the toxins and venoms and their antibodies by em. pozzi-escot authorized translation by alfred i. cohn, phar. d. _first edition_ first thousand new york john wiley & sons london: chapman & hall, limited 1906 copyright, 1906 by alfred i. cohn robert drummond, printer, new york introduction. our knowledge of the toxins is of quite recent date. it is hardly twenty years since we began to acquire a knowledge of the facts that are detailed in this volume, and to which modern medicine owes its most recent and marvelous progress, particularly in serotherapy. in this volume we have studied, besides the true toxins--substances of cellular origin and of albuminoid nature and unknown composition--other toxic substances, the nitrogenized alkaloidal bases introduced into science through the researches of selmi, armand gautier, and von behring, and which are highly hydrogenized nitrogenous crystallizable principles of definite chemical composition--the products of the more or less advanced breaking down of albuminoids. although these principles differ widely, by reason of their physiological properties as a whole, from the toxic albuminoids, or true toxins, it appears proper to consider them as products of the advanced decomposition of these toxins--and in this respect their study becomes imperative, the more so as they are very frequently encountered together with the toxins, particularly in serpent-venoms, where their action is exerted in addition to that of the true toxins. in the first volume of this collection we dwelt on the essentially reducing nature of the cellular functionation. to this functionation--causing the splitting up or decomposition by hydrolysis of nitrogenized albuminoid foods--is due the formation of these toxic basic products within the organism, whether normally, or because of certain pathological conditions. this alone suffices to show that, during physiological life, oxygen plays an essentially antitoxic rôle within the organism. it is hoped that this succinct résumé, which it has been sought to make as clear as possible, will be of service to those who, while not scientists actively engaged in scientific progress, desire to be abreast of the knowledge of modern evolution, but yet are not in a position to consult original papers or large treatises. contents. page introduction iii part i. _generalities regarding toxins and antitoxins._ chapter i. alkaloidal toxins, ptomaines, and leucomaines. alkaloidal products of cellular life 1 ptomaines 4 physiological action 5 extraction 5 classification, etc. 7 leucomaines 10 xanthic leucomaines 12 creatinic leucomaines 13 neurinic leucomaines 13 indeterminate leucomaines 14 chapter ii. toxins and antitoxins. toxins 15 action of pathogenic bacteria 16 action of toxins 17 nature of toxins 18 origin of toxins 20 autointoxications 21 general mode of action 23 constitution of toxins; ehrlich's theory 24 means of defense possessed by the organism against the action of toxins 28 pasteur's vaccination method 30 virus action 30 phagocytosis 32 antitoxins 33 mode of action 35 formation; ehrlich's theory 38 serotherapy 41 part ii. _the toxins proper._ chapter iii. i. vegetable and animal toxins. 42 abrin 42 ricin 44 robin 45 toxicity of the vegetable diastases 45 ii. toxins from mushrooms 46 phalline 48 symptomatology 49 antidiastases 51 iii. animal toxins 53 peptotoxin 53 alimentary intoxications 55 urinary toxins 57 variation of urinary toxicity 59 autointoxications (animal) 60 glandular secretions 62 suprarenal capsules 63 chapter iv. the microbial toxins. pyogenic and pyretogenic properties 66 anthrax toxin 67 tubercular toxin 69 diphtheria toxin 71 tetanus toxin 76 mallein 79 typhoid toxin 80 cholera toxin 82 chapter v. the venoms. general nature of venoms 85 venomous serpents 87 nature of serpent-venoms 88 natural immunity towards serpent-venoms 90 artificial immunity towards serpent venoms 91 venoms of batrachians and saurians 92 fish-poisons 95 poisons of the hymenoptera 96 poisons of scorpions 97 poisonous blood and serums 98 poisonous meats 100 toxins and venoms. part i. _generalities regarding toxins and antitoxins._ chapter i. alkaloidal toxins, ptomaines and leucomaines. =alkaloidal products of cellular life.= before entering upon the study of the true toxins, which are products of an alkaloidal nature and of unknown composition, it is necessary to say a few words regarding the most definite of the toxic alkaloidal principles that are frequently encountered under various conditions, conjointly with the true toxins, particularly in venoms, and which, furthermore, are closely allied to these albuminoid toxins. these principles are formed in essentially reducing media, whether it be within the body of the organism, and by the simple exercise of its normal function, in which case the principles bear the generic name _leucomaines_[1]; or whether due to the action of anaerobic microbes, when they are designated as ptomaines.[2] these basic principles, which are essentially the products of cellular secretion, are usually toxic, and sometimes even extremely so. [1] armand gautier: sur les leucomaines, nouveaux alcaloides, dérivés de la transformation des substances protéiques des tissus vivants. _bull. soc. chim._, 2e série, xliii, p. 158. [2] armand gautier: "communication sur les bases d'origine putréfactive." _bull. soc. chim._ (2), xxxvii, p. 305. as we shall presently see, ptomaines are essentially products formed during putrefactive fermentation. the toxic properties of extracts from the cadaveric fluids have long been known. already in 1838 panum[3] had met with these products in snake venoms. bergmann and schmiedberg[4] in 1868 isolated from septic pus a toxic substance which they named _sepsin_; and almost at the same time zuelzer and sonnenschein[5] reported having isolated from anatomical preparations an alkaloid possessing mydriatic properties. it is, however, due particularly to the researches of selmi and armand gautier that we are now so well informed regarding these toxic principles. [3] _virchow archiv._, x, p. 301. [4] _medic. centralblatt_, 1868, p. 497. [5] _berlin. klin. woch._, 1869, no. 2. the labors of armand gautier were first published in his _traité de chimie appliquée à la physiologie_; those of selmi in the _actes de l'académie de bologne_. at first sight, there appears to be a great difference between these alkaloidal bases, the ptomaines and leucomaines, and the albuminoid toxins proper. the toxic bases of the first two groups are quite definite chemical products which can be generally obtained quite pure, and frequently in crystalline form. the toxins proper, on the other hand, are highly complex albuminoid substances which greatly resemble the true diastases in all their properties. nevertheless, between the toxic alkaloids, ptomaines and leucomaines, and the toxic albuminoids, or more properly toxins, there exists no absolutely sharp line of demarcation, but there is a gradual passage from the one to the other by every intermediary grade, as a result of the breaking down of the albuminoid molecule. we shall see, moreover, as we proceed, that these substances are formed under coexistent circumstances, and that they are, hence, found together, whether it be in virus or in snake venom. we will first consider the ptomaines, and then the leucomaines. =ptomaines.= this name is more specially reserved to designate those alkaloidal substances, generally highly hydrogenized, that are formed outside the organism, from the fermentative action of anaerobic microbes on albuminoid substances. these bases are generally volatile, with an intense and tenacious purulent odor; often, however, they possess a floral odor (aubépine, syringa), and even like that of musk. they combine readily with acids and with the chlorides of the heavy metals, yielding crystallizable salts. the ptomaines afford no specific reaction whereby they may be readily identified; and their identification is effected only after a painstaking analysis. we must here call attention, however, to several of their more common properties, beginning with their basic character, their oxidizability by the air and consequently their well-defined reducing power--a property that led selmi to propose a mixture of ferric chloride and potassium ferricyanide as a reagent for their detection.[6] they are precipitated by all the general reagents for the vegetable alkaloids. selmi has given several reactions, such as those afforded by sulphuric, hydrochloric, and nitric acids, which appear, however, to apply much more to the impurities present than to the bases themselves. [6] sulle ptomaïne od alcaloïdi cadaverici. bologne, clxxxvii, p. 11. the physiological action of these bases varies greatly; in some the action is an extremely toxic one, as in the case of neurine and muscarine, which are true ptomaines; there are others, such as cadaverine and putrescine, which are quite innocuous. the physiological action of these bases, like that of the true toxins, is studied by making hypodermic injections of solutions of the bases in healthy animals, such as guinea-pigs, rabbits, and dogs. in animals, the principal phenomena observed by selmi to follow the injection of the substances are the following: at first dilatation of the pupil, then constriction; tetanic convulsions, soon followed by muscular relaxation, and retardation, rarely acceleration, of heart-beat; absolute loss of cutaneous sensibility; loss of muscular contractility; paralysis of the vasomotors; greatly retarded respiration; stupor, followed by death with the heart in systole. it must be observed that in a number of cases where toxic researches had been made in the past, these bases had been mistaken for poisons which were believed to have been introduced into the organism with criminal intent. no one will ever know how many have fallen victims in the past to ignorance regarding the cellular mechanism! the extraction of these bases is a tedious and difficult operation. the materials must first be exhausted with water slightly acidulated; then, after precipitating the albuminoids by boiling and defecating by adding lead acetate, the liquid is evaporated to one-half its volume and dialyzed in a vacuum.[7] [7] armand gautier: _c. rend. de l'académie des sciences_, cxiv, p. 1256. _ibid._, xcvii, p. 264, and xciv, p. 1600. phosphomolybdate is then added to the dialyzed liquid, and the precipitate formed, which now contains all the bases, decomposed by boiling with lead acetate. after removing the excess of lead, there is thus obtained a limpid solution of all the alkaloidal bases in the form of acetates. these are separated by alcohol and by means of fractional precipitations with various metallic salts, depending upon the known properties of the bases. in order to facilitate their study, the ptomaines have been grouped under two distinct classes, the one embracing the cadaveric or putrefactive ptomaines, of undetermined microbial origin, the other containing the ptomaines formed by microbes of known character. each of these two groups is itself divided into subgroups, as shown in the following table: group i. =cadaveric ptomaines of undetermined microbial origin.= _a._ amines. _b._ guanidines. _c._ oxamines (fatty or aromatic). _d._ amido acids. _e._ carbopyridic acids and analogues. _f._ undetermined ptomaines. group ii. =ptomaines of known microbial origin.= _a._ ptomaines extracted from microbial cells. _b._ ptomaines from pathological urines. we will not here enter upon a detailed study of the bases belonging to each of these groups. this subject is a vast one, requiring for its treatment a volume devoted to it alone. we will here simply touch upon the principal properties of several of the bases of each of the subgroups named. bases of group i. _a._ =amines.=--among these we find nearly all the fatty amines, such as the methylamines and the cyclic alkaloids such as pyridine. they are formed particularly by the putrefaction of fish. certain of these bases are very toxic, for instance trimethylene diamine, the collidines, and the parvolines. _b._ =guanidines.=--among the products of ordinary putrefaction there has been found so far only methylguanidine, c{2}h{7}n{3}. this is a highly toxic base of which 0.2 gm. is fatal to a guinea-pig. _c._ =oxamines.=--under this designation the following bases are comprised: 1. neurine bases; 2. oxygenized aromatic bases; 3. bases of unknown constitution. amongst them we find neurine and choline, which are toxic, and betaine, which is innocuous. they are found particularly in putrid fish. _d._ =amido acids.=--these ptomaines, which are usually innocuous in small quantities, are particularly the products of the decomposition of albuminoid substances. among them we find glycocoll, leucine, and tyrosine, as members of this group. _e._ =carbopyridic and carboquinoleic acids.=--so far only one base is known belonging to this group, and that is morrhuic acid, which is found in the decomposed livers of codfish, and which is a powerful appetizer and stimulant in disassimilation. _f._ =undetermined ptomaines.=--under this heading are classed certain undetermined bases, such as those found in normal urines, and in spoiled meats and bread. bases of group ii. _a._ =ptomaines isolated from cultures of pathogenic bacteria.=--bacterial cultures contain, besides the true toxins, a certain number of alkaloidal bases which sometimes possess considerable toxicity. in the cultures of streptococcus pyogenes there are found trimethylamine and xanthic bases; in those of staphylococcus pyogenes aureus are found xanthic bases and creatinine; while pyocyanine and pyoxanthine are found in the cultures of bacillus pyocyaneus, etc. _b._ =ptomaines isolated from pathological urines.=--toxic ptomaine bases have been found in the urines of a large number of diseases.[8] it is quite probable that these bases are the results of a general pathological condition due to some bacterial disease, the toxic products of which are eliminated by the kidneys. [8] griffiths: _c. rend. de l'académie des sciences_, cxv, pp. 285 and 667. from the urines of epileptics griffiths[9] isolated a colorless base crystallizing in prisms having the formula c{12}h{15}n{5}o{7}, and which was found to be exceedingly toxic; the same investigator isolated from the urines of eczematous subjects a ptomaine which he named _eczemine_,[10] and which is also highly toxic. [9] e. pouchet: contribution à l'étude des matières extractives de l'urine, _thèse_, paris, 1880; _ibid._, _c. rend. de l'académie des sc._, xcvii, p. 1560; bouchard: _c. rend. soc. de biolog._, aug. 12, 1882. [10] griffiths: _c. rend. de l'académie des sciences_, cxvi, p. 1206. in certain cases of cystinuria there are found in the urine sulphurized ptomaines, and in measles the urine contains an undetermined ptomaine, _rubedine_, which is very poisonous. _typhotoxine_, a very toxic ptomaine, has been isolated from the urine of typhoid patients; _erysipeline_, a hardly less toxic base, exists in the urine of erysipelatic subjects; while _spasmotoxine_, _tetanotoxine_, and _tetanine_, exceedingly active alkaloids, are found in the urines of tetanus patients.[11] [11] brieger: untersuchungen über die ptomaine, dritten teil, p. 93; _berichte d. d. chem. gesellschaft_, 1886, p. 3159; 1887, p. 69. as a general rule, all abnormal urines contain toxic bases; the kidneys appear, in fact, to serve as a means of eliminating the toxic products that form in large quantity whenever, and for whatever cause, the organism ceases to functionate normally, whether it be as a whole, or in any one of its parts.[12] [12] charrin: _les poisons de l'urine_: encyclopédie léauté. =leucomaines.=[13] [13] armand gautier: _bull. acad. de médecin_ (2), xv, p. 115. the leucomaines are basic substances, nearly allied to the ptomaines, but still more closely related to the ureides. they are formed directly or indirectly by the breaking down of protoplasmal albuminoids. the agents that effect the breaking down are the hydrolyzing ferments of the economy. it is well to recall here that these phenomena of hydrolyzation occur within the cell itself and in a practically reducing medium, as we have already stated. the inmost mechanism of these phenomena cannot here be detailed; it will be found described by armand gautier in the _chimie biologique_, and in his work _chimie de la cellule vivante_.[14] [14] armand gautier: leçons de chimie biologique. published by masson; _ibid._, chimie de la cellule vivante. also published by masson. the extraction of these bases is an extremely delicate operation. it is necessary to operate with a large quantity of substance, say 50 kilos. the substance is finely chopped, then exhausted with twice its weight of water acidulated with acetic acid (0.2 cc. per liter) and containing a trace of oil of mustard, which is intended to act as an antiseptic. the albuminoids are precipitated by boiling, the solution then filtered, evaporated in a vacuum at 60° c., and the bases extracted with 95-per cent. alcohol. the alkaloidal bases obtained in this manner are separated by crystallization from alcohol or by various other chemical methods, the description of which we will not enter upon here. in order to facilitate the study of the leucomaines they are classed under three groups, according to their chemical affinities. these groups are as follows: 1. =xanthic leucomaines.=--the bases of this group appear to have a composition resembling that of uric acid. when hydrolyzed, they yield urea and guanidine. they are weak bases, and exhibit both basic and weakly acid properties. they all possess the common characteristic of being precipitated by copper acetate in acid solution with heat, and by ammoniacal silver nitrate in the cold. according to kossel, these bases are derived from the nucleo-albumins which are found in the cell nuclei, and which are, as we know, substances rich in nitrogen and phosphorus. among the bases of this group may be mentioned _adenine_, c{5}h{5}n{5}, which is obtained from infusions of tea.[15] this base is non-toxic; it was discovered by kossel,[16] and it crystallizes easily. [15] kruger: _bull. soc. chim._ (3), viii, p. 687. [16] kossel: _zeitschrift für physiol. chim._, x, p. 248; and _bull. soc. chim._ (3), iii, p. 239. some others of this group are: _guanine_, c{5}h{5}n{5}o, non-toxic, discovered by unger; _pseudo-xanthine_, obtained from muscular tissues; _sarcine_, c{5}h{4}n{4}o, also but slightly toxic, discovered by scherer; _xanthine_, c{5}h{4}n{4}o{2}, which is found in many urines, and which acts as a stimulant on the cardiac muscles; _paraxanthine_, c{7}h{8}n{4}o{2}, a toxic base found in certain pathological urines; _caffeine_ and _theobromine_, powerful diuretic bases; and _carnine_, c{7}h{8}n{4}o{3}, from meat, a muscular stimulant like caffeine. 2. =creatinic leucomaines.=--these have for their type guanidine; they differ from the xanthic bases in that they are not precipitated by copper acetate, but frequently are by ammoniacal silver nitrate. they yield double salts with the chlorides of zinc and cadmium. to this group belong _glycocyanine_, c{3}h{7}n{3}o{2}, and _glycocyanidine_, c{3}h{7}n{3}o, both very toxic; _creatine_, c{4}h{9}n{3}o{2}, only slightly toxic; _creatinine_, c{4}h{7}n{3}o; _lysatine_, which very easily decomposes to form urea; _lysatinine_, _xanthocreatine_; _arginine_, a vegetable base, etc. 3. =neurinic leucomaines.=--these have none of the characteristics of the preceding bases; their type is neurine, a highly toxic base found in the brain, nerves, and certain fish ova. these bases are sometimes normally produced by the animal economy, and are also frequently the result of microbic action. they are the result of the simple phenomena of fermentative hydrolyzation of protagons and lecithins. among these bases are _choline_, a weak alkaloid, and _betaine_, which appears to be non-toxic. the former has the formula c{5}h{15}no{2}; it was discovered by stocker. wurtz synthesized it by combining trimethylamine and glycol-monochlorhydrine, and treating the resulting hydrochloride with silver oxide. betaine, c{5}h{11}no{2}, is found in beets; it was discovered by scheibler. neurine is, chemically, trimethylvinylammonium hydrate. 4. =undetermined leucomaines.=--among these bases several are important in more than one respect. for instance _spermine_, which is found in the sperm, is a strong base possessing a powerfully dynamic and tonic action on the nerves. it acts as an oxidizer. spermine was first obtained by schreiner[17] from the sperm of mammifers in which it occurs as a phosphate. it has the formula c{5}h{14}n{2}. it was physiologically studied by poehl, tarchanoff, weljaminoff, and joffroy.[18] _plasmaine_, a toxic base found in the blood and discovered by r. wurtz,[19] has the formula c{5}h{15}n{5}; _protamine_, from fish milt, was discovered by micocher.[20] [17] _liebig's ann. der chemie_, cxciv, p. 68. [18] _journ. soc. phys. chim. russe_, 1893, no. 2; and _bull. soc. chim._ (3), xii, p. 243. [19] _leucomaines du sang normal_, thèse, paris, 1889. [20] _joh reab. de thiérchen_, 1874, p. 341; picard, _ibid._, p. 355. chapter ii. toxins and antitoxins. we have already seen, in the preceding chapter, that the microbes and the cells of various organisms are capable of secreting definite products of a toxic nature to which the names "ptomaines" and "leucomaines" have been given. researches, which were begun scarcely twenty years ago, have shown that, besides these crystallizable and definite products, we meet with basic non-crystallizable substances of unknown composition, possessing special toxic properties, sometimes even of extreme violence. these substances have been named "toxins." at first this generic name was extended toward indefinite basic organic products that could be isolated from tissues and tumors both normal and abnormal; later on, however, the name was applied to toxic substances, equally indefinite, isolated from the culture media of microbes and the active constituent of various venoms. it is only since 1885, when charrin called attention to them, that investigations began to be made regarding them. in 1888 roux and yersin,[21] in their beautiful researches on diphtheria, pointed out the diastatic nature of the properties of the active albuminoid matter existing in the cultures of the specific bacilli of this disease. from that period, these products began to take a more and more prominent place, from year to year, in the study of pathological affections, and, by developing the knowledge of immunity, they have opened a new path to the investigations of therapeutic technic. [21] roux and yersin; mémoire sur diphtérie. _ann. inst. pasteur_, 1888-1889. it is due to the knowledge of these principles that we have learned that the infectious microbes, far from acting as they were believed to do only a few years ago, and which pasteur strongly maintained to be by vital parasitism--such as would be the case with the carbonizing bacteria which, according to pasteur, act by diverting the oxygen, or causing capillary embolisms--owe their pathogenic action to the toxic substances which are the products of their secretion, and which spread throughout the organism, even though the microbe frequently is localized in a very circumscribed spot, as in tetanus and in diphtheria. the idea of intoxication by these products has now replaced the idea of the direct action of the microbe on the elements or the liquids of the organism. the occurrence that takes place in diphtheria and tetanus is one of the best examples to cite in support of this view. here, in fact, the pathogenic microbe is found only in a very limited area in the organism attacked--the false membrane, in the case of diphtheria, or frequently only a slight wound in the case of tetanus, and the microbe becomes localized there only. now, in both cases, there are general phenomena of toxic effects. there must hence be a diffusion of toxic substances which, distributed by the blood, affect the different systems and exert a toxic action on the entire organism. it must be observed that the toxins act as toxic agents only when in a condition to be introduced into the circulation subcutaneously. the cause of this innocuousness of the toxins when given per os has frequently been studied. it appears to be quite probable that the cause of the attenuation of the morbid properties is due to the intervention of the digestive microbes. such is the opinion of levaditi and charrin[22]; it is also the conclusion that is to be drawn from the experiments of mme. metchnikoff and of calmette[23] on the modifications undergone by a vegetable toxalbumin, abrin, and by serpent venoms, when these toxalbumins are inoculated with the bacillus subtilis chromogenus. moreover, charrin and lefèvre,[24] on the one hand, and nencki, sieber and somanowsky,[25] and carrière,[26] on the other hand, have discovered that the digestive ferments, particularly trypsin, destroy, even though but little, the toxins secreted by the loeffler and nicolaier bacilli. this is practically contrary to the opinion of behring and of rauson,[27] according to which the innocuousness of the microbial poisons when administered per os is due exclusively to the lack of absorption. [22] charrin and levaditi: le sort de toxines introduites dans le tube digestif. _journal de physiologie et de pathologie générales_, 1898, p. 226. [23] citing metchnikoff. [24] _c. rend. de la soc. de biologie_, 1898. [25] _centralblatt für bakt._, 1898. [26] _c. rend. de la soc. de biologie_, 1899. [27] _deutsche med. wochenschr._, 1898, no. 8. =nature of the toxins.=--the molecules of the toxins are very nearly like those of the diastases. like these, the toxins appear to have a very complex, and very unstable, internal structure. their mode of action frequently depends, as in the case of the diastases, upon the medium in which they occur. again, like the diastases, they are generally destroyed by the action of sufficiently prolonged heat, but less easily, for there are certain toxins that resist a temperature of 100° c. for an indefinite period. they are, like the diastatic albuminoids, insoluble in strong alcohol, and are precipitated from their solutions on the addition of this reagent. they easily adhere to precipitates that form in liquids in which they occur in solution, and possess the remarkable property of diastases in that imponderable masses produce considerable results.[28] [28] see pozzi-escot: les diastases et leurs applications, published by masson, 1900; and _traité de physico-chimie_. although closely allied to certain alkaloidal bases, the toxins are sharply distinguished by the remarkable fact that their action is never immediate, but is always preceded by a period of incubation, which may be quite long. like the alkaloidal bases, they appear to result from the hydrolyzing breaking down of albuminoids and nucleo-albumins, and they appear to be intermediary, from a chemical point of view, between these bodies, the general characters of which they retain, and the alkaloids proper, or ptomaines, to which we have called attention, and the principal chemical and physiological properties of which they possess. no absolutely precise knowledge is had regarding the chemical nature and constitution of these remarkable substances. a number of analyses of these substances have been published which, in general, permit no definite conclusion to be drawn.[29] i have, however, elaborated several speculative ideas regarding this subject.[30] [29] regarding this see the works by koch and brieger, _deutsche medicin. wochenschr._, oct. 22, 1891. [30] pozzi-escot: nature des diastases. published by j. rousset, paris, 1903. see also recherches de la nature chimique des diastases oxydantes. _revue génér. de chimie_, vii, pp. 129-136; and aperçus sur la nature chimique des diastases, _bulletin de l'association de chimistes_, 1904, p. 769.--propriétés catalytiques de quelques diastases; _ibid._, 1904, p. 1247. we must here call particular attention to the ideas of ehrlich regarding the constitution of the toxins. according to this scientist, their molecules contain two functional groups; the one, to which he has given the name "haptophore," is that which enables the toxin to attach itself to any cellular element whatever, and which it then renders non-toxic by means of the other, or "toxophore," group. we will particularize farther on regarding this very important conception. =origin of the toxins.