raised were larger, more productive, and hardier than the former kinds; and seedlings are now continually raised. hence gallesio concludes that much more was effected for the naturalisation of the orange in italy by the accidental production of new kinds during a period of about sixty years, than had been effected by grafting old varieties during many ages.[777] i may add that risso[778] describes some portuguese varieties of the orange as extremely sensitive to cold, and as much tenderer than certain other varieties. the peach was known to theophrastus, 322 b.c.[779] according to the authorities quoted by dr. f. rolle,[780] it was tender when first introduced into greece, and even in the island of rhodes only occasionally bore fruit. if this be correct, the peach, in spreading during the last two thousand years over the middle parts of europe, must have become much hardier. at the present day different varieties differ much in hardiness: some french varieties will not succeed in england; and near paris, the _pavie de bonneuil_ does not ripen its fruit till very late, even when grown on a wall; "it is, therefore, only fit for a very hot southern climate."[781] i will briefly give a few other cases. a variety of _magnolia grandiflora_, raised by m. roy, withstands cold several degrees lower than that which any other variety can resist. with camellias there is much difference in hardiness. one particular variety of noisette rose withstood the severe frost of 1860 "untouched and hale amidst a universal destruction of other {309} noisettes." in new york the "irish yew is quite hardy, but the common yew is liable to be cut down." i may add that there are varieties of the sweet potato (_convolvulus batatas_) which are suited for warmer, as well as for colder, climates.[782] the plants as yet mentioned have been found capable of resisting an unusual degree of cold or heat, when fully grown. the following cases refer to plants whilst young. in a large bed of young araucarias of the same age, growing close together and equally exposed, it was observed,[783] after the unusually severe winter of 1860-61, that, "in the midst of the dying, numerous individuals remained on which the frost had absolutely made no kind of impression." dr. lindley, after alluding to this and other similar cases, remarks, "among the lessons which the late formidable winter has taught us, is that, even in their power of resisting cold, individuals of the same species of plants are remarkably different." near salisbury, there was a sharp frost on the night of may 24th, 1836, and all the french beans (_phaseolus vulgaris_) in a bed were killed except about one in thirty, which completely escaped.[784] on the same day of the month, but in the year 1864, there was a severe frost in kent, and two rows of scarlet-runners (_p. multiflorus_) in my garden, containing 390 plants of the same age and equally exposed, were all blackened and killed except about a dozen plants. in an adjoining row of "fulmer's dwarf bean" (_p. vulgaris_), one single plant escaped. a still more severe frost occurred four days afterwards, and of the dozen plants which had previously escaped only three survived; these were not taller or more vigorous than the other young plants, but they escaped completely, with not even the tips of their leaves browned. it was impossible to behold these three plants, with their blackened, withered, and dead brethren all round them, and not see at a glance that they differed widely in constitutional power of resisting frost. this work is not the proper place to show that wild plants {310} of the same species, naturally growing at different altitudes or under different latitudes, become to a certain extent acclimatised, as is proved by the different behaviour of their seedlings when raised in england. in my 'origin of species' i have alluded to some cases, and i could add others. one instance must suffice: mr. grigor, of forres,[785] states that seedlings of the scotch fir (_pinus sylvestris_), raised from seed from the continent and from the forests of scotland, differ much. "the difference is perceptible in one-year-old, and more so in two-year-old seedlings; but the effects of the winter on the second year's growth almost uniformly makes those from the continent quite brown, and so damaged, that by the month of march they are quite unsaleable, while the plants from the native scotch pine, under the same treatment, and standing alongside, although considerably shorter, are rather stouter and quite green, so that the beds of the one can be known from the other when seen from the distance of a mile." closely similar facts have been observed with seedling larches. hardy varieties would alone be valued or noticed in europe; whilst tender varieties, requiring more warmth, would generally be neglected; but such occasionally arise. thus loudon[786] describes a cornish variety of the elm which is almost an evergreen, and of which the shoots are often killed by the autumnal frosts, so that its timber is of little value. horticulturists know that some varieties are much more tender than others: thus all the varieties of the broccoli are more tender than cabbages; but there is much difference in this respect in the sub-varieties of the broccoli; the pink and purple kinds are a little hardier than the white cape broccoli, "but they are not to be depended on after the thermometer falls below 24° fahr.:" the walcheren broccoli is less tender than the cape, and there are several varieties which will stand much severer cold than the walcheren.[787] cauliflowers seed more freely in india than cabbages.[788] to give one instance with flowers: eleven plants raised from a hollyhock, called the _queen of the whites_,[789] were found to be much more tender than various other seedlings. it may be presumed that all tender varieties would succeed better under a climate warmer than ours. with fruit-trees, it is well known that certain varieties, for instance of the peach, stand forcing in a hot-house better than others; and this shows {311} either pliability of organisation or some constitutional difference. the same individual cherry-tree, when forced, has been observed during successive years gradually to change its period of vegetation.[790] few pelargoniums can resist the heat of a stove, but _alba multiflora_ will, as a most skilful gardener asserts, "stand pine-apple top and bottom heat the whole winter, without looking any more drawn than if it had stood in a common greenhouse; and _blanche fleur_ seems as if it had been made on purpose for growing in winter, like many bulbs, and to rest all summer."[791] there can hardly be a doubt that the _alba multiflora_ pelargonium must have a widely different constitution from that of most other varieties of this plant; it would probably withstand even an equatorial climate. we have seen that according to labat the vine and wheat require acclimatisation in order to succeed in the west indies. similar facts have been observed at madras: "two parcels of mignonette-seed, one direct from europe, the other saved at bangalore (of which the mean temperature is much below that of madras) were sown at the same time: they both vegetated equally favourably, but the former all died off a few days after they appeared above ground; the latter still survive, and are vigorous healthy plants." so again, "turnip and carrot seed saved at hyderabad are found to answer better at madras than seed from europe or from the cape of good hope."[792] mr. j. scott, of the calcutta botanic gardens, informs me that seeds of the sweet-pea (_lathyrus odoratus_) imported from england produce plants, with thick, rigid stems and small leaves, which rarely blossom and never yield seed; plants raised from french seed blossom sparingly, but all the flowers are sterile; on the other hand, plants raised from sweet-peas grown near darjeeling in upper india, but originally derived from england, can be successfully cultivated on the plains of india; for they flower and seed profusely, and their stems are lax and scandent. in some of the foregoing cases, as dr. hooker has remarked to me, the greater success may perhaps be attributed to the seeds having been more fully ripened under a more favourable climate; but this view can hardly be extended to so many cases, including plants, which, from being cultivated under a climate hotter than their native one, become fitted for a still hotter climate. we may therefore safely conclude that plants can to a certain extent become accustomed to a climate either hotter or colder than their own; although these latter cases have been more frequently observed. we will now consider the means by which acclimatisation may be effected, namely, through the spontaneous appearance of varieties having a different constitution, and through the effects of use or habit. in regard to the first process, there is no evidence that a change in the constitution of the {312} offspring necessarily stands in any direct relation with the nature of the climate inhabited by the parents. on the contrary, it is certain that hardy and tender varieties of the same species appear in the same country. new varieties thus spontaneously arising become fitted to slightly different climates in two different ways; firstly, they may have the power, either as seedlings or when full-grown, of resisting intense cold, as with the moscow pear, or of resisting intense heat, as with some kinds of pelargonium, or the flowers may withstand severe frost, as with the forelle pear. secondly, plants may become adapted to climates widely different from their own, from flowering and fruiting either earlier or later in the season. in both these cases the power of acclimatisation by man consists simply in the selection and preservation of new varieties. but without any direct intention on his part of securing a hardier variety, acclimatisation may be unconsciously effected by merely raising tender plants from seed, and by occasionally attempting their cultivation further and further northwards, as in the case of maize, the orange, and the peach. how much influence ought to be attributed to inherited habit or custom in the acclimatisation of animals and plants is a much more difficult question. in many cases natural selection can hardly have failed to have come into play and complicated the result. it is notorious that mountain sheep resist severe weather and storms of snow which would destroy lowland breeds; but then mountain sheep have been thus exposed from time immemorial, and all delicate individuals will have been destroyed, and the hardiest preserved. so with the arrindy silk-moths of china and india; who can tell how far natural selection may have taken a share in the formation of the two races, which are now fitted for such widely different climates? it seems at first probable that the many fruit-trees, which are so well fitted for the hot summers and cold winters of north america, in contrast with their poor success under our climate, have become adapted through habit; but when we reflect on the multitude of seedlings annually raised in that country, and that none would succeed unless born with a fitting constitution, it is possible that mere habit may have done nothing towards their acclimatisation. on the other hand, when we {313} hear that merino sheep, bred during no great number of generations at the cape of good hope--that some european plants raised during only a few generations in the cooler parts of india, withstand the hotter parts of that country much better than the sheep or seeds imported directly from england, we must attribute some influence to habit. we are led to the same conclusion when we hear from naudin[793] that the races of melons, squashes, and gourds, which have long been cultivated in northern europe, are comparatively more precocious, and need much less heat for maturing their fruit, than the varieties of the same species recently brought from tropical regions. in the reciprocal conversion of summer and winter wheat, barley, and vetches into each other, habit produces a marked effect in the course of a very few generations. the same thing apparently occurs with the varieties of maize, which, when carried from the southern to the northern states of america, or into germany, soon become accustomed to their new homes. with vine-plants taken to the west indies from madeira, which are said to succeed better than plants brought directly from france, we have some degree of acclimatisation in the individual, independently of the production of new varieties by seed. the common experience of agriculturists is of some value, and they often advise persons to be cautious in trying in one country the productions of another. the ancient agricultural writers of china recommend the preservation and cultivation of the varieties peculiar to each country. during the classical period, columella wrote, "vernaculum pecus peregrino longe præstantius est."[794] i am aware that the attempt to acclimatise either animals or plants has been called a vain chimæra. no doubt the attempt in most cases deserves to be thus called, if made independently of the production of new varieties endowed with a different constitution. habit, however much prolonged, rarely produces any effect on a plant propagated by buds; it apparently acts only through successive seminal generations. {314} the laurel, bay, laurestinus, &c., and the jerusalem artichoke, which are propagated by cuttings or tubers, are probably now as tender in england as when first introduced; and this appears to be the case with the potato, which until recently was seldom multiplied by seed. with plants propagated by seed, and with animals, there will be little or no acclimatisation unless the hardier individuals are either intentionally or unconsciously preserved. the kidney-bean has often been advanced as an instance of a plant which has not become hardier since its first introduction into britain. we hear, however, on excellent authority,[795] that some very fine seed, imported from abroad, produced plants "which blossomed most profusely, but were nearly all but abortive, whilst plants grown alongside from english seed podded abundantly;" and this apparently shows some degree of acclimatisation in our english plants. we have also seen that seedlings of the kidney-bean occasionally appear with a marked power of resisting frost; but no one, as far as i can hear, has ever separated such hardy seedlings, so as to prevent accidental crossing, and then gathered their seed, and repeated the process year after year. it may, however, be objected with truth that natural selection ought to have had a decided effect on the hardiness of our kidney-beans; for the tenderest individuals must have been killed during every severe spring, and the hardier preserved. but it should be borne in mind that the result of increased hardiness would simply be that gardeners, who are always anxious for as early a crop as possible, would sow their seed a few days earlier than formerly. now, as the period of sowing depends much on the soil and elevation of each district, and varies with the season; and as new varieties have often been imported from abroad, can we feel sure that our kidney-beans are not somewhat hardier? i have not been able, by searching old horticultural works, to answer this question satisfactorily. on the whole the facts now given show that, though habit does something towards acclimatisation, yet that the spontaneous appearance of constitutionally different individuals is a far more effective agent. as no single instance has been recorded, either with animals or plants, of hardier individuals {315} having been long and steadily selected, though such selection is admitted to be indispensable for the improvement of any other character, it is not surprising that man has done little in the acclimatisation of domesticated animals and cultivated plants. we need not, however, doubt that under nature new races and new species would become adapted to widely different climates, by spontaneous variation, aided by habit, and regulated by natural selection. _arrests of development: rudimentary and aborted organs._ these subjects are here introduced because there is reason to believe that rudimentary organs are in many cases the result of disuse. modifications of structure from arrested development, so great or so serious as to deserve to be called monstrosities, are of common occurrence, but, as they differ much from any normal structure, they require here only a passing notice. when a part or organ is arrested during its embryonic growth, a rudiment is generally left. thus the whole head may be represented by a soft nipple-like projection, and the limbs by mere papillæ. these rudiments of limbs are sometimes inherited, as has been observed in a dog.[796] many lesser anomalies in our domesticated animals appear to be due to arrested development. what the cause of the arrest may be, we seldom know, except in the case of direct injury to the embryo within the egg or womb. that the cause does not generally act at a very early embryonic period we may infer from the affected organ seldom being wholly aborted,--a rudiment being generally preserved. the external ears are represented by mere vestiges in a chinese breed of sheep; and in another breed, the tail is reduced "to a little button, suffocated, in a manner, by fat."[797] in tailless dogs and cats a stump is left; but i do not know whether it includes at an early embryonic age rudiments of all the caudal vertebræ. in certain breeds of fowls the comb and wattles are reduced to rudiments; in the cochin-china breed scarcely more than rudiments of spurs exist. with polled suffolk cattle, "rudiments of horns can often be felt at an early age;"[798] and with species in a state of nature, the relatively greater development of rudimentary organs at an early period of life is highly characteristic of such organs. with hornless breeds of cattle and sheep; another and singular kind of rudiment has been observed, namely, minute dangling horns attached to the skin alone, and which are often shed and grow again. with hornless goats, according to desmarest,[799] {316} the bony protuberances which properly support the horns exist as mere rudiments. with cultivated plants it is far from rare to find the petals, stamens, and pistils represented by rudiments, like those observed in natural species. so it is with the whole seed in many fruits; thus near astrakhan there is a grape with mere traces of seeds, "so small and lying so near the stalk that they are not perceived in eating the grape."[800] in certain varieties of the gourd, the tendrils, according to naudin, are represented by rudiments or by various monstrous growths. in the broccoli and cauliflower the greater number of the flowers are incapable of expansion, and include rudimentary organs. in the feather hyacinth (_muscari comosum_) the upper and central flowers are brightly coloured but rudimentary; under cultivation the tendency to abortion travels downwards and outwards, and all the flowers become rudimentary; but the abortive stamens and pistils are not so small in the lower as in the upper flowers. in the _viburnum opulus_, on the other hand, the outer flowers naturally have their organs of fructification in a rudimentary state, and the corolla is of large size; under cultivation, the change spreads to the centre, and all the flowers become affected; thus the well-known snow-ball bush is produced. in the compositæ, the so-called doubling of the flowers consists in the greater development of the corolla of the central florets, generally accompanied with some degree of sterility; and it has been observed[801] that the progressive doubling invariably spreads from the circumference to the centre,--that is, from the ray florets, which so often include rudimentary organs, to those of the disc. i may add, as bearing on this subject, that, with asters, seeds taken from the florets of the circumference have been found to yield the greatest number of double flowers.[802] in these several cases we have a natural tendency in certain parts to become rudimentary, and this under culture spreads either to, or from, the axis of the plant. it deserves notice, as showing how the same laws govern the changes which natural species and artificial varieties undergo, that in a series of species in the genus carthamus, one of the compositæ, a tendency in the seeds to the abortion of the pappus may be traced extending from the circumference to the centre of the disc: thus, according to a. de jussieu,[803] the abortion is only partial in _carthamus creticus_, but more extended in _c. lanatus_; for in this species two or three alone of the central seeds are furnished with a pappus, the surrounding seeds being either quite naked or furnished with a few hairs; and lastly, in _c. tinctorius_, even the central seeds are destitute of pappus, and the abortion is complete. with animals and plants under domestication, when an organ disappears, leaving only a rudiment, the loss has generally been sudden, as with hornless and tailless breeds; and such cases may be ranked as inherited monstrosities. but in some few cases the loss has been gradual, and {317} has been partly effected by selection, as with the rudimentary combs and wattles of certain fowls. we have also seen that the wings of some domesticated birds have been slightly reduced by disuse, and the great reduction of the wings in certain silk-moths, with mere rudiments left, has probably been aided by disuse. with species in a state of nature, rudimentary organs are so extremely common that scarcely one can be named which is wholly free from a blemish of this nature. such organs are generally variable, as several naturalists have observed; for, being useless, they are not regulated by natural selection, and they are more or less liable to reversion. the same rule certainly holds good with parts which have become rudimentary under domestication. we do not know through what steps under nature rudimentary organs have passed in being reduced to their present condition; but we so incessantly see in species of the same group the finest gradations between an organ in a rudimentary and perfect state, that we are led to believe that the passage must have been extremely gradual. it may be doubted whether a change of structure so abrupt as the sudden loss of an organ would ever be of service to a species in a state of nature; for the conditions to which all organisms are closely adapted usually change very slowly. even if an organ did suddenly disappear in some one individual by an arrest of development, intercrossing with the other individuals of the same species would cause it to reappear in a more or less perfect manner, so that its final reduction could only be effected by the slow process of continued disuse or natural selection. it is much more probable that, from changed habits of life, organs first become of less and less use, and ultimately superfluous; or their place may be supplied by some other organ; and then disuse, acting on the offspring through inheritance at corresponding periods of life, would go on reducing the organ; but as most organs could be of no use at an early embryonic period, they would not be affected by disuse; consequently they would be preserved at this stage of growth, and would remain as rudiments. in addition to the effects of disuse, the principle of economy of growth, already alluded to in this chapter, would lead to the still further reduction of all superfluous parts. with respect to the final and total suppression or abortion of any organ, another and distinct principle, which will be discussed in the chapter on pangenesis, probably takes a share in the work. with animals and plants reared by man there is no severe or recurrent struggle for existence, and the principle of economy will not come into action. so far, indeed, is this from being the case, that in some instances organs, which are naturally rudimentary in the parent-species, become partially redeveloped in the domesticated descendants. thus cows, like most other ruminants, properly have four active and two rudimentary mammæ; but in our domesticated animals, the latter occasionally become considerably developed and yield milk. the atrophied mammæ, which, in male domesticated animals, including man, have in some rare cases grown to full size and secreted milk, perhaps offer an analogous case. the hind feet of dogs include rudiments of a fifth toe, and in certain large breeds these toes, though still rudimentary, become considerably developed {318} and are furnished with claws. in the common hen, the spurs and comb are rudimentary, but in certain breeds these become, independently of age or disease of the ovaria, well developed. the stallion has canine teeth, but the mare has only traces of the alveoli, which, as i am informed by the eminent veterinary mr. g. t. brown, frequently contain minute irregular nodules of bone. these nodules, however, sometimes become developed into imperfect teeth, protruding through the gums and coated with enamel; and occasionally they grow to a third or even a fourth of the length of the canines in the stallion. with plants i do not know whether the redevelopment of rudimentary organs occurs more frequently under culture than under nature. perhaps the pear-tree may be a case in point, for when wild it bears thorns, which though useful as a protection are formed of branches in a rudimentary condition, but, when the tree is cultivated, the thorns are reconverted into branches. finally, though organs which must be classed as rudimentary frequently occur in our domesticated animals and cultivated plants, these have generally been formed suddenly, through an arrest of development. they usually differ in appearance from the rudiments which so frequently characterise natural species. in the latter, rudimentary organs have been slowly formed through continued disuse, acting by inheritance at a corresponding age, aided by the principle of the economy of growth, all under the control of natural selection. with domesticated animals, on the other hand, the principle of economy is far from coming into action, and their organs, although often slightly reduced by disuse, are not thus almost obliterated with mere rudiments left. * * * * * {319} chapter xxv. laws of variation, _continued_--correlated variability. explanation of term--correlation as connected with development--modifications correlated with the increased or decreased size of parts--correlated variation of homologous parts--feathered feet in birds assuming the structure of the wings--correlation between the head and the extremities--between the skin and dermal appendages--between the organs of sight and hearing--correlated modifications in the organs of plants--correlated monstrosities--correlation between the skull and ears--skull and crest of feathers--skull and horns--correlation of growth complicated by the accumulated effects of natural selection--colour as correlated with constitutional peculiarities. all the parts of the organisation are to a certain extent connected or correlated together; but the connexion may be so slight that it hardly exists, as with compound animals or the buds on the same tree. even in the higher animals various parts are not at all closely related; for one part may be wholly suppressed or rendered monstrous without any other part of the body being affected. but in some cases, when one part varies, certain other parts always, or nearly always, simultaneously vary; they are then subject to the law of correlated variation. formerly i used the somewhat vague expression of correlation of growth, which may be applied to many large classes of facts. thus, all the parts of the body are admirably coordinated for the peculiar habits of life of each organic being, and they may be said, as the duke of argyll insists in his 'reign of law,' to be correlated for this purpose. again, in large groups of animals certain structures always co-exist; for instance, a peculiar form of stomach with teeth of peculiar form, and such structures may in one sense be said to be correlated. but these cases have no necessary connexion with the law to be discussed in the present chapter; for we do not know that {320} the initial or primary variations of the several parts were in any way related; slight modifications or individual differences may have been preserved, first in one and then in another part, until the final and perfectly co-adapted structure was acquired; but to this subject i shall presently recur. again, in many groups of animals the males alone are furnished with weapons, or are ornamented with gay colours; and these characters manifestly stand in some sort of correlation with the male reproductive organs, for when the latter are destroyed these characters disappear. but it was shown in the twelfth chapter that the very same peculiarity may become attached at any age to either sex, and afterwards be exclusively transmitted by the same sex at a corresponding age. in these cases we have inheritance limited by, or correlated with, both sex and age; but we have no reason for supposing that the original cause of the variation was necessarily connected with the reproductive organs, or with the age of the affected being. in cases of true correlated variation, we are sometimes able to see the nature of the connexion; but in most cases the bond is hidden from us, and certainly differs in different cases. we can seldom say which of two correlated parts first varies, and induces a change in the other; or whether the two are simultaneously produced by some distinct cause. correlated variation is an important subject for us; for when one part is modified through continued selection, either by man or under nature, other parts of the organisation will be unavoidably modified. from this correlation it apparently follows that, with our domesticated animals and plants, varieties rarely or never differ from each other by some single character alone. one of the simplest cases of correlation is that a modification which arises during an early stage of growth tends to influence the subsequent development of the same part, as well as of other and intimately connected parts. isidore geoffroy st. hilaire states[804] that this may constantly be observed with monstrosities {321} in the animal kingdom; and moquin-tandon[805] remarks, that, as with plants the axis cannot become monstrous without in some way affecting the organs subsequently produced from it, so axial anomalies are almost always accompanied by deviations of structure in the appended parts. we shall presently see that with short-muzzled races of the dog certain histological changes in the basal elements of the bones arrest their development and shorten them, and this affects the position of the subsequently developed molar teeth. it is probable that certain modifications in the larvæ of insects would affect the structure of the mature insects. but we must be very careful not to extend this view too far, for, during the normal course of development, certain members in the same group of animals are known to pass through an extraordinary course of change, whilst other and closely allied members arrive at maturity with little change of structure. another simple case of correlation is that with the increased or decreased dimensions of the whole body, or of any particular part, certain organs are increased or diminished in number, or are otherwise modified. thus pigeon-fanciers have gone on selecting pouters for length of body, and we have seen that their vertebræ are generally increased in number, and their ribs in breadth. tumblers have been selected for their small bodies, and their ribs and primary wing-feathers are generally lessened in number. fantails have been selected for their large, widely-expanded tails, with numerous tail-feathers, and the caudal vertebræ are increased in size and number. carriers have been selected for length of beak, and their tongues have become longer, but not in strict accordance with the length of beak. in this latter breed and in others having large feet, the number of the scutellæ on the toes is greater than in the breeds with small feet. many similar cases could be given. in germany it has been observed that the period of gestation is longer in large-sized than in small-sized breeds of cattle. with our highly-improved animals of all kinds the period of maturity has advanced, both with respect to the full growth of the body and the period of reproduction; and, in correspondence with this, the teeth are now developed earlier than formerly, so that, {322} to the surprise of agriculturists, the ancient rules for judging the age of an animal by the state of its teeth are no longer trustworthy.[806] _correlated variation of homologous parts._--parts which are homologous tend to vary in the same manner; and this is what might have been expected, for such parts are identical in form and structure during an early period of embryonic development, and are exposed in the egg or womb to similar conditions. the symmetry, in most kinds of animals, of the corresponding or homologous organs on the right and left sides of the body, is the simplest case in point; but this symmetry sometimes fails, as with rabbits having only one ear, or stags with one horn, or with many-horned sheep which sometimes carry an additional horn on one side of their heads. with flowers which have regular corollas, the petals generally vary in the same manner, as we see in the same complicated and elegant pattern, on the flowers of the chinese pink; but with irregular flowers, though the petals are of course homologous, this symmetry often fails, as with the varieties of the _antirrhinum_ or snapdragon, or that variety of the kidney-bean (_phaseolus multiflorus_) which has a white standard-petal. in the vertebrata the front and hind limbs are homologous, and they tend to vary in the same manner, as we see in long and short-legged, or in thick and thin-legged races of the horse and dog. isidore geoffroy[807] has remarked on the tendency of supernumerary digits in man to appear, not only on the right and left sides, but on the upper and lower extremities. meckel has insisted[808] that, when the muscles of the arm depart in number or arrangement from their proper type, they almost always imitate those of the leg; and so conversely the varying muscles of the leg imitate the normal muscles of the arm. in several distinct breeds of the pigeon and fowl, the legs and the two outer toes are heavily feathered, so that in the trumpeter pigeon they appear like little wings. in the feather-legged bantam the "boots" or feathers, which grow from the outside of the leg and generally from the two outer toes, have, {323} according to the excellent authority of mr. hewitt,[809] been seen to exceed the wing-feathers in length, and in one case were actually nine and a half inches in length! as mr. blyth has remarked to me, these leg-feathers resemble the primary wing-feathers, and are totally unlike the fine down which naturally grows on the legs of some birds, such as grouse and owls. hence it may be suspected that excess of food has first given redundancy to the plumage, and then that the law of homologous variation has led to the development of feathers on the legs, in a position corresponding with those on the wing, namely, on the outside of the tarsi and toes. i am strengthened in this belief by the following curious case of correlation, which for a long time seemed to me utterly inexplicable, namely, that in pigeons of any breed, if the legs are feathered, the two outer toes are partially connected by skin. these two outer toes correspond with our third and fourth toes. now, in the wing of the pigeon or any other bird, the first and fifth digits are wholly aborted; the second is rudimentary and carries the so-called "bastard-wing;" whilst the third and fourth digits are completely united and enclosed by skin, together forming the extremity of the wing. so that in feather-footed pigeons, not only does the exterior surface support a row of long feathers, like wing-feathers, but the very same digits which in the wing are completely united by skin become partially united by skin in the feet; and thus by the law of the correlated variation of homologous parts we can understand the curious connection of feathered legs and membrane between the two outer toes. andrew knight[810] has remarked that the face or head and the limbs vary together in general proportions. compare, for instance, the head and limbs of a dray and race-horse, or of a greyhound and mastiff. what a monster a greyhound would appear with the head of a mastiff! the _modern_ bulldog, however, has fine limbs, but this is a recently-selected character. from the measurements given in the sixth chapter, we clearly see that in all the breeds of the pigeon the length of the beak and the size of the feet are correlated. the view which, as before explained, seems the most probable is, that disuse in all cases tends {324} to diminish the feet, the beak becoming at the same time through correlation shorter; but that in those few breeds in which length of beak has been a selected point, the feet, notwithstanding disuse, have through correlation increased in size. with the increased length of the beak in pigeons, not only the tongue increases in length, but likewise the orifice of the nostrils. but the increased length of the orifice of the nostrils perhaps stands in closer correlation with the development of the corrugated skin or wattle at the base of the beak; for when there is much wattle round the eyes, the eyelids are greatly increased or even doubled in length. there is apparently some correlation even in colour between the head and the extremities. thus with horses a large white star or blaze on the forehead is generally accompanied by white feet.[811] with white rabbits and cattle, dark marks often co-exist on the tips of the ears and on the feet. in black and tan dogs of different breeds, tan-coloured spots over the eyes and tan-coloured feet almost invariably go together. these latter cases of connected colouring may be due either to reversion or to analogous variation,--subjects to which we shall hereafter return,--but this does not necessarily determine the question of their original correlation. if those naturalists are correct who maintain that the jaw-bones are homologous with the limb-bones, then we can understand why the head and limbs tend to vary together in shape and even in colour; but several highly competent judges dispute the correctness of this view. the lopping forwards and downwards of the immense ears of fancy rabbits is in part due to the disuse of the muscles, and in part to the weight and length of the ears, which have been increased by selection during many generations. now, with the increased size and changed direction of the ears, not only has the bony auditory meatus become changed in outline, direction, and greatly in size, but the whole skull has been slightly modified. this could be clearly seen in "half-lops"--that is, in rabbits with one ear alone lopping forward--for the opposite sides of their skulls were not strictly symmetrical. this seems to me a curious instance of correlation, between hard {325} bones and organs so soft and flexible, as well as so unimportant under a physiological point of view, as the external ears. the result no doubt is largely due to mere mechanical action, that is, to the weight of the ears, on the same principle that the skull of a human infant is easily modified by pressure. the skin and the appendages of hair, feathers, hoofs, horns, and teeth, are homologous over the whole body. every one knows that the colour of the skin and that of the hair usually vary together; so that virgil advises the shepherd to look whether the mouth and tongue of the ram are black, lest the lambs should not be purely white. with poultry and certain ducks we have seen that the colour of the plumage stands in some connexion with the colour of the shell of the egg,--that is, with the mucous membrane which secretes the shell. the colour of the skin and hair, and the odour emitted by the glands of the skin, are said[812] to be connected, even in the same race of men. generally the hair varies in the same way all over the body in length, fineness, and curliness. the same rule holds good with feathers, as we see with the laced and frizzled breeds both of fowls and pigeons. in the common cock the feathers on the neck and loins are always of a particular shape, called hackles: now in the polish breed, both sexes are characterised by a tuft of feathers on the head; but through correlation these feathers in the male always assume the form of hackles. the wing and tail-feathers, though arising from parts not homologous, vary in length together; so that long or short winged pigeons generally have long or short tails. the case of the jacobin-pigeon is more curious, for the wing and tail feathers are remarkably long; and this apparently has arisen in correlation with the elongated and reversed feathers on the back of the neck, which form the hood. the hoofs and hair are homologous appendages; and a careful observer, namely azara,[813] states that in paraguay horses of various colours are often born with their hair curled and twisted like that on the head of a negro. this peculiarity is strongly inherited. but what is remarkable is that the hoofs of these horses "are absolutely like those of a mule." the hair also of the mane and tail is invariably much shorter than usual, being only from four {326} to twelve inches in length; so that curliness and shortness of the hair are here, as with the negro, apparently correlated. with respect to the horns of sheep, youatt[814] remarks that "multiplicity of horns is not found in any breed of much value: it is generally accompanied by great length and coarseness of the fleece." several tropical breeds of sheep, which are clothed with hair instead of wool, have horns almost like those of a goat. sturm[815] expressly declares that in different races the more the wool is curled the more the horns are spirally twisted. we have seen in the third chapter, where other analogous facts have been given, that the parent of the mauchamp breed, so famous for its fleece, had peculiarly shaped horns. the inhabitants of angora assert[816] that "only the white goats which have horns wear the fleece in the long curly locks that are so much admired; those which are not horned having a comparatively close coat." from these cases we may conclude that the hair or wool and the horns vary in a correlated manner. those who have tried hydropathy are aware that the frequent application of cold water stimulates the skin; and whatever stimulates the skin tends to increase the growth of the hair, as is well shown in the abnormal growth of hair near old inflamed surfaces. now, professor low[817] is convinced that with the different races of british cattle thick skin and long hair depend on the humidity of the climate which they inhabit. we can thus see how a humid climate might act on the horns--in the first place directly on the skin and hair, and secondly by correlation on the horns. the presence or absence of horns, moreover, both in the case of sheep and cattle, acts, as will presently be shown, by some sort of correlation on the skull. with respect to hair and teeth, mr. yarrell[818] found many of the teeth deficient in three hairless "_ægyptian_" dogs, and in a hairless terrier. the incisors, canines, and premolars suffered most, but in one case all the teeth, except the large tubercular molar on each side, were deficient. with man several striking cases have been recorded[819] of inherited baldness with {327} inherited deficiency, either complete or partial, of the teeth. we see the same connexion in those rare cases in which the hair has been renewed in old age, for this has "usually been accompanied by a renewal of the teeth." i have remarked in a former part of this volume that the great reduction in the size of the tusks in domestic boars probably stands in close relation with their diminished bristles, due to a certain amount of protection; and that the reappearance of the tusks in boars, which have become feral and are fully exposed to the weather, probably depends on the reappearance of the bristles. i may add, though not strictly connected with our present point, that an agriculturist[820] asserts that "pigs with little hair on their bodies are most liable to lose their tails, showing a weakness of the tegumental structure. it may be prevented by crossing with a more hairy breed." in the previous cases deficient hair, and teeth deficient in number or size, are apparently connected. in the following cases abnormally redundant hair, and teeth either deficient or redundant, are likewise connected. mr. crawfurd[821] saw at the burmese court a man, thirty years old, with his whole body, except the hands and feet, covered with straight silky hair, which on the shoulders and spine was five inches in length. at birth the ears alone were covered. he did not arrive at puberty, or shed his milk teeth, until twenty years old; and at this period he acquired five teeth in the upper jaw, namely four incisors and one canine, and four incisor teeth in the lower jaw; all the teeth were small. this man had a daughter, who was born with hair within her ears; and the hair soon extended over her body. when captain yule[822] visited the court, he found this girl grown up; and she presented a strange appearance with even her nose densely covered with soft hair. like her father, she was furnished with incisor teeth alone. the king had with difficulty bribed a man to marry her, and of her two children, one, a boy fourteen months old, had hair growing out of his ears, with a beard and moustache. this strange peculiarity had, therefore, been inherited for three generations, with the molar teeth deficient in the grandfather and mother; whether {328} these teeth would likewise fail in the infant could not be told. here is another case communicated to me by mr. wallace on the authority of dr. purland, a dentist: julia pastrana, a spanish dancer, was a remarkably fine woman, but she had a thick masculine beard and a hairy forehead; she was photographed, and her stuffed skin was exhibited as a show; but what concerns us is, that she had in both the upper and lower jaw an irregular double set of teeth, one row being placed within the other, of which dr. purland took a cast. from the redundancy of the teeth her mouth projected, and her face had a gorilla-like appearance. these cases and those of the hairless dogs forcibly call to mind the fact, that the two orders of mammals--namely, the edentata and cetacea--which are the most abnormal in their dermal covering, are likewise the most abnormal either by deficiency or redundancy of teeth. the organs of sight and hearing are generally admitted to be homologous, both with each other and with the various dermal appendages; hence these parts are liable to be abnormally affected in conjunction. mr. white cowper says "that in all cases of double microphthalmia brought under his notice he has at the same time met with defective development of the dental system." certain forms of blindness seem to be associated with the colour of the hair; a man with black hair and a woman with light-coloured hair, both of sound constitution, married and had nine children, all of whom were born blind; of these children, five "with dark hair and brown iris were afflicted with amaurosis; the four others, with light-coloured hair and blue iris, had amaurosis and cataract conjoined." several cases could be given, showing that some relation exists between various affections of the eyes and ears; thus liebreich states that out of 241 deaf-mutes in berlin, no less than fourteen suffered from the rare disease called pigmentary retinitis. mr. white cowper and dr. earle have remarked that inability to distinguish different colours, or colour-blindness, "is often associated with a corresponding inability to distinguish musical sounds."[823] {329} here is a more curious case: white cats, if they have blue eyes, are almost always deaf. i formerly thought that the rule was invariable, but i have heard of a few authentic exceptions. the first two notices were published in 1829, and relate to english and persian cats: of the latter, the rev. w. t. bree possessed a female, and he states "that of the offspring produced at one and the same birth, such as, like the mother, were entirely white (with blue eyes) were, like her, invariably deaf; while those that had the least speck of colour on their fur, as invariably possessed the usual faculty of hearing."[824] the rev. w. darwin fox informs me that he has seen more than a dozen instances of this correlation in english, persian, and danish cats; but he adds "that, if one eye, as i have several times observed, be not blue, the cat hears. on the other hand, i have never seen a white cat with eyes of the common colour that was deaf." in france dr. sichel[825] has observed during twenty years similar facts; he adds the remarkable case of the iris beginning, at the end of four months, to grow dark-coloured, and then the cat first began to hear. this case of correlation in cats has struck many persons as marvellous. there is nothing unusual in the relation between blue eyes and white fur; and we have already seen that the organs of sight and hearing are often simultaneously affected. in the present instance the cause probably lies in a slight arrest of development in the nervous system in connection with the sense-organs. kittens during the first nine days, whilst their eyes are closed, appear to be completely deaf; i have made a great clanging noise with a poker and shovel close to their heads, both when they were asleep and awake, without producing any effect. the trial must not be made by shouting close to their ears, for they are, even when asleep, extremely sensitive to a breath of air. now, as long as the eyes continue closed, the iris is no doubt blue, for in all the kittens which i have seen this colour remains for some time after the eyelids open. hence, if we suppose the development of the organs of sight and hearing to be arrested at the stage of the closed eyelids, the eyes would {330} remain permanently blue and the ears would be incapable of perceiving sound; and we should thus understand this curious case. as, however, the colour of the fur is determined long before birth, and as the blueness of the eyes and the whiteness of the fur are obviously connected, we must believe that some primary cause acts at an early period. the instances of correlated variability hitherto given have been chiefly drawn from the animal kingdom, and we will now turn to plants. leaves, sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils are all homologous. in double flowers we see that the stamens and pistils vary in the same manner, and assume the form and colour of the petals. in the double columbine (_aquilegia vulgaris_), the successive whorls of stamens are converted into cornucopias, which are enclosed within each other and resemble the petals. in hose-and-hose flowers the sepals mock the petals. in some cases the flowers and leaves vary together in tint: in all the varieties of the common pea, which have purple flowers, a purple mark may be seen on the stipules. in other cases the leaves and fruit and seeds vary together in colour, as in a curious pale-leaved variety of the sycamore, which has recently been described in france,[826] and as in the purple-leaved hazel, in which the leaves, the husk of the nut, and the pellicle round the kernel are all coloured purple.[827] pomologists can predict to a certain extent, from the size and appearance of the leaves of their seedlings, the probable nature of the fruit; for, as van mons remarks,[828] variations in the leaves are generally accompanied by some modification in the flower, and consequently in the fruit. in the serpent melon, which has a narrow tortuous fruit above a yard in length, the stem of the plant, the peduncle of the female flower, and the middle lobe of the leaf, are all elongated in a remarkable manner. on the other hand, several varieties of cucurbita, which have dwarfed stems, all produce, as naudin remarks with surprise, leaves of the same peculiar shape. mr. g. maw informs me that all the varieties of the scarlet pelargoniums which have contracted or imperfect leaves have contracted flowers: the difference between {331} "brilliant" and its parent "tom thumb" is a good instance of this. it may be suspected that the curious case described by risso,[829] of a variety of the orange which produces on the young shoots rounded leaves with winged petioles, and afterwards elongated leaves on long but wingless petioles, is connected with the remarkable change in form and nature which the fruit undergoes during its development. in the following instance we have the colour and form of the petals apparently correlated, and both dependent on the nature of the season. an observer, skilled in the subject, writes,[830] "i noticed, during the year 1842, that every dahlia, of which the colour had any tendency to scarlet, was deeply notched--indeed to so great an extent as to give the petals the appearance of a saw; the indentures were, in some instances, more than a quarter of an inch deep." again, dahlias which have their petals tipped with a different colour from the rest are very inconstant, and during certain years some, or even all the flowers, become uniformly coloured; and it has been observed with several varieties,[831] that when this happens the petals grow much elongated and lose their proper shape. this, however, may be due to reversion, both in colour and form, to the aboriginal species. * * * * * in this discussion on correlation, we have hitherto treated of cases in which we can partly understand the bond of connexion; but i will now give cases in which we cannot even conjecture, or can only very obscurely see, what is the nature of the bond. isidore geoffroy st. hilaire, in his work on monstrosities, insists,[832] "que certaines anomalies coexistent rarement entr'elles, d'autres fréquemment, d'autres enfin presque constamment, malgré la différence très-grande de leur nature, et quoiqu'elles puissent paraître _complètement indépendantes_ les unes des autres." we see something analogous in certain diseases: thus i hear from mr. paget that in a rare affection of the {332} renal capsules (of which the functions are unknown), the skin becomes bronzed; and in hereditary syphilis, both the milk and the second teeth assume a peculiar and characteristic form. professor rolleston, also, informs me that the incisor teeth are sometimes furnished with a vascular rim in correlation with intra-pulmonary deposition of tubercles. in other cases of phthisis and of cyanosis the nails and finger-ends become clubbed like acorns. i believe that no explanation has been offered of these and of many other cases of correlated disease. what can be more curious and less intelligible than the fact previously given, on the authority of mr. tegetmeier, that young pigeons of all breeds, which when mature have white, yellow, silver-blue, or dun-coloured plumage, come out of the egg almost naked; whereas pigeons of other colours when first born are clothed with plenty of down? white pea-fowls, as has been observed both in england and france,[833] and as i have myself seen, are inferior in size to the common coloured kind; and this cannot be accounted for by the belief that albinism is always accompanied by constitutional weakness; for white or albino moles are generally larger than the common kind. to turn to more important characters: the niata cattle of the pampas are remarkable from their short foreheads, upturned muzzles, and curved lower jaws. in the skull the nasal and premaxillary bones are much shortened, the maxillaries are excluded from any junction with the nasals, and all the bones are slightly modified, even to the plane of the occiput. from the analogical case of the dog, hereafter to be given, it is probable that the shortening of the nasal and adjoining bones is the proximate cause of the other modifications in the skull, including the upward curvature of the lower jaw, though we cannot follow out the steps by which these changes have been effected. polish fowls have a large tuft of feathers on their heads; and their skulls are perforated by numerous holes, so that a pin can be driven into the brain without touching any bone. that this deficiency of bone is in some way connected with the tuft of feathers is clear from tufted ducks and geese likewise having {333} perforated skulls. the case would probably be considered by some authors as one of balancement or compensation. in the chapter on fowls, i have shown that with polish fowls the tuft of feathers was probably at first small; by continued selection it became larger, and then rested on a fleshy or fibrous mass; and finally, as it became still larger, the skull itself became more and more protuberant until it acquired its present extraordinary structure. through correlation with the protuberance of the skull, the shape and even the relative connexion of the premaxillary and nasal bones, the shape of the orifice of the nostrils, the breadth of the frontal bone, the shape of the post-lateral processes of the frontal and squamosal bones, and the direction of the bony cavity of the ear, have all been modified. the internal configuration of the skull and the whole shape of the brain have likewise been altered in a truly marvellous manner. after this case of the polish fowl it would be superfluous to do more than refer to the details previously given on the manner in which the changed form of the comb, in various breeds of the fowl, has affected the skull, causing by correlation crests, protuberances, and depressions on its surface. with our cattle and sheep the horns stand in close connexion with the size of the skull, and with the shape of the frontal bones; thus cline[834] found that the skull of a horned ram weighed five times as much as that of a hornless ram of the same age. when cattle become hornless, the frontal bones are "materially diminished in breadth towards the poll;" and the cavities between the bony plates "are not so deep, nor do they extend beyond the frontals."[835] * * * * * it may be well here to pause and observe how the effects of correlated variability, of the increased use of parts, and of the accumulation through natural selection of so-called spontaneous variations, are in many cases inextricably commingled. we may borrow an illustration from mr. herbert spencer, who remarks that, when the irish elk acquired its gigantic horns, weighing above one hundred pounds, numerous co-ordinated {334} changes of structure would have been indispensable,--namely, a thickened skull to carry the horns; strengthened cervical vertebræ, with strengthened ligaments; enlarged dorsal vertebræ to support the neck, with powerful fore-legs and feet; all these parts being supplied with proper muscles, blood-vessels, and nerves. how then could these admirably co-ordinated modifications of structure have been acquired? according to the doctrine which i maintain, the horns of the male elk were slowly gained through sexual selection,--that is, by the best-armed males conquering the worse-armed, and leaving a greater number of descendants. but it is not at all necessary that the several parts of the body should have simultaneously varied. each stag presents individual differences, and in the same district those which had slightly heavier horns, or stronger necks, or stronger bodies, or were the most courageous, would secure the greater number of does, and consequently leave a greater number of offspring. the offspring would inherit, in a greater or less degree, these same qualities, would occasionally intercross with each other, or with other individuals varying in some favourable manner; and of their offspring, those which were the best endowed in any respect would continue multiplying; and so onwards, always progressing, sometimes in one direction, and sometimes in another, towards the present excellently co-ordinated structure of the male elk. to make this clear, let us reflect on the probable steps, as shown in the twentieth chapter, by which our race and dray-horses have arrived at their present state of excellence; if we could view the whole series of intermediate forms between one of these animals and an early unimproved progenitor, we should behold a vast number of animals, not equally improved in each generation throughout their entire structure, but sometimes a little more in one point, and sometimes in another, yet on the whole gradually approaching in character to our present race or dray-horses, which are so admirably fitted in the one case for fleetness and in the other for draught. although natural selection would thus[836] tend to give to the {335} male elk its present structure, yet it is probable that the inherited influence of use has played an equal or more important part. as the horns gradually increased in weight, the muscles of the neck, with the bones to which they are attached, would increase in size and strength; and these parts would react on the body and legs. nor must we overlook the fact that certain parts of the skull and the extremities would, judging by analogy, tend from the first to vary in a correlated manner. the increased weight of the horns would also act directly on the skull, in the same manner as, when one bone is removed in the leg of a dog, the other bone, which has to carry the whole weight of the body, increases in thickness. but from the facts given with respect to horned and hornless cattle, it is probable that the horns and skull would immediately act on each other through the principle of correlation. lastly, the growth and subsequent wear and tear of the augmented muscles and bones would require an increased supply of blood, and consequently an increased supply of food; and this again would require increased powers of mastication, digestion, respiration, and excretion. _colour as correlated with constitutional peculiarities._ it is an old belief that with man there is a connexion between complexion and constitution; and i find that some of the best authorities believe in this to the present day.[837] thus dr. beddoe by his tables shows[838] that a relation exists between liability to consumption and the colour of the hair, eyes, and skin. it has been affirmed[839] that, in the french army which invaded russia, soldiers having a dark complexion, from the {336} southern parts of europe, withstood the intense cold better than those with lighter complexions from the north; but no doubt such statements are liable to error. in the second chapter on selection i have given several cases proving that with animals and plants differences in colour are correlated with constitutional differences, as shown by greater or less immunity from certain diseases, from the attacks of parasitic plants and animals, from burning by the sun, and from the action of certain poisons. when all the individuals of any one variety possess an immunity of this nature, we cannot feel sure that it stands in any sort of correlation with their colour; but when several varieties of the same species, which are similarly coloured, are thus characterised, whilst other coloured varieties are not thus favoured, we must believe in the existence of a correlation of this kind. thus in the united states purple-fruited plums of many kinds are far more affected by a certain disease than green or yellow-fruited varieties. on the other hand, yellow-fleshed peaches of various kinds suffer from another disease much more than the white-fleshed varieties. in the mauritius red sugar-canes are much less affected by a particular disease than the white canes. white onions and verbenas are the most liable to mildew; and in spain the green-fruited grapes suffered from the vine-disease more than other coloured varieties. dark-coloured pelargoniums and verbenas are more scorched by the sun than varieties of other colours. red wheats are believed to be hardier than white; whilst red-flowered hyacinths were more injured during one particular winter in holland than other coloured varieties. with animals, white terriers suffer most from the distemper, white chickens from a parasitic worm in their tracheæ, white pigs from scorching by the sun, and white cattle from flies; but the caterpillars of the silk-moth which yield white cocoons suffered in france less from the deadly parasitic fungus than those producing yellow silk. the cases of immunity from the action of certain vegetable poisons, in connexion with colour, are more interesting, and are at present wholly inexplicable. i have already given a remarkable instance, on the authority of professor wyman, of all the hogs, excepting those of a black colour, suffering severely in virginia from eating the root of the _lachnanthes tinctoria_. {337} according to spinola and others,[840] buckwheat (_polygonum fagopyrum_), when in flower, is highly injurious to white or white-spotted pigs, if they are exposed to the heat of the sun, but is quite innocuous to black pigs. by two accounts, the _hypericum crispum_ in sicily is poisonous to white sheep alone; their heads swell, their wool falls off, and they often die; but this plant, according to lecce, is poisonous only when it grows in swamps; nor is this improbable, as we know how readily the poisonous principle in plants is influenced by the conditions under which they grow. three accounts have been published in eastern prussia, of white and white-spotted horses being greatly injured by eating mildewed and honeydewed vetches; every spot of skin bearing white hairs becoming inflamed and gangrenous. the rev. j. rodwell informs me that his father turned out about fifteen cart-horses into a field of tares which in parts swarmed with black aphides, and which no doubt were honeydewed, and probably mildewed; the horses, with two exceptions, were chesnuts and bays with white marks on their faces and pasterns, and the white parts alone swelled and became angry scabs. the two bay horses with no white marks entirely escaped all injury. in guernsey, when horses eat fools' parsley (_æthusa cynapium_) they are sometimes violently purged; and this plant "has a peculiar effect on the nose and lips, causing deep cracks and ulcers, particularly on horses with white muzzles."[841] with cattle, independently of the action of any poison, cases have been published by youatt and erdt of cutaneous diseases with much constitutional disturbance (in one instance after exposure to a hot sun) affecting every single point which bore a white hair, but completely passing over other parts of the body. similar cases have been observed with horses.[842] we thus see that not only do those parts of the skin which bear white hair differ in a remarkable manner from those bearing {338} hair of any other colour, but that in addition some great, constitutional difference must stand in correlation with the colour of the hair; for in the above-mentioned cases, vegetable poisons caused fever, swelling of the head, as well as other symptoms, and even death, to all the white or white-spotted animals. * * * * * {339} chapter xxvi. laws of variation, _continued_--summary. on the affinity and cohesion of homologous parts--on the variability of multiple and homologous parts--compensation of growth--mechanical pressure--relative position of flowers with respect to the axis of the plant, and of seeds in the capsule, as inducing variation--analogous or parallel varieties--summary of the three last chapters. _on the affinity of homologous parts._--this law was first generalised by geoffroy saint hilaire, under the expression of _la loi de l'affinité de soi pour soi_. it has been fully discussed and illustrated by his son, isidore geoffroy, with respect to monsters in the animal kingdom,[843] and by moquin-tandon, with respect to monstrous plants. when similar or homologous parts, whether belonging to the same embryo or to two distinct embryos, are brought during an early stage of development into contact, they often blend into a single part or organ; and this complete fusion indicates some mutual affinity between the parts, otherwise they would simply cohere. whether any power exists which tends to bring homologous parts into contact seems more doubtful. the tendency to complete fusion is not a rare or exceptional fact. it is exhibited in the most striking manner by double monsters. nothing can be more extraordinary than the manner, as shown in various published plates, in which the corresponding parts of two embryos become intimately fused together. this is perhaps best seen in monsters with two heads, which are united, summit to summit, or face to face, or, janus-like, back to back, or obliquely side to side. in one instance of two heads united almost face to face, but a little obliquely, four ears were developed, and on one side a perfect face, which was manifestly formed by the union of two {340} half-faces. whenever two bodies or two heads are united, each bone, muscle, vessel, and nerve on the line of junction seems to seek out its fellow, and becomes completely fused with it. lereboullet,[844] who carefully studied the development of double monsters in fishes, observed in fifteen instances the steps by which two heads gradually became fused into one. in this and other such cases, no one, i presume, supposes that the two already formed heads actually blend together, but that the corresponding parts of each head grow into one during the further progress of development, accompanied as it always is with incessant absorption and renovation. double monsters were formerly thought to be formed by the union of two originally distinct embryos developed upon distinct vitelli; but now it is admitted that "their production is due to the spontaneous divarication of the embryonic mass into two halves;"[845] this, however, is effected by different methods. but the belief that double monsters originate from the division of one germ, does not necessarily affect the question of subsequent fusion, or render less true the law of the affinity of homologous parts. the cautious and sagacious j. müller,[846] when speaking of janus-like monsters, says, that "without the supposition that some kind of affinity or attraction is exerted between corresponding parts, unions of this kind are inexplicable." on the other hand, vrolik, and he is followed by others, disputes this conclusion, and argues from the existence of a whole series of monstrosities, graduating from a perfectly double monster to a mere rudiment of an additional digit, that "an excess of formative power" is the cause and origin of every monstrous duplicity. that there are two distinct classes of cases, and that parts may be doubled independently of the existence of two embryos, is certain; for a single embryo, or even a single adult animal, may produce doubled organs. thus valentin, as quoted by vrolik, injured the caudal extremity of an embryo, and three days afterwards it produced rudiments of a double pelvis and of double hind limbs. {341} hunter and others have observed lizards with their tails reproduced and doubled. when bonnet divided longitudinally the foot of the salamander, several additional digits were occasionally formed. but neither these cases, nor the perfect series from a double monster to an additional digit, seem to me opposed to the belief that corresponding parts have a mutual affinity, and consequently tend to fuse together. a part may be doubled and remain in this state, or the two parts thus formed may afterwards through the law of affinity become blended; or two homologous parts in two separate embryos may, through the same principle, unite and form a single part. the law of the affinity and fusion of similar parts applies to the homologous organs of the same individual animal, as well as to double monsters. isidore geoffroy gives a number of instances of two or more digits, of two whole legs, of two kidneys, and of several teeth becoming symmetrically fused together in a more or less perfect manner. even the two eyes have been known to unite into a single eye, forming a cyclopean monster, as have the two ears, though naturally standing so far apart. as geoffroy remarks, these facts illustrate in an admirable manner the normal fusion of various organs which during an early embryonic period are double, but which afterwards always unite into a single median organ. organs of this nature are generally found in a permanently double condition in other members of the same class. these cases of normal fusion appear to me to afford the strongest support in favour of the present law. adjoining parts which are not homologous sometimes cohere; but this cohesion appears to result from mere juxtaposition, and not from mutual affinity. in the vegetable kingdom moquin-tandon[847] gives a long list of cases, showing how frequently homologous parts, such as leaves, petals, stamens, and pistils, as well as aggregates of homologous parts, such as buds, flowers, and fruit, become blended into each other with perfect symmetry. it is interesting to examine a compound flower of this nature, formed of exactly double the proper number of sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils, with each whorl of organs circular, and with no trace left of the {342} process of fusion. the tendency in homologous parts to unite during their early development, moquin-tandon considers as one of the most striking laws governing the production of monsters. it apparently explains a multitude of cases, both in the animal and vegetable kingdoms; it throws a clear light on many normal structures which have evidently been formed by the union of originally distinct parts, and it possesses, as we shall see in a future chapter, much theoretical interest. * * * * * _on the variability of multiple and homologous parts._--isidore geoffroy[848] insists that, when any part or organ is repeated many times in the same animal, it is particularly liable to vary both in number and structure. with respect to number, the proposition may, i think, be considered as fully established; but the evidence is chiefly derived from organic beings living under their natural conditions, with which we are not here concerned. when the vertebræ, or teeth, or rays in the fins of fishes, or feathers in the tails of birds, or petals, stamens, pistils, and seeds in plants, are very numerous, the number is generally variable. the explanation of this simple fact is by no means obvious. with respect to the variability in structure of multiple parts, the evidence is not so decisive; but the fact, as far as it may be trusted, probably depends on multiple parts being of less physiological importance than single parts; consequently their perfect standard of structure has been less rigorously enforced by natural selection. * * * * * _compensation of growth, or balancement._--this law, as applied to natural species, was propounded by goethe and geoffroy st. hilaire at nearly the same time. it implies that, when much organised matter is used in building up some one part, other parts are starved and become reduced. several authors, especially botanists, believe in this law; others reject it. as far as i can judge, it occasionally holds good; but its importance has probably been exaggerated. it is scarcely possible to distinguish between the supposed effects of such compensation of growth, and the effects of long-continued selection, which {343} may at the same time lead to the augmentation of one part and the diminution of another. there can be no doubt that an organ may be greatly increased without any corresponding diminution in the adjoining parts. to recur to our former illustration of the irish elk, it may be asked what part has suffered in consequence of the immense development of the horns? it has already been observed that the struggle for existence does not bear hard on our domesticated productions; consequently the principle of economy of growth will seldom affect them, and we ought not to expect to find frequent evidence of compensation. we have, however, some such cases. moquin-tandon describes a monstrous bean,[849] in which the stipules were enormously developed, and the leaflets apparently in consequence completely aborted; this case is interesting, as it represents the natural condition of _lathyrus aphaca_, with its stipules of great size, and its leaves reduced to mere threads, which act as tendrils. de candolle[850] has remarked that the varieties of _raphanus sativus_ which have small roots yield numerous seed, valuable from containing oil, whilst those with large roots are not productive in this latter respect; and so it is with _brassica asperifolia_. the varieties of the potato which produce tubers very early in the season rarely bear flowers; but andrew knight,[851] by checking the growth of the tubers, forced the plants to flower. the varieties of _cucurbita pepo_ which produce large fruit yield, according to naudin, few in number; whilst those producing small fruit yield a vast number. lastly, i have endeavoured to show in the eighteenth chapter that with many cultivated plants unnatural treatment checks the full and proper action of the reproductive organs, and they are thus rendered more or less sterile; consequently, in the way of compensation, the fruit becomes greatly enlarged, and, in double flowers, the petals are greatly increased in number. with animals, it has been found difficult to produce cows which should first yield much milk, and afterwards be capable of {344} fattening well. with fowls which have large topknots and beards the comb and wattles are generally much reduced in size. perhaps the entire absence of the oil-gland in fantail pigeons may be connected with the great development of their tails. * * * * * _mechanical pressure as a cause of modifications._--in some few cases there is reason to believe that mere mechanical pressure has affected certain structures. every one knows that savages alter the shape of their infants' skulls by pressure at an early age; but there is no reason to believe that the result is ever inherited. nevertheless vrolik and weber[852] maintain that the shape of the human head is influenced by the shape of the mother's pelvis. the kidneys in different birds differ much in form, and st. ange[853] believes that this is determined by the form of the pelvis, which again, no doubt, stands in close relation with their various habits of locomotion. in snakes, the viscera are curiously displaced, in comparison with their position in other vertebrates; and this has been attributed by some authors to the elongation of their bodies; but here, as in so many previous cases, it is impossible to disentangle any direct result of this kind from that consequent on natural selection. godron has argued[854] that the normal abortion of the spur on the inner side of the flower in corydalis, is caused by the buds being closely pressed at a very early period of growth, whilst under ground, against each other and against the stem. some botanists believe that the singular difference in the shape both of the seed and corolla, in the interior and exterior florets in certain compositous and umbelliferous plants, is due to the pressure to which the inner florets are subjected; but this conclusion is doubtful. the facts just given do not relate to domesticated productions, and therefore do not strictly concern us. but here is a more appropriate case: h. müller[855] has shown that in {345} short-faced races of the dog some of the molar teeth are placed in a slightly different position from that which they occupy in other dogs, especially in those having elongated muzzles; and as he remarks, any inherited change in the arrangement of the teeth deserves notice, considering their classificatory importance. this difference in position is due to the shortening of certain facial bones, and the consequent want of space; and the shortening results from a peculiar and abnormal state of the basal cartilages of the bones. _relative position of flowers with respect to the axis, and of seeds in the capsule, as inducing variation._ in the thirteenth chapter various peloric flowers were described, and their production was shown to be due either to arrested development, or to reversion to a primordial condition. moquin-tandon has remarked that the flowers which stand on the summit of the main stem or of a lateral branch are more liable to become peloric than those on the sides;[856] and he adduces, amongst other instances, that of _teucrium campanulatum_. in another labiate plant grown by me, viz. the _galeobdolon luteum_, the peloric flowers were always produced on the summit of the stem, where flowers are not usually borne. in pelargonium, a _single_ flower in the truss is frequently peloric, and when this occurs i have during several years invariably observed it to be the central flower. this is of such frequent occurrence that one observer[857] gives the names of ten varieties flowering at the same time, in every one of which the central flower was peloric. occasionally more than one flower in the truss is peloric, and then of course the additional ones must be lateral. these flowers are interesting as showing how the whole structure is correlated. in the common pelargonium the upper sepal is produced into a nectary which coheres with the flower-peduncle; the two upper petals differ a little in shape from the three lower ones, and are marked with dark shades of colour; the stamens are graduated in length and upturned. in the peloric flowers, the nectary aborts; all the petals become alike both in shape and colour; the stamens are generally reduced in number and become straight, so that the whole flower resembles that of the allied genus erodium. the correlation between these changes is well shown when one of the two upper petals alone loses its dark mark, for in this case the nectary does not entirely abort, but is usually much reduced in length.