=--these toxic bodies result either as the products of the secretion of microbial life, or as the result of the normal functionation of cellular life in the higher vegetable or animal organisms. they are the direct products of life, and do not result, as was formerly believed, from a more or less profound modification of the more or less complex albuminoids that serve as a food for the various species of microbes, or for the cellular elements. the vegetable toxins are less numerous than the animal toxins. they are met with, nevertheless, in almost all mushrooms which are reputed or known to be toxic; the seed of the castor plant contains a very toxic vegetable albuminoid, as is likewise the case with abrus precatorius (jequirity-bean), and certain others. the true physiological toxins occupy a very important place in the realization of the conditions that govern health, sickness, and death. we will see later on that they are met with in quite large number in the bladder, whence they are voided in the urine. their number varies considerably, according to diverse influences (waking, slumber, eating, fasting, fatigue, oxygen, brainwork, health, disease, etc.). it is necessary here to observe that the renal system serves for the purification of the entire organism, and that in the case of normal life we will find in the renal system a large portion of the products of the cellular secretion of the organism, and among the number there are found, as we know, a certain number of alkaloidal bases. we will take up later the subject of urinary toxicity. =autointoxications.=--the toxins are also encountered, and often in some number, in the muscular tissues and in the blood, particularly in those of batrachians, mureids, and saurians. in the organism these toxins, developed by the activity of the various cells, may cause autointoxication whenever, for one cause or another, their normal elimination ceases. "although there are an infinity of diseases," remarked prof. bouchard, "there are but a few ways of becoming ill." of these ways that of autointoxication is the most frequent. "what else is it, then," says prof. charrin, "in the last analysis, but to die from affections of the kidney, the liver, the heart, the lung, etc., if it be not to succumb because of the lack of oxygen, the accumulation of carbonic acid, the influence of the numerous urinary poisons, the action of acids, of salts, of biliary pigments, or the effect of noxious principles, which the hepatic cell must normally destroy or at least attenuate." these autointoxications, always due to poor elimination of toxic principles, toxins formed in very great number in the organism, and which the normal modes of evacuation or destruction do not eliminate, are always found to be the cause of all diseases, even those that are manifested by attacks of the cerebro-spinal axis, and that exhibit variously mania, insanity, symptoms of hyperexcitability, etc. these autointoxications are controlled by the nervous system, and the latter alone is the cause of a larger number of maladies than is generally believed; in fact, if the mechanism of nutrition be reduced to its most simple elements, it will be seen to consist of the penetration of the foods, of the plasmatic principles, to the cells; of their transformation within the interior of the cells, and finally the rejection of all the matter that could not be utilized. it is the nervous system that commands or dominates this mechanism, that controls the taking-up of assimilable elements and the elimination of toxic principles, the fruit of assimilation or disassimilation, and in such a manner, in fact, that this same nervous system can, at its will, cause starvation, or intoxicate. the marvelous cures obtained by magnetic methods are due to no other causes than favorable changes in the nervous system. =general mode of action.=--the toxins, of whatever kind, always behave like diastases, in the sense that their definite action appears to be absolutely independent of their mass, and that imponderable quantities suffice to cause serious morbid affections and profound modifications in nutrition. koch has shown that tuberculin is capable of affecting 60 trillion times its weight of the living human being. according to vaillard one milligramme of tetanus toxin will kill a horse weighing 600 kilos. these two examples show what an enormous power the toxins possess. my views regarding the manner in which diastases act i have developed at length in my work _nature des diastases_. the close analogy between these substances and the toxins, an analogy upon which, moreover, i have dwelt at some length, permits me to refer the reader who is desirous of fuller details to the small work just mentioned. the mode of action of diastases resembles singularly closely that of the catalytic substances, and we will admit, for the moment, that they act by intermediary combination, resulting in their rapid decomposition. we owe to ehrlich[31] a new conception relative to the nature and mode of action of the diastases, and which to-day plays an important rôle in all our conceptions regarding immunity.[32] [31] ehrlich: _klinisches jahrbuch_, 1897, vi. _proceedings of the royal society_, 1900, no. 482, p. 424. _nothnagles' specielle pathologie und therapie_, 1901, viii, schlussbetrachtungen, p. 163. [32] to have a complete exposé regarding this question, it will be profitable to consult no. 4 of this collection on _sérums immunisants_. according to this scientist, the complex molecule of albuminoid substances is constituted by a fixed central nucleus, and by a number of lateral chains or receptors, fixed to this nucleus, which possess diverse accessory functions, and which serve, particularly, for the nutrition of the cells. these receptors have a great affinity for the various substances necessary for the support of the living elements, and they seize upon the alimentary substances, in normal life, just as a leaf of the _dionæa_ seizes a fly which serves as its food. in these special conditions the receptors may attach themselves to the complex molecules of albuminoid substances, such as the different toxins. ehrlich supposes, as we have already seen, that a toxin contains two special groups--a _toxophore_ group, which poisons, and a _haptophore_ group, which combines with the receptor. according to this theory, the toxophore group of a toxin can act on an organism _only_ when the haptophore group of the toxin encounters a suitable attachment or receptor. the receptors attached to the living protoplasmic molecule attract the toxin, just as a lightning-rod attracts the lightning. it is hence clearly proved that the toxigenic poisons exert their noxious action on the cellular elements of sensitive organisms, by entering into combination with these. experience has shown that they attach themselves, in a most rigorously elective manner, to the tissues, and rapidly disappear from the general circulation. numerous facts, clearly established, attest the reality of this fixation or attachment. it is thus that von behring and wernicke[33] sought to ascertain the quantity of antitoxin (we will see farther on that this name is given to those substances which neutralize the activity of toxins under certain conditions) which, introduced a certain time after the introduction of the poison, will save the life of the animal. they have experimented with diphtheria toxin, which we will study later, and they have demonstrated that, if the antitoxic serum be introduced immediately after the toxin, a dose of antitoxin twice as large as that of the toxin suffices to effect a cure. [33] von behring and wernicke: zeitschrift für hygiene, xii. eight hours after the administration of the toxin the dose must be trebled, while after thirty-six hours it is necessary to have recourse to a quantity of antitoxin eight times as great. these experiments show that the curative action of the antitoxin is so much the less the longer the period of time that has elapsed between the introduction of the toxin and the antitoxin. this is because the toxin has become so intimately attached to the tissues that the antitoxin introduced has not the power to destroy the combination. these facts have been confirmed by donitz[34] and by the classic experiments of decroly and rousse.[35] [34] donitz: ueber die grenzen der wirksamkeit des diphtheria heilserums. _deutsche med. woch._, no. 27, 1897. [35] decroly et rousse: _arch. int. de pharmacodyn._, iii and vi; masoin: _arch. intern. de pharmacodyn._, ii, 1903. this is not, however, the case with cold-blooded animals, which, generally, are not affected by injections of poisonous toxins. thus metchnikoff[36] and his pupils have been able to show that the toxins introduced into certain cold-blooded animals (oryetes nasicorius) may remain for several months without alteration in their circulation. [36] metchnikoff: _l'immunité_, paris, 1902; morgenroth: zur kenntniss des tetanus des frosches. _deutsche med. woch._, no. 35, 1898. if we consider the facts of the theory of ehrlich's lateral chains, which we have mentioned, we are led to well-defined conclusions regarding the mode of action of the toxins. in fact, since these toxins exhibit a pronounced chemical affinity for the tissues, and while, on the other hand, they can attach themselves only because of the presence of certain functional groups of the protoplasmic molecules, this union can take place only in certain specific centers. this has been fully confirmed by experiments _in vitro_. it is known, since the researches of ehrlich,[37] wassermann and takaki,[38] marie,[39] metchnikoff,[40] and a host of other scientists, that this fixation is due to a clearly elective property. it is for this reason that the tetanus toxin fixes itself only upon the nervous tissue, and that in this action all passes as if the nervous tissue had been provided with functional groups possessing an elective affinity for the tetanic poison. [37] ehrlich: _berl. klin. woch._, no. 12, 1898. [38] wassermann and takaki: _berl. klin. woch._, _med._, p. 5, 1898. [39] marie: sur les propriétés antitoxiques aux centres nerveux de l'animal sain. _ann. inst. past._, 1898, p. 1. [40] metchnikoff: recherches sur l'influence de l'organism sur les toxines. _ann. inst. past._, 1899, p. 82. =means of defense possessed by the organism against the action of toxins.=--we have already seen that the renal organs serve for the elimination of the toxins normally produced in the organism by the simple play of its cellular mechanism. experience has shown that the toxins introduced from without into the circulation are generally finally eliminated, even though in the meantime the modifications they have imprinted on the economy may be transmitted hereditarily; and that their influence on the general nutrition and the normal functionation of the entire organism persists even after their elimination. much has been said regarding the elimination of these toxins by the urine, but the experiments made by métin, at the institut pasteur, have shown the inaccuracy of this assumption, and it has been necessary to seek another. it has been remarked that oxidation destroys the toxins _in vitro_, and it has been thought that a process resembling disinfection may well take place within the tissues of the animal economy, but no decision has been arrived at regarding the possible mechanism of this action, which some attribute to the action of the oxidizing ferments of the organism, or to the action of certain special cells. according to poehl, there is developed as destroyer a substance possessing energetic oxidizing properties, which he has isolated and named _spermine_, and which is found in most of the organic fluids and particularly in the leucocytes, the special rôle of which we will presently study. there develops still another cause of elimination, or, to be more exact, of the neutralization of the toxic principles in defense of the organism against the toxins, and that is the formation of _antitoxins_. it is well known that the term _virus_ has been reserved to designate physiological liquids which were characterized, when first they were known, by their property of transmitting to an organism certain functional affections, but the true character of which is to expend their toxicity upon the microbes which occur and are reproduced in the organism, or upon the organized plastidulary granulations, as in the case of the rabic virus, the special microbe of which has not as yet been isolated. pasteur, when studying rabies, found that the brain and spinal marrow of rabid animals contained the pure rabic virus in considerable quantity, and that every particle of the marrow was capable of imparting rabies to a perfectly healthy dog. after having ascertained this fact, he found that he could _attenuate the action of the virus_, either by passing the virus through certain animal organisms, such as the monkey or rabbit, by gently heating, or even by allowing it to oxidize and partially dry in the air, or else by submitting it to the action of antiseptics or alternating electric currents of very high tension. experiments have shown that a deadly virus, attenuated by one of the means mentioned, may be injected, without danger of death, into the living animal; and what is still better, the animal thus treated acquires the power of resisting large doses of the virus, less and less attenuated, and that it is possible to reach a point where the animal economy may become habituated to very large doses of a highly virulent virus without the organism experiencing any visible illness--that is, the organism has been _vaccinated_ with regard to the particular virus. experiments have shown that this property is not peculiar to microbial virus alone, but that it is common to the venoms the toxicity of which is essentially due to some toxins, with the exception of those agents noted. the attenuated viruses act, as vaccins, through their soluble constituents, which, either directly, by modifying the nutrition of certain cells, or indirectly, by inducing reactions of the nervous centers which preside over this nutrition, profoundly change the conditions of life and give rise to the pathological condition--the vaccined state. experiments by behring and kitasato[41] have shown that the tumors of a vaccinated animal, freed from all organized matter visible under the microscope by filtration through porcelain, contains principles capable of directly or indirectly protecting other animals from the disease caused by the corresponding virus. meanwhile, experiments have shown that the vaccinating matters are totally eliminated; nevertheless, after their elimination, the immunity acquired remains with the animal, which then continues to be protected against the corresponding virus. [41] _deutsche med. wochenschr._, 1890, p. 1113. interest in this subject has incited numerous researches with a regard to bringing to light the mechanism of this immunization; and this will form the subject of another volume of this collection. we may state here, however, that there have been recognized two concurrent causes of this preservative action; the one, called _phagocytosis_, results from the fact that the microbe introduced into the vaccined organism becomes incapable of producing its usual toxins, while on the other hand the immunization renders the organism capable of secreting substances possessing an activity contrary to that of the virus, in fact true counter-poisons, comprised under the general name _antitoxins_. =phagocytosis.=--we have seen that an organism subjected to a toxic invasion tends to protect itself by proper means of defense; and one of those is the direct putting into activity of the living cellular elements themselves, and in particular, the leucocytes, or white corpuscles, found in more or less number, according to pathological conditions, in the blood and lymphatic fluids.[42] [42] it is necessary here to consult the work by levaditi: le leucocyte et ses granulations. _scientia_, naud, publisher, paris, 1903; also metchnikoff: l'immunité, paris, 1902, masson, publisher. metchnikoff has shown that the moment a foreign element, particularly a microbe, enters the organism, these leucocytes come flocking from all parts of the body, collect around the bacterial element, penetrate it, and begin to digest it. these elements have received the name _phagocytes_. the name _chemotaxis_ has been given to the property by virtue of which they approach (positive chemotaxis) or move away from (negative chemotaxis) certain substances which affect them powerfully. experiments have shown that the leucocytes are attracted by the products secreted by pathogenic microbes, or saprophytes. attracted by the latter, the white corpuscles surround, envelop, and finally digest them; and when it happens that all the pathogenic microbes within an organism are absorbed, the organism survives, while in the contrary case it succumbs. attention must be called to this attack by the white corpuscles within the limits where they are normally confined. it is a pathologic diapedesis--a leucocytosis provoked by the irritation of the tissues--and caused either by the presence alone of foreign elements, or by the soluble products secreted by them. when, for any reason whatever, this phagocytic action is impeded, the resistance of the organism to pathogenic infection ceases to be effective, and the organism may therefore be invaded by the microbe. numerous causes may contribute to impede this action. =the antitoxins.= we have seen that the second means of defense possessed by the organism resides in the action of special products, true defensive secretions, possessing an activity contrary to that of the toxins, and which are secreted by the cells of the organism under the influence of the vaccins. this is a property common to every organism, and which is observed even in non-vaccinated subjects, although in this case the secretion forms with great difficulty and in small quantity. when an organism subjected to the toxic action of a bacterial infection does not succumb to the intoxication, it emerges from the test gifted with a new property, which may be augmented by habituation, and which borders on immunity. at first we were content to vaccinate small animals in the laboratory, but in proportion as the discoveries in this domain extended, and there developed a need for large quantities of antitoxins, recourse was had to the larger animals, particularly horses and cattle. from the moment that large quantities of blood and antitoxic serum were at command, search was made for a means of isolating the antitoxin and determining its properties. experiments so far made have shown that the antitoxins are substances of an albuminoid nature, of unknown composition, and which are very closely united to the albuminoid substances of the serum. it must be observed, however, that behring and knorr oppose the assertion regarding the albuminoid nature of tetanic antitoxin, but their reasons for this do not appear to be well founded. in general, these antitoxins are precipitable with the globulins, and possess quite considerable powers of resistance towards physical and chemical agents. thus they are destroyed only at a temperature above 60-65° c. kept in the dry state, in the residue of evaporated serum, and away from the light and all oxidizing action, it is possible to preserve their activity for a very long time. they are essentially humoral substances; they are found in the blood of vaccinated animals, from which may be obtained antitoxic serums with a specific but transient immunity; and they are also found in the plasmas of the lymph and exudates, in aqueous tumors, and in the milk. they are seldom found in the cells. =mode of action.=--frequent attention has been paid to the mode of action of the antitoxins upon the toxins, a phenomenon of great importance in relation to the phenomenon of immunity acquired against the toxins. at the beginning of our knowledge on this subject, the idea of a destruction of the toxin immediately suggested itself, and was advanced by von behring.[43] according to this scientist the antibody inhibits the morbigenic action of the toxin by neutralizing the toxin, combining with the latter to form a compound of a chemical nature which is devoid of toxicity and without action on the organism. according to this theory, the influence of the antitoxin on the toxin is direct, and does not require the intervention of the living cellular protoplasm. such was also the belief of prof. ehrlich.[44] [43] von behring and kitasato: _deutsch. med. wochenschr._, 1890, p. 1113. [44] ehrlich: _klin. jahrb._ 1897, vi, p. 292. buchner, a little later, believed that the antitoxin, instead of acting directly on the toxin, exercised a direct influence on the living elements of the organism, preserving them from intoxication.[45] [45] buchner: _münchener med. wochenschr._, 1893, p. 480. such was also the opinion of roux[46]; and calmette demonstrated that a mixture of venom and of a non-toxic antivenom recovered its toxicity on being heated to 68° c, whereby the antivenom was destroyed (calmette: _le venin des serpents_, paris, 1897, p. 58); and wassermann arrived at the same result.[47] [46] roux: _annales de l'institut pasteur_, 1894, viii, p. 724. [47] wassermann: _zeitschr. für hygiene_. the array of proofs offered by these scientists, which we cannot here enlarge upon without uselessly extending our subject, would tend to make one believe, at first glance, that the antitoxin does not act directly on the toxin, but at the present time buchner's theory appears untenable. numerous researches have proved conclusively that the toxin and the antitoxin have a specific affinity for each other, by virtue of which these principles combine to form a substance free from all toxicity, but unstable, and which may be decomposed by heat or certain other factors.[48] [48] j. danzsy: _annales de l'institut pasteur_, xvi, p. 331. some recent experiments by j. martin and cherry (_proceedings of the royal society_, 1898, lxiii, p. 423) have clearly brought out this fact. these authors made mixtures of serpent venom with its antivenom, which they filtered through a layer of gelatin, under the supposition that, if the venom and its antivenom were not chemically combined, the former alone would be able to pass through into the filtrate, because its molecules are so much smaller. martin and cherry allowed the venom and its antivenom to remain in contact for varying periods before filtering. as the result of a series of experiments carried out with this idea, they have demonstrated that the filtrate obtained after allowing a few minutes' contact between the two substances, was decidedly toxic, while that obtained after a contact of half an hour was absolutely non-toxic. from this the authors conclude that the antitoxin enters into chemical union with the venom, but that the combination does not take place immediately, and requires a certain length of time for its accomplishment. ehrlich and knorr have demonstrated that the neutralization is less rapid in dilute solutions than in concentrated ones. prof. svante arrhenius has completed our knowledge regarding the mode of combination between the toxins and the antitoxins, by demonstrating the occurrence of limited reactions analogous to the etherification of an alcohol by an acid, and in such a manner that there always exists, in a mixture of these two substances, a certain quantity of free toxin and antitoxin. this is an important modification of the general ideas held in this respect.[49] [49] svante arrhenius: la physico-chimie des toxines et des antitoxines. _conférences de la société chimique de paris_, may 20, 1904. see also madsen and arrhenius: testkrift red indivulsen of stotens serum institut. copenhagen, 1902. it appears necessary to bring here more clearly in evidence the fact that _the antitoxin inhibits the noxious action of the toxin, even outside the living organism, by uniting with it to form a compound in identically the same manner as when a strong base and a strong acid are brought together_. as we have seen, all the conditions of environment that favor or retard the formation of salts, in a like sense influence the neutralization of the toxin by its antitoxin. =formation of antitoxins.=--ehrlich's theory of side chains, to which reference has already been made, furnishes us with an explanation of the formation of the antitoxins in tumors. let us suppose that, in the organism, a cell had come into contact only with certain toxic molecules incapable of compromising its life, and that the only result was the immobilization of the receptors which are united with the haptophore groups of the opposing toxins. it is known that, by virtue of a property inherent in all living organisms, during the phenomena of reparation, there is generally an overproduction of the neoformed parts. in the case we here speak of, as the receptors fill an important function in the nutrition of the opposing cellular elements, once they become united with the toxic haptophores, they become incapable of filling their normal function of nutrition. under these conditions the cells develop so large a quantity of receptors that, filling the cells, and not finding any more room, they spread into the blood and other liquids of the organism. under these conditions, every new injection of toxin into the organism is absorbed into the blood where it meets with the free receptors which possess great avidity for the haptophore group of its molecule, and the two groups immediately unite, before the haptophore group of the toxin has been able to attack and intoxicate a cellular element. we thus see that the receptors which, when in a free state in tumors, play the rôle of antitoxics or antitoxins, become, within the cellular elements themselves, the vehicle of intoxications. figuratively speaking, so long as these fixators are attached to the molecule of the living protoplasm they attract the toxin. according to this ingenious conception, the formation of antitoxins is hence absolutely independent of the action of the toxophore elements on the cellular elements, and it suffices that these possess receptors or side chains capable of uniting with the haptophore groups of the toxin. this explains why it has been possible to produce antitoxins from toxins which have lost some of their toxic properties, but which have preserved their property of uniting with antitoxic substances. ehrlich gives the name _toxoids_ to those modified toxins that have lost their toxophore groups, while the haptophore group, the producer of the immunizing substance, is still preserved intact. according to metchnikoff's theory, which is very similar, it seems quite possible that the phagocytes, thanks to the facility with which they absorb poisons, occupy an important place as producers of antitoxins. it has not been possible so far to verify this theory in our at present imperfect knowledge regarding this subject. the domain of immunity has, however, made brilliant conquests during these last few years, so that we should not despair of arriving at a definite solution before long. in the vaccinated animal the antitoxin is reproduced, and it is possible to obtain several times, from the vaccinated animals, successive portions of antitoxic serum.[50] the protective power of these antitoxins is absolutely marvelous. an animal accustomed gradually to the tetanic virus yields a serum containing an antitoxin a thousand times more active than the virus. [50] ch. salmonsen et th. madsen: réproduction de la substance antitoxique. _ann. inst. pasteur_, xii, p. 762. roux et vaillard: _ibid._, 1893, p. 83. according to vaillard, a quintillionth of a cubic centimeter of this antitetanic serum suffices to preserve one gramme of living mouse from the effects of a dose of tetanic serum that would otherwise be surely fatal. in the animal, the antitoxins are eliminated mostly by the fluids of the body, and particularly by the urine. ehrlich has demonstrated that they also pass into the milk, and this fact is confirmed by a large number of observers. it explains the immunity acquired by nurslings, and which is transmitted by the milk. =serotherapy.=--the search for antitoxins and their rôle in the etiology of infectious diseases are fundamental points in actual therapy. it has been demonstrated that the serums of certain vaccinated animals enjoy very extended antitoxic therapeutic properties; for instance, the serum of vaccinated rabbits is an antivenom towards erysipelas; and the sterilized cultures of the pneumococcus or of the bacillus pyocyaneus prevents infection of carbuncle (anthrax). the antivenomous serum of the ass immunized by injections of increasing doses of the venom of the terrible naja is a perfect prophylactic and curative, not only as regards the venom of this serpent, but also against that of the crotalus, trigonocephalus, and viper. we shall take up the study of serotherapeutics in another volume of this collection. part ii. _the toxins proper._ chapter iii. i. vegetable and animal toxins. the vegetable toxins possess the characteristic property of being innocuous, and of being almost completely devoid of poisonousness, when they are absorbed by the intestines; we can see, from this, how greatly they differ from the poisons proper.[51] [51] it is understood that the active principles of mushrooms are not comprised under this definition, but they will be studied under the next heading. the vegetable toxins known are quite numerous; nevertheless our knowledge regarding them is very incomplete. our review of them will be chiefly descriptive. many of the leguminous plants are poisonous, either because of emanations exhaled by them, or by reason of their alkaloids, or because of some toxins contained in them. we shall commence with these. =abrin.=--this toxin, which was studied in particular by warden and waddell,[52] then by kobert[53] and de hellin,[54] is found in the fruit of the leguminosæ, abrus precatorius (wild licorice, or jequirity). its name was given it by warden and waddell, who discovered both its toxic nature and the vegetable toxin; the toxin is found only in the seeds. to extract it, the seeds are macerated in water, and the solution filtered and precipitated with alcohol; the precipitate which forms is collected and dissolved in distilled water, from which it is again precipitated by adding powdered ammonium sulphate. the precipitate is then collected and submitted to dialysis in order to eliminate the ammonium sulphate. the abrin so obtained forms an albuminoid substance[55] stable at 100° c., and possessing rotatory power; it liquefies starch paste, and is extremely toxic. one milligramme suffices to kill a rabbit within several hours. it must be observed, however, that, as is the case with all the toxins, abrin acts or kills only after a period of incubation which generally exceeds twenty-four hours. [52] warden and waddell: _non-bacillar nature of abrus poison_. calcutta, 1884. [53] kobert: _arbeit. aus dem pharmak. institut._ dorpat, 1893. [54] hellin: _inaug. dissert._ dorpat, 1891. [55] ehrlich: experiment. untersuchungen über immunität. _deutsch. med. woch._, 1891. it is possible to vaccinate an organism so as to withstand a lethal dose of abrin, but it requires quite a long time; it is effected by injecting into a suitable animal very small doses of the substance, and increasing the quantity gradually. rabbits which have been rendered highly immune towards venoms are capable of resisting without inconvenience doses of abrin which are ordinarily fatal; and the blood serum afforded by them contains a specific antibody for the substance. =ricin.=--this vegetable toxalbumin has been studied particularly by stillmark,[56] by dixon,[57] and thuson.[58] it is found in the seeds of the castor plant; three or four of the seeds suffice to cause a gastroenteritis accompanied by serious symptoms and even by death. [56] stillmark: _arbeit. aus dem pharmacol. inst. dorpat_, 1889. [57] dixon: _austr. med. gazette_, 1887. [58] thuson: _journ. f. prakt. chem._, xciv, p. 444. it was first isolated by p. ehrlich, by treating the seeds with lukewarm water, and precipitating the aqueous solution with alcohol. the toxalbumin is soluble in water, but on boiling the solution, the substance loses in great measure its activity. ricin possesses considerable activity. 0.00003 gm. suffice to kill a rabbit when injected hypodermically; 0.2 gm. are fatal to man. the action is not immediate, but follows a period of incubation. ehrlich has shown that, exercising precaution, it is possible to create, as with abrin, a condition of tolerance or habituation, and in consequence to cause the formation of a specific antibody. =robin.=--this toxic albuminoid was obtained from the bark of an acacia (robinia pseudacacia) by power and cambier,[59] by exhausting with water at a temperature of about 30° c., and precipitating the infusion with alcohol. the substance is analogous to ricin, and like this, possesses powerful toxic properties. [59] power and cambier: _pharm. journ. and transact._, 1890. =toxicity of the vegetable diastases.=--the diastases, which have been treated of in a volume of the encyclopédie léauté,[60] and to which we would refer the reader who is desirous of more complete details, develop powerfully energetic toxic properties when injected into the organism. thus _amylase_ causes, when injected subcutaneously, a considerable rise of temperature, but without any other toxic symptoms. _invertin_ or _sucrase_ was studied by roussy under the name _pyretogenin_, but it appears probable that this diastase was not the only substance present in the product, but that there were present reducing diastases, as we have already shown in the first volume of this collection, devoted to the phenomena of reduction within the living organism. [60] pozzi-escot: _les diastases et leurs applications_, masson, 1900. the pyretogenin of roussy gives rise to an attack of violent fever, but it loses all activity when heated to 80-100° c. through his researches, roussy clearly demonstrated,[61] for the first time, that the fever may cause the formation within the blood of a substance clearly belonging to the class of soluble ferments or zymases. now, it is well known that within the animal economy there exist many ferments of this character; and experiment has shown that they can, at a given period and under various influences, leave the cells in which they are normally localized, pass into the blood plasma, and reach the nervous centers, where they cause serious effects. we have already dwelt upon the mechanism of autointoxication of the organism. the toxic action of certain digestive diastases has been shown by hildebrandt, who has demonstrated that 0.1 gm. of pepsin is capable of killing a rabbit in two or three days. [61] roussy: _aperçu historique sur les ferments et fermentations_. paris, 1901. j. rousset, publ. ii. toxins from mushrooms. mushrooms are alimentary substances of the highest order, causing a general stimulation of the entire organism. the substances met with belong, according to their composition, to different classes--celluloses, sugars, and amylaceous substances, alcohols, acids, fats, astringents, essential oils, resins, alkaloids, and albuminoids. the study of the last only, the albuminoids and diastases, interests us here. the most important of these albuminoid substances, _phallin_, was discovered in 1890 by kobert. pouchet also has isolated a whole series of other toxic albuminoids, particularly from amanita muscaria (fly agaric). there are alimentary as well as toxic species in every possible variety among mushrooms, some species consisting chiefly of the edible kind, others consisting of the poisonous variety. in consequence of the toxicity of mushrooms, great attention must be given to the treatment to which they are subjected when it is desired to utilize them for alimentary purposes. thus the toxic principles of several varieties can be removed, and the mushrooms rendered edible by very simple means. pouchet has made a very ingenious comparison between the ethereal, alcoholic, saline, and aqueous extracts of mushrooms, and bacterial cultures. the analogy is striking as to the presence of toxin, toxalbumose, and albumoses more or less toxic; it is moreover not exaggerated, since, according to the classification generally admitted, mushrooms are nothing more than the very advanced representatives of a group the more simple members of which constitute the bacteria. the same author has shown that phallin obtained from the juice of the fly agaric will kill a guinea-pig weighing 600 grammes in one hour. as we have already stated, it is the phalline to which the ordinary disorders which mushrooms cause are due. according to kobert, a 1:250 000 solution of this substance causes an intense hemolysis, with all its disastrous consequences. according to pouchet, the flesh of mushrooms must be compared with meat that has been kept for some time to become tender, and it is well known that though this "tendering" process renders the meat more digestible, it may also allow the meat to acquire noxious properties, due to the presence of toxins. phallin is the type of those toxic albuminoids of unknown composition which exist in mushrooms, and which are comprised under the name _sapotoxins_. the intravenous injection of phallin into an animal, in the proportion of 1 part to 1 000 000 parts of body weight, causes sudden death within one minute; in the proportion of 1:5 000 000, death occurs in about three minutes; in the proportion of 1:50 000 000, death also occurs, but is greatly retarded. an injection of 0.0005 gm. per kilo of body weight of animal causes solution of the blood corpuscles to such an extent that thirty minutes later the blood serum is strongly colored red, as well as the veins. instead of being easily altered under the influence of an elevated temperature, as are many of the albuminoid substances, whereby their toxic power is lost, phallin may be boiled for half an hour with water without undergoing any noticeable alteration. pellegrini has observed that the dried juice of amanita phalloides (death-cup) preserves its properties for more than a year. according to a recent paper by gillot, the symptoms of poisoning by mushrooms must be ascribed to albuminoids (phallin and albumose), alkaloids (muscarine, choline, or betaine), or to resinoids (cambogic and agaricic acids). the _alkaloids_ found in mushrooms are: _muscaridine_ (an oxyneurine), which possesses considerable toxicity, and of which 0.00005 gm. suffices to kill a frog; _neurine_ (trimethylethylammonium hydroxide); _choline_ (trimethyloxyethylammonium hydroxide); _mycetomuscarine_; _anhydromuscarine_ (an oxyneurine); and a whole series of various betaines. =symptomology.=--it is quite natural to divide this symptomology into three different periods; that of incubation, that of manifestation of symptoms, and that of termination. the duration of the first period, that of incubation, is exceedingly variable; it very rarely lasts more than forty-eight hours, and becomes general only a few hours after absorption. certain conditions influence the duration; firstly the quantity of mushrooms ingested, then the manner in which they were prepared; and, to some extent, the nature of the organism, whether child or adult, healthy or in poor health. when it is a question of the more particularly alkaloid-containing mushrooms, especially when the poisoning is due to muscarine, the toxic symptoms generally develop rapidly, the first symptoms appearing about one hour after the ingestion of the mushrooms. on the other hand, if the poisoning is due to one of the albuminoid group, and particularly in the case of phallin, the period of incubation is longer, and may last ten, twenty, thirty, or even forty-eight hours and more. the symptoms begin with dizziness and an indefinable sensation of being ill. the second period is characterized chiefly by digestive and by nervous derangements. the digestive derangements are evidenced by very violent and painful vomiting, and diarrheas of choleraic or dysenteric character. the nervous derangements vary according to whether they are developed by an alkaloid, which causes delirium with hallucination, or by albuminoids, which cause depression, ataxo-adynamia, and stupor, these being particularly characteristic of the action of the toxic albuminoids. as for the period of termination, it results either in death or a cure. if the poisoning is due to phallin, death appears to be an almost inevitable consequence, as it occurs in 80 per cent. or more of the cases. the poisoning by the alkaloids is less dangerous, and the cure, when it does occur, is very rapid, almost immediate, in fact, while in the case of the toxic albuminoids the cure is very slow, and attended by relapses. one characteristic of these toxalbumins is that they are apt to develop specific antitoxalbumins. this fact has been verified not only in the case of abrin, ricin, robin, and their analogues, but also in that of the vegetable and animal diastases possessing toxic properties even in the slightest degree only. these antibodies generally exhibit their action _in vitro_. thus antiricin exerts its antiagglutinative action on the erythrocytes _in vitro_ in a saline medium in which the erythrocytes cannot live. here, again, as in the case of the antitoxins, it must be admitted that the antitoxalbumin possesses a specific affinity by virtue of which it unites chemically with the toxalbumin to give rise to a new substance which is devoid of toxicity. the first antidiastase obtained by immunization methods, and according to the mechanism we have already seen, was _antiemulsin_, obtained by hildebrandt.[62] this antiemulsin counteracts, both _in vivo_ and _in vitro_, the specific action of emulsin. these studies have been followed by a large number of scientists, particularly by camus and gley,[63] carnot, mesnil,[64] and charron and levaditi,[65] in the case of trypsin; and sachs[66] in the case of animal pepsin. gessard[67] obtained a very active _antityrosinase_, and mohl an _antiurease_. [62] hildebrandt: weiteres über hydrolyt. fermente, etc. _virch. arch._, cxxxi, 1895, p. 5. [63] camus and gley: _compt. rend. de la soc. de biolog._, 1897. [64] mesnil: sur la digestion des actinies. _annales de l'institut pasteur_, 1901. [65] charrin and levaditi: _compt. rend. de l'académie dest sciences_, 1900. [66] sachs: ueber antiseptika. _zeitschr. f. biolog._, 1901, xxvi. [67] gessard: _annales de l'institut pasteur_, 1901, p. 609; _comp. rend. de la société de biologie_, may, 1902. the most important researches regarding this subject have been published by morgenroth, briot,[68] and korschum[69] on _antilab_ (or _antirennet_). the researches of these authors have fully demonstrated that there is considerable difference between the various rennets, which had heretofore been confounded under one head; thus there is no difference whatever between animal rennet and the rennet extracted by rosetti[70] from cynara cardunculus (cardoon) so far as their coagulant action on milk is concerned, yet each yields an antibody which is strictly specific to itself. from a scientific point of view we see, therefore, that the preparation of antidiastases permits us to differentiate certain diastases that could otherwise not be differentiated. [68] briot: thèse de doctorat ès-sciences, paris, 1900. [69] korschum: _zeitschr. f. physiolog. chemie_, 1902, xxxi. [70] rosetti: _l'orosi, giorn. di chemica, farmacia et scienza affini_, 1898. iii. animal toxins. as we have shown at the beginning of this chapter, certain diastases, and particularly those that are concerned with the digestive processes, pepsin, trypsin, etc., and which are produced in abundance by the entire living organism, possess quite clearly defined toxic properties, and sometimes to even a considerable extent.[71] [71] gustave saux: de la toxicité des produits de la digestion peptique. _thèse de doctorat_, bordeaux, 1902. hemialbumose, from which peptones are formed, is itself a dangerous toxin. it is generally believed that the toxic action of the peptones and of the products of digestion of the albuminoids is due not to the peptone itself, but to the more advanced products of digestion, alkaloidal products unquestionably closely allied to the ptomaines. nevertheless, the true peptones behave just like true poisons, when they are introduced hypodermically into the blood.[72] [72] schmidt: _mühlheim, arch. de physiol._, 1880. brieger has made us acquainted with a non-proteid substance, under the name of "peptotoxin," which is met with at the beginning of the putrefaction of albuminoids. this toxin, which is not a protein, is nothing else but a ptomaine. it is not altered by heat, and possesses a very high toxicity. brieger claims that it is a hydroxylized derivative of an aromatic amide.[73] [73] brieger: _berichte d. d. chem. gesellsch._, xix, p. 3120; and _verhandl. d. congress f. innere med._, ii, p. 277. besides these facts, experiment has shown that the leucocytes, or white corpuscles, the defensive rôle of which we have noted in phagocytosis, owe their properties to the ferments which they secrete, and particularly to some of the digestive ferments. these white corpuscles are very rich in ferments of all kinds. rossbach found in them amylase; achalme found lipase, casease, and trypsin; and the study of immunity has brought to light a series of other ferments, the alexins or cytases (microcytase and macrocytase), which have an exceedingly important rôle to play. it may easily be conceived that under certain circumstances a part or the whole of these ferments can pass into the blood of the fluids of the body, when they give rise to serious disturbances in certain cases, or confer immunity in others. it is thus that, according to gautier, the rise of temperature which characterizes fever is a consequence of the abnormal transudation of these normal ferments into the blood, and their transmission by the general circulation to the nervous centers. however, it is not only in the leucocytes that we meet with these toxic digestive ferments; it appears quite probable, and has even been partially demonstrated, that they occur in a large number of other cellular elements. it is not necessary here to dwell upon the formation of the antibodies of this group of active substances. the animal toxins are animal diastases, and we have seen in the preceding paragraph that these substances yield specific antibodies with great facility. for the rest, we will dwell more fully on these antibodies of the animal toxins in another volume of this collection, specially devoted to the study of these substances, and entitled "_les serums immunisants_," to which we refer the reader who is desirous of obtaining more complete details than he can obtain in the present volume. =alimentary intoxications.=--what we have already stated permits us to understand the phenomena of indigestion and botulism. the toxic substances form within the digestive tract when the nervous conditions modify the composition of the gastric juice, and arrest the flow of hydrochloric acid, the presence of which normally checks the development of the microbial flora, so rich within the stomach. the result is the production, within the organism, of all kinds of dangerous toxins. the same thing happens when the liver does not functionate normally, and this, affords us a knowledge of the mechanism by which foods that are most wholesome may become toxic by reason of poor digestion or poor assimilation. the absorption of spoiled viands may, _a fortiori_, produce serious results. the alteration may be due not only to a bacterial infection, as in tainted meat, but it has also been proved that the flesh of an animal that has died of terror or madness may be very dangerous as a food, even after cooking, because, although there are toxins which are destroyed by a sufficient heat, there are ptomaines and certain toxins that resist destruction under these conditions.[74] [74] pollin and labit: _examens des aliments suspects_, masson, publisher. the use of preserved but spoiled beef, preserved ham or birds, sausages frequently, and pieces of pork tainted by sausage poison, gives rise to a succession of toxic symptoms the principal ones of which are dryness, constriction of the pharynx, bilious vomiting, diarrhea, dyspnea with pulmonary edema, etc. fish and eggs are foods quite frequently capable of developing serious results; the same is the case with molluscs, mussels, oysters, lobsters, and snails. lastly, moldy bread, spoiled cheese, putrid water, and spoiled vegetables themselves, are proper agents for determining attacks of botulic poisoning. we have seen, at the beginning of this volume, that putrid meats contain ptomaines, which are among the most toxic alkaloidal bases. we have shown that brieger has isolated from them neuridine, putrescine, muscarine, and guanidine; that nencki has isolated hydrocollidine; and that gautier and etard have obtained from them parvoline--only to mention a few of them. lastly, there may develop within the gastrointestinal tract dangerous putrefactions, the products of which may enter the veins and arteries from the ileum (a portion of the small intestine) and be distributed throughout the organism. although such poisonings occur, they do not immediately follow the ingestion of the spoiled or toxic foods, but they are always preceded by a period of incubation varying from several hours to several days. these alimentary poisonings are recognized by a great physical depression, accompanied by vomiting and paralysis of the lower extremities, sweats, and diarrheas. in some cases there occur cutaneous eruptions; and when death happens, this occurs only several days later, and generally without being preceded by any great pain. =urinary toxins.=--as we have already remarked several times, it is by the renal way that the organism voids its principal waste products. we have seen also that it is by the kidneys that the toxins are eliminated in all pathological conditions. as a general rule, the urines are always more or less toxic. this toxicity of the urines must be attributed in the first place to the crystallizable organic principles (ptomaines and leucomaines[75]) which they contain; secondly, to the non-crystallizable[76] extractive matters not so well known; and lastly, to the saline substances, among which the potassium salts are the most active. we find these mineral salts particularly abundant under normal conditions in the urines of the herbivora. according to bouchard, 0.18 gm. of potassium chloride are sufficient to prove fatal to 1000 gm. of living organism; a man excretes on the average 2.5 gm. of this salt, and a rabbit excretes about double this quantity, weight for weight. [75] adduco: _arch. ital. de biolog._, 1891. [76] pouchet: _thèse de doctorat en médecine_, paris, 1878. a very large number of hypotheses have been advanced regarding the toxicity of the urines. wilson considers the urea as being responsible for it; stadthagen[77] believes it to be due to the potassium salts, etc. bouchard[78] was the first to recognize that the toxicity of the urines is due to a number of causes. we will not dwell further on these active principles which, in the last analysis, are no other than those that form in the various portions of the organism, and which are eliminated by the urine. [77] stadthagen: _zeitschr. f. klin. med._, xv. [78] bouchard: _leçons sur les autointoxications_. it is self-evident, and it has already been shown, that the toxicity of the urines varies greatly according to the malady, in consequence of the elimination of toxins by the urines. according to bouchard, in infectious maladies the urines are twelve times more highly charged with toxins than is blood serum. moreover, the toxicity of the urines is considerably augmented the moment there is the least febrile condition, no matter what the cause is.[79] [79] regarding this point see the excellent work by a. charrin: _poisons de l'organism_. masson, publ. even in the normal condition, the urinary toxicity varies greatly; and this is easily conceived since the physiological phenomena that control this secretion undergo incessant rise and fall. thus, for example, the urines eliminated during sleep are less active than those produced during waking, because during sleep the elimination of cellular poisons is at a minimum. exercise, walking, physical and intellectual labor, exert their portion of influence on these oscillations of toxicity; and this variation of toxicity is due not to any one variation in the mineral extractive matters, but rather more or less to the organic toxic products. we will not dwell further on this subject, but will simply refer to the work by charrin, already mentioned, for all supplementary details. =autointoxications.=[80]--the cells of the organism having, as a whole, a life very much like that of the microbes, it is quite natural that among the excreted products of the living tissues there should be found the same substances formed as a result of the anaerobic fermentation of albuminoids. experiment has demonstrated that this is so, and armand gautier has irrefutably proven the existence of these principles.[81] bouchard was the first to demonstrate the toxic nature of muscle extract,[82] and roger[83] established the fact that the toxicity of this extract is due to ferment-toxins; it has since been recognized that after death these toxins accumulate in the muscles. [80] ch. bouchard: _des autointoxications_. paris, 1887. [81] _bull. acad, de médecine_ (2), x, p. 947, and xx, p. 115. [82] bouchard: _leçons sur les autointoxications_, paris, 1887. [83] roger: toxicité des extraits des tissus normaux. _soc. de biolog._, 1891, p. 728. the extract of kidney made rapidly by cold process by triturating the washed kidney with glycerin, and precipitating the glycerinic solution with alcohol, contains toxic ferments to which the name "_hystozymes_" has been given.[84] these ferments split up hippuric acid into benzoic acid and glycocoll. lépine has likewise discovered in the kidney a very toxic pyrogenic substance.[85] roger has given us evidence of the toxic properties of the liver, washed and pulped, and then sterilized by filtration through a porous diaphragm. this scientist has shown that the toxic properties are due to albuminoids, which lose their activity when heated to 100°c.[86] [84] it is well to recall here that the kidneys contain both reducing and oxidizing ferments, as has been demonstrated by de rey-pailhade, and later by abelous and gérard. [85] lépine: _compt. rend. de l'acad. des sciences_, may 13, 1889; _soc. de biol._, 1891, p. 724. [86] roger: _compt. rend. soc. biol._, 1891, p. 727. it must be remarked that the organs we have studied are essentially reducers, and that the more powerful reducers yield the most toxic extracts. we find here a confirmation of armand gautier's views regarding the anaerobic origin of the toxic substances formed within the organism.[87] [87] pozzi-escot: _compt. rend. de l'acad. de médecine_ (3), xlvii, p. 400. see also pozzi-escot: _etat actuel de nos connaissances sur les oxydases et les réductases_. dunod, publ., paris. 1902. blood serum precipitated by alcohol affords products which possess very marked toxic power. it would appear that the toxic products we speak of here are thermogenic diastatic substances derived from the white blood corpuscles. in certain diseases the blood serum may acquire a high degree of toxicity. we will recur again presently to this property as a normal characteristic of the blood of various animal species, and will study it in greater detail in a future volume of this collection, devoted to the immunizing active principles. =glandular secretions.=--on studying the venoms we will see that a certain number of these products are the result of glandular secretion. this is a general property of the glands; and it was brown-sequard who first drew attention to the rôle played by these glands, and to the importance of the products that they throw into the blood.[88] [88] _compt. rend. de l'acad. des sciences_, cxiv, pp. 1237, 1318, 1399, and 1534; cxv, p. 375; and cxvi, p. 856. p. noel showed later that the testicular juice possesses a high degree of activity, which he attributed to an oxidizing ferment, and which we have already mentioned, _spermine_. the greater number of the other glands contain proteid matters and various peptones, more or less toxic, with amides and alkaloids. particular mention must be made of the thyroid gland, the secretions of which exercise a powerful action on the nervous centers and on nutrition.