[858] {346} morren has described[859] a marvellous flask-shaped flower of the calceolaria, nearly four inches in length, which was almost completely peloric; it grew on the summit of the plant, with a normal flower on each side; prof. westwood also has described[860] three similar peloric flowers, which all occupied a central position on the flower-branches. in the orchideous genus, phalænopsis, the terminal flower has been seen to become peloric. in a laburnum-tree i observed that about a fourth part of the racemes produced terminal flowers which had lost their papilionaceous structure. these were produced after almost all the other flowers on the same racemes had withered. the most perfectly pelorised examples had six petals, each marked with black striæ like those on the standard-petal. the keel seemed to resist the change more than the other petals. dutrochet has described[861] an exactly similar case in france, and i believe these are the only two instances of pelorism in the laburnum which have been recorded. dutrochet remarks that the racemes on this tree do not properly produce a terminal flower, so that, as in the case of the galeobdolon, their position as well as their structure are both anomalies, which no doubt are in some manner related. dr. masters has briefly described another leguminous plant,[862] namely, a species of clover, in which the uppermost and central flowers were regular or had lost their papilionaceous structure. in some of these plants the flower-heads were also proliferous. lastly, linaria produces two kinds of peloric flowers, one having simple petals, and the other having them all spurred. the two forms, as naudin remarks,[863] not rarely occur on the same plant, but in this case the spurred form almost invariably stands on the summit of the spike. the tendency in the terminal or central flower to become peloric more frequently than other flowers, probably results from "the bud which stands on the end of a shoot receiving the most sap; it grows out into a stronger shoot than those situated lower down."[864] i have discussed the connection between pelorism and a central position, partly because some few plants are known normally to produce a terminal flower different in structure from the lateral ones; but chiefly on account of the following case, in which we see a tendency to variability or to reversion connected with the same position. a great judge of auriculas[865] states that when an auricula throws up a side bloom it is pretty sure to keep its character; but that if it grows from the centre or heart of the plant, whatever the colour of the edging ought to be, "it is just as likely to come in any other class as in the one to which it properly belongs." this is so notorious a {347} fact, that some florists regularly pinch off the central trusses of flowers. whether in the highly improved varieties the departure of the central trusses from their proper type is due to reversion, i do not know. mr. dombrain insists that, whatever may be the commonest kind of imperfection in each variety, this is generally exaggerated in the central truss. thus one variety "sometimes has the fault of producing a little green floret in the centre of the flower," and in central blooms these become excessive in size. in some central blooms, sent to me by mr. dombrain, all the organs of the flower were rudimentary in structure, of minute size, and of a green colour, so that by a little further change all would have been converted into small leaves. in this case we clearly see a tendency to prolification--a term which, i may explain to those who have never attended to botany, means the production of a branch or flower, or head of flowers, out of another flower. now dr. masters[866] states that the central or uppermost flower on a plant is generally the most liable to prolification. thus, in the varieties of the auricula, the loss of their proper character and a tendency to prolification, and in other plants a tendency to prolification and pelorism, are all connected together, and are due either to arrested development, or to reversion to a former condition. the following is a more interesting case; metzger[867] cultivated in germany several kinds of maize brought from the hotter parts of america, and he found, as has been previously described, that in two or three generations the grains became greatly changed in form, size, and colour; and with respect to two races he expressly states that in the first generation, whilst the lower grains on each head retained their proper character, the uppermost grains already began to assume that character which in the third generation all the grains acquired. as we do not know the aboriginal parent of the maize, we cannot tell whether these changes are in any way connected with reversion. in the two following cases, reversion, as influenced by the position of the seed in the capsule, evidently acts. the blue imperial pea is the offspring of the blue prussian, and has larger seed and broader pods than its parent. now mr. masters, of canterbury, a careful observer and a raiser of new varieties of the pea, states[868] that the blue imperial always has a strong tendency to revert to its parent-stock, and the reversion "occurs in this manner: the last (or uppermost) pea in the pod is frequently much smaller than the rest; and if these small peas are carefully collected and sown separately, very many more, in proportion, will revert to their origin, than those taken from the other parts of the pod." again m. chaté[869] says that in raising seedling stocks he succeeds in getting eighty per cent. to bear double flowers, by leaving only a few of the secondary branches to seed; but in addition to this, "at the time of extracting the seeds, the upper portion of the pod is separated and {348} placed aside, because it has been ascertained that the plants coming from the seeds situated in this portion of the pod, give eighty per cent. of single flowers." now the production of single-flowering plants from the seed of double-flowering plants is clearly a case of reversion. these latter facts, as well as the connection between a central position and pelorism and prolification, show in an interesting manner how small a difference--namely a little greater freedom in the flow of sap towards one part of the same plant--determines important changes of structure. * * * * * _analogous or parallel variation._--by this term i wish to express that similar characters occasionally make their appearance in the several varieties or races descended from the same species, and more rarely in the offspring of widely distinct species. we are here concerned, not as hitherto with the causes of variation, but with the results; but this discussion could not have been more conveniently introduced elsewhere. the cases of analogous variation, as far as their origin is concerned, may be grouped, disregarding minor subdivisions, under two main heads; firstly, those due to unknown causes having acted on organic beings with nearly the same constitution, and which consequently vary in an analogous manner; and secondly, those due to the reappearance of characters which were possessed by a more or less remote progenitor. but these two main divisions can often be only conjecturally separated, and graduate, as we shall presently see, into each other. under the first head of analogous variations, not due to reversion, we have the many cases of trees belonging to quite different orders which have produced pendulous and fastigate varieties. the beech, hazel, and barberry have given rise to purple-leaved varieties; and as bernhardi has remarked,[870] a multitude of plants, as distinct as possible, have yielded varieties with deeply-cut or laciniated leaves. varieties descended from three distinct species of brassica have their stems, or so-called roots, enlarged into globular masses. the nectarine is the offspring of the peach; and the varieties of both these trees offer a remarkable parallelism in the fruit being white, red, or yellow fleshed--in being clingstones or freestones--in the flowers being large or small--in the leaves being serrated or crenated, furnished with globose or reniform glands, or quite destitute of glands. it should be remarked that each variety of the nectarine has not derived its character from a corresponding variety of the peach. the several varieties also of a closely allied genus, namely the apricot, differ from each other in nearly the same parallel manner. there is no reason {349} to believe that in any of these cases long-lost characters have reappeared, and in most of them this certainly has not occurred. three species of cucurbita have yielded a multitude of races, which correspond so closely in character that, as naudin insists, they may be arranged in an almost strictly parallel series. several varieties of the melon are interesting from resembling in important characters other species, either of the same genus or of allied genera; thus, one variety has fruit so like, both externally and internally, the fruit of a perfectly distinct species, namely, the cucumber, as hardly to be distinguished from it; another has long cylindrical fruit twisting about like a serpent; in another the seeds adhere to portions of the pulp; in another the fruit, when ripe, suddenly cracks and falls into pieces; and all these highly remarkable peculiarities are characteristic of species belonging to allied genera. we can hardly account for the appearance of so many unusual characters by reversion to a single ancient form; but we must believe that all the members of the family have inherited a nearly similar constitution from an early progenitor. our cereal and many other plants offer similar cases. with animals we have fewer cases of analogous variation, independently of direct reversion. we see something of the kind in the resemblance between the short-muzzled races of the dog, such as the pug and bulldog; in feather-footed races of the fowl, pigeon, and canary-bird; in horses of the most different races presenting the same range of colour; in all black-and-tan dogs having tan-coloured eye-spots and feet, but in this latter case reversion may possibly have played a part. low has remarked[871] that several breeds of cattle are "sheeted,"--that is, have a broad band of white passing round their bodies like a sheet; this character is strongly inherited and sometimes originates from a cross; it may be the first step in reversion to an original or early type, for, as was shown in the third chapter, white cattle with dark ears, feet, and tip of tail formerly existed, and now exist in a feral or semi-feral condition in several quarters of the world. under our second main division, namely, of analogous variations due to reversion, the best cases are afforded by animals, and by none better than by pigeons. in all the most distinct breeds sub-varieties occasionally appear coloured exactly like the parent rock-pigeon, with black wing-bars, white loins, banded tail, &c.; and no one can doubt that these characters are simply due to reversion. so with minor details; turbits properly have white tails, but occasionally a bird is born with a dark-coloured and banded tail; pouters properly have white primary wing-feathers, but not rarely a "sword-flighted" bird, that is, one with the few first primaries dark-coloured, appears; and in these cases we have characters proper to the rock-pigeon, but new to the breed, evidently appearing from reversion. in some domestic varieties the wing-bars, instead of being simply black, as in the rock-pigeon, are beautifully edged with different zones of colour, and they then present a striking analogy with the wing-bars in certain natural species of the same family, such as _phaps chalcoptera_; and this may probably be accounted for by {350} all the forms descended from the same remote progenitor having a tendency to vary in the same manner. thus also we can perhaps understand the fact of some laugher-pigeons cooing almost like turtle-doves, and of several races having peculiarities in their flight, for certain natural species (viz. _c. torquatrix_ and _palumbus_) display singular vagaries in this respect. in other cases a race, instead of imitating in character a distinct species, resembles some other race; thus certain runts tremble and slightly elevate their tails, like fantails; and turbits inflate the upper part of their oesophagus, like pouter-pigeons. it is a common circumstance to find certain coloured marks persistently characterising all the species of a genus, but differing much in tint; and the same thing occurs with the varieties of the pigeon: thus, instead of the general plumage being blue with the wing-bars black, there are snow-white varieties with red bars, and black varieties with white bars; in other varieties the wing-bars, as we have seen, are elegantly zoned with different tints. the spot pigeon is characterised by the whole plumage being white, excepting the tail and a spot on the forehead; but these parts may be red, yellow, or black. in the rock-pigeon and in many varieties the tail is blue, with the outer edges of the outer feathers white; but in one sub-variety of the monk-pigeon we have a reversed variation, for the tail is white, except the outer edges of the outer feathers, which are black.[872] with some species of birds, for instance with gulls, certain coloured parts appear as if almost washed out, and i have observed exactly the same appearance in the terminal dark tail-bar in certain pigeons, and in the whole plumage of certain varieties of the duck. analogous facts in the vegetable kingdom could be given. many sub-varieties of the pigeon have reversed and somewhat lengthened feathers on the back part of their heads, and this is certainly not due to reversion to the parent-species, which shows no trace of such structure; but when we remember that sub-varieties of the fowl, turkey, canary-bird, duck, and goose, all have topknots or reversed feathers on their heads; and when we remember that scarcely a single large natural group of birds can be named, in which some members have not a tuft of feathers on their heads, we may suspect that reversion to some extremely remote form has come into action. several breeds of the fowl have either spangled or pencilled feathers; and these cannot be derived from the parent-species, the _gallus bankiva_; though of course it is possible that an early progenitor of this species may have been spangled, and a still earlier or a later progenitor may have been pencilled. but as many gallinaceous birds are spangled or pencilled, it is a more probable view that the several domestic breeds of the fowl have acquired this kind of plumage from all the members of the family inheriting a tendency to vary in a like manner. the same principle may account for the ewes in certain breeds of sheep being hornless, like the females of some other hollow-horned ruminants; it may account for certain domestic cats having slightly-tufted ears, like those of the lynx; and for the skulls of domestic rabbits often differing from each {351} other in the same characters by which the skulls of the various species of the genus lepus differ. i will only allude to one other case, already discussed. now that we know that the wild parent of the ass has striped legs, we may feel confident that the occasional appearance of stripes on the legs of the domestic ass is due to direct reversion; but this will not account for the lower end of the shoulder-stripe being sometimes angularly bent or slightly forked. so, again, when we see dun and other coloured horses with stripes on the spine, shoulders, and legs, we are led, from reasons formerly given, to believe that they reappear from direct reversion to the wild parent-horse. but when horses have two or three shoulder-stripes with one of them occasionally forked at the lower end, or when they have stripes on their faces, or as foals are faintly striped over nearly their whole bodies, with the stripes angularly bent one under the other on the forehead, or irregularly branched in other parts, it would be rash to attribute such diversified characters to the reappearance of those proper to the aboriginal wild horse. as three african species of the genus are much striped, and as we have seen that the crossing of the unstriped species often leads to the hybrid offspring being conspicuously striped--bearing also in mind that the act of crossing certainly causes the reappearance of long-lost characters--it is a more probable view that the above-specified stripes are due to reversion, not to the immediate wild parent-horse, but to the striped progenitor of the whole genus. i have discussed this subject of analogous variation at considerable length, because, in a future work on natural species, it will be shown that the varieties of one species frequently mock distinct species--a fact in perfect harmony with the foregoing cases, and explicable only on the theory of descent. secondly, because these facts are important from showing, as remarked in a former chapter, that each trifling variation is governed by law, and is determined in a much higher degree by the nature of the organisation, than by the nature of the conditions to which the varying being has been exposed. thirdly, because these facts are to a certain extent related to a more general law, namely, that which mr. b. d. walsh[873] has called the "law of _equable variability_," or, as he explains it, "if any given character is very variable in one species of a group, it will tend to be variable in allied species; and if any given character is perfectly constant in one species of a group, it will tend to be constant in allied species." this leads me to recall a discussion in the chapter on selection, in which it was shown that with domestic races, which are {352} now undergoing rapid improvement, those parts or characters which are the most valued vary the most. this naturally follows from recently selected characters continually tending to revert to their former less improved standard, and from their being still acted on by the same agencies, whatever these may be, which first caused the characters in question to vary. the same principle is applicable to natural species, for, as stated in my 'origin of species,' generic characters are less variable than specific characters; and the latter are those which have been modified by variation and natural selection, since the period when all the species belonging to the same genus branched off from a common progenitor, whilst generic characters are those which have remained unaltered from a much more remote epoch, and accordingly are now less variable. this statement makes a near approach to mr. walsh's law of equable variability. secondary sexual characters, it may be added, rarely serve to characterise distinct genera, for they usually differ much in the species of the same genus, and are highly variable in the individuals of the same species; we have also seen in the earlier chapters of this work how variable secondary sexual characters become under domestication. _summary of the three previous chapters, on the laws of variation._ in the twenty-third chapter we have seen that changed conditions occasionally act in a definite manner on the organisation, so that all, or nearly all, the individuals thus exposed become modified in the same manner. but a far more frequent result of changed conditions, whether acting directly on the organisation or indirectly through the reproductive system being affected is indefinite and fluctuating variability. in the three latter chapters we have endeavoured to trace some of the laws by which such variability is regulated. increased use adds the size of a muscle, together with the blood-vessels, nerves, ligaments, the crests of bone to which these are attached, the whole bone and other connected bones. so it is with various glands. increased functional activity strengthens the sense-organs. increased and intermittent pressure thickens the epidermis; and a change in the nature of the food sometimes modifies the coats of the stomach, and increases or {353} decreases the length of the intestines. continued disuse, on the other hand, weakens and diminishes all parts of the organisation. animals which during many generations have taken but little exercise, have their lungs reduced in size, and as a consequence the bony fabric of the chest, and the whole form of the body, become modified. with our anciently domesticated birds, the wings have been little used, and they are slightly reduced; with their decrease, the crest of the sternum, the scapulæ, coracoids, and furcula, have all been reduced. with domesticated animals, the reduction of a part from disuse is never carried so far that a mere rudiment is left, but we have good reason to believe that this has often occurred under nature. the cause of this difference probably is that with domestic animals not only sufficient time has not been granted for so profound a change, but that, from not being exposed to a severe struggle for life, the principle of the economy of organisation does not come into action. on the contrary, we sometimes see that structures which are rudimentary in the parent-species become partially redeveloped in their domesticated progeny. when rudiments are formed or left under domestication, they are the result of a sudden arrest of development, and not of long-continued disuse with the absorption of all superfluous parts; nevertheless they are of interest, as showing that rudiments are the relics of organs once perfectly developed. corporeal, periodical, and mental habits, though the latter have been almost passed over in this work, become changed under domestication, and the changes are often inherited. such changed habits in any organic being, especially when living a free life, would often lead to the augmented or diminished use of various organs, and consequently to their modification. from long-continued habit, and more especially from the occasional birth of individuals with a slightly different constitution, domestic animals and cultivated plants become to a certain extent acclimatised, or adapted to a climate different from that proper to the parent-species. through the principle of correlated variability, when one part varies other parts vary,--either simultaneously, or one after the other. thus an organ modified during an early embryonic period affects other parts subsequently developed. when an {354} organ, such as the beak, increases or decreases in length, adjoining or correlated parts, as the tongue and the orifice of the nostrils, tend to vary in the same manner. when the whole body increases or decreases in size, various parts become modified; thus with pigeons the ribs increase or decrease in number and breadth. homologous parts, which are identical during their early development and are exposed to similar conditions, tend to vary in the same or in some connected manner,--as in the case of the right and left sides of the body, of the front and hind limbs, and even of the head and limbs. so it is with the organs of sight and hearing; for instance, white cats with blue eyes are almost always deaf. there is a manifest relation throughout the body between the skin and its various appendages of hair, feathers, hoofs, horns, and teeth. in paraguay, horses with curly hair have hoofs like those of a mule; the wool and the horns of sheep vary together; hairless dogs are deficient in their teeth; men with redundant hair have abnormal teeth, either deficient or in excess. birds with long wing-feathers usually have long tail-feathers. when long feathers grow from the outside of the legs and toes of pigeons, the two outer toes are connected by membrane; for the whole leg tends to assume the structure of the wing. there is a manifest relation between a crest of feathers on the head and a marvellous amount of change in the skull of various fowls; and in a lesser degree, between the greatly elongated, lopping ears of rabbits and the structure of their skulls. with plants, the leaves, various parts of the flower, and the fruit, often vary together in a correlated manner. in some cases we find correlation without being able even to conjecture what is the nature of the connexion, as with various correlated monstrosities and diseases. this is likewise the case with the colour of the adult pigeon, in connexion with the presence of down on the young bird. numerous curious instances have been given of peculiarities of constitution, in correlation with colour, as shown by the immunity of individuals of some one colour from certain diseases, from the attacks of parasites, and from the action of certain vegetable poisons. correlation is an important subject; for with species, and in a lesser degree with domestic races, we continually find that {355} certain parts have been greatly modified to serve some useful purpose; but we almost invariably find that other parts have likewise been more or less modified, without our being able to discover any advantage in the change. no doubt great caution is necessary in coming to this conclusion, for it is difficult to overrate our ignorance on the use of various parts of the organisation; but from what we have now seen, we may believe that many modifications are of no direct service, having arisen in correlation with other and useful changes. homologous parts during their early development evince an affinity for each other,--that is, they tend to cohere and fuse together much more readily than other parts. this tendency to fusion explains a multitude of normal structures. multiple and homologous organs are especially liable to vary in number and probably in form. as the supply of organised matter is not unlimited, the principle of compensation sometimes comes into action; so that, when one part is greatly developed, adjoining parts or functions are apt to be reduced; but this principle is probably of much less importance than the more general one of the economy of growth. through mere mechanical pressure hard parts occasionally affect soft adjoining parts. with plants the position of the flowers on the axis, and of the seeds in the capsule, sometimes leads, through a freer flow of sap, to changes of structure; but these changes are often due to reversion. modifications, in whatever manner caused, will be to a certain extent regulated by that co-ordinating power or _nisus formativus_, which is in fact a remnant of one of the forms of reproduction, displayed by many lowly organised beings in their power of fissiparous generation and budding. finally, the effects of the laws, which directly or indirectly govern variability, may be largely influenced by man's selection, and will so far be determined by natural selection that changes advantageous to any race will be favoured and disadvantageous changes checked. domestic races descended from the same species, or from two or more allied species, are liable to revert to characters derived from their common progenitor, and, as they have much in common in their constitutions, they are also liable under changed conditions to vary in the same manner; from these {356} two causes analogous varieties often arise. when we reflect on the several foregoing laws, imperfectly as we understand them, and when we bear in mind how much remains to be discovered, we need not be surprised at the extremely intricate manner in which our domestic productions have varied, and still go on varying. * * * * * {357} chapter xxvii. provisional hypothesis of pangenesis. preliminary remarks.--first part:--the facts to be connected under a single point of view, namely, the various kinds of reproduction--the direct action of the male element on the female--development--the functional independence of the elements or units of the body--variability--inheritance--reversion. second part:--statement of the hypothesis--how far the necessary assumptions are improbable--explanation by aid of the hypothesis of the several classes of facts specified in the first part--conclusion. in the previous chapters large classes of facts, such as those bearing on bud-variation, the various forms of inheritance, the causes and laws of variation, have been discussed; and it is obvious that these subjects, as well as the several modes of reproduction, stand in some sort of relation to each other. i have been led, or rather forced, to form a view which to a certain extent connects these facts by a tangible method. every one would wish to explain to himself, even in an imperfect manner, how it is possible for a character possessed by some remote ancestor suddenly to reappear in the offspring; how the effects of increased or decreased use of a limb can be transmitted to the child; how the male sexual element can act not solely on the ovule, but occasionally on the mother-form; how a limb can be reproduced on the exact line of amputation, with neither too much nor too little added; how the various modes of reproduction are connected, and so forth. i am aware that my view is merely a provisional hypothesis or speculation; but until a better one be advanced, it may be serviceable by bringing together a multitude of facts which are at present left disconnected by any efficient cause. as whewell, the historian of the inductive sciences, remarks:--"hypotheses may often be of service to science, when they involve a certain portion of incompleteness, and even of error." under this point of view i venture to advance the hypothesis of pangenesis, which {358} implies that the whole organisation, in the sense of every separate atom or unit, reproduces itself. hence ovules and pollen-grains,--the fertilised seed or egg, as well as buds,--include and consist of a multitude of germs thrown off from each separate atom of the organism. in the first part i will enumerate as briefly as i can the groups of facts which seem to demand connection; but certain subjects, not hitherto discussed, must be treated at disproportionate length. in the second part the hypothesis will be given; and we shall see, after considering how far the necessary assumptions are in themselves improbable, whether it serves to bring under a single point of view the various facts. part i. reproduction may be divided into two main classes, namely, sexual and asexual. the latter is effected in many ways--by gemmation, that is by the formation of buds of various kinds, and by fissiparous generation, that is by spontaneous or artificial division. it is notorious that some of the lower animals, when cut into many pieces, reproduce so many perfect individuals: lyonnet cut a nais or freshwater worm into nearly forty pieces, and these all reproduced perfect animals.[874] it is probable that segmentation could be carried much further in some of the protozoa, and with some of the lowest plants each cell will reproduce the parent-form. johannes müller thought that there was an important distinction between gemmation and fission; for in the latter case the divided portion, however small, is more perfectly organised; but most physiologists are now convinced that the two processes are essentially alike.[875] prof. huxley remarks, "fission is little more than a peculiar {359} mode of budding," and prof. h. j. clark, who has especially attended to this subject, shows in detail that there is sometimes "a compromise between self-division and budding." when a limb is amputated, or when the whole body is bisected, the cut extremities are said to bud forth; and as the papilla, which is first formed, consists of undeveloped cellular tissue like that forming an ordinary bud, the expression is apparently correct. we see the connection of the two processes in another way; for trembley observed that with the hydra the reproduction of the head after amputation was checked as soon as the animal began to bud.[876] between the production, by fissiparous generation, of two or more complete individuals, and the repair of even a very slight injury, we have, as remarked in a former chapter, so perfect and insensible a gradation, that it is impossible to doubt that they are connected processes. between the power which repairs a trifling injury in any part, and the power which previously "was occupied in its maintenance by the continued mutation of its particles," there cannot be any great difference; and we may follow mr. paget in believing them to be the selfsame power. as at each stage of growth an amputated part is replaced by one in the same state of development, we must likewise follow mr. paget in admitting "that the powers of development from the embryo are identical with those exercised for the restoration from injuries: in other words, that the powers are the same by which perfection is first achieved, and by which, when lost, it is recovered."[877] finally, we may conclude that the several forms of gemmation, and of fissiparous generation, the repair of injuries, the maintenance of each part in its proper state, and the growth or progressive development of the whole structure of the embryo, are all essentially the results of one and the same great power. _sexual generation._--the union of the two sexual elements seems to make a broad distinction between sexual and asexual reproduction. but the well-ascertained cases of parthenogenesis prove that the distinction is not really so great as it at first appears; for ovules occasionally, and even in some cases {360} frequently, become developed into perfect beings, without the concourse of the male element. j. müller and others admit that ovules and buds have the same essential nature. certain bodies, which during their early development cannot be distinguished by any external character from true ovules, nevertheless must be classed as buds, for though formed within the ovarium they are incapable of fertilisation. this is the case with the germ-balls of the cecidomyide larvæ, as described by leuckart.[878] ovules and the male element, before they become united, have, like buds, an independent existence.[879] both have the power of transmitting every single character possessed by the parent-form. we see this clearly when hybrids are paired _inter se_, for the characters of either grandparent often reappear, either perfectly or by segments, in the progeny. it is an error to suppose that the male transmits certain characters and the female other characters; though no doubt, from unknown causes, one sex sometimes has a stronger power of transmission than the other. it has been maintained by some authors that a bud differs essentially from a fertilised germ, by always reproducing the perfect character of the parent-stock; whilst fertilised germs become developed into beings which differ, in a greater or less degree, from each other and from their parents. but there is no such broad distinction as this. in the eleventh chapter, numerous cases were given showing that buds occasionally grow into plants having new and strongly marked characters; and varieties thus produced can be propagated for a length of time by buds, and occasionally by seed. nevertheless, it must be admitted that beings produced sexually are much more liable to vary than those produced asexually; and of this fact a partial explanation will hereafter be attempted. the variability in both cases is determined by the same general causes, and is governed by the same laws. hence new varieties arising from buds cannot be distinguished from those arising from seed. although bud-varieties usually retain their character during {361} successive bud-generations, yet they occasionally revert, even after a long series of bud-generations, to their former character. this tendency to reversion in buds is one of the most remarkable of the several points of agreement between the offspring from bud and seminal reproduction. there is, however, one difference between beings produced sexually and asexually, which is very general. the former usually pass in the course of their development from a lower to a higher grade, as we see in the metamorphoses of insects and in the concealed metamorphoses of the vertebrata; but this passage from a lower to a higher grade cannot be considered as a necessary accompaniment of sexual reproduction, for hardly anything of the kind occurs in the development of aphis amongst insects, or with certain crustaceans, cephalopods, or with any of the higher vascular plants. animals propagated asexually by buds or fission are on the other hand never known to undergo a retrogressive metamorphosis; that is, they do not first sink to a lower, before passing on to their higher and final stage of development. but during the act of asexual production or subsequently to it, they often advance in organisation, as we see in the many cases of "alternate generation." in thus speaking of alternate generation, i follow those naturalists who look at the process as essentially one of internal budding or of fissiparous generation. some of the lower plants, however, such as mosses and certain algæ, according to dr. l. radlkofer,[880] when propagated asexually, do undergo a retrogressive metamorphosis. we can to a certain extent understand, as far as the final cause is concerned, why beings propagated by buds should so rarely retrogress during development; for with each organism the structure acquired at each stage of development must be adapted to its peculiar habits. now, with beings produced by gemmation,--and this, differently from sexual reproduction, may occur at any period of growth,--if there were places for the support of many individuals at some one stage of development, the simplest plan would be that they should be multiplied by gemmation at that stage, and not that they should first retrograde in their development to an earlier or simpler structure, which might not be fitted for the surrounding conditions. {362} from the several foregoing considerations we may conclude that the difference between sexual and asexual generation is not nearly so great as it at first appears; and we have already seen that there is the closest agreement between gemmation, fissiparous generation, the repair of injuries, and ordinary growth or development. the capacity of fertilisation by the male element seems to be the chief distinction between an ovule and a bud; and this capacity is not invariably brought into action, as in the cases of parthenogenetic reproduction. we are here naturally led to inquire what the final cause can be of the necessity in ordinary generation for the concourse of the two sexual elements. seeds and ova are often highly serviceable as the means of disseminating plants and animals, and of preserving them during one or more seasons in a dormant state; but unimpregnated seeds or ova, and detached buds, would be equally serviceable for both purposes. we can, however, indicate two important advantages gained by the concourse of the two sexes, or rather of two individuals belonging to opposite sexes; for, as i have shown in a former chapter, the structure of every organism appears to be especially adapted for the concurrence, at least occasionally, of two individuals. in nearly the same manner as it is admitted by naturalists that hybridism, from inducing sterility, is of service in keeping the forms of life distinct and fitted for their proper places; so, when species are rendered highly variable by changed conditions of life, the free intercrossing of the varying individuals will tend to keep each form fitted for its proper place in nature; and crossing can be effected only by sexual generation, but whether the end thus gained is of sufficient importance to account for the first origin of sexual intercourse is very doubtful. secondly, i have shown, from the consideration of a large body of facts, that, as a slight change in the conditions of life is beneficial to each creature, so, in an analogous manner, is the change effected in the germ by sexual union with a distinct individual; and i have been led, from observing the many widely-extended provisions throughout nature for this purpose, and from the greater vigour of crossed organisms of all kinds, as proved by direct experiments, as well as from the evil effects of close interbreeding when long {363} continued, to believe that the advantage thus gained is very great. besides these two important ends, there may, of course, be others, as yet unknown to us, gained by the concourse of the two sexes. why the germ, which before impregnation undergoes a certain amount of development, ceases to progress and perishes, unless it be acted on by the male element; and why conversely the male element, which is enabled to keep alive for even four or five years within the spermatheca of a female insect, likewise perishes, unless it acts on or unites with the germ, are questions which cannot be answered with any certainty. it is, however, possible that both sexual elements perish, unless brought into union, simply from including too little formative matter for independent existence and development; for certainly they do not in ordinary cases differ in their power of giving character to the embryo. this view of the importance of the quantity of formative matter seems probable from the following considerations. there is no reason to suspect that the spermatozoa or pollen-grains of the same individual animal or plant differ from each other; yet quatrefages has shown in the case of the teredo,[881] as did formerly prevost and dumas with other animals, that more than one spermatozoon is requisite to fertilise an ovule. this has likewise been clearly proved by newport,[882] who adds the important fact, established by numerous experiments, that, when a very small number of spermatozoa are applied to the ova of batrachians, they are only partially impregnated and the embryo is never fully developed: the first step, however, towards development, namely, the partial segmentation of the yelk, does occur to a greater or less extent, but is never completed up to granulation. the rate of the segmentation is likewise determined by the number of the spermatozoa. with respect to plants, nearly the same results were obtained by kölreuter and gärtner. this last careful observer found,[883] after making successive trials on a malva with more and more pollen-grains, that even thirty grains did not fertilise a single seed; but when forty grains were applied to the {364} stigma, a few seeds of small size were formed. the pollen-grains of mirabilis are extraordinarily large, and the ovarium contains only a single ovule; and these circumstances led naudin[884] to make the following interesting experiments: a flower was fertilised by three grains and succeeded perfectly; twelve flowers were fertilised by two grains, and seventeen flowers by a single grain, and of these one flower alone in each lot perfected its seed; and it deserves especial notice that the plants produced by these two seeds never attained their proper dimensions, and bore flowers of remarkably small size. from these facts we clearly see that the quantity of the peculiar formative matter which is contained within the spermatozoa and pollen-grains is an all-important element in the act of fertilisation, not only in the full development of the seed, but in the vigour of the plant produced from such seed. we see something of the same kind in certain cases of parthenogenesis, that is, when the male element is wholly excluded; for m. jourdan[885] found that, out of about 58,000 eggs laid by unimpregnated silk-moths, many passed through their early embryonic stages, showing that they were capable of self-development, but only twenty-nine out of the whole number produced caterpillars. therefore it is not an improbable view that deficient bulk or quantity in the formative matter, contained within the sexual elements, is the main cause of their not having the capacity of prolonged separate existence and development. the belief that it is the function of the spermatozoa to communicate life to the ovule seems a strange one, seeing that the unimpregnated ovule is already alive and continues for a considerable time alive. we shall hereafter see that it is probable that the sexual elements, or possibly only the female element, include certain primordial cells, that is, such as have undergone no differentiation, and which are not present in an active state in buds. _graft-hybrids._--when discussing in the eleventh chapter the curious case of the _cytisus adami_, facts were given which render it to a certain degree probable, in accordance with the belief of some distinguished botanists, that, when the tissues of two plants {365} belonging to distinct species or varieties are intimately united, buds are afterwards occasionally produced which, like hybrids, combine the characters of the two united forms. it is certain that when trees with variegated leaves are grafted or budded on a common stock, the latter sometimes produces buds bearing variegated leaves; but this may perhaps be looked at as a case of inoculated disease. should it ever be proved that hybridised buds can be formed by the union of two distinct vegetative tissues, the essential identity of sexual and asexual reproduction would be shown in the most interesting manner; for the power of combining in the offspring the characters of both parents, is the most striking of all the functions of sexual generation. _direct action of the male element on the female._--in the chapter just referred to, i have given abundant proofs that foreign pollen occasionally affects the mother-plant in a direct manner. thus, when gallesio fertilised an orange-flower with pollen from the lemon, the fruit bore stripes of perfectly characterised lemon-peel: with peas, several observers have seen the colour of the seed-coats and even of the pod directly affected by the pollen of a distinct variety; so it has been with the fruit of the apple, which consists of the modified calyx and upper part of the flower-stalk. these parts in ordinary cases are wholly formed by the mother-plant. we here see the male element affecting and hybridising not that part which it is properly adapted to affect, namely the ovule, but the partially developed tissues of a distinct individual. we are thus brought half-way towards a graft-hybrid, in which the cellular tissue of one form, instead of its pollen, is believed to hybridise the tissues of a distinct form. i formerly assigned reasons for rejecting the belief that the mother-plant is affected through the intervention of the hybridised embryo; but even if this view were admitted, the case would become one of graft-hybridism, for the fertilised embryo and the mother-plant must be looked at as distinct individuals. with animals which do not breed until nearly mature, and of which all the parts are then fully developed, it is hardly possible that the male element should directly affect the female. but we have the analogous and perfectly well-ascertained case of the male element of a distinct form, as with the {366} quagga and lord morton's mare, affecting the ovarium of the female, so that the ovules and offspring subsequently produced by her when impregnated by other males are plainly affected and hybridised by the first male. _development._--the fertilised germ reaches maturity by a vast number of changes: these are either slight and slowly effected, as when the child grows into the man, or are great and sudden, as with the metamorphoses of most insects. between these extremes we have, even within the same class, every gradation: thus, as sir j. lubbock has shown,[886] there is an ephemerous insect which moults above twenty times, undergoing each time a slight but decided change of structure; and these changes, as he further remarks, probably reveal to us the normal stages of development which are concealed and hurried through, or suppressed, in most other insects. in ordinary metamorphoses, the parts and organs appear to become changed into the corresponding parts in the next stage of development; but there is another form of development, which has been called by professor owen metagenesis. in this case "the new parts are not moulded upon the inner surface of the old ones. the plastic force has changed its course of operation. the outer case, and all that gave form and character to the precedent individual, perish and are cast off; they are not changed into the corresponding parts of the new individual. these are due to a new and distinct developmental process," &c.[887] metamorphosis, however, graduates so insensibly into metagenesis, that the two processes cannot be distinctly separated. for instance, in the last change which cirripedes undergo, the alimentary canal and some other organs are moulded on pre-existing parts; but the eyes of the old and the young animal are developed in entirely different parts of the body; the tips of the mature limbs are formed within the larval limbs, and may be said to be metamorphosed from them; but their basal portions and the whole thorax are developed in a plane actually at right angles to the limbs and thorax of the larva; and this {367} may be called metagenesis. the metagenetic process is carried to an extreme degree in the development of some echinoderms, for the animal in the second stage of development is formed almost like a bud within the animal of the first stage, the latter being then cast off like an old vestment, yet sometimes still maintaining for a short period an independent vitality.[888] if, instead of a single individual, several were to be thus developed metagenetically within a pre-existing form, the process would be called one of alternate generation. the young thus developed may either closely resemble the encasing parent-form, as with the larvæ of cecidomyia, or may differ to an astonishing degree, as with many parasitic worms and with jelly-fishes; but this does not make any essential difference in the process, any more than the greatness or abruptness of the change in the metamorphoses of insects. the whole question of development is of great importance for our present subject. when an organ, the eye for instance, is metagenetically formed in a part of the body where during the previous stage of development no eye existed, we must look at it as a new and independent growth. the absolute independence of new and old structures, which correspond in structure and function, is still more obvious when several individuals are formed within a previous encasing form, as in the cases of alternate generation. the same important principle probably comes largely into play even in the case of continuous growth, as we shall see when we consider the inheritance of modifications at corresponding ages. we are led to the same conclusion, namely, the independence of parts successively developed, by another and quite distinct group of facts. it is well known that many animals belonging to the same class, and therefore not differing widely from each other, pass through an extremely different course of development. thus certain beetles, not in any way remarkably different from others of the same order, undergo what has been called a hyper-metamorphosis--that is, they pass through an early stage wholly different from the ordinary grub-like larva. in the same sub-order of crabs, namely, the macroura, as fritz {368} müller remarks, the river cray-fish is hatched under the same form which it ever afterwards retains; the young lobster has divided legs, like a mysis; the palæmon appears under the form of a zoea, and peneus under the nauplius-form; and how wonderfully these larval forms differ from each other, is known to every naturalist.[889] some other crustaceans, as the same author observes, start from the same point and arrive at nearly the same end, but in the middle of their development are widely different from each other. still more striking cases could be given with respect to the echinodermata. with the medusæ or jelly-fishes professor allman observes, "the classification of the hydroida would be a comparatively simple task if, as has been erroneously asserted, generically-identical medusoids always arose from generically-identical polypoids; and on the other hand, that generically-identical polypoids always gave origin to generically-identical medusoids." so, again, dr. strethill wright remarks, "in the life-history of the hydroidæ any phase, planuloid, polypoid, or medusoid, may be absent."[890] according to the belief now generally accepted by our best naturalists, all the members of the same order or class, the macrourous crustaceans for instance, are descended from a common progenitor. during their descent they have diverged much in structure, but have retained much in common; and this divergence and retention of character has been effected, though they have passed and still pass through marvellously different metamorphoses. this fact well illustrates how independent each structure must be from that which precedes and follows it in the course of development. _the functional independence of the elements or units of the body._--physiologists agree that the whole organism consists of a multitude of elemental parts, which are to a great extent independent of each other. each organ, says claude bernard,[891] {369} has its proper life, its autonomy; it can develop and reproduce itself independently of the adjoining tissues. the great german authority, virchow,[892] asserts still more emphatically that each system, as the nervous or osseous system, or the blood, consists of an "enormous mass of minute centres of action.... every element has its own special action, and even though it derive its stimulus to activity from other parts, yet alone effects the actual performance of its duties.... every single epithelial and muscular fibre-cell leads a sort of parasitical existence in relation to the rest of the body.... every single bone-corpuscle really possesses conditions of nutrition peculiar to itself." each element, as mr. paget remarks, lives its appointed time, and then dies, and, after being cast off or absorbed, is replaced.[893] i presume that no physiologist doubts that, for instance, each bone-corpuscle of the finger differs from the corresponding corpuscle in the corresponding joint of the toe; and there can hardly be a doubt that even those on the corresponding sides of the body differ, though almost identical in nature. this near approach to identity is curiously shown in many diseases in which the same exact points on the right and left sides of the body are similarly affected; thus mr. paget[894] gives a drawing of a diseased pelvis, in which the bone has grown into a most complicated pattern, but "there is not one spot or line on one side which is not represented, as exactly as it would be in a mirror, on the other." many facts support this view of the independent life of each minute element of the body. virchow insists that a single bone-corpuscle or a single cell in the skin may become diseased. the spur of a cock, after being inserted into the eye of an ox, lived for eight years, and acquired a weight of 306 grammes, or nearly fourteen ounces.[895] the tail of a pig has been grafted into the middle of its back, and reacquired sensibility. dr. ollier[896] inserted a piece of periosteum from the bone of a young dog under the skin of a rabbit, and true bone was developed. a multitude of similar facts could be given. the {370} frequent presence of hairs and of perfectly developed teeth, even teeth of the second dentition, in ovarian tumours,[897] are facts leading to the same conclusion. whether each of the innumerable autonomous elements of the body is a cell or the modified product of a cell, is a more doubtful question, even if so wide a definition be given to the term, as to include cell-like bodies without walls and without nuclei.[898] professor lionel beale uses the term "germinal matter" for the contents of cells, taken in this wide acceptation, and he draws a broad distinction between germinal matter and "formed material" or the various products of cells.[899] but the doctrine of _omnis cellula e cellulâ_ is admitted for plants, and is a widely prevalent belief with respect to animals.[900] thus virchow, the great supporter of the cellular theory, whilst allowing that difficulties exist, maintains that every atom of tissue is derived from cells, and these from pre-existing cells, and these primarily from the egg, which he regards as a great cell. that cells, still retaining the same nature, increase by self-division or proliferation, is admitted by almost every one. but when an organism undergoes a great change of structure during development, the cells, which at each stage are supposed to be directly derived from previously-existing cells, must likewise be greatly changed in nature; this change is apparently attributed by the supporters of the cellular doctrine to some inherent power which the cells possess, and not to any external agency. another school maintains that cells and tissues of all kinds may be formed, independently of pre-existing cells, from plastic lymph or blastema; and this it is thought is well exhibited in the repair of wounds. as i have not especially attended to histology, it would be presumptuous in me to express an opinion on the two opposed doctrines. but every one appears to admit that the body consists of a multitude of "organic units,"[901] {371} each of which possesses its own proper attributes, and is to a certain extent independent of all others. hence it will be convenient to use indifferently the terms cells or organic units or simply units. _variability and inheritance._--we have seen in the twenty-second chapter that variability is not a principle co-ordinate with life or reproduction, but results from special causes, generally from changed conditions acting during successive generations. part of the fluctuating variability thus induced is apparently due to the sexual system being easily affected by changed conditions, so that it is often rendered impotent; and when not so seriously affected, it often fails in its proper function of transmitting truly the characters of the parents to the offspring. but variability is not necessarily connected with the sexual system, as we see from the cases of bud-variation; and although we may not be able to trace the nature of the connexion, it is probable that many deviations of structure which appear in sexual offspring result from changed conditions acting directly on the organisation, independently of the reproductive organs. in some instances we may feel sure of this, when all, or nearly all the individuals which have been similarly exposed are similarly and definitely affected--as in the dwarfed and otherwise changed maize brought from hot countries when cultivated in germany; in the change of the fleece in sheep within the tropics; to a certain extent in the increased size and early maturity of our highly-improved domesticated animals; in inherited gout from intemperance; and in many other such cases. now, as such changed conditions do not especially affect the reproductive organs, it seems mysterious on any ordinary view why their product, the new organic being, should be similarly affected. how, again, can we explain to ourselves the inherited effects of the use or disuse of particular organs? the domesticated duck flies less and walks more than the wild duck, and its limb-bones have become in a corresponding manner diminished and increased in comparison with those of the wild duck. a horse is trained to certain paces, and the colt inherits similar consensual movements. the domesticated rabbit becomes tame from close confinement; the dog intelligent from associating with man; the retriever is taught to fetch and carry: and these {372} mental endowments and bodily powers are all inherited. nothing in the whole circuit of physiology is more wonderful. how can the use or disuse of a particular limb or of the brain affect a small aggregate of reproductive cells, seated in a distant part of the body, in such a manner that the being developed from these cells inherits the characters of either one or both parents? even an imperfect answer to this question would be satisfactory. sexual reproduction does not essentially differ, as we have seen, from budding or self-division, and these processes graduate through the repair of injuries into ordinary development and growth; it might therefore be expected that every character would be as regularly transmitted by all the methods of reproduction as by continued growth. in the chapters devoted to inheritance it was shown that a multitude of newly-acquired characters, whether injurious or beneficial, whether of the lowest or highest vital importance, are often faithfully transmitted--frequently even when one parent alone possesses some new peculiarity. it deserves especial attention that characters appearing at any age tend to reappear at a corresponding age. we may on the whole conclude that in all cases inheritance is the rule, and non-inheritance the anomaly. in some instances a character is not inherited, from the conditions of life being directly opposed to its development; in many instances, from the conditions incessantly inducing fresh variability, as with grafted fruit-trees and highly cultivated flowers. in the remaining cases the failure may be attributed to reversion, by which the child resembles its grandparents or more remote progenitors, instead of its parents. this principle of reversion is the most wonderful of all the attributes of inheritance. it proves to us that the transmission of a character and its development, which ordinarily go together and thus escape discrimination, are distinct powers; and these powers in some cases are even antagonistic, for each acts alternately in successive generations. reversion is not a rare event, depending on some unusual or favourable combination of circumstances, but occurs so regularly with crossed animals and plants, and so frequently with uncrossed breeds, that it is evidently an essential part of the principle of inheritance. we know that {373} changed conditions have the power of evoking long-lost characters, as in the case of some feral animals. the act of crossing in itself possesses this power in a high degree. what can be more wonderful than that characters, which have disappeared during scores, or hundreds, or even thousands of generations, should suddenly reappear perfectly developed, as in the case of pigeons and fowls when purely bred, and especially when crossed; or as with the zebrine stripes on dun-coloured horses, and other such cases? many monstrosities come under this same head, as when rudimentary organs are redeveloped, or when an organ which we must believe was possessed by an early progenitor, but of which not even a rudiment is left, suddenly reappears, as with the fifth stamen in some scrophulariaceæ. we have already seen that reversion acts in bud-reproduction; and we know that it occasionally acts during the growth of the same individual animal, especially, but not exclusively, when of crossed parentage,--as in the rare cases described of individual fowls, pigeons, cattle, and rabbits, which have reverted as they advanced in years to the colours of one of their parents or ancestors. we are led to believe, as formerly explained, that every character which occasionally reappears is present in a latent form in each generation, in nearly the same manner as in male and female animals secondary characters of the opposite sex lie latent, ready to be evolved when the reproductive organs are injured. this comparison of the secondary sexual characters which are latent in both sexes, with other latent characters, is the more appropriate from the case recorded of the hen, which assumed some of the masculine characters, not of her own race, but of an early progenitor; she thus exhibited at the same time the redevelopment of latent characters of both kinds and connected both classes. in every living creature we may feel assured that a host of lost characters lie ready to be evolved under proper conditions. how can we make intelligible, and connect with other facts, this wonderful and common capacity of reversion,--this power of calling back to life long-lost characters? {374} part ii. i have now enumerated the chief facts which every one would desire to connect by some intelligible bond. this can be done, as it seems to me, if we make the following assumptions; if the first and chief one be not rejected, the others, from being supported by various physiological considerations, will not appear very improbable. it is almost universally admitted that cells, or the units of the body, propagate themselves by self-division or proliferation, retaining the same nature, and ultimately becoming converted into the various tissues and substances of the body. but besides this means of increase i assume that cells, before their conversion into completely passive or "formed material," throw off minute granules or atoms, which circulate freely throughout the system, and when supplied with proper nutriment multiply by self-division, subsequently becoming developed into cells like those from which they were derived. these granules for the sake of distinctness may be called cell-gemmules, or, as the cellular theory is not fully established, simply gemmules. they are supposed to be transmitted from the parents to the offspring, and are generally developed in the generation which immediately succeeds, but are often transmitted in a dormant state during many generations and are then developed. their development is supposed to depend on their union with other partially developed cells or gemmules which precede them in the regular course of growth. why i use the term union, will be seen when we discuss the direct action of pollen on the tissues of the mother-plant. gemmules are supposed to be thrown off by every cell or unit, not only during the adult state, but during all the stages of development. lastly, i assume that the gemmules in their dormant state have a mutual affinity for each other, leading to their aggregation either into buds or into the sexual elements. hence, speaking strictly, it is not the reproductive elements, nor the buds, which generate new organisms, but the cells themselves throughout the body. these assumptions constitute the provisional hypothesis which i have called pangenesis. nearly {375} similar views have been propounded, as i find, by other authors, more especially by mr. herbert spencer;[902] but they are here modified and amplified. {376} before proceeding to show, firstly, how far these assumptions are in themselves probable, and secondly, how far they connect and explain the various groups of facts with which we are concerned, it may be useful to give an illustration of the hypothesis. if one of the simplest protozoa be formed, as appears under the microscope, of a small mass of homogeneous gelatinous matter, a minute atom thrown off from any part and nourished under favourable circumstances would naturally reproduce the whole; but if the upper and lower surfaces were to differ in texture from the central portion, then all three parts would have to throw off atoms or gemmules, which when aggregated by mutual affinity would form either buds or the sexual elements. precisely the same view may be extended to one of the higher animals; although in this case many thousand gemmules must be thrown off from the various parts of the body. now, when the leg, for instance, of a salamander is cut off, a slight crust forms over the wound, and beneath this crust the uninjured cells or units of bone, muscle, nerves, &c., are supposed to unite with the diffused gemmules of those cells which in the perfect leg come next in order; and these as they become slightly developed unite with others, and so on until a papilla of soft cellular tissue, the "budding leg," is formed, and in time a perfect leg.[903] thus, that portion of the leg which had {377} been cut off, neither more nor less, would be reproduced. if the tail or leg of a young animal had been cut off, a young tail or leg would have been reproduced, as actually occurs with the amputated tail of the tadpole; for gemmules of all the units which compose the tail are diffused throughout the body at all ages. but during the adult state the gemmules of the larval tail would remain dormant, for they would not meet with pre-existing cells in a proper state of development with which to unite. if from changed conditions or any other cause any part of the body should become permanently modified, the gemmules, which are merely minute portions of the contents of the cells forming the part, would naturally reproduce the same modification. but gemmules previously derived from the same part before it had undergone any change, would still be diffused throughout the organisation, and would be transmitted from generation to generation, so that under favourable circumstances they might be redeveloped, and then the new modification would be for a time or for ever lost. the aggregation of gemmules derived from every part of the body, through their mutual affinity, would form buds, and their aggregation in some special manner, apparently in small quantity, together probably with the presence of gemmules of certain primordial cells, would constitute the sexual elements. by means of these illustrations the hypothesis of pangenesis has, i hope, been rendered intelligible. * * * * * physiologists maintain, as we have seen, that each cell, though to a large extent dependent on others, is likewise, to a certain extent, independent or autonomous. i go one small step further, and assume that each cell casts off a free gemmule, which is capable of reproducing a similar cell. there is some analogy between this view and what we see in compound animals and in the flower-buds on the same tree; for these are distinct individuals capable of true or seminal reproduction, yet have parts in common and are dependent on each other; thus {378} the tree has its bark and trunk, and certain corals, as the virgularia, have not only parts, but movements in common. the existence of free gemmules is a gratuitous assumption, yet can hardly be considered as very improbable, seeing that cells have the power of multiplication through the self-division of their contents. gemmules differ from true ovules or buds inasmuch as they are supposed to be capable of multiplication in their undeveloped state. no one probably will object to this capacity as improbable. the blastema within the egg has been known to divide and give birth to two embryos; and thuret[904] has seen the zoospore of an alga divide itself, and both halves germinate. an atom of small-pox matter, so minute as to be borne by the wind, must multiply itself many thousand-fold in a person thus inoculated.