[89] it appears reasonable to attribute to the secretions of this gland a very powerful antitoxic action, and the first proof of this fact is that the organisms deprived of this gland become the seat of serious derangements; the urines of such organisms become particularly toxic, while, on the other hand, the hypodermic injections of the aqueous extract of the gland, when the derangements spoken of exist, cause the immediate disappearance of the derangements caused by the excision of the gland.[90] [89] laulanié: _compt. rend. soc. de biol._, 1894, p. 187. [90] gley: _compt. rend. soc. de biol._, 1891, p. 250. attempts have been made to isolate the active principle of the glands. notkine isolated a _tyroproteid_,[91] which is not sensibly toxic to animals who still retain the gland, but which becomes toxic when the gland is excised. it seems probable, however, that this product is not the principal agent of the thyroid gland. [91] _semaine médicale_, apr. 3, 1895, p. 138. from the researches of schaeffer, roos, and sigmund fraenkel[92] it results that the active principle of the gland is not a toxin, but a purely chemical substance, a true leucomaine, which has received the name _thyroantitoxin_. [92] _wiener med. blätter_, no. 48; and _gesellsch. d. aerzte in wien_, nov. 22, 1895. on the other hand, baumann quite recently extracted from the thyroid gland an iodized substance, which he named _thyroiodine_.[93] [93] _zeitschr. f. physiol. chem._, xxi, pp. 319 and 481; and xxii, p. 1. armand gautier: chimie biologique, 2d edit., pp. 330-332. masson, publ. the suprarenal capsules also possess properties that have often attracted the attention of physiologists during the last few years. they are considered as being, just like the thyroid gland, producers of antitoxins; they destroy, or seem to destroy, toxins that are artificially introduced into the circulation. albanèse[94] maintains that the function of the suprarenal capsules is to neutralize neurine, the toxic product of the disassimilation of the nervous system; this view, however, is opposed by boinet[95] and langlois.[96] on the contrary, it has been definitely proven that the suprarenal glands exert a specific action on the poisons of muscular origin. abelous and langlois[97] have in fact demonstrated that the alcoholic extract of the muscle of a decapsulated animal has the same properties as the extract of tetanized muscle; the decapsulated animal gives ergographic tracings analogous to those afforded by tetanized animals. the removal of the suprarenal capsule from an animal brings results, hence, analogous to those of fatigue--that is to say, that the toxic substances which accumulate as a result of the decapsulation resemble those that result from muscular exertion. the suprarenal capsules exert their action furthermore on other toxic products as well, as guieysse[98] has shown, and particularly on the exogenous poisons. in conclusion, it may be said that the matter concerns a most important rôle, and we cannot do better in this respect than to refer the reader to the memoir presented by sergent and bernard to the académie de médecine in 1902 and entitled _l'insuffisance surrénale_.[99] [94] albanèse: recherches sur les fonctions des capsules surrénales. _arch. italiennes biol._, 1892. [95] boinet: _compt. rend. soc. de biol._, mch. 1896. [96] see _compt. rend. de biol. et arch. physiologie_, 1891-1897. [97] langlois: thèse de doctorat en méd., paris, 1897. [98] guieysse: _les capsules surrénales du cobaye_, thèse, paris, 1901. [99] encyclopédie léauté, cccxiv, masson, publ., paris, 1904. chapter iv. the microbial toxins. there is but one way of characterizing the toxic poisons secreted by microbes, and that is to apply to them the name of the microbes generating them; thus the soluble and toxic poison of the tetanus bacilli has received the name _tetanus toxin_. in toxic microbial cultures it is necessary to distinguish the toxins proper from the toxic alkaloids (ptomaines) which generally accompany them; this is easily accomplished by evaporating the solution in a vacuum at about 30°c., and then treating with alcohol and ether, in which the alkaloids are soluble, while the true toxins are insoluble. by fractional precipitation with alcohol it is easy to isolate the peptones and true toxins. the microbial toxins possess two essential properties; one the pyogenic property, thanks to which the toxins first attract, then destroy the white blood corpuscles or leucocytes, and transform them into pus, and the other the pyretogenic property, which appears to belong only quite indirectly to the pyogenic substance. the toxins in general retard the heart action. we will not speak of the distinctions it has been sought to establish between the substances which possess these different properties, but will at once take up the discussion of several of the microbial toxins. =anthrax toxin=[100] (from bacillus anthracis).--we will describe the preparation of this toxin as a type. [100] arloing, cornevin, thomas: _le charbon symptomatique_, 1st edit., paris; and le dantec: _la bactéridie du charbon_, masson, publ.; straus: _le charbon des animaux et de l'homme_, paris, 1887. the cultures of the bacillus are made in liebig's bouillon, to which has been added 0.1% of fibrin, the whole being carefully sterilized for a long time at 110° c. the cultures medium is inoculated with a drop of blood taken from the heart or spleen of an animal that has died of anthrax. at the end of a week, the culture is filtered, and the filtrate acidulated with a little acetic acid and precipitated by adding powdered ammonium sulphate. the flocculent precipitate is collected, washed, dissolved in distilled water, and dialyzed. the dialyzed solution is concentrated in vacuo at 40-45° c., and precipitated by adding to it alcohol. the precipitate formed is then collected and dried.[101] [101] hankin: _british medical journal_, oct. 12, 1889, and july 12, 1890. in this manner there is obtained a grayish-white substance which is soluble in water, and which is fatal in large doses, but which, given in repeated small doses, confers immunity against anthrax. according to hankin, it seems that the toxic property of this toxin is due to an albumose. marchoux[102] has been able to confer immunity upon sheep by injecting first small quantities of the filtered culture of the anthrax bacilli, and then the virulent anthrax itself. [102] _annal. instit. pasteur_, ix, p. 785. the animals thus rendered immune yield a serum which may be used as a vaccin against anthrax, and which even possesses curative properties under certain conditions. in every case the acquired immunity is only temporary. we will recall to recollection the method employed by pasteur for vaccinating against anthrax, using attenuated cultures, a method which is practiced daily at the present time.[103] [103] chamberland: _le charbon et la vaccination charbonneuse_, paris, 1887. petermann: _annal. instit. pasteur_, vi, p. 32. from the cultures of symptomatic anthrax (bacillus chauvæ) chauvée extracted a very active toxin which can withstand without impairment a temperature of 110°c.[104] roux[105] has shown that the serum of animals that have succumbed to the symptomatic anthrax is capable of vaccinating against this disease; we have here a new proof that the antitoxin is in fact a product of the defense of the cells of the organism, and the author mentioned has been able to vaccinate guinea-pigs by injecting into the peritoneum culture bouillon sterilized by heating to 115° c. or by filtering through porcelain. [104] deutschmann: _annal. instit. pasteur_, viii, p. 403. [105] _annal. inst. pasteur_, feb. 1888. =tubercular toxin.=--the culture bouillons of koch's bacillus contain one or more active substances which constitute, and which is at the present designated as, tuberculin.[106] koch's therapeutic tuberculin is obtained by evaporating to one-tenth its volume a culture bouillon of koch's tubercle bacilli prepared from a 4-per cent. glycerinic mutton bouillon, and filtering through porcelain. by fractional precipitation it is possible to obtain from the crude tuberculin so prepared a product which is considered as pure tuberculin, and which possesses considerable activity. [106] auclair: _thèse de doctorat_, paris, 1897; and _arch. de médecine_, exp. 1898. prolonged boiling on the water-bath completely destroys the activity of this tuberculin, which moreover hardly ever keeps longer than three weeks. it has been found possible to preserve it for an indefinite period, however, by adding to it 30 to 40 per cent. of glycerin. it possesses all the general reactions of albuminoids. tuberculin is not toxic in the proper sense of the word. injected in small quantities into the healthy human being[107] and into healthy animals, it exerts no effect; on the other hand, however, in tubercular organisms, even in incipient stages of the disease, even where it is almost impossible to make a clinical diagnosis, the injection of very small quantities develops a lively and characteristic reaction.[108] [107] koch: _deutsch. med. woch._, nov. 13, 1890-1897, no. 14, p. 209. [108] _annal. de l'instit. pasteur_, v, p. 191; _arch. de la soc. biol. de saint-pétersbourg_, i, p. 213. grasset and vedel consider the tuberculin as an excellent means of diagnosing tuberculosis in man, but in such a case it is necessary to operate with the greatest caution, with very small quantities of the tuberculin, and to feel, in some sort, the sensitiveness of the patient, particularly in the case of children. it is chiefly for the diagnosis of tuberculosis in cattle, however, that tuberculin is valuable. thanks to nocard, the procedure has to-day become a common practice. the injection of a fairly large dose, 0.3 to 0.4 gm., according to the size of the animal, causes, in about ten hours or so, if the animal is tuberculous, a strong febrile reaction with an elevation of temperature of 1.5 to 3° c., whereas if the animal is not tuberculous no such reaction takes place. cases in which tuberculosis is far advanced, and in which the organism is impregnated with tuberculin, do not react after the injection of tuberculin.[109] [109] nocard and leclainche: _les maladies microbiennes des animaux_. tuberculin does not confer immunity, and the bacillus retains all its virulence, even in injected tissues; nevertheless, the return to health of animals in which injections have been recently made may be due to the action of large doses of the serum; and on the other hand the tuberculin, in large quantities, may render the location unsuitable for the development of the tubercle bacilli. =diphtheria toxin.=--the most characteristic property of the diphtheria bacillus is the production, in culture media, of a special toxic substance which has been named _diphtheritic toxin_; this name, however, has come to be also extended to a liquid in which the bacilli have lived, and which has been sterilized by filtration or by any other suitable process. roux and yersin[110] were the first to affirm that diphtheria is an autointoxication caused by a very active poison formed by the microbe in the restricted locality where it develops. in order to obtain this toxin[111] a culture of the bacillus is first made in a mutton bouillon made strongly alkaline with sodium carbonate (10 grams per liter), and with the addition of 2 per cent. of peptone. at the end of about one month, the culture being kept at about 37° c., the liquid is filtered through porcelain. it is indispensable to employ a very virulent bacillus; it is hence frequently advantageous to increase the virulence and toxigenic power of the bacilli it is desired to use. [110] _annal. de l'instit. pasteur_, ii, p. 632, and viii, p. 611. [111] see spronk: _annal. de l'instit. pasteur_, ix, p. 785; _ibid._, x, p. 333; martin, _ibid._, xii, p. 26; spronk, _ibid._, xii, p. 711. the toxic liquid obtained is exceedingly powerful: 0.1 cc. kills a rabbit in forty-eight hours. this toxin is very sensitive to the effects of heat. when heated to 65° c. it loses almost all its toxicity; at 70º c. it becomes innocuous; and it only requires to be heated to 100° c. for fifteen minutes in order to lose all immediate activity even in large doses. nevertheless toxins thus weakened are capable of proving fatal to an animal even after five or six months. light, oxygen, ozone and all oxidizers destroy the active principle of the diphtheria toxin, which is, moreover, rendered almost inactive by organic acids. this toxin is capable of diffusing through animal membranes, a fact that is in agreement with the toxic effect seen in a subject attacked with diphtheria, and due to the toxin passing through the mucosa. in spite of this property, however, the diphtheritic poison may be taken into the stomach without any pernicious results. roux and yersin have shown that, like all the diastases, it may be precipitated from its solutions by the development, within these, of certain precipitates, particularly calcium phosphate. it is precipitated from its solutions by alcohol, as has been observed also in the case of diastatic solutions. all the toxic substance is contained in the albuminous precipitate thus obtained; but the prolonged action of alcohol, or repeated successive precipitations, alter it finally. diphtheria toxin is likewise precipitated by the reagents for albumoses, particularly sodium sulphate in saturated solution. this procedure has been utilized by brieger and fraenkel for preparing the pure toxin, which they obtained in the form of very light, brilliant white, amorphous flocks, affording all the principal reactions of the soluble albumoses (biuret, xanthoproteic, millon's), and which they characterized as a toxalbumin. on injecting into healthy animals this diphtheria toxin attenuated by sufficiently heating at 70° c, employing at first small doses, and gradually increasing, it is possible to immunize them against diphtheria, as was first demonstrated by carl fraenkel. roux and martin, who have specially studied this procedure,[112] have shown that a horse may be easily immunized by injecting into the animal the toxin diluted with a third of its volume of gram's iodine solution, and in successively increasing doses. the initial dose is 0.25 cc.; then, after two days, 0.5 cc. of the same toxin is injected, and in like manner the dose is increased up to the eighteenth day, when the pure toxin is injected, at first in small doses, which are gradually increased so that at the end of two or three months injections of 80 cc. of the pure toxin may be given without danger; the animal is then completely immunized. [112] contribution à l'étude de la diphtérie. _annal. de l'instit. pasteur_, viii, p. 609; _ibid._, p. 640. the serum of an animal rendered immune in this manner contains a diphtheria antitoxin which possesses high power. a guinea-pig which has received an injection of 0.01 cc. of the antitoxin is perfectly capable of withstanding a lethal dose of 0.5 cc. of the toxin. the antidiphtheria serum thus obtained, and in almost limitless quantities, from an immunized animal, is capable of saturating the therapeutic diphtheritic toxin, and has to-day taken rank in therapeutics as the most efficacious remedy in diphtheria. injected in varying doses, it confers a temporary but immediate immunity. nevertheless antidiphtheria serum must not be considered as an antidote; and in pathological diphtheria, the more serum is required the later it is used.[113] in certain cases, if employed too late, it may prove ineffective. [113] bayeux: _thèse de doctorat_, paris, 1899. the preventive action of the serum is remarkable. in 10 000 inoculated cases behring and ehrlich have had but 10 cases of diphtheria, and these were, moreover, of a benign character. the duration of the immunizing action appears to be from three weeks to two months. this diphtheria antitoxin was first prepared by guérin and macé[114] by adding to the antidiphtheria serum a large volume of alcohol, washing the precipitate, and drying it in a vacuum. it is soluble in water, and loses its activity when heated to 65° c. wassermann[115] has proposed to extract it from the milk of immunized animals, by first coagulating the milk by rennet in the presence of sodium chloride, filtering, and removing the fat from the clear liquid by means of chloroform. after decanting, the clear solution obtained is precipitated by adding to it 30 to 33 per cent. of ammonium sulphate. the precipitate is dried in a vacuum on a polished porcelain slab after having first been strongly expressed. it is then dissolved in water.[116] [114] _compt. rend. de l'acad. des sc._, apr. 5, 1895. [115] _zeitschr. für hygiene_, xviii, p. 235. [116] roux and martin: contribution à l'étude de la diphtérie. _annal. de l'instit. pasteur_, viii, p. 512. =tetanus toxin.=--the fact that the tetanus bacillus never penetrates to the interior of the organism enabled us long ago to foretell that it secretes a very powerful toxin capable of dialyzing and diffusing through the economy. kuno faber was the first to fully recognize the fact that the culture bouillon of this bacillus, fully sterilized by filtration through porcelain, possesses an exceedingly high toxicity, and exerts a toxic effect on 50 000 000 times its own weight of living organism. brieger had previously, however, extracted three ptomaines from the cultures of the bacillus--_tetanin_, _tetanotoxin_, and _spasmotoxin_.[117] in order to obtain a highly active liquid, the same culture medium is inoculated several times in succession, but filtering each time before the new inoculation; the microbes greatly increase in number after each fresh inoculation, and the toxic substance developed by them accumulates.[118] [117] die pathogenese des tetanus. _berlin. klin. wochenschr._, 1890, no. 31. [118] naillard: _compt. rend. de l'acad. des sciences_, cxx, p. 1181. experiment has shown that the culture bouillon thus obtained contains two kinds of toxic substances[119]--highly toxic alkaloidal bases (ptomaines, tetanin, tetanotoxin, etc.), and a true toxin, possessing diastatic properties, and of almost incredible toxic power. [119] _annal. instit. pasteur_, v, 15. this toxin had already been isolated by kitasato. it is a toxalbumin, and is very sensitive to the action of heat. a temperature of 65° c., maintained for 30 minutes, renders it quite inactive; and it becomes oxidized and is destroyed by the action of the air in the presence of light. brieger and boer,[120] by precipitating with zinc chloride the filtered culture bouillon, obtained a pure, amorphous tetanus toxin, which they also considered as a toxalbumin, and which possesses exceedingly toxic properties. [120] _deutsche med. wochenschr._, no. 49, dec. 3, 1896. if a precipitate be caused to form in these toxic solutions, as, for instance, a precipitate of calcium phosphate, this carries down with it all the toxin present in the liquid. 0.0005 gm. of this precipitate is surely fatal to a guinea-pig. dozon and cournemont have observed that even in doses of 300 to 400 gm. of the filtered culture liquid, this toxin is not immediately toxic to a horse, but kills the animal only after a period of incubation of at least twenty-four hours. the blood of such an animal, however, is immediately and directly fatal to animals into which it is injected.[121] [121] _compt. rend. soc. biol._, 1893, p. 294; _ibid._, 1894, p. 878. experiment has shown that animals that have been cured of tetanus possess no immunity whatever against tetanus; nevertheless behring and kitasato[122] first, and wassermann and kitasato later on, succeeded in preparing a _tetanus antitoxin_. to obtain this, the immunization of the animal, horse or cow, is effected by injecting increasing quantities of the toxin, more or less attenuated by mixing it with gramm's iodine solution; the immunization is easily and rapidly accomplished by the process devised by roux and vaillard.[123] [122] _deutsch. med. wochenschr._, 1890. [123] _annal. instit. pasteur_, vii, p. 64. the immunized animals yield a serum which, mixed with tetanus cultures, renders these innocuous, and which enjoys an antitoxic power that borders on the marvelous.[124] a quintillionth of a cubic centimeter of the serum per gramme weight of a live mouse suffices to protect the animal from an otherwise fatal quantity of tetanus toxin.[125] [124] nocard: _bull. de l'acad. de médecine_, oct. 22, 1895. [125] naillard: _compt. rend. de l'acad. de sciences_, cxx, p. 1181. this serum is nevertheless powerless to preserve man in cases of acute tetanus; it confers an immediate, but only transitory, immunity. as to its mode of action, it appears to cause a permanent condition of excitation or of nutritive reaction of the cells, which makes these resistant to the poison. as in the case of the other toxins, the quantity of antitoxin necessary to protect an organism is so much greater the later the treatment is applied. =mallein (toxin of glanders).=--among the soluble products secreted in the culture media by the glanders bacilli, there are found true toxins to which are ascribed certain symptoms of glanders infection. these toxins have been isolated and designated by the name _mallein_. first prepared by helman and kalmino, mallein was later on specially studied by roux and nocard, and, in consequence of the researches of the last-mentioned scientist, it has acquired great importance.[126] it is obtained by sterilizing at 110° c. cultures of the glanders bacillus made with mutton bouillon with the addition of salt, glycerin, and peptones. to isolate the toxin the culture bouillon is first sterilized by heating for half an hour in an autoclave at 100° c. it is then filtered, concentrated to one-tenth its volume on a water-bath, and filtered through a chardin filter. the mallein is thus obtained in the form of a brown syrupy liquid containing half its weight of glycerin. [126] nocard: _les maladies microbiennes des animaux_, paris. this solution keeps well when kept from air, light, and heat. in practice it is employed in 10-per cent. solution in phenolated water (5:1000). the mallein may be precipitated from the crude solution by the addition of alcohol, as recommended by foth. foth's mallein occurs as a white, light powder, very easily soluble in water. mallein enjoys a very important rôle in veterinary therapeutics, a rôle analogous to that of tuberculin, permitting the diagnosis of incipient glanders.[127] [127] strauss: _arch. de médic. expériment_, 1886. experience has shown that in animals already attacked by glanders, even if ever so slightly, the thermic reaction never fails when 0.25 cc. of the mallein solution is injected. in healthy animals, however, the injection of mallein, even in much larger quantities, causes no apparent effect. in animals attacked by glanders the reaction attains its maximum in twelve hours, and several days are required for the temperature to return to normal.[128] [128] cadiot and roger: _compt. rend. soc. biol._, 1895, p. 770; wladimirow: _arch. des sciences biol. de st.-pétersbourg_, iv, p. 30; bourges and méry: _soc. de biol._, feb. 5, 1878. according to nocard, mallein possesses no immunizing properties whatever.[129] [129] galtier: _compt. rend. de l'acad. des sciences_, xcii, p. 303; strauss: _arch. de médic. expériment_, i, p. 489. =typhoid toxin.=--this is obtained, like the other microbial toxins, from a culture, prepared with more or less difficulty, from eberth's typhoid bacillus. this toxin, injected into guinea-pigs, develops in them typhoid fever. in the solution there occurs a ptomaine, which has been isolated by brieger, and which gives rise to almost all the phenomena of typhoid fever; this ptomaine is called _typhotoxin_.[130] [130] brieger: _microbes, ptomaïnes et maladies_, doin, publ., paris, 1887; luff: _brit. med. journ._, 1889. the same author, in collaboration with fraenkel,[131] later on isolated a toxalbumin from the culture bouillon of the typhoid bacillus. sanarelli[132] obtained an active toxin by macerating for several days at 60° c. a month-old culture of the typhoid bacillus made with a 2-per cent. glycerin-bouillon. chantemesse has also published a process which yields a highly virulent toxin.[133] [131] _berlin. klin. wochenschr._, 1890. [132] _annal. de l'instit. pasteur_, viii, p. 103. [133] _compt. rend. soc. de biol._, p. 232, jan. 30, 1897. _congrès d'hygiène de madrid_, 1898. chantemesse and widal[134] have shown that on injecting into an organism increasing quantities of the sterilized cultures of eberth's bacillus, it is possible to fully immunize an animal against the bacillus itself, and even also against the bacillus coli communis. the operation, however, is tedious and painful. the serum of immunized animals possesses preventive and curative properties respecting the effects of typhoid bacilli. [134] _annal. l'instit. pasteur_, vi, p. 755; sanarelli: _ibid._, p. 721. a dose of the filtered culture, which is fatal to a guinea-pig, becomes innocuous when mixed with 0.5 cc. of the serum of a vaccinated guinea-pig; 6 cc. of the serum injected six hours after an injection of the virulent culture, hence when this is in full action, suffice to save the animal.[135] so far as the human being is concerned, the results obtained have not been sufficiently satisfactory. [135] funck: _la sérothérapie de la fièvre typhoïde_, i, brussels, 1896. the culture bouillon of the bacillus coli communis, which is closely allied to eberth's bacillus, also contains soluble toxic substances which have been named coli-bacillus toxin. this substance, which is produced only in small quantity by the microbe, is fatal only in very large doses. =cholera toxin.=--very little is known regarding the toxic products of the spirillium choleræ; nevertheless, the fact that typical cholera exhibits every symptom of the action of a toxic agent demonstrates quite clearly the elaboration of some toxic substance within the cultures of this microbe. villiers[136] found in it a liquid ptomaine; klebs[137] found another and crystallizable ptomaine; while pitai discovered in it a toxin unalterable by heat, and which he considered as a toxopeptone. according to gamaleia[138] there is present a true toxin, alterable by heat, and the reactions of which entitle it to be considered as a nucleo-albumin; he has also found in it a toxic nuclein. [136] _compt. rend. de l'acad. des sciences_, jan. 12, 1885. [137] klebs: _allgem. wien. med. zeit._, 1887. [138] _arch. de méd. expérim._, iv, p. 173. these toxic substances are found, according to gamaleia, pfeiffer, and sanarelli,[139] confined during the life of the microbe within its cellular envelope, and does not diffuse through this. metchnikoff and roux are of the contrary opinion,[140] however, and they have prepared a toxin almost insensitive to a temperature of 100° c., and precipitable from its solutions by ammonium sulphate or strong alcohol; the toxin is a toxalbumin. this toxin is quite toxic; one-third of a cubic centimeter suffices to kill 100 gm. of guinea-pig in 18 hours; with larger doses, death is almost immediate. [139] _annal. de l'instit. pasteur_, ix, p. 129. [140] _ibid._, x, p. 257. by immunizing guinea-pigs, rabbits, and horses with this cholera toxin, metchnikoff and roux obtained a serum which is distinctly antitoxic for rabbits. nothing absolutely certain has been found as to its action on man.[141] [141] haffkine: _compt. rend. de l'acad. des sciences_, 1892; metchnikoff: _annal. de l'instit. pasteur_, vii, p. 403; and roux: _ibid._, x, p. 253. * * * * * we will not dwell longer here on the toxins of microbial origin. it appears evident, however, from what has been stated above, that the great majority, if not all, of the virulent microbes manifest their virulence by means of toxic secretions. almost every one of these toxins has been the subject of study. they would otherwise not have interested us here, where our main object was but to dwell upon the general properties. chapter v. the venoms. =general nature of venoms.=--the venoms are more or less toxic products secreted by certain reptiles, batrachians, and fish; by a large number of invertebrates; by arachnids, apids, scorpionids, araneids, and a large number of other insects. the venoms are toxic principles very closely allied to the microbial toxins; like the latter, they form two classes, the one alkaloidal, the other proteid, possessing a true diastatic character. they closely resemble the microbial toxins, moreover, by the fact that they are capable of being transformed into vaccins by attenuation of their virulence, by the action of heat or chemical reagents, and of leading to habituation of use and the conference of immunity.[142] moreover, like the various viruses, the serum of immunized animals is antivenomous, so that if injected into the veins or beneath the skin of non-immunized animals, the serum confers upon them an immunity against venom which lasts for some time. [142] _annal. de l'instit. pasteur_, viii, p. 281; _journ. of physiol._, viii, p. 203; and _soc. de biol._, 1894, p. 111. these venoms, like the microbial toxins, possess but slight toxicity when absorbed via the stomach. fraser, utilizing a method previously advocated, succeeded, by following this method, in vaccinating against serpent-venom by causing the absorption by animals of constantly increasing doses of venom. it was thus possible to make the animals withstand doses a thousand times greater than the ordinary lethal dose; the blood and serums of these animals at this point possessed immunizing properties, and this property passed by heredity to the offspring, to which it is transmitted by the blood itself, and by the milk during feeding. along with these resemblances between the venoms and toxins, attention must be called to a very important difference. as we have already seen, the action of the toxins on the organism is always preceded by a certain period of incubation; the action of the venoms, on the contrary, is almost instantaneous, and in this respect they behave like chemical agents and alkaloidal toxins. if the venoms are preserved in a moist condition, they change because they undergo putrefaction, which is generally the case with all diastatic substances, and particularly the toxins. it is interesting to note that animals which have been bitten by a venomous serpent, but which, for some reason or other, have not succumbed to the venom, never recover their former condition; if they were young, their functions cease to develop, and they droop; if they are adults, their general condition remains that of stupefaction. =venomous serpents.=--among the venomous serpents,[143] the most important as well as the most dangerous are the following: cobra di capello (naja tripudians, the hooded cobra) and its analogues, the black naja, naja hagé, etc.; the elops (coral serpent); the bungurus of bengal and burmah; the platycercus proteroglyphia, which is found chiefly in the waters of the indian ocean; the crotalian solenoglyphs of the two americas, and among which in particular are the rattlesnake, the fer-de-lance (the yellow viper) of martinique; the surucucu of guiana; and the moccasins and copperheads of texas and florida. lastly, the entire group of viperian solenoglyphs, among which are the echidnæ, the bite of some of which, for instance the daboia or echidna, is dreadful; the african vipers, among which may be mentioned the horned viper, the bite of which will kill a camel; the springing viper of congo, and the rhinoceros-viper of gabun; the european vipers, the most dangerous of which is certainly the asp of france, which is exceedingly numerous in certain regions. [143] calmette: _le venin des serpents_, paris, 1896. the effects of the bites of venomous serpents on man and animals are generally well known to the public; it is well to recall them, nevertheless. from the moment the bite has been inflicted, complete symptoms of poisoning develop, attended by a condition of extreme and increasing weakness, with vomiting, hemorrhage, and decomposition of the blood. there are, besides, particular effects which vary with every venom. the following table by calmette[144] gives the comparative toxicity of various venoms, taking as the standard of comparison the quantity sufficient to kill a rabbit in three or four hours: naja tripudians 0.00047 naja hagé 0.0003-0.0007 acanthophis antarctica 0.001 ceraste 0.0017-0.0021 haplocephalus variegatus 0.0025 trigonocephalus 0.0025 [144] calmette: _annal. instit. pasteur_, viii, p. 276; ix, p. 229. =nature of serpent-venoms.=--these venoms are homogeneous liquids, somewhat more dense than water, in which they are soluble, slightly colored green or yellow, transparent, and insoluble in alcohol; they contain from 30 to 35 per cent. of solid matter. when fresh, they have a slightly acid reaction. towards chemical reagents, and particularly acids, they behave like albuminoids; almost all the combinations they afford with the various albuminoid reagents are active, despite their insolubility. according to gautier, they are decomposed by caustic potash. according to numerous researches, oxidizers like potassium permanganate, the hypochlorites, hydrogen peroxide, and gold chloride (in 1% solution) destroy the venoms; in certain cases when immediately injected hypodermically in the poisoned region, these substances are excellent antidotes _in vivo_.[145] [145] winter and blyth: _the analyst_, 1877, p. 204; lacerda: _compt. rend. de l'acad. des sciences_, xciii, p. 466; calmette: _annal. instit. pasteur_, vi, p. 175, and viii, p. 278. we shall not here enter upon a detailed study of the toxic albuminoid principles of serpent-venoms; moreover, our knowledge is rather vague, as it is, on a number of points. it will suffice us to know that, taken altogether, the active albuminoids of these venoms are numerous, and that each venom has its own particular active constituents, differing according to the species and variety of the snake. each one of these substances acts more or less rapidly, and may be associated with different principles which give rise to the variability of the action of these toxic agents. among these toxic albuminoids, the most virulent appear to be true albumins and globulins, followed by the nucleo-albumins, as we have already stated; there are also found in venoms alkaloidal bases, but these principles are present only in very slight quantity. these bases are but very slightly toxic compared with the toxins that accompany them. =natural immunity towards serpent-venoms.=--certain animals exhibit a natural immunity toward snake-bites; among them are the snakes themselves, the hog, the hedgehog, and the mongoos (an egyptian rat); the blood of these animals contains apparently an antitoxin.[146] [146] _compt. rend. de l'acad. des sciences_, cxxi, p. 745; jacodot: _arch. de médecine navale_, vii, p. 390. fontana[147] had remarked that snakes were quite unaffected by the bite of the viper, even when inoculated with the venom hypodermically. physalix and bertrand[148] confirmed these statements, and showed that the snake perfectly resisted quantities of viper-venom capable of killing at least 20 guinea-pigs. according to these scientists, this natural immunity is due to the existence in the blood of toxic principles analogous to those of viper's venom--principles that exist in the labial glands of the snake, and pass into the blood and the fluids via the internal secretions. these writers, and also calmette, have shown that the blood of venomous serpents becomes antitoxic when heated. [147] _traité sur le venin de la vipère_, florence, 1781. [148] _archives de physiologie_, 1894, p. 423. it has been known for a long time that the hedgehog and the mongoos eat certain venomous reptiles, and eagerly hunt for the vipers in particular. when the hedgehog is bitten, which happens quite often despite its dexterity, it resists the viper-venom quite well. physalix and bertrand[149] have experimentally demonstrated that the hedgehog withstands a dose of viper-venom capable of killing at least 40 guinea-pigs. levin[150] has shown that young individuals are less resistant, and it is concluded from this, and perhaps incorrectly so, that the immunity of the hedgehog is naturally acquired, rather than inherent. bertrand and physalix have nevertheless shown that on heating the blood of the hedgehog to 88° c. it manifests an antitoxic power toward serpent-venom _in vitro_. [149] _bull. muséum histoire naturelle_, i, p. 294; _compt. rend. soc. de biol._, 1899. p. 77. [150] _deutsche med. woch._, 1898, p. 629. =artificial immunity toward serpent-venom.=--immunity may be conferred upon every individual by utilizing the method of habituation. this fact was simultaneously elicited by calmette, bertrand, and physalix. to effect the immunity these scientists prepare an antivenomous serum and inject it into animals, giving at first very small quantities of the diluted venom, and gradually increasing the doses, and the periods intervening between the injections. at the end of about two months of this treatment, the immunity has reached its maximum. certain rabbits, thus slowly inoculated, have been able to withstand 0.04 gm. of the venom of the naja at a single injection; such rabbits then yield a vaccinal serum.[151] [151] _annal. de l'instit. pasteur_, 1895, p. 229; _compt. rend. de l'acad. des sciences_, cxxii, p. 203. at the institut pasteur at lille there is prepared in this manner an antivenomous serum from the horse; it is capable of acting upon 20 000 times its own weight. this has rendered great service in the treatment of snake-bites, particularly in hot countries, where the accidents are of daily occurrence. _in vitro_ it acts quite as well preventively as therapeutically. it arrests the effects of the naja, the horned ceraste, the trigonocephalus, the rattlesnake, and of almost every one of the venomous serpents known. the relatively considerable immunity possessed by certain snake-charmers, and which passes for a magical gift, is due to nothing else but a natural immunity, acquired perhaps by heredity, and it always appears to follow as a result of a nonfatal snake-bite. =venoms of batrachians and saurians.=--we observe here a fundamental difference between these poisons and those of snakes, as we shall see. these latter, in fact, appear to owe all their toxicity to true toxins which they contain, while the poisons of batrachians and saurians are chiefly composed of alkaloidal bases.[152] [152] cloez: _compt. rend. de l'acad. des sciences_, xxxiv, p. 592. the poison of toads and frogs (studied by faust, bertrand, and physalix) is chiefly secreted by the glands of the subcutaneous tissues of these animals; it has but a very slight action on the unbroken skin, but it rapidly inflames the nasal and buccal conjunctival mucosa. the poison is a yellowish liquid, milky and viscid, with a waxy odor and an insupportably bitter taste. it is strongly acid and caustic. when dried, the poison yields to ether a fatty matter which, when absorbed by an animal, plunges the latter into a coma that may end in death. the residue insoluble in ether contains the non-toxic albuminoids, and ptomaines, such as methylcarbylamine,[153] and isocyanacetic acid, resulting from the decomposition of a lecithin that appears to be soluble in ether. [153] _ibid._, xcviii, p. 538. to obtain this venom, physalix and bertrand[154] skin the toads, first chloroformed, and dry the skins in a vacuum over sulphuric acid; the skins are then cleaned by treating with carbon disulphide to remove fatty matters, and the toxic principles removed by means of 95-per cent. alcohol; the poison so obtained, however, is impure. a better procedure is to express the parotid glands which have been placed in distilled water. faust found in this venom a principle which he named _bufonin_. physalix and bertrand isolated from it also a resinoid substance soluble in alcohol and in a large excess of water; this substance, which they named _bufotaline_, acts upon the heart. these authors have also obtained another substance which has a paralyzing action, and which they have named _bufotenin_. [154] _ibid._, cxxviii, pp. 45-48. the poison of the common toad acts as a paralyzant upon the heart and on the spinal marrow[155]; that of the common frog possesses similar properties. the poison of the tritons is quite analogous to that of the toads; it contains a lecithin hydrolyzable by water with the formation of alanin, formic acid, and alpha-isocyanopropionic acid. [155] p. bert: _compt. rend. de la soc. de biologie_, 1885, p. 524. zalnosky[156] isolated from the glands of the skin of the salamander a white, thick, bitter and alkaline liquid poison, containing a highly poisonous alkaloid, _salamandrine_, or _samandarine_, which acts on the brain, the medulla, and the spinal cord, and which has the formula c{54}h{60}n{2}o{5}; it is a strong base and yields crystallizable salts. [156] _bull. soc. chim._ [2], vi, p. 344. =fish-poisons.=[157]--very little accurate knowledge is extant regarding these. many fish are poisonous, and among them are the synanceia, found in the indian ocean between the netherland isles and new caledonia; considerable numbers are found in the neighborhood of the latter locality. these fish are provided with spiny rays which are in direct communication with a poisonous system having its seat in the dorsal fin. the prick of one of the spiny rays of this fish may under certain circumstances result fatally, and in every case it causes a rapid and painful gangrene. [157] bofford: _thèse de doctorat en médecine--les poissons venimeux_, paris, 1889; o. arcos: _thèse de doctorat--essais sur les accidents causés par les poissons venimeux_, paris, 1887. from the reservoir the poison is conducted to the sharp extremity of the spines by a deep channel with which each spiny ray is provided; the animal has 26 poison-sacs, two for each ray, and the sacs burst when the corresponding sting is in any manner compressed. the poison is an odorless liquid having a slight styptic or acidulous taste, and exhibiting a bluish fluorescence; it rapidly becomes turbid. the weevers, which are numerous on the shores of the mediterranean sea, and which are also met with in the northeastern portion of the atlantic ocean, are likewise very dangerous, which explains their popular names "viper-weever," "spiderweever," etc. these fish are provided with a double set of poisonous apparatus, the one opercular, which is the more dangerous, and the other dorsal. the opercular spine has a double channel in connection with a conical cavity hollowed out in the base of the opercular bone. the bottom of this cavity is provided with special cells which secrete the poison. the dorsal glands have a similar structure. the poison of the weever is a liquid, limpid when the fish is alive, and turbid when dead; it has a slight bluish fluorescence, is neutral in reaction, and is coagulated by acids and bases. it acts as a paralyzant, its action being exerted on the medulla and spinal cord; it retards the heart's action. these examples will suffice; and we will not dilate further on this subject, because, as already stated, but little is accurately known regarding the subject, and what is known may be summed up as follows: fish-poisons always give rise to an intense pain, frequently with motor paralysis, followed by paralysis of sensation; they affect the heart, arresting it in diastole; and they are more dangerous to fish and cold-blooded animals than to mammifers. =poisons of the hymenoptera.=[158]--the poison system of the bee, and of such insects as the wasps, bumblebees, etc., is known to consist of a hollow sting consisting of two sharp needles communicating with two poison-bearing glands, and forming a flexible tube. one of these glands secretes an acid liquid (formic acid); the other secretes an alkaline fluid. [158] philouze: venin des abeilles. _annales de la société linn. du maine-et-loire_, iv. the action of the bee-poison is very often benign, but there have been cases where death followed the infliction of numerous stings. our information regarding the poison of the cantharides and flies is very vague[159]; the same is true of the poisons of various arachnids, acarides, and myriapoda. so far as spiders are concerned, it is known that their poison is an oily liquid having an acid and bitter taste, and containing a toxalbumin derived from the skin of the insect. the bite of the ordinary spider occasions simply a slight local pain, with redness; that of the large poisonous spider, however, may kill the larger animals, and even man. [159] joyeux-laffriée: _thèse de doctorat en médecine_, paris, 1883; p. bert: _compt. rend. de la soc. de biol._, ii [4], p. 136. =poison of scorpions.=[160]--this poison is a colorless, acid liquid, having a higher specific gravity than water, in which liquid it is soluble. the famed legend of the suicide of scorpions is well known to all. it is stated that when the insect finds itself in a position where its death is inevitable, it stings itself, and dies from the effects of its own poison. a simple method has even been described of bringing this result about experimentally by surrounding the insect with a circle of fire. bounne, of madras,[161] who has studied the procedure, has demonstrated its entire falsity by showing, first of all, that the insect dies from the effects of the excessive heat, and further, that the poison of the scorpion is harmless to individuals of the species that furnish it. [160] calmette: _annales de l'instit. pasteur_, x, p. 232. [161] _proceedings of the royal society_, xlii, p. 17. metchinkoff[162] has confirmed these facts, and has moreover demonstrated that the blood of the scorpion possesses an undoubted antitoxic power against the poison of the insect. [162] metchnikoff: _l'immunité_, p. 344. the poison of the scorpion serves it to kill the insects which are its prey. frogs and birds stung by the scorpion also generally die. a dose of 0.0005 gm. kills a guinea-pig in less than one hour; and according to calmette[163] less than 0.0005 will kill a white mouse in two hours. oxidizers destroy the toxicity of the poison. guinea-pigs immunized against the poison of the scorpion resist perfectly very large doses of the poison. [163] calmette: _annal. de l'instit. pasteur_, x, p. 232. =poisonous blood and serums.=--it is an almost general fact that the blood and blood serum of batrachians, eels, lampreys, snakes (even non-poisonous ones), and hedgehogs are very poisonous. mosso has found in the blood serum of the lamprey a toxin possessing a strong hemolytic power, and which he has named _ichthyotoxin_. o.5 cc. of this serum injected into a dog kills it in a few minutes. he also observed, in 1888, that the blood of the eel, in like dose, kills a dog almost immediately, and that the blood contains an ichthyotoxin analogous to that of the lamprey. this substance, which appears to be closely allied to the sero-albumin of the blood, has a phosphorus-like, sharp, and burning taste. by digestion it loses its toxicity, as well as by heating at 68° to 70° c. it is easily obtained by precipitating with ammonium sulphate the serum of eels, and dialyzing the precipitate dissolved in water. the power of this substance is almost as great as that of the cobra poison, 0.002 gm. being instantly fatal per kilo of dog. the blood of snakes is likewise very toxic; the same is true of the blood of the viper, as 0.02 cc. will kill a guinea-pig in two hours. all these bloods lose their toxicity when heated above 70° c. the serum of the hedgehog is peculiar in this respect; when heated at 38° c. for fifteen minutes it loses its toxicity, but it then possesses an immunizing power against the poisons. the subject possesses great interest, because it was in studying these immunizing properties that camus and gley,[164] and later on kossel[165] and tchistowitch,[166] discovered the first anticytotoxin,[167] which they obtained by treating the animals with increasing quantities of the serum of eels. on mixing the antitoxic serum of these animals _in vitro_ with the red blood-corpuscles of the species furnishing the serum and of the hemolytic serum of eels, it is found that the blood-corpuscles kept quite well. [164] _archives internat. de pharmacodynamie_, iii and iv. [165] _berliner klin. wochenschr._, 1895, no. 7. [166] _annal. de l'instit. pasteur_, xiii, p. 406. [167] the name "cytases" or "alexins" has been given to hemolyzing diastatic substances which are found in certain serums. it has been known for a long time that the serum of the blood of many animals destroys the red blood-corpuscles of other and different species. the chemical composition of these cytases or alexins is not yet definitely known, but the substances rank among the albuminoids; they are destroyed by a temperature of 55° to 56° c., and act only in saline solutions (ehrlich and morgenroth, _berlin. klin. woch._, pp. 6 and 481). the cytases or alexins, which will be studied in another volume of this collection, and which will discuss the active principles of the immunizing serums, constitute one of the numerous soluble intraleucocytary ferments, and they pass into the serous liquids of the organism only as the result of a rupture of or injury to the phagocytes. as to the blood of the hedgehog, we have already seen that physalix and bertrand have shown that it may be a counter-poison towards serpent-venom under certain conditions. in its normal condition it is highly toxic. =poisonous meats.=--it is particularly among the fish that we find these normally present, and it is a singular fact that, for a given species, the toxicity frequently depends upon the period of the year. thus, at the period of spawning, certain fish may be extremely poisonous, or, on the contrary, may entirely cease to be so. the anchovy ballassa from the shores of india occasions death even in very small quantity; the poisonous meltite of the same seas causes violent vomiting; the fugu of the japanese seas possesses an extreme poisonousness at the spawning period, while, on the contrary, it is perfectly innocuous at all other periods. numerous cases of poisoning have been chronicled every year by the journals, due to the ingestion of mussels; in the flesh of these crustaceæ is found a dangerous toxin, _methylotoxin_. the flesh of oysters is also unwholesome at the spawning period. the toxic symptoms caused by these animals become apparent in not less than twenty-four hours after ingestion. the poisoning due to these fresh meats must not, however, be confounded with that caused by tainted or spoiled meats. works of alfred i. cohn published by john wiley & sons. =indicators and test-papers.= their source, preparation, application, and tests for sensitiveness. with tabular summary of the application of indicators. second edition, revised and enlarged. 12mo, ix + 267 pages. cloth, $2.00. =tests and reagents.= chemical and microscopical, known by their authors' names; together with an index of subjects. 8vo, iii + 383 pages. cloth, $3.00. _translations._ =fresenius's quantitative chemical analysis.= new authorized translation of the latest german edition. in two volumes. by alfred i. cohn, phar.d. recalculated on the basis of the latest atomic weights, and also greatly amplified by the translator. 8vo, 2 vols., upwards of 2000 pages, 280 figures. cloth, $12.50. =techno-chemical analysis.= by dr. g. lunge, professor at the eidgenössische polytechnische schule, zurich. authorized translation by alfred i. cohn, phar.d. 12mo, vii + 136 pages, 16 figures. cloth, $1.00. =toxins and venoms and their antibodies.= by em. pozzi-escot. authorized translation by alfred i. cohn, phar.d. 12mo, vii + 101 pages. cloth, $1.00, _net_. transcriber's notes obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected, but all other variations in spelling, punctuation and accents are as in the original, with the exception of symptomatology (in the contents list) and symptomology (in the text) which has been corrected to symptomatology. variations between the treatment and phrasing of headings in the table of contents and in the text have not been changed. italics are represent thus _italic_ and bold thus =bold=. subscripts are represented thus {2} the book begins with a page of adverts for works by the translator, this has been moved to the end. aids to forensic medicine and toxicology by w.g. aitchison robertson m.d., d.sc., f.r.c.p.e. lecturer on forensic medicine, school of medicine, edinburgh; late examiner in the universities of edinburgh and st. andrews; for the triple board; diploma in public health, etc. ninth edition twentieth thousand london baillière, tindall and cox 8, henrietta street, covent garden 1922 preface to ninth edition i trust that, having thoroughly revised the "aids to forensic medicine," it may prove as useful to students preparing for examination in the future as it has been in the past. w.g. aitchison robertson. surgeons' hall, edinburgh, _november_, 1921. preface to eighth edition this work of the late dr. william murrell having met with such a large measure of success, the publishers thought it would be well to bring out a new edition, and invited me to revise the last impression. this i have done, and while retaining dr. murrell's text closely, i have made large additions, in order to bring the "aids" up to present requirements. i have also rearranged the matter with the object of making the various sections more consecutive than they were previously. w.g. aitchison robertson. surgeons' hall, edinburgh, _june_, 1914. contents part i forensic medicine page i. crimes 1 ii. medical evidence 2 iii. personal identity 10 iv. examination of persons found dead 12 v. modes of sudden death 13 vi. signs of death 16 vii. death from anæsthetics, etc. 19 viii. presumption of death; survivorship 20 ix. assaults, murder, manslaughter, etc. 21 x. wounds and mechanical injuries 21 xi. contused wounds, etc. 22 xii. incised wounds 23 xiii. gunshot wounds 24 xiv. wounds of various parts of the body 26 xv. detection of blood-stains, etc. 30 xvi. death by suffocation 34 xvii. death by hanging 35 xviii. death by strangulation 35 xix. death by drowning 36 xx. death from starvation 38 xxi. death from lightning and electricity 38 xxii. death from cold or heat 39 xxiii. pregnancy 40 xxiv. delivery 41 xxv. foeticide or criminal abortion 42 xxvi. infanticide 44 xxvii. evidences of live-birth 46 xxviii. cause of death in the foetus 50 xxix. duration of pregnancy 50 xxx. viability of children 51 xxxi. legitimacy 52 xxxii. superfoetation 53 xxxiii. inheritance 54 xxxiv. impotence and sterility 54 xxxv. rape 55 xxxvi. unnatural offences 59 xxxvii. blackmailing 60 xxxviii. marriage and divorce 60 xxxix. feigned diseases 63 xl. mental unsoundness 67 xli. idiocy, imbecility, cretinism 68 xlii. dementia 70 xliii. mania, lucid intervals, undue influence, responsibility, etc. 71 xliv. examination of persons of unsound mind 76 xlv. inebriates acts 78 part ii toxicology i. definition of a poison 80 ii. scheduled poisons 80 iii. classification of poisons 83 iv. evidence of poisoning 85 v. symptoms and post-mortem appearances of different classes of poisons 86 vi. duty of practitioner in supposed case of poisoning 89 vii. treatment of poisoning 90 viii. detection of poison 91 ix. the mineral acids 94 x. sulphuric acid 95 xi. nitric acid 97 xii. hydrochloric acid 98 xiii. oxalic acid 98 xiv. carbolic acid 100 xv. potash, soda, and ammonia 101 xvi. potassium salts, etc. 103 xvii. nitrate of potassium, etc. 103 xviii. barium salts 104 xix. iodine--iodide of potassium 104 xx. phosphorus 105 xxi. arsenic and its preparations 107 xxii. antimony and its preparations 112 xxiii. mercury and its preparations 113 xxiv. lead and its preparations 116 xxv. copper and its preparations 117 xxvi. zinc, silver, bismuth, and chromium 118 xxvii. gaseous poisons 120 xxviii. vegetable irritants 123 xxix. opium and morphine 124 xxx. belladonna, hyoscyamus, and stramonium 127 xxxi. cocaine 128 xxxii. camphor 129 xxxiii. tetrachlorethane 129 xxxiv. alcohol, ether, and chloroform 130 xxxv. chloral hydrate 134 xxxvi. petroleum and paraffin oil 134 xxxvii. antipyrine, antefebrin, phenacetin, and aniline 135 xxxviii. sulphonal, trional, tetronal, veronal, paraldehyde 137 xxxix. conium and calabar bean 138 xl. tobacco and lobelia 139 xli. hydrocyanic acid 140 xlii. aconite 143 xliii. digitalis 144 xliv. nux vomica, strychnine, and brucine 145 xlv. cantharides 146 xlvi. abortifacients 147 xlvii. poisonous fungi and toxic foods 148 xlviii. ptomaines or cadaveric alkaloids 150 index 152 aids to forensic medicine and toxicology part i forensic medicine i.--crimes forensic medicine is also called medical jurisprudence or legal medicine, and includes all questions which bring medical matters into relation with the law. it deals, therefore, with (1) crimes and (2) civil injuries. 