[905] it has recently been ascertained[906] that a minute portion of the mucous discharge from an animal affected with rinderpest, if placed in the blood of a healthy ox, increases so fast that in a short space of time "the whole mass of blood, weighing many pounds, is infected, and every small particle of that blood contains enough poison to give, within less than forty-eight hours, the disease to another animal." the retention of free and undeveloped gemmules in the same body from early youth to old age may appear improbable, but we should remember how long seeds lie dormant in the earth and buds in the bark of a tree. their transmission from generation to generation may appear still more improbable; but here again we should remember that many rudimentary and useless organs are transmitted and have been transmitted during an indefinite number of generations. we shall presently see how well the long-continued transmission of undeveloped gemmules explains many facts. as each unit, or group of similar units throughout the body, casts off its gemmules, and as all are contained within the smallest egg or seed, and within each spermatozoon or pollen-grain, their number and minuteness must be something {379} inconceivable. i shall hereafter recur to this objection, which at first appears so formidable; but it may here be remarked that a cod-fish has been found to produce 4,872,000 eggs, a single ascaris about 64,000,000 eggs, and a single orchidaceous plant probably as many million seeds.[907] in these several cases, the spermatozoa and pollen-grains must exist in considerably larger numbers. now, when we have to deal with numbers such as these, which the human intellect cannot grasp, there is no good reason for rejecting our present hypothesis on account of the assumed existence of cell-gemmules a few thousand times more numerous. the gemmules in each organism must be thoroughly diffused; nor does this seem improbable considering their minuteness, and the steady circulation of fluids throughout the body. so it must be with the gemmules of plants, for with certain kinds even a minute fragment of a leaf will reproduce the whole. but a difficulty here occurs; it would appear that with plants, and probably with compound animals, such as corals, the gemmules do not spread from bud to bud, but only through the tissues developed from each separate bud. we are led to this conclusion from the stock being rarely affected by the insertion of a bud or graft from a distinct variety. this non-diffusion of the gemmules is still more plainly shown in the case of ferns; for mr. bridgman[908] has proved that, when spores (which it should be remembered are of the nature of buds) are taken from a monstrous part of a frond, and others from an ordinary part, {380} each reproduces the form of the part whence derived. but this non-diffusion of the gemmules from bud to bud may be only apparent, depending, as we shall hereafter see, on the nature of the first-formed cells in the buds. the assumed elective affinity of each gemmule for that particular cell which precedes it in the order of development is supported by many analogies. in all ordinary cases of sexual reproduction the male and female elements have a mutual affinity for each other: thus, it is believed that about ten thousand species of compositæ exist, and there can be no doubt that if the pollen of all these species could be, simultaneously or successively, placed on the stigma of any one species, this one would elect with unerring certainty its own pollen. this elective capacity is all the more wonderful, as it must have been acquired since the many species of this great group of plants branched off from a common progenitor. on any view of the nature of sexual reproduction, the protoplasm contained within the ovules and within the sperm-cells (or the "spermatic force" of the latter, if so vague a term be preferred) must act on each other by some law of special affinity, either during or subsequently to impregnation, so that corresponding parts alone affect each other; thus, a calf produced from a short-horned cow by a long-horned bull has its horns and not its horny hoofs affected by the union of the two forms, and the offspring from two birds with differently coloured tails have their tails and not their whole plumage affected. the various tissues of the body plainly show, as many physiologists have insisted,[909] an affinity for special organic substances, whether natural or foreign to the body. we see this in the cells of the kidneys attracting urea from the blood; in the worrara poison affecting the nerves; upas and digitalis the muscles; the lytta vesicatoria the kidneys; and in the poisonous matter of many diseases, as small-pox, scarlet-fever, hooping-cough, glanders, cancer, and hydrophobia, affecting certain definite parts of the body or certain tissues or glands. the affinity of various parts of the body for each other during {381} their early development was shown in the last chapter, when discussing the tendency to fusion in homologous parts. this affinity displays itself in the normal fusion of organs which are separate at an early embryonic age, and still more plainly in those marvellous cases of double monsters in which each bone, muscle, vessel, and nerve in the one embryo, blends with the corresponding part in the other. the affinity between homologous organs may come into action with single parts, or with the entire individual, as in the case of flowers or fruits which are symmetrically blended together with all their parts doubled, but without any other trace of fusion. it has also been assumed that the development of each gemmule depends on its union with another cell or unit which has just commenced its development, and which, from preceding it in order of growth, is of a somewhat different nature. nor is it a very improbable assumption that the development of a gemmule is determined by its union with a cell slightly different in nature, for abundant evidence was given in the seventeenth chapter, showing that a slight degree of differentiation in the male and female sexual elements favours in a marked manner their union and subsequent development. but what determines the development of the gemmules of the first-formed or primordial cell in the unimpregnated ovule, is beyond conjecture. it must also be admitted that analogy fails to guide us towards any determination on several other points: for instance, whether cells, derived from the same parent-cell, may, in the regular course of growth, become developed into different structures, from absorbing peculiar kinds of nutriment, independently of their union with distinct gemmules. we shall appreciate this difficulty if we call to mind, what complex yet symmetrical growths the cells of plants yield when they are inoculated by the poison of a gall-insect. with animals various polypoid excrescences and tumours are now generally admitted[910] to be the direct product, through proliferation, of normal cells which have become abnormal. in the regular growth and repair of bones, the tissues undergo, as virchow remarks,[911] a whole series of permutations and substitutions. "the cartilage-cells may be {382} converted by a direct transformation into marrow-cells, and continue as such; or they may first be converted into osseous and then into medullary tissue; or lastly, they may first be converted into marrow and then into bone. so variable are the permutations of these tissues, in themselves so nearly allied, and yet in their external appearance so completely distinct." but as these tissues thus change their nature at any age, without any obvious change in their nutrition, we must suppose in accordance with our hypothesis that gemmules derived from one kind of tissue combine with the cells of another kind, and cause the successive modifications. it is useless to speculate at what period of development each organic unit casts off its gemmules; for the whole subject of the development of the various elemental tissues is as yet involved in much doubt. some physiologists, for instance, maintain that muscle or nerve-fibres are developed from cells, which are afterwards nourished by their own proper powers of absorption; whilst other physiologists deny their cellular origin; and beale maintains that such fibres are renovated exclusively by the conversion of fresh germinal matter (that is the so-called nuclei) into "formed material." however this may be, it appears probable that all external agencies, such as changed nutrition, increased use or disuse, &c., which induced any permanent modification in a structure, would at the same time or previously act on the cells, nuclei, germinal or formative matter, from which the structures in question were developed, and consequently would act on the gemmules or cast-off atoms. there is another point on which it is useless to speculate, namely, whether all gemmules are free and separate, or whether some are from the first united into small aggregates. a feather, for instance, is a complex structure, and, as each separate part is liable to inherited variations, i conclude that each feather certainly generates a large number of gemmules; but it is possible that these may be aggregated into a compound gemmule. the same remark applies to the petals of a flower, which in some cases are highly complex, with each ridge and hollow contrived for special purposes, so that each part must have been separately modified, and the modifications transmitted; consequently, separate gemmules, according to our hypothesis, {383} must have been thrown off from each cell or part. but, as we sometimes see half an anther or a small portion of a filament becoming petaliform, or parts or mere stripes of the calyx assuming the colour and texture of the corolla, it is probable that with petals the gemmules of each cell are not aggregated together into a compound gemmule, but are freely and separately diffused. * * * * * having now endeavoured to show that the several foregoing assumptions are to a certain extent supported by analogous facts, and having discussed some of the most doubtful points, we will consider how far the hypothesis brings under a single point of view the various cases enumerated in the first part. all the forms of reproduction graduate into each other and agree in their product; for it is impossible to distinguish between organisms produced from buds, from self-division, or from fertilised germs; such organisms are liable to variations of the same nature and to reversion of character; and as we now see that all the forms of reproduction depend on the aggregation of gemmules derived from the whole body, we can understand this general agreement. it is satisfactory to find that sexual and asexual generation, by both of which widely different processes the same living creature is habitually produced, are fundamentally the same. parthenogenesis is no longer wonderful; in fact, the wonder is that it should not oftener occur. we see that the reproductive organs do not actually create the sexual elements; they merely determine or permit the aggregation of the gemmules in a special manner. these organs, together with their accessory parts, have, however, high functions to perform; they give to both elements a special affinity for each other, independently of the contents of the male and female cells, as is shown in the case of plants by the mutual reaction of the stigma and pollen-grains; they adapt one or both elements for independent temporary existence, and for mutual union. the contrivances for these purposes are sometimes wonderfully complex, as with the spermatophores of the cephalopoda. the male element sometimes possesses attributes which, if observed in an independent animal, would be put down to instinct guided by sense-organs, as when the {384} spermatozoon of an insect finds its way into the minute micropyle of the egg, or as when the antherozoids of certain algæ swim by the aid of their ciliæ to the female plant, and force themselves into a minute orifice. in these latter cases, however, we must believe that the male element has acquired its powers, on the same principle with the larvæ of animals, namely by successive modifications developed at corresponding periods of life: we can hardly avoid in these cases looking at the male element as a sort of premature larva, which unites, or, like one of the lower algæ, conjugates, with the female element. what determines the aggregation of the gemmules within the sexual organs we do not in the least know; nor do we know why buds are formed in certain definite places, leading to the symmetrical growth of trees and corals, nor why adventitious buds may be formed almost anywhere, even on a petal, and frequently upon healed wounds.[912] as soon as the gemmules have aggregated themselves, development apparently commences, but in the case of buds is often afterwards suspended, and in the case of the sexual elements soon ceases, unless the elements of the opposite sexes combine; even after this has occurred, the fertilised germ, as with seeds buried in the ground, may remain during a lengthened period in a dormant state. the antagonism which has long been observed,[913] though exceptions occur,[914] between active growth and the power of sexual reproduction--between the repair of injuries and gemmation--and with plants, between rapid increase by buds, rhizomes, &c., and the production of seed, is partly explained by the gemmules not existing in sufficient numbers for both processes. {385} but this explanation hardly applies to those plants which naturally produce a multitude of seeds, but which, through a comparatively small increase in the number of the buds on their rhizomes or offsets, yield few or no seed. as, however, we shall presently see that buds probably include tissue which has already been to a certain extent developed or differentiated, some additional organised matter will thus have been expended. from one of the forms of reproduction, namely, spontaneous self-division, we are led by insensible steps to the repair of the slightest injury; and the existence of gemmules, derived from every cell or unit throughout the body and everywhere diffused, explains all such cases,--even the wonderful fact that, when the limbs of the salamander were cut off many times successively by spallanzani and bonnet, they were exactly and completely reproduced. i have heard this process compared with the recrystallisation which occurs when the angles of a broken crystal are repaired; and the two processes have this much in common, that in the one case the polarity of the molecules is the efficient cause, and in the other the affinity of the gemmules for particular nascent cells. pangenesis does not throw much light on hybridism, but agrees well with most of the ascertained facts. we may conclude from the fact of a single spermatozoon or pollen-grain being insufficient for impregnation, that a certain number of gemmules derived from each cell or unit are required for the development of each part. from the occurrence of parthenogenesis, more especially in the case of the silk-moth, in which the embryo is often partially formed, we may also infer that the female element includes nearly sufficient gemmules of all kinds for independent development, so that when united with the male element the gemmules must be superabundant. now, as a general rule, when two species or races are crossed reciprocally, the offspring do not differ, and this shows that both sexual elements agree in power, in accordance with the view that they include the same gemmules. hybrids and mongrels are generally intermediate in character between the two parent-forms, yet occasionally they closely resemble one parent in one part and the other parent in another part, or even in their whole structure: nor is this difficult to understand on {386} the admission that the gemmules in the fertilised germ are superabundant in number, and that those derived from one parent have some advantage in number, affinity, or vigour over those derived from the other parent. crossed forms sometimes exhibit the colour or other characters of either parent in stripes or blotches; and this may occur in the first generation, or through reversion in succeeding bud and seminal generations, as in the several instances given in the eleventh chapter. in these cases we must follow naudin,[915] and admit that the "essence" or "element" of the two species, which terms i should translate into the gemmules, have an affinity for their own kind, and thus separate themselves into distinct stripes or blotches; and reasons were given, when discussing in the fifteenth chapter the incompatibility of certain characters to unite, for believing in such mutual affinity. when two forms are crossed, one is not rarely found to be prepotent in the transmission of character over the other; and this we can explain only by again assuming that the one form has some advantage in the number, vigour, or affinity of its gemmules, except in those cases, where certain characters are present in the one form and latent in the other. for instance, there is a latent tendency in all pigeons to become blue, and, when a blue pigeon is crossed with one of any other colour, the blue tint is generally prepotent. when we consider latent characters, the explanation of this form of prepotency will be obvious. when one species is crossed with another it is notorious that they do not yield the full or proper number of offspring; and we can only say on this head that, as the development of each organism depends on such nicely-balanced affinities between a host of gemmules and developing cells or units, we need not feel at all surprised that the commixture of gemmules derived from two distinct species should lead to a partial or complete failure of development. with respect to the sterility of hybrids produced from the union of two distinct species, it was shown in the nineteenth chapter that this depends exclusively on the reproductive organs being specially affected; but why these organs should be thus affected we do not know, any more than {387} why unnatural conditions of life, though compatible with health, should cause sterility; or why continued close interbreeding, or the illegitimate unions of dimorphic and trimorphic plants, induce the same result. the conclusion that the reproductive organs alone are affected, and not the whole organisation, agrees perfectly with the unimpaired or even increased capacity in hybrid plants for propagation by buds; for this implies, according to our hypothesis, that the cells of the hybrids throw off hybridised cell-gemmules, which become aggregated into buds, but fail to become aggregated within the reproductive organs, so as to form the sexual elements. in a similar manner many plants, when placed under unnatural conditions, fail to produce seed, but can readily be propagated by buds. we shall presently see that pangenesis agrees well with the strong tendency to reversion exhibited by all crossed animals and plants. it was shown in the discussion on graft-hybrids that there is some reason to believe that portions of cellular tissue taken from distinct plants become so intimately united, as afterwards occasionally to produce crossed or hybridised buds. if this fact were fully established, it would, by the aid of our hypothesis, connect gemmation and sexual reproduction in the closest manner. abundant evidence has been advanced proving that pollen taken from one species or variety and applied to the stigma of another sometimes directly affects the tissues of the mother-plant. it is probable that this occurs with many plants during fertilisation, but can only be detected when distinct forms are crossed. on any ordinary theory of reproduction this is a most anomalous circumstance, for the pollen-grains are manifestly adapted to act on the ovule, but in these cases they act on the colour, texture, and form of the coats of the seeds, on the ovarium itself, which is a modified leaf, and even on the calyx and upper part of the flower-peduncle. in accordance with the hypothesis of pangenesis pollen includes gemmules, derived from every part of the organisation, which diffuse themselves and multiply by self-division; hence it is not surprising that gemmules within the pollen, which are derived from the parts near the reproductive organs, should sometimes be able to affect the same parts, whilst still undergoing development, in the mother-plant. {388} as, during all the stages of development, the tissues of plants consist of cells, and as new cells are not known to be formed between, or independently of, pre-existing cells, we must conclude that the gemmules derived from the foreign pollen do not become developed merely in contact with pre-existing cells, but actually penetrate the nascent cells of the mother-plant. this process may be compared with the ordinary act of fertilisation, during which the contents of the pollen-tubes penetrate the closed embryonic sack within the ovule, and determine the development of the embryo. according to this view, the cells of the mother-plant may almost literally be said to be fertilised by the gemmules derived from the foreign pollen. with all organisms, as we shall presently see, the cells or organic units of the embryo during the successive stages of development may in like manner be said to be fertilised by the gemmules of the cells, which come next in the order of formation. animals, when capable of sexual reproduction, are fully developed, and it is scarcely possible that the male element should affect the tissues of the mother in the same direct manner as with plants; nevertheless it is certain that her ovaria are sometimes affected by a previous impregnation, so that the ovules subsequently fertilised by a distinct male are plainly influenced in character; and this, as in the case of foreign pollen, is intelligible through the diffusion, retention, and action of the gemmules included within the spermatozoa of the previous male. each organism reaches maturity through a longer or shorter course of development. the changes may be small and insensibly slow, as when a child grows into a man, or many, abrupt, and slight, as in the metamorphoses of certain ephemerous insects, or again few and strongly marked, as with most other insects. each part may be moulded within a previously existing and corresponding part, and in this case it will appear, falsely as i believe, to be formed from the old part; or it may be developed within a wholly distinct part of the body, as in the extreme cases of metagenesis. an eye, for instance, may be developed at a spot where no eye previously existed. we have also seen that allied organic beings in the course of their metamorphoses sometimes attain nearly the same structure after passing {389} through widely different forms; or conversely, after passing through nearly the same early forms, arrive at a widely different termination. in these cases it is very difficult to believe that the early cells or units possess the inherent power, independently of any external agent, of producing new structures wholly different in form, position, and function. but these cases become plain on the hypothesis of pangenesis. the organic units, during each stage of development, throw off gemmules, which, multiplying, are transmitted to the offspring. in the offspring, as soon as any particular cell or unit in the proper order of development becomes partially developed, it unites with (or to speak metaphorically is fertilised by) the gemmule of the next succeeding cell, and so onwards. now, supposing that at any stage of development, certain cells or aggregates of cells had been slightly modified by the action of some disturbing cause, the cast-off gemmules or atoms of the cell-contents could hardly fail to be similarly affected, and consequently would reproduce the same modification. this process might be repeated until the structure of the part at this particular stage of development became greatly changed, but this would not necessarily affect other parts whether previously or subsequently developed. in this manner we can understand the remarkable independence of structure in the successive metamorphoses, and especially in the successive metageneses of many animals. the term growth ought strictly to be confined to mere increase of size, and development to change of structure.[916] now, a child is said to grow into a man, and a foal into a horse, but, as in these cases there is much change of structure, the process properly belongs to the order of development. we have indirect evidence of this in many variations and diseases supervening during so-called growth at a particular period, and being inherited at a corresponding period. in the case, however, of diseases which supervene during old age, subsequently to the ordinary period of procreation, and which nevertheless are sometimes inherited, as occurs with brain and heart complaints, we {390} must suppose that the organs were in fact affected at an earlier age and threw off at this period affected gemmules; but that the affection became visible or injurious only after the prolonged growth of the part in the strict sense of the word. in all the changes of structure which regularly supervene during old age, we see the effects of deteriorated growth, and not of true development. in the so-called process of _alternate generation_ many individuals are generated asexually during very early or later stages of development. these individuals may closely resemble the preceding larval form, but generally are wonderfully dissimilar. to understand this process we must suppose that at a certain stage of development the gemmules are multiplied at an unusual rate, and become aggregated by mutual affinity at many centres of attraction, or buds. these buds, it may be remarked, must include gemmules not only of all the succeeding but likewise of all the preceding stages of development; for when mature they have the power of transmitting by sexual generation gemmules of all the stages, however numerous these may be. it was shown in the first part, at least in regard to animals, that the new beings which are thus at any period asexually generated do not retrograde in development--that is, they do not pass through those earlier stages, through which the fertilised germ of the same animal has to pass; and an explanation of this fact was attempted as far as the final or teleological cause is concerned. we can likewise understand the proximate cause, if we assume, and the assumption is far from improbable, that buds, like chopped-up fragments of a hydra, are formed of tissue which has already passed through several of the earlier stages of development; for in this case their component cells or units would not unite with the gemmules derived from the earlier-formed cells, but only with those which came next in the order of development. on the other hand, we must believe that, in the sexual elements, or probably in the female alone, gemmules of certain primordial cells are present; and these, as soon as their development commences, unite in due succession with the gemmules of every part of the body, from the first to the last period of life. the principle of the independent formation of each part, in {391} so far as its development depends on the union of the proper gemmules with certain nascent cells, together with the superabundance of the gemmules derived from both parents and self-multiplied, throws light on a widely different group of facts, which on any ordinary view of development appears very strange. i allude to organs which are abnormally multiplied or transposed. thus gold-fish often have supernumerary fins placed on various parts of their bodies. we have seen that, when the tail of a lizard is broken off, a double tail is sometimes reproduced, and when the foot of the salamander is divided longitudinally, additional digits are occasionally formed. when frogs, toads, &c., are born with their limbs doubled, as sometimes occurs, the doubling, as gervais remarks,[917] cannot be due to the complete fusion of two embryos, with the exception of the limbs, for the larvæ are limbless. the same argument is applicable[918] to certain insects produced with multiple legs or antennæ, for these are metamorphosed from apodal or antennæless larvæ. alphonse milne-edwards[919] has described the curious case of a crustacean in which one eye-peduncle supported, instead of a complete eye, only an imperfect cornea, out of the centre of which a portion of an antenna was developed. a case has been recorded[920] of a man who had during both dentitions a double tooth in place of the left second incisor, and he inherited this peculiarity from his paternal grandfather. several cases are known[921] of additional teeth having been developed in the palate, more especially with horses, and in the orbit of the eye. certain breeds of sheep bear a whole crowd of horns on their foreheads. hairs occasionally appear in strange situations, as within the ears of the siamese hairy family; and hairs "quite natural in structure" have been observed "within the substance of the brain."[922] as many as five spurs have been seen on both legs in certain game-fowls. in the polish fowl the male is ornamented with a topknot of hackles {392} like those on his neck, whilst the female has one of common feathers. in feather-footed pigeons and fowls, feathers like those on the wing arise from the outer side of the legs and toes. even the elemental parts of the same feather may be transposed; for in the sebastopol goose, barbules are developed on the divided filaments of the shaft. analogous cases are of such frequent occurrence with plants that they do not strike us with sufficient surprise. supernumerary petals, stamens, and pistils, are often produced. i have seen a leaflet low down in the compound leaf of _vicia sativa_ converted into a tendril, and a tendril possesses many peculiar properties, such as spontaneous movement and irritability. the calyx sometimes assumes, either wholly or by stripes, the colour and texture of the corolla. stamens are so frequently converted, more or less completely, into petals, that such cases are passed over as not deserving notice; but as petals have special functions to perform, namely, to protect the included organs, to attract insects, and in not a few cases to guide their entrance by well-adapted contrivances, we can hardly account for the conversion of stamens into petals merely by unnatural or superfluous nourishment. again, the edge of a petal may occasionally be found including one of the highest products of the plant, namely the pollen; for instance, i have seen in an ophrys a pollen-mass with its curious structure of little packets, united together and to the caudicle by elastic threads, formed between the edges of an upper petal. the segments of the calyx of the common pea have been observed partially converted into carpels, including ovules, and with their tips converted into stigmas. numerous analogous facts could be given.[923] i do not know how physiologists look at such facts as the foregoing. according to the doctrine of pangenesis, the free and superabundant gemmules of the transposed organs are developed in the wrong place, from uniting with wrong cells or aggregates of cells during their nascent state; and this would follow from a slight modification in the elective affinity of such cells, or possibly of certain gemmules. nor ought we to feel much surprise at the affinities of cells and gemmules varying {393} under domestication, when we remember the many curious cases given, in the seventeenth chapter, of cultivated plants which absolutely refuse to be fertilised by their own pollen or by that of the same species, but are abundantly fertile with pollen of a distinct species; for this implies that their sexual elective affinities--and this is the term used by gärtner--have been modified. as the cells of adjoining or homologous parts will have nearly the same nature, they will be liable to acquire by variation each other's elective affinities; and we can thus to a certain extent understand such cases as a crowd of horns on the heads in certain sheep, of several spurs on the leg, and of hackles on the head of the fowl, and with the pigeon the occurrence of wing-feathers on their legs and of membrane between their toes; for the leg is the homologue of the wing. as all the organs of plants are homologous and spring from a common axis, it is natural that they should be eminently liable to transposition. it ought to be observed that when any compound part, such as an additional limb or an antenna, springs from a false position, it is only necessary that the few first gemmules should be wrongly attached; for these whilst developing would attract others in due succession, as in the regrowth of an amputated limb. when parts which are homologous and similar in structure, as the vertebræ in snakes or the stamens in polyandrous flowers, &c., are repeated many times in the same organism, closely allied gemmules must be extremely numerous, as well as the points to which they ought to become united; and, in accordance with the foregoing views, we can to a certain extent understand isid. geoffroy st. hilaire's law, namely, that parts, which are already multiple, are extremely liable to vary in number. the same general principles apply to the fusion of homologous parts; and with respect to mere cohesion there is probably always some degree of fusion, at least near the surface. when two embryos during their early development come into close contact, as both include corresponding gemmules, which must be in all respects almost identical in nature, it is not surprising that some derived from one embryo and some from the other should unite at the point of contact with a single nascent cell or aggregate of cells, and thus give rise to a single part or organ. for instance, two embryos might thus come to have on their {394} adjoining sides a single symmetrical arm, which in one sense will have been formed by the fusion of the bones, muscles, &c., belonging to the arms of both embryos. in the case of the fish described by lereboullet, in which a double head was seen gradually to fuse into a single one, the same process must have taken place, together with the absorption of all the parts which had been already formed. these cases are exactly the reverse of those in which a part is doubled either spontaneously or after an injury; for in the case of doubling, the superabundant gemmules of the same part are separately developed in union with adjoining points; whilst in the case of fusion the gemmules derived from two homologous parts become mingled and form a single part; or it may be that the gemmules from one of two adjoining embryos alone become developed. * * * * * variability often depends, as i have attempted to show, on the reproductive organs being injuriously affected by changed conditions; and in this case the gemmules derived from the various parts of the body are probably aggregated in an irregular manner, some superfluous and others deficient. whether a superabundance of gemmules, together with fusion during development, would lead to the increased size of any part cannot be told; but we can see that their partial deficiency, without necessarily leading to the entire abortion of the part, might cause considerable modifications; for in the same manner as a plant, if its own pollen be excluded, is easily hybridised, so, in the case of a cell, if the properly succeeding gemmules were absent, it would probably combine easily with other and allied gemmules. we see this in the case of imperfect nails growing on the stumps of amputated fingers,[924] for the gemmules of the nails have manifestly been developed at the nearest point. in variations caused by the direct action of changed conditions, whether of a definite or indefinite nature, as with the fleeces of sheep in hot countries, with maize grown in cold countries, with inherited gout, &c., the tissues of the body, according to the doctrine of pangenesis, are directly affected by the new conditions, and consequently throw off modified gemmules, which are transmitted with their newly acquired peculiarities to the offspring. on any ordinary view it is unintelligible how changed {395} conditions, whether acting on the embryo, the young or adult animal, can cause inherited modifications. it is equally or even more unintelligible on any ordinary view, how the effects of the long-continued use or disuse of any part, or of changed habits of body or mind, can be inherited. a more perplexing problem can hardly be proposed; but on our view we have only to suppose that certain cells become at last not only functionally but structurally modified; and that these throw off similarly modified gemmules. this may occur at any period of development, and the modification will be inherited at a corresponding period; for the modified gemmules will unite in all ordinary cases with the proper preceding cells, and they will consequently be developed at the same period at which the modification first arose. with respect to mental habits or instincts, we are so profoundly ignorant on the relation between the brain and the power of thought that we do not know whether an inveterate habit or trick induces any change in the nervous system; but when any habit or other mental attribute, or insanity, is inherited, we must believe that some actual modification is transmitted;[925] and this implies, according to our hypothesis, that gemmules derived from modified nerve-cells are transmitted to the offspring. it is generally, perhaps always, necessary that an organism should be exposed during several generations to changed conditions or habits, in order that any modification in the structure of the offspring should ensue. this may be partly due to the changes not being at first marked enough to catch the attention, but this explanation is insufficient; and i can account for the fact, only by the assumption, which we shall see under the head of reversion is strongly supported, that gemmules derived from each cell before it had undergone the least modification are transmitted in large numbers to successive generations, but that the gemmules derived from the same cells after modification, naturally go on increasing under the same favouring conditions, until at last they become sufficiently numerous to overpower and supplant the old gemmules. another difficulty may be here noticed; we have seen that {396} there is an important difference in the frequency, though not in the nature, of the variations in plants propagated by sexual and asexual generation. as far as variability depends on the imperfect action of the reproductive organs under changed conditions, we can at once see why seedlings should be far more variable than plants propagated by buds. we know that extremely slight causes,--for instance, whether a tree has been grafted or grows on its own stock, the position of the seeds within the capsule, and of the flowers on the spike,--sometimes suffice to determine the variation of a plant, when raised from seed. now, it is probable, as explained when discussing alternate generation, that a bud is formed of a portion of already differentiated tissue; consequently an organism thus formed does not pass through the earlier phases of development, and cannot be so freely exposed, at the age when its structure would be most readily modified, to the various causes inducing variability; but it is very doubtful whether this is a sufficient explanation of the difficulty. with respect to the tendency to reversion, there is a similar difference between plants propagated from buds and seed. many varieties, whether originally produced from seed or buds, can be securely propagated by buds, but generally or invariably revert by seed. so, also, hybridised plants can be multiplied to any extent by buds, but are continually liable to reversion by seed,--that is, to the loss of their hybrid or intermediate character. i can offer no satisfactory explanation of this fact. here is a still more perplexing case: certain plants with variegated leaves, phloxes with striped flowers, barberries with seedless fruit, can all be securely propagated by the buds on cuttings; but the buds developed from the roots of these cuttings almost invariably lose their character and revert to their former condition. finally, we can see on the hypothesis of pangenesis that variability depends on at least two distinct groups of causes. firstly, on the deficiency, superabundance, fusion, and transposition of gemmules, and on the redevelopment of those which have long been dormant. in these cases the gemmules themselves have undergone no modification; but the mutations in the above respects will amply account for much fluctuating {397} variability. secondly, in the cases in which the organisation has been modified by changed conditions, the increased use or disuse of parts, or any other cause, the gemmules cast off from the modified units of the body will be themselves modified, and, when sufficiently multiplied, will be developed into new and changed structures. * * * * * turning now to inheritance: if we suppose a homogeneous gelatinous protozoon to vary and assume a reddish colour, a minute separated atom we aid naturally, as it grew to full size, retain the same colour; and we should have the simplest form of inheritance.[926] precisely the same view may be extended to the infinitely numerous and diversified units of which the whole body in one of the higher animals is composed; and the separated atoms are our gemmules. we have already sufficiently discussed the inheritance of the direct effects of changed conditions, and of increased use or disuse of parts, and, by implication, the important principle of inheritance at corresponding ages. these groups of facts are to a large extent intelligible on the hypothesis of pangenesis, and on no other hypothesis as yet advanced. a few words must be added on the complete abortion or suppression of organs. when a part becomes diminished by disuse prolonged during many generations, the principle of economy of growth, as previously explained, will tend to reduce it still further; but this will not account for the complete or almost complete obliteration of, for instance, a minute papilla of cellular tissue representing a pistil, or of a microscopically minute nodule of bone representing a tooth. in certain cases of suppression not yet completed, in which a rudiment occasionally reappears through reversion, diffused gemmules derived from this part must, according to our view, still exist; hence we must suppose that the cells, in union with which the rudiment was formerly developed, in these cases fail in their affinity for such gemmules. but in the cases of complete and final abortion the gemmules themselves no doubt have perished; nor is this {398} in any way improbable, for, though a vast number of active and long-dormant gemmules are diffused and nourished in each living creature, yet there must be some limit to their number; and it appears natural that gemmules derived from an enfeebled and useless rudiment would be more liable to perish than those derived from other parts which are still in full functional activity. with respect to mutilations, it is certain that a part may be removed or injured during many generations, and no inherited result follow; and this is an apparent objection to the hypothesis which will occur to every one. but, in the first place, a being can hardly be intentionally mutilated during its early stages of growth whilst in the womb or egg; and such mutilations, when naturally caused, would appear like congenital deficiencies, which are occasionally inherited. in the second place, according to our hypothesis, gemmules multiply by self-division and are transmitted from generation to generation; so that during a long period they would be present and ready to reproduce a part which was repeatedly amputated. nevertheless it appears, from the facts given in the twelfth chapter, that in some rare cases mutilations have been inherited, but in most of these the mutilated surface became diseased. in this case it may be conjectured that the gemmules of the lost part were gradually all attracted by the partially diseased surface, and thus perished. although this would occur in the injured individual alone, and therefore in only one parent, yet this might suffice for the inheritance of a mutilation, on the same principle that a hornless animal of either sex, when crossed with a perfect animal of the opposite sex, often transmits its deficiency. the last subject that need here be discussed, namely reversion, rests on the principle that transmission and development, though generally acting in conjunction, are distinct powers; and the transmission of gemmules and their subsequent development show us how the existence of these two distinct powers is possible. we plainly see this distinction in the many cases in which a grandfather transmits to his grandson, through his daughter, characters which she does not, or cannot, possess. why the development of certain characters, not necessarily in any way connected with the reproductive organs, should be confined to one sex alone--that is, why certain cells in one sex {399} should unite with and cause the development of certain gemmules--we do not in the least know; but it is the common attribute of most organic beings in which the sexes are separate. the distinction between transmission and development is likewise seen in all ordinary cases of reversion; but before discussing this subject it may be advisable to say a few words on those characters which i have called latent, and which would not be classed under reversion in its usual sense. most, or perhaps all, the secondary characters, which appertain to one sex, lie dormant in the other sex; that is, gemmules capable of development into the secondary male sexual characters are included within the female; and conversely female characters in the male. why in the female, when her ovaria become diseased or fail to act, certain masculine gemmules become developed, we do not clearly know, any more than why when a young bull is castrated his horns continue growing until they almost resemble those of a cow; or why, when a stag is castrated, the gemmules derived from the antlers of his progenitors quite fail to be developed. but in many cases, with variable organic beings, the mutual affinities of the cells and gemmules become modified, so that parts are transposed or multiplied; and it would appear that a slight change in the constitution of an animal, in connection with the state of the reproductive organs, leads to changed affinities in the tissues of various parts of the body. thus, when male animals first arrive at puberty, and subsequently during each recurrent season, certain cells or parts acquire an affinity for certain gemmules, which become developed into the secondary masculine characters; but if the reproductive organs be destroyed, or even temporarily disturbed by changed conditions, these affinities are not excited. nevertheless, the male, before he arrives at puberty, and during the season when the species does not breed, must include the proper gemmules in a latent state. the curious case formerly given of a hen which assumed the masculine characters, not of her own breed but of a remote progenitor, illustrates the connexion between latent sexual characters and ordinary reversion. with those animals and plants which habitually produce several forms, as with certain butterflies described by mr. wallace, in which three female forms and {400} the male exist, or as with the trimorphic species of lythrum and oxalis, gemmules capable of reproducing several widely-different forms must be latent in each individual. the same principle of the latency of certain characters, combined with the transposition of organs, may be applied to those singular cases of butterflies and other insects, in which exactly one half or one quarter of the body resembles the male, and the other half or three quarters the female; and when this occurs the opposite sides of the body, separated from each other by a distinct line, sometimes differ in the most conspicuous manner. again, these same principles apply to the cases given in the thirteenth chapter, in which the right and left sides of the body differ to an extraordinary degree, as in the spiral winding of certain shells, and as in the genus verruca among cirripedes; for in these cases it is known that either side indifferently may undergo the same remarkable change of development. reversion, in the ordinary sense of the word, comes into action so incessantly, that it evidently forms an essential part of the general law of inheritance. it occurs with beings, however propagated, whether by buds or seminal generation, and sometimes may even be observed in the same individual as it advances in age. the tendency to reversion is often induced by a change of conditions, and in the plainest manner by the act of crossing. crossed forms are generally at first nearly intermediate in character between their two parents; but in the next generation the offspring generally revert to one or both of their grandparents, and occasionally to more remote ancestors. how can we account for these facts? each organic unit in a hybrid must throw off, according to the doctrine of pangenesis, an abundance of hybridised gemmules, for crossed plants can be readily and largely propagated by buds; but by the same hypothesis there will likewise be present dormant gemmules derived from both pure parent-forms; and as these latter retain their normal condition, they would, it is probable, be enabled to multiply largely during the lifetime of each hybrid. consequently the sexual elements of a hybrid will include both pure and hybridised gemmules; and when two hybrids pair, the combination of pure gemmules derived from the one hybrid with the pure gemmules of the same parts derived from the other would {401} necessarily lead to complete reversion of character; and it is, perhaps, not too bold a supposition that unmodified and undeteriorated gemmules of the same nature would be especially apt to combine. pure gemmules in combination with hybridised gemmules would lead to partial reversion. and lastly, hybridised gemmules derived from both parent-hybrids would simply reproduce the original hybrid form.[927] all these cases and degrees of reversion incessantly occur. it was shown in the fifteenth chapter that certain characters are antagonistic to each other or do not readily blend together; hence, when two animals with antagonistic characters are crossed, it might well happen that a sufficiency of gemmules in the male alone for the reproduction of his peculiar characters, and in the female alone for the reproduction of her peculiar characters, would not be present; and in this case dormant gemmules derived from some remote progenitor might easily gain the ascendency, and cause the reappearance of long-lost characters. for instance, when black and white pigeons, or black and white fowls, are crossed,--colours which do not readily blend,--blue plumage in the one case, evidently derived from the rock-pigeon, and red plumage in the other case, derived from the wild jungle-cock, occasionally reappear. with uncrossed breeds the same result would follow, under conditions which favoured the multiplication and development of certain dormant gemmules, as when animals become feral and revert to their pristine character. a certain number of gemmules being requisite for the development of each character, as is known to be the case from several spermatozoa or pollen-grains being necessary for fertilisation, and time favouring their multiplication, will together account for the curious cases, insisted on by mr. sedgwick, of certain diseases regularly appearing in alternate generations. this likewise holds good, more or less strictly, with other weakly inherited modifications. hence, as i have heard it remarked, certain diseases appear actually to gain strength by the intermission of a generation. the transmission of dormant gemmules during many successive generations is hardly in itself more improbable, as {402} previously remarked, than the retention during many ages of rudimentary organs, or even only of a tendency to the production of a rudiment; but there is no reason to suppose that all dormant gemmules would be transmitted and propagated for ever. excessively minute and numerous as they are believed to be, an infinite number derived, during a long course of modification and descent, from each cell of each progenitor, could not be supported or nourished by the organism. on the other hand, it does not seem improbable that certain gemmules, under favourable conditions, should be retained and go on multiplying for a longer period than others. finally, on the views here given, we certainly gain some clear insight into the wonderful fact that the child may depart from the type of both its parents, and resemble its grandparents, or ancestors removed by many generations. _conclusion._ the hypothesis of pangenesis, as applied to the several great classes of facts just discussed, no doubt is extremely complex; but so assuredly are the facts. the assumptions, however, on which the hypothesis rests cannot be considered as complex in any extreme degree--namely, that all organic units, besides having the power, as is generally admitted, of growing by self-division, throw off free and minute atoms of their contents, that is gemmules. these multiply and aggregate themselves into buds and the sexual elements; their development depends on their union with other nascent cells or units; and they are capable of transmission in a dormant state to successive generations. in a highly organised and complex animal, the gemmules thrown off from each different cell or unit throughout the body must be inconceivably numerous and minute. each unit of each part, as it changes during development, and we know that some insects undergo at least twenty metamorphoses, must throw off its gemmules. all organic beings, moreover, include many dormant gemmules derived from their grandparents and more remote progenitors, but not from all their progenitors. these almost infinitely numerous and minute gemmules must be included in each bud, ovule, spermatozoon, and pollen-grain. such an admission will be declared impossible; but, as previously {403} remarked, number and size are only relative difficulties, and the eggs or seeds produced by certain animals or plants are so numerous that they cannot be grasped by the intellect. the organic particles with which the wind is tainted over miles of space by certain offensive animals must be infinitely minute and numerous; yet they strongly affect the olfactory nerves. an analogy more appropriate is afforded by the contagious particles of certain diseases, which are so minute that they float in the atmosphere and adhere to smooth paper; yet we know how largely they increase within the human body, and how powerfully they act. independent organisms exist which are barely visible under the highest powers of our recently-improved microscopes, and which probably are fully as large as the cells or units in one of the higher animals; yet these organisms no doubt reproduce themselves by germs of extreme minuteness, relatively to their own minute size. hence the difficulty, which at first appears insurmountable, of believing in the existence of gemmules so numerous and so small as they must be according to our hypothesis, has really little weight. the cells or units of the body are generally admitted by physiologists to be autonomous, like the buds on a tree, but in a less degree. i go one step further and assume that they throw off reproductive gemmules. thus an animal does not, as a whole, generate its kind through the sole agency of the reproductive system, but each separate cell generates its kind. it has often been said by naturalists that each cell of a plant has the actual or potential capacity of reproducing the whole plant; but it has this power only in virtue of containing gemmules derived from every part. if our hypothesis be provisionally accepted, we must look at all the forms of asexual reproduction, whether occurring at maturity or as in the case of alternate generation during youth, as fundamentally the same, and dependent on the mutual aggregation and multiplication of the gemmules. the regrowth of an amputated limb or the healing of a wound is the same process partially carried out. sexual generation differs in some important respects, chiefly, as it would appear, in an insufficient number of gemmules being aggregated within the separate sexual elements, and probably in the presence of certain primordial cells. the development of each being, including all the {404} forms of metamorphosis and metagenesis, as well as the so-called growth of the higher animals, in which structure changes though not in a striking manner, depends on the presence of gemmules thrown off at each period of life, and on their development, at a corresponding period, in union with preceding cells. such cells may be said to be fertilised by the gemmules which come next in the order of development. thus the ordinary act of impregnation and the development of each being are closely analogous processes. the child, strictly speaking, does not grow into the man, but includes germs which slowly and successively become developed and form the man. in the child, as well as in the adult, each part generates the same part for the next generation. inheritance must be looked at as merely a form of growth, like the self-division of a lowly-organised unicellular plant. reversion depends on the transmission from the forefather to his descendants of dormant gemmules, which occasionally become developed under certain known or unknown conditions. each animal and plant may be compared to a bed of mould full of seeds, most of which soon germinate, some lie for a period dormant, whilst others perish. when we hear it said that a man carries in his constitution the seeds of an inherited disease, there is much literal truth in the expression. finally, the power of propagation possessed by each separate cell, using the term in its largest sense, determines the reproduction, the variability, the development and renovation of each living organism. no other attempt, as far as i am aware, has been made, imperfect as this confessedly is, to connect under one point of view these several grand classes of facts. we cannot fathom the marvellous complexity of an organic being; but on the hypothesis here advanced this complexity is much increased. each living creature must be looked at as a microcosm--a little universe, formed of a host of self-propagating organisms, inconceivably minute and as numerous as the stars in heaven. * * * * * {405} chapter xxviii. concluding remarks. domestication--nature and causes of variability--selection--divergence and distinctness of character--extinction of races--circumstances favourable to selection by man--antiquity of certain races--the question whether each particular variation has been specially preordained. as summaries have been added to nearly all the chapters, and as, in the chapter on pangenesis, various subjects, such as the forms of reproduction, inheritance, reversion, the causes and laws of variability, &c., have been recently discussed, i will here only make a few general remarks on the more important conclusions which may be deduced from the multifarious details given throughout this work. savages in all parts of the world easily succeed in taming wild animals; and those inhabiting any country or island, when first invaded by man, would probably have been still more easily tamed. complete subjugation generally depends on an animal being social in its habits, and on receiving man as the chief of the herd or family. domestication implies almost complete fertility under new and changed conditions of life, and this is far from being invariably the case. an animal would not have been worth the labour of domestication, at least during early times, unless of service to man. from these circumstances the number of domesticated animals has never been large. with respect to plants, i have shown in the ninth chapter how their varied uses were probably first discovered, and the early steps in their cultivation. man could not have known, when he first domesticated an animal or plant, whether it would flourish and multiply when transported to other countries, therefore he could not have been thus influenced in his choice. we see that the close adaptation of the reindeer and camel to extremely cold and hot countries has not prevented their domestication. still less {406} could man have foreseen whether his animals and plants would vary in succeeding generations and thus give birth to new races; and the small capacity of variability in the goose and ass has not prevented their domestication from the remotest epoch. with extremely few exceptions, all animals and plants which have been long domesticated, have varied greatly. it matters not under what climate, or for what purpose, they are kept, whether as food for man or beast, for draught or hunting, for clothing or mere pleasure,--under all these circumstances domesticated animals and plants have varied to a much greater extent than the forms which in a state of nature are ranked as one species. why certain animals and plants have varied more under domestication than others we do not know, any more than why some are rendered more sterile than others under changed conditions of life. but we frequently judge of the amount of variation by the production of numerous and diversified races, and we can clearly see why in many cases this has not occurred, namely, because slight successive variations have not been steadily accumulated; and such variations will never be accumulated when an animal or plant is not closely observed, or much valued, or kept in large numbers. the fluctuating, and, as far as we can judge, never-ending variability of our domesticated productions,--the plasticity of their whole organisation,--is one of the most important facts which we learn from the numerous details given in the earlier chapters of this work. yet domesticated animals and plants can hardly have been exposed to greater changes in their conditions than have many natural species during the incessant geological, geographical, and climatal changes of the whole world. the former will, however, commonly have been exposed to more sudden changes and to less continuously uniform conditions. as man has domesticated so many animals and plants belonging to widely different classes, and as he certainly did not with prophetic instinct choose those species which would vary most, we may infer that all natural species, if subjected to analogous conditions, would, on an average, vary to the same degree. few men at the present day will maintain that animals and plants were created with a tendency to vary, which long remained dormant, in order that fanciers in after ages might {407} rear, for instance, curious breeds of the fowl, pigeon, or canary-bird. from several causes it is difficult to judge of the amount of modification which our domestic productions have undergone. in some cases the primitive parent-stock has become extinct, or cannot be recognised with certainty owing to its supposed descendants having been so much modified. in other cases two or more closely allied forms, after being domesticated, have crossed; and then it is difficult to estimate how much of the change ought to be attributed to variation. but the degree to which our domestic breeds have been modified by the crossing of distinct natural forms has probably been exaggerated by some authors. a few individuals of one form would seldom permanently affect another form existing in much greater numbers; for, without careful selection, the stain of the foreign blood would soon be obliterated, and during early and barbarous times, when our animals were first domesticated, such care would seldom have been taken. there is good reason to believe that several of the breeds of the dog, ox, pig, and of some other animals, are respectively descended from distinct wild prototypes; nevertheless the belief in the multiple origin of our domesticated animals has been extended by some few naturalists and by many breeders to an unauthorised extent. breeders refuse to look at the whole subject under a single point of view; i have heard one, who maintained that our fowls were the descendants of at least half-a-dozen aboriginal species, protest that he was in no way concerned with the origin of pigeons, ducks, rabbits, horses, or any other animal. they overlook the improbability of many species having been domesticated at an early and barbarous period. they do not consider the improbability of species having existed in a state of nature which, if like our present domestic breeds, would have been highly abnormal in comparison with all their congeners. they maintain that certain species, which formerly existed, have become extinct or unknown, although the world is now so much better known. the assumption of so much recent extinction is no difficulty in their eyes; for they do not judge of its probability by the facility or difficulty of the extinction of other closely allied wild forms. lastly, {408} they often ignore the whole subject of geographical distribution as completely as if its laws were the result of chance. although from the reasons just assigned it is often difficult to judge accurately of the amount of change which our domesticated productions have undergone, yet this can be ascertained in the cases in which we know that all the breeds are descended from a single species, as with the pigeon, duck, rabbit, and almost certainly with the fowl; and by the aid of analogy this is to a certain extent possible in the case of animals descended from several wild stocks. it is impossible to read the details given in the earlier chapters, and in many published works, or to visit our various exhibitions, without being deeply impressed with the extreme variability of our domesticated animals and cultivated plants. i have in many instances purposely given details on new and strange peculiarities which have arisen. no part of the organisation escapes the tendency to vary. the variations generally affect parts of small vital or physiological importance, but so it is with the differences which exist between closely allied species. in these unimportant characters there is often a greater difference between the breeds of the same species than between the natural species of the same genus, as isidore geoffroy has shown to be the case with size, and as is often the case with the colour, texture, form, &c., of the hair, feathers, horns, and other dermal appendages. it has often been asserted that important parts never vary under domestication, but this is a complete error. look at the skull of the pig in any one of the highly improved breeds, with the occipital condyles and other parts greatly modified; or look at that of the niata ox. or again, in the several breeds of the rabbit, observe the elongated skull, with the differently shaped occipital foramen, atlas, and other cervical vertebræ. the whole shape of the brain, together with the skull, has been modified in polish fowls; in other breeds of the fowl the number of the vertebræ and the forms of the cervical vertebræ have been changed. in certain pigeons the shape of the lower jaw, the relative length of the tongue, the size of the nostrils and eyelids, the number and shape of the ribs, the form and size of the oesophagus, have all varied. in certain quadrupeds the length of the intestines has been much increased or {409} diminished. with plants we see wonderful differences in the stones of various fruits. in the cucurbitaceæ several highly important characters have varied, such as the sessile position of the stigmas on the ovarium, the position of the carpels within the ovarium, and its projection out of the receptacle. but it would be useless to run through the many facts given in the earlier chapters. it is notorious how greatly the mental disposition, tastes, habits, consensual movements, loquacity or silence, and the tone of voice have varied and been inherited with our domesticated animals. the dog offers the most striking instance of changed mental attributes, and these differences cannot be accounted for by descent from distinct wild types. new mental characters have certainly often been acquired, and natural ones lost, under domestication. new characters may appear and disappear at any stage of growth, and be inherited at a corresponding period. we see this in the difference between the eggs of various breeds of the fowl, and in the down on chickens; and still more plainly in the differences between the caterpillars and cocoons of various breeds of the silk-moth. these facts, simple as they appear, throw light on the characters which distinguish the larval and adult states of natural species, and on the whole great subject of embryology. new characters are liable to become attached exclusively to that sex in which they first appeared, or they may be developed in a much higher degree in the one than the other sex; or again, after having become attached to one sex, they may be partially transferred to the opposite sex. these facts, and more especially the circumstance that new characters seem to be particularly liable, from some unknown cause, to become attached to the male sex, have an important bearing on the acquirement by animals in a state of nature of secondary sexual characters. it has sometimes been said that our domestic productions do not differ in constitutional peculiarities, but this cannot be maintained. in our improved cattle, pigs, &c., the period of maturity, including that of the second dentition, has been much hastened. the period of gestation varies much, but has been modified in a fixed manner in only one or two cases. in {410} our poultry and pigeons the acquirement of down and of the first plumage by the young, and of the secondary sexual characters by the males, differ. the number of moults through which the larvæ of silk-moths pass, varies. the tendency to fatten, to yield much milk, to produce many young or eggs at a birth or during life, differs in different breeds. we find different degrees of adaptation to climate, and different tendencies to certain diseases, to the attacks of parasites, and to the action of certain vegetable poisons. with plants, adaptation to certain soils, as with some kinds of plums, the power of resisting frost, the period of flowering and fruiting, the duration of life, the period of shedding the leaves and of retaining them throughout the winter, the proportion and nature of certain chemical compounds in the tissues or seeds, all vary. there is, however, one important constitutional difference between domestic races and species; i refer to the sterility which almost invariably follows, in a greater or less degree, when species are crossed, and to the perfect fertility of the most distinct domestic races, with the exception of a very few plants, when similarly crossed. it certainly appears a remarkable fact that many closely allied species which in appearance differ extremely little should yield when united only a few, more or less sterile offspring, or none at all; whilst domestic races which differ conspicuously from each other, are when united remarkably fertile, and yield perfectly fertile offspring. but this fact is not in reality so inexplicable as it at first appears. in the first place, it was clearly shown in the nineteenth chapter that the sterility of crossed species does not closely depend on differences in their external structure or general constitution, but results exclusively from differences in the reproductive system, analogous with those which cause the lessened fertility of the illegitimate unions and illegitimate offspring of dimorphic and trimorphic plants. in the second place, the pallasian doctrine, that species after having been long domesticated lose their natural tendency to sterility when crossed, has been shown to be highly probable; we can scarcely avoid this conclusion when we reflect on the parentage and present fertility of the several breeds of the dog, of indian and european cattle, sheep, and pigs. hence it would be unreasonable to expect that races formed under domestication {411} should acquire sterility when crossed, whilst at the same time we admit that domestication eliminates the normal sterility of crossed species. why with closely allied species their reproductive systems should almost invariably have been modified in so peculiar a manner as to be mutually incapable of acting on each other--though in unequal degrees in the two sexes, as shown by the difference in fertility between reciprocal crosses in the same species--we do not know, but may with much probability infer the cause to be as follows. most natural species have been habituated to nearly uniform conditions of life for an incomparably longer period of time than have domestic races; and we positively know that changed conditions exert an especial and powerful influence on the reproductive system. hence this difference in habituation may well account for the different action of the reproductive organs when domestic races and when species are crossed. it is a nearly analogous fact, that most domestic races may be suddenly transported from one climate to another, or be placed under widely different conditions, and yet retain their fertility unimpaired; whilst a multitude of species subjected to lesser changes are rendered incapable of breeding. with the exception of fertility, domestic varieties resemble species when crossed in transmitting their characters in the same unequal manner to their offspring, in being subject to the prepotency of one form over the other, and in their liability to reversion. by repeated crosses a variety or a species may be made completely to absorb another. varieties, as we shall see when we treat of their antiquity, sometimes inherit their new characters almost, or even quite, as firmly as species. with both, the conditions leading to variability and the laws governing its nature appear to be the same. domestic varieties can be classed in groups under groups, like species under genera, and these under families and orders; and the classification may be either artificial,--that is, founded on any arbitrary character,--or natural. with varieties a natural classification is certainly founded, and with species is apparently founded, on community of descent, together with the amount of modification which the forms have undergone. the characters by which domestic varieties differ from each other are more {412} variable than those distinguishing species, though hardly more so than with certain protean species; but this greater degree of variability is not surprising, as varieties have generally been exposed within recent times