1. a _crime_ is the voluntary act of a person of sound mind harmful to others and also unjust. no act is a crime unless it is plainly forbidden by law. to constitute a crime, two circumstances are necessary to be proved--(a) that the act has been committed, (b) that a guilty mind or malice was present. the act may be one of omission or of commission. every person who commits a crime may be punished, unless he is under the age of seven years, is insane, or has been made to commit it under compulsion. crimes are divided into _misdemeanours_ and _felonies_. the distinction is not very definite, but, as a rule, the former are less serious forms of crime, and are punishable with a term of imprisonment, generally under two years; while felonies comprise the more serious charges, as murder, manslaughter, rape, which involve the capital sentence or long terms of imprisonment. an _offence_ is a trivial breach of the criminal law, and is punishable on summary conviction before a magistrate or justices only, while the more serious crimes (_indictable offences_) must be tried before a jury. 2. _civil injuries_ differ from crimes in that the former are compensated by damages awarded, while the latter are punished; any person, whether injured or not, may prosecute for a crime, while only the sufferer can sue for a civil injury. the crown may remit punishment for a crime, but not for a civil injury. ii.--medical evidence on being called, the medical witness enters the witness-box and takes the oath. this is very generally done by uplifting the right hand and repeating the oath (scottish form), or by kissing the bible, or by making a solemn affirmation. 1. he may be called to give _ordinary evidence_ as a _common witness_. thus he may be asked to detail the facts of an accident which he has observed, and of the inferences he has deduced. this evidence is what any lay observer might be asked. 2. _expert witness._--on the other hand, he may be examined on matters of a technical or professional character. the medical man then gives evidence of a skilled or expert nature. he may be asked his opinion on certain facts narrated--_e.g._, if a certain wound would be immediately fatal. again, he may be asked whether he concurs with opinions held by other medical authorities. in important cases specialists are often called to give evidence of a skilled nature. thus the hospital surgeon, the nerve specialist, or the mental consultant may be served with a subpoena to appear at court on a certain date to give evidence. the evidence of such skilled observers will, it is supposed, carry greater weight with the jury than would the evidence of an ordinary practitioner. skilled witnesses may hear the evidence of ordinary witnesses in regard to the case in which they are to give evidence, and it is, indeed, better that they should understand the case thoroughly, but they are not usually allowed to hear the evidence of other expert witnesses. in civil cases the medical witness should, previous to the trial, make an agreement with the solicitor who has called him with reference to the fee he is to receive. before consenting to appear as a witness the practitioner should insist on having all the facts of the case put before him in writing. in this way only can he decide as to whether in his opinion the plaintiff or defendant is right as regards the medical evidence. if summoned by the side on which he thinks the medical testimony is correct, then it is his duty to consent to appear. if, however, he is of opinion that the medical evidence is clearly and correctly on the opposite side, then he ought to refuse to appear and give evidence; and, indeed, the lawyer would not desire his presence in the witness-box unless he could uphold the case. whether an expert witness who has no personal knowledge of the facts is bound to attend on a subpoena is a moot point. it would be safer for him to do so, and to explain to the judge before taking the oath that his memory has not been sufficiently 'refreshed.' the solicitor, if he desires his evidence, will probably see that the fee is forthcoming. a witness may be subjected to _three_ examinations: first, by the party on whose side he is engaged, which is called the 'examination in chief,' and in which he affords the basis for the next examination or 'cross-examination' by the opposite side. the third is the 're-examination' by his own side. in the first he merely gives a clear statement of facts or of his opinions. in the next his testimony is subjected to rigid examination in order to weaken his previous statements. in the third he is allowed to clear up any discrepancies in the cross-examination, but he must not introduce any new matter which would render him liable to another cross-examination. the medical witness should answer questions put to him as clearly and as concisely as possible. he should make his statements in plain and simple language, avoiding as much as possible technical terms and figurative expressions, and should not quote authorities in support of his opinions. an expert witness when giving evidence may refer to notes for the purpose of refreshing his memory, but only if the notes were taken by him at the time when the observations were made, or as soon after as practicable. there are various _courts_ in which a medical witness may be called on to give evidence: 1. =the coroner's court.=--when a coroner is informed that the dead body of a person is lying within his jurisdiction, and that there is reasonable cause to suspect that such person died either a violent or unnatural death, or died a sudden death of which the cause is unknown, he must summon a jury of not less than twelve men to investigate the matter--in other words, hold an inquest--and if the deceased had received medical treatment, the coroner may summon the medical attendant to give evidence. by the coroners (emergency provisions) act of 1917, the number of the jury has been cut down to a minimum of seven and a maximum of eleven men. by the juries act of 1918, the coroner has the power of holding a court without a jury if, in his discretion, it appears to be unnecessary. in charges of murder, manslaughter, deaths of prisoners in prison, inmates of asylums or inebriates' homes, or of infants in nursing homes, he must summon a jury. the coroner may be satisfied with the evidence as to the cause of a person's death, and may dispense with an inquest and grant a burial certificate. cases are notified to the coroner by the police, parish officer, any medical practitioner, registrar of deaths, or by any private individual. witnesses, having been cited to appear, are examined on oath by the coroner, who must, in criminal cases at least, take down the evidence in writing. this is then read over to each witness, who signs it, and this forms his _deposition_. at the end of each case the coroner sums up, and the jury return their verdict or _inquisition_, either unanimously or by a majority. if this charges any person with murder or manslaughter, he is committed by the coroner to prison to await trial, or, if not present, the coroner may issue a warrant for his arrest. a chemical analysis of the contents of the stomach, etc., in suspected cases of poisoning is usually done by a special analyst named by the coroner. if any witness disobeys the summons to attend the inquest, he renders himself liable to a fine not exceeding £2 2s., but in addition the coroner may commit him to prison for contempt of court. in criminal cases the witnesses are bound over to appear at the assizes to give evidence there. the coroner may give an order for the exhumation of a body if he thinks the evidence warrants a post-mortem examination. coroners' inquests are held in all cases of sudden or violent death, where the cause of death is not clear; in cases of assault, where death has taken place immediately or some time afterwards; in cases of homicide or suicide; where the medical attendant refuses to give a certificate of death; where the attendants on the deceased have been culpably negligent; or in certain cases of uncertified deaths. the medical witness should be very careful in giving evidence before a coroner. even though the inquest be held in a coach-house or barn, yet it has to be remembered it is a court of law. if the case goes on for trial before a superior court, your deposition made to the coroner forms the basis of your examination. any misstatements or discrepancies in your evidence will be carefully inquired into, and you will make a bad impression on judge and jury if you modify, retract, or explain away your evidence as given to the coroner. you had your opportunity of making any amendments on your evidence when the coroner read over to you your deposition before you signed it as true. by the licensing act of 1902, an inquest may not be held in any premises licensed for the sale of intoxicating liquor if other suitable premises have been provided. the duties of the coroner are based partly on common law, and are also defined by statute, principally by the coroners act of 1887 (50 and 51 vict. c. 71). they have been modified, however, by subsequent acts--_e.g._, the act of 1892, the coroners (emergency provisions) act, 1917, and the juries act of 1918. the fee payable to a medical witness for giving evidence at an inquest is one guinea, with an extra guinea for making a post-mortem examination and report (in the metropolitan area these fees are doubled). the coroner must sign the order authorizing the payment, and should an inquest be adjourned to a later day, no further fee is payable. if the deceased died in a hospital, infirmary, or lunatic asylum, the medical witness is not paid any fee. should a medical witness neglect to make the post-mortem examination after receiving the order to do so, he is liable to a fine of £5. in scotland the procurator fiscal fulfils many of the duties of the coroner, but he cannot hold a public inquiry. he interrogates the witnesses privately, and these questions with the answers form the _precognition_. more serious cases are dealt with by the sheriff of each county, and capital charges must be dealt with by the high court of justiciary. in scotland the verdicts of the jury may be 'guilty,' 'not guilty,' or 'not proven.' 2. =the magistrate's court or petty sessions= is also a court of preliminary inquiry. the prisoner may be dealt with summarily, as, for example, in minor assault cases, or, if the case is of sufficient gravity, and the evidence justifies such a course, may be committed for trial. the fee for a medical witness who resides within three miles of the court is ten shillings and sixpence; if at a greater distance, one guinea. in the metropolis the prisoner in the first instance is brought before a magistrate, technically known as the 'beak,' who, in addition to being a person of great acumen, is a stipendiary, and thus occupies a superior position to the ordinary 'j.p.,' who is one of the great unpaid. in the city of london is the mansion house justice-room, presided over by the lord mayor or one of the aldermen. the prisoner may ultimately be sent for trial to the central criminal court, known as the old bailey, or elsewhere. 3. =quarter sessions.=--these are held every quarter by justices of the peace. all cases can be tried before the sessions except felonies or cases which involve difficult legal questions. in london this court is known as the central criminal court, and it also acts as the assize court. in borough sessions a barrister known as the _recorder_ is appointed as sole judge. 4. =the assizes= deal with both criminal and civil cases. there is the _crown court_, where criminal cases are tried, and there is the _civil court_, where civil cases are heard. before a case sent up by a lower court can be tried by the judge and petty jury, it is investigated by the _grand jury_, which is composed of superior individuals. if they find a 'true bill,' the case goes on; but if they 'throw it out,' the accused is at liberty to take his departure. at the court of assize the prisoner is tried by a jury of twelve. in bringing in the verdict the jury must be unanimous. if they cannot agree, the case must be retried before a new jury. at the assize court the medical witness gets a guinea a day, with two shillings extra to pay for his bed and board for every night he is away from home, with his second-class railway fare, if there is a second class on the railway by which he travels. if there is no railway, and he has to walk, he is entitled to threepence a mile for refreshments both ways. 5. =court of criminal appeal.=--this was established in 1908, and consists of three judges. a right of appeal may be based (1) solely on a question of law; (2) on certificate from the judge who tried the prisoner; (3) on mitigation of sentence. speaking generally, in the superior courts the fees which may be claimed by medical men called on to give evidence are a guinea a day if resident in the town in which the case is tried, and from two to three guineas a day if resident at a distance from the place of trial, this to include everything except travelling expenses. the medical witness also receives a reasonable allowance for hotel and travelling expenses. if a witness is summoned to appear before two courts at the same time, he must obey the summons of the higher court. criminal cases take precedence of civil. a medical man has no right to claim privilege as an excuse for not divulging professional secrets in a court of law, and the less he talks about professional etiquette the better. still, in a civil case, if he were to make an emphatic protest, the matter in all probability would not be pressed. in a criminal case he would promptly be reminded of the nature of his oath. a medical man may be required to furnish a _formal written report_. it may be the history of a fatal illness or the result of a post-mortem examination. these reports must be drawn up very carefully, and no technical terms should be employed. no witness on being sworn can be compelled to 'kiss the book.' the oaths act (51 and 52 vict., c. 46, § 5) declares, without any qualification, that 'if any person to whom an oath is administered desires to swear with uplifted hand, in the form and manner in which an oath is usually administered in scotland, he shall be permitted to do so, and the oath shall be administered to him in such form and manner without further question.' the witness takes the oath standing, with the bare right hand uplifted above the head, the formula being: 'i swear by almighty god that i will speak the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth.' the presiding judge should say the words, and the witness should repeat them after him. there is no kissing of the book, and the words 'so help me, god,' which occur in the english form, are not employed. it will be noted that the scotch form constitutes an oath, and is not an affirmation. the judge has no right to ask if you object on religious grounds, or to put any question. he is bound by the provisions of the act, and the enactment applies not only to all forms of the witness oath, whether in civil or criminal courts, or before coroners, but to every oath which may be lawfully administered either in great britain or ireland. a witness engaged to give expert evidence should demand his fee before going into court, or, at all events, before being sworn. with regard to notes, these should be made at the time, on the spot, and may be used by the witness in court as a refresher to the memory, though not altogether to supply its place. all evidence is made up of testimony, but all testimony is not evidence. the witness must not introduce hearsay testimony. in one case only is hearsay evidence admissible, and that is in the case of a _dying declaration_. this is a statement made by a dying person as to how his injuries were inflicted. these declarations are accepted because the law presumes that a dying man is anxious to speak the truth. but the person must believe that he is _actually_ on the point of death, with _absolutely_ no hope of recovery. a statement was rejected because the dying person, in using the expression 'i have no hope of recovery,' requested that the words 'at present' should be added. if after making the statement the patient were to say, 'i hope now i shall get better,' it would invalidate the declaration. to make the declaration admissible as evidence, death must ensue. if possible, a magistrate should take the dying declaration; but if he is not available, the medical man, without any suggestions or comments of his own, should write down the statements made by the dying person, and see them signed and witnessed. it must be made clear to the court that at the time of making his statement the witness was under the full conviction of approaching or impending death. iii.--personal identity it is but seldom that medical evidence is required with regard to the identification of the living, though it may sometimes be so, as in the celebrated tichborne case. the medical man may in such cases be consulted as to family resemblance, marks on the body, nævi materni, scars and tattoo marks, or with regard to the organs of generation in cases of doubtful sex. tattoo marks may disappear during life; the brighter colours, as vermilion, as a rule, more readily than those made with carbon, as indian ink; after death the colouring-matter may be found in the proximal glands. if the tattooing is superficial (merely underneath the cuticle) the marks may possibly be removed by acetic acid or cantharides, or even by picking out the colouring-matter with a fine needle. with regard to scars and their permanence, it will be remembered that scars occasioned by actual loss of substance, or by wounds healed by granulation, never disappear. the scars of leech-bites, lancet-wounds, or cupping instruments, may disappear after a lapse of time. it is difficult, if not impossible, to give any certain or positive opinion as to the age of a scar; recent scars are pink in colour; old scars are white and glistening. the cicatrix resulting from a wound depends upon its situation. of incised wounds an elliptical cicatrix is typical, linear being chiefly found between the fingers and toes. by way of disguise the hair may be dyed black with lead acetate or nitrate of silver; detected by allowing the hair to grow, or by steeping some of it in dilute nitric acid, and testing with iodide of potassium for lead, and hydrochloric acid for silver. the hair may be bleached with chlorine or peroxide of hydrogen, detected by letting the hair grow and by its unnatural feeling and the irregularity of the bleaching. finger-print impressions are the most trustworthy of all means of identification. such a print is obtained by rubbing the pulp of the finger in lampblack, and then impressing it on a glazed card. the impression reveals the fine lines which exist at the tips of the fingers. the arrangement of these lines is special to each person, and cannot be changed. hence this method is employed by the police in the identification of prisoners. in the determination of cases of doubtful sex in the living, the following points should be noticed: the size of the penis or clitoris, and whether perforate or not, the form of the prepuce, the presence or absence of nymphæ and of testicles or ovaries. openings must be carefully sounded as to their communication with bladder or uterus. after puberty, inquiry should be made as to menstrual or vicarious discharges, the general development of the body, the growth of hair, the tone of voice, and the behaviour of the individual towards either sex. with regard to the identification of the dead in cases of death by accident or violence, the medical man's assistance may be called. the sex of the skeleton, if that only be found, may be judged from the bones of the female generally being smaller and more slender than those of the male, by the female thorax being deeper, the costal cartilages longer, the ilia more expanded, the sacrum flatter and broader, the coccyx movable and turned back, the tuberosities of the ischia wider apart, the pubes shallow, and the whole pelvis shallower and with larger outlets. but of all these signs the only one of any real value is the roundness of the pubic arch in the female, as compared with the pointed arch in the male. before puberty the sex cannot be determined from an examination of the bones. age may be calculated from the presence, nature and number of the erupted teeth; from the cartilages of the ribs, which gradually ossify as age advances; from the angle formed by the ramus of the lower jaw with its body (obtuse in infancy, a right angle in the adult, and again obtuse in the aged from loss of the teeth); and in the young from the condition of the epiphyses with regard to their attachment to their respective shafts. to determine stature, the whole skeleton should be laid out and measured, 1-1/2 to 2 inches being allowed for the soft parts. iv.--examination of persons found dead when a medical man is called to a case of sudden death, he should carefully note anything likely to throw any light on the cause of death. he should notice the place where the body was found, the position and attitude of the body, the soil or surface on which the body lies, the position of surrounding objects, and the condition of the clothes. he should also notice if there are any signs of a struggle having taken place, if the hands are clenched, if the face is distorted, if there has been foaming at the mouth, and if urine or fæces have been passed involuntarily. urine may be drawn off with a catheter and tested for albumin and sugar. if required to make a post-mortem examination, every cavity and important organ of the body must be carefully and minutely examined, the seat of injury being inspected first. v.--modes of sudden death there are three modes in which death may occur: (1) syncope; (2) asphyxia; (3) coma. 1. =syncope= is death beginning at the heart--in other words, failure of circulation. it may arise from--(1) _anæmia_, or deficiency of blood due to hæmorrhage, such as occurs in injuries, or from bleeding from the lungs, stomach, uterus, or other internal organs. (2) _asthenia_, or failure of the heart's action, met with in starvation, in exhausting diseases, such as phthisis, cancer, pernicious anæmia, and bright's disease, and in some cases of poisoning--for example, aconite. the symptoms of syncope are faintness, giddiness, pallor, slow, weak, and irregular pulse, sighing respiration, insensibility, dilated pupils, and convulsions. post mortem the heart is found empty and contracted. when, however, there is sudden stoppage of the heart, the right and left cavities contain blood in the normal quantities, and blood is found in the venæ cavæ and in the arterial trunks. there is no engorgement of either lungs or brain. 2. =asphyxia=, or death beginning at the lungs, may be due to obstruction of the air-passages from foreign bodies in the larynx, drowning, suffocation, strangling, and hanging; from injury to the cervical cord; effusion into the pleuræ, with consequent pressure on the lungs; embolism of the pulmonary artery; and from spasmodic contraction of the thoracic and abdominal muscles in strychnine-poisoning. the symptoms of this condition are fighting for breath, giddiness, relaxation of the sphincters, and convulsions. post mortem, cadaveric lividity is well marked, especially in nose, lips, ears, etc.; the right cavities of the heart and the venæ cavæ are found gorged with dark fluid blood. the pulmonary veins, the left cavities of the heart, and the aorta, are either empty or contain but little blood. the lungs are dark and engorged with blood, and the lining of the air-tubes is bright red in colour. much bloody froth escapes on cutting into the lungs. numerous small hæmorrhages (tardieu's spots) are found on the surface and in the substance of the internal organs, as well as in the skin of the neck and face. 3. =coma=, or death beginning at the brain, may arise from concussion; compression; cerebral pressure from hæmorrhage and other forms of apoplexy; blocking of a cerebral artery from embolism; dietetic and uræmic conditions; and from opium and other narcotic poisons. the symptoms of this condition are stupor, loss of consciousness, and stertorous breathing. the post-mortem signs are congestion of the substance of the brain and its membranes, with accumulation of the blood in the cavities of the heart, more on the right side than on the left. it must be remembered that, owing to the interdependence of all the vital functions, there is no line of demarcation between the various modes of death. in all cases of sudden death think of angina pectoris and the rupture of an aneurism. the following is a list of some of the commoner causes of sudden death: (a) =instantaneously sudden death=-1. syncope (by far the commonest cause). 2. aortic incompetence. 3. rupture of heart. 4. rupture of a valve. 5. rupture of aortic aneurism. 6. embolism of coronary artery. 7. angina pectoris. (b) =less sudden but unexpected death=-1. cerebral hæmorrhage or embolism. 2. mitral and tricuspid valvular lesions if the patient exerts himself. 3. rupture of a gastric or duodenal ulcer; rupture of liver, spleen, or extra-uterine gestation, or abdominal aneurism. 4. suffocation during an epileptic fit; vomited matter or other material drawn into the trachea or air-passages; croup. 5. arterio-sclerosis may lead to thrombosis, embolism, or aneurism. 6. poisoning, as by hydrocyanic acid, cyanide of potassium, inhalation of carbonic acid or coal gas, oedema of glottis following inhalation of ammonia. 7. rapid onset of some acute specific disease, such as pneumonia or diphtheria; collapse from cholera. 8. heat-stroke, lightning, shocks of electricity of high tension. 9. mental or physical shock. 10. exertion while the stomach is overloaded. 11. diabetic coma; uræmia. 12. _status lymphaticus._ this is a general hyperplastic condition of the lymphatic structures in the body, and is seen in enlargement of tonsils, thymus, spleen, as well as of peyer's patches and mesenteric glands. it is a frequent cause of death during chloroform anæsthesia for slight operations in young people. in addition, it may be as well to remember that death sometimes occurs suddenly in exophthalmic goitre, hypertrophy of the thymus, and in addison's disease. in some cases of sudden death nothing has been found post mortem, even when the autopsy has been made by skilled observers, and the brain and cord have been submitted to microscopical examination. vi.--signs of death (1) cadaveric appearance; ashy white colour. (2) cessation of the circulation and respiration, no sound being heard by the stethoscope. cessation of the circulation may be determined by (a) placing a ligature round the base of a finger (magnus' test); (b) injecting a solution of fluorescin (icard's test); (c) looking through the web of the fingers at a bright light (diaphanous test); (d) the dulling of a steel needle when thrust into the living body; (e) the clear outline of the dead heart when viewed in the fluorescent screen. (3) the state of the eye; the tension is at once lost; iris insensible to light, fundus yellow in colour; cornea dull and sunken. (4) the state of the skin; pale, livid, with loss of elasticity. (5) extinction of muscular irritability. the above signs afford no means of determining how long life has been extinct. the following, however, do: =cooling of the body.=--the average internal temperature of the body is from 98° to 100° f. the time taken in cooling is from fifteen to twenty hours, but it may be modified by the kind of death, the age of the person, the presence or absence of clothing on the body, the surrounding temperature, and the stillness or otherwise of the air about the body. still, the body, other things being equal, may be said to be _quite cold_ in about _twelve hours_. =hypostasis= or =post-mortem staining= is due to the settling down of the blood in the most dependent parts of the body while the body is cooling. it is a sure sign of death, and occurs in all forms of death, even in that due to hæmorrhage, although not so marked in degree. post-mortem staining (_cadaveric lividity_) begins to appear in from eight to twelve hours after death, and its position on the body will help to determine the length of time the body has lain in the position in which it was found. the staining is of a dull red or slaty blue colour. it must be distinguished from ecchymosis the result of a bruise, by making an incision into the part; in the case of hypostasis a few small bloody points of divided arteries will be seen, in the case of ecchymosis the subcutaneous tissues are infiltrated with blood-clot. internally, hypostasis must not be mistaken for congestion of the brain or lungs, or the results of inflammation of the intestines. if the intestine is pulled straight, inflammatory redness is continuous, hypostasis is disconnected. about the neck hypostasis must not be mistaken for the mark of a cord or other ligature. when the blood is of a bright red colour after death (as happens in poisoning by co or hcn, or in death from cold), the hypostasis is bright red also. =cadaveric rigidity--rigor mortis.