to fluctuating conditions of life, are much more liable to have been crossed, and are still in many cases undergoing, or have recently undergone, modification by man's methodical or unconscious selection. domestic varieties as a general rule certainly differ from each other in less important parts of their organisation than do species; and when important differences occur, they are seldom firmly fixed; but this fact is intelligible if we consider man's method of selection. in the living animal or plant he cannot observe internal modifications in the more important organs; nor does he regard them as long as they are compatible with health and life. what does the breeder care about any slight change in the molar teeth of his pigs, or for an additional molar tooth in the dog; or for any change in the intestinal canal or other internal organ? the breeder cares for the flesh of his cattle being well marbled with fat, and for an accumulation of fat within the abdomen of his sheep, and this he has effected. what would the floriculturist care for any change in the structure of the ovarium or of the ovules? as important internal organs are certainly liable to numerous slight variations, and as these would probably be inherited, for many strange monstrosities are transmitted, man could undoubtedly effect a certain amount of change in these organs. when he has produced any modification in an important part, it has generally been unintentionally in correlation with some other conspicuous part, as when he has given ridges and protuberances to the skulls of fowls, by attending to the form of the comb, and in the case of the polish fowl to the plume of feathers on the head. by attending to the external form of the pouter-pigeon, he has enormously increased the size of the oesophagus, and has added to the number of the ribs, and given them greater breadth. with the carrier-pigeon, by increasing, through steady selection, the wattles on the upper mandible, he has greatly modified the form of the lower mandible; and so in many other cases. natural species, on the other hand, have been modified exclusively for their own good, to fit them for infinitely {413} diversified conditions of life, to avoid enemies of all kinds, and to struggle against a host of competitors. hence, under such complex conditions, it would often happen that modifications of the most varied kinds, in important as well as in unimportant parts, would be advantageous or even necessary; and they would slowly but surely be acquired through the survival of the fittest. various indirect modifications would likewise arise through the law of correlated variation. domestic breeds often have an abnormal or semi-monstrous character, as the italian greyhound, bulldog, blenheim spaniel, and bloodhound amongst dogs,--some breeds of cattle and pigs, several breeds of the fowl, and the chief breeds of the pigeon. the differences between such abnormal breeds occur in parts which in closely-allied natural species differ but slightly or not at all. this may be accounted for by man's often selecting, especially at first, conspicuous and semi-monstrous deviations of structure. we should, however, be cautious in deciding what deviations ought to be called monstrous: there can hardly be a doubt that, if the brush of horse-like hair on the breast of the turkey-cock had first appeared on the domesticated bird, it would have been considered a monstrosity; the great plume of feathers on the head of the polish cock has been thus designated, though plumes are common with many kinds of birds; we might call the wattle or corrugated skin round the base of the beak of the english carrier-pigeon a monstrosity, but we do not thus speak of the globular fleshy excrescence at the base of the beak of the male _carpophaga oceanica_. some authors have drawn a wide distinction between artificial and natural breeds; although in extreme cases the distinction is plain, in many other cases an arbitrary line has to be drawn. the difference depends chiefly on the kind of selection which has been applied. artificial breeds are those which have been intentionally improved by man; they frequently have an unnatural appearance, and are especially liable to loss of excellence through reversion and continued variability. the so-called natural breeds, on the other hand, are those which are now found in semi-civilised countries, and which formerly inhabited separate districts in nearly all the european kingdoms. they have been rarely acted on by man's {414} intentional selection; more frequently, it is probable, by unconscious selection, and partly by natural selection, for animals kept in semi-civilised countries have to provide largely for their own wants. such natural breeds will also, it may be presumed, have been directly acted on to some extent by the differences, though slight, in the surrounding physical conditions. it is a much more important distinction that some breeds have been from their first origin modified in so slow and insensible a manner, that if we could see their early progenitors we should hardly be able to say when or how the breed first arose; whilst other breeds have originated from a strongly-marked or semi-monstrous deviation of structure, which, however, may subsequently have been augmented by selection. from what we know of the history of the racehorse, greyhound, gamecock, &c., and from their general appearance, we may feel nearly confident that they were formed by a slow process of improvement: and with the carrier-pigeon, as well as with some other pigeons, we know that this has been the case. on the other hand, it is certain that the ancon and mauchamp breeds of sheep, and almost certain that the niata cattle, turnspit and pug-dogs, jumper and frizzled fowls, short-faced tumbler pigeons, hook-billed ducks, &c., and with plants a multitude of varieties, suddenly appeared in nearly the same state as we now see them. the frequency of these cases is likely to lead to the false belief that natural species have often originated in the same abrupt manner. but we have no evidence of the appearance, or at least of the continued procreation, under nature, of abrupt modifications of structure; and various general reasons could be assigned against such a belief: for instance, without separation a single monstrous variation would almost certainly be soon obliterated by crossing. on the other hand, we have abundant evidence of the constant occurrence under nature of slight individual differences of the most diversified kinds; and thus we are led to conclude that species have generally originated by the natural selection, not of abrupt modifications, but of extremely slight differences. this process may be strictly compared with the slow and gradual improvement of the racehorse, greyhound, and gamecock. as every detail of structure in each species is closely adapted to its general {415} habits of life, it will rarely happen that one part alone will be modified; but the co-adapted modifications, as formerly shown, need not be absolutely simultaneous. many variations, however, are from the first connected by the law of correlation. hence it follows that even closely-allied species rarely or never differ from each other by some one character alone; and this same remark applies to a certain extent to domestic races; for these, if they differ much, generally differ in many respects. some naturalists boldly insist[928] that species are absolutely distinct productions, never passing by intermediate links into each other; whilst they maintain that domestic varieties can always be connected either with each other or with their parent-forms. but if we could always find the links between the several breeds of the dog, horse, cattle, sheep, pigs, &c., the incessant doubts whether they are descended from one or several species would not have arisen. the greyhound genus, if such a term may be used, cannot be closely connected with any other breed, unless, perhaps, we go back to the ancient egyptian monuments. our english bulldog also forms a very distinct breed. in all these cases crossed breeds must of course be excluded, for the most distinct natural species can thus be connected. by what links can the cochin fowl be closely united with others? by searching for breeds still preserved in distant lands, and by going back to historical records, tumbler-pigeons, carriers, and barbs can be closely connected with the parent rock-pigeon; but we cannot thus connect the turbit or the pouter. the degree of distinctness between the various domestic breeds depends on the amount of modification which they have undergone, and especially on the neglect and final extinction of the linking, intermediate, and less valued forms. it has often been argued that no light is thrown, from the admitted changes of domestic races, on the changes which natural species are believed to undergo, as the former are said to be mere temporary productions, always reverting, as soon as they become feral, to their pristine form. this argument has been well combated by mr. wallace;[929] and full details were given in the thirteenth chapter, showing that the tendency to reversion in feral {416} animals and plants has been greatly exaggerated, though no doubt to a certain extent it exists. it would be opposed to all the principles inculcated in this work, if domestic animals, when exposed to new conditions and compelled to struggle for their own wants against a host of foreign competitors, were not in the course of time in some manner modified. it should also be remembered that many characters lie latent in all organic beings ready to be evolved under fitting conditions; and in breeds modified within recent times the tendency to reversion is particularly strong. but the antiquity of various breeds clearly proves that they remain nearly constant as long as their conditions of life remain the same. it has been boldly maintained by some authors that the amount of variation to which our domestic productions are liable is strictly limited; but this is an assertion resting on little evidence. whether or not the amount in any particular direction is fixed, the tendency to general variability seems unlimited. cattle, sheep, and pigs have been domesticated and have varied from the remotest period, as shown by the researches of rütimeyer and others, yet these animals have, within quite recent times, been improved in an unparalleled degree; and this implies continued variability of structure. wheat, as we know from the remains found in the swiss lake-habitations, is one of the most anciently cultivated plants, yet at the present day new and better varieties occasionally arise. it may be that an ox will never be produced of larger size or finer proportions than our present animals, or a race-horse fleeter than eclipse, or a gooseberry larger than the london variety; but he would be a bold man who would assert that the extreme limit in these respects has been finally attained. with flowers and fruit it has repeatedly been asserted that perfection has been reached, but the standard has soon been excelled. a breed of pigeons may never be produced with a beak shorter than that of the present short-faced tumbler, or with one longer than that of the english carrier, for these birds have weak constitutions and are bad breeders; but the shortness and length of the beak are the points which have been steadily improved during at least the last 150 years; and some of the best judges deny that the goal has yet been reached. we may, also, reasonably suspect, from what {417} we see in natural species of the variability of extremely modified parts, that any structure, after remaining constant during a long series of generations, would, under new and changed conditions of life, recommence its course of variability, and might again be acted on by selection. nevertheless, as mr. wallace[930] has recently remarked with much force and truth, there must be both with natural and domestic productions a limit to change in certain directions; for instance, there must be a limit to the fleetness of any terrestrial animal, as this will be determined by the friction to be overcome, the weight to be carried, and the power of contraction in the muscular fibres. the english racehorse may have reached this limit; but it already surpasses in fleetness its own wild progenitor, and all other equine species. it is not surprising, seeing the great difference between many domestic breeds, that some few naturalists have concluded that all are descended from distinct aboriginal stocks, more especially as the principle of selection has been ignored, and the high antiquity of man, as a breeder of animals, has only recently become known. most naturalists, however, freely admit that various extremely dissimilar breeds are descended from a single stock, although they do not know much about the art of breeding, cannot show the connecting links, nor say where and when the breeds arose. yet these same naturalists will declare, with an air of philosophical caution, that they can never admit that one natural species has given birth to another until they behold all the transitional steps. but fanciers have used exactly the same language with respect to domestic breeds; thus an author of an excellent treatise says he will never allow that carrier and fantail pigeons are the descendants of the wild rock-pigeon, until the transitions have "actually been observed, and can be repeated whenever man chooses to set about the task." no doubt it is difficult to realise that slight changes added up during long centuries can produce such results; but he who wishes to understand the origin of domestic breeds or natural species must overcome this difficulty. the causes inducing and the laws governing variability have been so lately discussed, that i need here only enumerate the leading points. as domesticated organisms are much more {418} liable to slight deviations of structure and to monstrosities, than species living under their natural conditions, and as widely-ranging species vary more than those which inhabit restricted areas, we may infer that variability mainly depends on changed conditions of life. we must not overlook the effects of the unequal combination of the characters derived from both parents, nor reversion to former progenitors. changed conditions have an especial tendency to render the reproductive organs more or less impotent, as shown in the chapter devoted to this subject; and these organs consequently often fail to transmit faithfully the parental characters. changed conditions also act directly and definitely on the organisation, so that all or nearly all the individuals of the same species thus exposed become modified in the same manner; but why this or that part is especially affected we can seldom or never say. in most cases, however, of the direct action of changed conditions, independently of the indirect variability caused by the reproductive organs being affected, indefinite modifications are the result; in nearly the same manner as exposure to cold or the absorption of the same poison affects different individuals in various ways. we have reason to suspect that an habitual excess of highly nutritious food, or an excess relatively to the wear and tear of the organisation from exercise, is a powerful exciting cause of variability. when we see the symmetrical and complex outgrowths, caused by a minute atom of the poison of a gall-insect, we may believe that slight changes in the chemical nature of the sap or blood would lead to extraordinary modifications of structure. the increased use of a muscle with its various attached parts, and the increased activity of a gland or other organ, lead to their increased development. disuse has a contrary effect. with domesticated productions organs sometimes become rudimentary through abortion; but we have no reason to suppose that this has ever followed from mere disuse. with natural species, on the contrary, many organs appear to have been rendered rudimentary through disuse, aided by the principle of the economy of growth, and by the hypothetical principle discussed in the last chapter, namely, the final destruction of the germs or gemmules of such useless parts. this difference may be partly {419} accounted for by disuse having acted on domestic forms for an insufficient length of time, and partly from their exemption from any severe struggle for existence, entailing rigid economy in the development of each part, to which all species under nature are subjected. nevertheless the law of compensation or balancement apparently affects, to a certain extent, our domesticated productions. we must not exaggerate the importance of the definite action of changed conditions in modifying all the individuals of the same species in the same manner, or of use and disuse. as every part of the organisation is highly variable, and as variations are so easily selected, both consciously and unconsciously, it is very difficult to distinguish between the effects of the selection of indefinite variations, and the direct action of the conditions of life. for instance, it is possible that the feet of our water-dogs, and of the american dogs which have to travel much over the snow, may have become partially webbed from the stimulus of widely extending their toes; but it is far more probable that the webbing, like the membrane between the toes of certain pigeons, spontaneously appeared and was afterwards increased by the best swimmers and the best snow-travellers being preserved during many generations. a fancier who wished to decrease the size of his bantams or tumbler-pigeons would never think of starving them, but would select the smallest individuals which spontaneously appeared. quadrupeds are sometimes born destitute of hair, and hairless breeds have been formed, but there is no reason to believe that this is caused by a hot climate. within the tropics heat often causes sheep to lose their fleeces, and on the other hand wet and cold act as a direct stimulus to the growth of hair; it is, however, possible that these changes may merely be an exaggeration of the regular yearly change of coat; and who will pretend to decide how far this yearly change, or the thick fur of arctic animals, or as i may add their white colour, is due to the direct action of a severe climate, and how far to the preservation of the best protected individuals during a long succession of generations? of all the laws governing variability, that of correlation is the most important. in many cases of slight deviations of structure as well as of grave monstrosities, we cannot even {420} conjecture what is the nature of the bond of connexion. but between homologous parts--between the fore and hind limbs--between the hair, hoofs, horns, and teeth--we can see that parts which are closely similar during their early development, and which are exposed to similar conditions, would be liable to be modified in the same manner. homologous parts, from having the same nature, are apt to blend together and, when many exist, to vary in number. although every variation is either directly or indirectly caused by some change in the surrounding conditions, we must never forget that the nature of the organisation which is acted on essentially governs the result. distinct organisms, when placed under similar conditions, vary in different manners, whilst closely-allied organisms under dissimilar conditions often vary in nearly the same manner. we see this in the same modification frequently reappearing at long intervals of time in the same variety, and likewise in the several striking cases given of analogous or parallel varieties. although some of these latter cases are simply due to reversion, others cannot thus be accounted for. from the indirect action of changed conditions on the organisation, through the impaired state of the reproductive organs--from the direct action of such conditions (and this will cause the individuals of the same species either to vary in the same manner, or differently in accordance with slight differences in their constitution)--from the effects of the increased or decreased use of parts,--and from correlation,--the variability of our domesticated productions is complicated in an extreme degree. the whole organisation becomes slightly plastic. although each modification must have its proper exciting cause, and though each is subjected to law, yet we can so rarely trace the precise relation between cause and effect, that we are tempted to speak of variations as if they spontaneously arose. we may even call them accidental, but this must be only in the sense in which we say that a fragment of rock dropped from a height owes its shape to accident. * * * * * it may be worth while briefly to consider the results of the exposure to unnatural conditions of a large number of animals of the same species, allowed to cross freely, with no selection of any {421} kind; and afterwards to consider the results when selection is brought into play. let us suppose that 500 wild rock-pigeons were confined in their native land in an aviary, and fed in the same manner as pigeons usually are; and that they were not allowed to increase in number. as pigeons propagate so rapidly, i suppose that a thousand or fifteen hundred birds would have to be annually killed by mere chance. after several generations had been thus reared, we may feel sure that some of the young birds would vary, and the variations would tend to be inherited; for at the present day slight deviations of structure often occur, but, as most breeds are already well established, these modifications are rejected as blemishes. it would be tedious even to enumerate the multitude of points which still go on varying or have recently varied. many variations would occur in correlation, as the length of the wing and tail feathers--the number of the primary wing-feathers, as well as the number and breadth of the ribs, in correlation with the size and form of the body--the number of the scutellæ, with the size of the feet--the length of the tongue, with the length of the beak--the size of the nostrils and eyelids and the form of lower jaw in correlation with the development of wattle--the nakedness of the young with the future colour of the plumage--the size of the feet and beak, and other such points. lastly, as our birds are supposed to be confined in an aviary, they would use their wings and legs but little, and certain parts of the skeleton, such as the sternum and scapulæ and the feet, would in consequence become slightly reduced in size. as in our assumed case many birds have to be indiscriminately killed every year, the chances are against any new variety surviving long enough to breed. and as the variations which arise are of an extremely diversified nature, the chances are very great against two birds pairing which have varied in the same manner; nevertheless, a varying bird even when not thus paired would occasionally transmit its character to its young; and these would not only be exposed to the same conditions which first caused the variation in question to appear, but would in addition inherit from their one modified parent a tendency again to vary in the same manner. so that, if the conditions decidedly tended to induce some particular variation, all the birds might {422} in the course of time become similarly modified. but a far commoner result would be, that one bird would vary in one way and another bird in another way; one would be born with a little longer beak, and another with a shorter beak; one would gain some black feathers, another some white or red feathers. and as these birds would be continually intercrossing, the final result would be a body of individuals differing from each other slightly in many ways, yet far more than did the original rock-pigeons. but there would not be the least tendency to the formation of distinct breeds. if two separate lots of pigeons were to be treated in the manner just described, one in england and the other in a tropical country, the two lots being supplied with different food, would they, after many generations had passed, differ? when we reflect on the cases given in the twenty-third chapter, and on such facts as the difference in former times between the breeds of cattle, sheep, &c., in almost every district of europe, we are strongly inclined to admit that the two lots would be differently modified through the influence of climate and food. but the evidence on the definite action of changed conditions is in most cases insufficient; and, with respect to pigeons, i have had the opportunity of examining a large collection of domesticated birds, sent to me by sir w. elliot from india, and they varied in a remarkably similar manner with our european birds. if two distinct breeds were to be confined together in equal numbers, there is reason to suspect that they would to a certain extent prefer pairing with their own kind; but they would likewise intercross. from the greater vigour and fertility of the crossed offspring, the whole body would by this means become interblended sooner than would otherwise have occurred. from certain breeds being prepotent over others, it does not follow that the interblended progeny would be strictly intermediate in character. i have, also, proved that the act of crossing in itself gives a strong tendency to reversion, so that the crossed offspring would tend to revert to the state of the aboriginal rock-pigeon. in the course of time they would probably be not much more heterogeneous in character than in our first case, when birds of the same breed were confined together. {423} i have just said that the crossed offspring would gain in vigour and fertility. from the facts given in the seventeenth chapter there can be no doubt of this; and there can be little doubt, though the evidence on this head is not so easily acquired, that long-continued close interbreeding leads to evil results. with hermaphrodites of all kinds, if the sexual elements of the same individual habitually acted on each other, the closest possible interbreeding would be perpetual. therefore we should bear in mind that with all hermaphrodite animals, as far as i can learn, their structure permits and frequently necessitates a cross with a distinct individual. with hermaphrodite plants we incessantly meet with elaborate and perfect contrivances for this same end. it is no exaggeration to assert that, if the use of the talons and tusks of a carnivorous animal, or the use of the viscid threads of a spider's web, or of the plumes and hooks on a seed may be safely inferred from their structure, we may with equal safety infer that many flowers are constructed for the express purpose of ensuring a cross with a distinct plant. from these various considerations, the conclusion arrived at in the chapter just referred to--namely, that great good of some kind is derived from the sexual concourse of distinct individuals--must be admitted. to return to our illustration: we have hitherto assumed that the birds were kept down to the same number by indiscriminate slaughter; but if the least choice be permitted in their preservation and slaughter, the whole result will be changed. should the owner observe any slight variation in one of his birds, and wish to obtain a breed thus characterised, he would succeed in a surprisingly short time by carefully selecting and pairing the young. as any part which has once varied generally goes on varying in the same direction, it is easy, by continually preserving the most strongly marked individuals, to increase the amount of difference up to a high, predetermined standard of excellence. this is methodical selection. if the owner of the aviary, without any thought of making a new breed, simply admired, for instance, short-beaked more than long-beaked birds, he would, when he had to reduce the number, generally kill the latter; and there can be no doubt that he would thus in the course of time sensibly modify his {424} stock. it is improbable, if two men were to keep pigeons and act in this manner, that they would prefer exactly the same characters; they would, as we know, often prefer directly opposite characters, and the two lots would ultimately come to differ. this has actually occurred with strains or families of cattle, sheep, and pigeons, which have been long kept and carefully attended to by different breeders without any wish on their part to form new and distinct sub-breeds. this unconscious kind of selection will more especially come into action with animals which are highly serviceable to man; for every one tries to get the best dog, horse, cow, or sheep, and these animals will transmit more or less surely their good qualities to their offspring. hardly any one is so careless as to breed from his worst animals. even savages, when compelled from extreme want to kill some of their animals, would destroy the worst and preserve the best. with animals kept for use and not for mere amusement, different fashions prevail in different districts, leading to the preservation, and consequently to the transmission, of all sorts of trifling peculiarities of character. the same process will have been pursued with our fruit-trees and vegetables, for the best will always have been the most largely cultivated, and will occasionally have yielded seedlings better than their parents. the different strains, just alluded to, which have been raised by different breeders without any wish for such a result, and the unintentional modification of foreign breeds in their new homes, both afford excellent evidence of the power of unconscious selection. this form of selection has probably led to far more important results than methodical selection, and is likewise more important under a theoretical point of view from closely resembling natural selection. for during this process the best or most valued individuals are not separated and prevented crossing with others of the same breed, but are simply preferred and preserved; but this inevitably leads during a long succession of generations to their increase in number and to their gradual improvement; so that finally they prevail to the exclusion of the old parent-form. with our domesticated animals natural selection checks the production of races with any injurious deviation of {425} structure. in the case of animals kept by savages and semi-civilised people, which have to provide largely for their own wants under different circumstances, natural selection will probably play a more important part. hence such animals often closely resemble natural species. as there is no limit to man's desire to possess animals and plants more and more useful in any respect, and as the fancier always wishes, from fashion running into extremes, to produce each character more and more strongly pronounced, there is a constant tendency in every breed, through the prolonged action of methodical and unconscious selection, to become more and more different from its parent-stock; and when several breeds have been produced and are valued for different qualities, to differ more and more from each other. this leads to divergence of character. as improved sub-varieties and races are slowly formed, the older and less improved breeds are neglected and decrease in number. when few individuals of any breed exist within the same locality, close interbreeding, by lessening their vigour and fertility, aids in their final extinction. thus the intermediate links are lost, and breeds which have already diverged gain distinctness of character. in the chapters on the pigeon, it was proved by historical details and by the existence of connecting sub-varieties in distant lands that several breeds have steadily diverged in character, and that many old and intermediate sub-breeds have become extinct. other cases could be adduced of the extinction of domestic breeds, as of the irish wolf-dog, the old english hound, and of two breeds in france, one of which was formerly highly valued.[931] mr. pickering remarks[932] that "the sheep figured on the most ancient egyptian monuments is unknown at the present day; and at least one variety of the bullock, formerly known in egypt, has in like manner become extinct." so it has been with some animals, and with several plants cultivated by the ancient inhabitants of europe during the neolithic period. in peru, von tschudi[933] found in certain tombs, apparently prior to the dynasty of the incas, two kinds of maize not now known in the country. with our flowers and culinary vegetables, {426} the production of new varieties and their extinction has incessantly recurred. at the present time improved breeds sometimes displace at an extraordinarily rapid rate older breeds; as has recently occurred throughout england with pigs. the long-horn cattle in their native home were "suddenly swept away as if by some murderous pestilence," by the introduction of short-horns.[934] what grand results have followed from the long-continued action of methodical and unconscious selection, checked and regulated to a certain extent by natural selection, is seen on every side of us. compare the many animals and plants which are displayed at our exhibitions with their parent-forms when these are known, or consult old historical records with respect to their former state. almost all our domesticated animals have given rise to numerous and distinct races, excepting those which cannot be easily subjected to selection--such as cats, the cochineal insect, and the hive-bee,--and excepting those animals which are not much valued. in accordance with what we know of the process of selection, the formation of our many races has been slow and gradual. the man who first observed and preserved a pigeon with its oesophagus a little enlarged, its beak a little longer, or its tail a little more expanded than usual, never dreamed that he had made the first step in the creation of the pouter, carrier, and fantail-pigeon. man can create not only anomalous breeds, but others with their whole structure admirably co-ordinated for certain purposes, such as the race-horse and dray-horse, or the greyhound. it is by no means necessary that each small change of structure throughout the body, leading towards excellence, should simultaneously arise and be selected. although man seldom attends to differences in organs which are important under a physiological point of view, yet he has so profoundly modified some breeds, that assuredly, if found wild, they would be ranked under distinct genera. the best proof of what selection has effected is perhaps afforded by the fact that whatever part or quality in any animal, and more especially in any plant, is most valued by man, that part or quality differs most in the several races. this result is well seen by comparing the amount of difference {427} between the fruits produced by the varieties of the same fruit-tree, between the flowers of the varieties in our flower-garden, between the seeds, roots, or leaves of our culinary and agricultural plants, in comparison with the other and not valued parts of the same plants. striking evidence of a different kind is afforded by the fact ascertained by oswald heer,[935] namely, that the seeds of a large number of plants,--wheat, barley, oats, peas, beans, lentils, poppies,--cultivated for their seed by the ancient lake-inhabitants of switzerland, were all smaller than the seeds of our existing varieties. rütimeyer has shown that the sheep and cattle which were kept by the earlier lake-inhabitants were likewise smaller than our present breeds. in the middens of denmark, the earliest dog of which the remains have been found was the weakest; this was succeeded during the bronze age by a stronger kind, and this again during the iron age by one still stronger. the sheep of denmark during the bronze period had extraordinarily slender limbs, and the horse was smaller than our present animal.[936] no doubt in these cases the new and larger breeds were generally introduced from foreign lands by the immigration of new hordes of men. but it is not probable that each larger breed, which in the course of time supplanted a previous and smaller breed, was the descendant of a distinct and larger species; it is far more probable that the domestic races of our various animals were gradually improved in different parts of the great europæo-asiatic continent, and thence spread to other countries. this fact of the gradual increase in size of our domestic animals is all the more striking as certain wild or half-wild animals, such as red-deer, aurochs, park-cattle, and boars,[937] have within nearly the same period decreased in size. the conditions favourable to selection by man are,--the closest attention being paid to every character,--long-continued perseverance,--facility in matching or separating animals,--and especially a large number being kept, so that the inferior individuals may be freely rejected or destroyed, and the better ones preserved. when many are kept there will also be a {428} greater chance of the occurrence of well-marked deviations of structure. length of time is all-important; for as each character, in order to become strongly pronounced, has to be augmented by the selection of successive variations of the same nature, this can only be effected during a long series of generations. length of time will, also, allow any new feature to become fixed by the continued rejection of those individuals which revert or vary, and the preservation of those which inherit the new character. hence, although some few animals have varied rapidly in certain respects under new conditions of life, as dogs in india and sheep in the west indies, yet all the animals and plants which have produced strongly marked races were domesticated at an extremely remote epoch, often before the dawn of history. as a consequence of this, no record has been preserved of the origin of our chief domestic breeds. even at the present day new strains or sub-breeds are formed so slowly that their first appearance passes unnoticed. a man attends to some particular character, or merely matches his animals with unusual care, and after a time a slight difference is perceived by his neighbours;--the difference goes on being augmented by unconscious and methodical selection, until at last a new sub-breed is formed, receives a local name, and spreads; but, by this time, its history is almost forgotten. when the new breed has spread widely, it gives rise to new strains and sub-breeds, and the best of these succeed and spread, supplanting other and older breeds; and so always onwards in the march of improvement. when a well-marked breed has once been established, if not supplanted by still improving sub-breeds, and if not exposed to greatly changed conditions of life, inducing further variability or reversion to long-lost characters, it may apparently last for an enormous period. we may infer that this is the case from the high antiquity of certain races; but some caution is necessary on this head, for the same variation may appear independently after long intervals of time, or in distant places. we may safely assume that this has occurred with the turnspit-dog which is figured on the ancient egyptian monuments, with the solid-hoofed swine[938] mentioned by aristotle, with five-toed fowls {429} described by columella, and certainly with the nectarine. the dogs represented on the egyptian monuments, about 2000 b.c., show us that some of the chief breeds then existed, but it is extremely doubtful whether any are identically the same with our present breeds. a great mastiff sculptured on an assyrian tomb, 640 b.c., is said to be the same with the dog still imported into the same region from thibet. the true greyhound existed during the roman classical period. coming down to a later period, we have seen that, though most of the chief breeds of the pigeon existed between two and three centuries ago, they have not all retained to the present day exactly the same character; but this has occurred in certain cases in which improvement was not desired, for instance in the case of the spot or the indian ground-tumbler. de candolle[939] has fully discussed the antiquity of various races of plants; he states that the black-seeded poppy was known in the time of homer, the white-seeded sesamum by the ancient egyptians, and almonds with sweet and bitter kernels by the hebrews; but it does not seem improbable that some of these varieties may have been lost and reappeared. one variety of barley and apparently one of wheat, both of which were cultivated at an immensely remote period by the lake-inhabitants of switzerland, still exist. it is said[940] that "specimens of a small variety of gourd which is still common in the market of lima were exhumed from an ancient cemetery in peru." de candolle remarks that, in the books and drawings of the sixteenth century, the principal races of the cabbage, turnip, and gourd can be recognised; this might have been expected at so late a period, but whether any of these plants are absolutely identical with our present sub-varieties is not certain. it is, however, said that the brussels sprout, a variety which in some places is liable to degeneration, has remained genuine for more than four centuries in the district where it is believed to have originated.[941] * * * * * in accordance with the views maintained by me in this work and elsewhere, not only the various domestic races, but the {430} most distinct genera and orders within the same great class,--for instance, whales, mice, birds, and fishes--are all the descendants of one common progenitor, and we must admit that the whole vast amount of difference between these forms of life has primarily arisen from simple variability. to consider the subject under this point of view is enough to strike one dumb with amazement. but our amazement ought to be lessened when we reflect that beings, almost infinite in number, during an almost infinite lapse of time, have often had their whole organisation rendered in some degree plastic, and that each slight modification of structure which was in any way beneficial under excessively complex conditions of life, will have been preserved, whilst each which was in any way injurious will have been rigorously destroyed. and the long-continued accumulation of beneficial variations will infallibly lead to structures as diversified, as beautifully adapted for various purposes, and as excellently co-ordinated, as we see in the animals and plants all around us. hence i have spoken of selection as the paramount power, whether applied by man to the formation of domestic breeds, or by nature to the production of species. i may recur to the metaphor given in a former chapter: if an architect were to rear a noble and commodious edifice, without the use of cut stone, by selecting from the fragments at the base of a precipice wedge-formed stones for his arches, elongated stones for his lintels, and flat stones for his roof, we should admire his skill and regard him as the paramount power. now, the fragments of stone, though indispensable to the architect, bear to the edifice built by him the same relation which the fluctuating variations of each organic being bear to the varied and admirable structures ultimately acquired by its modified descendants. some authors have declared that natural selection explains nothing, unless the precise cause of each slight individual difference be made clear. now, if it were explained to a savage utterly ignorant of the art of building, how the edifice had been raised stone upon stone, and why wedge-formed fragments were used for the arches, flat stones for the roof, &c.; and if the use of each part and of the whole building were pointed out, it would be unreasonable if he declared that nothing had been {431} made clear to him, because the precise cause of the shape of each fragment could not be given. but this is a nearly parallel case with the objection that selection explains nothing, because we know not the cause of each individual difference in the structure of each being. the shape of the fragments of stone at the base of our precipice may be called accidental, but this is not strictly correct; for the shape of each depends on a long sequence of events, all obeying natural laws; on the nature of the rock, on the lines of deposition or cleavage, on the form of the mountain which depends on its upheaval and subsequent denudation, and lastly on the storm or earthquake which threw down the fragments. but in regard to the use to which the fragments may be put, their shape may be strictly said to be accidental. and here we are led to face a great difficulty, in alluding to which i am aware that i am travelling beyond my proper province. an omniscient creator must have foreseen every consequence which results from the laws imposed by him. but can it be reasonably maintained that the creator intentionally ordered, if we use the words in any ordinary sense, that certain fragments of rock should assume certain shapes so that the builder might erect his edifice? if the various laws which have determined the shape of each fragment were not predetermined for the builder's sake, can it with any greater probability be maintained that he specially ordained for the sake of the breeder each of the innumerable variations in our domestic animals and plants;--many of these variations being of no service to man, and not beneficial, far more often injurious, to the creatures themselves? did he ordain that the crop and tail-feathers of the pigeon should vary in order that the fancier might make his grotesque pouter and fantail breeds? did he cause the frame and mental qualities of the dog to vary in order that a breed might be formed of indomitable ferocity, with jaws fitted to pin down the bull for man's brutal sport? but if we give up the principle in one case,--if we do not admit that the variations of the primeval dog were intentionally guided in order that the greyhound, for instance, that perfect image of symmetry and vigour, might be formed,--no shadow of reason can be assigned for the belief that variations, alike in nature and the result {432} of the same general laws, which have been the groundwork through natural selection of the formation of the most perfectly adapted animals in the world, man included, were intentionally and specially guided. however much we may wish it, we can hardly follow professor asa gray in his belief "that variation has been led along certain beneficial lines," like a stream "along definite and useful lines of irrigation." if we assume that each particular variation was from the beginning of all time preordained, the plasticity of organisation, which leads to many injurious deviations of structure, as well as that redundant power of reproduction which inevitably leads to a struggle for existence, and, as a consequence, to the natural selection or survival of the fittest, must appear to us superfluous laws of nature. on the other hand, an omnipotent and omniscient creator ordains everything and foresees everything. thus we are brought face to face with a difficulty as insoluble as is that of free will and predestination. * * * * * {433} index. abbas pacha, a fancier of fantailed pigeons, i. 206. abbey, mr., on grafting, ii. 147; on mignonette, ii. 237. abbott, mr. keith, on the persian tumbler pigeon, i. 150. abbreviation of the facial bones, i. 73. abortion of organs, ii. 315-318, 397. absorption of minority in crossed races, ii. 87-89, 174. acclimatisation, ii. 305-315; of maize, i. 322. acerbi, on the fertility of domestic animals in lapland, ii. 112. _achatinella_, ii. 53. _achillea millefolium_, bud variation in, i. 408. _aconitum napellus_, roots of, innocuous in cold climates, ii. 274. _acorus calamus_, sterility of, ii. 170. acosta, on fowls in south america at its discovery, i. 237. _acropera_, number of seeds in, ii. 379. adam, mr., origin of _cytisus adami_, i. 390. adam, w., on consanguineous marriages, ii. 123. adams, mr., on hereditary diseases, ii. 7. advancement in scale of organisation, i. 8. _ægilops triticoides_, observations of fabre and godron on, i. 313; increasing fertility of hybrids of, with wheat, ii. 110. _æsculus flava_ and _rubicunda_, i. 392. _æsculus pavia_, tendency of, to become double, ii. 168. _æthusa cynapium_, ii. 337. affinity, sexual elective, ii. 180. africa, white bull from, i. 91; feral cattle in, i. 85; food-plants of savages of, i. 307-309; south, diversity of breeds of cattle in, i. 80; west, change in fleece of sheep in, i. 98. _agave vivipara_, seeding of, in poor soil, ii. 169. age, changes in trees, dependent on, i. 387. agouti, fertility of, in captivity, ii. 152. agriculture, antiquity of, ii. 243. _agrostis_, seeds of, used as food, i. 309. aguara, i. 26. ainsworth, mr., on the change in the hair of animals at angora, ii. 278. akbar khan, his fondness for pigeons, i. 205; ii. 204. _alauda arvensis_, ii. 154. albin, on "golden hamburgh" fowls, i. 247; figure of the hook-billed duck, i. 277. albinism, i. 111, ii. 17. albino, negro, attacked by insects, ii. 229. albinoes, heredity of, ii. 9. albinus, thickness of the epidermis on the palms of the hands in man, ii. 297. alco, i. 31, ii. 102. aldrovandi, on rabbits, i. 104; description of the nun pigeon, i. 156; on the fondness of the dutch for pigeons in the seventeenth century, i. 205; notice of several varieties of pigeons, i. 207-210; on the breeds of fowls, i. 247; on the origin of the domestic duck, i. 278. alefield, dr., on the varieties of peas and their specific unity, i. 326; on the varieties of beans, i. 330. alexander the great, his selection of indian cattle, ii. 202. algæ, retrogressive metamorphosis in, ii. 361; division of zoospores of, ii. 378. allen, w., on feral fowls, i. 237; ii. 33. allman, professor, on a monstrous _saxifraga geum_, ii. 166; on the development of the hydroida, ii. 368. almond, i. 337; antiquity of, ii. 429; bitter, not eaten by mice, ii. 232. _alnus glutinosa_ and _incana_, hybrids of, ii. 130. alpaca, selection of, ii. 208. _althæa rosea_, i. 378, ii. 107. _amaryllis_, ii. 139. _amaryllis vittata_, effect of foreign pollen on, i. 400. amaurosis, hereditary, ii. 9. america, limits within which no useful plants have been furnished by, i. 310; colours of feral horses in, i. 60-61; north, native cultivated plants of, i. 312; skin of feral pig from, i. 77; south, variations in cattle of, i. 88, 92. _amygdalus persica_, i. 336-344, 374. {434} ammon, on the persistency of colour in horses, ii. 21. _anagallis arvensis_, ii. 190. analogous variation, i. 409, ii. 348-352; in horses, i. 55; in the horse and ass, i. 64; in fowls, i. 243-246. _anas boschas_, i. 277, ii. 40; skull of, figured, i. 282. _anas moschata_, ii. 40. "ancon" sheep of massachusetts, i. 100, ii. 103. andalusian fowls, i. 227. andalusian rabbits, i. 105. anderson, j., on the origin of british sheep, i. 94; on the selection of qualities in cattle, ii. 196; on a one-eared breed of rabbits, i. 108; on the inheritance of characters from a one-eared rabbit and three-legged bitch, ii. 12; on the persistency of varieties of peas, i. 329; on the production of early peas by selection, ii. 201; on the varieties of the potato, i. 330-331; on crossing varieties of the melon, i. 399; on reversion in the barberry, i. 384. anderson, mr., on the reproduction of the weeping ash by seed, ii. 19; on the cultivation of the tree pæony in china, ii. 205. andersson, mr., on the damara, bechuana, and namaqua cattle, i. 88; on the cows of the damaras, ii. 300; selection practised by the damaras and namaquas, ii. 207; on the use of grass-seeds and the roots of reeds as food in south africa, i. 309. _anemone coronaria_, doubled by selection, ii. 200. angina pectoris, hereditary, occurring at a certain age, ii. 79. anglesea, cattle of, i. 80. angola sheep, i. 95. angora, change in hair of animals at, ii. 278; cats of, i. 45, 47; rabbits of, i. 106, 120. animals, domestication of, facilitated by fearlessness of man, i. 20; refusal of wild, to breed in captivity, ii. 149; compound, individual peculiarities of, reproduced by budding, i. 374; variation by selection in useful qualities of, ii. 220. annual plants, rarity of bud-variation in, i. 408. anomalies in the osteology of the horse, i. 50. anomalous breeds of pigs, i. 75; of cattle, i. 89. _anser albifrons_, characters of, reproduced in domestic geese, i. 288. _anser ægyptiacus_, i. 282; ii. 68. _anser canadensis_, ii. 157. _anser cygnoides_, i. 237. _anser ferus_, the original of the domestic goose, i. 287; fertility of cross of, with domestic goose, i. 288. anson, on feral fowls in the ladrones, i. 238. antagonism between growth and reproduction, ii. 384. _anthemis nobilis_, bud-variation in flowers of, i. 379; becomes single in poor soil, ii. 167. antherozoids, apparent independence of, in algæ, ii. 384. anthers, contabescence of, ii. 165-166. antigua, cats of, i. 46; changed fleece of sheep in, i. 98. _antirrhinum majus_, peloric, i. 365; ii. 59, 70, 166; double-flowered, ii. 167; bud-variation in, i. 381. ants, individual recognition of, ii. 251. apes, anthropomorphous, ii. 123. aphides, attacking pear-trees, ii. 231; development of, ii. 361-362. apoplexy, hereditary, occurring at a certain age, ii. 78. apple, i. 348-350; fruit of, in swiss lake-dwellings, i. 317; rendered fastigate by heat in india, i. 361; bud-variation in the, i. 376; with dimidiate fruit, i. 392-393; with two kinds of fruit on the same branch, i. 392; artificial fecundation of, i. 401; st. valéry, i. 401; ii. 166; reversion in seedlings of, ii. 31; crossing of varieties of, ii. 129; growth of the, in ceylon, ii. 277; winter majetin, not attacked by _coccus_, ii. 231; flower-buds of, attacked by bullfinches, ii. 232; american, change of when grown in england, ii. 275. apricot, i. 344-345; glands on the leaves of, ii. 231; analogous variation in the, ii. 348. _aquila fusca_, copulating in captivity, ii. 154. _aquilegia vulgaris_, i. 365; ii. 330. arab boarhound, described by harcourt, i. 17. _arabis blepharophylla_ and _a. soyeri,_ effects of crossing, i. 400. _aralia trifoliata_, bud-variation in leaves of, i. 382. araucarias, young, variable resistance of, to frost, ii. 309. archangel pigeon, ii. 240. arctic regions, variability of plants and shells of, ii. 256. _aria vestita_, grafted on thorns, i. 387. aristophanes, fowls mentioned by, i. 246. aristotle, on solid-hoofed pigs, i. 75; domestic duck unknown to, i. 277; on the assumption of male characters by old hens, ii. 51. {435} arni, domestication of the, i. 82. arrest of development, ii. 315-318. arteries, increase of anastomosing branches of, when tied, ii. 230. aru islands, wild pig of, i. 67. arum, polynesian varieties of, ii. 256. _ascaris_, number of eggs of, ii. 379. ash, varieties of the, i. 360; weeping, i. 361; simple-leaved, i. 362; bud-variation in, i. 382; effects of graft upon the stock in the, i. 394; production of the blotched breadalbane, _ibid._; weeping, capricious reproduction of, by seed, ii. 19. _asinus burchellii_, i. 64. _asinus hemionus_, ii. 43. _asinus indicus_, ii. 42-43, 48. _asinus quagga_, i. 64. _asinus tæniopus_, ii. 41; the original of the domestic ass, i. 62. asparagus, increased fertility of cultivated, ii. 113. ass, early domestication of the, i. 62; breeds of, _ibid._; small size of, in india, _ibid._; stripes of, i. 62-63; ii. 351; dislike of to cross water, i. 181; reversion in, ii. 41-43, 47; hybrid of the, with mare and zebra, ii. 42; prepotency of the, over the horse, ii. 67-68; crossed with wild ass, ii. 206; variation and selection of the, ii. 236. assyrian sculpture of a mastiff, i. 17. asters, ii. 20, 316. asthma, hereditary, ii. 8, 79. atavism. _see_ reversion. athelstan, his care of horses, ii. 203. atkinson, mr., on the sterility of the tarroo silk-moth in confinement, ii. 157. aubergine, ii. 91. audubon, on feral hybrid ducks, i. 190; ii. 46; on the domestication of wild ducks on the mississippi, i. 278; on the wild cock turkey visiting domestic hens, i. 292; fertility of _fringilla ciris_ in captivity, ii. 154; fertility of _columba migratoria_ and _leucocephala_ in captivity, ii. 155; breeding of _anser canadensis_ in captivity, ii. 157. audubon and bachman, on the change of coat in _ovis montana_, i. 99; sterility of _sciurus cinerea_ in confinement, ii. 152. auricula, effect of seasonal conditions on the, ii. 273; blooming of, ii. 346. australia, no generally useful plants derived from, i. 310; useful plants of, enumerated by hooker, i. 311. austria, heredity of character in emperors of, ii. 65. autenrieth, on persistency of colour in horses, ii. 21. ava, horses of, i. 53. _avena fatua_, cultivability of, i. 313. ayeen akbery, pigeons mentioned in the, i. 150, 155, 185, 205, 207, 208. ayres, w. p., on bud-variation in pelargoniums, i. 378. _azalea indica_, bud-variation in, i. 377. azara, on the feral dogs of la plata, i. 27; on the crossing of domestic with wild cats in paraguay, i. 45; on hornlike processes in horses, i. 50; on curled hair in horses, i. 54; ii. 205, 325; on the colours of feral horses, i. 60, 61; ii. 259; on the cattle of paraguay and la plata, i. 82, 86, 89; ii. 250; on a hornless bull, ii. 205; on the increase of cattle in south america, ii. 119; on the growth of horns in the hornless cattle of corrientes, ii. 39; on the "niata" cattle, i. 90; on naked quadrupeds, ii. 279; on a race of black-skinned fowls in south america, i. 258; ii. 209; on a variety of maize, i. 321. babington, c. c., on the origin of the plum, i. 345; british species of the genus _rosa_, i. 366; distinctness of _viola lutea_ and _tricolor_, i. 368. bachmann, mr., on the turkey, ii. 262. _see also_ audubon. badger, breeding in confinement, ii. 151. "bagadotten-taube," i. 141. baily, mr., on the effect of selection on fowls, ii. 198; on dorking fowls, ii. 238. baird, s., on the origin of the turkey, i. 292. baker, mr., on heredity in the horse, ii. 11; on the degeneration of the horse by neglect, ii. 239; orders of henrys vii. and viii. for the destruction of undersized mares, ii. 203. bakewell, change in the sheep effected by, ii. 198. balancement, ii. 342-344; of growth, law of, i. 274. baldhead, pigeon, i. 151. baldness, in man, inherited, ii. 73-74; with deficiency in teeth, ii. 326-327. ballance, mr., on the effects of interbreeding on fowls, ii. 125; on variation in the eggs of fowls, i. 248. _ballota nigra_, transmission of variegated leaves in, i. 383. bamboo, varieties of the, ii. 256. banana, variation of the, i. 372; ii. 256, 258; bud-variation in the, i. 377; sterility of the, ii. 268. bantam fowls, i. 230; sebright, origin of, ii. 96; sterility of, ii. 101. barb (pigeon), i. 144-146, 210; ii. 227; {436} figure of, i. 145; figure of lower jaw of, i. 164. barbs, of wheat, i. 314. barberry, dark or red-leaved variety, i. 362; ii. 19; reversion in suckers of seedless variety, i. 384. barbut, j., on the dogs of guinea, i. 25; on the domestic pigeons in guinea, i. 186; fowls not native in guinea, i. 237. barking, acquisition of the habit of, by various dogs, i. 27. barley, wild, i. 313; of the lake-dwellings, i. 317-318; ancient variety of, ii. 429. barnes, mr., production of early peas by selection, ii. 201. barnet, mr., on the intercrossing of strawberries, i. 351; dioeciousness of the hautbois strawberry, i. 353; on the scarlet american strawberry, ii. 200. barth, dr., use of grass-seeds as food in central africa, i. 308. bartlett, a. d., on the origin of "himalayan" rabbits by intercrossing, i. 109; on the feral rabbits of porto santo, i. 114; on geese with reversed feathers on the head and neck, i. 288; on the young of the black-shouldered peacock, i. 290; on the breeding of the felidæ in captivity, ii. 150. bartram, on the black wolf-dog of florida, i. 22. bates, h. w., refusal of wild animals to breed in captivity, ii. 150, 152; sterility of american monkeys in captivity, ii. 153; sterility of tamed guans, ii. 156. batrachia, regeneration of lost parts in, ii. 15. beach, raised, in peru, containing heads of maize, i. 320. beak, variability of, in fowls, i. 258; individual differences of, in pigeons, i. 160; correlation of, with the feet in pigeons, i. 171-174. beale, lionel, on the contents of cells, ii. 370; on the multiplication of infectious atoms, ii. 378; on the origin of fibres, ii. 382. beans, i. 330; of swiss lake-dwellings, i. 319; varieties of, produced by selection, ii. 218; french and scarlet, variable resistance of to frost, ii. 309, 314; superiority of native seed of, ii. 314; a symmetrical variation of scarlet, ii. 322; experiments on kidney, i. 330; with monstrous stipules and abortive leaflets, ii. 343. beard, pigeon, i. 151. bears, breeding in captivity, ii. 151. beasley, j., reversion in crossed cattle, ii. 41. beaton, d., effect of soil upon strawberries, i. 353; on varieties of pelargonium, i. 364, ii. 274, 311; bud-variation in _gladiolus colvillii_, i. 382; cross between scotch kail and cabbage, ii. 98; hybrid gladiolus, ii. 139; constant occurrence of new forms among seedlings, ii. 235; on the doubling of the compositæ, ii. 316. bechuana cattle, i. 88. beck, mr., constitutional differences in pelargoniums, i. 364. beckmann, on changes in the odours of plants, ii. 274. beckstein, on the burrowing of wolves, i. 27; "spitz" dog, i. 31; origin of the newfoundland dog, i. 42; crossing of domestic and wild swine, i. 66; on the jacobin pigeon, i. 154, 209; notice of swallow-pigeons, i. 156; on a fork-tailed pigeon, i. 157; variations in the colour of the croup in pigeons, i. 184; on the german dove-cot pigeon, i. 185; fertility of mongrel pigeons, i. 192; on hybrid turtle-doves, i. 193; on crossing the pigeon with _columba oenas_, _c. palumbus_, _turtur risoria_, and _t. vulgaris_, i. 193; development of spurs in the silk-hen, i. 256; on polish fowls, i. 257, 264; on crested birds, i. 257; on the canary-bird, i. 295, ii. 22, 161; german superstition about the turkey, i. 293; occurrence of horns in hornless breeds of sheep, ii. 30; hybrids of the horse and ass, ii. 68; crosses of tailless fowls, ii. 92; difficulty of pairing dove-cot and fancy pigeons, ii. 103; fertility of tame ferrets and rabbits, ii. 112; fertility of wild sow, _ibid._; difficulty of breeding caged birds, ii. 154; comparative fertility of _psittacus erithacus_ in captivity, ii. 155; on changes of plumage in captivity, ii. 158; liability of light-coloured cattle to the attacks of flies, ii. 229; want of exercise a cause of variability, ii. 257; effect of privation of light upon the plumage of birds, ii. 280; on a sub-variety of the monk-pigeon, ii. 350. beddoe, dr., correlation of complexion with consumption, ii. 335. bedeguar gall, ii. 284. bee, persistency of character of, ii. 236, 254; intercrossing, ii. 126; conveyance, of pollen of peas by, i. 329. bee-ophrys, self-fertilisation of, ii. 91. beech, dark-leaved, i. 362, ii. 19; fern-leaved, reversion of, i. 382; weeping, non-production of by seed, ii. 19. beechey, horses of loochoo islands, i. 53. beet, i. 326; increase of sugar in, by selection, ii. 201. {437} _begonia frigida_, singular variety of, i. 365; sterility of, ii. 166. belgian rabbit, i. 106. bell, t., statement that white cattle have coloured ears, i. 85. bell, w., bud-variation in _cistus tricuspis_, i. 377. bellingeri, observations on gestation in the dog, i. 30; on the fertility of dogs and cats, ii. 112. belon, on high-flying pigeons in paphlagonia, i. 209; varieties of the goose, i. 289. benguela, cattle of, i. 88. bennett, dr. g., pigs of the pacific islands, i. 70, 87; dogs of the pacific islands, i. 87; varieties of cultivated plants in tahiti, ii. 256. bennett, mr., on the fallow deer, ii. 103. bentham, g., number and origin of cultivated plants, i. 306; cereals all cultivated varieties, i. 312; species of the orange group, i. 334-335; distinctions of almond and peach, i. 338; british species of _rosa_, i. 366; identity of _viola lutea_ and _tricolor_, i. 368. _berberis vulgaris_, i. 384, ii. 19. _berberis wallichii_, indifference of, to climate, ii. 164. berjean, on the history of the dog, i. 16, 18. berkeley, g. f., production of hen-cocks in a strain of game-fowls, i. 253. berkeley, m. j., crossing of varieties of the pea, i. 397; effect of foreign pollen on grapes, i. 400; on hybrid plants, ii. 131; analogy between pollen of highly-cultivated plants and hybrids, ii. 268; on hungarian kidney-beans, ii. 275; failure of indian wheat in england, ii. 307; bud developed on the petal of a _clarkia_, ii. 384. bernard, inheritance of disease in the horse, ii. 10. bernard, c., independence of the organs of the body, ii. 368-369; special affinities of the tissues, ii. 380. bernhardi, varieties of plants with laciniated leaves, ii. 348. _bernicla antarctica_, i. 288. bertero, on feral pigeons in juan fernandez, i. 190. _betula alba_, ii. 18. bewick, on the british wild cattle, i. 84. bible, reference to breeding studs of horses in, i. 54; references to domestic pigeons in the, i. 205; indications of selection of sheep in the, ii. 201; notice of mules in the, ii. 202. bidwell, mr., on self-impotence in _amaryllis_, ii. 139. birch, weeping, i. 387, ii. 18. birch, dr. s., on the ancient domestication of the pigeon in egypt, i. 205; notice of bantam fowls in a japanese encyclopædia, i. 230, 247. birch, wyrley, on silver-grey rabbits, i. 109-110. birds, sterility caused in, by change of conditions, ii. 153-157. bladder-nut, tendency of the, to become double, ii. 168. blaine, mr., on wry-legged terriers, ii. 245. blainville, origin and history of the dog, i. 15-16; variations in the number of teeth in dogs, i. 34; variations in the number of toes in dogs, i. 35; on mummies of cats, i. 43; on the osteology of solid-hoofed pigs, i. 75; on feral patagonian and n. american pigs, i. 77. "blass-taube," i. 156. bleeding, hereditary, ii. 7, 8; sexual limitation of excessive, ii. 73. blending of crossed races, time occupied by the, ii. 87. blindness, hereditary, ii. 9; at a certain age, ii. 78; associated with colour of hair, ii. 328. bloodhounds, degeneration of, caused by interbreeding, ii. 121. blumenbach, on the protuberance of the skull in polish fowls, i. 257; on the effect of circumcision, ii. 23; inheritance of a crooked finger, ii. 23; on badger-dogs and other varieties of the dog, ii. 220; on _hydra_, ii. 293; on the "nisus formativus," ii. 294. blyth, e., on the pariah dog, i. 24; hybrids of dog and jackal, i. 32; early domestication of cats in india, i. 43; origin of domestic cat, _ib._; crossing of domestic and wild cats, i. 44; on indian cats resembling _felis chaus_, i. 45; on striped burmese ponies, i. 58; on the stripes of the ass, i. 63; on indian wild pigs, i. 66; on humped cattle, i. 79, 80; occurrence of _bos frontosus_ in irish crannoges, i. 81; fertile crossing of zebus and common cattle, i. 83; on the species of sheep, i. 94; on the fat-tailed indian sheep, i. 96; origin of the goat, i. 101; on rabbits breeding in india, i. 112; number of tail-feathers in fantails, i. 146; lotan tumbler pigeons, i. 150; number of tail-feathers in _ectopistes_, i. 159; on _columba affinis_, i. 183; pigeons roosting in trees, i. 181; on _columba leuconota_, i. 182; on _columba intermedia_ of strickland, i. 184; variation in colour of croup in pigeons, i. 184-185, 197; voluntary domestication of rock-pigeons in india, i. 185; feral pigeons on the hudson, i. 190; {438} occurrence of sub-species of pigeons, i. 204; notice of pigeon-fanciers in delhi, &c., i. 206; hybrids of _gallus sonneratii_ and the domestic hen, i. 234; supposed hybridity of _gallus temminckii_, i. 235; variations and domestication of _gallus bankiva_, i. 235-236, 237; crossing of wild and tame fowls in burmah, i. 236; restricted range of the larger gallinaceous birds, i. 237; feral fowls in the nicobar islands, i. 238; black-skinned fowls occurring near calcutta, i. 256; weight of _gallus bankiva_, i. 272; degeneration of the turkey in india, i. 294, ii. 278; on the colour of gold-fish, i. 296; on the ghor-khur (_asinus indicus_), ii. 42; on _asinus hemionus_, ii. 43; number of eggs of _gallus bankiva_, ii. 112; on the breeding of birds in captivity, ii. 157; co-existence of large and small breeds in the same country, ii. 279; on the drooping ears of the elephant, ii. 301; homology of leg and wing feathers, ii. 323. boethius on scotch wild cattle, i. 85. boitard and corbié, on the breeds of pigeons, i. 132; lille pouter pigeon, i. 138; notice of a gliding pigeon, i. 156; variety of the pouter pigeon, i. 162; dove-cot pigeon, i. 185; crossing pigeons, i. 192-193, ii. 97, 126; sterility of hybrids of turtle-doves, i. 193; reversion of crossed pigeons, i. 197, ii. 40; on the fantail, i. 208, ii. 66; on the trumpeter, ii. 66; prepotency of transmission in silky fantail, ii. 67, 69; secondary sexual characters in pigeons, ii. 74; crossing of white and coloured turtle-doves, ii. 92; fertility of pigeons, ii. 112. bombycidæ, wingless females of, ii. 299. _bombyx hesperus_, ii. 304. _bombyx huttoni_, i. 302. _bombyx mori_, i. 300-304. bonafous, on maize, i. 320, 321. bonaparte, number of species of columbidæ, i. 133; number of tail-feathers in pigeons, i. 158; size of the feet in columbidæ, i. 174; on _columba guinea_, i. 182; _columba turricola_, _rupestris_, and _schimperi_, i. 184. _bonatea speciosa_, development of ovary of, i. 403. bonavia, dr., growth of cauliflowers in india, ii. 310. bones, removal of portions of, ii. 296; regeneration of, ii. 294; growth and repair of, ii. 381-382. bonnet, on the salamander, ii. 15, 341, 358, 385; theory of reproduction, ii. 385. borchmeyer, experiments with the seeds of the weeping ash, ii. 19. borecole, i. 323. borelli, on polish fowls, i. 247. borneo, fowls of, with tail-bands, i. 235. bornet, e., condition of the ovary in hybrid _cisti_, i. 389; self-impotence of hybrid _cisti_, ii. 140. borrow, g., on pointers, i. 42. bory de saint-vincent, on gold-fish, i. 297. _bos_, probable origin of european domestic cattle from three species of, i. 83. _bos frontosus_, i. 79, 81-82. _bos indicus_, i. 79. _bos longifrons_, i. 79, 81. _bos primigenius_, i. 79-81, 119. _bos sondaicus_, ii. 206. _bos taurus_, i. 79. _bos trochoceros_, i. 81. bosc, heredity in foliage-varieties of the elm, i. 362. bosse, production of double flowers from old seed, ii. 167. bossi, on breeding dark-coloured silkworms, i. 302. bouchardat, on the vine disease, i. 334. boudin, on local diseases, ii. 276; resistance to cold of dark-complexioned men, ii. 335. "boulans," i. 137. "bouton d'alep," ii. 276. bowen, prof., doubts as to the importance of inheritance, ii. 3. bowman, mr., hereditary peculiarities in the human eye, ii. 8-10; hereditary cataract, ii. 79. brace, mr., on hungarian cattle, i. 80. _brachycome iberidifolia_, ii. 261. bracts, unusual development of, in gooseberries, i. 355. bradley, mr., effect of grafts upon the stock in the ash, i. 394; effect of foreign pollen upon apples, i. 401; on change of soil, ii. 146. "brahma pootras," a new breed of fowls, i. 245. brain, proportion of, in hares and rabbits, i. 126-129. brandt, origin of the goat, i. 101. _brassica_, varieties of, with enlarged stems, ii. 348. _brassica asperifolia_, ii. 343. _brassica napus_, i. 325. _brassica oleracea_, i. 323. _brassica rapa_, i. 325, ii. 165. braun, a., bud-variation in the vine, i. 375; in the currant, i. 376; in _mirabilis jalapa_, i. 382; in _cytisus adami_, i. 388; on reversion in the foliage of trees, i. 382; spontaneous production of _cytisus purpureo-elongatus_, i. 390; reversion of flowers by stripes and blotches, ii. 37; excess of nourishment a source of variability, ii. 257. {439} brazil, cattle of, i. 88. bread-fruit, varieties of, ii. 256; sterility and variability of, ii. 262. bree, w. t., bud-variation in _geranium pratense_ and _centaurea cyanus_, i. 379; by tubers in the dahlia, i. 385; on the deafness of white cats with blue eyes, ii. 329. breeding, high, dependent on inheritance, ii. 3-4. breeds, domestic, persistency of, ii. 246, 428-429; artificial and natural, ii. 413-414; extinction of, ii. 425; of domestic cats, i. 45-47; of pigs produced by crossing, i. 78; of cattle, i. 86-87, 91-93; of goats, i. 101. brehm, on _columba amaliæ_, i. 183. brent, b. p., number of mammæ in rabbits, i. 106; habits of the tumbler pigeon, i. 151; laugher pigeon, i. 155; colouring of the kite tumbler, i. 160; crossing of the pigeon with _columba oenas_, i. 193; mongrels of the trumpeter pigeon, ii. 66; close interbreeding of pigeons, ii. 126; opinion on aldrovandi's fowls, i. 247; on stripes in chickens, i. 249-250; on the combs of fowls, i. 253; double-spurred dorking fowls, i. 255; effect of crossing on colour of plumage in fowls, i. 258; incubatory instinct of mongrels between non-sitting varieties of fowls, ii. 44; origin of the domestic duck, i. 277; fertility of the hook-billed duck, _ibid._; occurrence of the plumage of the wild duck in domestic breeds, i. 280; voice of ducks, i. 281; occurrence of a short upper mandible in crosses of hook-billed and common ducks, i. 281; reversion in ducks produced by crossing, ii. 40; variation of the canary-bird, i. 295; fashion in the canary, ii. 240; hybrids of canary and finches, ii. 45. brickell, on raising nectarines from seed, i. 340; on the horses of north carolina, ii. 300. bridges, mr., on the dogs of tierra del fuego, i. 39; on the selection of dogs by the fuegians, ii. 207. bridgman, w. k., reproduction of abnormal ferns, i. 383, ii. 379. briggs, j. j., regeneration of portions of the fins of fishes, ii. 15. broca, p., on the intercrossing of dogs, i. 31-32; on hybrids of hare and rabbit, i. 105; on the rumpless fowl, i. 259; on the character of half-castes, ii. 47; degree of fertility of mongrels, ii. 100; sterility of descendants of wild animals bred in captivity, ii. 160. broccoli, i. 323; rudimentary flowers in, ii. 316; tenderness of, ii. 310. bromehead, w., doubling of the canterbury bell by selection, ii. 200. bromfield, dr., sterility of the ivy and _acorus calamus_, ii. 170. _bromus secalinus_, i. 314. bronn, h. g., bud-variation in _anthemis_, i. 379; effects of cross-breeding on the female, i. 404; on heredity in a one-horned cow, ii. 12, 13; propagation of a pendulous peach by seed, ii. 18; absorption of the minority in crossed races, ii. 88; on the crossing of horses, ii. 92; fertility of tame rabbits and sheep, ii. 112; changes of plumage in captivity, ii. 158; on the dahlia, ii. 261. bronze period, dog of, i. 18. brown, g., variations in the dentition of the horse, i. 50. brown-séquard, dr., inheritance of artificially-produced epilepsy in the guinea-pig, ii. 24. _brunswigia_, ii. 139. brussels sprouts, i. 323, ii. 429. _bubo maximus_, ii. 154. buckland, f., on oysters, ii. 280; number of eggs in a codfish, ii. 379. buckle, mr., doubts as to the importance of inheritance, ii. 3. buckley, miss, carrier-pigeons roosting in trees, i. 181. buckman, prof., cultivation of _avena fatua_, i. 313; cultivation of the wild parsnip, i. 326, ii. 201, 277; reversion in the parsnip, ii. 31. buckwheat, injurious to white pigs, when in flower, ii. 337. bud and seed, close analogy of, i. 411. bud-reversion, ii. 37. buds, adventitious, ii. 384. bud-variation, i. 373-411, ii. 254, 287-288, 291; contrasted with seminal reproduction, i. 373; peculiar to plants, i. 374; in the peach, i. 340, 374; in plums, i. 375; in the cherry, _ibid._; in grapes, _ibid._; in the gooseberry, currant, pear, and apple, i. 376; in the banana, camellia, hawthorn, _azalea indica_, and _cistus tricuspis_, i. 377; in the hollyhock and pelargonium, i. 378; in _geranium pratense_ and the chrysanthemum, i. 379; in roses, i. 367, 379-381; in sweet williams, carnations, pinks, stocks, and snapdragons, i. 381; in wall-flowers, cyclamen, _oenothera biennis_, _gladiolus colvillii_, fuchsias, and _mirabilis jalapa_, i. 382; in foliage of various trees, i. 382-384; in cryptogamic plants, i. 383; by suckers in _phlox_ and barberry, i. 384; by tubers in the potato, _ibid._; in the dahlia, i. 385; by bulbs in hyacinths, _imatophyllum miniatum_, and tulips, i. 385; in _tigridia