=--for some time after death the muscles continue to contract under stimuli. when this irritability ceases--and it seldom exceeds two hours--rigidity and hardening sets in, and in _all_ cases precedes putrefaction. it is caused by the coagulation of the muscle plasma. it commences in the muscles of the back of the neck and lower jaw, and then passes into the muscles of the face, front of the neck, chest, upper extremities, and lastly to the lower extremities. it has been noticed in the new-born infant, as well as in the foetus. it lasts from sixteen to twenty hours or more. in lingering diseases, after violent exertion, and in warm climates, it sets in quickly, and disappears in two or three hours; in those who are in perfect health and die from accident or asphyxia, it may not come on until from ten to twenty-four hours, and may last three or four days. after death from convulsions or strychnine-poisoning, the body may pass at once into rigor mortis. rigor mortis must be distinguished from _cadaveric spasm_ or the _death clutch_; in the former, articles in the hands are readily removable, in the latter this is not the case. in tetanic spasm the limbs when bent return to their former position; not so in rigor mortis. =putrefaction= appears in from one to three days after death, as a greenish-blue discoloration of the abdomen; in the drowned, over the head and face. this increases, becomes darker and more general, a strong putrefactive odour is developed, the thorax and abdomen become distended with gas, and the epidermis peels off. the muscles then become pulpy, and assume a dark greenish colour, the whole body at length becoming changed into a soft, semi-fluid mass. the organ first showing the putrefactive change is the trachea; that which resists putrefaction longest is the uterus. these putrefactive changes are modified by the fat or lean condition of the body, the temperature (putrefaction taking place more rapidly in summer than in winter), access of air, the period, place, mode of interment, age, etc. bodies which remain in water putrefy more slowly than those in air. =saponification.=--in bodies which are very fat and have lain in water or moist soil for from one to three years this process takes place, the fat uniting with the ammonia given off by the decomposition to form _adipocere_. this consists of a margarate or stearate of ammonium with lime, oxide of iron, potash, certain fatty acids, and a yellowish odorous matter. it has a fatty, unctuous feel, is either pure white or pale yellow, with an odour of decayed cheese. small portions of the body may show signs of this change in six weeks. =post-mortem examination.=--never make an autopsy in criminal cases without a written order from the coroner or procurator fiscal. if authorized, however, first have the body identified, then photographed if it has not been identified. a medical man representing the accused may be present, but only by consent of the crown authorities or of the sheriff. clothing should be examined for blood-stains, cuts, etc. examine external surface of body and take accurate measurements of wounds, marks, deformities, tattooings; note degree and distribution of post-mortem staining, rigidity, etc. examine brain by making incision from ear to ear across vertex, reflect scalp forwards and backwards, and saw off calvarium. examine brain carefully externally and on section. examine organs of chest and abdomen through an incision made from symphysis menti to pubis, reflecting tissues from chest wall and cutting through costal cartilages. in cases of suspected poisoning have several clean jars into which you place the stomach with contents, intestines with contents, piece of liver, kidney, spleen, etc., and seal each up carefully, attaching label with name of deceased, date, and contained organs, and transmit these personally to the analyst. =exhumation.=--a body which has been buried cannot be exhumed without an order from a coroner, fiscal, or from the home secretary. there is no legal limit in england as to when a body may be exhumed; in scotland, however, if an interval of twenty years has elapsed, an accused person cannot be prosecuted (_prescription of crime_). vii.--death from anæsthetics, etc. the coroner in england and wales and ireland must inquire into every case of death during the administration of an anæsthetic. the anæsthetist has to appear at the inquest, and must answer a long series of questions relative to the administration of the drug. before, therefore, giving an anæsthetic, and so as to furnish yourself with a proper defence in the event of death occurring, you ought to examine the heart, lungs, and kidneys of the patient to see if they are healthy. should a fatal result follow, the anæsthetist will require to prove that it was necessary to give the anæsthetic, that the one employed was the most suitable, that the patient was in a fit state of health to have it administered, that it was given skilfully and in moderate amount, that he had the usual remedies at hand in case of failure of the heart or lungs, and that he employed every means in his power to resuscitate the patient. the condition of the lungs is of more importance than the state of the heart. the chloroformist ought always to use the best chloroform. an anæsthetic should never be administered except in the presence of a _third person_. this applies especially to dentists who give gas to females. =malpractice.=--in every case where a medical man attends a patient, he must give him that amount of care, skill, knowledge, or judgment, that the law expects of him. if he does not, then the charge of malpractice may be brought against him. it is most frequently alleged in connection with surgical affections--_e.g._, overlooking a fracture or dislocation. before a major operation is performed, it is well to get a written agreement. viii.--presumption of death; survivorship =presumption of death.=--if a person be unheard of for seven years, the court may, on application by the nearest relative, presume death to have taken place. if, however, it can be shown that in all probability death had occurred in a certain accident or shipwreck, the decree may be made much earlier. =presumption of survivorship.=--when two or more related persons perish in a common accident, it may be necessary, in order to decide questions of succession, to determine which of them died first. it is generally accepted that the stronger and more vigorous will survive longest. ix.--assault, murder, manslaughter, etc. =assault.=--this is an attempt or offer to do violence to another person; it is not necessary that actual injury has been done, but evil intention must be proved. when a corporal hurt has been sustained, then _assault and battery_ has been committed. the assault may be aggravated by the use of weapons, etc. =homicide= may be _justifiable_, as in the case of judicial execution, or _excusable_, as in defence of one's family or property. _felonious homicide_ is murder. this means that a human being has been killed by another maliciously and deliberately or with reckless disregard of consequences. =manslaughter= or =culpable homicide= (scotland) is the unlawful killing of a human being without malice--as homicide after great provocation; signalman who allows a train to pass, and so collide with another in front. x.--wounds and mechanical injuries a wound may be defined as a 'breach of continuity in the structures of the body, whether external or internal, suddenly occasioned by mechanical violence.' the law does not define 'a wound,' but the _true skin must be broken_. wounds are dangerous from shock, hæmorrhage, from the supervention of crysipelas or pyæmia, and from _malum regimen_ on the part of the patient or surgeon. _is the wound dangerous to life?_ this question can only be answered by a full consideration of all the circumstances of the case; a guarded prognosis is wise in all cases. =burns= are caused by flames, highly heated solids, or very cold solids, as solid carbonic acid; scalds, by steam or hot fluids. burns may cause death from shock, suffocation, oedema glottidis, inflammation of serous surfaces, bronchitis, pneumonia, duodenal ulcer, coma, or exhaustion. a burn of the skin inflicted during life is followed by a bleb containing serum; the edges of this blister are bright red, and the base, seen after removing the cuticle, is red and inflamed; if sustained after death, a bleb, if present, contains but little fluid, and there are no signs of vital reaction. there are six degrees of burns: (1) superficial inflammation; (2) formation of vesicles; (3) destruction of superficial layer of skin; (4) destruction of cellular tissue; (5) deep parts charred; (6) carbonization of bones. the larger the area of skin burnt, the more grave is the prognosis. burns of the abdomen and genital organs are especially dangerous. young children are specially liable to die after burns. xi.--contused wounds and injuries unaccompanied by solution of continuity if a blow be inflicted with a blunt instrument, there is produced a bruise, or _ecchymosis_, of which it is unnecessary here to describe the appearance and progress. a bruise may be distinguished from a post-mortem stain by the cuticle in the former often being abraded and raised. when an incision is made into the bruise, the whole of the subcutaneous tissues are found to be infiltrated with blood-clot, and there is no clear margin. in the case of a post-mortem stain the edges are sharply defined, not raised, and, on section, mere bloody points are seen which are the cut ends of the divided blood vessels. xii.--incised wounds and those accompanied by solution of continuity these comprise incised, punctured, and lacerated wounds. in a recent incised wound inflicted during life there is copious hæmorrhage, the cellular tissue is filled with blood, the edges of the wound gape and are everted, and the cavity of the wound is filled with coagula. lacerated wounds combine the characters of incised and contused wounds. they are caused by falls, being ridden over, machinery crushes, bites, blows from blunt weapons, etc. the wounds heal by suppuration. _punctured wounds_ come intermediate between incised and lacerated. they are greater in depth than in length, being caused by sword or rapier thrusts. they cause little hæmorrhage externally, but death may be due to internal hæmorrhage. they may be complicated by (1) the introduction of septic material adhering to the instrument; (2) the entrance of foreign bodies which lodge in the wound, not only carrying in septic matter, but acting as mechanical irritants; (3) injury to deeper parts, which may at the time be difficult to detect. an apparently _incised wound_ may be produced by a hard, blunt weapon over a bone--_e.g._, shin or cranium. it is often difficult to distinguish between a wound of the scalp inflicted with a knife and one made by a blow with a stick. a puncture with a sharp-edged, pointed knife leaves a fusiform or spindle-shaped wound. a wound from a blow with a stick might be of this character, or it might present a jagged, swollen appearance at the margin, with much contusion of the surrounding tissues. if the wound is seen soon after it is inflicted, examination with a lens may disclose irregularities of the margins, or little bridges of connective tissue or vessels running across the wound, and so be inconsistent with its production by a cutting instrument. _lacerated wounds_ as a rule bleed less freely than those which are incised. symptoms of concussion would favour the theory of the injury having been inflicted by a heavy instrument. again, it is often difficult to decide whether the injury which caused death was the result of a blow or a fall. a heavy blow with a stick may at once cause fatal effusion of blood, but this might equally result from fracture of the skull resulting from a fall. the wound should be carefully examined for foreign bodies, such as grit, dirt, or sand. the distinction between incised wounds inflicted during life and after death is found in the fact that a wound inflicted during life presents the appearances already described, whereas in a post-mortem incised wound only a small quantity of liquid venous blood is effused; the edges are close, yielding, inelastic; the blood is not effused into the cellular tissue, and there are no signs of vital reaction. the presence of inflammatory reaction or pus shows that the wound must have been inflicted some time before death, probably two or three days. _self-inflicted wounds_ are made by the person himself in order to divert suspicion, or in order to bring accusation against another. such wounds are always in front, not over vital organs, and superficial in character. note the condition of the clothes in such cases. xiii.--gunshot wounds these may be punctured, contused, or lacerated. round balls make a larger opening than those which are conical. small shot fired at a short distance make one large ragged opening; while at distances greater than 3 feet the shot scatter and there is no central opening. the lee-metford bullet is more destructive than the mauser. the former is the larger, but the difference in size is not great. the martini-henry bullet weighs 480 grains, the lee-metford 215, and the mauser 173. speaking generally, a gunshot wound, unlike a punctured wound, becomes larger as it increases in depth; the aperture of entrance is round, clean, with inverted edges, and that of exit larger, less regular than that of entrance, and with everted edges. in the case of high-velocity bullets from smooth-bore rifles, including the mauser and lee-metford, the aperture of entry is small; the aperture of exit is slightly larger, and tends to be more slit-like. there is but little tendency to carry in portions of clothing or septic material, and the wound heals by first intention, if reasonable precautions be taken. the external cicatrices finally look very similar to those produced by bad acne pustules. the contents of all gunshot wounds should be preserved, as they may be useful in evidence. a pocket revolver, as a rule, leaves the bullet in the body. wounds inflicted by firearms may be due to accident, homicide, or suicide. blackening of the wound, singeing of the hair, scorching of the skin and clothing, show that the weapon was fired at close quarters, whilst blackening of the hand points to suicide. even when the weapon is fired quite close there may be no blackening of the skin, and the hand is not always blackened in cases of suicide. smokeless powder does not blacken the skin. wounds on the back of the body are not usually self-inflicted, but a suicide may elect to blow off the back of his head. a wound in the back may be met with in a sportsman who indulges in the careless habit of dragging a loaded gun after him. if a revolver is found tightly grasped in the hand it is probably a case of suicide, whilst if it lies lightly in the hand it may be suicide or homicide. if no weapon is found near the body, it is not conclusive proof that it is not suicide, for it may have been thrown into a river or pond, or to some distance and picked up by a passer-by. a bullet penetrating the skull even from a distance of 3,000 yards may act as an explosive, scattering the contents in all directions; but the bullet from a revolver will usually be found in the cranium. the prognosis depends partly on the extent of the injury and the parts involved, but there is also risk from secondary hæmorrhage, and from such complications as pleurisy, pericarditis, and peritonitis. death may result from shock, hæmorrhage, injury to brain or important nervous structures. xiv.--wounds of various parts of the body 1. =of the head.=--wounds of the scalp are likely to be followed by (1) erysipelatous inflammation; (2) inflammation of the tendinous structures, with or without suppuration. a severe blow on the vertex may cause fracture of the base of the skull. injuries of the brain include concussion, compression, wounds, contusion, and inflammation. concussion is a common effect of blows or violent shocks, and the symptoms follow immediately on the accident, death sometimes taking place without reaction. compression may be caused by depressed bone or effused blood (rupture of middle meningeal artery) and serum. the symptoms may come on suddenly or gradually. wounds of the brain present very great difficulties, and vary greatly in their effect, very slight wounds producing severe symptoms, and _vice versâ_. a person may receive an injury to the head, recover from the first effects, and then die with all the symptoms of compression from internal hæmorrhage. this is due to the fact that the primary syncope arrests the hæmorrhage, which returns during the subsequent reaction, or on the occurrence of any excitement. inflammation of the meninges or brain may follow injuries, not only to the brain itself, but to the scalp and adjacent parts, as the orbit and ear. inflammation does not usually come on at once, but after variable periods. 2. =injuries to the spinal cord= may be due to concussion, compression (fracture-dislocation), or wounds. that the wound has penetrated the meninges is shown by the escape of cerebro-spinal fluid. the cord and nerves may be injured (1) by the puncture; (2) by extravasation of blood and the formation of a clot; and (3) by subsequent septic inflammation. division or complete compression of the cord at or above the level of the fourth cervical vertebra is immediately fatal (as happens in judicial hanging). when the injury is below the fourth, the diaphragm continues forcibly in action, but the lungs are imperfectly expanded, and life will not be maintained for more than a day or two. when the injury is in the dorsal region, there is paralysis of the legs and of the sphincters of the bladder and rectum, but power is retained in the arms and the upper intercostal muscles act, the extent of paralysis depending on the level of the lesion. in injuries to the lumbar region the legs may be partly paralysed, and the rectal and bladder sphincters may be involved. _railway spine_, or traumatic neurasthenia, may be set up by concussion of the cord as a result of blows or falls. passengers after railway accidents, or miners, often suffer from this affection. 3. =of the face.=--these produce great disfigurement and inconvenience, and there is a risk of injury to the brain. the seventh nerve may be involved, giving rise to facial paralysis. punctured wounds of the orbit are especially dangerous. wounds apparently confined to the external parts often conceal deep-seated mischief. 4. =of the eye.=--the iris may be injured by sharp blows, as from the cork of a soda-water bottle. it is usually followed by hæmorrhage into the anterior chamber, and there may be separation of the iris from its ciliary border. wounds at the edge of the cornea are often followed by prolapse of the iris. acute traumatic iritis or irido-cyclitis may supervene four or five days after the injury. the lens is frequently wounded in addition to the cornea and iris. in dislocation of the lens into the anterior chamber as the result of a blow, the lens appears like a large drop of oil lying at the back of the cornea, the margin exhibiting a brilliant yellow reflex. partial dislocations of the lens as the result of severe blows generally terminate in cataract. 5. =of the throat.=--very frequently inflicted by suicides. division of the carotid artery is fatal, and of the internal jugular vein very dangerous on account of entrance of air. wounds of the larynx and trachea are not necessarily or immediately dangerous, but septic pneumonia is very apt to follow. wounds of the throat inflicted by suicides are commonly situated at the upper part, involving the hyoid bone and the thyroid and cricoid cartilages. the larynx is opened, but the large vessels often escape. in most suicidal wounds of the throat the direction is from left to right, the incision being slightly inclined from above downwards. at the termination of a suicidal cut-throat the skin is the last structure divided, the wound being shallower as it reaches its termination; the wounds often show parallelism. the weapon is often firmly grasped in the hand. inquiry should be made as to whether the patient is right or left handed, or ambidextrous. homicidal cut throat is usually very severe and situated low down in the neck or far to the side. 6. =of the chest.=--incised wounds of the walls are not of necessity dangerous; but severe blows, by causing fracture of the bones and internal injuries, are often fatal. the symptoms of penetrating wounds of the chest are--(1) the passage of blood and air through the wound; (2) hæmoptysis; (3) pneumothorax; and (4) protrusion of the lung forming a tumour covered with pleura. fracture of the ribs may be due to direct violence, as from a blow, when the ends are driven inwards, or to indirect violence, as from a squeeze in a crowd, when the ends are driven outwards. 7. =of the lungs.=--these usually cause hæmorrhage, and are frequently followed by pleurisy, either dry or with effusion, and by pneumonia. 8. =of the heart.=--penetrating wounds are fatal from hæmorrhage, of the base more speedily than of the apex; but life may be prolonged for some time even after a severe wound to the heart. injury to the right ventricle is the most fatal injury and the most frequent. rupture from disease usually occurs in the left ventricle; rupture from a crush is usually towards the base and on the right side. 9. =of the aorta and pulmonary artery.=--fatal. 10. =of the diaphragm.=--generally fatal, owing to the severe injury of the other abdominal organs. if the diaphragm be ruptured, hernia of the organs may result. 11. =of the abdomen.=--of the walls, may be dangerous from division of the epigastric artery; ventral hernia may follow, internal hæmorrhage, etc. blows on the abdomen are prone to cause death from cardiac inhibition. 12. =of the liver.=--may divide the large vessels. venous blood flows profusely from a punctured wound of the liver. wounds of the gall-bladder cause effusion of bile and peritoneal inflammation. laceration of the liver may result from external violence without leaving any outward sign of the injury; it is commonly fatal. there is rapid and acute anæmia from the pouring out of blood into the abdominal cavity. this may also occur with injuries of other organs in the abdomen. 13. =of the spleen.=--fatal hæmorrhage may result from penetrating wounds or from rupture due to kicks, blows, crushes, especially if the spleen be enlarged. 14. =of the stomach.=--may be fatal from shock, from hæmorrhage, from extravasation of contents, or from inflammation. the danger is materially lessened by prompt surgical intervention. 15. =of the intestines.=--may be fatal in the same way as those of the stomach. more dangerous in the small than in the large intestines. 16. =of the kidneys.=--may prove fatal from hæmorrhage, extravasation of urine, or inflammation. 17. =of the bladder.=--dangerous from extravasation of urine. in fracture of the pelvis the bladder is often injured, and extraperitoneal infiltration of urine occurs, with frequently a fatal issue. 18. =of genital organs.=--incised wounds of penis may produce fatal hæmorrhage. removal of testicles may prove fatal from shock to nervous system. wounds of the spermatic cord may be dangerous from hæmorrhage. wounds to the vulva are dangerous, owing to hæmorrhage from the large plexus of veins without valves. xv.--detection of blood-stains, etc. stains may require detection on clothing, on cutting instruments, on floors and furniture, etc. the following are the distinctive characters of blood-stains: (a) =ocular inspection.=--blood-stains on dark-coloured materials, which in daylight might be easily overlooked, may be readily detected by the use of artificial light, as that of a candle, brought near the cloth. blood-spots when recent are of a bright red colour if arterial, of a purple hue if venous, the latter becoming brighter on exposure to the air. after a few hours blood-stains assume a reddish-brown or chocolate tint, which they maintain for years. this change is due to the conversion of hæmoglobin into methæmoglobin, and finally into hæmatin. the change of colour in warm weather usually occurs in less than twenty-four hours. the colour is determined, not entirely by the age of the stain, but is influenced by the presence or absence of impurities in the air, such as the vapours of sulphurous, sulphuric, and hydrochloric acids. if recent, a jelly-like material may be seen by the aid of a magnifying-glass lying between the fibres. if old, a cinnabar-red streak is seen on drawing a needle across the stain. (b) =microscopic demonstration.=--with the aid of the microscope, blood may be detected by the presence of the characteristic blood-corpuscles. the human blood-corpuscle is a non-nucleated, biconcave disc, having a diameter of about 1/3500 of an inch. all mammalian red corpuscles have the same shape, except those of the camel, which are oval. the corpuscles of birds, fishes, reptiles, and amphibians, are oval and nucleated. the corpuscles of most mammals are smaller than those of man, but the size of a corpuscle is affected by various circumstances, such as drying or moisture, so that the medical witness is rarely justified in going farther than stating whether the stain is that of the blood of a mammal or not. unfortunately, the corpuscles are usually so dried that little information regarding their size can be given. (c) =action of water.=--water has a solvent action on blood, fresh stains rapidly dissolving when the material on which they occur is placed in cold distilled water, forming a bright red solution. the hæmatin of old stains dissolves very slowly, so employ a weak solution of ammonia, and this will give a solution of alkaline hæmatin. rust is not soluble in water. (d) =action of heat.=--blood-stains on knives may be removed by heating the metal, when the blood will peel off, at once distinguishing it from rust. should the blood-stain on the metal be long exposed to the air, rust may be mixed with the blood, when the test will fail. the solution obtained in water is coagulated by heat, the colour entirely destroyed, and a flocculent muddy-brown precipitate formed. (e) =action of caustic potash.=--the solution of blood obtained in water is boiled, when a coagulum is formed soluble in hot caustic potash, the solution formed being greenish by transmitted and red by reflected light. (f) =action of nitric acid.=--nitric acid added to a watery solution produces a whitish-grey precipitate. (g) =action of guaiacum.=--tincture of guaiacum produces in the watery solution a reddish-white precipitate of the resin, but on addition of an aqueous solution of peroxide of hydrogen, or of an ethereal solution of the same substance (known as _ozonic ether_), a blue or bluish-green colour is developed. this test is delicate, and succeeds best in dilute solutions. it is not absolutely indicative of the presence of blood, for tincture of guaiacum is coloured blue by milk, saliva, and pus. (h) =hæmin crystals (teichman's crystals).=--these are produced by heating a drop of blood, or a watery solution of it, with a minute crystal of sodium chloride on a glass slide and evaporating to dryness. a cover-glass is placed over this, and a drop of glacial acetic acid allowed to run in. it is again heated until bubbles appear. crystals of hæmin may now be detected by the microscope. they are dark brown or yellow rhombic prisms. an improvement on this test is the use of formic acid alone; on slowly evaporating it, numerous very small dark crystals are visible if hæmoglobin has been present (whitney's test). (i) =spectroscopic appearances.