conchiflora_, i. 386; {440} in _hemerocallis_, _ibid._; doubtful cases, i. 386-387; in _cytisus adami_, i. 387-394; probable in _æsculus rubicunda_, i. 392; summary of observations on, 406. buffon, on crossing the wolf and dog, i. 32; increase of fertility by domestication, ii. 111; improvement of plants by unconscious selection, ii. 216; theory of reproduction, ii. 375. _bulimus_, ii. 53. bull, apparent influence of, on offspring, ii. 68. bullace, i. 345. bulldog, recent modifications of, i. 42. bullfinch, breeding in captivity, ii. 154; attacking flower-buds, ii. 232. bult, mr., selection of pouter pigeons, ii. 197. "bündtnerschwein," i. 67. bunting, reed, in captivity, ii. 158. burdach, crossing of domestic and wild animals, i. 66; aversion of the wild boar to barley, ii. 303. burke, mr., inheritance in the horse, ii. 10. _burlingtonia_, ii. 135. burmah, cats of, i. 47. burmese ponies, striped, i. 58, 59. burnes, sir a., on the karakool sheep, i. 98, ii. 278; varieties of the vine in cabool, i. 333; hawks, trained in scinde, ii. 153; pomegranates producing seed, ii. 168. burton constable, wild cattle at, i. 84. "burzel-tauben," i. 150. bussorah carrier, i. 141. _buteo vulgaris_, copulation of, in captivity, ii. 154. butterflies, polymorphic, ii. 399-400. buzareingues, girou de, inheritance of tricks, ii. 6. cabanis, pears grafted on the quince, ii. 239. cabbage, i. 323-326; varieties of, i. 323; unity of character in flowers and seeds of, i. 323-324; cultivated by ancient celts, i. 324; classification of varieties of, _ibid._; ready crossing of, _ibid._, ii. 90, 91, 98, 130; origin of, i. 325; increased fertility of, when cultivated, ii. 113; growth of, in tropical countries, ii. 277. cabool, vines of, i. 333. cabral, on early cultivation in brazil, i. 311. cactus, growth of cochineal on, in india, ii. 275. cæsar, _bos primigenius_ wild in europe in the time of, i. 81; notice of fowls in britain, i. 246; notice of the importation of horses by the celts, ii. 203. caffre fowls, i. 230. caffres, different kinds of cattle possessed by the, i. 88. "cágias," a breed of sheep, i. 95. calceolarias, i. 364; ii. 147; effects of seasonal conditions on, ii. 274; peloric flowers in, ii. 346. "calongos," a columbian breed of cattle, i. 88. calver, mr., on a seedling peach producing both peaches and nectarines, i. 341. calyx, segments of the, converted into carpels, ii. 392. camel, its dislike to crossing water, i. 181. _camellia_, bud-variations in, i. 377; recognition of varieties of, ii. 251; variety in, hardiness of, ii. 308. cameron, d., on the cultivation of alpine plants, ii. 163. cameronn, baron, value of english blood in race-horses, ii. 11. _campanula medium_, ii. 200. canary-bird, i. 295; conditions of inheritance in, ii. 22; hybrids of, ii. 45; period of perfect plumage in, ii. 77; diminished fertility of, ii. 161; standard of perfection in, ii. 195; analogous variation in, ii. 349. cancer, heredity of, ii. 7, 8, 79. canine teeth, development of the, in mares, ii. 318. _canis alopex_, i. 29. _canis antarcticus_, i. 20. _canis argentatus_, ii. 151. _canis aureus_, i. 29. _canis cancrivorus_, domesticated and crossed in guiana, i. 23. _canis cinereo-variegatus_, i. 29. _canis fulvus_, i. 29. _canis ingæ_, the naked peruvian dog, i. 23. _canis latrans_, resemblance of, to the hare indian dog, i. 22; one of the original stocks, i. 26. _canis lupaster_, i. 25. _canis lupus_, var. _occidentalis_, resemblance of, to north american dogs, i. 21; crossed with dogs, i. 22; one of the original stocks, i. 26. _canis mesomelas_, i. 25, 29. _canis primævus_, tamed by mr. hodgson, i. 26. _canis sabbar_, i. 25. _canis simensis_, possible original of greyhounds, i. 33. _canis thaleb_, i. 29. _canis variegatus_, i. 29. canterbury bell, doubled by selection, ii. 200. cape of good hope, different kinds of cattle at the, i. 88; {441} no useful plants derived from the, i. 310. capercailzie, breeding in captivity, ii. 156. _capra ægagrus_ and _c. falconeri_, probable parents of domestic goat, i. 101. capsicum, i. 371. cardan, on a variety of the walnut, i. 356; on grafted walnuts, ii. 259-260. cardoon, ii. 34. _carex rigida_, local sterility of the, ii. 170. carlier, early selection of sheep, ii. 204. carlisle, sir a., inheritance of peculiarities, ii. 6, 8; of polydactylism, ii. 13. "carme" pigeon, i. 156. carnation, bud-variation in, i. 381; variability of, i. 370; striped, produced by crossing red and white, i. 393; effect of conditions of life on the, ii. 273. carnivora, general fertility of, in captivity, ii. 150. caroline archipelago, cats of, i. 47. carp, ii. 236. carpels, variation of, in cultivated cucurbitaceæ, i. 359. carpenter, w. b., regeneration of bone, ii. 294; production of double monsters, ii. 340; number of eggs in an _ascaris_, ii. 379. _carpinus betulus_, i. 362. _carpophaga littoralis_ and _luctuosa_, i. 182. carrier pigeon, i. 139-142; english, i. 139-141; figured, i. 140; skull figured, i. 163; history of the, i. 211; persian, i. 141; bussorah, _ibid._; bagadotten, skull figured, i. 163; lower jaw figured, i. 165. carrière, cultivation of the wild carrot, i. 326; intermediate form between the almond and the peach, i. 338; glands of peach-leaves, i. 343; bud-variation in the vine, i. 375; grafts of _aria vestita_ upon thorns, i. 387; variability of hybrids of _erythrina_, ii. 265. carrot, wild, effects of cultivation on the, i. 326; reversion in the, ii. 31; run wild, ii. 33; increased fertility of cultivated, ii. 113; experiments on the, ii. 277; acclimatisation of the, in india, ii. 311. _carthamus_, abortion of the pappus in, ii. 316. cartier, cultivation of native plants in canada, i. 312. caryophyllaceæ, frequency of contabescence in the, ii. 165. caspary, bud-variation in the moss-rose, i. 380; on the ovules and pollen of _cytisus_, i. 388-389; crossing of _cytisus purpureus_ and _c. laburnum_, i. 389; trifacial orange, i. 391; differently-coloured flowers in the wild _viola lutea,_ i. 408; sterility of the horse-radish, ii. 170. castelnau, on brazilian cattle, i. 88. castration, assumption of female characters caused by, ii. 51-52. _casuarius bennettii_, ii. 156. cat, domestic, i. 43-48; early domestication and probable origin of the, i. 43-44; intercrossing of with wild species, i. 44-45; variations of, i. 45-48; feral, i. 47, ii. 33; anomalous, i. 48; polydactylism in, ii. 14; black, indications of stripes in young, ii. 55; tortoiseshell, ii. 73; effects of crossing in, ii. 86; fertility of, ii. 111; difficulty of selection in, ii. 234, 236; length of intestines in, ii. 302; white with blue eyes, deafness of, ii. 329; with tufted ears, ii. 350. cataract, hereditary, ii. 9, 79. caterpillars, effect of changed food on, ii. 280. catlin, g., colour of feral horses in north america, i. 61. cattle, european, their probable origin from three original species, i. 79-82; humped, or zebus, i. 79-80; intercrossing of, i. 83, 91-93; wild, of chillingham, hamilton, chartley, burton constable, and gisburne, i. 84, ii. 119; colour of feral, i. 84-85, ii. 102; british breeds of, i. 86-87; south african breeds of, i. 88; south american breeds of, i. 89, ii. 205; niata, i. 89-91, ii. 205, 208, 332; effects of food and climate on, i. 91-92; effects of selection on, i. 92-93; dutch-buttocked, ii. 8; hornless, production of horns in, ii. 29-30, 39; reversion in, when crossed, ii. 41; wildness of hybrid, ii. 45; short-horned, prepotency of, ii. 65; wild, influence of crossing and segregation on, ii. 86; crosses of, ii. 96, 104, 118; of falkland islands, ii. 102; mutual fertility of all varieties of, ii. 110; effects of interbreeding on, ii. 117-119; effects of careful selection on, ii. 194, 199; naked, of columbia, ii. 205; crossed with wild banteng in java, ii. 206; with reversed hair in banda oriental, ii. 205; selection of trifling characters in, ii. 209; fashion in, ii. 210; similarity of best races of, ii. 241; unconscious selection in, ii. 214; effects of natural selection on anomalous breeds of, ii. 226-227; light-coloured, attacked by flies, ii. 229, 336; jersey, rapid improvement of, ii. 234; effects of disuse of parts in, ii. 299; rudimentary horns in, ii. 315; supposed influence of humidity on the hair of, ii. 326; {442} white spots of, liable to disease, ii. 337; supposed analogous variation in, ii. 349; displacement of long-horned by short-horned, ii. 426. cauliflower, i. 323; free-seeding of, in india, ii. 310; rudimentary flowers in, ii. 316. cavalier pigeon, ii. 97. _cavia aperea_, ii. 152. cay (_cebus azaræ_), sterility of, in confinement, ii. 153. _cebus azaræ_, ii. 153. _cecidomyia_, larval development of, ii. 283, 360, 367; and _misocampus_, i. 5. cedars of lebanon and atlas, i. 364. celery, turnip-rooted, i. 336; run wild, ii. 33. cell-theory, ii. 370. _celosia cristata_, i. 365. celsus, on the selection of seed-corn, i. 318, ii. 203. celts, early cultivation of the cabbage by the, i. 324; selection of cattle and horses by the, ii. 202-203. _cenchrus_, seeds of a, used as food, i. 309. _centaurea cyanus_, bud-variation in, i. 379. cephalopoda, spermatophores of, ii. 383. _cerasus padus_, yellow-fruited, ii. 19. _cercoleptes_, sterility of, in captivity, ii. 152. _cercopithecus_, breeding of a species of, in captivity, ii. 153. cereals, i. 312-313; of the neolithic period in switzerland, i. 317; adaptation of, to soils, ii. 305. _cereus_, ii. 38. _cereus speciosissimus_ and _phyllanthus_, reversion in hybrids of, i. 392. _cervus canadensis_, ii. 158. _cervus dama_, ii. 120. cetacea, correlation of dermal system and teeth in the, ii. 328. ceylon, cats of, i. 46; pigeon-fancying in, i. 206. _chamærops humilis_, crossed with date palm, i. 399. chamisso, on seeding bread-fruit, ii. 168. channel islands, breeds of cattle in, i. 80. chapman, professor, peach-trees producing nectarines, i. 341. chapuis, f., sexual peculiarities in pigeons, i. 162, ii. 74; effect produced by first male upon the subsequent progeny of the female, i. 405; sterility of the union of some pigeons, ii. 162. characters, fixity of, ii. 239; latent, ii. 51-56, 399-400; continued divergence of, ii. 241; antagonistic, ii. 401. chardin, abundance of pigeons in persia, i. 205. charlemagne, orders as to the selection of stallions, ii. 203. chartley, wild cattle of, i. 84. chaté, reversion of the upper seeds in the pods of stocks, ii. 347-348. chatin, on _ranunculus ficaria_, ii. 170. chaundy, mr., crossed varieties of cabbage, ii. 130. cheetah, general sterility of, in captivity, ii. 151. _cheiranthus cheiri_, i. 382. cherries, i. 347-348; bud-variation in, i. 375; white tartarian, ii. 230; variety of, with curled petals, ii. 232; period of vegetation of, changed by forcing, ii. 311. chevreul, on crossing fruit-trees, ii. 129. chickens, differences in characters of, i. 249-250; white, liable to gapes, ii. 228, 336. chigoe, ii. 275. chile, sheep of, i. 95. chillingham cattle, identical with _bos primigenius_, i. 81; characters of, i. 83-84. chiloe, half-castes of, ii. 46. china, cats of, with drooping ears, i. 47; horses of, i. 53; striped ponies of, i. 59; asses of, i. 62; notice of rabbits in, by confucius, i. 103; breeds of pigeons reared in, i. 206; breeds of fowls of, in fifteenth century, i. 232, 247; goose of, i. 237. chinchilla, fertility of, in captivity, ii. 152. chinese, selection practised by the, ii. 204-205; preference of the, for hornless rams, ii. 209; recognition of the value of native breeds by the, ii. 313. chinese, or himalayan rabbit, i. 108. "chivos," a breed of cattle in paraguay, i. 89. choux-raves, i. 323. christ, h., on the plants of the swiss lake-dwellings, i. 309, 318; intermediate forms between _pinus sylvestris_ and _montana_, i. 363. chrysanthemum, i. 379. _chrysotis festiva_, ii. 280. cineraria, effects of selection on the, ii. 200. circassia, horses of, ii. 102. circumcision, ii. 23. cirripedes, metagenesis in, ii. 366. _cistus_, intercrossing and hybrids of, i. 336, 389, ii. 140. _cistus tricuspis_, bud-variation in, i. 377. citrons, i. 334-335. "_citrus aurantium fructu variabili_," i. 336. _citrus decumana_, i. 335. _citrus lemonum_, i. 336. {443} _citrus medica_, i. 335-336. cleft palate, inheritance of, ii. 24. clemente, on wild vines in spain, i. 332. clermont-tonnerre, on the st. valery apple, i. 401. clapham, a., bud-variation in the hawthorn, i. 377. "claquant," i. 138. "claquers" (pigeons), i. 156. clark, g., on the wild dogs of juan de nova, i. 27; on striped burmese and javanese ponies, i. 59; breeds of goats imported into the mauritius, i. 101; variations in the mammæ of goats, i. 102; bilobed scrotum of muscat goat, _ibid._ clark, h. j., on fission and gemmation, ii. 359. clarke, r. t., intercrossing of strawberries, i. 352. clarke, t., hybridisation of stocks, i. 399, ii. 93. clarkson, mr., prize-cultivation of the gooseberry, i. 355. classification, explained by the theory of natural selection, i. 11. climate, effect of, upon breeds of dogs, i. 37; on horses, i. 52, 53; on cattle, i. 91, 92; on the fleece of sheep, i. 98, 99; on seeds of wheat, i. 316; on cultivated cabbages, i. 325; adaptation of maize to, i. 322. climate and pasture, adaptation of breeds of sheep to, i. 96-97. climate and soil, effects of, upon strawberries, i. 353. cline, mr., on the skull in horned and hornless rams, ii. 333. clos, on sterility in _ranunculus ficaria_, ii. 170. clotzsch, hybrids of various trees, ii. 130. clover, pelorism in, ii. 340. coate, mr., on interbreeding pigs, ii. 122. coccus of apple trees, ii. 231. cochin fowls, i. 227, 250, 252, 260-261; occipital foramen of, figured, i. 261; section of skull of, figured, i. 263; cervical vertebra of, figured, i. 267. cochineal, persistence of, ii. 236; preference of, for a particular cactus, ii. 275. _cochlearia armoracia_, ii. 170. cock, game, natural selection in, ii. 225; spur of, grafted on the comb, ii. 296; spur of, inserted into the eye of an ox, ii. 369; effect of castration upon the, ii. 51-52. cock's-comb, varieties of the, i. 365. cocoons, of silkworms, variations in, i. 302-303. codfish, bulldog, i. 89; number of eggs in the, ii. 379. _coelogenys paca_, ii. 152. colin, prepotency of the ass over the horse, ii. 67-68; on cross-breeding, ii. 97; on change of diet, ii. 304. collinson, peter, peach-tree producing a nectarine, i. 340. coloration, in pigeons, an evidence of unity of descent, i. 195-197. colour, correlation of, in dogs, i. 28-29; persistence of, in horses, i. 50; inheritance and diversity of, in horses, i. 55; variations of, in the ass, i. 62-63; of wild or feral cattle, i. 85; transmission of, in rabbits, i. 107; peculiarities of, in himalayan rabbits, i. 111; influence of, ii. 227-230; correlation of, in head and limbs, ii. 324; correlated with constitutional peculiarities, ii. 335-338. colour and odour, correlation of, ii. 325. colour-blindness, hereditary, ii. 9; more common in men than in women, ii. 72-73; associated with inability to distinguish musical sounds, ii. 328. colours, sometimes not blended by crossing, ii. 92. _columba affinis_, blyth, a variety of _c. livia_, i. 183. _columba amaliæ_, brehm, a variety of _c. livia_, i. 183. _columba guinea_, i. 182. _columba gymnocyclus_, gray, a form of _c. livia_, i. 184. _columba gymnophthalmos_, hybrids of, with _c. oenas_, i. 193; with _c. maculosa_, i. 194. _columba intermedia_, strickland, a variety of _c. livia_, i. 184. _columba leucocephala_, ii. 155. _columba leuconota_, i. 182, 195. _columba littoralis_, i. 182. _columba livia_, ii. 29, 40; the parent of domestic breeds of pigeons, i. 183; measurements of, i. 134; figured, i. 135; skull figured, i. 163; lower jaw figured, i. 164, 168; scapula figured, i. 167. _columba luctuosa_, i. 182. _columba migratoria_ and _leucocephala_, diminished fertility of, in captivity, ii. 155. _columba oenas_, i. 183; crossed with common pigeon and _c. gymnophthalmos_, i. 193. _columba palumbus_, i. 193, ii. 350. _columba rupestris_, i. 182, 184, 195. _columba schimperi_, i. 184. _columba torquatrix_, ii. 350. _columba turricola_, i. 184. columbia, cattle of, i. 88. columbine, double, i. 365, ii. 330. {444} columbus, on west indian dogs, i. 23. columella, on italian shepherd's dogs, i. 23; on domestic fowls, i. 231, 247, ii. 202, 429; on the keeping of ducks, i. 277; on the selection of seed-corn, i. 318; on the benefits of change of soil to plants, ii. 146; on the value of native breeds, ii. 313. colza, i. 325. comb, in fowls, variations of, i. 253-254; sometimes rudimentary, ii. 315. compensation, law of, i. 274. compensation of growth, ii. 342-344. complexion, connexion of, with constitution, ii. 335. compositæ, double flowers of, i. 365, ii. 167, 316. conception, earlier in alderney and zetland cows than in other breeds, i. 87. conditions of life, changed, effect of, ii. 418-419; on horses, i. 52; upon variation in pigeons, i. 212-213; upon wheat, i. 315-316; upon trees, i. 361; in producing bud-variation, i. 408; advantages of, ii. 145-148, 176-177; sterility caused by, ii. 148-165; conducive to variability, ii. 255-261, 394; accumulative action of, ii. 261-263; direct action of, ii. 271-292. condor, breeding in captivity, ii. 154. confinement, effect of, upon the cock, ii. 52. confucius, on the breeding of rabbits in china, i. 103. conolly, mr., on angora goats, ii. 326. constitutional differences in sheep, i. 96-97; in varieties of apples, i. 349-350; in pelargoniums, i. 364; in dahlias, i. 370. constitutional peculiarities in strawberries, i. 353; in roses, i. 367. consumption, hereditary, ii. 8; period of appearance of, ii. 77; correlated with complexion, ii. 335. contabescence, ii. 165-166. _convolvulus batatas_, ii. 169, 309. _convolvulus tricolor_, bud-variation in, i. 408. cooper, mr., improvement of vegetables by selection, ii. 204. cooper, white, hereditary peculiarities of vision, ii. 9; association of affections of the eyes with those of other systems, ii. 328. corals, bud-variation in, i. 374; non-diffusion of cell-gemmules in, ii. 379. corbié. _see_ boitard. cornea, opacity of, inherited, ii. 9. _cornus mascula_, yellow-fruited, ii. 19. correlation, ii. 319; of neighbouring parts, ii. 320; of change in the whole body and in some of its parts, ii. 321; of homologous parts, ii. 322-331; inexplicable, ii. 331-333; commingling of, with the effects of other agencies, ii. 333-335. correlation of skull and limbs in swine, i. 73; of tusks and bristles in swine, i. 76; of multiplicity of horns and coarseness of wool in sheep, i. 95; of beak and feet in pigeons, i. 172-173; between nestling down and colour of plumage in pigeons, i. 194; of changes in silkworms, i. 304; in plants, ii. 219; in maize, i. 323; in pigeons, i. 167-171, 218; in fowls, i. 274-275. corresponding periods, inheritance at, ii. 75-80. corrientes, dwarf cattle of, i. 89. corringham, mr., influence of selection on pigs, ii. 198. corsica, ponies of, i. 52. "cortbeck" (pigeon) of aldrovandi, i. 209. _corvus corone_ and _c. cornix_, hybrids of, ii. 94. _corydalis_, flower of, ii. 304. _corydalis cava_, ii. 132-133. _corydalis solida_, sterile when peloric, ii. 167. _corydalis tuberosa_, peloric by reversion, ii. 58-59. _corylus avellana_, i. 357. costa, a., on shells transferred from england to the mediterranean, ii. 280. "couve tronchuda," i. 323. cow, inheritance of loss of one horn in the, ii. 12, 23; amount of milk furnished by the, ii. 300; development of six mammæ in, ii. 317. cowslip, ii. 21, 182. cracidæ, sterility of the, in captivity, ii. 156. cranes, fertility of, in captivity, ii. 156. _cratægus oxyacantha_, i. 363, ii. 18, 232, 258, 377. _cratægus monogyna_, i. 364. _cratægus sibirica_, i. 364. crawfurd, j., malasian cats, i. 47; horses of the malay archipelago, i. 49; horses of japan, i. 53; occurrence of stripes in young wild pigs of malacca, i. 76; on a burmese hairy family with deficient teeth, ii. 77, 327; japanese origin of the bantam, i. 230; game fowls of the philippine islands, i. 232; hybrids of _gallus varius_ and domestic fowl, i. 234; domestication of _gallus bankiva_, i. 236; feral fowls in the pellew islands, i. 238; history of the fowl, i. 246; history of the domestic duck, i. 277; domestication of the goose, i. 287; cultivated plants of new zealand, i. 312; {445} breeding of tame elephants in ava, ii. 150; sterility of _goura coronata_ in confinement, ii. 155; geese of the philippine islands, ii. 162. creepers, a breed of fowls, i. 230. crested fowl, i. 227; figured, i. 229. "crève-coeur," a french sub-breed of fowls, i. 229. crisp, dr., on the brains of the hare and rabbit, i. 126. crocker, c. w., singular form of _begonia frigida_, i. 365-366, ii. 166; sterility in _ranunculus ficaria_, ii. 170. crocus, ii. 165. cross-breeding, permanent effect of, on the female, i. 404. crossing, ii. 85-144, 173-192; a cause of uniformity, ii. 85-90, 173; occurs in all organised beings, ii. 90-92; some characters not blended by, ii. 92-95, 173; modifications and new races produced by, ii. 95-99; causes which check, ii. 100-109; domestication and cultivation favourable to, ii. 109-113, 189; beneficial effects of, ii. 114-131, 174-176; necessary in some plants, ii. 131-140, 175-176, 423; summary of subject of, ii. 140-144; of dogs with wolves in north america, i. 21-22; with _canis cancrivorus_ in guiana, i. 23; of dog with wolf, described by pliny and others, i. 24; characters furnished by, brought out by reversion in the progeny, ii. 34-36; a direct cause of reversion, ii. 39-47, 48; a cause of variability, ii. 264-267. crustacea, macrourous, differences in the development of the, ii. 368. crustacean with an antenna-like development of the eye-peduncle, ii. 391. cryptogamic plants, bud-variation in, i. 383. cuba, wild dogs of, i. 27. "cuckoo," sub-breeds of fowls, i. 244. cucumber, variation in number of carpels of, i. 359; supposed crossing of varieties of the, i. 400. _cucumis momordica_, i. 360. _cucumis sativa_, i. 359. _cucurbita_, dwarf, correlation of leaves in, ii. 330. _cucurbita maxima_, i. 357, 359. _cucurbita moschata_, i. 357, 359. _cucurbita pepo_, i. 357, ii. 108; varieties of, i. 358; relation in size and number of fruit of, ii. 343. cucurbitaceæ, i. 357-360; supposed crossing of, i. 399; naudin's observations on hybrids of, ii. 172; acclimatisation of, ii. 313. "culbutants" (pigeons), i. 150. cultivation of plants, origin of, among savages, i. 309-310; fertility increased by, ii. 111-113. cunier, on hereditary night-blindness, ii. 9. currants, of tierra del fuego, i. 309; bud-variation in, i. 376. curtis, mr., bud-variation in the rose, i. 381. cuvier, on the gestation of the wolf, i. 29; the odour of the jackal, an obstacle to domestication, i. 30; differences of the skull in dogs, i. 34; external characters of dogs, i. 35; elongation of the intestines in domestic pigs, i. 73, ii. 303; fertility of the hook-billed duck, i. 277; number of digits, ii. 13; hybrid of ass and zebra, ii. 42; breeding of animals in the jardin des plantes, ii. 149; sterility of predaceous birds in captivity, ii. 154; facility of hybridisation in confinement, ii. 160. cyanosis, affection of fingers in, ii. 332. cyclamen, bud-variation in, i. 382. _cynara cardunculus_, ii. 34. _cynips fecundatrix_, ii. 283. _cynocephalus hamadryas_, ii. 153. _cyprinus auratus_, i. 296-297. _cyrtanthus_, ii. 139. _cyrtopodium_, ii. 134. _cytisus adami_, ii. 364; its bud-variation, i. 387-389, 406, ii. 37; seedlings from, i. 388; different views of its origin, i. 389-390; experiments in crossing _c. purpureus_ and _laburnum_ to produce, i. 389; its production by m. adam, i. 390; discussion of origin of, i. 396. _cytisus alpino-laburnum_, ovules and pollen of, i. 389; origin of, i. 390. _cytisus alpinus_, i. 388. _cytisus laburnum_, i. 387, 389, 390, 396. _cytisus purpureo-elongatus_, ovules and pollen of, i. 389; production of, i. 390. _cytisus purpureus_, i. 387, 388, 389, 390, 396. dahlbom, effects of food on hymenoptera, ii. 281. dahlia, i. 369-370, ii. 147; bud-variation by tubers in the, i. 385; improvement of, by selection, ii. 216; steps in cultivation of, ii. 261; effect of conditions of life on, ii. 273; correlation of form and colour in, ii. 331. daisy, hen and chicken, i. 365; swan river, ii. 261. dalbret, varieties of wheat, i. 314. dalibert, changes in the odours of plants, ii. 274. dally, dr., on consanguineous marriages, ii. 122. daltonism, hereditary, ii. 9. damaras, cattle of, i. 88, ii. 207-208. {446} damson, i. 347. dandolo, count, on silkworms, i. 301. daniell, fertility of english dogs in sierra leone, ii. 161. danish middens, remains of dogs in, i. 18. dappling in horses, asses, and hybrids, i. 55. dareste. c., on the skull of the polish fowl, i. 262; on the production of monstrous chickens, ii. 289; co-existence of anomalies, ii. 331; production of double monsters, ii. 340. darvill, mr., heredity of good qualities in horses, ii. 11. darwin, c., on _lepus magellanicus_, i. 112; on the wild potato, i. 330; dimorphism in the polyanthus and primrose, ii. 21. darwin, dr., improvement of vegetables by selection, ii. 204. darwin, sir f., wildness of crossed pigs, ii. 45. d'asso, monogynous condition of the hawthorn in spain, i. 364. _dasyprocta aguti_, ii. 152. date-palm, varieties of the, ii. 256; effect of pollen of, upon the fruit of _chamærops_, i. 299. _datura_, ii. 38; variability in, ii. 266. _datura lævis_ and _stramonium_, reversion in hybrids of, i. 392. _datura stramonium_, ii. 67. daubenton, variations in the number of mammæ in dogs, i. 35; proportions of intestines in wild and domestic cats, i. 48, ii. 302. daudin, on white rabbits, ii. 230. davy, dr., on sheep in the west indies, i. 98. dawkins and sandford, early domestication of _bos longifrons_ in britain, i. 81. deaf-mutes, non-heredity of, ii. 22. deafness, inheritance of, ii. 78. deby, wild hybrids of common and musk ducks, ii. 46. de candolle, alph., number and origin of cultivated plants, i. 306-307, 371; regions which have furnished no useful plants, i. 310; wild wheat, i. 312-313; wild rye and oats, i. 313; antiquity of varieties of wheat, i. 316; apparent inefficacy of selection in wheat, i. 318; origin and cultivation of maize, i. 320, ii. 307; colours of seeds of maize, i. 321; varieties and origin of the cabbage, i. 324-325; origin of the garden-pea, i. 326; on the vine, i. 332, ii. 308; cultivated species of the orange group, i. 335; probable chinese origin of the peach, i. 337; on the peach and nectarine, i. 340, 342; varieties of the peach, i. 342; origin of the apricot, i. 344; origin and varieties of the plum, i. 345; origin of the cherry, i. 347; varieties of the gooseberry, i. 354; selection practised with forest-trees, i. 361; wild fastigate oak, i. 361; dark-leaved varieties of trees, i. 362; conversion of stamens into pistils in the poppy, i. 365; variegated foliage, i. 366; heredity of white hyacinths, i. 371, ii. 20; changes in oaks dependent on age, i. 387; inheritance of anomalous characters, ii. 19; variation of plants in their native countries, ii. 256; deciduous bushes becoming evergreen in hot climates, ii. 305; antiquity of races of plants, ii. 429. de candolle, p., non-variability of monotypic genera, ii. 266; relative development of root and seed in _raphanus sativus_, ii. 343. decaisne, on the cultivation of the wild carrot, i. 326; varieties of the pear, i. 350; inter-crossing of strawberries, i. 351; fruit of the apple, i. 401; sterility of _lysimachia nummularia_, ii. 170; tender variety of the peach, ii. 308. deer, assumption of horns by female, ii. 51; imperfect development of horns in a, on a voyage, ii. 158. deer, fallow, ii. 103. deerhound. scotch, difference in size of the sexes of, ii. 73; deterioration of, ii. 121. degeneration of high-bred races, under neglect, ii. 239. de jonghe, j., on strawberries, i. 352, ii. 243; soft-barked pears, ii. 231; on accumulative variation, ii. 262; resistance of blossoms to frost, ii. 306. delamer, e. s., on rabbits, i. 107, 112. _delphinium ajacis_, ii. 21. _delphinium consolida_, ii. 20-21. _dendrocygna viduata_, i. 182, ii. 157. dentition, variations of, in the horse, i. 50. deodar, i. 364. desmarest, distribution of white on dogs, i. 29; cat from the cape of good hope, i. 47; cats of madagascar, i. 47; occurrence of striped young in turkish pigs, i. 76; french breeds of cattle, i. 80; horns of goats, i. 102; on hornless goats, ii. 315. desor, e., on the anglo-saxon race in america, ii. 276. desportes, number of varieties of roses, i. 367. devay, dr., singular case of albinism, ii. 17; on the marriage of cousins, ii. 122; on the effects of close interbreeding, ii. 143, 263. development and metamorphosis, ii. 388-389. development, arrests of, ii. 315-318. development, embryonic, ii. 366-368. {447} d'hervey-saint-denys, l., on the ya-mi, or imperial rice of the chinese, ii. 205. dhole, fertility of the, in captivity, ii. 151. diabetes, occurrence of, in three brothers, ii. 17. _dianthus_, contabescent plants of, ii. 165-166; hybrid varieties of, ii. 267. _dianthus armeria_ and _deltoides_, hybrids of, ii. 98. _dianthus barbatus_, i. 381. _dianthus caryophyllus_, i. 381. _dianthus japonicus_, contabescence of female organs in, ii. 166. dichogamous plants, ii. 90. dickson, mr., on "running" in carnations, i. 381; on the colours of tulips, i. 386. _dicotyles torquatus_ and _labiatus_, ii. 150. dieffenbach, dog of new zealand, i. 26; feral cats in new zealand, i. 47; polydactylism in polynesia, ii. 14. _dielytra_, ii. 59. diet, change of, ii. 303-304. _digitalis_, properties of, affected by culture, ii. 274; poison of, ii. 380. digits, supernumerary, ii. 57; analogy of, with embryonic conditions, ii. 16; fusion of, ii. 341. dimorphic plants, ii. 166; conditions of reproduction in, ii. 181-184. dimorphism, reciprocal, ii. 90. dingo, i. 25; variation of, in colour, i. 28; half-bred, attempting to burrow, i. 28; attraction of foxes by a female, i. 31; variations of, in confinement, ii. 263. dioeciousness of strawberries, i. 353. diseases, inheritance of, ii. 7-8; family uniformity of, ii. 57; inherited at corresponding periods of life, ii. 77-80; peculiar to localities and climates, ii. 276; obscure correlations in, ii. 331-332; affecting certain parts of the body, ii. 380; occurring in alternate generations, ii. 401. distemper, fatal to white terriers, ii. 227. disuse and use of parts, effects of, ii. 295-303, 352-353, 418-419; in the skeleton of rabbits, i. 124-128; in pigeons, i. 171-177; in fowls, i. 270-274; in ducks, i. 284-286; in the silk-moth, i. 300-304. divergence, influence of, in producing breeds of pigeons, i. 220. dixon, e. s., on the musk duck, i. 182; on feral ducks, i. 190; on feral pigeons in norfolk island, i. 190; crossing of pigeons, i. 192; origin of domestic fowls, i. 230; crossing of _gallus sonneratii_ and common fowl, i. 234; occurrence of white in the young chicks of black fowls, i. 244; paduan fowl of aldrovandi, i. 247; peculiarities of the eggs of fowls, i. 248; chickens, i. 249-250; late development of the tail in cochin cocks, i. 250; comb of lark-crested fowls, i. 256; development of webs in polish fowls, i. 259; on the voice of fowls, i. 259; origin of the duck, i. 277; ducks kept by the romans, i. 278; domestication of the goose, i. 287; gander frequently white, i. 288; breeds of turkeys, i. 293; incubatory instinct of mongrels of non-sitting races of fowls, ii. 44; aversion of the dove-cot pigeon to pair with fancy birds, ii. 103; fertility of the goose, ii. 112; general sterility of the guans in captivity, ii. 156; fertility of geese in captivity, ii. 157; white peafowl, ii. 332. dobell, h., inheritance of anomalies of the extremities, ii. 14; non-reversion to a malformation, ii. 36. dobrizhoffer, abhorrence of incest by the abipones, ii. 123. dogs, origin of, i. 15; ancient breeds of, i. 17, ii. 429; of neolithic, bronze and iron periods in europe, i. 18-19, ii. 427; resemblance of to various species of canidæ, i. 21; of north america compared with wolves, i. 21-22; of the west indies, south america, and mexico, i. 23, 31; of guiana, i. 23; naked dogs of paraguay and peru, _ibid._ and 31; dumb, on juan fernandez, i. 27; of juan de nova, i. 27; of la plata, i. 27; of cuba, i. 27; of st. domingo, i. 28; correlation of colour in, i. 28-29; gestation of, i. 29-30; hairless turkish, i. 30, ii. 227; inter-crossing of different breeds of, i. 31; characters of different breeds of, discussed, i. 34-37; degeneration of european, in warm climates, i. 36, 38; ii. 278, 305; liability to certain diseases in different breeds of, i. 36 and _note_; causes of differences of breeds discussed, i. 37-43; catching fish and crabs in new guinea and tierra del fuego, i. 39; webbing of the feet in, i. 39; influence of selection in producing different breeds of, i. 39, 43; retention of original habits by, i. 182; inheritance of polydactylism in, ii. 14; feral, ii. 33; reversion in fourth generation of, ii. 34; of the pacific islands, ii. 87, 220, 303; mongrel, ii. 92-93; comparative facility of crossing different breeds of, ii. 102; fertility of, ii. 111, 151; inter-breeding of, ii. 120-121; selection of, among the greeks, ii. 202, 209; among savages, ii. 206-207; unconscious selection of, ii. 211-212; valued by the fuegians, ii. 215; climatal changes in hair of, ii. 278; production of drooping ears in, ii. 301; {448} rejection of bones of game by, ii. 303; inheritance of rudiments of limbs in, ii. 315; development of fifth toe in, ii. 317; hairless, deficiency of teeth in, ii. 326; short-faced, teeth of, ii. 345; probable analogous variation in, ii. 349; extinction of breeds of, ii. 425. dombrain, h. h., on the auricula, ii. 346-347. domestication, essential points in, ii. 405-406; favourable to crossing, ii. 109-110; fertility increased by, ii. 111-113, 174. domesticated animals, origin of, ii. 160-161; occasional sterility of, under changed conditions, ii. 161-162. donders, dr., hereditary hypermetropia, ii. 8. dorking fowl, i. 227, 261; furcula of, figured, i. 268. dormouse, ii. 152. double flowers, ii. 167-168, 171-172; produced by selection, ii. 200. doubleday, h., cultivation of the filbert pine strawberry, i. 354. douglas, j., crossing of white and black game-fowls, ii. 92. downing, mr., wild varieties of the hickory, i. 310; peaches and nectarines from seed, i. 339-340; origin of the boston nectarine, i. 340; american varieties of the peach, i. 343; north american apricot, i. 344; varieties of the plum, i. 346; origin and varieties of the cherry, i. 347-348; "twin cluster pippins," i. 349; varieties of the apple, i. 350; on strawberries, i. 351, 353; fruit of the wild gooseberry, i. 355; effects of grafting upon the seed, ii. 26; diseases of plum and peach trees, ii. 227-228; injury done to stone fruit in america by the "weevil," ii. 231; grafts of the plum and peach, ii. 259; wild varieties of pears, ii. 260; varieties of fruit-trees suitable to different climates, ii. 306. _draba sylvestris_, ii. 163. dragon, pigeon, i. 139, 141. "draijer" (pigeon), i. 156. drinking, effects of, in different climates, ii. 289. dromedary, selection of, ii. 205-206. druce, mr., inter-breeding of pigs, ii. 121. du chaillu, fruit-trees in west africa, i. 309. duchesne on _fragaria vesca_, i. 351, 352, 353. dufour, léon, on _cecidomyia_ and _misocampus_, i. 5. duck, musk, retention of perching habit by the, i. 182; feral hybrid of, i. 190. duck, penguin, hybrid of, with egyptian goose, ii. 68. duck, wild, difficulty of rearing, ii. 233; effects of domestication on, ii. 278. ducks, breeds of, i. 276-277; origin of, i. 277; history of, _ibid._; wild, easily tamed, i. 278-279; fertility of breeds of, when crossed, i. 279; with the plumage of _anas boschas_, i. 280; malayan penguin, identical in plumage with english, i. 280; characters of the breeds of, i. 281-284; eggs of, i. 281; effects of use and disuse in, i. 284-286, ii. 298; feral, in norfolk, i. 190; aylesbury, inheritance of early hatching by, ii. 25; reversion in, produced by crossing, ii. 40; wildness of half-bred wild, ii. 45; hybrids of, with the musk duck, ii. 45-46; assumption of male plumage by, ii. 51; crossing of labrador and penguin, ii. 97; increased fertility of, by domestication, ii. 112; general fertility of, in confinement, ii. 157; increase of size of, by care in breeding, ii. 199; change produced by domestication in, ii. 262. duméril, aug., breeding of _siredon_ in the branchiferous stage, ii. 384. dun-coloured horses, origin of, i. 59. dureau de la malle, feral pigs in louisiana, ii. 33; feral fowls in africa, _ibid._; bud-variation in the pear, i. 376; production of mules among the romans, ii. 110. _dusicyon sylvestris_, i. 23. dutch rabbit, i. 107. dutch roller pigeon, i. 151. dutrochet, pelorism in the laburnum, ii. 346. duval, growth of pears in woods in france, ii. 260. duval-jouve, on _leersia oryzoides_, ii. 91. duvernoy, self-impotence in _lilium candidum_, ii. 137. dzierzon, variability in the characters and habits of bees, i. 298. earle, dr., on colour-blindness, ii. 72, 328. ears, of fancy rabbits, i. 106; deficiency of, in breeds of rabbits, i. 108; rudimentary, in chinese sheep, ii. 315; drooping, ii. 301; fusion of, ii. 341. eaton, j. m., on fancy pigeons, i. 148, 153; variability of characters in breeds of pigeons, i. 161; reversion of crossed pigeons to coloration of _columba livia_, i. 198; on pigeon-fancying, i. 206, 215-216; on tumbler-pigeons, i. 209, ii. 242; carrier-pigeon, i. 211; effects of interbreeding on pigeons, ii. 126; properties of pigeons, ii. 197-198; death of short-faced tumblers in the egg, ii. 226; {449} archangel pigeon, ii. 240. echinodermata, metagenesis in, ii. 367. _ectopistes_, specific difference in number of tail-feathers in, i. 159. _ectopistes migratorius_, sterile hybrids of, with _turtur vulgaris_, i. 193. edentata, correlation of dermal system and teeth in the, ii. 328. edgeworth, mr., use of grass-seeds as food in the punjab, i. 309. edmonston, dr., on the stomach in _larus argentatus_ and the raven, ii. 302. edwards and colin, on english wheat in france, ii. 307. edwards, w. f., absorption of the minority in crossed races, ii. 87. edwards, w. w., occurrence of stripes in a nearly thoroughbred horse, i. 57; in foals of racehorses, i. 59. eggs, of fowls, characters of, i. 248; variations of, in ducks, i. 281; of the silkmoth, i. 301. egypt, ancient dogs of, i. 17-18; ancient domestication of the pigeon in, i. 204; absence of the fowl in ancient, i. 246. egyptian goose, hybrids of, with penguin duck, i. 282. ehrenberg, prof., multiple origin of the dog, i. 16; dogs of lower egypt, i. 25; mummies of _felis maniculata_, i. 43. element, male, compared to a premature larva, ii. 384. elements of the body, functional independence of the, ii. 368-371. elephant, its sterility in captivity, ii. 150. elk, irish, correlations in the, ii. 333-334. elliot, sir walter, on striped horses, i. 58; indian domestic and wild swine, i. 66; pigeons from cairo and constantinople, i. 132; fantail pigeons, i. 146; lotan tumbler pigeons, i. 150; a pigeon uttering the sound _yahu_, i. 155; _gallus bankiva_ in pegu, i. 236. ellis, mr., varieties of cultivated plants in tahiti, ii. 256. elm, nearly evergreen cornish variety of the, i. 363, ii. 310; foliage-varieties of the, i. 362. elm, weeping, i. 361; not reproduced by seed, ii. 19. _emberiza passerina_, ii. 158. embryos, similarity of, i. 12; fusion of, ii. 339. engel, on _laurus sassafras_, ii. 274. england, domestication of _bos longifrons_ in, i. 81; selection of horses in, in mediæval times, ii. 203; laws against the early slaughter of rams in, ii. 203. ephemeridæ, development of the, ii. 366. _epidendrum cinnabarinum_ and _e. zebra_, ii. 134. epilepsy, hereditary, ii. 8, 78. erdt, disease of the white parts of cattle, ii. 337. ericaceæ, frequency of contabescence in the, ii. 165. erichthonius, an improver of horses by selection, ii. 202. erman, on the fat-tailed kirghisian sheep, i. 98, ii. 280; on the dogs of the ostyaks, ii. 206. _erodium_, ii. 59. _erythrina crista-galli_ and _e. herbacea_, hybrids of, ii. 265. esquilant, mr., on the naked young of dun-coloured pigeons, i. 170. esquimaux dogs, their resemblance to wolves, i. 21; selection of, ii. 206. eudes-deslongchamps, on appendages under the jaw of pigs, i. 75-76. _euonymus japonicus_, i. 383. european cultivated plants, still wild in europe, i. 307. evans, mr., on the lotan tumbler pigeon, i. 150. evelyn, pansies grown in his garden, i. 368. everest, r., on the newfoundland dog in india, i. 36, ii. 305; degeneration of setters in india, i. 38; indian wild boars, i. 66. ewes, hornless, ii. 350. extinction of domestic races, i. 221. eyes, hereditary peculiarities of the, ii. 8-10; loss of, causing microphthalmia in children, ii. 24; modification of the structure of, by natural selection, ii. 222-223; fusion of, ii. 341. eyebrows, hereditary elongation of hairs in, ii. 8. eyelids, inherited peculiarities of the, ii. 8. eyton, mr., on gestation in the dog, i. 30; variability in number of vertebræ in the pig, i. 74; individual sterility, ii. 162. _faba vulgaris_, i. 330. fabre, observations on _ægilops triticoides,_ i. 313. _fagus sylvatica_, ii. 19. fairweather, mr., production of double flowers from old seed, ii. 167. _falco albidus_, resumption of young plumage by, in captivity, ii. 158. _falco ossifragus_, ii. 230. _falco subbuteo_, copulating in captivity, ii. 154. _falco tinnunculus_, breeding in captivity, ii. 154. {450} falconer, dr., sterility of english bulldogs in india, i, 38; resemblance between _sivatherium_ and niata cattle, i. 89; selection of the silkworm in india, i. 301; fastigate apple-trees in calcutta, i. 361; reproduction of a supernumerary thumb after amputation, ii. 14; fertility of the dhole in captivity, ii. 151; fertility of english dogs in india, ii. 161; sterility of the tiger in captivity, ii. 151; turkeys at delhi, ii. 161; on indian cultivated plants, ii. 165; thibet mastiff and goat, ii. 278. falcons, sterility of, in captivity, ii. 153. falkland islands, horses of the, i. 52-53, 61; feral pigs of the, i. 77; feral cattle of the, i. 82, 86; feral rabbits of the, i. 112. fallow deer, ii. 103, 120. fantail pigeons, i. 146-148, ii. 227; figured, i. 147; furcula of, figured, i. 167; history of, i. 208; absence of oil-gland in, ii. 344. faroe islands, pigeons of the, i. 183. fashion, influence of, in breeding, ii. 240. fastigate trees, ii. 277, 348. faunas, geographical differences, of, i. 10. "favourite" bull, ii. 65, 118. feathers, homologous variation in, ii. 325. feet, of pigeons, individual differences of, i. 160; correlations of external characters in, i. 170-171. feet and beak, correlation of, in pigeons, i. 171-174. felidæ, fertility of, in captivity, ii. 150. _felis bubastes_, i. 43. _felis caffra_, i. 44. _felis caligulata_, i. 43. _felis chaus_, i. 43-44. _felis jubata_, ii. 151. _felis lybica_, i. 44. _felis maniculata_, i. 43. _felis manul_, i. 45. _felis ornata_, i. 45. _felis sylvestris_, i. 44. _felis torquata_, i. 45. female, affected by male element, ii. 365, 387-388. female flowers, in male panicle of maize, i. 321. fennel, italian variety of, i. 326. feral cats, i. 47; cattle, i. 86; rabbits, i. 111-115; guinea fowl, i. 294; animals and plants, reversion in, ii. 32-34, 47. ferguson, mr., supposed plurality of origin of domestic fowls, i. 231; chickens of black game-fowls, i. 244; relative size of eggs of fowls, i. 248; yolk of eggs of game-fowls, i. 249; early pugnacity of game-cocks, i. 250; voice of the malay fowl, i. 259; effects of interbreeding on fowls, ii. 124; selection in cochin china fowls, ii. 196; on fashion in poultry, ii. 240. fernandez, on mexican dogs, i. 23. ferns, reproduction of abnormal forms of, by spores, i. 383; non-diffusion of cell-gemmules in, ii. 379. ferrets, ii. 111, 151, 206. fertilisation, artificial, of the st. valery apple, i. 350. fertility, various degrees of, in sheep, i. 97; unlimited mutual, of breeds of pigeons, i. 192-194; comparative of mongrels and hybrids, ii. 100-101, 178-180; influence of nourishment on, ii. 111; diminished by close interbreeding, ii. 118, 175; reduced, of chillingham wild cattle, ii. 119; of domesticated varieties when crossed, ii. 189. _festuca_, species of, propagated by bulblets, ii. 170. filberts, spared by tomtits, ii. 231. filippi, on the breeding of branchiferous tritons, ii. 384. finches, general sterility of, in captivity, ii. 154. finnikin (pigeon), i. 156. finnochio, i. 326. fir, scotch, acclimatisation of, ii. 310. fish, mr., advantage of change of soil to plants, ii. 147. fishes, regeneration of portions of fins of, ii. 15; variability of, when kept in tanks, ii. 259; marine, living in fresh water, ii. 304; double monsters of, ii. 340. fission and gemmation, ii. 358. fitch, mr., persistency of a variety of the pea, i. 329. fittest, survival of the, i. 6. fitzinger, origin of sheep, i. 94; african maned sheep, i. 96. fixedness of character, conditions of, discussed, ii. 62-64. flax, found in the swiss lake-dwellings, i. 317; climatal difference in products of, ii. 274. fleece, fineness of, in austrian merinos, ii. 197. fleischmann, on german sheep crossed with merinos, ii. 88-89. "florentiner-taube," i. 142-143. flounder, ii. 53. flourens, crossing of wolf and dog, i. 32; prepotency of the jackal over the dog, ii. 67; hybrids of the horse and ass, ii. 68; breeding of monkeys in europe, ii. 153. {451} flower-garden, earliest known, in europe, ii. 217. flowers, capricious transmission of colour-varieties in, ii. 20-21; tendency to uniformity in striped, ii. 70; scorching of, dependent on colour, ii. 229; change in, caused by conditions of life, ii. 273; rudimentary, ii. 316; relative position of, to the axis, ii. 345. foetation, abdominal, ii. 294. foley, mr., wild varieties of pears, ii. 260. foliage, inherited peculiarities of, i. 362; variegation, of, i. 366; bud-variation in, i. 382-384. food, influence of, on the pig, i. 72; on cattle, i. 91; excess of, a cause of variability, ii. 257. forbes, d., on chilian sheep, i. 95; on the horses of spain, chili, and the pampas, i. 52. _formica rufa_, ii. 251. fortune, r., sterility of the sweet potato in china, ii. 169; development of axillary bulbs in the yam, _ibid._ fowl, common, breeds of, i. 225-230; supposed plurality of origin, i. 230; early history of, i. 231-233; causes of production of breeds of, i. 233; origin of from _gallus bankiva_, i. 236-239, 245; feral, notices of, i. 237-238; reversion and analogous variation in, i. 239-246, ii. 35, 38, 39, 40, 349, 350; "cuckoo" sub-breeds of, i. 244; history of, i. 246-247; structural characters of, i. 247-250; sexual peculiarities of, i. 251-257, ii. 74; external differences of, i. 257-260; differences of breeds of, from _g. bankiva_, i. 260; osteological characters of, i. 260-270; effects of disuse of parts in, i. 270-274, ii. 298; feral, i. 190, ii. 33; polydactylism in, ii. 14; fertility of, increased by domestication, ii. 112, 167; sterility of, under certain conditions, ii. 162; influence of selection on, ii. 196, 198, 209, 210; evils of close interbreeding of, ii. 124-125; crossing of, ii. 95, 96, 97; prepotency of transmission in, ii. 67; rudimentary organs in, ii. 315; crossing of non-sitting varieties of, ii. 43-44; homology of wing and leg feathers in, ii. 323; hybrids of, with pheasants and _gallus sonneratii_, ii. 45; black-skinned, ii. 209-210; black, preyed upon by the osprey in iceland, ii. 230; five-toed, mentioned by columella, ii. 429; rumpless, tailed chickens produced by, ii. 31; dorking, crosses of, ii. 93; form of comb and colour of plumage in, ii. 238; game, crossing of white and black, ii. 92; five-spurred, ii. 391; spanish, liable to suffer from frost, ii. 306; polish, peculiarities of skull of, ii. 332-333. fox, sterility of, in captivity, ii. 151. fox, s. bevan, races of bees, i. 298. fox, w. darwin, gestation of the dog, i. 30; "negro" cat, i. 46; reversion of sheep in colour, ii. 30; period of gestation in the pig, i. 74; young of the himalayan rabbit, i. 109; crossing of wild and domestic turkeys, i. 292; reversion in crossed musk ducks, ii. 40; spontaneous segregation of varieties of geese, ii. 104; effects of close interbreeding upon bloodhounds, ii. 121; deafness of white cats with blue eyes, ii. 329. foxhounds, i. 40, ii. 120. _fragaria chiloensis_, i. 351. _fragaria collina_, i. 351. _fragaria dioica_ of duchesne, i. 353. _fragaria elatior_, i. 351. _fragaria grandiflora_, i. 351. _fragaria vesca_, i. 351. _fragaria virginiana_, i. 351. _fraxinus excelsior_, i. 360, 362, ii. 19. _fraxinus lentiscifolia_, ii. 19. friesland cattle, probably descended from _bos primigenius_, i. 81. frillback (pigeon), i. 155; indian, i. 153. _fringilla ciris_, ii. 154. _fringilla spinus_, ii. 154. frizzled fowls, i. 230; horses, i. 54. frog, polydactylism in the, ii. 14. fruit, seedless, ii. 168. fruit-trees, varieties of, occurring wild, i. 310. fry, mr., on fertile hybrid cats, i. 44; on feral fowls in ascension, i. 238. fuchsias, origin of, i. 364; bud-variation in, i. 382. _fuchsia coccinea_ and _fulgens_, twin seed produced by crossing, i. 391. fuegians, their superstition about killing young water-fowl, i. 310; selection of dogs by the, ii. 207; their comparative estimation of dogs and old women, ii. 215; their power of distant vision, ii. 223. fungi, parasitic, ii. 284-285. furcula, characters and variations of the, in pigeons, i. 167; alteration of, by disuse, in pigeons, i. 175; characters of, in fowls, i. 268. fusion of homologous parts, ii. 393. gait, inheritance of peculiarities of, ii. 6. galapagos archipelago, its peculiar fauna and flora, i. 9. _galeobdolon luteum_, pelorism in, ii. 59, 345. {452} galls, ii. 282-284. gall-gnats, ii. 283. gall-like excrescences not inherited, ii. 23. gallinaceous birds, restricted range of large, i. 237; general fertility of in captivity, ii. 155. _gallinula chloropus_, ii. 156. _gallinula nesiotis_, i. 287. galton, mr., fondness of savages for taming animals, i. 20, ii. 160; cattle of benguela, i. 88; on hereditary talent, ii. 7. gallesio, species of oranges, i. 334, 335, 336; hybridisation of oranges, i. 336; persistency of races in the peach, i. 339; supposed specific distinctions of peach and nectarine, i. 340; bizzaria orange, i. 391; crossing of red and white carnations, i. 393; crossing of the orange and lemon, i. 399, ii. 365; effect of foreign pollen on maize, i. 400; spontaneous crossing of oranges, ii. 91; monstrosities a cause of sterility in plants, ii. 166; seeding of ordinarily seedless fruits, ii. 168; sterility of the sugar cane, ii. 169; tendency of male flowers to become double, ii. 171; effects of selection in enlarging fruit, &c., ii. 217; variation of the orange tree in north italy, ii. 256; naturalisation of the orange in italy, ii. 309. _gallus æneus_, a hybrid of _g. varius_ and the domestic fowl, i. 235. _gallus bankiva_, probable original of domestic fowls, i. 233, 236-239, 245; game-fowl, nearest to, i. 226; crossed with _g. sonneratii_, i. 234; its character and habits, i. 235-236, ii. 109; differences of various breeds of fowls from, i. 260; occipital foramen of, figured, i. 261; skull of, figured, i. 262; cervical vertebra of, figured, i. 267; furcula of, figured, i. 268; reversion to, in crossed fowls, ii. 39-40; hybrid of, with _g. varius_, i. 235, ii. 40; number of eggs of, ii. 112. _gallus ferrugineus_, i. 226. _gallus furcatus_, i. 234. _gallus giganteus_, i. 235. _gallus sonneratii_, characters and habits of, i. 233; hybrids of, i. 234, ii. 45. _gallus stanleyi_, hybrids of, i. 234. _gallus temminckii_, probably a hybrid, i. 235. _gallus varius_, character and habits of, i. 234; hybrids and probable hybrids of, i. 234-235. gambier, lord, his early cultivation of the pansy, i. 368. game-fowl, i. 226, 250, 251, 252. gapes, ii. 228. garcilazo de la vega, annual hunts of the peruvian incas, ii. 207. garnett, mr., migratory propensities of hybrid ducks, ii. 45. garrod, dr., on hereditary gout, ii. 7. gasparini, a genus of pumpkins, founded on stigmatic characters, i. 359. gaudichaud, bud-variation in the pear, i. 376; apple tree with two kinds of fruit on branch, i. 392. gaudry, anomalous structure in the feet of horses, i. 50. gay, on _fragaria grandiflora_, i. 351; on _viola lutea_ and _tricolor_, i. 368; on the nectary of _viola grandiflora_, i. 369. gayal, domestication of the, i. 82. gayot, _see_ moll. gärtner, on the sterility of hybrids, i. 192, ii. 101; acquired sterility of varieties of plants when crossed, i. 358; sterility in transplanted plants, and in the lilac in germany, ii. 164; mutual sterility of blue and red flowers of the pimpernel, ii. 190; supposed rules of transmission in crossing plants, ii. 68; on crossing plants, ii. 98, 127, 130, 131; on repeated crossing, ii. 267; absorption of one species by another, when crossed, ii. 88; crossing of varieties of the pea, i. 397; crossing maize, ii. 105; crossing of species of _verbascum_, ii. 93, 105; reversion in hybrids, ii. 36, 49, 50; of _cereus_, i. 392; of _tropæolum majus_ and _minus_, i. 392; variability of hybrids, ii. 265; variable hybrids from one variable parent, ii. 270; graft hybrid produced by inosculation in the vine, i. 395; effect produced by grafts on the stock, i. 394, ii. 278; tendency of hybrid plants to produce double flowers, ii. 171; production of perfect fruit by sterile hybrids, ii. 172; sexual elective affinity, ii. 180; self-impotence in _lobelia_, _verbascum_, _lilium_, and _passiflora_, ii. 136-137; on the action of pollen, ii. 108; fertilisation of _malva_, i. 402-403, ii. 363; prepotency of pollen, ii. 187; prepotency of transmission in species of _nicotiana_, ii. 67; bud-variation in _pelargonium zonale_, i. 375; in _oenothera biennis_, i. 382; in _achillæa millefolium_, i. 408; effect of manure on the fertility of plants, ii. 163; on contabescence, ii. 165-166; inheritance of plasticity, ii. 241; villosity of plants, ii. 277. geese (_anseres_) general fertility of, in captivity, ii. 157. gegenbaur, on the number of digits, ii. 13. gemmation and fission, ii. 358. {453} gemmules, or cell-gemmules, ii. 374, 378-381, 384. genet, fertility of the, in captivity, ii. 151. generation, alternate, ii. 361, 367, 390. generation, sexual, ii. 359-364. genius, inheritance of, ii. 7. _gentiana amarella_, ii. 168. geoffroy saint-hilaire, production of monstrous chickens, ii. 289; "_loi de l'affinité de soi pour soi_," ii. 339; compensation of growth, ii. 342. geoffroy saint-hilaire, isid., origin of the dog, i. 66; barking of a jackal, i. 27; period of gestation and odour of the jackal, i. 30; anomalies in the teeth of dogs, i. 34; variations in the proportions of dogs, i. 35; webbed feet of newfoundland dogs, i. 39; crossing of domestic and wild cats, i. 44; domestication of the arni, i. 82; supposed introduction of cattle into europe from the east, _ibid._; absence of interdigital pits in sheep, i. 95; origin of the goat, i. 101; feral geese, i. 190; ancient history of the fowl, i. 246; skull of the polish fowl, i. 262; preference of the romans for the liver of white geese, i. 289; polydactylism, ii. 12; assumption of male characters by female birds, ii. 51; supernumerary mammæ in women, ii. 58; development of a proboscis in the pig, _ibid._; transmission and blending of characters in hybrids, ii. 94; refusal of animals to breed in captivity, ii. 149; on the guinea pig, ii. 152; silkworms producing white cocoons, ii. 199; on the carp, ii. 236; on _helix lactea_, ii. 280; on monstrosities, ii. 254; injury to the embryo a cause of monstrosity, ii. 269; alteration in the coat of horses in coal mines, ii. 278; length of the intestines in wild and tame animals, ii. 302-303; inheritance of rudimentary limbs in the dog, ii. 315; correlation in monstrosities, ii. 320; supernumerary digits in man, ii. 322; co-existence of anomalies, ii. 331; fusion of homologous parts, ii. 341-342; presence of hairs and teeth in ovarian tumours, ii. 370; development of teeth on the palate in the horse, ii. 391. geographical differences of faunas, i. 10. geological succession of organisms, i. 11. _geranium_, ii. 59. _geranium phæum_ and _pyrenaicum_, ii. 258. _geranium pratense_, i. 379. gerard, asserted climatal change in burgundian bees, i. 297. gerarde, on varieties of the hyacinth, i. 370. gerstäcker, on hive-bees, i. 299. gervais, prof., origin of the dog, i. 16; resemblance of dogs and jackals, i. 24; taming of the jackal, i. 26; number of teeth in dogs, i. 34; breeds of dogs, i. 36; on tertiary horses, i. 51; biblical notices of horses, i. 55; species of _ovis_, i. 94; wild and domestic rabbits, i. 103; rabbits from mount sinai and algeria, i. 105; earless rabbits, i. 108; batrachia with doubled limbs, ii. 391. gestation, period of, in the dog, wolf, &c, i. 29-30; in the pig, i. 74; in cattle, i. 87, ii. 321; in sheep, i. 97. gestures, inheritance of peculiarities in, ii. 6. "ghoondooks" a sub-breed of fowls, i. 229. ghor-khur, ii. 42. giles, mr., effect of cross-breeding in the pig, i. 404. giraffe, co-ordination of structure of, ii. 221. girard, period of appearance of permanent teeth in dogs, i. 35. girou de buzareingues, inheritance in the horse, ii. 10; reversion by age in cattle, ii. 38; prepotency of transmission of character in sheep and cattle, ii. 66; on crossing gourds, ii. 108. gisburne, wild cattle at, i. 84. _gladiolus_, i. 364; self-impotence of hybrids of, ii. 139. _gladiolus colvillii_, bud-variation in, i. 382. glands, compensatory development of, ii. 300. glastonbury thorn, i. 364. glenny, mr., on the _cineraria_, ii. 200. gloede, f., on strawberries, i. 353. gloger, on the wings of ducks, ii. 298. "glouglou" (pigeon), i. 154. _gloxiniæ_, peloric, i. 365, ii. 167. gmelin, on red cats, at tobolsk, i. 47. goat, i. 101-102, ii. 33; polydactylism in the, ii. 14; sexual differences in horns of, ii. 73; valued by south africans, ii. 207; thibet, ii. 278; amount of milk and development of udders in the, ii. 300; hornless, rudimentary bony cores in, ii. 316; angora, ii. 326. godron, odour of the hairless turkish dog, i. 30; differences in the skull of dogs, i. 34; increase of breeds of horses, i. 51; crossing of domestic and wild swine, i. 66; on goats, i. 101-102; colour of the skin in fowls, i. 258; bees of north and south of france, i. 297; introduction of the silkworm into europe, i. 300; variability in the silkworm, i. 304; supposed species of wheat, i. 312-314; on _ægilops triticoides_, i. 313; variable presence of barbs in grasses, i. 314; {454} colours of the seeds of maize, i. 321; unity of character in cabbages, i. 323; correlation of colour and odour, i. 325; effect of heat and moisture on the cabbage, i. 325; on the cultivated species of _brassica_, i. 325; on the rouncival and sugar peas, i. 327; variation in the numbers of peas in the same pod, i. 328; wild vines in spain, i. 332; on raising peaches from seed, i. 339; supposed specific distinctness of peach and nectarine, i. 340; nectarine producing peaches, i. 341; on the flower of _corydalis_, i. 344; origin and variations of the plum, i. 345; origin of the cherry, i. 347; reversion of single-leaved strawberries, i. 353; five-leaved variety of _fragaria collina_, i. 353; supposed immutability of specific characters, i. 358-359; varieties of _robinia_, i. 361; permanency of the simple-leaved ash, i. 362; non-inheritance of certain mutilations, ii. 23; wild turnips, carrots, and celery, ii. 33; pre-potency of a goat-like ram, ii. 66; benefit of change of soil to plants, ii. 146; fertility of peloric flowers of _corydalis solida_, ii. 167; seeding of ordinarily seedless fruit, ii. 168; sexual sterility of plants propagated by buds, &c., ii. 169; increase of sugar in beet-root, ii. 201; effects of selection in enlarging particular parts of plants, ii. 217; growth of the cabbage in the tropics, ii. 277; rejection of bitter almonds by mice, ii. 232; influence of marshy pasture on the fleece of sheep, ii. 278; on the ears of ancient egyptian pigs, ii. 301; primitive distinctness of species, ii. 415; solid hoofed swine, ii. 429. goethe, on compensation of growth, ii. 342. goldfish, i. 296-297, ii. 236. gomara, on south american cats, i. 46. gongora, number of seeds in the, ii. 379. goose, ancient domestication of, i. 287; sacred to juno in rome, _ibid._; inflexibility of organisation of, i. 288; skull perforated in tufted, i. 288; characters of breeds and sub-breeds of, i. 288-289; variety of, from sebastopol, i. 289, ii. 392; feral in la plata, i. 190; egyptian, hybrid of, with penguin duck, ii. 68; spontaneous segregation of varieties of, ii. 104; fertility of, increased by domestication, ii. 112; decreased fertility of, in bogota, ii. 161; sterility of, in the philippine islands, ii. 162; selection of, ii. 204; white, preference of the romans for the liver of, ii. 209; persistency of character in, ii. 254; egyptian, change in breeding season of, ii. 304. gooseberry, i. 354-356; bud-variation in the, i. 376; whitesmith's, ii. 232. göppert, on monstrous poppies, ii. 166. gosse, p. h., feral dogs in jamaica, i. 28; feral pigs of jamaica, i. 77-78; feral rabbits of jamaica, i. 112; on _columba leucocephala_, i. 183; feral guinea fowl in jamaica, i. 190; reproduction of individual peculiarities by gemmation in a coral, i. 374; frequency of striped legs in mules, ii. 42. gould, dr., on hereditary hæmorrhage, ii. 7. gould, john, origin of the turkey, i. 292. _goura coronata_ and _victoriæ_, hybrids of, i. 194, ii. 155. gourds, i. 357; crossing of varieties of, ii. 108; ancient peruvian variety of, ii. 429. gout, inheritance of, ii. 7; period of appearance of, ii. 77. graba, on the pigeon of the faroe islands, i. 183. grafting, ii. 147; effects of, ii. 259, 278; upon the stock, i. 394-395; upon the variability of trees, ii. 259; changes analogous to bud-variation produced by, i. 387, 389. graft-hybrids, i. 390-391, 394-397, ii. 364-365. grapes, bud-variation in, i. 375; cross of white and purple, i. 393; green, liable to disease, ii. 336; effect of foreign pollen on, i. 400. grasses, seeds of, used as food by savages, i. 307-309. gray, asa, superior wild varieties of fruit-trees, i. 310; cultivated native plants of north america, i. 312, 357; non-variation of weeds, i. 317; supposed spontaneous crossing of pumpkins, i. 399; pre-ordination of variation, ii. 432; progeny of husked form of maize, i. 320; wild intermediate forms of strawberries, i. 352. gray, g. r., on _columba gymnocyclus_, i. 184. gray, j. e., on _sus pliciceps_, i. 70; on a variety of the gold-fish, i. 297; hybrids of the ass and zebra, ii. 42-43; on the breeding of animals at knowsley, ii. 149; on the breeding of birds in captivity, ii. 157. greene, j. reay, on the development of the echinodermata, ii. 367. greenhow, mr., on a canadian web-footed dog, i. 39. greening, mr., experiments on _abraxas grossulariata_, ii. 280. gregson, mr., experiments on _abraxas grossulariata_, ii. 280. grey, sir george, preservation of seed-bearing plants by the australian savages, i. 310; {455} detestation of incest by australian savages, ii. 123. greyhounds, sculptured on egyptian monuments, and in the villa of antoninus, i. 17; modern breed of, i. 41; crossed with the bulldog, by lord orford, ii. 95; co-ordination of structure of, due to selection, ii. 221-222; italian, ii. 227. greyness, inherited at corresponding periods of life, ii. 77. grieve, mr., on early-flowering dahlias, i. 370. grigor, mr., acclimatisation of the scotch fir, ii. 310. groom-napier, c. o., on the webbed feet of the otter-hound, i. 40. "grosses-gorges" (pigeons), i. 137. ground-tumbler, indian, i. 150. grouse, fertility of, in captivity, ii. 156. grönland, hybrids of _ægilops_ and wheat, ii. 110. _grus montigresia_, _cinerea_, and _antigone_, ii. 156. guanacos, selection of, ii. 207. guans, general fertility of, in captivity, ii. 156. guelder-rose, ii. 185. guelderland fowls, i. 230. guiana, selection of dogs by the indians of, ii. 206. guinea fowl, i. 294; feral in ascension, and jamaica, i. 190, ii. 33; indifference of to change of climate, ii. 161. guinea pig, ii. 24, 152. güldenstadt, on the jackal, i. 25. gull, herring, breeding in confinement, ii. 157. gulls, general sterility of, in captivity, ii. 157. _gulo_, sterility of, in captivity, ii. 152. günther, a., on tufted ducks and geese, i. 274; on the regeneration of lost parts in batrachia, ii. 15. gurney, mr., owls breeding in captivity, ii. 154; appearance of "black-shouldered" among ordinary peacocks, i. 291. habit, influence of, in acclimatisation, ii. 312-315. habits, inheritance of, ii. 395. häckel, on cells, ii. 370; on the double reproduction of medusæ, ii. 384; on inheritance, ii. 397. hackles, peculiarities of, in fowls, i. 254. hair, on the face, inheritance of, in man, ii. 4; peculiar lock of, inherited, ii. 5; growth of, under stimulation of skin, ii. 326; homologous variation of, ii. 325; development of, within the ears and in the brain, ii. 391. hair and teeth, correlation of, ii. 326-328. hairy family, corresponding period of inheritance in, ii. 77. half-castes, character of, ii. 46. half-lop rabbits, figured and described, i. 107-108; skull of, i. 119. _haliætus leucocephalus_, copulating in captivity, ii. 154. hallam, col., on a two-legged race of pigs, ii. 4. hamburgh fowl, i. 227, 261; figured, i. 228. hamilton, wild cattle of, i. 84. hamilton, dr., on the assumption of male plumage by the hen pheasant, ii. 51. hamilton, f. buchanan, on the shaddock, i. 335; varieties of indian cultivated plants, ii. 256. hancock, mr., sterility of tamed birds, ii. 155-157. handwriting, inheritance of peculiarities in, ii. 6. hanmer, sir j., on selection of flower seeds, ii. 204. hansell, mr., inheritance of dark yolks in duck's eggs, i. 281. harcourt, e. v., on the arab boar-hound, i. 17; aversion of the arabs to dun-coloured horses, i. 55. hardy, mr., effect of excess of nourishment on plants, ii. 257. hare, hybrids of, with rabbit, i. 105; sterility of the, in confinement, ii. 152; preference of, for particular plants, ii. 232. hare-lip, inheritance of, ii. 24. harlan, dr., on hereditary diseases, ii. 7. harmer, mr., on the number of eggs in a codfish, ii. 379. harvey, mr., monstrous red and white african bull, i. 91. harvey, prof., singular form of _begonia frigida_, i. 365-366; effects of cross-breeding on the female, i. 404; monstrous saxifrage, ii. 166. hasora wheat, i. 313. hautbois strawberry, i. 353. hawker, col., on call or decoy ducks, i. 281. hawthorn, varieties of, i. 360-364; pyramidal, i. 361; pendulous hybridised, ii. 18; changes of, by age, i. 364, 387; bud-variation in the, i. 377; flower buds of, attacked by bullfinches, ii. 232. hayes, dr., character of esquimaux dogs, i. 21-22. haywood, w., on the feral rabbits of porto santo, i. 114. hazel, purple-leaved, i. 362, 395, ii. 330. head of wild boar and yorkshire pig, figured, i. 72. {456} head and limbs, correlated variability of, ii. 323. headache, inheritance of, ii. 79. heartsease, i. 368-369; change produced in the, by transplantation, i. 386; reversion in, ii. 31, 47; effects of selection on, ii. 200; scorching of, ii. 229; effects of seasonal conditions on the, ii. 274; annual varieties of the, ii. 305. heat, effect of, upon the fleece of sheep, i. 98. heber, bishop, on the breeding of the rhinoceros in captivity, ii. 150. hebrides, cattle of the, i. 80; pigeons of the, i. 183. heer, o., on the plants of the swiss lake-dwellings, i. 309, ii. 215, 427; on the cereals, i. 317-319; on the peas, i. 326; on the vine growing in italy in the bronze age, i. 332. _helix lactea_, ii. 280. _hemerocallis fulva_ and _flava_, interchanging by bud-variation, i. 386. hemlock yields no conicine in scotland, ii. 274. hemp, differences of, in various parts of india, ii. 165; climatal difference in products of, ii. 274. hempseed, effect of, upon the colour of birds, ii. 280. hermaphrodite flowers, occurrence of, in maize, i. 321. hen, assumption of male characters by the, ii. 51, 54; development of spurs in the, ii. 318. "hennies," or hen-like male fowls, i. 252. henry, t. a., a variety of the ash produced by grafting, i. 394; crossing of species of _rhododendron_ and _arabis_, i. 400. henslow, prof., individual variation in wheat, i. 314; bud-variation in the austrian bramble rose, i. 381; partial reproduction of the weeping ash by seed, ii. 19. hepatica, changed by transplantation, i. 386. herbert, dr., variations of _viola grandiflora_, i. 368; bud-variation in camellias, i. 377; seedlings from reverted _cytisus adami_, i. 388; crosses of swedish and other turnips, ii. 93; on hollyhocks, ii. 107; breeding of hybrids, ii. 131; self-impotence in hybrid hippeastrums, ii. 138-139; hybrid _gladiolus_, ii. 139; on _zephyranthes candida_, ii. 164; fertility of the crocus, ii. 165; on contabescence, ii. 165; hybrid _rhododendron_, ii. 265. herculaneum, figure of a pig found in, i. 67. heron, sir r., appearance of "black-shouldered" among ordinary peacocks, i. 290-291; non-inheritance of monstrous characters by goldfish, i. 296; crossing of white and coloured angora rabbits, ii. 92; crosses of solid-hoofed pigs, ii. 93. _herpestes fasciatus_ and _griseus_, ii. 151. heusinger, on the sheep of the tarentino, ii. 227; on correlated constitutional peculiarities, ii. 337. hewitt, mr., reversion in bantam cocks, i. 240; degeneration of silk fowls, i. 243; partial sterility of hen-like male fowls, i. 252; production of tailed chickens by rumpless fowls, i. 259; on taming and rearing wild ducks, i. 278-279, ii. 233, 262-263; conditions of inheritance in laced sebright bantams, ii. 22; reversion in rumpless fowls, ii. 31; reversion in fowls by age, ii. 39; hybrids of pheasant and fowl, ii. 45, 68; assumption of male characters by female pheasants, ii. 51; development of latent characters in a barren bantam hen, ii. 54; mongrels from the silk-fowl, ii. 67; effects of close interbreeding on fowls, ii. 124-125; on feathered-legged bantams, ii. 323. hibbert, mr., on the pigs of the shetland islands, i. 70. highland cattle, descended from _bos longifrons_, i. 81. hildebrand, dr., on the fertilisation of _orchideæ_, i. 402-403; occasional necessary crossing of plants, ii. 90; on _primula sinensis_ and _oxalis rosea_, ii. 132; on _corydalis cava_, ii. 132-133. hill, r., on the alco, i. 31; feral rabbits in jamaica, i. 112; feral peacocks in jamaica, i. 190; variation of the guinea fowl in jamaica, i. 294; sterility of tamed birds in jamaica, ii. 155, 157. himalaya, range of gallinaceous birds in the, i. 237. himalayan rabbit, i. 107, 108-111; skull of, i. 120. himalayan sheep, i. 95. hindmarsh, mr., on chillingham cattle, i. 84. "hinkel-taube," i. 142-143. hinny and mule, difference of, ii. 67-68. _hipparion_, anomalous resemblance to in horses, i. 50. _hippeastrum_, hybrids of, ii. 138-139. hive-bees, ancient domestication of, i. 297; breeds of, i. 298; smaller when produced in old combs, i. 297; variability in, i. 298; crossing of ligurian and common, i. 299. "hocker-taube," i. 141. hobbs, fisher, on interbreeding pigs, ii. 121. hodgkin, dr., on the attraction of foxes by a female dingo, i. 31; {457} origin of the newfoundland dog, i. 42; transmission of a peculiar lock of hair, ii. 5. hodgson, mr., domestication of _canis primævus_, i. 26; development of a fifth digit in thibet mastiffs, i. 35; number of ribs in humped cattle, i. 79; on the sheep of the himalaya, i. 95; presence of four mammæ in sheep, _ibid._; arched nose in sheep, i. 96; measurements of the intestines of goats, i. 102; presence of interdigital pits in goats, _ibid._; disuse a cause of drooping ears, ii. 301. hofacker, persistency of colour in horses, i. 51, ii. 21; production of dun horses from parents of different colours, i. 59; inheritance of peculiarities in handwriting, ii. 6; heredity in a one-horned stag, ii. 12; on consanguineous marriages, ii. 123. hog, red river, ii. 150. hogg, mr., retardation of breeding in cows by hard living, ii. 112. holland, sir h., necessity of inheritance, ii. 2; on hereditary diseases, ii. 7; hereditary peculiarity in the eyelid, ii. 8; morbid uniformity in the same family, ii. 17; transmission of hydrocele through the female, ii. 52; inheritance of habits and tricks, ii. 395. holly, varieties of the, i. 360, 362; bud-reversion in, i. 384; yellow-berried, ii. 19, 230. hollyhock, bud-variation in, i. 378; non-crossing of double varieties of, ii. 107; tender variety of the, ii. 310. homer, notice of geese, i. 287; breeding of the horses of æneas, ii. 202. homologous parts, correlated variability of, ii. 322-331, 354-355; fusion of, ii. 393; affinity of, ii. 339-342. hoofs, correlated with hair in variation, ii. 325. hook-billed duck, skull figured, i. 282. hooker, dr. j. d., forked shoulder-stripe in syrian asses, i. 63; voice of the cock in sikkim, i. 259; use of arum-roots as food, i. 307; native useful plants of australia, i. 311; wild walnut of the himalayas, i. 356; variety of the plane tree, i. 362; production of _thuja orientalis_ from seeds of _t. pendula_, i. 362; singular form of _begonia frigida_, i. 365; reversion in plants run wild, ii. 33; on the sugar-cane, ii. 169; on arctic plants, ii. 256; on the oak grown at the cape of good hope, ii. 274; on _rhododendron ciliatum_, ii. 277; stock and mignonette, perennial in tasmania, ii. 305. hopkirk, mr., bud-variation in the rose, i. 381; in _mirabilis jalapa_, i. 382; in _convolvulus tricolor_, i. 408. hornbeam, heterophyllous, i. 362. horned fowl, i. 229; skull figured, i. 265. hornless cattle in paraguay, i. 89. horns of sheep, i. 95; correlation of, with fleece in sheep, ii. 326; correlation of, with the skull, ii. 333; rudimentary in young polled cattle, ii. 315; of goats, i. 102. horses, in swiss lake-dwellings, i. 49; different breeds of, in malay archipelago, i. 49; anomalies in osteology and dentition of, i. 50; mutual fertility of different breeds, i. 51; feral, i. 51; habit of scraping away snow, i. 53; mode of production of breeds of, i. 54; inheritance and diversity of colour in, i. 55; dark stripes in, i. 56-61, ii. 351; dun-coloured, origin of, i. 59; colours of feral, i. 60-61; effect of fecundation by a quagga on the subsequent progeny of, i. 403-404; inheritance of peculiarities in, ii. 10-11; polydactylism in, ii. 14; inheritance of colour in, ii. 21; inheritance of exostoses in legs of, ii. 23; reversion in, ii. 33, 41; hybrids of, with ass and zebra, ii. 42; prepotency of transmission in the sexes of, ii. 65; segregation of, in paraguay, ii. 102; wild species of, breeding in captivity, ii. 150; curly, in paraguay, ii. 205, 325; selection of, for trifling characters, ii. 209; unconscious selection of, ii. 212-213; natural selection in circassia, ii. 225; alteration of coat of, in coal-mines, ii. 278; degeneration of, in the falkland islands, ii. 278; diseases of, caused by shoeing, ii. 300; feeding on meat, ii. 305; white and white-spotted, poisoned by mildewed vetches, ii. 337; analogous variations in the colour of, ii. 349; teeth developed on palate of, ii. 391; of bronze period in denmark, ii. 427. horse-chesnut, early, at the tuileries, i. 362; tendency to doubleness in, ii. 168. horse-radish, general sterility of the, ii. 170. "houdan," a french sub-breed of fowls, i. 229. howard, c., on an egyptian monument, i. 17; on crossing sheep, ii. 95, 120. huc, on the emperor khang-hi, ii. 205; chinese varieties of the bamboo, ii. 256. humboldt, a., character of the zambos, ii. 47; parrot speaking the language of an extinct tribe, ii. 154; on _pulex penetrans_, ii. 275. humidity, injurious effect of, upon horses, i. 53. humphreys, col., on ancon sheep, i. 100. hungarian cattle, i. 80. {458} hunter, john, period of gestation in the dog, i. 29; on secondary sexual characters, i. 179; fertile crossing of _anser ferus_ and the domestic goose, i. 288; inheritance of peculiarities in gestures, voice, &c., ii. 6; assumption of male characters by the human female, ii. 51; period of appearance of hereditary diseases, ii. 78; graft of the spur of a cock upon its comb, ii. 296; on the stomach of _larus tridentatus_, ii. 302; double-tailed lizards, ii. 341. hunter, w., evidence against the influence of imagination upon the offspring, ii. 264. hutton, capt., on the variability of the silk moth, i. 303; on the number of species of silkworms, i. 300; markings of silkworms, i. 302; domestication of the rock-pigeon in india, i. 185; domestication and crossing of _gallus bankiva_, i. 236. hutchinson, col., liability of dogs to distemper, i. 35. huxley, prof., on the transmission of polydactylism, ii. 13; on unconscious selection, ii. 194; on correlation in the mollusca, ii. 320; on gemmation and fission, ii. 359; development of star-fishes, ii. 366. hyacinths, i. 370-371; bud-variation in, i. 385; graft-hybrid by union of half bulbs of, i. 395; white, reproduced by seed, ii. 20; red, ii. 229, 336; varieties of, recognisable by the bulb, ii. 251. hyacinth, feather, ii. 185, 316. _hyacinthus orientalis_, i. 370. _hybiscus syriacus_, ii. 286. hybrids, of hare and rabbit, i. 105; of various species of _gallus_, i. 234-236; of almond, peach, and nectarine, i. 339; naturally produced, of species of _cytisus_, i. 390; from twin-seed of _fuchsia coccinea_ and _fulgens_, i. 391; reversion of, i. 392-394, ii. 36, 48-50; from mare, ass, and zebra, ii. 42; of tame animals, wildness of, ii. 44-46; female instincts of sterile male, ii. 52; transmission and blending of characters in, ii. 92-95; breed better with parent species than with each other, ii. 131; self-impotence in, ii. 138-140; readily produced in captivity, ii. 151. hybridisation, singular effects of, in oranges, i. 336; of cherries, i. 347; difficulty of, in _cucurbitæ_, i. 358; of roses, i. 366. hybridism, ii. 178-191; the cause of a tendency to double flowers, ii. 171; in relation to pangenesis, ii. 385. hybridity in cats, i. 44-45; supposed of peach and nectarine, i. 342. _hydra_, i. 374, ii. 293, 359. hydrangea, colour of flowers of, influenced by alum, ii. 277. hydrocele, ii. 52. hydrocephalus, ii. 295. _hypericum calycinum_, ii. 170. _hypericum crispum_, ii. 227, 337. hypermetamorphosis, ii. 367. hypermetropia, hereditary, ii. 8. ichthyopterygia, number of digits in the, ii. 16. _ilex aquifolium_, ii. 19. imagination, supposed effect of, on offspring, ii. 263. _imatophyllum miniatum_, bud-variation in, i. 385. incest, abhorred by savages, ii. 123-124. incubation, by crossed fowls of non-sitting varieties, ii. 43-44. india, striped horses of, i. 58; pigs of, i. 66, 67, 76; breeding of rabbits in, i. 112; cultivation of pigeons in, i. 205-206. individual variability in pigeons, i. 158-160. ingledew, mr., cultivation of european vegetables in india, ii. 169. "indische taube," ii. 144. inheritance, ii. 1-84, 371-373, 395, 397-402; doubts entertained of by some writers, ii. 3; importance of to breeders, 3-4; evidence of, derived from statistics of chances, 5; of peculiarities in man, 5-7, 12-16; of disease, 7-8, 17; of peculiarities in the eye, 8-10; of deviations from symmetry, 12; of polydactylism, 12-16; capriciousness of, 17-22, 27; of mutilations, 22-24; of congenital monstrosities, 24; causes of absence of, 24-26; by reversion or atavism, 28-61; its connexion with fixedness of character, 62-64; affected by prepotency of transmission of character, 65-71; limited by sex, 71-75; at corresponding periods of life, 75-80; summary of the subject of, 80-84; laws of, the same in seminal and bud varieties, i. 409; of characters in the horse, i. 10-11; in cattle, i. 87; in rabbits, i. 107; in the peach, i. 339; in the nectarine, i. 340; in plums, i. 347; in apples, i. 350; in pears, i. 351; in the pansy, i. 369; of primary characters of _columba livia_ in crossed pigeons, i. 201; of peculiarities of plumage in pigeons, i. 160-161; of peculiarities of foliage in trees, i. 362; effects of, in varieties of the cabbage, i. 325. insanity, inheritance of, ii. 7, 78. insects, regeneration of lost parts in, ii. 15, 294; agency of, in fecundation of larkspurs, ii. 21; effect of changed conditions upon, ii. 157; sterile neuter, ii. 186-187; {459} monstrosities in, ii. 269, 391. instincts, defective, of silkworms, i. 304. interbreeding, close, ill effects of, ii. 114-131, 175. intercrossing, of species, as a cause of variation, i. 188; natural, of plants, i. 336; of species of canidæ and breeds of dogs, i. 31-33; of domestic and wild cats, i. 44-45; of breeds of pigs, i. 71, 78; of cattle, i. 83; of varieties of cabbage, i. 324; of peas, i. 326, 329-330; of varieties of orange, i. 336; of species of strawberries, i. 351-352; of _cucurbitæ_, i. 357-358; of flowering plants, i. 364; of pansies, i. 368. interdigital pits, in goats, i. 102. intermarriages, close, ii. 122-123. intestines, elongation of, in pigs, i. 73; relative measurements of parts of, in goats, i. 102; effects of changed diet on, ii. 302. _ipomoea purpurea_, ii. 128. ireland, remains of _bos frontosus_ and _longifrons_ found in, i. 81. iris, hereditary absence of the, ii. 9; hereditary peculiarities of colour of the, ii. 9-10. irish, ancient, selection practised by the, ii. 203. iron period, in europe, dog of, i. 18. islands, oceanic, scarcity of useful plants on, i. 311. islay, pigeons of, i. 183. isolation, effect of, in favour of selection, ii. 233-234. italy, vine growing in, during the bronze period, i. 332. ivy, sterility of, in the north of europe, ii. 170. jack, mr., effect of foreign pollen on grapes, i. 400. jackal, i. 24, 27, 30; hybrids of, with the dog, i. 32; prepotency of, over the dog, ii. 67. jacobin pigeon, i. 154, 208. jacquemet-bonnefort, on the mulberry, i. 334. jaguar, with crooked legs, i. 17. jamaica, feral dogs of, i. 28; feral pigs of, i. 77; feral rabbits of, i. 112. japan, horses of, i. 53. japanese pig (figured), i. 69. jardine, sir w., crossing of domestic and wild cats, i. 44. jarves, j., silkworm in the sandwich islands, i. 301. java, fantail pigeon in, i. 148. javanese ponies, i. 53, 59. jemmy button, i. 309. jenyns, l., whiteness of ganders, i. 288; sunfish-like variety of the goldfish, i. 297. jerdon, j. c., number of eggs laid by the pea-hen, ii. 112; origin of domestic fowl, i. 237. jersey, arborescent cabbages of, i. 323. jessamine, i. 394. jeitteles, hungarian sheep-dogs, i. 24; crossing of domestic and wild cats, i. 44. john, king, importation of stallions from flanders by, ii. 203. johnson, d., occurrence of stripes on young wild pigs in india, i. 76. jordan, a., on vibert's experiments on the vine, i. 332; origin of varieties of the apple, i. 350; varieties of pears found wild in woods, ii. 260. jourdan, parthenogenesis in the silk moth, ii. 364. juan de nova, wild dogs on, i. 27. juan fernandez, dumb dogs on, i. 27. _juglans regia_, i. 356-357. jukes, prof., origin of the newfoundland dog, i. 42. julien, stanislas, early domestication of pigs in china, i. 68; antiquity of the domestication of the silk-worm in china, i. 300. jumpers, a breed of fowls, i. 230. juniper, variations of the, i. 361, 364. _juniperus suecica_, i. 361. _jussiæa grandiflora_, ii. 170. jussieu, a. de, structure of the pappus in _carthamus_, ii. 316. kail, scotch, reversion in, ii. 32. "kala-par" pigeon, i. 142. kales, i. 323. kalm, p., on maize, i. 322, ii. 307; introduction of wheat into canada, i. 315; sterility of trees growing in marshes and dense woods, ii. 170. "kalmi lotan," tumbler pigeon, i. 151. kane, dr., on esquimaux dogs, i. 21. karakool sheep, i. 98. karkeek, on inheritance in the horse, ii. 10. "karmeliten taube," i. 156. karsten on _pulex penetrans_, ii. 275. kattywar horses, i. 58. keeley, r., pelorism in _galeobdolon luteum_, ii. 59. kerner on the culture of alpine plants, ii. 163. kestrel, breeding in captivity, ii. 154. "khandési," i. 141. khang-hi, selection of a variety of rice by, ii. 205. kiang, ii. 43. kidd, on the canary bird, i. 77, ii. 275. kidney bean, i. 371; varieties of, ii. 256, 275. {460} kidneys, compensatory development of the, ii. 300; fusion of the, ii. 341; shape of, in birds, influenced by the form of the pelvis, ii. 344. king, col., domestication of rock doves from the orkneys, i. 184, 185. king, p. s., on the dingo, i. 21, 28. kirby and spence, on the growth of galls, ii. 283. kirghisian sheep, i. 98. kite, breeding in captivity, ii. 154. kleine, variability of bees, i. 298. knight, andrew, on crossing horses of different breeds, i. 51; crossing varieties of peas, i. 326, ii. 129; persistency of varieties of peas, i. 329; origin of the peach, i. 338; hybridisation of the morello by the elton cherry, i. 347; on seedling cherries, _ibid._; variety of the apple not attacked by coccus, i. 349; intercrossing of strawberries, i, 351, 352; broad variety of the cock's comb, i. 365; bud variation in the cherry and plum, i. 375; crossing of white and purple grapes, i. 393; experiments in crossing apples, i. 402, ii. 129; hereditary disease in plants, ii. 11; on interbreeding, ii. 116; crossed varieties of wheat, ii. 130; necessity of intercrossing in plants, ii. 175; on variation, ii. 256, 257; effects of grafting, i. 387, ii. 278; bud-variation in a plum, ii. 289; compulsory flowering of early potatoes, ii. 343; correlated variation of head and limbs, ii. 323. knox, mr., breeding of the eagle owl in captivity, ii. 154. koch, degeneracy in the turnip, i. 325. kohlrabi, i. 323. kölreuter, reversion in hybrids, i. 392, ii. 36; acquired sterility of crossed varieties of plants, i. 358, ii. 101; absorption of _mirabilis vulgaris_ by _m. longiflora_, ii. 88; crosses of species of _verbascum_, ii. 93, 107; on the hollyhock, ii. 107; crossing varieties of tobacco, ii. 108; benefits of crossing plants, ii. 130, 131, 175-176; self-impotence in _verbascum_, ii. 136, 141; effects of conditions of growth upon fertility in _mirabilis_, ii. 164; great development of tubers in hybrid plants, ii. 172; inheritance of plasticity, ii. 241; variability of hybrids of _mirabilis_, ii. 265; repeated crossing a cause of variation, ii. 267-268; number of pollen-grains necessary for fertilization, ii. 363. "krauseschwein," i. 67. krohn, on the double reproduction of medusæ, ii. 384. "kropf-tauben," i. 137. labat, on the tusks of feral bears in the west indies, i. 77; on french wheat grown in the west indies, ii. 307; on the culture of the vine in the west indies, ii. 308. laburnum, adam's, see _cytisus adami_; oak-leaved, reversion of, i. 382; pelorism in the, ii. 346; waterer's, i. 390. lachmann, on gemmation and fission, ii. 358. _lachnanthes tinctoria_, ii. 227, 336. lactation, imperfect, hereditary, ii. 8; deficient, of wild animals in captivity, ii. 158. ladrone islands, cattle of, i. 86. laing, mr., resemblance of norwegian and devonshire cattle, i. 82. lake-dwellings, sheep of, i. 94, ii. 427; cattle of, ii. 427; absence of the fowl in, i. 246; cultivated plants of, i. 309, ii. 427, 429; cereals of, i. 317-319; peas found in, i. 326; beans found in, i. 330. lamare-piquot, observations on half-bred north american wolves, i. 22. lambert, a. b., on _thuja pendula_ or _filiformis_, i. 362. lambert family, ii. 4, 76. lambertye on strawberries, i. 351, 352; five-leaved variety of _fragaria collina_, i. 353. landt, l., on sheep in the faroe islands, ii. 103. la plata, wild dogs of, i. 27; feral cat from, i. 47. larch, ii. 310. larkspurs, insect agency necessary for the full fecundation of, ii. 21. _larus argentatus_, ii. 157. _larus tridactylus_, ii. 302. lasterye, merino sheep in different countries, i. 99. latent characters, ii. 51-56. latham, on the fowl not breeding in the extreme north, ii. 161. _lathyrus_, ii. 38. _lathyrus aphaca_, ii. 343. _lathyrus odoratus_, ii. 20, 91, 93, 311, 393. la touche, j. d., on a canadian apple with dimidiate fruit, i. 392-393. "latz-taube," i. 154. laugher pigeon, i. 155, 207. _laurus sassafras_, ii. 274. lawrence, j., production of a new breed of fox-hounds, i. 40; occurrence of canines in mares, i. 50; on three-parts-bred horses, i. 54; on inheritance in the horse, ii. 10-11. lawson, mr., varieties of the potato, i. 330. laxton, mr., bud-variation in the gooseberry, i. 376; crossing of varieties of the pea, i. 397-398; {461} double-flowered peas, ii. 168. layard, e. l., resemblance of a caffre dog to the esquimaux breed, i. 25, ii. 286; crossing of the domestic cat with _felis caffra_, i. 44; feral pigeons in ascension, i. 190; domestic pigeons of ceylon, i. 206; on _gallus stanleyi_, i. 234; on black-skinned ceylonese fowls, i. 256. le compte family, blindness inherited in, ii. 78. lecoq, bud-variation in _mirabilis jalapa_, i. 382; hybrids of _mirabilis_, i. 393, ii. 169, 265; crossing in plants, ii. 127; fecundation of _passiflora_, ii. 137; hybrid _gladiolus_, ii. 139; sterility of _ranunculus ficaria_, ii. 170; villosity in plants, ii. 277; double asters, ii. 316. le couteur, j., varieties of wheat, i. 313-315; acclimatisation of exotic wheat in europe, i. 315; adaptation of wheat to soil and climate, i. 316; selection of seed-corn, i. 318; on change of soil, ii. 147; selection of wheat, ii. 200; natural selection in wheat, ii. 233; cattle of jersey, ii. 234. ledger, mr., on the llama and alpaca, ii. 208. lee, mr., his early culture of the pansy, i. 368. _leersia oryzoides_, ii. 91. lefour, period of gestation in cattle, i. 87. legs, of fowls, effects of disuse on, i. 270-272; characters and variations of, in ducks, i. 284-288; fusion of, ii. 341. leguat, cattle of the cape of good hope, i. 88. lehmann, occurrence of wild double-flowered plants near a hot spring, ii. 168. leighton, w. a., propagation of a weeping yew by seed, ii. 19. leitner, effects of the removal of anthers, ii. 167. lemming, ii. 152. lemoine, variegated _symphytum_ and _phlox_, i. 384. lemon, i. 334, 335; orange fecundated by pollen of the, i. 399. lemurs, hybrid, ii. 153. leporides, ii. 98-99, 152. lepsius, figures of ancient egyptian dogs, i. 17; domestication of pigeons in ancient egypt, i. 204. _leptotes_, ii. 134. _lepus glacialis_, i. 111. _lepus magellanicus_, i. 112. _lepus nigripes_, i. 108. _lepus tibetanus_, i. 111. _lepus variabilis_, i. 111. lereboullet, double monsters of fishes, ii. 340. leslie, on scotch wild cattle, i. 85. lesson, on _lepus magellanicus_, i. 112. leuckart on the larva of cecidomyidæ, ii. 360. lewis, g., cattle of the west indies, ii. 229. lherbette and quatrefages, on the horses of circassia, ii. 102, 225. liebig, differences in human blood, according to complexion, ii. 276. liebreich, occurrence of pigmentary retinitis in deaf-mutes, ii. 328. lichens, sterility in, ii. 171. lichtenstein, resemblance of bosjesman's dogs to _canis mesomelas_, i. 25; newfoundland dog at the cape of good hope, i. 36. lilacs, ii. 164. liliaceæ, contabescence in, ii. 165. _lilium candidum_, ii. 137. limbs, regeneration of, ii. 376-377. limbs and head, correlated variation of, ii. 323. lime, effect of, upon shells of the mollusca, ii. 280. lime tree, changes of by age, i. 364, 387. limitation, sexual, ii. 71-75. limitation, supposed, of variation, ii. 416. _linaria_, pelorism in, ii. 58, 61, 346; peloric, crossed with the normal form, ii. 70; sterility of, ii. 166. _linaria vulgaris_ and _purpurea_, hybrids of, ii. 94. lindley, john, classification of varieties of cabbages, i. 324; origin of the peach, i. 338; influence of soil on peaches and nectarines, i. 340; varieties of the peach and nectarine, i. 343; on the new town pippin, i. 349; freedom of the winter majetin apple from coccus, i. 349; production of monoecious hautbois strawberries by bud-selection, i. 353; origin of the large tawny nectarine, i. 375; bud-variation in the gooseberry, i. 376; hereditary disease in plants, ii. 11; on double flowers, ii. 167; seeding of ordinarily seedless fruits, ii. 168; sterility of _acorus calamus_, ii. 170; resistance of individual plants to cold, ii. 309. linnæus, summer and winter wheat regarded as distinct species by, i. 315; on the single-leaved strawberry, i. 353; sterility of alpine plants in gardens, ii. 163; recognition of individual reindeer by the laplanders, ii. 251; growth of tobacco in sweden, ii. 307. linnet, ii. 158. _linota cannabina_, ii. 158. {462} linum, ii. 165. lion, fertility of, in captivity, ii. 150, 151. lipari, feral rabbits of, i. 113. livingstone, dr., striped young pigs on the zambesi, i. 77; domestic rabbits at loanda, i. 112; use of grass-seeds as food in africa, i. 308; planting of fruit-trees by the batokas, i. 309; character of half-castes, ii. 46; taming of animals among the barotse, ii. 160; selection practised in south africa, ii. 207, 209. livingstone, mr., disuse a cause of drooping ears, ii. 301. lizards, reproduction of tail in, ii. 294; with a double tail, ii. 341. llama, selection of, ii. 208. lloyd, mr., taming of the wolf, i. 26; english dogs in northern europe, i. 36; fertility of the goose increased by domestication, i. 288; number of eggs laid by the wild goose, ii. 112; breeding of the capercailzie in captivity, ii. 156. loanda, domestic rabbits at, i. 112. _loasa_, hybrid of two species of, ii. 98. _lobelia_, reversion in hybrids of, ii. 392; contabescence in, ii. 166. _lobelia fulgens_, _cardinalis_, and _syphilitica_, ii. 136. lockhart, dr., on chinese pigeons, i. 206. locust-tree, ii. 274. loiseleur-deslongchamps, originals of cultivated plants, i. 307; mongolian varieties of wheat, i. 313; characters of the ear in wheat, i. 314; acclimatisation of exotic wheat in europe, i. 315; effect of change of climate on wheat, i. 316; on the supposed necessity of the coincident variation of weeds and cultivated plants, i. 317; advantage of change of soil to plants, ii. 146. _lolium temulentum_, variable presence of barbs in, i. 314. long-tailed sheep, i. 94, 95. loochoo islands, horses of, i. 53. lord, j. k., on canis latrans, i. 22. "lori rajah," how produced, ii. 280. _lorius garrulus_, ii. 280. "lotan," tumbler pigeon, i. 150. loudon, j. w., varieties of the carrot, i. 326; short duration of varieties of peas, i. 329; on the glands of peach-leaves, i. 343; presence of bloom on russian apples, i. 349; origin of varieties of the apple, i. 350; varieties of the gooseberry, i. 354; on the nut tree, i. 357; varieties of the ash, i. 360; fastigate juniper (_j. suecica_), i. 361; on _ilex aquifolium ferox_, i. 362; varieties of the scotch fir, i. 363; varieties of the hawthorn, _ibid._; variation in the persistency of leaves on the elm and turkish oak, i. 363; importance of cultivated varieties, _ibid._; varieties of _rosa spinosissima_, i. 367; variation of dahlias from the same seed, i. 370; production of provence roses from seeds of the moss rose, i. 380; effect of grafting the purple-leaved upon the common hazel, i. 395; nearly evergreen cornish variety of the elm, ii. 310. low, g., on the pigs of the orkney islands, i. 70. low, prof., pedigrees of greyhounds, ii. 3; origin of the dog, i. 10; burrowing instinct of a half-bred dingo, i. 28; inheritance of qualities in horses, i. 51; comparative powers of english race-horses, arabs, &c., i. 54; british breeds of cattle, i. 80; wild cattle of chartley, i. 84; effect of abundance of food on the size of cattle, i. 91; effects of climate on the skin of cattle, i. 92, ii. 326; on interbreeding, ii. 116; selection in hereford cattle, ii. 214; formation of new breeds, ii. 244; on "sheeted" cattle, ii. 349. lowe, mr., on hive bees, i. 299. lowe, rev. mr., on the range of _pyrus malus_ and _p. acerba_, i. 348. "lowtan" tumbler pigeon, i. 150. _loxia pyrrhula_, ii. 154. lubbock, sir j., developments of the ephemeridæ, ii. 366. lucas, p., effects of cross-breeding on the female, i. 404; hereditary diseases, ii. 7, 78-79; hereditary affections of the eye, ii. 9-10; inheritance of anomalies in the human eye and in that of the horse, ii. 10, 11; inheritance of polydactylism, ii. 13; morbid uniformity in the same family, ii. 17; inheritance of mutilations, ii. 23; persistency of cross-reversion, ii. 35; persistency of character in breeds of animals in wild countries, ii. 64; prepotency of transmission, ii. 65, 68; supposed rules of transmission in crossing animals, ii. 68; sexual limitations of transmission of peculiarities, ii. 72-73; absorption of the minority in crossed races, ii. 88; crosses without blending of certain characters, ii. 92; on interbreeding, ii. 116; variability dependent on reproduction, ii. 250; period of action of variability, ii. 260; inheritance of deafness in cats, ii. 329; complexion and constitution, ii. 335. lucaze-duthiers, structure and growth of galls, ii. 282-284. luizet, grafting of a peach-almond on a peach, i. 338. {463} lütke, cats of the caroline archipelago, i. 47. luxuriance, of vegetative organs, a cause of sterility in plants, ii. 168-171. lyonnet, on the scission of _nais_, ii. 358. _lysimachia nummularia_, sterility of, ii. 170. _lythrum_, trimorphic species of, ii. 400. _lythrum salicaria_, ii. 183; contabescence in, ii. 166. _lytta vesicatoria_, affecting the kidneys, ii. 380. _macacus_, species of, bred in captivity, ii. 153. macaulay, lord, improvement of the english horse, ii. 213. mcclelland, dr., variability of fresh-water fishes in india, ii. 259. mccoy, prof., on the dingo, i. 26. macfayden, influence of soil in producing sweet or bitter oranges from the same seed, i. 335. macgillivray, domestication of the rock-dove, i. 185; feral pigeons in scotland, i. 190; number of vertebræ in birds, i. 266; on wild geese, i. 287; number of eggs of wild and tame ducks, ii. 112. mackenzie, sir g., peculiar variety of the potato, i. 330. mackenzie, p., bud-variation in the currant, i. 376. mackinnon, mr., horses of the falkland islands, i. 52; feral cattle of the falkland islands, i. 86. macknight, c., on interbreeding cattle, ii. 118. macnab, mr., on seedling weeping birches, ii. 18; non-production of the weeping beech by seed, ii. 19. madagascar, cats of, i. 47. madden, h., on interbreeding cattle, ii. 118. madeira, rock pigeon of, i. 184. _magnolia grandiflora_, ii. 308. maize, its unity of origin, i. 320; antiquity of, _ibid._; with husked grains said to grow wild, _ibid._; variation of, i. 321; irregularities in the flowers of, i. 321; persistence of varieties, _ibid._; adaptation of to climate, i. 322, ii. 307; acclimatisation of, ii. 313, 347; crossing of, i. 400, ii. 104-105; extinct peruvian varieties of, ii. 425. malay fowl, i. 227. malay archipelago, horses of, i. 53; short-tailed cats of, i. 47; striped young wild pigs of, i. 76; ducks of, i. 280. male, influence of, on the fecundated female, i. 397-406; supposed influence of, on offspring, ii. 68. male flowers, appearance of, among female flowers in maize, i. 321. malformations, hereditary, ii. 79. _malva_, fertilisation of, i. 402, ii. 363. _mamestra suasa_, ii. 157. mammæ, variable in number in the pig, i. 74; rudimentary, occasional full development of, in cows, i. 87, ii. 317; four present in some sheep, i. 95; variable in number in rabbits, i. 106; latent functions of, in male animals, ii. 52, 317; supernumerary and inguinal, in women, ii. 57. mangles, mr., annual varieties of the heartsease, ii. 305. mantell, mr., taming of birds by the new zealanders, ii. 161. manu, domestic fowl noticed in the institutes of, i. 246. manure, effect of, on the fertility of plants, ii. 163. manx cats, i. 46, ii. 66. marcel de serres, fertility of the ostrich, ii. 156. marianne islands, varieties of _pandanus_ in, ii. 256. markham, gervase, on rabbits, i. 104, ii. 204. markhor, probably one of the parents of the goat, i. 101. marquand, cattle of the channel islands, i. 80. marrimpoey, inheritance in the horse, ii. 10. marrow, vegetable, i. 357. marryatt, capt., breeding of asses in kentucky, ii. 237. marsden, notice of _gallus giganteus_, i. 235. marshall, mr., voluntary selection of pasture by sheep, i. 96; adaptation of wheats to soil and climate, i. 316; "dutch-buttocked" cattle, ii. 8; segregation of herds of sheep, ii. 103; advantage of change of soil to wheat and potatoes, ii. 146; fashionable change in the horns of cattle, ii. 210; sheep in yorkshire, ii. 235. marshall, prof., growth of the brain in microcephalous idiots, ii. 389. martens, e. von, on _achatinella_, ii. 53. martin, w. c. l., origin of the dog, i. 16; egyptian dogs, i. 18; barking of a mackenzie river dog, i. 27; african hounds in the tower menagerie, i. 32; on dun horses and dappled asses, i. 55; breeds of the horse, i. 49; wild horses, i. 51; syrian breeds of asses, i. 62; asses without stripes, i. 63; effects of cross-breeding on the female in dogs, i. 404; striped legs of mules, ii. 42. martins, defective instincts of silkworms, i. 304. martins, c., fruit trees of stockholm, ii. 307. {464} mason, w., bud-variation in the ash, i. 382. masters, dr., reversion in the spiral-leaved weeping willow, i. 383; on peloric flowers, ii. 58; pelorism in a clover, ii. 346; position as a cause of pelorism, ii. 345, 347. masters, mr., persistence of varieties of peas, i. 329; reproduction of colour in hyacinths, ii. 20; on hollyhocks, ii. 107; selection of peas for seed, ii. 199-200; on _opuntia leucotricha_, ii. 286; reversion by the terminal pea in the pod, ii. 347. mastiff, sculptured on an assyrian monument, i. 17, ii. 429; tibetan, i. 35-36, ii. 278. matthews, patrick, on forest trees, ii. 237. _matthiola annua_, i. 399, ii. 20. _matthiola incana_, i. 381, 399. mauchamp, merino sheep, i. 100. mauduyt, crossing of wolves and dogs in the pyrenees, i. 24. maund, mr. crossed varieties of wheat, ii. 130. maupertuis, axiom of "least action," i. 12. mauritius, importation of goats into, i. 101. maw, g., correlation of contracted leaves and flowers in pelargoniums, ii. 330, 331. mawz, fertility of _brassica rapa_, ii. 165. _maxillaria_, self-fertilised capsules of, ii. 134; number of seeds in, ii. 379. _maxillaria atro-rubens_, fertilisation of, by _m. squalens_, ii. 133. mayes, m., self-impotence in _amaryllis_, ii. 139. meckel, on the number of digits, ii. 13; correlation of abnormal muscles in the leg and arm, ii. 322. medusæ, development of, ii. 368, 384. meehan, mr., comparison of european and american trees, ii. 281. _meleagris mexicana_, i. 292. _meles taxus_, ii. 151. melons, i. 359-360; mongrel, supposed to be produced from a twin-seed, i. 391; crossing of varieties of, i. 399, ii. 108, 129; inferiority of, in roman times, ii. 216; changes in, by culture and climate, ii. 275; serpent, correlation of variations in, ii. 330; analogous variations in, ii. 349. membranes, false, ii. 294-295. ménétries, on the stomach of _strix grallaria_, ii. 302. meningitis, tubercular, inherited, ii. 78. metagenesis, ii. 366. metamorphosis, ii. 366. metamorphosis and development, ii. 388, 389. metzger, on the supposed species of wheat, i. 312-313; tendency of wheat to vary, i. 315; variation of maize, i. 321-322; cultivation of american maize in europe, i. 322, ii. 347; on cabbages, i. 323-325; acclimatisation of spanish wheat in germany, ii. 26; advantage of change of soil to plants, ii. 146; on rye, ii. 254; cultivation of different kinds of wheat, ii. 261. mexico, dog from, with tan spots on the eyes, i. 29; colours of feral horses in, i. 61. meyen, on sending of bananas, ii. 168. mice, grey and white, colours of, not blended by crossing, ii. 92; rejection of bitter almonds by, ii. 232; naked, ii. 279. michaux, f., roan-coloured feral horses of mexico, i. 61; origin of domestic turkey, i. 292; on raising peaches from seed, i. 339. michel, f., selection of horses in mediæval times, ii. 203; horses preferred on account of slight characters, ii. 209. michely, effects of food on caterpillars, ii. 280; on _bombyx hesperus_, ii. 304. microphthalmia, associated with defective teeth, ii. 328. middens, danish, remains of dogs in, i. 18, ii. 427. mignonette, ii. 237, 311. millet, i. 371. mills, j., diminished fertility of mares when first turned out to grass, ii. 161. milne-edwards, on the development of the crustacea, ii. 368. milne-edwards, a., on a crustacean with a monstrous eye-peduncle, ii. 391. _milvus niger_, ii. 154. _mimulus luteus_, ii. 128. minor, w. c., gemmation and fission in the annelida, ii. 358. _mirabilis_, fertilisation of, ii. 363; hybrids of, ii. 131, 169, 265. _mirabilis jalapa_, i. 382, 393. _mirabilis longiflora_, ii. 88. _mirabilis vulgaris_, ii. 88. _misocampus_ and _cecidomyia_, i. 5. mitchell, dr., effects of the poison of the rattlesnake, ii. 289. mitford, mr., notice of the breeding of horses by erichthonius, ii. 202. moccas court, weeping oak at, ii. 18. mogford, horses poisoned by fool's parsley, ii. 337. möller, l., effects of food on insects, ii. 281. moquin-tandon, original form of maize, i. 320; variety of the double columbine, i. 365; {465} peloric flowers, ii. 58-59, 61; position as a cause of pelorism in flowers, ii. 345; tendency of peloric flowers to become irregular, ii. 70; on monstrosities, ii. 254; correlation in the axis and appendages of plants, ii. 321; fusion of homologous parts in plants, ii. 339, 341-342; on a bean with monstrous stipules and abortive leaflets, ii. 343; conversion of parts of flowers, ii. 392. mole, white, ii. 332. moll and gayot, on cattle, i. 80, ii. 96, 210. mollusca, change in shells of, ii. 280. monke, lady, culture of the pansy by, i. 368. monkeys, rarely fertile in captivity, ii. 153. monnier, identity of summer and winter wheat, i. 315. monster, cyclopean, ii. 341. monsters, double, ii. 339-340. monstrosities, occurrence of, in domesticated animals and cultivated plants, i. 366, ii. 254; due to persistence of embryonic conditions, ii. 57; occurring by reversion, ii. 57-60; a cause of sterility, ii. 166-167; caused by injury to the embryo, ii. 269. montegazza, growth of a cock's-spur inserted into the eye of an ox, ii. 369. montgomery, e., formation of cells, ii. 370. moor, j. h., deterioration of the horse in malasia, i. 53. moorcroft, mr., on hasora wheat, i. 313; selection of white-tailed yaks, ii. 206; melon of kaschmir, ii. 275; varieties of the apricot cultivated in ladakh, i. 345; varieties of the walnut cultivated in kaschmir, i. 356. moore, mr., on breeds of pigeons, i. 148, 156, 208, 209, 211. mooruk, fertility of, in captivity, ii. 156. morlot, dogs of the danish middens, i. 18; sheep and horse of the bronze period, ii. 427. _mormodes ignea_, ii. 53. morocco, estimation of pigeons in, i. 205. morren, c., on pelorism, ii. 58; in _calceolaria_, ii. 346; non-coincidence of double flowers and variegated leaves, ii. 167. morris, mr., breeding of the kestrel in captivity, ii. 154. morton, lord, effect of fecundation by a quagga on an arab mare, i. 403-404. morton, dr., origin of the dog, i. 16; hybrid of zebra and mare, ii. 42. _morus alba_, i. 334. moscow, rabbits of, i. 106, 120; effects of cold on pear-trees at, ii. 307. mosses, sterility in, ii. 171; retrogressive metamorphosis in, ii. 361. moss-rose, probable origin of, from _rosa centifolia_, i. 379; provence roses produced from seeds of, i. 380. mosto, cada, on the introduction of rabbits into porto santo, i. 113. mottling of fruits and flowers, i. 400. moufflon, i. 94. mountain-ash, ii. 230. mouse, barbary, ii. 152. "möven-taube," i. 148. mowbray, mr., on the eggs of game fowls, i. 248; early pugnacity of game cocks, i. 251; diminished fecundity of the pheasant in captivity, ii. 155. mowbray, mr., reciprocal fecundation of _passiflora alata_ and _racemosa_, ii. 137. mulattos, character of, ii. 46. mulberry, i. 334, ii. 256. mule and hinny, differences in the, ii. 67-68. mules, striped colouring of, ii. 42; obstinacy of, ii. 45; production of, among the romans, ii. 110; noticed in the bible, ii. 202. müller, fritz, reproduction of orchids, ii. 134-135; development of crustacea, ii. 368; number of seeds in a _maxillaria_, ii. 379. müller, h., on the face and teeth in dogs, i. 34, 73, ii. 345. müller, j., production of imperfect nails after partial amputation of the fingers, ii. 15; tendency to variation, ii. 252; atrophy of the optic nerve consequent on destruction of the eye, ii. 297; on janus-like monsters, ii. 340; on gemmation and fission, ii. 358; identity of ovules and buds, ii. 360; special affinities of the tissues, ii. 380. müller, max, antiquity of agriculture, ii. 243. multiplicity of origin of pigeons, hypotheses of, discussed, i. 188-194. muniz, f., on niata cattle, i. 90. munro, r., on the fertilisation of orchids, ii. 133; reproduction of _passiflora alata_, ii. 138. "murassa" pigeon, i. 144. murphy, j. j., the structure of the eye not producible by selection, ii. 222. _mus alexandrinus_, ii. 87-88. _musa sapientum_, _chinensis_ and _cavendishii_, i. 377. _muscari comosum_, ii. 185, 316. muscles, effects of use on, ii. 297. musk duck, feral hybrid of, with the common duck, i. 190. {466} musmon, female, sometimes hornless, i. 95. mutilations, inheritance or non-inheritance of, ii. 22-24, 397. myatt, on a five-leaved variety of the strawberry, i. 353. myopia, hereditary, ii. 8. myriapoda, regeneration of lost parts in, ii. 15, 294. nails, growing on stumps of fingers, ii. 394. nais, scission of, ii. 358. namaquas, cattle of the, i. 88, ii. 207. narcissus, double, becoming single in poor soil, ii. 167. narvaez, on the cultivation of native plants in florida, i. 312. _nasua_, sterility of, in captivity, ii. 152. "natas," or niatas, a south american breed of cattle, i. 89-91. nathusius, h. von, on the pigs of the swiss lake-dwellings, i. 68; on the races of pigs, i. 65-68; convergence of character in highly-bred pigs, i. 73, ii. 241; causes of changes in the form of the pig's skull, i. 72-73; changes in breeds of pigs by crossing, i. 78; change of form in the pig, ii. 279; effects of disuse of parts in the pig, ii. 299; period of gestation in the pig, i. 74; appendages to the jaw in pigs, i. 76; on _sus pliciceps_, i. 70; period of gestation in sheep, i. 97; on niata cattle, i. 89; on short-horn cattle, ii. 118; on interbreeding, ii. 116; in the sheep, ii. 120; in pigs, ii. 122; unconscious selection in cattle and pigs, ii. 214; variability of highly selected races, ii. 238. nato, p., on the bizzaria orange, i. 391. natural selection, its general principles, i. 2-14. nature, sense in which the term is employed, i. 6. naudin, supposed rules of transmission in crossing plants, ii. 68; on the nature of hybrids, ii. 48-49; essences of the species in hybrids, ii. 386, 401; reversion of hybrids, ii. 36, 49-50; reversion in flowers by stripes and blotches, ii. 37; hybrids of _linaria vulgaris_ and _purpurea_, ii. 94; pelorism in _linaria_, ii. 58, 346; crossing of peloric _linaria_ with the normal form, ii. 70; variability in _datura_, ii. 266; hybrids of _datura lævis_ and _stramonium_, i. 392; prepotency of transmission of _datura stramonium_ when crossed, ii. 67; on the pollen of _mirabilis_ and of hybrids, i. 389; fertilisation of _mirabilis_, ii. 363; crossing of _chamærops humilis_ and the date palm, i. 399; cultivated cucurbitaceæ, i. 357-360, ii. 108; rudimentary tendrils in gourds, ii. 316; dwarf _cucurbitæ_, ii. 330; relation between the size and number of the fruit in _cucurbita pepo_, ii. 343; analogous variation in _cucurbitæ_, ii. 349; acclimatisation of cucurbitaceæ, ii. 313; production of fruit by sterile hybrid cucurbitaceæ, ii. 172; on the melon, i. 360, ii. 108, 275; incapacity of the cucumber to cross with other species, i. 359. nectarine, i. 336-344; derived from the peach, i. 337, 339-342; hybrids of, i. 339; persistency of characters in seedling, i. 340; origin of, _ibid._; produced on peach trees, i. 340-341; producing peaches, i. 341; variation in, i. 342-343; bud-variation in, i. 374; glands in the leaves of the, ii. 231; analogous variation in, ii. 348. nectary, variations of, in pansies, i. 369. nees, on changes in the odour of plants, ii. 274. "negro" cat, i. 46. negroes, polydactylism in, ii. 14; selection of cattle practised by, ii. 207. neolithic period, domestication of _bos longifrons_ and _primigenius_ in the, i. 81; cattle of the, distinct from the original species, i. 87; domestic goat in the, i. 101; cereals of the, i. 317. nerve, optic, atrophy of the, ii. 297. neumeister, on the dutch and german pouter pigeons, i. 138; on the jacobin pigeon, i. 154; duplication of the middle flight feather in pigeons, i. 159; on a peculiarly coloured breed of pigeons, "staarhalsige taube," i. 161; fertility of hybrid pigeons, i. 192; mongrels of the trumpeter pigeon, ii. 66; period of perfect plumage in pigeons, ii. 77; advantage of crossing pigeons, ii. 126. neuralgia, hereditary, ii. 79. new zealand, feral cats of, i. 47; cultivated plants of, i. 311. newfoundland dog, modification of, in england, i. 42. newman, e., sterility of sphingidæ under certain conditions, ii. 158. newport, g., non-copulation of _vanessæ_ in confinement, ii. 157; regeneration of limbs in myriapoda, ii. 294; fertilisation of the ovule in batrachia, ii. 363. newt, polydactylism in the, ii. 14. newton, a., absence of sexual distinctions in the columbidæ, i. 162; production of a "black-shouldered" pea-hen among the ordinary kind, i. 291; on hybrid ducks, ii. 157. ngami, lake, cattle of, i. 88. "niata" cattle, i. 89-91; resemblance of to _sivatherium_, i. 89; {467} prepotency of transmission of character by, ii. 66. "nicard" rabbit, i. 107. nicholson, dr., on the cats of antigua, i. 46; on the sheep of antigua, i. 98. _nicotiana_, crossing of varieties and species of, ii. 108; prepotency of transmission of characters in species of, ii. 67; contabescence of female organs in, ii. 166. _nicotiana glutinosa_, ii. 108. niebuhr, on the heredity of mental characteristics in some roman families, ii. 65. night-blindness, non-reversion to, ii. 36. nilsson, prof., on the barking of a young wolf, i. 27; parentage of european breeds of cattle, i. 80, 81; on _bos frontosus_ in scania, i. 81. nind, mr., on the dingo, i. 39. "nisus formativus," i. 293, 294, 355. nitzsch, on the absence of the oil-gland in certain columbæ, i. 147. non-inheritance, causes of, ii. 24-26. "nonnain" pigeon, i. 154. nordmann, dogs of awhasie, i. 25. normandy, pigs of, with appendages under the jaw, i. 75. norway, striped ponies of, i. 58. nott and gliddon, on the origin of the dog, i. 16; mastiff represented on an assyrian tomb, i. 17; on egyptian dogs, i. 18; on the hare-indian dog, i. 22. _notylia_, ii. 135. nourishment, excess of, a cause of variability, ii. 257. number, importance of, in selection, ii. 235. _numida ptilorhyncha_, the original of the guinea-fowl, i. 294. nun pigeon, i. 155; known to aldrovandi, i. 207. nutmeg tree, ii. 237. oak, weeping, i. 361, ii. 18, 241; pyramidal, i. 361; hessian, i. 361; late-leaved, i. 363; variation in persistency of leaves of, i. 363; valueless as timber at the cape of good hope, ii. 274; changes in, dependent on age, i. 387; galls of the, ii. 282. oats, wild, i. 313; in the swiss lake-dwellings, i. 319. oberlin, change of soil beneficial to the potato, ii. 146. odart, count, varieties of the vine, i. 333, ii. 278; bud-variation in the vine, i. 375. odour and colour, correlation of, ii. 325. _oecidium_, ii. 284. _oenothera biennis_, bud-variation in, i. 382. ogle, w., resemblance of twins, ii. 252. oil-gland, absence of, in fantail pigeons, i. 147, 160. oldfield, mr., estimation of european dogs among the natives of australia, ii. 215. oleander, stock affected by grafting in the, i. 394. ollier, dr., insertion of the periosteum of a dog beneath the skin of a rabbit, ii. 369. _oncidium_, reproduction of, ii. 133-135, 164. onions, crossing of, ii. 90; white, liable to the attacks of fungi and disease, ii. 228, 336. _ophrys apifera_, self-fertilisation of, ii. 91; formation of pollen by a petal in, ii. 392. _opuntia leucotricha_, ii. 277. orange, i. 334-336; crossing of, ii. 91; with the lemon, i. 399, ii. 365; naturalisation of, in italy, ii. 308; variation of, in north italy, ii. 256; peculiar variety of, ii. 331; bizzaria, i. 391; trifacial, _ibid._ orchids, reproduction of, i. 402, 403; ii. 133-135. orford, lord, crossing greyhounds with the bulldog, i. 41. organisms, origin of, i. 13. organisation, advancement in, i. 8. organs, rudimentary and aborted, ii. 315-318; multiplication of abnormal, ii. 391. oriole, assumption of hen-plumage by a male in confinement, ii. 158. orkney islands, pigs of, i. 70; pigeons of, i. 184. orthoptera, regeneration of hind legs in the, ii. 294. _orthosia munda_, ii. 157. orton, r., on the effects of cross-breeding on the female, i. 404; on the manx cat, ii. 66; on mongrels from the silk-fowl, ii. 67. osborne, dr., inherited mottling of the iris, ii. 10. osprey, preying on black-fowls, ii. 230. osten-sacken, baron, on american oak galls, ii. 282. osteological characters of pigs, i. 66, 67, 71-74; of rabbits, i. 115-130; of pigeons, i. 162-167; of ducks, i. 282-284. ostrich, diminished fertility of the, in captivity, ii. 156. ostyaks, selection of dogs by the, ii. 206. otter, ii. 151. "otter" sheep of massachusetts, i. 100. oude, feral humped cattle in, i. 79. ouistiti, breed in europe, ii. 153. {468} ovary, variation of, in _cucurbita moschata_, i. 359; development of, independently of pollen, i. 403. _ovis montana_, i. 99. ovules and buds, identity of nature of, ii. 360. owen, capt., on stiff-haired cats at mombas, i. 46. owen, prof. r., palæontological evidence as to the origin of dogs, i. 15; on _bos longifrons_, i. 81; on the skull of the "niata" cattle, i. 89, 90; on fossil remains of rabbits, i. 104; on the significance of the brain, i. 124; on the number of digits in the ichthyopterygia, ii. 16; on metagenesis, ii. 366; theory of reproduction and parthenogenesis, ii. 375. owl, eagle, breeding in captivity, ii. 154. owl pigeon, i. 148; african, figured, i. 149; known in 1735, i. 209. _oxalis_, trimorphic species of, ii. 400. _oxalis rosea_, ii. 132. oxley, mr., on the nutmeg tree, ii. 237. oysters, differences in the shells of, ii. 280. paca, sterility of the, in confinement, ii. 152. pacific islands, pigs of the, i. 70. padua, earliest known flower garden at, ii. 217. paduan fowl of aldrovandi, i. 247. _pæonia moutan_, ii. 205. pæony, tree, ancient cultivation of, in china, ii. 205. pampas, feral cattle on the, i. 85. _pandanus_, ii. 256. pangenesis, hypothesis of, ii. 357-404. _panicum_, seeds of, used as food, i. 309; found in the swiss lake-dwellings, i. 317. pansy, i. 368-370. pappus, abortion of the, in _carthamus_, ii. 316. paget, on the hungarian sheep dog, i. 24. paget, inheritance of cancer, ii. 7; hereditary elongation of hairs in the eyebrow, ii. 8; period of inheritance of cancer, ii. 79-80; on _hydra_, ii. 293; on the healing of wounds, ii. 294; on the reparation of bones, _ibid._; growth of hair near inflamed surfaces or fractures, ii. 295; on false membranes, _ibid._; compensatory development of the kidney, ii. 300; bronzed skin in disease of supra-renal capsules, ii. 331; unity of growth and gemmation, ii. 359; independence of the elements of the body, ii. 369; affinity of the tissues for special organic substances, ii. 380. pallas, on the influence of domestication upon the sterility of intercrossed species, i. 31, 83, 193, ii. 109; hypothesis that variability is wholly due to crossing, i. 188, 374, ii. 250, 264; on the origin of the dog, i. 16; variation in dogs, i. 33; crossing of dog and jackal, i. 25; origin of domestic cats, i. 43; origin of angora cat, i. 45; on wild horses, i. 52, 60; on persian sheep, i. 94; on siberian fat-tailed sheep, ii. 279; on chinese sheep, ii. 315; on crimean varieties of the vine, i. 333; on a grape with rudimentary seeds, ii. 316; on feral musk-ducks, ii. 46; sterility of alpine plants in gardens, ii. 163; selection of white-tailed yaks, ii. 206. _paradoxurus_, sterility of species of, in captivity, ii. 151. paraguay, cats of, i. 46; cattle of, i. 89; horses of, ii. 102; dogs of, ii. 102; black-skinned domestic fowl of, i. 232. parallel variation, ii. 348-352. paramos, woolly pigs of, i. 78. parasites, liability to attacks of, dependent on colour, ii. 228. pariah dog, with crooked legs, i. 17; resembling the indian wolf, i. 24. pariset, inheritance of handwriting, ii. 6. parker, w. k., number of vertebræ in fowls, i. 266. parkinson, mr., varieties of the hyacinth, i. 370. parkyns, mansfield, on _columba guinea_, i. 183. parmentier, differences in the nidification of pigeons, i. 178; on white pigeons, ii. 230. parrots, general sterility of, in confinement, ii. 155; alteration of plumage of, ii. 280. parsnip, reversion in, ii. 31; influence of selection on, ii. 201; experiments on, ii. 277; wild, enlargement of roots of, by cultivation, i. 326. parthenogenesis, ii. 359, 364. partridge, sterility of, in captivity, ii. 156. parturition, difficult, hereditary, ii. 8. _parus major_, ii. 231. _passiflora_, self-impotence in species of, ii. 137-138; contabescence of female organs in, ii. 166. _passiflora alata_, fertility of, when grafted, ii. 188. pasture and climate, adaptation of breeds of sheep to, i. 96, 97. pastrana, julia, peculiarities in the hair and teeth of, ii. 328. patagonia, crania of pigs from, i. 77. patagonian rabbit, i. 105. {469} paterson, r., on the arrindy silk moth, ii. 306. paul, w., on the hyacinth, i. 370; varieties of pelargoniums, i. 378; improvement of pelargoniums, ii. 216. _pavo cristatus_ and _muticus_, hybrids of, i. 290. _pavo nigripennis_, i. 290-291. "pavodotten-taube," i. 141. peach, i. 336-344; derived from the almond, i. 337; stones of, figured, _ibid._; contrasted with almonds, i. 338; double-flowering, i. 338-339, 343; hybrids of, i. 339; persistency of races of, _ibid._; trees producing nectarines, i. 340-341; variation in, i. 342-343, ii. 256; bud-variation in, i. 374; pendulous, ii. 18; variation by selection in, ii. 218; peculiar disease of the, ii. 228; glands on the leaves of the, ii. 231; antiquity of the, ii. 308; increased hardiness of the, _ibid._; varieties of, adapted for forcing, ii. 310; yellow-fleshed, liable to certain diseases, ii. 336. peach-almond, i. 338. peafowl, origin of, i. 290; japanned or black-shouldered, i. 290-291; feral, in jamaica, i. 190; comparative fertility of, in wild and tame states, ii. 112, 268; white, ii. 332. pears, i. 350; bud-variation in, i. 376; reversion in seedling, ii. 31; inferiority of, in pliny's time, ii. 215; winter nelis, attacked by aphides, ii. 231; soft-barked varieties of, attacked by wood-boring beetles, ii. 231; origination of good varieties of, in woods, ii. 260; forelle, resistance of, to frost, ii. 306. peas, i. 326-330; origin of, 326; varieties of, 326-329; found in swiss lake-dwellings, i. 317, 319, 326-329; fruit and seeds figured, i. 328; persistency of varieties, i. 329; intercrossing of varieties, i. 330, 397, ii. 129; effect of crossing on the female organs in, i. 398; double-flowered, ii. 168; maturity of, accelerated by selection, ii. 201; varieties of, produced by selection, ii. 218; thin-shelled, liable to the attacks of birds, ii. 231; reversion of, by the terminal seed in the pod, ii. 347. peccary, breeding of the, in captivity, ii. 150. pedigrees of horses, cattle, greyhounds, game-cocks, and pigs, ii. 3. pegu, cats of, i. 47; horses of, i. 53. pelargoniums, multiple origin of, i. 364; zones of, i. 366; bud-variation in, i. 378; variegation in, accompanied by dwarfing, i. 384; pelorism in, ii. 167, 345; by reversion, ii. 59; advantage of change of soil to, ii. 147; improvement of, by selection, ii. 216; scorching of, ii. 229; numbers of, raised from seed, ii. 235; effects of conditions of life on, ii. 274; stove-variety of, ii. 311; correlation of contracted leaves and flowers in, ii. 330-331. _pelargonium fulgidum_, conditions of fertility in, ii. 164. "pelones," a columbian breed of cattle, i. 88. peloric flowers, tendency of, to acquire the normal form, ii. 70; fertility or sterility of, ii. 166-167. peloric races of _gloxinia speciosa_ and _antirrhinum majus_, i. 365. pelorism, ii. 58-60, 345-346. pelvis, characters of, in rabbits, i. 122-123; in pigeons, i. 166; in fowls, i. 268; in ducks, i. 284. pembroke cattle, i. 81. pendulous trees, i. 361, ii. 348; uncertainty of transmission of, ii. 18-19. penguin ducks, i. 280, 282; hybrid of the, with the egyptian goose, i. 282. pennant, production of wolf-like curs at fochabers, i. 37; on the duke of queensberry's wild cattle, i. 84. _pennisetum_, seeds of, used as food in the punjab, i. 309. _pennisetum distichum_, seeds of, used as food in central africa, i. 308. percival, mr., on inheritance in horses, ii. 10; on horn-like processes in horses, i. 50. _perdix rubra_, occasional fertility of, in captivity, ii. 156. period of action of causes of variability, ii. 269. periosteum of a dog, producing bone in a rabbit, ii. 369. periwinkle, sterility of, in england, ii. 170. persia, estimation of pigeons in, i. 205; carrier pigeon of, i. 141; tumbler pigeon of, i. 150; cats of, i. 45-47; sheep of, i. 94. _persica intermedia_, i. 338. persistence of colour in horses, i. 50; of generic peculiarities, i. 111. peru, antiquity of maize in, i. 320; peculiar potato from, i. 331; selection of wild animals practised by the incas of, ii. 207-208. "perücken-taube," i. 154. petals, rudimentary, in cultivated plants, ii. 316; producing pollen, ii. 392. petunias, multiple origin of, i. 364; double-flowered, ii. 167. "pfauen-taube," i. 146. _phacochoerus africanus_, i. 76. _phalænopsis_, pelorism in, ii. 346. phalanges, deficiency of, ii. 73. {470} _phaps chalcoptera_, ii. 349. _phaseolus multiflorus_, ii. 309, 322. _phaseolus vulgaris_, ii. 309. _phasianus pictus_, i. 275. _phasianus amherstiæ_, i. 275. pheasant, assumption of male plumage by the hen, ii. 51; wildness of hybrids of, with the common fowl, ii. 45; prepotency of the, over the fowl, ii. 68; diminished fecundity of the, in captivity, ii. 155. pheasants, golden and lady amherst's, i. 275. pheasant-fowls, i. 244. philipeaux, regeneration of limbs in the salamander, ii. 376. philippar, on the varieties of wheat, i. 314. philippine islands, named breeds of game fowl in the, i. 232. phillips, mr., on bud-variation in the potato, i. 385. _phlox_, bud-variation by suckers in, i. 384. phthisis, affection of the fingers in, ii. 332. pickering, mr., on the grunting voice of humped cattle, i. 79; occurrence of the head of a fowl in an ancient egyptian procession, i. 246; seeding of ordinarily seedless fruits, ii. 168; extinction of ancient egyptian breeds of sheep and oxen, ii. 425; on an ancient peruvian gourd, ii. 429. picotees, effect of conditions of life on, ii. 273. pictet, a., oriental names of the pigeon, i. 205. pictet, prof., origin of the dog, i. 15; on fossil oxen, i. 81. piebalds, probably due to reversion, ii. 37. pigeaux, hybrids of the hare and rabbit, ii. 99, 152. pigeon à cravate, i. 148. pigeon bagadais, i. 142, 143. pigeon coquille, i. 155. pigeon cygne, i. 143. pigeon heurté, i. 156. pigeon patu plongeur, i. 156. pigeon polonais, i. 144. pigeon romain, i. 142, 144. pigeon tambour, i. 154. pigeon turc, i. 139. pigeons, origin of, i. 131-134, 180-204; classified table of breeds of, i. 136; pouter, i. 137-139; carrier, i. 139-142; runt, i. 142-144; barbs, i. 144-146; fantail, i. 146-148; turbit and owl, i. 148-149; tumbler, i. 150-153; indian frill-back, i. 153; jacobin, i. 154; trumpeter, i. 154; other breeds of, i. 155-157; differences of, equal to generic, i. 157-158; individual variations of, i. 158-160; variability of peculiarities characteristic of breeds in, i. 161; sexual variability in, i. 161-162; osteology of, i. 162-167; correlation of growth in, i. 167-171, ii. 321; young of some varieties naked when hatched, i. 170, ii. 332; effects of disuse in, i. 172-177; settling and roosting in trees, i. 181; floating in the nile to drink, i. 181; dovecot, i. 185-186; arguments for unity of origin of, i. 188-204; feral in various places, i. 190, ii. 33; unity of coloration in, i. 195-197; reversion of mongrel, to coloration of, _c. livia_, i. 197-202; history of the cultivation of, i. 205-207; history of the principal races of, i. 207-212; mode of production of races of, i. 212-224; reversion in, ii. 29, 47; by age, ii. 38; produced by crossing in, ii. 40, 48; prepotency of transmission of character in breeds of, ii. 66-67; sexual differences in some varieties of, ii. 74; period of perfect plumage in, ii. 77; effect of segregation on, ii. 86; preferent pairing of, within the same breed, ii. 103; fertility of, increased by domestication, ii. 112, 155; effects of interbreeding and necessity of crossing, ii. 125-126; indifference of, to change of climate, ii. 161; selection of, ii. 195, 199, 204; among the romans, ii. 202; unconscious selection of, ii. 211, 214; facility of selection of, ii. 234; white, liable to the attacks of hawks, ii. 230; effects of disuse of parts in, ii. 298; fed upon meat, ii. 304; effect of first male upon the subsequent progeny of the female, i. 405; homology of the leg and wing feathers in, ii. 323; union of two outer toes in feather-legged, _ibid._; correlation of beak, limbs, tongue, and nostrils in, ii. 324; analogous variation in, ii. 349-350; permanence of breeds of, ii. 429. pigs, of swiss lake-dwellings, i. 67-68; types of, derived from _sus scrofa_ and _sus indica_, i. 66-67; japanese (_sus pliciceps_, gray), figured, i. 69; of pacific islands, i. 70, ii. 87; modifications, of skull in, i. 71-73; length of intestines in, i. 73, ii. 303; period of gestation of, i. 74; number of vertebræ and ribs in, i. 74; anomalous forms, i. 75-76; development of tusks and bristles in, i. 76; striped young of, i. 76-77; reversion of feral, to wild type, i. 77-78, ii. 33, 47; production and changes of breeds of, by intercrossing, i. 78; effects produced by the first male upon the subsequent progeny of the female, i. 404; two-legged race of, ii. 4; {471} polydactylism in, ii. 14; cross-reversion in, ii. 35; hybrid, wildness of, ii. 45; monstrous development of a proboscis in, ii. 57; disappearance of tusks in male under domestication, ii, 74; solid hoofed, ii. 429; crosses of, ii. 93, 95; mutual fertility of all varieties of, ii. 110; increased fertility by domestication, ii. 111; ill effects of close interbreeding in, ii. 121-122; influence of selection on, ii. 198; prejudice against certain colours in, ii. 210, 229, 336; unconscious selection of, ii. 214; black virginian, ii. 227, 336; similarity of the best breeds of, ii. 241; change of form in, ii. 279; effects of disuse of parts in, ii. 299; ears of, ii. 301; correlations in, ii. 327; white, buck-wheat injurious to, ii. 337; tail of, grafted upon the back, ii. 369; extinction of the older races of, ii. 426. pimenta, ii. 91. pimpernel, ii. 190. pine-apple, sterility and variability of the, ii. 262. pink, chinese. 322. pinks, bud-variation in, i. 381; improvement of, ii. 216. _pinus pumilio_, _mughus_, and _nana_, varieties of _p. sylvestris_, i. 363. _pinus sylvestris_, i. 363, ii. 310; hybrids of, with _p. nigricans_, ii. 130. piorry, on hereditary disease, ii. 7, 78. _pistacia lentiscus_, ii. 274. pistils, rudimentary, in cultivated plants, ii. 316. pistor, sterility of some mongrel pigeons, i. 192; fertility of pigeons, ii. 112. _pisum arvense_ and _sativum_, i. 326. pityriasis versicolor, inheritance of, ii. 79. planchon, g., on a fossil vine, i. 332; sterility of _jussiæa grandifiora_ in france, ii. 170. plane tree, variety of the, i. 362. plantigrade carnivora, general sterility of the, in captivity, ii. 151. plants, progress of cultivation of, i. 305-312; cultivated, their geographical derivation, i. 311; crossing of, ii. 98, 99, 127; comparative fertility of wild and cultivated, ii. 112-113; self-impotent, ii. 131-140; dimorphic and trimorphic, ii. 132, 140; sterility of, from changed conditions, ii. 163-165; from contabescence of anthers, ii. 165-166; from monstrosities, ii. 166-167; from doubling of the flowers, ii. 167-168; from seedless fruit, ii. 168; from excessive development of vegetative organs, ii. 168-171; influence of selection on, ii. 199-201; variation by selection, in useful parts of, ii. 217-219; variability of, ii. 237; variability of, induced by crossing, ii. 265; direct action of change of climate on, ii. 277; change of period of vegetation in, ii. 304-305; varieties of, suitable to different climates, ii. 306; correlated variability of, ii. 330-331; antiquity of races of, ii. 429. plasticity, inheritance of, ii. 241. plateau, f., on the vision of amphibious animals, ii. 223. _platessa flesus_, ii. 53. plato, notice of selection in breeding dogs by, ii. 212. plica polonica, ii. 276. pliny, on the crossing of shepherd's dogs with the wolf, i. 24; on pyrrhus' breed of cattle, ii. 202; on the estimation of pigeons among the romans, i. 205; pears described by, ii. 215. plum, i. 345-347; stones figured, i. 345; varieties of the, i. 345-346, ii. 219; bud-variation in the, i. 375; peculiar disease of the, ii. 227; flower-buds of, destroyed by bullfinches, ii. 232; purple-fruited, liable to certain diseases, ii. 336. plumage, inherited peculiarities of, in pigeons, i. 160-161; sexual peculiarities of, in fowls, i. 251-255. plurality of races, pouchet's views on, i. 2. _poa_, seeds of, used as food, i. 308; species of, propagated by bulblets, ii. 170. podolian cattle, i. 80. pointers, modification of, i. 42; crossed with the foxhound, ii. 95. pois sans parchemin, ii. 231. poiteau, origin of _cytisus adami_, i. 390; origin of cultivated varieties of fruit-trees, ii. 260. polish fowl, i. 227, 250, 254, 256-257, 262; skull figured, i. 262; section of skull figured, i. 263; development of protuberance of skull, i. 250; furcula figured, i. 268. polish, or himalayan rabbit, i. 108. pollen, ii. 363-364; action of, ii. 108; injurious action of, in some orchids, ii. 134-135; resistance of, to injurious treatment, ii. 164; prepotency of, ii. 187. pollock, sir f., transmission of variegated leaves in _ballota nigra_, i. 383; on local tendency to variegation, ii. 274. polyanthus, ii. 21. polydactylism, inheritance of, ii. 12-16; significance of, ii. 16-17. _polyplectron_, i. 255. ponies, most frequent on islands and mountains, i. 52; javanese, i. 53. poole, col., on striped indian horses, i. 58, 59; {472} on the young of _asinus indicus_, ii. 43. poplar, lombardy, i. 361. pöppig, on cuban wild dogs, i. 27. poppy, found in the swiss lake-dwellings, i. 317, 319; with the stamens converted into pistils, i. 365; differences of the, in different parts of india, ii. 165; monstrous, fertility of, ii. 166; black-seeded, antiquity of, ii. 429. porcupine, breeding of, in captivity, ii. 152. porcupine family, ii. 4, 76. _porphyrio_, breeding of a species of, in captivity, ii. 156. portal, on a peculiar hereditary affection of the eye, ii. 9. porto santo, feral rabbits of, i. 112. _potamochoerus penicillatus_, ii. 150. potato, i. 330-331; bud-variation by tubers in the, i. 384-385; graft-hybrid of, by union of half-tubers, i. 395; individual self-impotence in the, ii. 137; sterility of, ii. 169; advantage of change of soil to the, ii. 146; relation of tubers and flowers in the, ii. 343. potato, sweet, sterility of the, in china, ii. 169; varieties of the, suited to different climates, ii. 309. pouchet, m., his views on plurality of races, i. 2. pouter pigeons, i. 137-139; furcula figured, i. 167; history of, i. 207. powis, lord, experiments in crossing humped and english cattle, i. 83, ii. 45. poynter, mr., on a graft-hybrid rose, i. 396. prairie wolf, i. 22. precocity of highly-improved breeds, ii. 321. prepotency of pollen, ii. 187. prepotency of transmission of character, ii. 65, 174; in the austrian emperors and some roman families, ii. 65; in cattle, ii. 65-66; in sheep, ii. 66; in cats, _ibid._; in pigeons, ii. 66-67; in fowls, ii. 67; in plants, _ibid._; in a variety of the pumpkin, i. 358; in the jackal over the dog, ii. 67; in the ass over the horse, _ibid._; in the pheasant over the fowl, ii. 68; in the penguin duck over the egyptian goose, _ibid._; discussion of the phenomena of, ii. 69-71. prescott, mr., on the earliest known european flower-garden, ii. 217. pressure, mechanical, a cause of modification, ii. 344-345. prevost and dumas, on the employment of several spermatozoids to fertilise one ovule, ii. 363. price, mr., variations in the structure of the feet in horses, i. 50. prichard, dr., on polydactylism in the negro, ii. 14; on the lambert family, ii. 77; on an albino negro, ii. 229; on plica polonica, ii. 276. primrose, ii. 21; double, rendered single by transplantation, ii. 167. _primula_, intercrossing of species of, i. 336; contabescence in, ii. 166; hose and hose, i. 365; with coloured calyces, sterility of, ii. 166. _primula sinensis_, reciprocally dimorphic, ii. 132. _primula veris_, ii. 21, 109, 182. _primula vulgaris_, ii. 21, 109. prince, mr., on the intercrossing of strawberries, i. 352. _procyon_, sterility of, in captivity, ii. 152. prolificacy, increased by domestication, ii. 174. propagation, rapidity of, favourable to selection, ii. 297. protozoa, reproduction of the, ii. 376. _prunus armeniaca_, i. 344-345. _prunus avium_, i. 347. _prunus cerasus_, i. 347, 375. _prunus domestica_, i. 345. _prunus insititia_, i. 345-347. _prunus spinosa_, i. 345. prussia, wild horses in, i. 60. _psittacus erithacus_, ii. 155. _psittacus macoa_, ii. 155. _psophia_, general sterility of, in captivity, ii. 157. ptarmigan fowls, i. 228. _pulex penetrans_, ii. 275. pumpkins, i. 357. puno ponies of the cordillera, i. 52. purser, mr. on _cytisus adami_, i. 389. pusey, mr., preference of hares and rabbits for common rye, ii. 232. putsche and vertuch, varieties of the potato, i. 330. puvis, effects of foreign pollen on apples, i. 401; supposed non-variability of monotypic genera, ii. 266. _pyrrhula vulgaris_, ii. 232; assumption of the hen-plumage by the male, in confinement, ii. 158. pyrrhus, his breed of cattle, ii. 202. _pyrus_, fastigate chinese species of, ii. 277. _pyrus acerba_, i. 348. _pyrus aucuparia_, ii. 230. _pyrus communis_, i. 350, 376. _pyrus malus_, i. 348, 376. _pyrus paradisiaca_, i. 348. _pyrus præcox_, i. 348. quagga, effect of fecundation by, on the subsequent progeny of a mare, i. 403-404. quatrefages, a. de, on the burrowing of a bitch to litter, i. 77; {473} selection in the silkworm, i. 301; development of the wings in the silkmoth, i. 303, ii. 298; on varieties of the mulberry, i. 334; special raising of eggs of the silkmoth, ii. 197; on disease of the silkworm, ii. 228; on monstrosities in insects, ii. 269, 391; on the anglo-saxon race in america, ii. 276; on a change in the breeding season of the egyptian goose, ii. 304; fertilisation of the _teredo_, ii. 363; tendency to similarity in the best races, ii. 241; on his "_tourbillon vital_," ii. 61; on the independent existence of the sexual elements, ii. 360. _quercus cerris_, i. 363. _quercus robur_ and _pedunculata_, hybrids of, ii. 130. quince, pears grafted on the, ii. 259. rabbits, domestic, their origin, i. 103-105; of mount sinai and algeria, i. 105; breeds of, i. 105-111; himalayan, chinese, polish, or russian, i. 108-111, ii. 97; feral, i. 111-115; of jamaica, i. 112; of the falkland islands, i. 112; of porto santo, i. 112-115, ii. 103, 279; osteological characters of, i. 115-129; discussion of modifications in, i. 129-130; one-eared, transmission of peculiarity of, ii. 12; reversion in feral, ii. 33; in the himalayan, ii. 41; crossing of white and coloured angora, ii. 92; comparative fertility of wild and tame, ii. 111; high-bred, often bad breeders, ii. 121; selection of, ii. 204; white, liable to destruction, ii. 230; effects of disuse of parts in, ii. 298; skull of, affected by drooping ears, ii. 301; length of intestines in, ii. 303; correlation of ears and skull in, ii. 324-325; variations in skull of, ii. 350; periosteum of a dog producing bone in, ii. 369. race-horse, origin of, i. 54. races, modification and formation of, by crossing, ii. 95-99; natural and artificial, ii. 245; pouchet's views on plurality of, i. 2; of pigeons, i. 207-212. radishes, i. 326; crossing of, ii. 90; varieties of, ii. 217-218. radclyffe, w. f., effect of climate and soil on strawberries, i. 354; constitutional differences in roses, i. 367. radlkofer, retrogressive metamorphosis in mosses and algæ, ii. 361. raffles, sir stamford, on the crossing of javanese cattle with _bos sondaicus_, ii. 206. ram, goat-like, from the cape of good hope, ii. 66. ranchin, heredity of diseases, ii. 7. range of gallinaceous birds on the himalaya, i. 237. _ranunculus ficaria_, ii. 170. _ranunculus repens_, ii. 168. rape, i. 325. _raphanus sativus_, ii. 343. raspberry, yellow-fruited, ii. 230. rattlesnake, experiments with poison of the, ii. 289. raven, stomach of, affected by vegetable diet, ii. 302. rawson, a., self-impotence in hybrids of _gladiolus_, ii. 139-140. ré, le compte, on the assumption of a yellow colour by all varieties of maize, i. 321. réaumur, effect of confinement upon the cock, ii. 52; fertility of fowls in most climates, ii. 161. reed, mr., atrophy of the limbs of rabbits, consequent on the destruction of their nerves, ii. 297. regeneration of amputated parts in man, ii. 14; in the human embryo, ii. 15; in the lower vertebrata, insects, and myriapoda, _ibid._ reindeer, individuals recognised by the laplanders, ii. 251. regnier, early cultivation of the cabbage by the celts, i. 324. reissek, experiments in crossing _cytisus purpureus_ and _laburnum_, i. 389; modification of a _thesium_ by _oecidium_, ii. 284. relations, characters of, reproduced in children, ii. 34. rengger, occurrence of jaguars with crooked legs in paraguay, i. 17; naked dogs of paraguay, i. 23, 31, ii. 93, 102; feral dogs of la plata, i. 27; on the aguara, i. 26; cats of paraguay, i. 46, ii. 86, 151; dogs of paraguay, ii. 87; feral pigs of buenos ayres, i. 77; on the refusal of wild animals to breed in captivity, ii. 149; on _dicotyles labiatus_, ii. 150; sterility of plantigrade carnivora in captivity, ii. 152; on _cavia aperea_, ii. 152; sterility of _cebus azaræ_ in captivity, ii. 153; abortions produced by wild animals in captivity, ii. 158. reproduction, sexual and asexual, contrasted, ii. 361; unity of forms of, ii. 383; antagonism of, to growth, ii. 384. _reseda odorata_, ii. 237. retinitis, pigmentary, in deaf-mutes, ii. 328. reversion, ii. 28-29, 372-373, 396, 398-402; in pigeons, ii. 29; in cattle, ii. 29-30; in sheep, ii. 30; in fowls, ii. 31; in the heartsease, _ibid._; in vegetables, _ibid._; in feral animals and plants, ii. 32-34; to characters derived from a previous cross in man, dogs, pigeons, pigs, and fowls, ii. 34-35; {474} in hybrids, ii. 36; by bud-propagation in plants, ii. 36-38; by age in fowls, cattle, &c., ii. 38-39; caused by crossing, ii. 39-51; explained by latent characters, ii. 51-56; producing monstrosities, ii. 57; producing peloric flowers, ii. 58-60; of feral pigs to the wild type, i. 77-78; of supposed feral rabbits to the wild type, i. 104, 111, 115; of pigeons, in coloration, when crossed, i. 197-202; in fowls, i. 239-246; in the silkworm, i. 302; in the pansy, i. 369; in a pelargonium, i. 378; in chrysanthemums, i. 379; of varieties of the china rose in st. domingo, i. 380; by buds in pinks and carnations, i. 381; of laciniated varieties of trees to the normal form, i. 382; in variegated leaves of plants, i. 383-384; in tulips, i. 386; of suckers of the seedless barberry to the common form, i. 384; by buds in hybrids of _tropæolum_, i. 392; in plants, i. 409; of crossed peloric snapdragons, ii. 71; analogous variations due to, ii. 349-351. reynier, selection practised by the celts, ii. 202-203. rhinoceros, breeding in captivity in india, ii. 150. _rhododendron_, hybrid, ii. 265. _rhododendron ciliatum_, ii. 277. _rhododendron dalhousiæ_, effect of pollen of _r. nuttallii_ upon, i. 400. rhubarb, not medicinal when grown in england, ii. 274. _ribes grossularia_, i. 354-356, 376. _ribes rubrum_, i. 376. ribs, number and characters of, in fowls, i. 267; characters of, in ducks, i. 283-284. rice, imperial, of china, ii. 205; indian varieties of, ii. 256; variety of, not requiring water, ii. 305. richardson, h. d., on jaw-appendages in irish pigs, i. 76; management of pigs in china, i. 68; occurrence of striped young in westphalian pigs, i. 76; on crossing pigs, ii. 95; on interbreeding pigs, ii. 122; on selection in pigs, ii. 194. richardson, sir john, observations on the resemblance between north american dogs and wolves, i. 21-22; on the burrowing of wolves, i. 27; on the broad feet of dogs, wolves, and foxes in north america, i. 40; on north american horses scraping away the snow, i. 53. _ricinus_, annual in england, ii. 305. riedel, on the "bagadotte" pigeon, i. 141; on the jacobin pigeon, i. 154; fertility of hybrid pigeons, i. 192. rinderpest, ii. 378. risso, on varieties of the orange, i. 336, ii. 308, 331. rivers, lord, on the selection of greyhounds, ii. 235. rivers, mr., persistency of characters in seedling potatoes, i. 331; on the peach, i. 338, 339; persistency of races in the peach and nectarine, i. 339, 340; connexion between the peach and the nectarine, i. 340; persistency of character in seedling apricots, i. 344; origin of the plum, i. 345; seedling varieties of the plum, i. 346; persistency of character in seedling plums, i. 347; bud-variation in the plum, i. 375; plum, attacked by bullfinches, ii. 232; seedling apples with surface-roots, i. 349; variety of the apple found in a wood, ii. 260; on roses, i. 366-367; bud-variation in roses, i. 379-381; production of provence roses from seeds of the moss-rose, i. 380; effect produced by grafting on the stock in jessamine, i. 394; in the ash, i. 394; on grafted hazels, i. 395; hybridisation of a weeping thorn, ii. 18; experiments with the seed of the weeping elm and ash, ii. 19; variety of the cherry with curled petals, ii. 232. rivière, reproduction of _oncidium cavendishianum_, ii. 133. roberts, mr., on inheritance in the horse, ii. 10. robertson, mr., on glandular-leaved peaches, i. 343. robinet, on the silkworm, i. 301-304, ii. 197. _robinia_, ii. 274. robson, mr., deficiencies of half-bred horses, ii. 11. robson, mr., on the advantage of change of soil to plants, ii. 146-147; on the growth of the verbena, ii. 273; on broccoli, ii. 310. rock pigeon, measurements of the, i. 134; figured, i. 135. rodents, sterility of, in captivity, ii. 152. _rodriguezia_, ii. 134, 135. rodwell, j., poisoning of horses by mildewed tares, ii. 337. rohilcund, feral humped cattle in, i. 79. rolle, f., on the history of the peach, ii. 308. roller-pigeons, dutch, i. 151. rolleston, prof., incisor teeth affected in form in cases of pulmonary tubercle, ii. 332. romans, estimation of pigeons by, i. 205; breeds of fowls possessed by, i. 231, 247. {475} rooks, pied, ii. 77. _rosa_, cultivated species of, i. 366. _rosa devoniensis_, graft-hybrid produced by, on the white banksian rose, i. 396. _rosa indica_ and _centifolia_, fertile hybrids of, i. 366. _rosa spinosissima_, history of the culture of, i. 367. rosellini, on egyptian dogs, i. 17. roses, i. 366-367; origin of, i. 364; bud-variation in, i. 379-381; scotch, doubled by selection, ii. 200; continuous variation of, ii. 241; effect of seasonal conditions on, ii. 273; noisette, ii. 308; galls of, ii. 284. rouennais rabbit, i. 105. roulin, on the dogs of juan fernandez, i. 27; on south american cats, i. 46; striped young pigs, i. 77; feral pigs in south america, i. 78, ii. 33; on columbian cattle, i. 88, ii. 205, 226; effects of heat on the hides of cattle in south america, i. 92; fleece of sheep in the hot valleys of the cordilleras, i. 98; diminished fertility of these sheep, ii. 161; on black-boned south american fowls, i. 258; variation of the guinea-fowl in tropical america, i. 294; frequency of striped legs in mules, ii. 42; geese in bogota, ii. 161; sterility of fowls introduced into bolivia, ii. 162. roy, m., on a variety of _magnolia grandiflora_, ii. 308. royle, dr., indian varieties of the mulberry, i. 334; on _agave vivipara_, ii. 169; variety of rice not requiring irrigation, ii. 305; sheep from the cape in india, ii. 306. _rubus_, pollen of, ii. 268. rudimentary organs, i. 12, ii. 315-318. rufz de lavison, extinction of breeds of dogs in france, ii. 425. ruminants, general fertility of, in captivity, ii. 150. rumpless fowls, i. 230. runts, i. 142-144; history of, i. 210; lower jaws and skull figured, i. 164-165. russian or himalayan rabbit, i. 108. rütimeyer, prof., dogs of the neolithic period, i. 19; horses of swiss lake-dwellings, i. 49; diversity of early domesticated horses i. 51; pigs of the swiss lake-dwellings, i. 65, 67-68; on humped cattle, i. 80; parentage of european breeds of cattle, i. 80, 81, ii. 427; on "niata" cattle, i. 89; sheep of the swiss lake-dwellings, i. 94, ii. 427; goats of the swiss lake-dwellings, i. 101; absence of fowls in the swiss lake-dwellings, i. 246; on crossing cattle, ii. 98; differences in the bones of wild and domesticated animals, ii. 279; decrease in size of wild european animals, ii. 427. rye, wild, de candolle's observations on, i. 313; found in the swiss lake-dwellings, i. 319; common, preferred by hares and rabbits, ii. 232; less variable than other cultivated plants, ii. 254. sabine, mr., on the cultivation of _rosa spinosissima_, i. 367; on the cultivation of the dahlia, i. 369-370, ii. 261; effect of foreign pollen on the seed-vessel in _amaryllis vittata_, i. 400. st. ange, influence of the pelvis on the shape of the kidneys in birds, ii. 344. st. domingo, wild dogs of, i. 28; bud-variation of dahlias in, i. 385. st. hilaire, aug., milk furnished by cows in south america, ii. 300; husked form of maize, i. 320. st. john, c., feral cats in scotland, i. 47; taming of wild ducks, i. 278. st. valery apple, singular structure of the, i. 350; artificial fecundation of the, i. 401. st. vitus' dance, period of appearance of, ii. 77. sageret, origin and varieties of the cherry, i. 347-348; origin of varieties of the apple, i. 350; incapacity of the cucumber for crossing with other species, i. 359; varieties of the melon, i. 360; supposed twin-mongrel melon, i. 391; crossing melons, ii. 108, 129; on gourds, ii. 108; effects of selection in enlarging fruit, ii. 217; on the tendency to depart from type, ii. 241; variation of plants in particular soils, ii. 278. salamander, experiments on the, ii. 293, 341; regeneration of lost parts in the, ii. 15, 376, 385. _salamandra cristata_, polydactylism in, ii. 14. salisbury, mr., on the production of nectarines by peach-trees, i. 341; on the dahlia, i. 369-370. _salix_, intercrossing of species of, i. 336. _salix humilis_, galls of, ii. 282, 283. sallé, feral guinea-fowl in st. domingo, i. 294. salmon, early breeding of male, ii. 384. salter, mr., on bud-variation in pelargoniums, i. 378; in the chrysanthemum, i. 379; transmission of variegated leaves by seed, i. 383; bud-variation by suckers in _phlox_, i. 384; application of selection to bud-varieties of plants, i. 411; accumulative effect of changed conditions of life, ii. 262; on the variegation of strawberry leaves, ii. 274. salter, s. j., hybrids of _gallus sonneratii_ and the common fowl, i. 234, ii. 45; {476} crossing of races or species of rats, ii. 87-88. samesreuther, on inheritance in cattle, ii. 10. sandford. _see_ dawkins. sap, ascent of the, ii. 296. _saponaria calabrica_, ii. 20. sardinia, ponies of, i. 52. sars, on the development of the hydroida, ii. 368. satiation of the stigma, i. 402-403. _saturnia pyri_, sterility of, in confinement, ii. 157. saul, on the management of prize gooseberries, i. 356. sauvigny, varieties of the goldfish, i. 296. savages, their indiscriminate use of plants as food, i. 307-310; fondness of, for taming animals, ii. 160. savi, effect of foreign pollen on maize, i. 400. _saxifraga geum_, ii. 166. sayzid mohammed musari, on carrier-pigeons, i. 141; on a pigeon which utters the sound "yahu," i. 155. scanderoons (pigeons), i. 142, 143. scania, remains of _bos frontosus_ found in, i. 81. scapula, characters of, in rabbits, i. 123; in fowls, i. 268; in pigeons, i. 167; alteration of, by disuse, in pigeons, i. 175. scarlet fever, ii. 276. schaaffhausen, on the horses represented in greek statues, ii. 213. schacht, h., on adventitious buds, ii. 384. schleiden, excess of nourishment a cause of variability, ii. 257. schomburgk, sir r., on the dogs of the indians of guiana, i. 19, 23, ii. 206; on the musk duck, i. 182; bud-variation in the banana, i. 377; reversion of varieties of the china rose in st. domingo, i. 380; sterility of tame parrots in guiana, ii. 155; on _dendrocygna viduata_, ii. 157; selection of fowls in guiana, ii. 209. schreibers, on _proteus_, ii. 297. _sciuropterus volucella_, ii. 152. _sciurus palmarum_ and _cinerea_, ii. 152. sclater, p. l., on _asinus tæniopus_, i. 62, ii. 41; on _asinus indicus_, ii. 42; striped character of young wild pigs, i. 70; osteology of _gallinula nesiotis_, i. 287; on the black-shouldered peacock, i. 290; on the breeding of birds in captivity, ii. 157. schmerling, dr., varieties of the dog, found in a cave, i. 19. scotch fir, local variation of, i. 363. scotch kail and cabbage, cross between, ii. 98. scott, john, irregularities in the sex of the flowers of maize, i. 321; bud-variation in _imatophyllum miniatum_, i. 385; crossing of species of _verbascum_, ii. 106-107; experiments on crossing _primulæ_, ii. 109; reproduction of orchids, ii. 133; fertility of _oncidium divaricatum_, ii. 164; acclimatisation of the sweet pea in india, ii. 311; number of seeds in _acropera_ and _gongora_, ii. 379. scott, sir w., former range of wild cattle in britain, i. 85. scrope, on the scotch deerhound, ii. 73, 121. sebright, sir john, effects of close interbreeding in dogs, ii. 121; care taken by, in selection of fowls, ii. 197. _secale cereale_, ii. 254. sedgwick, w., effects of crossing on the female, i. 404; on the "porcupine-man," ii. 4; on hereditary diseases, ii. 7; hereditary affections of the eye, ii. 9, 78-79; inheritance of polydactylism and anomalies of the extremities, ii. 13-14; morbid uniformity in the same family, ii. 17; on deaf-mutes, ii. 22; inheritance of injury to the eye, ii. 24; atavism in diseases and anomalies of structure, ii. 34; non-reversion to night-blindness, ii. 36; sexual limitation of the transmission of peculiarities in man, ii. 72-73; on the effects of hard-drinking, ii. 289; inherited baldness with deficiency of teeth, ii. 326-327; occurrence of a molar tooth in place of an incisor, ii. 391; diseases occurring in alternate generations, ii. 401. sedillot, on the removal of portions of bone, ii. 296. seeds, early selection of, ii. 204; rudimentary, in grapes, ii. 316; relative position of, in the capsule, ii. 345. seeds and buds, close analogies of, i. 411. seemann, b., crossing of the wolf and esquimaux dog, i. 22. selby, p. j., on the bud-destroying habits of the bullfinch, ii. 232. selection, ii. 192-249; methodical, i. 214, ii. 194-210; by the ancients and semi-civilised people, ii. 201-210; of trifling characters, ii. 208-210; unconscious, i. 214, 217, ii. 174, 210-217; effects of, shown by differences in most valued parts, ii. 217-220; produced by accumulation of variability, ii. 220-223; natural, as affecting domestic productions, ii. 185-189, 224-233; as the origin of species, genera and other groups, ii. 429-432; circumstances favourable to, ii. 233-239; tendency of towards extremes, ii. 239-242; {477} possible limit of, ii. 242; influence of time on, ii. 243-244; summary of subject, ii. 246-249; effects of, in modifying breeds of cattle, i. 92, 93; in preserving the purity of breeds of sheep, i. 99-100; in producing varieties of pigeons, i. 213-218; in breeding fowls, i. 232-233; in the goose, i. 289; in the canary, i. 295; in the goldfish, i. 296; in the silkworm, i. 300-301; contrasted in cabbages and cereals, i. 323; in the white mulberry, i. 334; on gooseberries, i. 356; applied to wheat, i. 317-318; exemplified in carrots, &c., i. 326; in the potato, i. 331; in the melon, i. 360; in flowering plants, i. 365; in the hyacinth, i. 371; applied to bud-varieties of plants, i. 411; illustrations of, ii. 421-428. selection, sexual, ii. 75. self-impotence in plants, ii. 131-140; in individual plants, ii. 136-138; of hybrids, ii. 174. selwyn, mr., on the dingo, i. 26. selys-longchamps, on hybrid ducks, i. 190, ii. 46, 157; hybrid of the hook-billed duck and egyptian goose, i. 282. seringe, on the st. valery apple, i. 350. serpent melon, i. 360. serres, olivier de, wild poultry in guiana, i. 237. sesamum, white-seeded, antiquity of the, ii. 429. _setaria_, found in the swiss lake-dwellings, i. 317. setters, degeneration of, in india, i. 38; youatt's remarks on, i. 41. sex, secondary characters of, latent, ii. 51-52; of parents, influence of, on hybrids, ii. 267. sexual characters, sometimes lost in domestication, ii. 74. sexual limitation of characters, ii. 71-75. sexual peculiarities, induced by domestication in sheep, i. 95; in fowls, i. 251-257; transfer of, i. 255-257. sexual variability in pigeons, i. 161-162. sexual selection, ii. 75. shaddock, i. 335. shailer, mr., on the moss-rose, i. 379-380. shanghai fowls, i. 227. shanghai sheep, their fecundity, i. 97. shan ponies, striped, i. 58. sheep, disputed origin of, i. 94; early domestication of, i. 94; large-tailed, i. 94, 95, 98, ii. 279; variations in horns, mammæ and other characters of, i. 95; sexual characters of, induced by domestication, i. 95, 96; adaptation of, to climate and pasture, i. 96, 97; periods of gestation of, i. 97; effect of heat on the fleece of, i. 98-99, ii. 278; effect of selection on, i. 99-101; "ancon" or "otter" breeds of, i. 17, 92, 100; "mauchamp-merino," i. 100-101; cross of german and merino, ii. 85-89; black, of the tarentino, ii. 227; karakool, ii. 278; jaffna, with callosities on the knees, ii. 302; chinese, ii. 315; danish, of the bronze period, ii. 427; polydactylism in, ii. 14; occasional production of horns in hornless breeds of, ii. 30; reversion of colour in, ii. 30; influence of male, on offspring, ii. 68; sexual differences in, ii. 73; influence of crossing or segregation on, ii. 86, 95-96, 102-103; interbreeding of, ii. 119-120; effect of nourishment on the fertility of, ii. 111-112; diminished fertility of, under certain conditions, ii. 161; unconscious selection of, ii. 213; natural selection in breeds of, ii. 224, 225, 227; reduction of bones in, ii. 242; individual differences of, ii. 251; local changes in the fleece of, in england, ii. 278; partial degeneration of, in australia, ii. 278; with numerous horns, ii. 291; correlation of horns and fleece in, ii. 326; feeding on flesh, ii. 303; acclimatisation of, ii. 305-306; mountain, resistance of, to severe weather, ii. 312; white, poisoned by _hypericum crispum_, ii. 337. sheep dogs resembling wolves, i. 24. shells, sinistral and dextral, ii. 53. sheriff, mr. new varieties of wheat, i. 315, 317; on crossing wheat, ii. 104-105; continuous variation of wheat, ii. 241. siam, cats of, i. 47; horses of, i. 53. shirley, e. p., on the fallow-deer, ii. 103, 120. short, d., hybrids of the domestic cat and _felis ornata_, i, 45. siberia, northern range of wild horses in, i. 52. sichel, j., on the deafness of white cats with blue eyes, ii. 329. sidney, s., on the pedigrees of pigs, ii. 3; on cross-reversion in pigs, ii. 35; period of gestation in the pig, i. 74; production of breeds of pigs by intercrossing, i. 78, 95; fertility of the pig, ii. 112; effects of interbreeding on pigs, ii. 121-122; on the colours of pigs, ii. 210, 229. siebold, on the sweet potato, ii. 309. siebold, von carl, on parthenogenesis, ii. 364. _silene_, contabescence in, ii. 166. silk-fowls, i. 230, ii. 67, 69. {478} silk-moth, arrindy, ii. 306, 312; tarroo, ii. 157. silk-moths, i. 300-304; domesticated species of, i. 300; history of, _ibid._; causes of modification in, i. 300-301; differences presented by, i. 301-304; crossing of, ii. 98; disease in, ii. 228; effects of disuse of parts in, ii. 298; selection practised with, ii. 197, 199; variation of, ii. 236; parthenogenesis in, ii. 364. silkworms, variations of, i. 301-302; yielding white cocoons, less liable to disease, ii. 336. silver-grey rabbit, i. 108, 111, 120. simonds, j. b., period of maturity in various breeds of cattle, i. 87; differences in the periods of dentition in sheep, i. 96; on the teeth in cattle, sheep, &c., ii. 322; on the breeding of superior rams, ii. 196. simon, on the raising of eggs of the silk-moth in china, ii. 197. simpson, sir j., regenerative power of the human embryo, ii. 15. _siredon_, breeding in the branchiferous stage, ii. 384. siskin, breeding in captivity, ii. 154. _sivatherium_, resemblance of the, to niata cattle, i. 89. size, difference of, an obstacle to crossing, ii. 101. skin, and its appendages, homologous, ii. 325; hereditary affections of the, ii. 79. skirving, r. s., on pigeons settling on trees in egypt, i. 181. skull, characters of the, in breeds of dogs, i. 34; in breeds of pigs, i. 71; in rabbits, i. 116-120, 127; in breeds of pigeons, i. 163-165; in breeds of fowls, i. 260-266; in ducks, i. 282-283. skull and horns, correlation of the, ii. 333. skylark, ii. 154. sleeman, on the cheetah, ii. 151. sloe, i. 345. small-pox, ii. 378. smiter (pigeon), i. 156. smith, sir a., on caffrarian cattle, i. 88; on the use of numerous plants as food in south africa, i. 307. smith, colonel hamilton, on the odour of the jackal, i. 30; on the origin of the dog, i. 16; wild dogs in st. domingo, i. 28; on the thibet mastiff and the alco, i. 28-29; development of the fifth toe in the hind feet of mastiffs, i. 35; differences in the skull of dogs, i. 34; history of the pointer, i. 42; on the ears of the dog, ii. 301; on the breeds of horses, i. 49; origin of the horse, i. 51; dappling of horses, i. 55; striped horses in spain, i. 58; original colour of the horse, i. 60; on horses scraping away snow, i. 52; on _asinus hemionus_, ii. 43; feral pigs of jamaica, i. 77-78. smith, sir j. e., production of nectarines and peaches by the same tree, i. 340; on _viola amoena_, i. 368; sterility of _vinca minor_ in england, ii. 170. smith, j., development of the ovary in _bonatea speciosa_, by irritation of the stigma, i. 403. smith, n. h., influence of the bull "favourite" on the breed of short-horn cattle, ii. 65. smith, w., on the inter-crossing of strawberries, i. 352. snake-rat, ii. 87, 88. snakes, form of the viscera in, ii. 344. snapdragon, bud-variation in, i. 381; non-inheritance of colour in, ii. 21; peloric, crossed with the normal form, ii. 70, 93; asymmetrical variation of the, ii. 322. soil, adaptation of plums to, i. 346; influence of, on the zones of pelargoniums, i. 366; on roses, i. 367; on the variegation of leaves, i. 383; advantages of change of, ii. 146-148. soil and climate, effects of, on strawberries, i. 353. _solanum_, non-intercrossing of species of, ii. 91. _solanum tuberosum_, i. 330-331. solid-hoofed pigs, i. 75. solomon, his stud of horses, i. 55. somerville, lord, on the fleece of merino sheep, i. 99; on crossing sheep, ii. 120; on selection of sheep, ii. 195; diminished fertility of merino sheep brought from spain, ii. 161. sooty fowls, i. 230, 256. soto, ferdinand de, on the cultivation of native plants in florida, i. 312. _sorghum_, i. 371. spain, hawthorn monogynous in, i. 364. spallanzani, on feral rabbits in lipari, i. 113; experiments on salamanders, ii. 15, 293, 385; experiments in feeding a pigeon with meat, ii. 304. spaniels, in india, i. 38; king charles's, i. 41; degeneration of, caused by interbreeding, ii. 121. spanish fowls, i. 227, 250, 253; figured, i. 226; early development of sexual characters in, i. 250, 251; furcula of, figured, i. 268. species, difficulty of distinguishing from varieties, i. 4; conversion of varieties into, i. 5; origin of, by natural selection, ii. 414-415; by mutual sterility of varieties, ii. 185-189. {479} spencer, lord, on selection in breeding, ii. 195. spencer, herbert, on the "survival of the fittest," i. 6; increase of fertility by domestication, ii. 111; on life, ii. 148, 177; changes produced by external conditions, ii. 281; effects of use on organs, ii. 295, 296; ascent of the sap in trees, ii. 296; correlation exemplified in the irish elk, ii. 333-334; on "physiological units," ii. 375; antagonism of growth and reproduction, ii. 384; formation of ducts in plants, ii. 300. spermatophores of the cephalopoda, ii. 383. spermatozoids, ii. 363-364; apparent independence of, in insects, ii. 384. sphingidæ, sterility of, in captivity, ii. 157. spinola, on the injurious effect produced by flowering buckwheat on white pigs, ii. 337. spitz dog, i. 31. spooner, w. c., cross-breeding of sheep, i. 100, ii. 95-96, 120; on the effects of crossing, ii. 96-97; on crossing cattle, ii. 118; individual sterility, ii. 162. spores, reproduction of abnormal forms by, i. 383. sports, i. 373; in pigeons, i. 213. spot pigeon, i. 156, 207. sprengel, c. k., on dichogamous plants, ii. 90; on the hollyhock, ii. 107; on the functions of flowers, ii. 175. sproule, mr., inheritance of cleft-palate and hare-lip, ii. 24. spurs, of fowls, i. 255; development of, in hens, ii. 318. squashes, i. 357. squinting, hereditary, ii. 9. squirrels, generally sterile in captivity, ii. 152. squirrels, flying, breeding in confinement, ii. 152. "staarhalsige taube," i. 161. stag, one-horned, supposed heredity of character in, ii. 12; degeneracy of, in the highlands, ii. 208. stamens, occurrence of rudimentary, ii. 316; conversion of, into pistils, i. 365; into petals, ii. 392. _staphylea_, ii. 168. steenstrup, prof., on the dog of the danish middens, i. 18; on the obliquity of flounders, ii. 53. steinan, j., on hereditary diseases, ii. 7, 79. sterility, in dogs, consequent on close confinement, i. 32; comparative, of crosses, ii. 103, 104; from changed conditions of life, ii. 148-165; occurring in the descendants of wild animals bred in captivity, ii. 160; individual, ii. 162; resulting from propagation by buds, cuttings, bulbs, &c., ii. 169; in hybrids, ii. 178-180, 386, 410-411; in specific hybrids of pigeons, i. 193; as connected with natural selection, ii. 185-189. sternum, characters of the, in rabbits, i. 123; in pigeons, i. 167, 174-175; in fowls, i. 268, 273; effects of disuse on the, i. 174-175, 273. stephens, j. f., on the habits of the bombycidæ, i. 303. stewart, h., on hereditary disease, ii. 79. stigma, variation of the, in cultivated cucurbitaceæ, i. 359; satiation of the, i. 402-403. stocks, bud-variation in, i. 381; effect of crossing upon the colour of the seed of, i. 398-399; true by seed, ii. 20; crosses of, ii. 93; varieties of, produced by selection, ii. 219; reversion by the upper seeds in the pods of, ii. 347-348. stockholm, fruit-trees of, ii. 307. stokes, prof., calculation of the chance of transmission of abnormal peculiarities in man, ii. 5. stolons, variations in the production of, by strawberries, i. 353. stomach, structure of the, affected by food, ii. 302. stone in the bladder, hereditary, ii. 8, 79. strawberries, i. 351-354; remarkable varieties of, i. 352-353; hautbois, dioecious, i. 353; selection in, ii. 200; mildew of, ii. 228; probable further modification of, ii. 243; variegated, effects of soil on, ii. 274. strickland, a., on the domestication of _anser ferus_, i. 287; on the colour of the bill and legs in geese, i. 288. _strictoenas_, i. 183. stripes on young of wild swine, i. 76; of domestic pigs of turkey, westphalia, and the zambesi, i. 76-77; of feral swine of jamaica and new granada, i. 77; of fruit and flowers, i. 400, ii. 37; in horses, i. 56-60; in the ass, i. 62-63; production of, by crossing species of equidæ, ii. 42-43. _strix grallaria_, ii. 302. _strix passerina_, ii. 154. "strupp-taube," i. 155. struthers, mr., osteology of the feet in solid-hoofed pigs, i. 75; on polydactylism, ii. 13-14. sturm, prepotency of transmission of characters in sheep and cattle, ii. 66; absorption of the minority in crossed races, ii. 88; correlation of twisted horns and curled wool in sheep, ii. 326. {480} sub-species, wild, of _columba livia_ and other pigeons, i. 204. succession, geological, of organisms, i. 11. suckers, bud-variation by, i. 384. sugar cane, sterility of, in various countries, ii. 169; white, liability of, to disease, ii. 228, 336. suicide, hereditary tendency to, ii. 7, 78. sulivan, admiral, on the horses of the falkland islands, i. 53; wild pigs of the falkland islands, i. 77; feral cattle of the falkland islands, i. 86, 102; feral rabbits of the falkland islands, i. 112. sultan fowl, i. 228, 255. _sus indica_, i. 65, 67-70, ii. 110. _sus pliciceps_, i. 69 (figured). _sus scrofa_, i. 65, 66, ii. 110. _sus scrofa palustris_, i. 68. _sus vittatus_, i. 67. swallows, a breed of pigeons, i. 156. swayne, mr., on artificial crossing of varieties of the pea, i. 397. sweet peas, ii. 91; crosses of, ii. 93, 94; varieties of, coming true by seed, ii. 20; acclimatisation of, in india, ii. 311. sweet william, bud-variation in, i. 381. swinhoe, r., on chinese pigeons, i. 28, 206; on striped chinese horses, i. 59. switzerland, ancient dogs of, i. 19; pigs of, in the neolithic period, i. 67-68; goats of, i. 101. sycamore, pale-leaved variety of the, ii. 330. sykes, colonel, on a pariah dog with crooked legs, i. 17; on small indian asses, i. 62; on _gallus sonneratii_, i. 233; on the voice of the indian kulm cock, i. 259; fertility of the fowl in most climates, ii. 161. symmetry, hereditary departures from, ii. 12. _symphytum_, variegated, i. 384. syphilis, hereditary, ii. 332. syria, asses of, i. 62. _syringa persica_, _chinensis_, and _vulgaris_, ii. 164. tacitus, on the care taken by the celts in breeding animals, ii. 202. _tagetes signata_, dwarf variety of, ii. 20. tahiti, varieties of cultivated plants in, ii. 256. tail, occasional development of, in man, ii. 57; never curled in wild animals, ii. 301; rudimentary in chinese sheep, ii. 315. tail-feathers, numbers of, in breeds of pigeons, i. 158-159; peculiarities of, in cocks, i. 254-255; variability of, in fowls, i. 258; curled, in _anas boschas_, and tame drakes, i. 280. talent, hereditary, ii. 7. tankerville, earl of, on chillingham cattle, i. 84, ii. 119. tanner, prof., effects of disuse of parts in cattle, ii. 299. tapir, sterility of the, in captivity, ii. 150. targioni-tozzetti, on cultivated plants, i. 306; on the vine, i. 332; varieties of the peach, i. 342; origin and varieties of the plum, i. 345; origin of the cherry, i. 347; origin of roses, i. 366. tarsus, variability of the, in fowls, i. 259; reproduction of the, in a thrush, ii. 15. tartars, their preference for spiral-horned sheep, ii. 209. tavernier, abundance of pigeons in persia, i. 205. _taxus baccata_, ii. 18. teebay, mr., reversion in fowls, ii. 38. teeth, number and position of, in dogs, i. 34; deficiency of, in naked turkish dogs, i. 35; period of appearance of, in breeds of dogs, i. 35; precocity of, in highly bred animals, ii. 322; correlation of, with hair, ii. 326; double row of, with redundant hair, in julia pastrana, ii. 328; affected in form by hereditary syphilis and by pulmonary tubercle, ii. 332; fusion of, ii. 341; developed on the palate, ii. 391. tegetmeier, mr., on a cat with monstrous teeth, i. 48; on a swift-like pigeon, i. 157; naked young of some pigeons, i. 170; fertility of hybrid pigeons, i. 192; on white pigeons, ii. 230; reversion in crossed breeds of fowls, i. 239-244; chicks of the white silk-fowl, i. 249; development of the cranial protuberance in polish fowls, i. 250; on the skull in the polish fowl, i. 257, 262; on the intelligence of polish fowls, i. 264; correlation of the cranial protuberance and crest in polish fowls, i. 274; development of the web in the feet of polish fowls, i. 259; early development of several peculiarities in spanish cocks, i. 250; on the comb in spanish fowls, i. 253; on the spanish fowl, ii. 306; varieties of game-fowls, i. 252; pedigrees of game-fowls, ii. 3; assumption of female plumage by a game cock, i. 253; natural selection in the game cock, ii. 225; pugnacity of game hens, i. 256; length of the middle toe in cochin fowls, i. 259; origin of the sebright bantam, ii. 54; differences in the size of fowls, i. 257; effect of crossing in fowls, i. 258, ii. 96; effects of interbreeding in fowls, ii. 124-125; incubation by mongrels of non-sitting races of fowls, ii. 44; inverse correlation of crest and comb in fowls, i. 274; {481} occurrence of pencilled feathers in fowls, ii. 40; on a variety of the goose from sebastopol, i. 289; on the fertility of the peahen, ii. 112; on the intercrossing of bees, ii. 126. temminck, origin of domestic cats, i. 43; origin of domestic pigeons, i. 180; on _columba guinea_, i. 182; on _columba leucocephala_, i. 183; asserted reluctance of some breeds of pigeons to cross, i. 192; sterility of hybrid turtle-doves, i. 193; variations of _gallus bankiva_, i. 235; on a buff-coloured breed of turkeys, i. 293; number of eggs laid by the peahen, ii. 112; breeding of guans in captivity, ii. 156; behaviour of grouse in captivity, _ibid._; sterility of the partridge in captivity, _ibid._ tendrils in cucurbitaceæ, i. 358, ii. 316. tennent, sir j. e., on the goose, i. 287; on the growth of the apple in ceylon, ii. 277; on the jaffna sheep, ii. 302. _teredo_, fertilisation in, ii. 363. terriers, wry-legged, ii. 245; white, subject to distemper, ii. 336. teschemacher, on a husked form of maize, i. 320. tessier, on the period of gestation of the dog, i. 29; of the pig, i. 74; in cattle, i. 87; experiments on change of soil, ii. 147. _tetrao_, breeding of species of, in captivity, ii. 156. _tetrapteryx paradisea_, ii. 156. _teucrium campanulatum_, pelorism in, ii. 345. texas, feral cattle in, i. 85. theognis, his notice of the domestic fowl, i. 246. theophrastus, his notice of the peach, ii. 308. _thesium_, ii. 284. thompson, mr., on the peach and nectarine, i. 342; on the varieties of the apricot, i. 344; classification of varieties of cherries, i. 347-348; on the "sister ribston-pippin," i. 350; on the varieties of the gooseberry, i. 354, 355. thompson, william, on the pigeons of islay, i. 184; feral pigeons in scotland, i. 190; colour of the bill and legs in geese, i. 288; breeding of _tetrao scotius_ in captivity, ii. 156; destruction of black-fowls by the osprey, ii. 230. thompson, prof. w., on the obliquity of the flounder, ii. 53. thorns, reconversion of, into branches, in pear trees, ii. 318. thorn, grafting of early and late, i. 363; glastonbury, i. 364. thrush, asserted reproduction of the tarsus in a, ii. 15. _thuja pendula_ or _filiformis_, a variety of _t. orientalis_, i. 362. thuret, on the division of the zoospores of an alga, ii. 378. thwaites, g. h., on the cats of ceylon, i. 46; on a twin seed of _fuchsia coccinea_ and _fulgens_, i. 391. tiburtius, experiments in rearing wild ducks, i. 278. tiger, rarely fertile in captivity, ii. 150, 151. _tigridia conchiflora_, bud-variation in, i. 386. time, importance of, in the production of races, ii. 243. tinzmann, self-impotence in the potato, ii. 137. tissues, affinity of, for special organic substances, ii. 380. titmice, destructive to thin-shelled walnuts, i. 356; attacking nuts, i. 357; attacking peas, ii. 231. tobacco, crossing of varieties of, ii. 108; cultivation of in sweden, ii. 307. tobolsk, red-coloured cats of, i. 47. toes, relative length of, in fowls, i. 259; development of fifth in dogs, ii. 317. tollet, mr., his selection of cattle, ii. 199. tomato, ii. 91. tomtits. see _titmice_. tongue, relation of, to the beak in pigeons, i. 168. tooth, occurrence of a molar, in place of an incisor, ii. 391. "torfschwein," i. 68. trail, r., on the union of half-tubers of different kinds of potatoes, i. 395. trees, varieties of, suddenly produced, i. 361; weeping or pendulous, i. 361; fastigate or pyramidal, i. 361; with variegated or changed foliage, i. 362; early or late in leaf, i. 362-363; forest, non-application of selection to, ii. 237. "trembleur" (pigeons), i. 146. trembley, on reproduction in hydra, ii. 359. "trevoltini" silkworms, i. 301-302. _trichosanthes anguina_, i. 360. tricks, inheritance of, ii. 6-7, 395. _trifolium minus_ and _repens_, ii. 164. trimorphic plants, conditions of reproduction in, ii. 181-184. tristram, h. b., selection of the dromedary, ii. 205-206. _triticum dicoccum_, i. 319. _triticum monococcum_, i. 319. _triticum spelta_, i. 319. _triticum turgidum_, i. 319. _triticum vulgare_, wild in asia, i. 312. {482} triton, breeding in the branchiferous stage, ii. 384. "trommel-taube," i. 154. "tronfo" pigeon, i. 144. _tropæolum_, ii. 38. _tropæolum minus_ and _majus_, reversion in hybrids of, i. 392. troubetzkoy, prince, experiments with pear-trees at moscow, ii. 307. trousseau, prof., pathological resemblance of twins, ii. 252. trumpeter pigeon, i. 154; known in 1735, i. 207. tscharner, h. a. de, graft-hybrid produced by inosculation in the vine, i. 395. tschudi, on the naked peruvian dog, i. 23; extinct varieties of maize from peruvian tombs, i. 320, ii. 425. tubers, bud-variation by, i. 384-385. tuckerman, mr., sterility of _carex rigida_, ii. 170. tufted ducks, i. 281. tulips, variability of, i. 370; bud-variation in, i. 385-386; influence of soil in "breaking," i. 385. tumbler pigeon, i. 150-153; short-faced, figured, i. 152; skull figured, i. 163; lower jaw figured, i. 165; scapula and furcula figured, i. 167; early known in india, i. 207; history of, i. 209; sub-breeds of, i. 220; young unable to break the egg-shell, ii. 226; probable further modification of, ii. 242. "tümmler" (pigeons), i. 150. tumours, ovarian, occurrence of hairs and teeth in, ii. 370; polypoid, origin of, ii. 381. "türkische taube," i. 139. turbit (pigeon), i. 148. turkey, domestic, origin of, i. 292-293; crossing of with north american wild turkey, i. 292-293; breeds of, i. 293; crested white cock, i. 293; wild, characters of, i. 293-294; degeneration of, in india, i. 294, ii. 278; failure of eggs of, in delhi, ii. 161; feral on the parana, i. 190; change produced in by domestication, ii. 262. turkey, striped young pigs in, i. 76. turner (pigeon), i. 156. turner, w., on compensation in arteries and veins, ii. 300; on cells, ii. 370. turnips, origin of, i. 325; reversion in, ii. 31; run wild, ii. 33; crosses of, ii. 93, 96; swedish, preferred by hares, ii. 232; acclimatisation of, in india, ii. 311. turnspit, on an egyptian monument, i. 17; crosses of the, ii. 92. turtle-dove, white and coloured, crossing of, ii. 92. _turtur auritus_, hybrids of, with _t. cambayensis_ and _t. suratensis_, i. 194. _turtur risorius_, crossing of, with the common pigeon, i. 193; hybrid of, with _t. vulgaris_, _ibid._ _turtur suratensis_, sterile hybrids of, with _t. vulgaris_, i. 193; hybrids of, with _t. auritus_, i. 194. _turtur vulgaris_, crossing of, with the common pigeon, i. 193; hybrid of, with _t. risorius_, _ibid._; sterile hybrids of, with _t. suratensis_ and _ectopistes migratorius_, _ibid._ tusks of wild and domesticated pigs, i. 76, 77. _tussilago farfara_, variegated, i. 384. twin-seed _fuchsia coccinea_ and _fulgens_, i. 391. tyerman, b., on the pigs of the pacific islands, i. 70, ii. 87; on the dogs of the pacific islands, ii. 87. tylor, mr., on the prohibition of consanguineous marriages, ii. 122-123. udders, development of the, ii. 300. _ulex_, double-flowered, ii. 167. _ulmus campestris_ and _effusa_, hybrids of, ii. 130. uniformity of character, maintained by crossing, ii. 85-90. units of the body, functional independence of the, ii. 368-371. unity or plurality of origin of organisms, i. 13. upas poison, ii. 380. urea, secretion of, ii. 380. use and disuse of parts, effects of, ii. 295-303, 352-353, 418-419; in rabbits, i. 124-128; in ducks, i. 284-286. utility, considerations of, leading to uniformity, ii. 241. valentin, experimental production of double monsters by, ii. 340. _vallota_, ii. 139. van beck, barbara, a hairy-faced woman, ii. 4. van mons on wild fruit-trees, i. 312, ii. 260; production of varieties of the vine, i. 333; correlated variability in fruit-trees, ii. 330; production of almond-like fruit by peach-seedlings, i. 339. _vanessa_, species of, not copulating in captivity, ii. 157. variability, i. 4, ii. 371-373, 394-397, 406-420; causes of, ii. 250-270; correlated, ii. 319-338, 353-355, 419-420; law of equable, ii. 351-352; necessity of, for selection, ii. 192; of selected characters, ii. 238-239; of multiple homologous parts, ii. 342. {483} variation, laws of, ii. 293-356; continuity of, ii. 241; possible limitation of, ii. 242, 416-417; in domestic cats, i. 45-48; origin of breeds of cattle by, i. 88; in osteological characters of rabbits, i. 115-130; of important organs, i. 359; analogous or parallel, i. 348-352; in horses, i. 55; in the horse and ass, i. 64; in fowls, i. 243-246; in geese, i. 288; exemplified in the production of fleshy stems in cabbages, &c., i. 326; in the peach, nectarine, and apricot, i. 342, 344; individual, in wheat, i. 314. variegation of foliage, i. 383, ii. 167-168. varieties and species, resemblance of, i. 4, ii. 411-413; conversion of, into species, i. 5; abnormal, ii. 413; domestic, gradually produced, ii. 414. varro, on domestic ducks, i. 277; on feral fowls, ii. 33; crossing of the wild and domestic ass, ii. 206. vasey, mr., on the number of sacral vertebræ in ordinary and humped cattle, i. 79; on hungarian cattle, i. 80. vaucher, sterility of _ranunculus ficaria_ and _acorus calamus_, ii. 170. vegetables, cultivated, reversion in, ii. 31-32; european, culture of, in india, ii. 168-169. veith, mr., on breeds of horses, i. 49. _verbascum_, intercrossing of species of, i. 336, ii. 93, 105-107; reversion in hybrids of, i. 392; contabescent, wild plants of, ii. 165; villosity in, ii. 277. _verbascum austriacum_, ii. 136. _verbascum blattaria_, ii. 105-106. _verbascum lychnitis_, ii. 105-106, 136. _verbascum nigrum_, ii. 136. _verbascum phoeniceum_, ii. 107, 137; variable duration of, ii. 305. _verbascum thapsus_, ii. 106. verbenas, origin of, i. 364; white, liability of, to mildew, ii. 228, 336; scorching of dark, ii. 229, 336; effect of changed conditions of life on, ii. 273. verlot, on the darkleaved barberry, i. 362; inheritance of peculiarities of foliage in trees, i. 362; production of _rosa cannabifolia_ by bud-variation from _r. alba_, i. 381; bud-variation in _aralia trifoliata_, i. 382; variegation of leaves, i. 383; colours of tulips, i. 386; uncertainty of inheritance, ii. 18; persistency of white flowers, ii. 20; peloric flowers of _linaria_, ii. 58; tendency of striped flowers to uniformity of colour, ii. 70; non-intercrossing of certain allied plants, ii. 91; sterility of _primulæ_ with coloured calyces, ii. 166; on fertile proliferous flowers, _ibid._; on the irish yew, ii. 241; differences in the _camellia_, ii. 251; effect of soil on the variegated strawberry, ii. 274; correlated variability in plants, ii. 330. _verruca_, ii. 53, 400. vertebræ, characters of, in rabbits, i. 120-122; in ducks, i. 283-284; number and variations of, in pigeons, i. 165-166; number and characters of, in fowls, i. 266-268; variability of number of, in the pig, i. 74. vertuch, see putsche. "verugas," ii. 276. vespucius, early cultivation in brazil, i. 311. vibert's experiments on the cultivation of the vine from seed, i. 332. _viburnum opulus_, ii. 185, 316. _vicia sativa_, leaflet converted into a tendril in, ii. 392. vicunas, selection of, ii. 207. villosity of plants, influenced by dryness, ii. 277. vilmorin, cultivation of the wild carrot, i. 326, ii. 217; colours of tulips, i. 386; uncertainty of inheritance in balsams and roses, ii. 18; experiments with dwarf varieties of _saponaria calabrica_ and _tagetes signata_, ii. 20; reversion of flowers by stripes and blotches, ii. 37; on variability, ii. 262. _vinca minor_, sterility in, ii. 170. vine, i. 332-334; parsley-leaved, reversion of, i. 382; graft-hybrid produced by inosculation in the, i. 395; disease of, influenced by colour of grapes, ii. 228; influence of climate, &c., on varieties of the, ii. 278; diminished extent of cultivation of the, ii. 308; acclimatisation of the, in the west indies, ii. 313. _viola_, species of, i. 368. _viola lutea_, different coloured flowers in, i. 408. _viola tricolor_, reversion in, ii. 31, 47. virchow, prof., blindness occurring in the offspring of consanguineous marriages, ii. 143; on the growth of bones, ii. 294, 381; on cellular prolification, ii. 295; independence of the elements of the body, ii. 369; on the cell-theory, ii. 370; presence of hairs and teeth in ovarian tumours, ii. 370; of hairs in the brain, ii. 391; special affinities of the tissues, ii. 380; origin of polypoid excrescences and tumours, ii. 381. virgil on the selection of seed-corn, i. 318, ii. 203; of cattle and sheep, ii. 202. virginian islands, ponies of, i. 52. _virgularia_, ii. 378. vision, hereditary peculiarities of, ii. 8-9; {484} in amphibious animals, ii. 223; varieties of, ii. 300; affections of organs of, correlated with other peculiarities, ii. 328. _vitis vinifera_, i. 332-334, 375. _viverra_, sterility of species of, in captivity, ii. 151. vogel, varieties of the date palm, ii. 256. vogt, on the indications of stripes on black kittens, ii. 55. voice, differences of, in fowls, i. 259; peculiarities of, in ducks, i. 281; inheritance of peculiarities of, ii. 6. volz, on the history of the dog, i. 16; ancient history of the fowl, i. 246; domestic ducks unknown to aristotle, i. 277; indian cattle sent to macedonia by alexander, ii. 202; mention of mules in the bible, ii. 202; history of the increase of breeds, ii. 244. von berg on _verbascum phoeniceum_, ii. 305. voorhelm, g., his knowledge of hyacinths, i. 371, ii. 251. vrolik, prof., on polydactylism, ii. 12; on double monsters, ii. 340; influence of the shape of the mother's pelvis on her child's head, ii. 344. waders, behaviour of, in confinement, ii. 156. wahlenberg, on the propagation of alpine plants by buds, runners, bulbs, &c., ii. 169. "wahlverwandtschaft" of gärtner, ii. 180. wales, white cattle of, in the 10th century, i. 85. walker, a., on intermarriage, i. 404; on the inheritance of polydactylism, ii. 13. walker, d., advantage of change of soil to wheat, ii. 146. wallace, a. r., on a striped javanese horse, i. 59; on the conditions of life of feral animals, ii. 32; artificial alteration of the plumage of birds, ii. 280; on polymorphic butterflies, ii. 399-400; on reversion, ii. 415; on the limit of change, ii. 417. wallace, dr., on the sterility of sphingidæ hatched in autumn, ii. 158. wallachian sheep, sexual peculiarities in the horns of, i. 96. wallflower, bud-variation in, i. 382. wallich, dr., on _thuja pendula_ or _filiformis_, i. 362. walnuts, i. 356-357; thin-shelled, attacked by tomtits, ii. 231; grafting of, ii. 259. walsh, b. d., on galls, ii. 282, 283; his "law of equable variability," ii. 351-352. walther, f. l., on the history of the dog, i. 16; on the intercrossing of the zebu and ordinary cattle, i. 83. waring, mr., on individual sterility, ii. 162. wart hog, i. 76. waterer, mr., spontaneous production of _cytisus alpino-laburnum_, i. 390. water melon, i. 357. waterhouse, g. r., on the winter-colouring of _lepus variabilis_, i. 111. waterton, c., production of tailless foals, i. 53; on taming wild ducks, i. 278; on the wildness of half-bred wild ducks, ii. 45; assumption of male characters by a hen, ii. 51. watson, h. c., on british wild fruit-trees, i. 312; on the non-variation of weeds, i. 317; origin of the plum, i. 345; variation in _pyrus malus_, i. 348; on _viola amoena_ and _tricolor_, i. 368; on reversion in scotch kail, ii. 32; fertility of _draba sylvestris_ when cultivated, ii. 163; on generally distributed british plants, ii. 285. wattles, rudimentary, in some fowls, ii. 315. watts, miss, on sultan fowls, i. 228. webb, james, interbreeding of sheep, ii. 120. weber, effect of the shape of the mother's pelvis on her child's head, ii. 344. weeds, supposed necessity for their modification, coincidently with cultivated plants, i. 317. weeping varieties of trees, i. 361. weeping habit of trees, capricious inheritance of, ii. 18-19. weevil, injury done to stone-fruit by, in north america, ii. 231. welsh cattle, descended from _bos longifrons_, i. 81. west indies, feral pigs of, i. 77; effect of climate of, upon sheep, i. 98. western, lord, change effected by, in the sheep, ii. 198. westphalia, striped young pigs in, i. 76. westwood, j. o., on peloric flowers of _calceolaria_, ii. 346. whately, archbishop, on grafting early and late thorns, i. 363. wheat, specific unity or diversity of, i. 312-313, 316-317; hasora, i. 313; presence or absence of barbs in, i. 314; godron on variations in, _ibid._; varieties of, i. 314-315; effects of soil and climate on, i. 316; deterioration of, _ibid._; crossing of varieties of, _ibid._, ii. 96, 104-105, 130; in the swiss lake-dwellings, i. 317-319; selection applied to, i. 318, ii. 200; increased fertility of hybrids of, with _ægilops_, ii. 110; advantage of change of soil to, ii. 146; {485} differences of, in various parts of india, ii. 165; continuous variation in, ii. 200; red, hardiness of, ii. 229, 336; fenton, ii. 232; natural selection in, ii. 233; varieties of, found wild, ii. 260; effects of change of climate on, ii. 307; ancient variety of, ii. 429. whitby, mrs., on the markings of silkworms, i. 302; on the silkmoth, i. 303. white, mr., reproduction of supernumerary digits after amputation, ii. 14; time occupied in the blending of crossed races, ii. 87. white, gilbert, vegetable diet of dogs, ii. 303. white and white-spotted animals, liability of, to disease, ii. 336-337. white flowers, most truly reproduced by seed, ii. 20. wichura, max, on hybrid willows, ii. 50, 131, 267; analogy between the pollen of old-cultivated plants, and of hybrids, ii. 268. wicking, mr., inheritance of the primary characters of _columba livia_ in cross-bred pigeons, i. 201; production of a white head in almond tumblers, ii. 199. wicksted, mr., on cases of individual sterility, ii. 162. wiegmann, spontaneous crossing of blue and white peas, i. 397; crossing of varieties of cabbage, ii. 130; on contabescence, ii. 165. wight, dr., sexual sterility of plants propagated by buds, &c., ii. 169. wilde, sir w. r., occurrence of _bos frontosus_ and _longifrons_ in irish crannoges, i. 81; attention paid to breeds of animals by the ancient irish, ii. 203. wildman, on the dahlia, ii. 216, 273. wildness of the progeny of crossed tame animals, ii. 44-46. wilkes, capt., on the taming of pigeons among the polynesians, ii. 161. wilkinson, j., on crossed cattle, ii. 104. williams, mr., change of plumage in a hamburgh hen, i. 258. williams, mr., intercrossing of strawberries, i. 352. williamson, capt., degeneration of dogs in india, i. 37; on small indian asses, i. 62. williamson, rev. w., doubling of _anemone coronaria_ by selection, ii. 200. willows, weeping, i. 361; reversion of spiral-leaved weeping, i. 383; hybrids of, ii. 267; galls of, ii. 282-283. willoughby, f., notice of spot pigeons, i. 156; on a fantail pigeon, i. 208; on tumbler pigeons, i. 209; on the turbit, i. 209; on the barb and carrier pigeons, i. 211; on the hook-billed duck, i. 277. wilmot, mr., on a crested white turkey cock, i. 293; reversion of sheep in colour, ii. 30. wilson, b. o., fertility of hybrids of humped and ordinary cattle in tasmania, i. 83. wilson, dr., prepotency of the manx over the common cat, ii. 66. wilson, james, origin of dogs, i. 16. wilson, mr., on prepotency of transmission in sheep, ii. 69; on the breeding of bulls, ii. 196. wings, proportionate length of, in different breeds of pigeons, i. 175-176; of fowls, effects of disuse on, i. 270-272; characters and variations of, in ducks, i. 284-286; diminution of, in birds of small islands, i. 286-287. wing-feathers, number of, in pigeons, i. 159; variability of, in fowls, i. 258. wolf, recent existence of, in ireland, i. 16; barking of young, i. 27; hybrids of, with the dog, i. 32. wolf-dog, black, of florida, i. 22. wolves, north american, their resemblance to dogs of the same region, i. 21-22; burrowing of, i. 27. woodbury, mr., crossing of the ligurian and common hive bees, i. 299, ii. 126; variability of bees, i. 298. woodward, s. p., on arctic mollusca, ii. 256. wood, willoughby, on mr. bates' cattle, ii. 118. wooler, w. a., on the young of the himalayan rabbit, i. 109; persistency of the coloured calyx in a crossed polyanthus, i. 365. worrara poison, ii. 380. wounds, healing of, ii. 294. wright, j., production of crippled calves by shorthorned cattle, ii. 118; on selection in cattle, ii. 194; effect of close interbreeding on pigs, ii. 121-122; deterioration of game cocks by close interbreeding, ii. 124. wright, strethill, on the development of the hydroida, ii. 368. wyman, dr., on niata cattle, and on a similar malformation in the codfish, i. 89; on virginian pigs, ii. 227. xenophon, on the colours of hunting dogs, ii. 209. ximenes, cardinal, regulations for the selection of rams, ii. 204. "yahoo," the name of the pigeon in persia, i. 155. yaks, domestication of, i. 82; selection of white-tailed, ii. 206, 209. {486} yam, development of axillary bulbs in the, ii. 169. yarrell, mr., deficiency of teeth in hairless dogs, i. 34, ii. 326; on ducks, i. 279, ii. 262; characters of domestic goose, resembling those of _anser albifrons_, i. 288; whiteness of ganders, i. 288; variations in goldfish, i. 296-297; assumption of male plumage by the hen-pheasant, ii. 51; effect of castration upon the cock, ii. 51-52; breeding of the skylark in captivity, ii. 154; plumage of the male linnet in confinement, ii. 158; on the dingo, ii. 263. yellow fever, in mexico, ii. 276. yew, fastigate, ii. 241. yew, irish, hardy in new york, ii. 309. yew, weeping, i. 361; propagation of, by seed, ii. 18-19. yolk, variations of, in the eggs of ducks, i. 281. youatt, mr., history of the dog, i. 16-17; variations of the pulse in breeds of dogs, i. 35; liability to disease in dogs, i. 35, ii. 227; inheritance of goître in dogs, ii. 10; on the greyhound, i. 34, 41; on king charles' spaniels, i. 41; on the setter, i. 41; on breeds of horses, i. 49; variation in the number of ribs in the horse, i. 50; inheritance of diseases in the horse, ii. 10, 11; introduction of eastern blood into english horses, ii. 212-213; on white welsh cattle, i. 85, ii. 209; improvement of british breeds of cattle, i. 93; rudiments of horns in young hornless cattle, ii. 55, 315; on crossed cattle, ii. 104, 119; on bakewell's long-horned cattle, ii. 118; selection of qualities in cattle, ii. 196; degeneration of cattle by neglect, ii. 239; on the skull in hornless cattle, ii. 333; disease of white parts of cattle, ii. 337; displacement of long-horned by short-horned cattle, ii. 426; on angola sheep, i. 95; on the fleece of sheep, i. 99; correlation of horns and fleece in sheep, i. 95; adaptation of breeds of sheep to climate and pasture, i. 96; horns of wallachian sheep, i. 96; exotic sheep in the zoological gardens, i. 96-97, ii. 305; occurrence of horns in hornless breeds of sheep, ii. 30; on the colour of sheep, ii. 30; on interbreeding sheep, ii. 120; on merino rams in germany, ii. 196; effect of unconscious selection on sheep, ii. 213; reversion of leicester sheep on the lammermuir hills, ii. 224; on many-horned sheep, ii. 326; reduction of bone in sheep, ii. 242; persistency of character in breeds of animals in mountainous countries, ii. 64; on interbreeding, ii. 116; on the power of selection, ii. 194-195; slowness of production of breeds, ii. 244; passages in the bible relating to the breeding of animals, ii. 201-202. young, j., on the belgian rabbit, i. 106. yule, capt., on a burmese hairy family, ii. 77, 327. zambesi, striped young pigs on the, i. 77. zambos, character of the, ii. 47. zano, j. g., introduction of rabbits into porto santo by, i. 112. _zea mays_, i. 320. zebu, i. 79; domestication of the, i. 82; fertile crossing of, with european cattle, i. 83, ii. 110. zebra, hybrids of, with the ass and mare, ii. 42. _zephyranthes candida_, ii. 164. _zinnia_, cultivation of, ii. 261. zollinger on malayan penguin ducks, i. 280. zoospore, division of, in algæ, ii. 378. "zopf-taube," i. 154. the end. london: printed by w. clowes and sons, duke street, stamford street, and charing cross. * * * * * notes [1] 'medical notes and reflections,' 3rd edit., 1855, p. 267. [2] mr. buckle, in his grand work on 'civilisation,' expresses doubts on the subject owing to the want of statistics. _see_ also mr. bowen, professor of moral philosophy, in 'proc. american acad. of sciences,' vol. v. p. 102 [3] for greyhounds, _see_ low's 'domest. animals of the british islands,' 1845, p. 721. for game-fowls, _see_ 'the poultry book,' by mr. tegetmeier, 1866, p. 123. for pigs, _see_ mr. sidney's edit. of 'youatt on the pig,' 1860, pp. 11, 22. [4] 'the stud farm,' by cecil, p. 39. [5] 'philosophical transactions,' 1755, p. 23. i have seen only second-hand accounts of the two grandsons. mr. sedgwick, in a paper to which i shall hereafter often refer, states that _four_ generations were affected, and in each the males alone. [6] barbara van beck, figured, as i am informed by the rev. w. d. fox, in woodburn's 'gallery of rare portraits,' 1816, vol. ii. [7] 'proc. zoolog. soc.,' 1833, p. 16 [8] hofacker, 'ueber die eigenschaften,' &c., 1828, s. 34. report by pariset in 'comptes rendus,' 1847, p. 592. [9] hunter, as quoted in harlan's 'med. researches,' p. 530. sir a. carlisle, 'phil. transact.,' 1814, p. 94. [10] girou de buzareignues, 'de la génération,' p. 282. [11] 'macmillan's magazine,' july and august, 1865. [12] the works which i have read and found most useful are dr. prosper lucas's great work, 'traité de l'hérédité naturelle,' 1847. mr. w. sedgwick, in 'british and foreign medico-chirurg. review,' april and july, 1861, and april and july, 1863: dr. garrod on gout is quoted in these articles. sir henry holland, 'medical notes and reflections,' 3rd edit., 1855. piorry, 'de l'hérédité dans les maladies,' 1840. adams, 'a philosophical treatise on hereditary peculiarities,' 2nd edit., 1815. essay on 'hereditary diseases,' by dr. j. steinan, 1843. _see_ paget, in 'medical times,' 1857, p. 192, on the inheritance of cancer; dr. gould, in 'proc. of american acad. of sciences,' nov. 8, 1853, gives a curious case of hereditary bleeding in four generations. harlan, 'medical researches,' p. 593. [13] marshall, quoted by youatt in his work on cattle, p. 284. [14] 'philosoph. transact.,' 1814, p. 94. [15] 'medical notes and reflections,' 3rd edit., p. 33. [16] this affection, as i hear from mr. bowman, has been ably described and spoken of as hereditary by dr. dondera, of utrecht, whose work was published in english by the sydenham society in 1864. [17] quoted by mr. herbert spencer, 'principles of biology,' vol. i. p. 244. [18] 'british and foreign medico-chirurg. review, 'april, 1861, p. 482-6; 'l'héréd. nat.,' tom. i. pp. 391-408. [19] dr. osborne, pres. of royal college of phys. in ireland, published this case in the 'dublin medical journal' for 1835. [20] these various statements are taken from the following works and papers:--youatt on 'the horse,' pp. 35, 220. lawrence, 'the horse,' p. 30. karkeek, in an excellent paper in 'gard. chronicle,' 1853, p. 92. mr. burke, in 'journal of r. agricul. soc. of england,' vol. v. p. 511. 'encyclop. of rural sports,' p. 279. girou de buzareignues, 'philosoph. phys.,' p. 215. _see_ following papers in 'the veterinary:' roberts, in vol. ii. p. 144; m. marrimpoey, vol. ii. p. 387; mr. karkeek, vol. iv. p. 5; youatt on goître in dogs, vol. v. p. 483; youatt, in vol. vi. pp. 66, 348, 412; m. bernard, vol. xi. p. 539; dr. samesreuther, on cattle, in vol. xii. p. 181; percivall, in vol. xiii. p. 47. with respect to blindness in horses, _see_ also a whole row of authorities in dr. p. lucas's great work, tom. i. p. 399. mr. baker, in 'the veterinary,' vol. xiii. p. 721, gives a strong case of hereditary imperfect vision and of jibbing. [21] knight on 'the culture of the apple and pear,' p. 31. lindley's 'horticulture,' p. 180. [22] these statements are taken from the following works in order:--youatt on 'the horse,' p. 48; mr. darvill, in 'the veterinary,' vol. viii. p. 50. with respect to robson, _see_ 'the veterinary,' vol. iii. p. 580; mr. lawrence on 'the horse,' 1829, p. 9; 'the stud farm,' by cecil, 1851; baron cameronn, quoted in 'the veterinary,' vol x. p. 500. [23] 'recreations in agriculture and nat. hist.,' vol. i. p. 68. [24] 'ueber die eigenschaften,' &c., 1828, s. 107. [25] bronn's 'geschichte der natur,' band ii. s. 132. [26] vrolik has discussed this point at full length in a work published in dutch, from which mr. paget has kindly translated for me passages. _see_, also, isidore geoffroy st. hilaire's 'hist. des anomalies,' 1832, tom. i. p. 684. [27] 'edinburgh new phil. journal,' july, 1863. [28] some great anatomists, as cuvier and meckel, believe that the tubercle one side of the hinder foot of the tailless batrachians represents a sixth digit. certainly, when the hinder foot of a toad, as soon as it first sprouts from the tadpole, is dissected, the partially ossified cartilage of this tubercle resembles under the microscope, in a remarkable manner, a digit. but the highest authority on such subjects, gegenbaur (untersuchung. zur vergleich. anat. der wirbelthiere: carpus et tarsus, 1864, s. 63), concludes that this resemblance is not real, only superficial. [29] for these several statements, _see_ dr. struthers, in work cited, especially on intermissions in the line of descent. prof. huxley, 'lectures on our knowledge of organic nature,' 1863, p. 97. with respect to inheritance, _see_ dr. prosper lucas, 'l'hérédité nat.,' tom. i. p. 325. isid. geoffroy, 'anom.,' tom. i. p. 701. sir a. carlisle, in 'phil. transact.,' 1814, p. 94. a. walker, on 'intermarriage,' 1838, p. 140, gives a case of five generations; as does mr. sedgwick, in 'brit. and foreign medico-chirurg. review,' april, 1863, p. 462. on the inheritance of other anomalies in the extremities, _see_ dr. h. dobell, in vol. xlvi. of 'medico-chirurg. transactions,' 1863; also mr. sedgwick, in op. cit., april, 1863, p. 460. with respect to additional digits in the negro, _see_ prichard, 'physical history of mankind.' dr. dieffenbach ('journ. royal geograph. soc.,' 1841, p. 208) says this anomaly is not uncommon with the polynesians of the chatham islands. [30] 'the poultry chronicle,' 1854, p. 559. [31] the statements in this paragraph are taken from isidore geoffroy st. hilaire, 'hist. des anomalies,' tom. i. pp. 688-693. [32] as quoted by carpenter, 'princ. of comp. physiology,' 1854, p. 480. [33] müller's 'phys.,' eng. translat., vol. i. 1838, p. 407. a thrush, however, was exhibited before the british association at hull, in 1853, which had lost its tarsus, and this member, it was asserted, had been thrice reproduced: i presume it was lost each time by disease. [34] 'monthly journal of medical science,' edinburgh, 1848, new series, vol. ii. p. 890. [35] 'an essay on animal reproduction,' trans. by dr. maty, 1769, p. 79. [36] bonnet, 'oeuvres d'hist. nat.,' tom. v., part i., 4to. edit., 1781, pp. 343, 350, 353. [37] so with insects, the larvæ reproduce lost limbs, but, except in one order, the mature insect has no such power. but the myriapoda, which apparently represent the larvæ of true insects, have, as newport has shown, this power until their last moult. _see_ an excellent discussion on this whole subject by dr. carpenter in his 'princ. comp. phys.,' 1854, p. 479. [38] dr. günther, in owen's 'anatomy of vertebrates,' vol. i., 1866, p. 567. spallanzani has made similar observations. [39] 'on the anatomy of vertebrates,' 1866, p. 170: with respect to the pectoral fins of fishes, pp. 166-168. [40] 'medical notes and reflections,' 1839, pp. 24, 34. _see_, also, dr. p. lucas, 'l'héréd. nat.,' tom. ii. p. 33. [41] 'du danger des mariages consanguins,' 2nd edit., 1862, p. 103. [42] 'british and foreign medico-chirurg. review,' july, 1863, pp. 183, 189. [43] verlot, 'la production des variétés,' 1865, p. 32. [44] loudon's 'gard. mag.,' vol. xii., 1836, p. 368. [45] verlot, 'la product. des variétés,' 1865, p. 94. [46] bronn's 'geschichte der natur,' b. ii. s. 121. [47] rev. w. a. leighton, 'flora of shropshire,' p. 497; and charlesworth's 'mag. of nat. hist.,' vol. i, 1837, p. 30. [48] verlot, op. cit., p. 93. [49] for these several statements, _see_ loudon's 'gard. magazine,' vol. x., 1834, pp. 408, 180; and vol. ix., 1833, p. 597. [50] these statements are taken from alph. de candolle, 'bot. géograph.,' p. 1083. [51] verlot, op. cit., p. 38. [52] op. cit., p. 59. [53] alph. de candolle, 'géograph. bot.,' p. 1082. [54] _see_ 'cottage gardener,' april 10, 1860, p. 18, and sept. 10, 1861, p. 456; 'gard. chron.,' 1845, p. 102. [55] darwin, in 'journal of proc. linn. soc. bot.,' 1862, p. 94. [56] hofacker, 'ueber die eigenschaften,' &c., s. 10. [57] bechstein, 'naturgesch. deutschlands,' b. iv. s. 462. mr. brent, a great breeder of canaries, informs me that he believes that these statements are correct. [58] 'the poultry book,' by w. b. tegetmeier, 1866, p. 245. [59] 'british and foreign med.-chirurg. review,' july, 1861, pp. 200-204. mr. sedgwick has given such full details on this subject, with ample references, that i need refer to no other authorities. [60] 'de l'espèce,' tom. ii., 1859, p. 299. [61] 'philosoph. magazine,' vol. iv., 1799, p. 5. [62] this last case is quoted by mr. sedgwick in 'british and foreign medico-chirurg. review,' april, 1861, p. 484. for blumenbach, _see_ above-cited paper. _see_, also, dr. p. lucas, 'traité de l'héréd. nat.,' tom. ii. p. 492. also 'transact. lin. soc.,' vol. ix. p. 323. some curious cases are given by mr. baker in 'the veterinary,' vol. xiii. p. 723. another curious case is given in the 'annales des scienc. nat.,' 1st series, tom. xi. p. 324. [63] 'proc. royal soc.,' vol. x. p. 297. [64] mr. sproule, in 'british medical journal,' april 18, 1863. [65] downing, 'fruits of america,' p. 5; sageret, 'pom. phys.,' pp. 43, 72. [66] youatt on sheep, pp. 20, 234. the same fact of loose horns occasionally appearing in hornless breeds has been observed in germany: bechstein, 'naturgesch. deutschlands,' b. i. s. 362. [67] youatt on cattle, pp. 155, 174. [68] youatt on sheep, 1838, pp. 17, 145. [69] i have been informed of this fact through the rev. w. d. fox, on the excellent authority of mr. wilmot: _see_, also, remarks on this subject in an original article in the 'quarterly review,' 1849, p. 395. [70] youatt, pp. 19, 234. [71] 'the poultry book,' by mr. tegetmeier, 1866, p. 231. [72] loudon's 'gard. mag.,' vol. x., 1834, p. 396: a nurseryman, with much experience on this subject, has likewise assured me that this sometimes occurs. [73] 'gardener's chron.,' 1855, p. 777. [74] ibid., 1862, p. 721. [75] _see_ some excellent remarks on this subject by mr. wallace, 'journal proc. linn. soc.,' 1858, vol. iii. p. 60. [76] dureau de la malle, in 'comptes rendus,' tom. xli., 1855, p. 807. from the statements above given, the author concludes that the wild pigs of louisiana are not descended from the european _sus scrofa_. [77] capt. w. allen, in his 'expedition to the niger,' states that fowls have run wild on the island of annobon, and have become modified in form and voice. the account is so meagre and vague that it did not appear to me worth copying; but i now find that dureau de la malle ('comptes rendus,' tom. xli., 1855, p. 690) advances this as a good instance of reversion to the primitive stock, and as confirmatory of a still more vague statement in classical times by varro. [78] 'flora of australia,' 1859, introduct., p. ix. [79] 'de l'espèce,' tom. ii. pp. 54, 58, 60. [80] mr. sedgwick gives many instances in the 'british and foreign med.-chirurg. review,' april and july, 1863, pp. 448, 188. [81] in his edit. of 'youatt on the pig,' 1860, p. 27. [82] dr. p. lucas, 'héréd. nat.,' tom. ii. pp. 314, 892: _see_ a good practical article on this subject in 'gard. chronicle,' 1856, p. 620. i could add a vast number of references, but they would be superfluous. [83] kölreuter gives cases in his 'dritte fortsetzung,' 1766, s. 53, 59; and in his well-known 'memoirs on lavatera and jalapa.' gärtner, 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 437, 441, &c. naudin, in his 'recherches sur l'hybridité, nouvelles archives du muséum,' tom. i. p. 25. [84] quoted by mr. sedgwick in 'med.-chirurg. review,' april, 1861, p. 485. dr. h. dobell, in 'med.-chirurg. transactions,' vol. xlvi., gives an analogous case, in which, in a large family, fingers with thickened joints were transmitted to several members during five generations; but when the blemish once disappeared it never reappeared. [85] verlot, 'des variétés,' 1865, p. 63. [86] 'nouvelles archives du muséum,' tom. i. p. 25. alex. braun (in his 'rejuvenescence,' ray soc., 1853, p. 315) apparently holds a similar opinion. [87] mr. teebay, in 'the poultry book,' by mr. tegetmeier, 1866, p. 72. [88] quoted by hofacker, 'ueber die eigenschaften,' &c., s. 98. [89] 'essais hist. nat. du paraguay,' tom. ii. 1801, p. 372. [90] these facts are given on the high authority of mr. hewitt, in 'the poultry book,' by mr. tegetmeier, 1866, p. 248. [91] 'the poultry book,' by tegetmeier, 1866, p. 97. [92] 'gardener's chron. and agricultural gazette,' 1866, p. 528. [93] ibid., 1860, p. 343. [94] sclater, in 'proc. zoolog. soc.,' 1862, p. 163. [95] 'history of the horse,' p. 212. [96] 'mém. présentés par divers savans à l'acad. royale,' tom. vi. 1835, p. 338. [97] 'letters from alabama,' 1859, p. 280. [98] 'hist. nat. des mammifères,' 1820, tom. i. [99] 'philosoph. transact.,' 1821, p. 20. [100] sclater, in 'proc. zoolog. soc.,' 1862, p. 163: this species is the ghor-khur of n.w. india, and has often been called the hemionus of pallas. _see_, also, mr. blyth's excellent paper in 'journ. of asiatic soc. of bengal,' vol. xxviii., 1860, p. 229. [101] another species of wild ass, the true _a. hemionus_ or _kiang_, which ordinarily has no shoulder-stripes, is said occasionally to have them; and these, as with the horse and ass, are sometimes double: _see_ mr. blyth, in the paper just quoted, and in 'indian sporting review,' 1856, p. 320; and col. hamilton smith, in 'nat. library, horses,' p. 318; and 'dict. class. d'hist. nat.,' tom. iii. p. 563. [102] figured in the 'gleanings from the knowsley menageries,' by dr. j. e. gray. [103] cases of both spanish and polish hens sitting are given in the 'poultry chronicle,' 1855, vol. iii. p. 477. [104] 'the poultry book,' by mr. tegetmeier, 1866, pp. 119, 163. the author, who remarks on the two negatives ('journ. of hort.,' 1862, p. 325), states that two broods were raised from a spanish cock and silver-pencilled hamburgh hen, neither of which are incubators, and no less than seven out of eight hens in these two broods "showed a perfect obstinacy in sitting." the rev. e. s. dixon ('ornamental poultry,' 1848, p. 200) says that chickens reared from a cross between golden and black polish fowls, are "good and steady birds to sit." mr. b. p. brent informs me that he raised some good sitting hens by crossing pencilled hamburgh and polish breeds. a cross-bred bird from a spanish non-incubating cock and cochin incubating hen is mentioned in the 'poultry chronicle,' vol. iii. p. 13, as an "exemplary mother." on the other hand, an exceptional case is given in the 'cottage gardener,' 1860, p. 388, of a hen raised from a spanish cock and black polish hen which did not incubate. [105] 'the poultry book,' by tegetmeier, 1866, pp. 165, 167. [106] 'natural history review,' 1863, april, p. 277. [107] 'essays on natural history,' p. 197. [108] as stated by mr. orton, in his 'physiology of breeding,' p. 12. [109] m. e. de selys-longchamps refers ('bulletin acad. roy. de bruxelles,' tom. xii. no. 10) to more than seven of these hybrids shot in switzerland and france. m. deby asserts ('zoologist,' vol. v., 1845-46, p. 1254) that several have been shot in various parts of belgium and northern france. audubon ('ornitholog. biography,' vol. iii. p. 168), speaking of these hybrids, says that, in north america, they "now and then wander off and become quite wild." [110] 'journal of researches,' 1845, p. 71. [111] 'expedition to the zambesi,' 1865, pp. 25, 150. [112] dr. p. broca, on 'hybridity in the genus homo,' eng. translat., 1864, p. 39. [113] 'nouvelles archives du muséum,' tom. i. p. 151. [114] 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 582, 438, &c. [115] 'die bastardbefruchtung ... der weiden,' 1865, s. 23. for gärtner's remarks on this head, _see_ 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 474, 582. [116] yarrell, 'phil. transact.,' 1827, p. 268; dr. hamilton, in 'proc. zoolog. soc.,' 1862, p. 23. [117] 'archiv. skand. beiträge zur naturgesch.,' viii. s. 397-413. [118] in his 'essays on nat. hist.,' 1838. mr. hewitt gives analogous cases with hen-pheasants in 'journal of horticulture,' july 12, 1864, p. 37. isidore geoffroy saint hilaire, in his 'essais de zoolog. gén.' (suites à buffon, 1842, pp. 496-513), has collected such cases in ten different kinds of birds. it appears that aristotle was well aware of the change in mental disposition in old hens. the case of the female deer acquiring horns is given at p. 513. [119] 'cottage gardener,' 1860, p. 379. [120] 'art de faire eclorre,' &c., 1749, tom. ii. p. 8. [121] sir h. holland, 'medical notes and reflections,' 3rd edit., 1855, p. 31. [122] prof. thomson on steenstrup's views on the obliquity of flounders: 'annals and mag. of nat. hist.,' may, 1865, p. 361. [123] dr. e. von martens, in 'annals and mag. of nat. hist.,' march, 1866, p. 209. [124] darwin, 'balanidæ,' ray soc., 1854, p. 499: _see_ also the appended remarks on the apparently capricious development of the thoracic limbs on the right and left sides in the higher crustaceans. [125] mormodes ignea: darwin, 'fertilization of orchids,' 1862, p. 251. [126] 'journal of horticulture,' july, 1864, p. 38. i have had the opportunity of examining these remarkable feathers through the kindness of mr. tegetmeier. [127] 'the poultry book,' by mr. tegetmeier, 1866, p. 241. [128] carl vogt, 'lectures on man,' eng. translat., 1864, p. 411. [129] on cattle, p. 174. [130] isid. geoffroy st. hilaire, 'des anomalies,' tom. iii. p. 353. with respect to the mammæ in women, _see_ tom. i. p. 710. [131] 'natural hist. review,' april, 1863, p. 258. _see_ also his lecture, royal institution, march 16, 1860. on same subject, _see_ moquin-tandon, 'eléments de tératologie,' 1841, pp. 184, 352. [132] verlot, 'des variétés,' 1865, p. 89; naudin, 'nouvelles archives du muséum,' tom. i. p. 137. [133] in his discussion on some curious peloric calceolarias, quoted in 'journal of horticulture,' feb. 24, 1863, p. 152. [134] for other cases of six divisions in peloric flowers of the labiatæ and scrophulariaceæ, _see_ moquin-tandon, 'tératologie,' p. 192. [135] moquin-tandon, 'tératologie,' p. 186. [136] _see_ youatt on cattle, pp. 92, 69, 78, 88, 163: also youatt on sheep, p. 325. also dr. lucas, 'l'héréd. nat.,' tom. ii. p. 310. [137] 'héréd. nat.,' tom. ii. pp. 112-120. [138] sir h. holland, 'chapters on mental physiology,' 1852, p. 234. [139] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1860, p. 270. [140] mr. n. h. smith, observations on breeding, quoted in 'encyclop. of rural sports,' p. 278. [141] quoted by bronn, 'geschichte der natur,' b. ii. s. 170. _see_ sturm, 'ueber racen,' 1825, s. 104-107. for the niata cattle, _see_ my 'journal of researches,' 1845, p. 146. [142] lucas, 'l'hérédité nat.,' tom. ii. p. 112. [143] mr. orton, 'physiology of breeding,' 1855, p. 9. [144] boitard and corbié, 'les pigeons,' 1824, p. 224. [145] 'les pigeons, pp. 168, 198. [146] 'das ganze,' &c., 1837, s. 39. [147] 'the pigeon book,' p. 46. [148] 'physiology of breeding,' p.22; mr. hewitt, in 'the poultry book,' by tegetmeier, 1866, p. 224. [149] boitard and corbié, 'les pigeons,' 1824, p. 226. [150] 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 256, 290, &c. naudin ('nouvelles archives du muséum,' tom. i. p. 149) gives a striking instance of prepotency in _datura stramonium_ when crossed with two other species. [151] flourens, 'longévité humaine,' p. 144, on crossed jackals. with respect to the difference between the mule and the hinny, i am aware that this has generally been attributed to the sire and dam transmitting their characters differently; but colin, who has given in his 'traité phys. comp.,' tom. ii. pp. 537-539, the fullest description which i have met with of these reciprocal hybrids, is strongly of opinion that the ass preponderates in both crosses, but in an unequal degree. this is likewise the conclusion of flourens, and of bechstein in his 'naturgeschichte deutschlands,' b. i. s. 294. the tail of the hinny is much more like that of the horse than is the tail of the mule, and this is generally accounted for by the males of both species transmitting with greater power this part of their structure; but a compound hybrid which i saw in the zoological gardens, from a mare by a hybrid ass-zebra, closely resembled its mother in its tail. [152] mr. hewitt, who has had such great experience in raising these hybrids, says ('poultry book,' by mr. tegetmeier, 1866, pp. 165-167) that in all, the head was destitute of wattles, comb, and ear-lappets; and all closely resembled the pheasant in the shape of the tail and general contour of the body. these hybrids were raised from hens of several breeds by a cock-pheasant; but another hybrid, described by mr. hewitt, was raised from a hen-pheasant by a silver-laced bantam cock, and this possessed a rudimental comb and wattles. [153] 'l'héréd. nat.,' tom. ii. book ii. ch. i. [154] 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 264-266. naudin ('nouvelles archives du muséum,' tom. i. p. 148) has arrived at a similar conclusion. [155] 'cottage gardener,' 1856, pp. 101, 137. [156] _see_ some remarks on this head with respect to sheep by mr. wilson, in 'gardener's chronicle,' 1863, p. 15. [157] verlot, 'des variétés,' 1865, p. 66. [158] moquin-tandon, 'tératologie,' p. 191. [159] 'nouvelles archives du muséum,' tom. i. p. 137. [160] 'l'héréd. nat.,' tom. ii. pp. 137-165. _see_, also, mr. sedgwick's four memoirs, immediately to be referred to. [161] on sexual limitation in hereditary diseases, 'brit. and for. med.-chirurg. review,' april, 1861, p. 477; july, p. 198; april, 1863, p. 44; and july, p. 159. [162] w. scrope, 'art of deer stalking,' p. 354. [163] boitard and corbié, 'les pigeons,' p. 173; dr. f. chapuis, 'le pigeon voyageur belge,' 1865, p. 87. [164] prichard, 'phys. hist. of mankind,' 1851, vol. i. p. 349. [165] 'embassy to the court of ava,' vol. i. p. 320. the third generation is described by capt. yule in his 'narrative of the mission to the court of ava,' 1855, p. 94. [166] 'das ganze der taubenzucht,' 1837, s. 21, tab. i., fig. 4; s. 24, tab. iv., fig. 2. [167] kidd's 'treatise on the canary,' p. 18. [168] charlesworth, 'mag. of nat. hist.,' vol. i., 1837, p. 167. [169] dr. prosper lucas, 'héréd. nat.,' tom. ii. p. 713. [170] 'l'héréd. dans les maladies,' 1840, p. 135. for hunter, _see_ harlan's 'med. researches,' p. 530. [171] 'l'héréd. nat.,' tom. ii. p. 850. [172] sedgwick, 'brit. and for. med.-chirurg. review,' april 1861, p. 485. i have seen three accounts, all taken from the same original authority (which i have not been able to consult), and all differ in the details! but as they agree in the main facts, i have ventured to quote this case. [173] prosper lucas, 'héréd. nat.,' tom. i. p. 400. [174] sedgwick, idem, july, 1861, p. 202. [175] piorry, p. 109; prosper lucas, tom. ii. p. 759. [176] prosper lucas, tom. ii. p. 748. [177] prosper lucas, tom. ii. pp. 678, 700, 702; sedgwick, idem, april, 1863, p. 449, and july, 1863, p. 162; dr. j. steinan, 'essay on hereditary disease,' 1843, pp. 27, 34. [178] these cases are given by mr. sedgwick, on the authority of dr. h. stewart, in 'med.-chirurg. review,' april, 1863, pp. 449, 477. [179] 'héréd. nat.,' tom. ii. p. 852. [180] communications to the board of agriculture, vol. i. p. 367. [181] 'review of reports, north of england,' 1808, p. 200. [182] 'säugethiere von paraguay,' 1830, s. 212. [183] rengger, 'säugethiere,' &c., s. 154. [184] white, 'regular gradation in man,' p. 146. [185] dr. w. f. edwards, in his 'charactères physiolog. des races humaines,' p. 23, first called attention to this subject, and ably discussed it. [186] rev. d. tyerman, and bennett, 'journal of voyages,' 1821-1829, vol. i. p. 300. [187] mr. s. j. salter, 'journal linn. soc.,' vol. vi., 1862, p. 71. [188] sturm, 'ueber racen, &c.,' 1825, s. 107. bronn, 'geschichte der natur.,' b. ii. s. 170, gives a table of the proportions of blood after successive crosses. dr. p. lucas, 'l'hérédité nat.,' tom. ii. p. 308. [189] 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 463, 470. [190] 'nova acta petrop.,' 1794, p. 393: _see_ also previous volume. [191] as quoted in the 'true principles of breeding,' by c. h. macknight and dr. h. madden, 1865, p. 11. [192] with respect to plants, an admirable essay on this subject (die geschlechter-vertheilung bei den pflanzen: 1867) has lately been published by dr. hildebrand, who arrives at the same general conclusions as i have done. [193] 'teoria della riproduzione vegetal,' 1816, p. 12. [194] verlot, 'des variétés,' 1865, p. 72. [195] duval-jouve, 'bull. soc. bot. de france,' tom. x., 1863, p. 194. [196] extract of a letter from sir r. heron, 1838, given me by mr. yarrell. with respect to mice, _see_ 'annal. des sc. nat.,' tom. i. p. 180; and i have heard of other similar cases. for turtle-doves, boitard and corbié, 'les pigeons,' &c., p. 238. for the game fowl, 'the poultry book,' 1866, p. 128. for crosses of tailless fowls, _see_ bechstein, 'naturges. deutsch.' b. iii. s. 403. bronn, 'geschichte der natur,' b. ii. s. 170, gives analogous facts with horses. on the hairless condition of crossed south american dogs, _see_ rengger, 'säugethiere von paraguay,' s. 152: but i saw in the zoological gardens mongrels, from a similar cross, which were hairless, quite hairy, or hairy in patches, that is, piebald with hair. for crosses of dorking and other fowls, _see_ 'poultry chronicle,' vol. ii. p. 355. about the crossed pigs, extract of letter from sir r. heron to mr. yarrell. for other cases, _see_ p. lucas, 'héréd. nat.,' tom. i. p. 212. [197] 'internat. hort. and bot. congress of london,' 1866. [198] 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 307. kölreuter ('dritte fortsetszung,' s. 34, 39), however, obtained intermediate tints from similar crosses in the genus verbascum. with respect to the turnips, _see_ herbert's 'amaryllidaceæ,' 1837, p. 370. [199] 'nouvelles archives du muséum,' tom. i. p. 100. [200] richardson, 'pigs,' 1847, pp. 37, 42; s. sidney's edition of 'youatt on the pig,' 1860, p. 3. [201] _see_ mr. w. c. spooner's excellent paper on cross-breeding, 'journal royal agricult. soc.,' vol. xx., part ii.: _see_ also an equally good article by mr. ch. howard, in 'gardener's chronicle,' 1860, p. 320. [202] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1857, pp. 649, 652. [203] 'bulletin de la soc. d'acclimat.,' 1862, tom. ix. p. 463. _see_ also, for other cases, mm. moll and gayot, 'du boeuf,' 1860, p. xxxii. [204] 'poultry chronicle,' vol. ii., 1854, p. 36. [205] 'the poultry book,' by w. b. tegetmeier, 1866, p. 58. [206] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1852, p. 765. [207] spooner, in 'journal royal agricult. soc.,' vol. xx., part ii. [208] _see_ colin's 'traité de phys. comp. des animaux domestiques,' tom. ii. p. 536, where this subject is well treated. [209] 'les pigeons,' p. 37. [210] vol. i., 1854, p. 101. [211] 'cottage gardener,' 1856, p. 110. [212] 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 553. [213] dr. pigeaux, in 'bull. soc. d'acclimat.,' tom. iii., july 1866, as quoted in 'annals and mag. of nat. hist.,' 1867, vol. xx. p. 75. [214] 'journal de physiolog.,' tom. ii., 1859, p. 385. [215] dec. 1863, p. 484. [216] on the varieties of wheat, p. 66. [217] rengger, 'säugethiere von paraguay,' s. 336. [218] _see_ a memoir by mm. lherbette and de quatrefages, in 'bull. soc. d'acclimat.,' tom. viii., july, 1861, p. 312. [219] for the norfolk sheep, _see_ marshall's 'rural economy of norfolk,' vol. ii. p. 133. _see_ rev. l. landt's 'description of faroe,' p. 66. for the ancon sheep, _see_ 'phil. transact.,' 1813, p. 90. [220] white's 'nat. hist. of selbourne,' edited by bennett, p. 39. with respect to the origin of the dark-coloured deer, _see_ 'some account of english deer parks,' by e. p. shirley, esq. [221] 'the dovecote,' by the rev. e. s. dixon, p. 155; bechstein, 'naturgesch. deutschlands,' band iv., 1795, s. 17. [222] 'cattle,' p. 202. [223] mr. j. wilkinson, in 'remarks addressed to sir j. sebright,' 1820, p. 38. [224] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1858, p. 771. [225] 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 87, 169. _see_ also the table at the end of volume. [226] 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 87, 577. [227] 'kenntniss der befruchtung,' s. 137; 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 92, 181. on raising the two varieties from seed _see_ s. 307. [228] 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 216. [229] the following facts, given by kölreuter in his 'dritte fortsetzung,' s. 34, 39, appear at first sight strongly to confirm mr. scott's and gärtner's statements; and to a certain limited extent they do so. kölreuter asserts, from innumerable observations, that insects incessantly carry pollen from one species and variety of verbascum to another; and i can confirm this assertion; yet he found that the white and yellow varieties of _verbascum lychnitis_ often grew wild mingled together: moreover, he cultivated these two varieties in considerable numbers during four years in his garden, and they kept true by seed; but when he crossed them, they produced flowers of an intermediate tint. hence it might have thought that both varieties must have a stronger elective affinity for the pollen of their own variety than for that of the other; this elective affinity, i may add, of each species for its own pollen (kölreuter, 'dritte forts.,' s. 39, and gärtner, 'bastarderz.,' _passim_) being a perfectly well-ascertained power. but the force of the foregoing facts is much lessened by gärtner's numerous experiments, for, differently from kölreuter, he never once got ('bastarderz.,' s. 307) an intermediate tint when he crossed the yellow and white flowered varieties of verbascum. so that the fact of the white and yellow varieties keeping true to their colour by seed does not prove that they were not mutually fertilised by the pollen carried by insects from one to the other. [230] 'amaryllidaceæ,' 1837, p. 366. gärtner has made a similar observation. [231] kölreuter first observed this fact. 'mém. de l'acad. st. petersburg,' vol. iii. p. 197. _see_ also c. k. sprengel, 'das entdeckte geheimniss,' s. 345. [232] namely, barbarines, pastissons, giraumous: 'annal. des sc. nat.,' tom. xxx., 1833, pp. 398 and 405. [233] 'mémoire sur les cucurbitaceæ,' 1826, pp. 46, 55. [234] 'annales des se. nat.,' 4th series, tom. vi. m. naudin considers these forms as undoubtedly varieties of _cucurbita pepo_. [235] 'mém. cucurb.,' p. 8. [236] 'zweite forts.,' s. 53, namely, nicotiana major vulgaris; (2) perennis; (3) transylvanica; (4) a sub-var. of the last; (5) major latifol. fl. alb. [237] kölreuter was so much struck with this fact that he suspected that a little pollen of _n. glutinosa_ in one of his experiments might have accidentally got mingled with that of _var. perennis_, and thus aided its fertilising power. but we now know conclusively from gärtner ('bastarderz.,' s. 34, 431) that two kinds of pollen never act _conjointly_ on a third species; still less will the pollen of a distinct species, mingled with a plant's own pollen, if the latter be present in sufficient quantity, have any effect. the sole effect of mingling two kinds of pollen is to produce in the same capsule seeds which yield plants, some taking after the one and some after the other parent. [238] mr. scott has made some observations on the absolute sterility of a purple and white primrose (_primula vulgaris_) when fertilised by pollen from the primrose ('journal of proc. of linn. soc.,' vol. viii., 1864, p. 98); but these observations require confirmation. i raised a number of purple-flowered long-styled seedlings from seed kindly sent me by mr. scott, and, though they were all some degree sterile, they were much more fertile with pollen taken from the common primrose than with their own pollen. mr. scott has likewise described a red equal-styled cowslip (_p. veris_, idem, p. 106), which was found by him to be highly sterile when crossed with the common cowslip; but this was not the case with several equal-styled red seedlings raised by me from his plant. this variety of the cowslip presents the remarkable peculiarity of combining male organs in every respect like those of the short-styled form, with female organs resembling in function and partly in structure those of the long-styled form; so that we have the singular anomaly of the two forms combined in the same flower. hence it is not surprising that these flowers should be spontaneously self-infertile in a high degree. [239] 'act. acad. st. petersburg,' 1780, part ii., pp. 84, 100. [240] 'annales des sc. nat.,' tom. xxi. (1st series), p. 61. [241] 'bull. bot. soc. de france,' dec. 27th, 1861, tom. viii. p. 612. [242] quoted by isid. geoffroy st. hilaire, 'hist. naturelle générale,' tom. iii. p. 476. since this ms. has been sent to press a full discussion on the present subject has appeared in mr. herbert spencer's 'principles of biology,' vol. ii. 1867, p. 457 _et seq._ [243] for cats and dogs, &c., _see_ bellingeri, in 'annal. des sc. nat.,' 2nd series, zoolog., tom. xii. p. 155. for ferrets, bechstein, 'naturgeschichte deutschlands,' band i., 1801, s. 786, 795. for rabbits, ditto, s. 1123, 1131; and bronn's 'geschichte der natur,' b. ii. s. 99. for mountain sheep, ditto, s. 102. for the fertility of the wild sow, _see_ bechstein's 'naturgesch. deutschlands,' b. i., 1801, s. 534; for the domestic pig, sidney's edit. of youatt on the pig, 1860, p. 62. with respect to lapland, _see_ acerbi's 'travels to the north cape,' eng. translat., vol. ii. p. 222. about the highland cows, _see_ hogg on sheep, p. 263. [244] for the eggs of _gallus bankiva_, _see_ blyth, in 'annals and mag. of nat. hist., 2nd series, vol. i., 1848, p. 456. for wild and tame ducks, macgillivray, 'british birds,' vol. v. p. 37; and 'die enten,' s. 87. for wild geese, l. lloyd, 'scandinavian adventures,' vol. ii. 1854, p. 413; and for tame geese, 'ornamental poultry,' by rev. e. s. dixon, p. 139. on the breeding of pigeons, pistor, 'das ganze der taubenzucht,' 1831, s. 46; and boitard and corbié, 'les pigeons,' p. 158. with respect to peacocks, according to temminck ('hist. nat. gén. des pigeons,' &c., 1813, tom. ii. p. 41), the hen lays in india even as many as twenty eggs; but according to jerdon and another writer (quoted in tegetmeier's 'poultry book,' 1866, pp. 280, 282), she there lays only from four to nine or ten eggs: in england she is said, in the 'poultry book,' to lay five or six, but another writer says from eight to twelve eggs. [245] 'the art of improving the breed, &c.,' 1809, p. 16. [246] for andrew knight, _see_ a. walker, on 'intermarriage,' 1838, p. 227. sir j. sebright's treatise has just been quoted. [247] 'cattle,' p. 199. [248] nathusius, 'ueber shorthorn rindvieh,' 1857, s. 71: _see_ also 'gardener's chronicle,' 1860, p. 270. many analogous cases are given in a pamphlet recently published by mr. c. macknight and dr. h. madden, 'on the true principles of breeding;' melbourne, australia, 1865. [249] mr. willoughby wood, in 'gardener's chronicle,' 1855, p. 411; and 1860, p. 270. _see_ the very clear tables and pedigrees given in nathusius' 'rindvieh,' s. 72-77. [250] mr. wright, 'journal of royal agricult. soc.,' vol. vii., 1846, p. 204. [251] youatt on cattle, p. 202. [252] report british assoc., zoolog. sect., 1838. [253] azara, 'quadrupèdes du paraguay,' tom. ii. pp. 354, 368. [254] for the case of the messrs. brown, _see_ 'gard. chronicle,' 1855, p. 26. for the foscote flock, 'gard. chron.,' 1860, p. 416. for the naz flock, 'bull. de la soc. d'acclimat.,' 1860, p. 477. [255] nathusius, 'rindvieh,' s. 65; youatt on sheep, p. 495. [256] 'gard. chronicle,' 1861, p. 631. [257] lord somerville, 'facts on sheep and husbandry,' p. 6. mr. spooner, in 'journal of royal agricult. soc. of england,' vol. xx., part ii. _see_ also an excellent paper on the same subject in 'gard. chronicle,' 1860, p. 321, by mr. charles howard. [258] 'some account of english deer parks,' by evelyn p. shirley, 1867. [259] 'the art of improving the breed,' &c., p. 13. with respect to scotch deer-hounds, _see_ scrope's 'art of deer stalking,' pp. 350-353. [260] 'cottage gardener,' 1861, p. 327. [261] sidney's edit. of youatt on the pig, 1860, p. 30; p. 33, quotation from mr. druce; p. 29, on lord western's case. [262] 'journal, royal agricult. soc. of england,' 1846, vol. vii. p. 205. [263] 'ueber rindvieh,' &c., s. 78. [264] sidney on the pig, p. 36. _see_ also note, p. 34. also richardson on the pig, 1847, p. 26. [265] dr. dally has published an excellent article (translated in the 'anthropolog. review,' may, 1864, p. 65), criticising all writers who have maintained that evil follows from consanguineous marriages. no doubt on this side of the question many advocates have injured their cause by inaccuracies: thus it has been stated (devay, 'du danger des mariages,' &c., 1862, p. 141) that the marriages of cousins have been prohibited by the legislature of ohio; but i have been assured, in answer to inquiries made in the united states, that this statement is a mere fable. [266] _see_ his most interesting work on the 'early history of man,' 1865, chap. x. [267] on consanguinity in marriage, in the 'fortnightly review,' 1865, p. 710; hofacker, 'ueber die eigenschaften,' &c. [268] sir g. grey's 'journal of expeditions into australia,' vol. ii. p. 243; and dobrizhoffer, 'on the abipones of south america.' [269] 'the art of improving the breed,' p. 13. [270] 'the poultry book,' by w. b. tegetmeier, 1866, p. 245. [271] 'journal royal agricult. soc.' 1846, vol. vii. p. 205; _see_ also ferguson on the fowl, pp. 83, 317; _see_ also 'the poultry book,' by tegetmeier, 1866, p. 135, with respect to the extent to which cock-fighters found that they could venture to breed in-and-in, viz., occasionally a hen with her own son; "but they were cautious not to repeat the in-and-in breeding." [272] 'the poultry book,' by w. b. tegetmeier, 1866, p. 79. [273] 'the poultry chronicle,' 1854, vol. i. p. 43. [274] 'the poultry book,' by w. b. tegetmeier, 1866, p. 79. [275] 'the poultry chronicle,' vol. i. p. 89. [276] 'the poultry book,' 1866, p. 210. [277] ibid, 1866, p. 167; and 'poultry chronicle,' vol. iii., 1855, p. 15. [278] 'a treatise on fancy pigeons,' by j. m. eaton, p. 56. [279] 'the pigeon book,' p. 46. [280] 'das ganze der taubenzucht,' 1837, s. 18. [281] 'les pigeons,' 1824, p. 35. [282] 'proc. entomolog. soc.,' aug. 6th, 1860, p. 126. [283] 'journal of horticulture,' 1861, pp. 39, 77, 158; and 1864, p. 206. [284] 'beiträge zur kenntniss der befruchtung,' 1844, s. 366. [285] 'amaryllidaceæ,' p. 371. [286] 'de la fécondation,' 2nd edit., 1862, p. 79. [287] 'mémoire sur les cucurbitacées,' pp. 36, 28, 30. [288] loudon's 'gard. mag.,' vol. viii., 1832, p. 52. [289] 'transact. hort. soc.,' vol. i. p. 25. [290] 'annal. des sc. nat.,' 3rd series, bot., tom. vi. p. 189. [291] 'philosophical transactions,' 1799, p. 200. [292] 'ueber die bastarderzeugung,' 1828, s. 32, 33. for mr. chaundy's case, _see_ loudon's 'gard. mag.,' vol. vii., 1831, p. 696. [293] 'gardener's chron.,' 1846, p. 601. [294] 'philosoph. transact.,' 1799, p. 201. [295] quoted in 'bull. bot. soc. france,' vol. ii., 1855, p. 327. [296] gärtner, 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 259, 518, 526 _et seq._ [297] 'fortsetzung,' 1763, s. 29; 'dritte fortsetzung,' s. 44, 96; 'act. acad. st. petersburg,' 1782, part ii., p. 251; 'nova acta,' 1793, pp. 391, 394; 'nova acta,' 1795, pp. 316, 323. [298] 'die bastardbefruchtung,' &c., 1865, s. 31, 41, 42. [299] max wichura fully accepts this view ('bastardbefruchtung,' s. 43), as does the rev. m. j. berkeley, in 'journal of hort. soc.,' jan. 1866, p. 70. [300] 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 394, 526, 528. [301] kölreuter,' nova acta,' 1795, p. 316. [302] gärtner, 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 430. [303] 'botanische zeitung,' jan. 1864, s. 3. [304] 'monatsbericht akad. wissen,' berlin, 1866, s. 372. [305] international hort. congress, london, 1866. [306] 'proc. bot. soc. of edinburgh,' may, 1863: these observations are given in abstract, and others are added, in the 'journal of proc. of linn. soc.,' vol. viii. bot., 1864, p. 162. [307] prof. lecoq, 'de la fécondation,' 2nd edit., 1862, p. 76. [308] 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 64, 357. [309] idem, s. 357. [310] 'zweite fortsetzung,' s. 10; 'dritte fort.,' s. 40. [311] duvernoy, quoted by gärtner, 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 334. [312] 'gardner's chronicle,' 1846, p. 183. [313] 'transact. hort. soc.,' vol. vii., 1830, p. 95. [314] prof. lecoq, 'de la fécondation,' 1845, p. 70; gärtner, 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 64. [315] 'gardener's chron.' 1866, p. 1068. [316] 'journal of proc. of linn. soc.,' vol. viii., 1864, p. 168. [317] 'amaryllidaceæ,' 1837, p. 371; 'journal of hort. soc.,' vol. ii., 1847, p. 19. [318] loudon's 'gardener's magazine,' vol. xi., 1835, p. 260. [319] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1850, p. 470. [320] 'journal hort. soc., vol. v. p. 135. the seedlings thus raised were given to the hort. soc.; but i find, on inquiry, that they unfortunately died the following winter. [321] mr. d. beaton, in 'journal of hort.,' 1861, p. 453. lecoq, however ('de la fécond.,' 1862, p. 369), states that this hybrid is descended from _g. psittacinus_ and _cardinalis_; but this is opposed to herbert's experience, who found that the former species could not be crossed. [322] this is the conclusion of prof. devay, 'du danger des mariages consang.,' 1862, p. 97. virchow quotes, in the 'deutsche jahrbücher,' 1863, s. 354, some curious evidence on half the cases of a peculiar form of blindness occurring in the offspring from near relations. [323] for england, _see_ below. for germany, _see_ metzger, 'getreidearten,' 1841, s. 63. for france, loiseleur-deslongchamps ('consid. sur les céreales,' 1843, p. 200) gives numerous references on this subject. for southern france, _see_ godron, 'florula juvenalis,' 1854, p. 28. [324] 'a general treatise of husbandry,' vol. iii. p. 58. [325] 'gardener's chronicle and agricult. gazette,' 1858, p. 247; and for the second statement, idem, 1850, p. 702. on this same subject, _see_ also rev. d. walker's 'prize essay of highland agricult. soc.,' vol. ii. p. 200. also marshall's 'minutes of agriculture,' november, 1775. [326] oberlin's 'memoirs,' eng. translat., p. 73. for lancashire, _see_ marshall's 'review of reports,' 1808, p. 295. [327] 'cottage gardener,' 1856, p. 186. for mr. robson's subsequent statements, _see_ 'journal of horticulture,' feb. 18, 1866, p. 121. for mr. abbey's remarks on grafting, &c., idem, july 18, 1865, p. 44. [328] 'mém. de l'acad. des sciences,' 1790, p. 209. [329] 'on the varieties of wheat,' p. 52. [330] mr. spencer has fully and ably discussed this whole subject in his 'principles of biology,' 1864, vol. ii. ch. x. in the first edition of my 'origin of species,' 1859, p. 267, i spoke of the good effects from slight changes in the conditions of life and from cross-breeding, and of the evil effects from great changes in the conditions and from crossing widely distinct forms, as a series of facts "connected together by some common but unknown bond, which is essentially related to the principle of life." [331] 'essais de zoologie générale,' 1841, p. 256. [332] du rut, 'annales du muséum,' 1807, tom. ix. p. 120. [333] 'säugethiere von paraguay,' 1830, s. 49, 106, 118, 124, 201, 208, 249, 265, 327. [334] 'the naturalist on the amazons,' 1863, vol. i. pp. 99, 193; vol. ii. p. 113. [335] 'embassy to the court of ava,' vol. i. p. 534. [336] 'journal,' vol. i. p. 213. [337] 'säugethiere,' s. 327. [338] on the breeding of the larger felidæ, 'proc. zoolog. soc.,' 1861, p. 140. [339] sleeman's 'rambles in india,' vol. ii. p. 10. [340] wiegmann's 'archif für naturgesch.,' 1837, s. 162. [341] rengger, 'säugethiere,' &c., s. 276. on the parentage of the guinea-pig, _see_ also isid. geoffroy st. hilaire, 'hist. nat. gén.' [342] although the existence of the _leporides_, as described by dr. broca ('journal de phys.,' tom. ii. p. 370), is now positively denied, yet dr. pigeaux ('annals and mag. of nat. hist.,' vol. xx., 1867, p. 75) affirms that the hare and rabbit have produced hybrids. [343] 'quadrupeds of north america,' by audubon and bachman, 1846, p. 268. [344] loudon's 'mag. of nat. hist.,' vol. ix., 1836, p. 571; audubon and bachman's 'quadrupeds of north america,' p. 221. [345] flourens, 'de l'instinct,' &c., 1845, p. 88. [346] _see_ 'annual reports zoolog. soc.,' 1855, 1858, 1863, 1864; 'times' newspaper, aug. 10th, 1847; flourens, 'de l'instinct,' p. 85. [347] 'säugethiere,' &c., s. 34, 49. [348] art. brazil, 'penny cyclop.,' p. 363. [349] 'the naturalist on the river amazon,' vol. i. p. 99. [350] 'encyclop. of rural sports,' p. 691. [351] according to sir a. burnes ('cabool,' &c., p. 51), eight species are used for hawking in scinde. [352] loudon's 'mag. of nat. hist.,' vol. vi., 1833, p. 110. [353] f. cuvier, 'annal. du muséum,' tom. ix. p. 128. [354] 'the zoologist,' vol. vii.-viii., 1849-50, p. 2648. [355] knox, 'ornithological rambles in sussex,' p. 91. [356] 'the zoologist,' vol. vii.-viii., 1849-50, p. 2566; vol. ix.-x., 1851-2, p. 3207. [357] bechstein, 'naturgesch. der stubenvögel,' 1840, s. 20. [358] 'ornithological biography,' vol. v. p. 517. [359] a case is recorded in 'the zoologist,' vol. i.-ii., 1843-45, p. 453. for the siskin breeding, vol. iii.-iv., 1845-46, p. 1075. bechstein, 'stubenvögel,' s. 139, speaks of bullfinches making nests, but rarely producing young. [360] yarrell's 'hist. british birds,' 1839, vol. i. p. 412. [361] loudon's 'mag. of nat. history,' vol. ix., 1836, p. 347. [362] 'mémoires du muséum d'hist. nat.,' tom. x. p. 314: five cases of parrots breeding in france are here recorded. _see_, also, 'report brit. assoc. zoolog.,' 1843. [363] 'stubenvögel,' s. 105, 83. [364] dr. hancock remarks ('charlesworth's mag. of nat. hist.,' vol. ii., 1838, p. 492), "it is singular that, amongst the numerous useful birds that are indigenous to guiana, none are found to propagate among the indians; yet the common fowl is reared in abundance throughout the country." [365] 'a week at port royal,' 1855, p. 7. [366] audubon, 'american ornithology,' vol. v. pp. 552, 557. [367] moubray on poultry, 7th edit., p. 133. [368] temminck, 'hist. nat. gén. des pigeons,' &c., 1813, tom. iii. pp. 288, 382; 'annals and mag. of nat. hist.,' vol. xii., 1843, p. 453. other species of partridge have occasionally bred; as the red-legged (_p. rubra_), when kept in a large court in france (_see_ 'journal de physique,' tom. xxv. p. 294), and in the zoological gardens in 1856. [369] rev. e. s. dixon, 'the dovecote,' 1851, pp. 243-252. [370] temminck, 'hist. nat. gén. des pigeons,' &c., tom. ii. pp. 456, 458; tom. iii. pp. 2, 13, 47. [371] bates, 'the naturalist on the amazons,' vol. i. p. 193; vol. ii. p. 112. [372] temminck, 'hist. nat. gén.,' &c., tom. iii. p. 125. for _tetrao urogallus_, _see_ l. lloyd, 'field sports of north of europe,' vol. i. pp. 287, 314; and 'bull. de la soc. d'acclimat.,' tom. vii., 1860, p. 600. for _t. scoticus_, thompson, 'nat. hist. of ireland,' vol. ii., 1850, p. 49. for _t. cupido_, 'boston journal of nat. hist.,' vol. iii. p. 199. [373] marcel de serres, 'annales des sci. nat.,' 2nd series, zoolog., tom. xiii. p. 175. [374] dr. hancock, in 'charlesworth's mag. of nat. hist.' vol. ii., 1838, p. 491; r. hill, 'a week at port royal,' p. 8; 'guide to the zoological gardens,' by p. l. sclater, 1859, pp. 11, 12; 'the knowsley menagerie,' by dr. gray, 1846, pl. xiv.; e. blyth, 'report asiatic soc. of bengal,' may, 1855. [375] prof. newton, in 'proc. zoolog. soc.,' 1860, p. 336. [376] 'the dovecote and aviary,' p. 428. [377] 'ornithological biography,' vol. iii. p. 9. [378] 'geograph. journal,' vol. xiii., 1844, p. 32. [379] loudon's 'mag. of nat. hist.,' vol. v., 1832, p. 153. [380] 'zoologist,' vols. v.-vi., 1847-48, p. 1660. [381] 'transact. entomolog. soc.,' vol. iv., 1845, p. 60. [382] 'transact. linn. soc.,' vol. vii. p. 40. [383] _see_ an interesting paper by mr. newman, in the 'zoologist,' 1857, p. 5764; and dr. wallace, in 'proc. entomolog. soc.,' june 4th, 1860, p. 119. [384] yarrell's 'british birds,' vol. i. p. 506; bechstein, 'stubenvögel,' s. 185; 'philosoph. transact.,' 1772, p. 271. bronn ('geschichte der natur,' band ii. s. 96) has collected a number of cases. for the case of the deer, _see_ 'penny cyclop.,' vol. viii. p. 350. [385] 'journal de physiologie,' tom. ii. p. 347. [386] for additional evidence on this subject, _see_ f. cuvier, in 'annales du muséum,' tom. xii. p. 119. [387] numerous instances could be given. thus livingstone ('travels,' p. 217) states that the king of the barotse, an inland tribe which never had any communication with white men, was extremely fond of taming animals, and every young antelope was brought to him. mr. galton informs me that the damaras are likewise fond of keeping pets. the indians of south america follow the same habit. capt. wilkes states that the polynesians of the samoan islands tamed pigeons; and the new zealanders, as mr. mantell informs me, kept various kinds of birds. [388] for analogous cases with the fowl, _see_ réaumur, 'art de faire eclorre,' &c., 1749, p. 243; and col. sykes, in 'proc. zoolog. soc.,' 1832, &c. with respect to the fowl not breeding in northern regions, _see_ latham's 'hist. of birds,' vol. viii., 1823, p. 169. [389] 'mém. par divers savans, acad. des sciences,' tom. vi., 1835, p. 347. [390] youatt on sheep, p. 181. [391] j. mills, 'treatise on cattle,' 1776, p. 72. [392] bechstein, 'stubenvögel,' s. 242. [393] crawfurd's 'descriptive dict. of the indian islands,' 1856, p. 145. [394] 'bull. de la soc. acclimat., tom. ix., 1862, pp. 380, 384. [395] for pigeons, _see_ dr. chapuis, 'le pigeon voyageur belge,' 1865, p. 66. [396] 'swedish acts,' vol. i., 1739, p. 3. pallas makes the same remark in his travels (eng. translat.), vol. i. p. 292. [397] a. kerner, 'die cultur der alpenflanzen,' 1864, s. 139; watson's 'cybele britannica,' vol. i. p. 131; mr. d. cameron, also, has written on the culture of alpine plants in 'gard. chronicle,' 1848, pp. 253, 268, and mentions a few which seed. [398] 'beiträge zur kenntniss der befruchtung,' 1844, s. 333. [399] 'nova acta petrop.,' 1793, p. 391. [400] 'cottage gardener,' 1856, pp. 44, 109. [401] dr. herbert, 'amaryllidaceæ,' p. 176. [402] gärtner, 'beiträge zur kenntniss,' &c., s. 560, 564. [403] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1844, p. 215; 1850, p. 470. [404] 'beiträge zur kenntniss,' &c., s. 252, 333. [405] 'journal of hort. soc.,' vol. ii. 1847, p. 83. [406] 'beiträge zur kenntniss,' &c., s. 117 _et seq._; kölreuter, 'zweite fortsetzung,' s. 10, 121; 'dritte fortsetzung,' s. 57. herbert, 'amaryllidaceæ,' p. 355. wiegmann, 'ueber die bastarderzeugung,' s. 27. [407] 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 356. [408] 'teoria della riproduzione,' 1816, p. 84; 'traité du citrus,' 1811, p. 67. [409] mr. c. w. crocker, in 'gard. chronicle,' 1861, p. 1092. [410] verlot, 'des variétés,' 1865, p. 80. [411] verlot, idem, p. 88. [412] prof. allman, brit. assoc., quoted in the 'phytologist,' vol. ii. p. 483. prof. harvey, on the authority of mr. andrews, who discovered the plant, informed me that this monstrosity could be propagated by seed. with respect to the poppy, _see_ prof. goeppert, as quoted in 'journal of horticulture,' july 1st, 1863, p. 171. [413] 'comptes rendus,' dec. 19th, 1864, p. 1039. [414] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1866, p. 681. [415] 'theory of horticulture,' p. 333. [416] mr. fairweather, in 'transact. hort. soc.,' vol. iii. p. 406; bosse, quoted by bronn, 'geschichte der natur,' b. ii. s. 77. on the effects of the removal of the anthers, _see_ mr. leitner, in silliman's 'north american journ. of science,' vol. xxiii. p. 47; and verlot, 'des variétés,' 1865, p. 84. [417] lindley's 'theory of horticulture,' p. 333. [418] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1865, p. 626; 1866, pp. 290, 730; and verlot, 'des variétés,' p. 75. [419] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1843, p. 628. in this article i suggested the following theory on the doubleness of flowers. [420] quoted by gärtner, 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 567. [421] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1866, p. 901. [422] lindley, 'theory of horticulture,' p. 175-179; godron, 'de l'espèce,' tom. i. p. 106: pickering, 'races of man;' gallesio, 'teoria della riproduzione,' 1816, p. 101-110. meyen ('reise um erde,' th. ii. s. 214) states that at manilla one variety of the banana is full of seeds; and chamisso (hooker's 'bot. misc.,' vol. i. p. 310) describes a variety of the bread-fruit in the mariana islands with small fruit, containing seeds which are frequently perfect. burnes, in his 'travels in bokhara,' remarks on the pomegranate seeding in mazenderan, as a remarkable peculiarity. [423] ingledew, in 'transact. of agricult. and hort. soc. of india,' vol. ii. [424] 'de la fécondation,' 1862, p. 308. [425] hooker's 'bot. misc.,' vol. i. p. 99; gallesio, 'teoria della riproduzione,' p. 110. [426] 'transact. linn. soc.,' vol. xvii. p. 563. [427] godron, 'de l'espèce,' tom. ii. p. 106; herbert on crocus, in 'journal of hort. soc.,' vol. i., 1846, p. 254.--dr. wight, from what he has seen in india, believes in this view; 'madras journal of lit. and science,' vol. iv., 1836, p. 61. [428] wahlenberg specifies eight species in this state on the lapland alps: _see_ appendix to linnæus' 'tour in lapland,' translated by sir j. e. smith, vol. ii. pp. 274-280. [429] 'travels in north america,' eng. translat., vol. iii. p. 175. [430] with respect to the ivy and acorus, _see_ dr. bromfield in the 'phytologist,' vol. iii. p. 376. _see_ also lindley and vaucher on the acorus. [431] 'annal. des sc. nat.,' 3rd series, zool., tom. iv. p. 280. prof. decaisne refers also to analogous cases with mosses and lichens near paris. [432] mr. tuckerman, in silliman's 'american journal of science,' vol. xlv. p. 41. [433] sir j. e. smith, 'english flora,' vol. i. p. 339. [434] g. planchon, 'flora de montpellier,' 1864, p. 20. [435] on the non-production of seeds in england _see_ mr. crocker, in 'gardener's weekly magazine,' 1852, p. 70; vaucher, 'hist. phys. plantes d'europe,' tom. i. p. 33; lecoq, 'géograph. bot. de l'europe,' tom. iv. p. 466; dr. d. clos, in 'annal. des sc. nat.,' 3rd series, bot., tom. xvii., 1852, p. 129: this latter author refers to other analogous cases. on the non-production of pollen by this ranunculus _see_ chatin, in 'comptes rendus,' june 11th, 1866. [436] 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 565. kölreuter ('dritte fortsetzung,' s. 73, 87, 119) also shows that when two species, one single and the other double, are crossed, the hybrids are apt to be extremely double. [437] 'teoria della riproduzione veg.,' 1816, p. 73. [438] 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 573. [439] ibid., s. 527. [440] 'transactions phil. soc.,' 1799, p. 202. for kölreuter, _see_ 'mém. de l'acad. de st. pétersbourg,' tom. iii., 1809 (published 1811), p. 197. in reading c. k. sprengel's remarkable work, 'das entdeckte geheimniss,' &c., 1793, it is curious to observe how often this wonderfully acute observer failed to understand the full meaning of the structure of the flowers which he has so well described, from not always having before his mind the key to the problem, namely, the good derived from the crossing of distinct individual plants. [441] this abstract was published in the fourth edition (1866) of my 'origin of species;' but as this edition will be in the hands of but few persons, and as my original observations on this point have not as yet been published in detail, i have ventured here to reprint the abstract. [442] the term _unconscious selection_ has been objected to as a contradiction: but _see_ some excellent observations on this head by prof. huxley ('nat. hist. review,' oct. 1864, p. 578), who remarks that when the wind heaps up sand-dunes it sifts and _unconsciously selects_ from the gravel on the beach grains of sand of equal size. [443] sheep, 1838, p. 60. [444] mr. j. wright on shorthorn cattle, in 'journal of royal agricult. soc.,' vol. vii. pp. 208, 209. [445] h. d. richardson on pigs, 1817, p. 44. [446] 'journal of r. agricult. soc.,' vol. i. p. 24. [447] sheep, pp. 520, 319. [448] loudon's 'mag. of nat. hist.,' vol. viii., 1835, p. 618. [449] 'a treatise on the art of breeding the almond tumbler,' 1851, p. 9. [450] 'recreations in agriculture,' vol. ii. p. 409. [451] youatt on cattle, pp. 191, 227. [452] ferguson, 'prize poultry,' 1854, p. 208. [453] wilson, in 'transact. highland agricult. soc.,' quoted in 'gard. chronicle,' 1844, p. 29. [454] simmonds, quoted in 'gard. chronicle,' 1855, p. 637. and for the second quotation, _see_ youatt on sheep, p. 171. [455] robinet, 'vers à soie,' 1848, p. 271. [456] quatrefages, 'les maladies du ver à soie,' 1859, p. 101. [457] m. simon, in 'bull. de la soc. d'acclimat.,' tom. ix., 1862, p. 221. [458] 'the poultry chronicle,' vol. i., 1854, p. 607. [459] j. m. eaton, 'a treatise on fancy pigeons,' 1852, p. xiv., and 'a treatise on the almond tumbler,' 1851, p. 11. [460] 'journal royal agricultural soc.,' vol. vi. p. 22. [461] 'poultry chronicle,' vol. ii., 1855, p. 596. [462] isid. geoffroy st. hilaire, 'hist. nat. gén.,' tom. iii. p. 254. [463] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1850, p. 198. [464] 'transact. hort. soc.,' vol. vi. p. 152. [465] 'journal of horticulture,' 1862, p. 369. [466] 'transact. hort. soc.,' vol. iv. p. 381. [467] 'transact. hort. soc.,' vol. iv. p. 285. [468] rev. w. bromehead, in 'gard. chronicle,' 1857, p. 550. [469] 'gard. chronicle,' 1862, p. 721. [470] dr. anderson, in 'the bee,' vol. vi. p. 96; mr. barnes, in 'gard. chronicle,' 1844, p. 476. [471] godron, 'de l'espèce,' 1859, tom. ii. p. 69; 'gard. chronicle,' 1854, p. 258. [472] on sheep, p. 18. [473] volz, 'beiträge zur kulturgeschichte,' 1852, s. 47. [474] mitford's 'history of greece,' vol. i. p. 73. [475] dr. dally, translated in 'anthropological review,' may 1864, p. 101. [476] volz, 'beiträge,' &c., 1852, s. 80. [477] 'history of the world,' ch. 45. [478] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1848, p. 323. [479] reynier, 'de l'economie des celtes,' 1818, pp. 487, 503. [480] le couteur on wheat, p. 15. [481] michel, 'des haras,' 1861, p. 84. [482] sir w. wilde, an 'essay on unmanufactured animal remains,' &c., 1860, p. 11. [483] col. hamilton smith, 'nat. library,' vol. xii., horses, pp. 135, 140. [484] michel, 'des haras,' p. 90. [485] mr. baker, 'history of the horse,' veterinary, vol. xiii. p. 423. [486] m. l'abbé carlier, in 'journal de physique,' vol. xxiv., 1784, p. 181: this memoir contains much information on the ancient selection of sheep; and is my authority for rams not being killed young in england. [487] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1843, p. 389. [488] communications to board of agriculture, quoted in dr. darwin's 'phytologia,' 1800, p. 451. [489] 'mémoire sur les chinois,' 1786, tom. xi. p. 55; tom. v. p. 507. [490] 'recherches sur l'agriculture des chinois,' par l. d'hervey-saint-denys, 1850, p. 229. with respect to khang-hi, _see_ huc's 'chinese empire,' p. 311. [491] anderson, in 'linn. transact.,' vol. xii. p. 253. [492] 'mém. de l'acad.' (divers savans), tom. vi., 1835, p. 333. [493] 'des quadrupèdes du paraguay,' 1801, tom. ii. p. 333, 371. [494] 'the great sahara,' by the rev. h. b. tristram, 1860, p. 238. [495] pallas, 'act. acad. st. petersburg,' 1777, p. 249; moorcroft and trebeck, 'travels in the himalayan provinces,' 1841. [496] quoted from raffles, in the 'indian field,' 1859, p. 196; for varro, _see_ pallas, _ut supra_. [497] erman's 'travels in siberia,' eng. translat., vol. i. p. 453. [498] _see_ also 'journal of r. geograph. soc.,' vol. xiii. part i. p. 65. [499] livingstone's 'first travels,' pp. 191, 439, 565; _see_ also 'expedition to the zambesi,' 1865, p. 465, for an analogous case respecting a good breed of goats. [500] andersson's 'travels in south africa,' pp. 232, 318, 319. [501] dr. vavasseur, in 'bull. de la soc. d'acclimat.,' tom. viii., 1861, p. 136. [502] 'the natural history of dee side,' 1855, p. 476. [503] 'bull. de la soc. d'acclimat.,' tom. vii., 1860, p. 457. [504] 'cattle,' p. 48. [505] livingstone's travels, p. 576; andersson, 'lake ngami,' 1856, p. 222. with respect to the sale in kaffraria, _see_ 'quarterly review,' 1860, p. 139. [506] 'mémoire sur les chinois' (by the jesuits), 1786, tom. xi. p. 57. [507] f. michel, 'des haras,' pp. 47, 50. [508] col. hamilton smith, dogs, in 'nat. lib.,' vol. x. p. 103. [509] azara, 'quadrupèdes du paraguay,' tom. ii. p. 324. [510] sidney's edit. of youatt, 1860, pp. 24, 25. [511] 'rural economy of yorkshire,' vol. ii. p. 182. [512] moll et gayot, 'du boeuf,' 1860, p. 547. [513] 'the india sporting review,' vol. ii. p. 181; 'the stud farm,' by cecil, p. 58. [514] 'the horse,' p. 22. [515] 'history of england,' vol. i. p. 316. [516] 'uber beständigkeit der arten.' [517] youatt on sheep, p. 315. [518] 'ueber shorthorn rindvieh,' 1857, s. 51. [519] low, 'domesticated animals,' 1845, p. 363. [520] 'quarterly review,' 1849, p. 392. [521] h. von nathusius, 'vorstudien ... schweineschædel,' 1864, s. 140. [522] _see_ also dr. christ, in 'rütimeyer's pfahlbauten,' 1861, s. 226. [523] the passage is given 'bull. soc. d'acclimat.,' 1858, p. 11. [524] 'journal of horticulture,' 1862, p. 394. [525] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1857, p. 85. [526] _see_ mr. wildman's address to the floricult. soc., in 'gardener's chronicle,' 1843, p. 86. [527] 'journal of horticulture,' oct. 24th, 1865, p. 239. [528] prescott's 'hist. of mexico,' vol. ii. p. 61. [529] sageret, 'pomologie physiologique,' 1830, p. 47; gallesio, 'teoria della riproduzione,' 1816, p. 88; godron, 'de l'espèce,' 1859, tom. ii. pp. 63, 67, 70. in my tenth and eleventh chapters i have given details on the potato; and i can confirm similar remarks with respect to the onion. i have also shown how far naudin concurs in regard to the varieties of the melon. [530] godron, 'de l'espèce,' tom. ii. p. 27. [531] 'the anthropological treatises of blumenbach,' 1865, p. 292. [532] mr. j. j. murphy in his opening address to the belfast nat. hist. soc., as given in the belfast northern whig, nov. 19, 1866. mr. murphy here follows the line of argument against my views previously and more cautiously given by the rev. c. pritchard, pres. royal astronomical soc., in his sermon (appendix, p. 33) preached before the british association at nottingham, 1866. [533] on the vision of fishes and amphibia, translated in 'annals and mag. of nat. hist.,' vol. xviii., 1866, p. 469. [534] fourth edition, 1866, p. 215. [535] quoted by youatt on sheep, p. 325. _see_ also youatt on cattle, pp. 62, 69. [536] mm. lherbette and de quatrefages, in 'bull. soc. acclimat.,' tom. viii., 1861, p. 311. [537] 'the poultry book,' 1866, p. 123. [538] youatt on sheep, p. 312. [539] 'treatise on the almond tumbler,' 1851, p. 33. [540] dr. heusinger, 'wochenschrift für die heilkunde,' berlin, 1846, s. 279. [541] youatt on the dog, p. 232. [542] 'the fruit-trees of america,' 1845, p. 270: for peaches, p. 466. [543] 'proc. royal soc. of arts and sciences of mauritius,' 1852, p. cxxxv. [544] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1856, p. 379. [545] quatrefages, 'maladies actuelles du ver à soie,' 1859, pp. 12, 214. [546] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1851, p. 595. [547] 'journal of horticulture,' 1862, p. 476. [548] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1852, pp. 435, 691. [549] bechstein, 'naturgesch. deutschlands,' 1801, b. i. s. 310. [550] prichard, 'phys. hist. of mankind,' 1851, vol. i. p. 224. [551] g. lewis's 'journal of residence in west indies,' 'home and col. library,' p. 100. [552] sidney's edit. of youatt on the pig, p.24. [553] 'journal of horticulture,' 1862, pp. 476, 498; 1865, p. 460. with respect to the heartsease, 'gardener's chronicle,' 1863, p. 628. [554] 'des jacinthes, de leur culture,' 1768, p. 53: on wheat, 'gardener's chronicle,' 1846, p. 653. [555] w. b. tegetmeier, 'the field,' feb. 25, 1865. with respect to black fowls, _see_ a quotation in thompson's 'nat. hist. of ireland,' 1849, vol. i. p. 22. [556] 'bull. de la soc. d'acclimat.,' tom. vii. 1860, p. 359. [557] 'transact. hort. soc.,' vol. i. 2nd series, 1835, p. 275. for raspberries, _see_ 'gard. chronicle,' 1855, p. 154, and 1863, p. 245. [558] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1843, p. 806. [559] ibid., 1850, p. 732. [560] ibid., 1860, p. 956. [561] j. de jonghe, in 'gard. chronicle,' 1860, p. 120. [562] downing, 'fruit-trees of north america,' pp. 266, 501: in regard to the cherry, p. 198. [563] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1849, p. 755. [564] 'journal of horticulture,' sept. 26th, 1865, p. 254; _see_ other references given in chap. x. [565] mr. selby, in 'mag. of zoology and botany,' edinburgh, vol. ii., 1838, p. 393. [566] the reine claude de bavay, 'journal of horticulture,' dec. 27, 1864, p. 511. [567] mr. pusey, in 'journal of r. agricult. soc., vol. vi. p. 179. for swedish turnips, _see_ 'gard. chron.,' 1847, p. 91. [568] godron, 'de l'espèce,' tom. ii. p. 98. [569] 'gardener's chron.,' 1866, p. 732. [570] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1862, pp. 820, 821. [571] 'on the varieties of wheat,' p. 59. [572] mr. hewitt and others, in 'journal of hort.,' 1862, p. 773. [573] 'encyclop. of rural sports,' p. 405. [574] col. le couteur, 'journal roy. agricult. soc.,' vol. iv. p. 43. [575] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1845, p. 273. [576] 'journal of horticulture,' 1862, p. 157. [577] 'cottage gardener,' 1860, p. 368. [578] 'a review of reports,' 1808, p. 406. [579] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1853, p. 45. [580] isidore geoffroy st. hilaire, 'hist. nat. gén.,' tom. iii. p. 49. on the cochineal insect, p. 46. [581] capt. marryat, quoted by blyth in 'journ. asiatic soc. of bengal,' vol. xxviii. p. 229. [582] mr. oxley, 'journal of the indian archipelago,' vol. ii., 1848, p. 645. [583] mr. abbey, in 'journal of horticulture,' dec. 1, 1863, p. 430. [584] 'on naval timber,' 1831, p. 107. [585] mr. baily, in 'the poultry chronicle,' vol. ii., 1854, p. 150. also vol. i. p. 342; vol. iii. p. 245. [586] 'cottage gardener,' 1855, december, p. 171; 1856, january, pp. 248, 323. [587] 'ueber shorthorn rindvieh,' 1857, s. 51. [588] 'the veterinary,' vol. xiii. p. 720. for the glamorganshire cattle, _see_ youatt on cattle, p. 51. [589] j. m. eaton, 'a treatise on fancy pigeons,' p. 82; ferguson, on 'rare and prize poultry,' p. 162; mr. brent, in 'cottage gardener,' oct. 1860. p. 13. [590] 'die racen des schweines,' 1860, s. 48. [591] _see_ some good remarks on this head by m. de quatrefages, 'unité de l'espèce humaine,' 1861, p. 119. [592] verlot, 'des variétés,' 1865, p. 94. [593] mr. patrick sheriff, in 'gard. chronicle,' 1858, p. 771. [594] 'pomologie physiolog.,' 1830, p. 106. [595] youatt on sheep, p. 521. [596] 'a treatise on the almond tumbler,' p. i. [597] m. j. de jonghe, in 'gard. chron.,' 1858, p. 173. [598] max. müller, 'science of language,' 1861, p. 223. [599] youatt on cattle, pp. 116, 128. [600] 'domesticated animals,' p. 188. [601] volz, 'beiträge zur kulturgeschichte,' 1852, s. 99 _et passim_. [602] blaine, 'encyclop. of rural sports,' p. 213. [603] 'des jacinthes,' &c., amsterdam, 1768, p. 43; verlot, 'des variétés,' &c., p. 86. on the reindeer, _see_ linnæus, 'tour in lapland,' translated by sir j. e. smith, vol. i. p. 314. the statement in regard to german shepherds is given on the authority of dr. weinland. [604] müller's 'physiology,' eng. translation, vol. ii. p. 1662. with respect to the similarity of twins in constitution, dr. william ogle has given me the following extract from professor trousseau's lectures ('clinique médicale,' tom. i. p. 523), in which a curious case is recorded:--"j'ai donné mes soins à deux frères jumeaux, tous deux si extraordinairement ressemblants qu'il m'était impossible de les reconnaître, à moins de les voir l'un à côté de l'autre. cette ressemblance physique s'étendait plus loin: ils avaient, permettez-moi l'expression, une similitude pathologique plus remarquable encore. ainsi l'un d'eux que je voyais aux néothermes à paris malade d'une ophthalmie rhumatismale me disait, 'en ce moment mon frère doit avoir une ophthalmie comme la mienne;' et comme je m'étais récrié, il me montrait quelques jours après une lettre qu'il venait de recevoir de ce frère alors à vienne, et qui lui écrivait en effet--'j'ai mon ophthalmie, tu dois avoir la tienne.' quelque singulier que ceci puisse paraître, le fait non est pas moins exact: on ne me l'a pas raconté, je l'ai vu, et j'en ai vu d'autres analogues dans ma pratique. ces deux jumeaux étaient aussi tous deux asthmatiques, et asthmatiques à un effroyable degré. originaires de marseille, ils n'ont jamais pu demeurer dans cette ville, où leurs intérêts les appelaient souvent, sans être pris de leurs accès; jamais ils n'en éprouvaient à paris. bien mieux, il leur suffisait de gagner toulon pour être guéris de leurs attaques de marseilles. voyageant sans cesse et dans tous pays pour leurs affaires, ils avaient remarqué que certaines localités leur étaient funestes, que dans d'autres ils étaient exempts de tout phénomène d'oppression." [605] isid. geoffroy st. hilaire, 'hist. des anomalies,' tom. iii. p. 352; moquin tandon, 'tératologie végétale,' 1841, p. 115. [606] metzger, 'die getreidearten,' 1841, s. 39. [607] on the date-palm, _see_ vogel, 'annals and mag. of nat. hist.,' 1854, p. 460. on indian varieties, dr. f. hamilton, 'transact. linn. soc.,' vol. xiv. p. 296. on the varieties cultivated in tahiti, _see_ dr. bennett, in loudon's 'mag. of n. hist.,' vol. v., 1832, p. 484. also ellis, 'polynesian researches,' vol. i. pp. 375, 370. on twenty varieties of the pandanus and other trees in the marianne island, _see_ 'hooker's miscellany,' vol. i. p. 308. on the bamboo in china, _see_ huc's 'chinese empire,' vol. ii. p. 307. [608] 'treatise on the culture of the apple,' &c., p. 3. [609] gallesio, 'teoria della riproduzione veg.,' p. 125. [610] _see_ dr. hooker's memoir on arctic plants in 'linn. transact.,' vol. xxiii, part ii. mr. woodward, and a higher authority cannot be quoted, speaks of the arctic mollusca (in his 'rudimentary treatise,' 1856, p. 355) as remarkably subject to variation. [611] bechstein, in his 'naturgeschichte der stubenvögel,' 1840, s. 238, has some good remarks on this subject. he states that his canary-birds varied in colour, though kept on uniform food. [612] 'the plant,' by schleiden, translated by henfrey, 1848, p. 169. _see_ also alex. braun, in 'bot. memoirs,' ray. soc., 1853, p. 313. [613] messrs. hardy and son, of maldon, in 'gard. chronicle,' 1856, p. 458. [614] 'quadrupèdes du paraguay,' 1801, tom. ii. p. 319. [615] mcclelland on indian cyprinidæ, 'asiatic researches,' vol. xix. part ii., 1839, pp. 266, 268, 313. [616] quoted by sageret, 'pom. phys.,' 1830, p. 43. [617] 'the fruits of america,' 1845, p. 5. [618] m. cardan, in 'comptes rendus,' dec. 1848, quoted in 'gard. chronicle,' 1849, p. 101. [619] m. alexis jordan mentions four excellent pears found in woods in france, and alludes to others ('mém. acad. de lyon,' tom. ii. 1852, p. 159). poiteau's remark is quoted in 'gardener's mag.,' vol. iv., 1828, p. 385. _see_ 'gard. chronicle,' 1862, p. 335, for another case of a new variety of the pear found in a hedge in france. also for another case, _see_ loudon's 'encyclop. of gardening,' p. 901. mr. rivers has given me similar information. [620] duval, 'hist. du poirier,' 1849, p. 2. [621] i infer that this is the fact from van mons' statement ('arbres fruitiers,' 1835, tom. i. p. 446) that he finds in the woods seedlings resembling all the chief cultivated races of both the pear and apple. van mons, however, looked at these wild varieties as aboriginal species. [622] downing, 'fruit-trees of north america,' p. 422; foley, in 'transact. hort. soc.,' vol. vi. p. 412. [623] 'gard. chronicle,' 1847, p. 244. [624] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1841, p. 383; 1850, p. 700; 1854, p. 650. [625] 'die getreidearten,' 1843, s. 66, 116, 117. [626] sabine, in 'hort. transact.,' vol. iii. p. 225; bronn, 'geschichte der natur,' b. ii. s. 119. [627] 'journal of horticulture,' 1861, p. 112; on zinnia, 'gardener's chronicle,' 1860, p. 852. [628] 'the chrysanthemum, its history, &c.,' 1865, p. 3. [629] 'gardener's chron.,' 1855, p. 54; 'journal of horticulture,' may 9, 1865, p. 363. [630] quoted by verlot, 'des variétés,' &c., 1865, p. 28. [631] 'examination of the characteristics of genera and species:' charleston, 1855, p. 14. [632] mr hewitt, 'journal of hort.,' 1863, p. 39. [633] devay, 'mariages consanguins,' pp. 97, 125. in conversation i have found two or three naturalists of the same opinion. [634] müller has conclusively argued against this belief, 'elements of phys.,' eng. translat., vol. ii., 1842, p. 1405. [635] 'act. acad. st. petersburg,' 1780, part ii. p. 84, &c. [636] 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 249, 255, 295. [637] 'nova acta, st. petersburg,' 1794, p. 378; 1795, pp. 307, 313, 316; 1787, p. 407. [638] 'de la fécondation,' 1862, p. 311. [639] 'amaryllidaceæ,' 1837, p. 362. [640] abstracted in 'gard. chronicle,' 1860, p. 1081. [641] this was the opinion of the elder de candolle, as quoted in 'dic. class. d'hist. nat.,' tom. viii. p. 405. puvis, in his work, 'de la dégénération,' 1837, p. 37, has discussed this same point. [642] 'comptes rendus,' novembre 21, 1864, p. 838. [643] 'nova acta, st. petersburg,' 1794, p. 391. [644] 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 507, 516, 572. [645] 'die bastardbefruchtung,' &c., 1865, s. 24. [646] 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 452, 507. [647] 'die bastardbefruchtung,' s. 56. [648] 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 423. [649] 'dritte fortsetzung,' &c., 1766, s. 85. [650] 'die bastardbefruchtung,' &c., 1865, s. 92; _see_ also the rev. m. j. berkeley on the same subject, in 'journal of royal hort. soc.,' 1866, p. 80. [651] dr. p. lucas has given a history of opinion on this subject: 'héréd. nat.,' 1847, tom. i. p. 175. [652] 'hist. des anomalies,' tom. iii. p. 499. [653] idem., tom. iii. pp. 392, 502. [654] _see_ his interesting work, 'métamorphoses de l'homme,' &c., 1862, p. 129. [655] 'dritte fortsetzung,' &c., s. 123; 'bastarderzeugung,' s. 249. [656] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1853, p. 183. [657] mr. wildman, 'floricultural soc.,' feb. 7, 1843, reported in 'gard. chron.,' 1843, p. 86. [658] mr. robson, in 'journal of horticulture,' feb. 13th, 1866, p. 122. [659] 'journal of horticulture,' 1861, p. 24. [660] ibid., 1862, p. 83. [661] 'gard. chron.,' 1845, p. 660. [662] ibid., 1863, p. 628. [663] 'journal of hort.,' 1861, pp. 64, 309. [664] 'des variétés,' &c., p. 76. [665] engel, 'sur les prop. médicales des plantes,' 1860, pp. 10, 25. on changes in the odours of plants, _see_ dalibert's experiments, quoted by beckman, 'inventions,' vol. ii. p. 344; and nees, in ferussac, 'bull. des sc. nat.,' 1824, tom. i. p. 60. with respect to the rhubarb, &c., _see_ also 'gardener's chronicle,' 1849, p. 355; 1862, p. 1123. [666] hooker, 'flora indica,' p. 32. [667] naudin, 'annales des sc. nat.,' 4th series, bot., tom. xi., 1859, p. 81. 'gardener's chronicle,' 1859, p. 464. [668] moorcroft's 'travels,' &c., vol. ii. p. 143. [669] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1861, p. 1113. [670] royle, 'productive resources of india,' p. 59. [671] 'personal narrative,' eng. translat., vol. v. p. 101. this statement has been confirmed by karsten ('beitrag zur kenntniss der rhynchoprion:' moscow, 1864. s. 39), and by others. [672] 'organic chemistry,' eng. translat., 1st edit., p. 369. [673] prichard, 'phys. hist. of mankind,' 1851, vol. i. p. 155. [674] darwin, 'journal of researches,' 1845, p. 434. [675] these statements on disease are taken from dr. boudin's 'géographie et de statistique médicales,' 1857, tom. i. p. xliv. and lii.; tom. ii. p. 315. [676] e. desor, quoted in the 'anthrop. rev.,' 1863, p. 180. for much confirmatory evidence, _see_ quatrefages, 'unité de l'espèce humaine,' 1861, p. 131. [677] 'ceylon,' by sir j. e. tennent, vol. i., 1859, p. 89. [678] godron, 'de l'espèce,' tom. ii. p. 52. [679] 'journal of horticultural soc.,' vol. vii., 1852, p. 117. [680] 'journal of hort. soc.,' vol. i. p. 160. [681] _see_ lecoq on the villosity of plants, 'geograph. bot.,' tom. iii. pp. 287, 291; gärtner, 'bastarderz.,' s. 261; mr. musters, on the opuntia, in 'gard. chronicle,' 1846, p. 444. [682] 'pom. phys.,' p. 136. [683] 'ampelographie,' 1849, p. 19. [684] gärtner, 'bastarderz.,' s. 606, has collected nearly all recorded facts. andrew knight (in 'transact. hort. soc.,' vol. ii. p. 160) goes so far as to maintain that few varieties are absolutely permanent in character when propagated by buds or grafts. [685] mr. blyth, in 'annals and mag. of nat. hist.,' vol. xx., 1847, p. 391. [686] 'natural history review,' 1862, p. 113. [687] 'journal of roy. geographical soc.,' vol. ix., 1839, p. 275. [688] 'travels in bokhara,' vol. iii. p. 151. [689] _see_ also, on the influence of marshy pastures on the wool, godron, 'l'espèce,' tom. ii. p. 22. [690] isidore geoffroy st. hilaire, 'hist. nat. gén.,' tom. iii. p. 438. [691] azara has made some good remarks on this subject, 'quadrupèdes du paraguay,' tom. ii. p. 337. _see_ an account of a family of naked mice produced in england, 'proc. zoolog. soc.,' 1856, p. 38. [692] 'die fauna der pfahlbauten,' 1861, s. 15. [693] 'schweinschædel,' 1864, s. 99. [694] 'travels in siberia,' eng. translat., vol. i. p. 228. [695] a. r. wallace, 'travels on the amazon and rio negro,' p. 294. [696] 'naturgeschichte der stubenvögel,' 1840, s. 262, 308. [697] 'hist. nat. gén.,' tom. iii. p. 402. [698] 'bull. de la soc. imp. d'acclimat.,' tom. viii. p. 351. [699] _see_ an account of mr. gregson's experiments on the _abraxus grossulariata_, 'proc. entomolog. soc.,' jan. 6th, 1862: these experiments have been confirmed by mr. greening, in 'proc. of the northern entomolog. soc.,' july 28th, 1862. for the effects of food on caterpillars, see a curious account by m. michely, in 'bull. de la soc. imp. d'acclimat.,' tom. viii. p. 563. for analogous facts from dahlbom on hymenoptera, _see_ westwood's 'modern class. of insects,' vol. ii. p. 98. _see_ also dr. l. möller, 'die abhängigkeit der insecten,' 1867, s. 70. [700] 'the principles of biology,' vol. ii. 1866. the present chapters were written before i had read mr. herbert spencer's work, so that i have not been able to make so much use of it as i should otherwise probably have done. [701] 'proc. acad. nat. soc. of philadelphia,' jan. 28th, 1862. [702] _see_ mr. b. d. walsh's excellent papers in 'proc. entomolog. soc. philadelphia,' dec. 1866, p. 284. with respect to the willow, _see_ idem, 1864, p. 546. [703] _see_ his admirable histoire des galles, in 'annal. des sc. nat. bot.,' 3rd series, tom. xix., 1853, p. 273. [704] kirby and spence's 'entomology,' 1818, vol. i. p. 450; lucaze-duthiers, idem, p. 284. [705] 'proc. entomolog. soc. philadelphia,' 1864, p. 558. [706] mr. b. d. walsh, idem, p. 633; and dec. 1866, p. 275. [707] mr. b. d. walsh, idem, 1864, p. 545, 411, 495; and dec. 1866, p. 278. _see_ also lucaze-duthiers. [708] lucaze-duthiers, idem, pp. 325, 328. [709] 'linnæa,' vol. xvii., 1843; quoted by dr. m. t. masters, royal institution, march 16th, 1860. [710] hewett c. watson, 'cybele britannica,' vol. i., 1847, p. 11. [711] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1857, p. 629. [712] 'mémoire sur la production artificielle des monstrosités,' 1862, pp. 8-12; 'recherches sur les conditions, &c., chez les monstres,' 1863, p. 6. an abstract is given of geoffroy's experiments by his son, in his 'vie, travaux, &c.,' 1847, p. 290. [713] paget, 'lectures on surgical pathology,' 1853, vol. i. p. 483. [714] 'researches upon the venom of the rattle-snake,' jan. 1861, by dr. mitchell, p. 67. [715] mr. sedgwick, in 'british and foreign medico-chirurg. review,' july 1863, p. 175. [716] 'an essay on generation,' eng. translat., p. 18; paget, 'lectures on surgical pathology,' 1853, vol. i. p. 209. [717] 'an essay on animal reproduction,' eng. translat., 1769, p. 79. [718] carpenter's 'principles of comp. physiology,' 1854, p. 479. [719] charlesworth's 'mag. of nat. hist.,' vol. i., 1837, p. 145. [720] paget, 'lectures on surgical pathology,' vol. i. p. 239. [721] quoted by carpenter, 'comp. phys.,' p. 479. [722] paget, 'lectures,' &c., p. 257. [723] these cases are given by blumenbach in his 'essay on generation,' pp. 52, 54. [724] 'cellular pathology,' trans. by dr. chance, 1860, pp. 27, 441. [725] paget, 'lectures on pathology,' vol. i., 1853, p. 357. [726] paget, idem, p. 150. [727] 'the principles of biology,' vol. ii., 1866, chap. 3-5. [728] 'lectures on pathology,' 1853, vol. i. p. 71. [729] 'comptes rendus,' sept. 26th, 1864, p. 539. [730] 'the principles of biology,' vol. ii. p. 243. [731] idem, vol. ii. p. 269. [732] idem, vol. ii. p. 273. [733] paget, 'lectures on pathology,' vol. ii. p. 209. [734] müller's 'phys.,' eng. translat., pp. 54, 791. prof. reed has given ('physiological and anat. researches,' p. 10) a curious account of the atrophy of the limbs of rabbits after the destruction of the nerve. [735] quoted by lecoq, in 'geograph. bot.,' tom. i., 1854, p. 182. [736] 'das abändern der vögel,' 1833, s. 74. [737] nathusius, 'die racen des schweines,' 1860, s. 53, 57; 'vorstudien ... schweineschædel,' 1864, s. 103, 130, 133. [738] 'journal of agriculture of highland soc.,' july, 1860, p. 321. [739] 'principles of biology,' vol. ii. p. 263. [740] 'natural history review,' vol. iv., oct. 1864, p. 617. [741] 'lectures on surgical pathology,' 1853, vol. i. p. 27. [742] andersson, 'travels in south africa,' p. 318. for analogous cases in south america, _see_ aug. st. hilaire, 'voyage dans le province de goyaz,' tom. i. p. 71. [743] brickell's 'nat. hist. of north carolina,' 1739, p. 53. [744] livingstone, quoted by youatt on sheep, p. 142. hodgson, in 'journal of asiatic soc. of bengal,' vol. xvi., 1847, p. 1006, &c. &c. [745] 'naturalist library,' dogs, vol. ii. 1840, p. 104. [746] 'de l'espèce,' tom. i., 1859, p. 367. [747] 'ceylon,' by sir j. e. tennent, 1859, vol. ii. p. 531. [748] for the foregoing statements, _see_ hunter's 'essays and observations,' 1861, vol. ii. p. 329; dr. edmondston, as quoted in macgillivray's 'british birds,' vol. v. p. 550; menetries, as quoted in bronn's 'geschichte der natur,' b. ii. s. 110. [749] these statements on the intestines are taken from isidore geoffroy st. hilaire, 'hist. nat. gén.,' tom. iii. pp. 427, 441. [750] gilbert white, 'nat. hist. selbourne,' 1825, vol. ii. p. 121. [751] burdach, 'traité de phys.,' tom. ii. p. 267, as quoted by dr. p. lucas, 'l'héréd. nat.,' tom. i. p. 388. [752] this and several other cases are given by colin, 'physiologie comp. des animaux dom.,' 1854, tom. i. p. 426. [753] m. michely de cayenne, in 'bull. soc. d'acclimat.,' tom. viii., 1861, p. 563. [754] quatrefages, 'unité de l'espèce humaine,' 1861, p. 79. [755] 'flora,' 1835, b. ii. p. 504. [756] alph. de candolle, 'géograph. bot.,' tom. ii. p. 1078. [757] royle, 'illustrations of the botany of the himalaya,' p. 19. [758] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1850, pp. 204, 219. [759] rev. r. everest, 'journal as. soc. of bengal,' vol. iii. p. 19. [760] youatt on sheep, 1838, p. 491. [761] royle, 'prod. resources of india,' p. 153. [762] tegetmeier, 'poultry book,' 1866, p. 102. [763] dr. r. paterson, in a paper communicated to bot. soc. of canada, quoted in the 'reader,' 1863. nov. 13th. [764] _see_ remarks by editor in 'gard. chronicle,' 1848, p. 5. [765] 'gard. chronicle,' 1860, p. 938. remarks by editor and quotation from decaisne. [766] j. de jonghe, of brussels, in 'gard. chronicle,' 1857, p. 612. [767] ch. martius, 'voyage bot. côtes sept. de la norvège,' p. 26. [768] 'journal de l'acad. hort. de gand,' quoted in 'gard. chron.,' 1859, p. 7. [769] 'gard. chronicle,' 1851, p. 396. [770] idem., 1862, p. 235. [771] on the authority of labat, quoted in 'gard. chron.,' 1862, p. 235. [772] mm. edwards and colin, 'annal. des sc. nat.,' 2nd series, bot., tom. v. p. 22. [773] 'géograph. bot.,' p. 337. [774] 'swedish acts,' eng. translat., 1739-40, vol. i. kalm, in his 'travels,' vol. ii. p. 166, gives an analogous case with cotton-plants raised in new jersey from carolina seed. [775] de candolle, 'géograph. bot.,' p. 339. [776] 'gard. chronicle,' 1862, p. 235. [777] gallesio, 'teoria della riproduzione veg.,' 1816, p. 125; and 'traité du citrus,' 1811, p. 359. [778] 'essai sur l'hist. des orangers,' 1813, p. 20, &c. [779] alph. de candolle, 'géograph. bot.,' p. 882. [780] 'ch. darwin's lehre von der entstehung,' &c., 1862, s. 87. [781] decaisne, quoted in 'gard. chronicle,' 1865, p. 271. [782] for the magnolia, _see_ loudon's 'gard. mag.,' vol. xiii., 1837, p. 21. for camellias and roses, _see_ 'gard. chron.,' 1860, p. 384. for the yew, 'journal of hort.,' march 3rd, 1863, p. 174. for sweet potatoes, _see_ col. von siebold, in 'gard. chron.,' 1855, p. 822. [783] the editor, 'gard. chron.,' 1861, p. 239. [784] loudon's 'gard. mag.,' vol. xii., 1836, p. 378. [785] 'gardeners chron.,' 1865, p. 699. [786] 'arboretum et fruticetum,' vol. iii. p. 1376. [787] mr. robson, in 'journal of horticulture,' 1861, p. 23. [788] dr. bonavia, 'report of the agri.-hort. soc. of oudh,' 1866. [789] 'cottage gardener,' 1860, april, 24th, p. 57. [790] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1841, p. 291. [791] mr. beaton, in 'cottage gardener,' march 20th, 1860, p. 377. queen mab will also stand stove heat, _see_ 'gard. chronicle,' 1845, p. 226. [792] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1841, p. 439. [793] quoted by asa gray, in 'am. journ. of sci.,' 2nd series, jan. 1865, p. 106. [794] for china, _see_ 'mémoire sur les chinois,' tom, xi., 1786, p. 60. columella is quoted by carlier, in 'journal de physique,' tom. xxiv. 1784. [795] messrs. hardy and son, in 'gard. chronicle,' 1856, p. 589. [796] isid. geoffroy st. hilaire, 'hist. nat. des anomalies,' 1836, tom. ii. pp. 210, 223, 224, 395; 'philosoph. transact.,' 1775, p. 313. [797] pallas, quoted by youatt on sheep, p. 25. [798] youatt on cattle, 1834, p. 174. [799] 'encyclop. méthod.,' 1820, p. 483: _see_ p. 500, on the indian zebu casting its horns. similar cases in european cattle were given in the third chapter. [800] pallas, 'travels,' eng. translat., vol. i. p. 243. [801] mr. beaton, in 'journal of horticulture,' may 21, 1861, p. 133. [802] lecoq, 'de la fécondation,' 1862, p. 233. [803] 'annales du muséum,' tom. vi. p. 319. [804] 'hist. des anomalies,' tom. iii. p. 392. prof. huxley applies the same principle in accounting for the remarkable, though normal, differences in the arrangement of the nervous system in the mollusca, in his great paper on the morphology of the cephalous mollusca, in 'phil. transact.,' 1853, p. 56. [805] 'eléments de tératologie veg.,' 1841, p. 113. [806] prof. j. b. simonds, on the age of the ox, sheep, &c., quoted in 'gard. chronicle,' 1854, p. 588. [807] 'hist. des anomalies,' tom. i. p. 674. [808] quoted by isid. geoffroy, idem, tom. i. p. 635. [809] 'the poultry book,' by w. b. tegetmeier, 1866, p. 250. [810] a. walker on intermarriage, 1838, p. 160. [811] 'the farrier and naturalist,' vol. i., 1828, p. 456. [812] godron, 'sur l'espèce,' tom. ii. p. 217. [813] 'quadrupèdes du paraguay,' tom. ii. p. 333. [814] on sheep, p. 142. [815] 'ueber racen, kreuzungen, &c.,' 1825, s. 24. [816] quoted from conolly, in 'the indian field,' feb. 1859, vol. ii. p. 266. [817] 'domesticated animals of the british islands,' pp. 307, 368. [818] 'proceedings zoolog. soc.,' 1833, p. 113. [819] sedgwick, 'brit. and foreign medico-chirurg. review,' april 1863, p. 453. [820] 'gard. chronicle,' 1849, p. 205. [821] 'embassy to the court of ava,' vol. i. p. 320. [822] 'narrative of a mission to the court of ava in 1855,' p. 94. [823] those statements are taken from mr. sedgwick, in the 'medico-chirurg. review,' july 1861, p. 198; april 1863, pp. 455 and 458. liebreich is quoted by professor devay, in his 'mariages consanguins,' 1862, p. 116. [824] loudon's 'mag. of nat. hist.,' vol. i., 1829, pp. 66, 178. _see_ also dr. p. lucas, 'l'héréd. nat.,' tom. i. p. 428, on the inheritance of deafness in cats. [825] 'annales des sc. nat.' zoolog., 3rd series, 1847, tom. viii. p. 239. [826] 'gardener's chron.,' 1864, p. 1202. [827] verlot gives several other instances, 'des variétés,' 1865, p. 72. [828] 'arbres fruitiers,' 1836, tom. ii. pp. 204, 226. [829] 'annales du muséum,' tom. xx. p. 188. [830] 'gardener's chron.,' 1843, p. 877. [831] ibid., 1845, p. 102. [832] 'hist. des anomalies,' tom. iii. p. 402. _see_ also m. camille dareste, 'recherches sur les conditions,' &c., 1863, pp. 16, 48. [833] rev. e. s. dixon, 'ornamental poultry,' 1848, p. 111; isidore geoffroy, 'hist. anomalies,' tom. i. p. 211. [834] 'on the breeding of domestic animals,' 1829, p. 6. [835] youatt on cattle, 1834, p. 283. [836] mr. herbert spencer ('principles of biology,' 1864, vol. i. pp. 452, 468) takes a different view; and in one place remarks: "we have seen reason to think that, as fast as essential faculties multiply, and as fast as the number of organs that co-operate in any given function increases, indirect equilibration through natural selection becomes less and less capable of producing specific adaptations; and remains fully capable only of maintaining the general fitness of constitution to conditions." this view that natural selection can do little in modifying the higher animals surprises me, seeing that man's selection has undoubtedly effected much with our domesticated quadrupeds and birds. [837] dr. prosper lucas apparently disbelieves in any such connexion, 'l'héréd. nat.,' tom. ii. pp. 88-94. [838] 'british medical journal,' 1862, p. 433. [839] boudin, 'geograph. médicale,' tom. i. p. 406. [840] this fact and the following cases, when not stated to the contrary, are taken from a very curious paper by prof. heusinger, in 'wochenschrift für heilkunde,' may 1846, s. 277. [841] mr. mogford, in the 'veterinarian,' quoted in 'the field,' jan. 22, 1861, p. 545. [842] 'edinburgh veterinary journal,' oct. 1860, p. 347. [843] 'hist. des anomalies,' 1832, tom. i. pp. 22, 537-556; tom. iii. p. 462. [844] 'comptes rendus,' 1855, pp. 855, 1029. [845] carpenter's 'comp. phys.,' 1854, p. 480; _see_ also camille dareste, 'comptes rendus,' march 20th, 1865, p. 562. [846] 'elements of physiology,' eng. translat, vol. i., 1838, p. 412. with respect to vrolik, _see_ todd's 'cyclop. of anat. and phys.,' vol. iv., 1849-52, p. 973. [847] 'tératologie vég.,' 1841, livre iii. [848] 'hist. des anomalies,' tom. iii. pp. 4, 5, 6. [849] 'tératologie vég.,' p. 156. _see_ also my paper on climbing plants in 'journal of linn. soc. bot.,' vol. ix., 1865, p. 114. [850] 'mémoires du muséum,' &c., tom. viii. p. 178. [851] loudon's 'encyclop. of gardening,' p. 829. [852] prichard, 'phys. hist. of mankind,' 1851, vol. i. p. 324. [853] 'annales des sc. nat.,' 1st series, tom. xix. p. 327. [854] 'comptes rendus,' dec. 1864, p. 1039. [855] ueber fötale rachites, 'würzburger medicin. zeitschrift,' 1860, b. i. s. 265. [856] 'tératologie vég.,' p. 192. dr. m. masters informs me that he doubts the truth of this conclusion; but the facts to be given seem to be sufficient to establish it. [857] 'journal of horticulture,' july 2nd, 1861, p. 253. [858] it would be worth trial to fertilise with the same pollen the central and lateral flowers of the pelargonium, and of some other highly cultivated plants, protecting them of course from insects: then to sow the seed separately, and observe whether the one or the other lot of seedlings varied the most. [859] quoted in 'journal of horticulture,' feb. 24, 1863, p. 152. [860] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1866, p. 612. for the phalænopsis, _see_ idem, 1867, p. 211. [861] mémoires ... des végétaux,' 1837, tom. ii. p. 170. [862] 'journal of horticulture,' july 23, 1861, p. 311. [863] 'nouvelles archives du muséum,' tom. i. p. 137. [864] hugo von mohl, 'the vegetable cell,' eng. tr., 1852, p. 76. [865] the rev. h. h. dombrain, in 'journal of horticulture,' 1861, june 4th, p. 174; and june 25th, p. 234; 1862, april 29th, p. 83. [866] 'transact. linn. soc.,' vol. xxiii., 1861, p. 360. [867] 'die getreidearten,' 1843, s. 208, 209. [868] 'gardener's chronicle,' 1850, p. 198. [869] quoted in 'gardener's chron.,' 1866, p. 74. [870] 'ueber den begriff der pflanzenart,' 1834, s. 14. [871] 'domesticated animals,' 1845, p. 351. [872] bechstein, 'naturgeschichte deutschlands,' band iv., 1795, s. 31. [873] 'proc. entomolog. soc. of philadelphia,' oct. 1863, p. 213. [874] quoted by paget, 'lectures on pathology,' 1853, p. 159. [875] dr. lachmann, also, observes ('annals and mag. of nat. history,' 2nd series, vol. xix., 1857, p. 231) with respect to infusoria, that "fissation and gemmation pass into each other almost imperceptibly." again, mr. w. c. minor ('annals and mag. of nat. hist.,' 3rd series, vol. xi. p. 328) shows that with annelids the distinction that has been made between fission and budding is not a fundamental one. _see_ bonnet, 'oeuvres d'hist. nat.,' tom. v., 1781, p. 339, for remarks on the budding-out of the amputated limbs of salamanders. _see_, also, professor clark's work 'mind in nature,' new york, 1865, pp. 62, 94. [876] paget, 'lectures on pathology,' 1853, p. 158. [877] idem, pp. 152, 164. [878] on the asexual reproduction of cecydomyide larvæ, translated in 'annals and mag. of nat. hist.,' march 1866, pp. 167, 171. [879] _see_ some excellent remarks on this head by quatrefages, in 'annales des sc. nat.,' zoolog., 3rd series, 1850, p. 138. [880] 'annals and mag. of nat. hist.,' 2nd series, vol. xx., 1857, pp. 153-455. [881] 'annales des sc. nat.,' 3rd series, 1850, tom. xiii. [882] 'transact. phil. soc.,' 1851, pp. 196, 208, 210; 1853, p. 245, 247. [883] 'beitrage zur kenntniss,' &c., 1844, s. 345. [884] 'nouvelles archives du muséum,' tom. i. p. 27. [885] as quoted by sir j. lubbock in 'nat. hist. review,' 1862, p. 345. [886] 'transact. linn. soc.,' vol. xxiv., 1863, p. 62. [887] 'parthenogenesis,' 1849, pp. 25-26. prof. huxley has some excellent remarks ('medical times,' 1856, p. 637) on this subject, in reference to the development of star-fishes, and shows how curiously metamorphosis graduates into gemmation or zoid-formation, which is in fact the same as metagenesis. [888] prof. j. reay greene, in günther's 'record of zoolog. lit.,' 1865, p. 625. [889] fritz müller's 'für darwin,' 1864, s. 65, 71. the highest authority on crustaceans, prof. milne edwards, insists ('annal. des sci. nat.,' 2nd series, zoolog., tom. iii. p. 322) on their metamorphoses differing even in closely allied genera. [890] prof. allman, in 'annals and mag. of nat. hist.,' 3rd series, vol. xiii., 1864, p. 348; dr. s. wright, idem, vol. viii., 1861, p. 127. _see_ also p. 358 for analogous statements by sars. [891] 'tissus vivants,' 1866, p. 22. [892] 'cellular pathology,' translat. by dr. chance, 1860, pp. 14, 18, 83, 460. [893] paget, 'surgical pathology,' vol. i., 1853, pp. 12-14. [894] idem, p. 19. [895] mantegazza, quoted in 'popular science review,' july 1865, p. 522. [896] 'de la production artificielle des os,' p. 8. [897] isidore geoffroy st. hilaire, 'hist. des anomalies,' tom. ii. pp. 549, 560, 562; virchow, idem, p. 484. [898] for the most recent classification of cells, _see_ ernst häckel's 'generelle morpholog.,' band ii., 1866, s. 275. [899] 'the structure and growth of tissues,' 1865, p. 21, &c. [900] dr. w. turner, 'the present aspect of cellular pathology,' 'edinburgh medical journal,' april, 1863. [901] this term is used by dr. e. montgomery ('on the formation of so-called cells in animal bodies,' 1867, p. 42), who denies that cells are derived from other cells by a process of growth, but believes that they originate through certain chemical changes. [902] prof. huxley has called my attention to the views of buffon and bonnet. the former ('hist. nat. gén.,' edit. of 1749, tom. ii. pp. 54, 62, 329, 333, 420, 425) supposes that organic molecules exist in the food consumed by every living creature; and that these molecules are analogous in nature with the various organs by which they are absorbed. when the organs thus become fully developed, the molecules being no longer required collect and form buds or the sexual elements. if buffon had assumed that his organic molecules had been formed by each separate unit throughout the body, his view and mine would have been closely similar. bonnet ('oeuvres d'hist. nat.,' tom. v., part i., 1781, 4to edit., p. 334) speaks of the limbs having germs adapted for the reparation of all possible losses; but whether these germs are supposed to be the same with those within the buds and sexual organs is not clear. his famous but now exploded theory of _emboîtement_ implies that perfect germs are included within germs in endless succession, pre-formed and ready for all succeeding generations. according to my view, the germs or gemmules of each separate part were not originally pre-formed, but are continually produced at all ages during each generation, with some handed down from preceding generations. prof. owen remarks ('parthenogenesis,' 1849, pp. 5-8), "not all the progeny of the primary impregnated germ-cell are required for the formation of the body in all animals: certain of the derivative germ-cells may remain unchanged and become included in that body which has been composed of their metamorphosed and diversely combined or confluent brethren: so included, any derivative germ-cell, or the nucleus of such, may commence and repeat the same processes of growth by imbibition, and of propagation by spontaneous fission, as those to which itself owed its origin;" &c. by the agency of these germ-cells prof. owen accounts for parthenogenesis, for propagation by self-division during successive generations, and for the repairs of injuries. his view agrees with mine in the assumed transmission and multiplication of his germ-cells, but differs fundamentally from mine in the belief that the primary germ-cell was formed within the ovarium of the female and was fertilised by the male. my gemmules are supposed to be formed, quite independently of sexual concourse, by each separate cell or unit throughout the body, and to be merely aggregated within the reproductive organs. lastly, mr. herbert spencer ('principles of biology,' vol. i., 1863-4, chaps. iv. and viii.) has discussed at considerable length what he designates as physiological units. these agree with my gemmules in being supposed to multiply and to be transmitted from parent to child; the sexual elements are supposed to serve merely as their vehicles; they are the efficient agents in all the forms of reproduction and in the repairs of injuries; they account for inheritance, but they are not brought to bear on reversion or atavism, and this is unintelligible to me; they are supposed to possess polarity, or, as i call it, affinity; and apparently they are believed to be derived from each separate part of the whole body. but gemmules differ from mr. spencer's physiological units, inasmuch as a certain number, or mass of them, are, as we shall see, requisite for the development of each cell or part. nevertheless i should have concluded that mr. spencer's views were fundamentally the same with mine, had it not been for several passages which, as far as i understand them, indicate something quite different. i will quote some of these passages from pp. 254-256. "in the fertilised germ we have two groups of physiological units, slightly different in their structures."... "it is not obvious that change in the form of the part, caused by changed action, involves such change in the physiological units throughout the organism, that these, when groups of them are thrown off in the shape of reproductive centres, will unfold into organisms that have this part similarly changed in form. indeed, when treating of adaptation, we saw that an organ modified by increase or decrease of function can but slowly so react on the system at large as to bring about those correlative changes required to produce a new equilibrium; and yet only when such new equilibrium has been established, can we expect it to be _fully_ expressed in the modified physiological units of which the organism is built--only then can we count on a complete transfer of the modification to descendants."... "that the change in the offspring must, other things equal, be in the same direction as the change in the parent, we may dimly see is implied by the fact, that the change propagated throughout the parental system is a change towards a new state of equilibrium--a change tending to bring the actions of all organs, reproductive included, into harmony with these new actions." [903] m. philipeaux ('comptes rendus,' oct. 1, 1866, p. 576, and june, 1867) has lately shown that when the entire fore-limb, including the scapula, is extirpated, the power of regrowth is lost. from this he concludes that it is necessary for regrowth that a small portion of the limb should be left. but as in the lower animals the whole body may be bisected and both halves be reproduced, this belief does not seem probable. may not the early closing of a deep wound, as in the case of the extirpation of the scapula, prevent the formation or protrusion of the nascent limb? [904] 'annal. des sc. nat.,' 3rd series, bot., tom. xiv., 1850, p. 244. [905] _see_ some very interesting papers on this subject by prof. lionel beale, in 'medical times and gazette,' sept. 9th, 1865, pp. 273, 330. [906] third report of the r. comm. on the cattle plague, as quoted in 'gard. chronicle,' 1866, p. 446. [907] in a cod-fish, weighing 20 lb., mr. f. buckland ('land and water,' 1867, p. 57) calculated the above number of eggs. in another instance, harmer ('phil. transact.,' 1767, p. 280) found 3,681,760 eggs. for the ascaris, _see_ carpenter's 'comp. phys.,' 1854, p. 590. mr. j. scott, of the royal botanic garden of edinburgh, calculated, in the same manner as i have done for some british orchids ('fertilisation of orchids,' p. 344), the number of seeds in a capsule of an acropera, and found the number to be 371,250. now this plant produces several flowers on a raceme and many racemes during a season. in an allied genus, gongora, mr. scott has seen twenty capsules produced on a single raceme: ten such racemes on the acropera would yield above seventy-four millions of seed. i may add that fritz müller informs me that he found in a capsule of a maxillaria, in south brazil, that the seed weighed 42½ grains: he then arranged half a grain of seed in a narrow line, and by counting a measured length found the number in the half-grain to be 20,667, so that in the capsule there must have been 1,756,440 seeds! the same plant sometimes produces half-a-dozen capsules. [908] 'annals and mag. of nat. hist.,' 3rd series, vol. viii., 1861, p. 490. [909] paget, 'lectures on pathology,' p. 27; virchow, 'cellular pathology,' translat. by dr. chance, pp. 123, 126, 294; claude bernard, 'des tissus vivants,' pp. 177, 210, 337; müller's 'physiology,' eng. translat., p. 290. [910] virchow, 'cellular pathology,' trans. by dr. chance, 1860, pp. 60, 162, 245, 441, 454. [911] idem, pp. 412-426. [912] _see_ rev. j. m. berkeley, in 'gard. chron.,' april 28th, 1866, on a bud developed on the petal of the clarkia. _see_ also h. schacht, 'lehrbuch der anat.,' &c., 1859, theile ii. s. 12, on adventitious buds. [913] mr. herbert spencer ('principles of biology,' vol. ii. p. 430) has fully discussed the antagonism between growth and reproduction. [914] the male salmon is known to breed at a very early age. the triton and siredon, whilst retaining their larval branchiæ, according to filippi and duméril ('annals and mag. of nat. hist.,' 3rd series, 1866, p. 157), are capable of reproduction. ernst häckel has recently ('monatsbericht akad. wiss. berlin,' feb. 2nd, 1865) observed the surprising case of a medusa, with its reproductive organs active, which produces by budding a widely different form of medusa; and this latter also has the power of sexual reproduction. krohn has shown ('annals and mag. of nat. hist.,' 3rd series, vol. xix., 1862, p. 6) that certain other medusæ, whilst sexually mature, propagate by gemmæ. [915] _see_ his excellent discussion on this subject in 'nouvelles archives du muséum,' tom. i. p. 151. [916] various physiologists have insisted on this distinction between growth and development. prof. marshall ('phil. transact.,' 1864, p. 544) gives a good instance in microcephalous idiots, in which the brain continues to grow after having been arrested in its development. [917] 'compte rendu,' nov. 14, 1864, p. 800. [918] as previously remarked by quatrefages, in his 'metamorphoses de l'homme,' &c., 1862, p. 129. [919] günther's 'zoological record,' 1864, p. 279. [920] sedgwick, in 'medico-chirurg. review,' april 1863, p. 454. [921] isid. geoffroy st. hilaire, 'hist. des anomalies,' tom. i., 1832, pp. 435, 657; and tom. ii. p. 560. [922] virchow, 'cellular pathology,' 1860, p. 66. [923] moquin-tandon, 'tératologie veg.,' 1841, pp. 218, 220, 353. for the case of the pea, _see_ 'gardener's chron.,' 1866, p. 897. [924] müller's 'physiology,' eng. translat., vol. i. p. 407. [925] _see_ some remarks to this effect by sir h. holland in his 'medical notes,' 1839, p. 32. [926] this is the view taken by prof. häckel, in his 'generelle morphologie' (b. ii. s. 171), who says: "lediglich die partielle identität der specifischconstituirten materie im elterlichen und im kindlichen organismus, die theilung dieser materie bei der fortpflanzung, ist die ursache der erblichkeit." [927] in these remarks i, in fact, follow naudin, who speaks of the elements or essences of the two species which are crossed. see his excellent memoir in the 'nouvelles archives du muséum,' tom. i. p. 151. [928] godron, 'de l'espèce,' 1859, tom. ii. p. 44, &c. [929] journal proc. linn. soc., 1858, vol. iii. p. 60. [930] 'the quarterly journal of science,' oct. 1867, p. 486. [931] m. rufz de lavison, in 'bull. soc. imp. d'acclimat.,' dec. 1862, p. 1009. [932] 'races of man,' 1850, p. 315. [933] 'travels in peru,' eng. translat., p. 177. [934] youatt on cattle, 1834, p 200: on pigs; _see_ 'gard. chronicle,' 1854, p. 410. [935] 'die pflanzen der pfahlbauten,' 1865. [936] morlot, 'soc. vaud. des scien. nat,' mars 1860, p. 298. [937] rütimeyer, 'die fauna der pfahlbauten,' 1861, s. 30. [938] godron, 'de l'espèce,' tom. i., 1859, p. 368. [939] 'géographie botan.,' 1855, p. 989. [940] pickering, 'races of man,' 1850, p. 318. [941] 'journal of a horticultural tour,' by a deputation of the caledonian hist. soc., 1823, p. 293. * * * * * corrections made to printed original. p. iii. "appearance with advancing age": 'arpearance' in original. p. vi. "slight changes sufficient": 'sufficent' in original. p. 61. "bearing in mind what has been said": 'bearnig' in original. p. 78. "not attached to any particular period": 'particuliar' in original. p. 243. "it permits innumerable individuals to be born": 'permitts' in original. p. 294. "liable to complete absorption": 'absortion' in original. p. 297. "found that when the animal was compelled ...": 'found than ...' in original. p. 318. "branches in a rudimentary condition": 'rudimentry' in original. p. 384. "force themselves into a minute orifice": 'into' was printed on next line in original, after 'must'. 