=--if a solution of a recent stain be examined by the spectroscope, we get two absorption bands situated between the lines d and e, the one nearer e being doubly as broad as the other. these bands indicate _oxyhæmoglobin_. if we now add a little ammonium sulphide to this solution, we get the spectrum of _reduced hæmoglobin_, which is a single broad absorption band situated in the interval between the preceding oxyhæmoglobin bands. by shaking the solution, oxyhæmoglobin is again reproduced, and gives its special absorption bands. if ammonia be added to the original solution, _alkaline hæmatin_ is produced, or if acetic acid be chosen, _acid hæmatin_ is produced, and each gives its appropriate absorption bands. _methæmoglobin_ is formed in stains which have been exposed to the air for a few days, and _hæmatin_ is found in old stains. _hæmochromogen_ gives a very characteristic spectrum, and is obtained by reducing alkaline hæmatin by ammonium sulphide. _carbon monoxide hæmoglobin_ gives a spectrum which resembles that of oxyhæmoglobin, but it is not reduced by ammonium sulphide. (j) =precipitin test.=--this allows us to tell whether the blood is from a human being or not. a specific serum must be obtained from a rabbit which is sensitized as follows: 10 c.c. of human blood is injected into its peritoneal cavity at intervals, until from three to five injections have been given. the serum of this animal's blood will then give a white precipitate only when brought into contact with dilute solutions of human blood, but with the blood of no other animal. this is known also as the 'biologic,' or uhlenhuth's test. =rust stains.=--these are yellowish-red in colour, and do not stiffen the cloth. the iron may be dissolved by placing the stain in a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid, when, on adding ferrocyanide of potassium, prussian blue is produced. =fruit stains= are seldom so dark as blood-stains. solutions of these do not change colour or coagulate on boiling; ammonia changes the colour to blue or green; acid brightens the original colour, while chlorine bleaches it. =hairs.=--human hairs must be identified and distinguished from those of the lower mammals. if the hair has been pulled out from the root, the microscope will show that the bulbous root has a concave surface which fitted over the hair papilla, or that the root is encased in a fatty sheath. =fibres of clothing.=--microscopically, wool fibres are coarse, curly, and striated transversely; cotton fibres appear as flattened bands twisted into spirals; linen fibres are round, jointed at frequent intervals, with small root-like filaments; silk fibres are solid, continuous, and highly glistening. xvi.--death by suffocation _signs and symptoms._--there are usually three stages: 1. exaggerated respiratory activity; air hunger; anxiety; congested appearance of face; ringing in ears. 2. loss of consciousness; convulsions; relaxation of sphincters. 3. respirations feeble and gasping, and soon cease; convulsions of stretching character; heart continues to beat for three to four minutes after breathing ceases. _post-mortem appearances--external._--cadaveric lividity well marked; nose, lips, ears, finger-tips almost black in colour; appearance may be placid or, if asphyxia has been sudden, the tongue may be protruded and eyeballs prominent, with much bloody mucus escaping from mouth and nose. _internal._--the blood is dark and remains fluid; great engorgement of venous system, right side of heart, great veins of thorax and abdomen, liver, spleen, etc. lungs dark purple in colour; much bloody froth escapes on squeezing them; mucous lining of trachea and bronchi congested and bright red in colour; air-cells distended or ruptured; many small hæmorrhages on surface of lungs and other organs, as well as in their substance (_tardieu's spots_), due to rupture of venous capillaries from increased vascular pressure. xvii.--death by hanging in hanging, death occurs by asphyxia, as in drowning. sensibility is soon lost, and death takes place in four or five minutes. the eyes in some cases are brilliant and staring, tongue swollen and livid, blood or bloody froth is found about the mouth and nostrils, and the hands are clenched. in other cases the countenance is placid, with an almost entire absence of the signs just given. the mark on the neck, which may be more or less interrupted by the beard, shows the course of the cord, which in hanging is obliquely round the neck following the line of the jaw, but straight round in strangulation. in judicial hanging, death is not due to asphyxiation, but, owing to the long drop, the cervical vertebræ are dislocated, and the spinal cord injured so high up that almost instant death takes place. on dissection the muscles and ligaments of the windpipe may be found stretched, bruised, or torn, and the inner coats of the carotid arteries are sometimes found divided. in ordinary suicidal hanging there may be entire absence of injury to the soft parts about the neck, the length of the drop modifying these appearances. the mark of the cord is not a sign of hanging, is a purely cadaveric phenomenon, and may be produced some hours after death. xviii.--death by strangulation this differs from hanging in that the body is not suspended. it may be effected by a ligature round the neck, or by direct pressure on the windpipe with the hand, in which case death is said to be caused by _throttling_. strangulation is frequently suicidal, but may be accidental. when homicidal, much injury is done to the neck, owing to the force with which the ligature is drawn. in throttling, the marks of the finger-nails are found on the neck. xix.--death by drowning death by drowning occurs when breathing is arrested by watery or semi-fluid substances--blood, urine, etc. the fluid acts mechanically by entering the air-cells of the lung and preventing the due oxidation of the blood. the post-mortem appearances include those usually present in death by asphyxia, together with the following, peculiar to death by drowning: excoriations of the fingers, with sand or mud under the nails; fragments of plants grasped in the hand; water in the stomach (this is a vital act, and shows that the person fell into the water alive); fine froth at the mouth and nostrils; cutis anserina; retraction of penis and scrotum. on post-mortem examination, the lungs are found to be increased in size ('ballooned'); on section, froth, water mud, sand, in air-tubes. the presence of this fine (often blood-stained) froth is the most characteristic sign of drowning. froth like that of soap-suds in the trachea is an indication of a vital act, and must not be mistaken for the tenacious mucus of bronchitis. the presence of vomited matters in the trachea and bronchi is a valuable sign of drowning. the blood collects in the venous system, and is dark and fluid. tardieu's spots are not so frequently met with in cases of drowning as in other forms of asphyxia. the other signs of death by asphyxia are present. wounds may be present on the body, due to falling on stakes, injuries from passing vessels, etc. the methods of performing artificial respiration in the case of the apparently drowned are the following (the best and most easily performed is schäfer's prone pressure method): 1. _schäfer's._--place the patient on his face, with a folded coat under the lower part of the chest. unfasten the collar and neckband. go to work at once. kneel over him athwart or on one side facing his head. place your hands flat over the lower part of his back, and make pressure on his ribs on both sides, and throw the weight of your body on to them so as to squeeze out the air from his chest. get back into position at once, but leave your hands as they were. do this every five seconds, and get someone to time you with a watch. keep this going for half an hour, and when you are tired get someone to relieve you. other people may apply hot flannels to the limbs and hot water to the feet. hypodermic injections of 1/50 grain of atropine, suprarenal or pituitary extracts, may be found useful. 2. _silvester's._--in this method the capacity of the chest is increased by raising the arms above the head, holding them by the elbows, and thus dragging upon and elevating the ribs, the chest being emptied by lowering the arms against the sides of the chest and exerting lateral pressure on the thorax. the patient is in the supine position--but first the water must have been drained from the mouth and nose by keeping the body in the prone position. the tongue must be kept forward by transfixing with a pin. 3. _marshall hall's._--this consists in placing the patient in the prone position, with a folded coat under the chest, and rolling the body alternately into the lateral and prone positions. 4. _howard's._--this consists in emptying the thorax by forcibly compressing the lower part of the chest; on relaxing the pressure the chest again fills with air. here the patient is placed in the supine position. the objections to the supine position are that the tongue falls back, and not only blocks the entrance of air, but prevents the escape of water, mucus, and froth from the air-passages. 5. _laborde's method._--this consists in holding the tongue by means of a handkerchief, and rhythmically drawing it out fully at the rate of fifteen times per minute. this excites the respiratory centre, and this method may be employed along with any of the other methods. xx.--death from starvation the post-mortem appearances in death from starvation are as follows: there is marked general emaciation; the skin is dry, shrivelled, and covered with a brown, bad-smelling excretion; the muscles soft, atrophied, and free from fat; the liver is small, but the gall-bladder is distended with bile. the heart, lungs, and internal organs are shrivelled and bloodless. the stomach is sometimes quite healthy; in other cases it may be collapsed, empty, and ulcerated. the intestines are also contracted, empty, and translucent. in the absence of any disease productive of extreme emaciation (_e.g._, tuberculosis, stricture of oesophagus, diabetes, addison's disease), such a state of body will furnish a strong presumption of death by starvation. in the case of children there is not always absolute deprivation of food, but what is supplied is insufficient in quantity or of improper quality. the defence commonly set up is that the child died either of marasmus or of tuberculosis. in cases where it is alleged that a child has been starved and ill-used, one must examine the body for signs of neglect--_e.g._, dirtiness of skin and hair, presence of vermin, bruises or skin eruptions. compare its weight with a normal child of the same age and sex. if the disproportion be great and signs of neglect present, then the probability is great (provided there be no actual disease present) that the child has been starved. xxi.--death from lightning and electricity the signs of death from lightning vary greatly. in some cases there are no signs; in others the body may be most curiously marked. wounds of various characters--contused, lacerated, and punctured--may be produced. there may be burns, vesications, and ecchymoses; arborescent markings are not uncommon. the hair may be singed or burnt and the clothing damaged. rigor mortis is very rapid in its onset and transient. post mortem there are no characteristic signs, but the blood may be dark in colour and fluid. the presence or absence of a storm may assist the diagnosis. injuries by electrical currents of high pressure are not uncommon; speaking generally, 1,000 to 2,000 volts will kill. in america, where electricity is adopted as the official means of destroying criminals, 1,500 volts is regarded as the lethal dose, but there are many instances of persons having been exposed to higher voltages without bad effects. the alternating current is supposed to be more fatal than the continuous. much depends on whether the contact is good (perspiring hands or damp clothes). death has been attributed in these cases to respiratory arrest or sudden cessation of the heart's action. the best treatment is artificial respiration, but the inhalation of nitrite of amyl may prove useful. rescuers must be careful that they, also, do not receive a shock. the patient should be handled with india-rubber gloves or through a blanket thrown over him. xxii.--death from cold or heat =cold.=--the weak, aged, or infants, readily succumb to low temperatures. the symptoms are increasing lassitude, drowsiness, coma, with sometimes illusions of sight. post mortem, bright red patches are found on the skin surface, and the blood remains fluid for long. =heat.=--death may result from syncope, the result of exposure to great heat. =sunstroke.=--the person loses consciousness and falls down insensible; the body temperature may be 112° f., the pulse is full, and a peculiar pungent odour is given off from the skin. coma, convulsions with (rarely) delirium, may precede death. _treatment_ consists in lowering the body temperature by application of cold cloths, stimulants, strychnine or digitalin hypodermically. xxiii.--pregnancy the signs of the existence of pregnancy are of two kinds, uncertain and certain, or maternal and foetal. amongst the former class are included--cessation of menstruation (which may occur without pregnancy); morning vomiting; salivation; enlargement of the breasts and of the abdomen; quickening. it must be borne in mind that every woman with a big abdomen is not necessarily pregnant. the tests which afford conclusive evidence of the existence of a foetus in the uterus are--ballottement, the uterine souffle, intermittent uterine contractions, foetal movements, and, above all, the pulsation of the foetal heart. the uterine souffle is synchronous with the maternal pulse; the foetal heart is not, being about 120 beats per minute. evidence of pregnancy may also be afforded by the discharge from the uterus of an early ovum, of moles, hydatids, etc. disease of the uterus and ovarian dropsy may be mistaken for pregnancy. careful examination is necessary to determine the nature of the condition present. pregnancy may be pleaded in bar of immediate capital punishment, in which case the woman must be shown to be 'quick with child.' a woman may also plead pregnancy to delay her trial in scotland, and both in england and scotland, in civil cases, to produce a successor to estates, to increase damages for seduction, in compensation cases where a husband has been killed, to obtain increased damages, etc. a woman may become pregnant within a month of her last delivery. in cases of rape and suspected pregnancy, it must be borne in mind that a medical man who examines a woman under any circumstances against her will renders himself liable to heavy damages, and that the law will not support him in so doing. if, on being requested to permit an examination, the woman refuse, such refusal may go against her, but of this she is the best judge. the duty of the medical man ends on making the suggestion. xxiv.--delivery the signs of recent delivery are as follows: the face is pale, with dark circles round the eyes; the pulse quickened; the skin soft, warm, and covered with a peculiar sweat; the breasts full, tense, and knotty; the abdomen distended, its integuments relaxed, with irregular light pink streaks on the lower part. the labia and vagina show signs of distension and injury. for the first three or four days there is a discharge from the uterus more or less sanguineous in character, consisting of blood, mucus, epithelium, and shreds of membrane. during the next four or five days it becomes of a dirty green colour, and in a few days more of a yellowish, milky, mucous character, continuing for two to three weeks. the change in character of the lochial discharge is due to the quantity of blood decreasing and its place being taken by fatty granules and leucocytes. the os uteri is soft, patulous, and its edges are torn. the uterus may be felt for two or three hours above the pubis as a hard round ball, regaining its normal size in about eight weeks after delivery. most of these signs disappear about the tenth day, after which it becomes impossible to fix the date of delivery. in the dead the external parts have the same appearance as given above. the uterus will vary in appearance according to the time elapsed since delivery. if death occurred immediately after delivery, the uterus will be wide open, about 9 or 10 inches long, with clots of blood inside, and the inner surface lined by decidua. the signs of a previous delivery consist in silvery streaks in the skin of the abdomen, which, however, may be due to distension from other causes; similar marks on the breast; circular and jagged condition of the os uteri (the virgin os being oval and smooth); marks of rupture of the perineum or fourchette; absence of the vaginal rugæ; dark-coloured areola round the nipples, etc. the difference between the virgin _corpus luteum_ and that of recent pregnancy is not so marked as to justify a confident use of it for medico-legal purposes. xxv.--foeticide, or criminal abortion this consists in giving to any woman, or causing to be taken by her, with intent to procure her miscarriage, any poison or other noxious thing, or using for the same purpose any instruments or other means whatsoever. it is a felony to procure or attempt to procure the miscarriage of a woman, whether she be pregnant or not, and it is a felony for the woman, if pregnant, to attempt to procure her own miscarriage. it is a misdemeanour for any person or persons to procure drugs or instruments for a like purpose. it is not necessary that the woman be _quick_ with child. the offence is the intent to procure the miscarriage of any woman, _whether she be or be not with child_. when from any causes it is necessary to procure abortion, a medical man should do so only after consultation with a brother practitioner. even in these cases there is no exemption legally. any medical man who gives even the most harmless medicine where he suspects the possibility of pregnancy may render himself liable to grave suspicion should the woman abort. in medicine, an _abortion_ is said to occur when the foetus is expelled before the sixth month; after that it is _premature birth_. in law, however, any expulsion of the contents of the uterus before the full time is an _abortion_ or _miscarriage_. in deciding whether any substance expelled from the uterus is really a foetus or a mole, and therefore the result of conception, or the coat of the uterus, and unconnected with pregnancy, the examination of the substances expelled must be carefully made. moles are blighted foetuses. an examination of the woman will be necessary, though it is not easy during the early months of pregnancy, and especially in those who have borne children, to say whether abortion has taken place or not. the history must be inquired into; the regular or exceptional use of drugs to promote menstruation is important, for in the former case no criminal intent may exist, although pregnancy be present. the state of the breasts, the hymen, and the os uteri, should all be carefully examined. putting a few apparently unimportant questions as to the frequent use of purgatives, the presence or absence of constipation, will often assist the diagnosis as showing that the woman has acted in an unusual manner. abortion may be procured by the introduction of instruments, by falls, violent exercise, blows on the abdomen, etc. in the hands of ignorant persons the use of instruments (sounds, bougies, skewers, etc.) is attended with great danger. perforation of the vaginal walls, bladder, cervix, or uterus, may follow their use. septic pelvic peritonitis may ensue, and the woman may lose her life. the person who has employed such means for inducing abortion is liable to be charged with the crime of murder. there is no evidence to show that ergot, savin, bitter-apple, pennyroyal, or any other drug administered internally, will cause a woman to abort, except when taken in such large doses that actual poisoning results, with inflammation of the contents of the true pelvis. in such cases reflex uterine contractions may be set up, and abortion may follow. diachylon pills are largely employed to induce abortion, and very often the woman taking them suffers severely from lead-poisoning. xxvi.--infanticide infanticide, or the murder of a new-born child, is not treated as a specific crime, but is tried by the same rules as in cases of felonious homicide. the term is applied technically to those cases in which the mother kills her child at, or soon after, its birth. she is often in such a condition of mental anxiety as not to be responsible for her actions. it is usually committed with the object of concealing delivery, and to hide the fact that the girl has, in popular language, 'strayed from the paths of virtue.' the child must have had a separate existence. to constitute 'live birth,' the child must have been alive after its body was entirely born--that is, entirely outside the maternal passages--and it must have had an independent circulation, though this does not imply the severance of the umbilical cord. every child is held in law to be born dead until it has been shown to have been born alive. killing a child in the act of birth and before it is fully born is not infanticide, but if before birth injuries are inflicted which result in death after birth, it is murder. medical evidence will be called to show that the child was born alive. the methods of death usually employed are--(1) suffocation by the hand or a cloth. (2) strangulation with the hands, by a tape or ribbon, or by the umbilical cord itself. (3) blows on the head, or dashing the child against the wall. (4) drowning by putting it in the privy or in a bucket of water. (5) omission: by neglecting to do what is absolutely necessary for the newly-born child--_e.g._, not separating the cord; allowing it to lie under the bed-clothes and be suffocated. with regard to the question of the maturity of a child, the differences between a child of six or seven months and one at full term may be stated as follows: between the sixth and seventh month, length of child 10 to 14 inches--that is, the length of the child after the fifth month is about double the lunar months--weight 1 to 3 pounds; skin, dusky red, covered with downy hair (lanugo) and sebaceous matter; membrana pupillaris disappearing; nails not reaching to ends of fingers; meconium at upper part of large intestine; testes near kidneys; no appearance of convolutions in brain; points of ossification in four divisions of sternum. at nine months, length of child 18 to 22 inches; weight, 7 to 8 pounds; skin rosy; lanugo only about shoulders; sebaceous matter on the body; hair on head about an inch long; testes past inguinal ring; clitoris covered by the labia; membrana pupillaris disappeared; nails reach to ends of fingers; meconium at termination of large intestine; points of ossification in centre of cartilage at lower end of femur, about 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 lines in diameter; umbilicus midway between the ensiform cartilage and pubis. owing to the difficulty of proving that the crime of infanticide has been committed, the woman may in england be tried for _concealment of birth_, and in scotland for _concealment of pregnancy_, if she conceal her pregnancy during the whole time and fail to call for assistance in the birth. either of these charges would only be brought against a woman who had obviously been pregnant, and now the child is missing or its dead body has been found. it is expected that every pregnant woman should make provision for the child about to be born, and so should have talked about it or have made clothes, etc., for it. the punishment for concealment is imprisonment for any term not exceeding two years. the charge of concealment is very often alternative to infanticide. to substantiate the charge, however, it must be proved that there had been a _secret disposition of the dead body_ of the infant, as well as an endeavour to conceal its birth. a woman may be delivered of a child unconsciously, for the contractile power of the womb is independent of volition. under an anæsthetic the uterus acts as energetically as if the patient were in the full possession of her senses. nowadays a woman is rarely hanged for infanticide, and it is a mere travesty of justice to pass on her the death sentence, well knowing that it will never be executed. xxvii.--evidences of live birth the signs of live birth prior to respiration are negative and positive. a negative opinion may be formed when evidence is found of the child having undergone intra-uterine maceration. in this case the body will be flaccid and flattened; the ilia prominent; the head soft and yielding; the cuticle more or less detached, and raised into large bullæ; the skin of a red or brownish-red colour; the cavities filled with abundant bloody serum; the umbilical cord straight and flaccid. a positive opinion is justified when such injuries are found on the body as could not have been inflicted during birth, and are attended with such hæmorrhage as could only have occurred while the blood was circulating. fractures of the cranium from accidental falls (precipitate labour) are as a rule stellate, and are situated on the vertex or in the parietal protuberance. the fractures from violence are more extensive, usually depressed, and accompanied by laceration of the scalp. the evidences of live birth after respiration has taken place are usually deduced from the condition of the lungs, though indications are also found in other organs. the diaphragm is more arched before than after respiration, and rises higher in the thorax in the former case than in the latter. the lungs before respiration are situated in the back of the thorax, and do not fill that cavity; they are of a dark, red-brown colour and of the consistence of liver, without mottling. after respiration they expand and occupy the whole thorax, and closely surround the heart and thymus gland. the portions containing air are of a light brick-red colour, and crepitate under the finger. the lungs are mottled from the presence of islands of aerated tissue, surrounded by arteries and veins. the weight of the lungs before respiration is about 550 grains, after an hour's respiration 900 grains; but this test is of little value. the ratio of the weight of the lungs to that of the body (ploucquet's test), which is also unreliable, is, before respiration, about 1 to 70; after, 1 to 35. lungs in which respiration has taken place float in water; those in which it has not, sink. there are exceptions to this rule, on which, however, is founded the _hydrostatic test_. as originally performed, this test consisted merely in placing the lungs, with or without the heart, in water, and noticing whether they sank or floated. the test is now modified by squeezing, and by cutting the lungs up into pieces. the objections to the test as originally performed are--(1) that the lungs may sink as the result of disease--_e.g._, double pneumonia. (2) that respiration may have been so limited in extent that the lungs may sink, owing to large portions of lung tissue remaining unexpanded (_atelectasis_). (3) putrefaction may cause the lungs to float when respiration has not taken place. (4) the lungs may have been inflated artificially. few of these objections apply, however, when the hydrostatic test, modified by pressure, is employed. to take these objections in detail, it may be stated: (1) if the lungs sink from disease, the question of live birth is answered. (2) this objection is too refined for practical use. the lungs sink, there is an absence of any of the signs of suffocation, and the matter ends. the examiner has only to describe the conditions which he finds, and is not required to indulge in conjectures as to the amount of respiration which may or may not have taken place. (3) gas due to putrefaction collects under the pleural membrane, and can be expelled by pressure, and is not found in the air cells. the lungs decompose late, hence in a fresh body putrefaction of the lungs is absent; in a putrefied child, if the lungs sink, it must have been stillborn. the so-called _emphysema pulmonum neonatorum_ is simply incipient putrefaction. the lung test simply shows that the child has breathed, but affords no proof that the child has been born alive. the child may have breathed as soon as its head protruded, the rest of the body being in the maternal passages. the child is not born alive until it has been completely expelled, although it is not necessary that the umbilical cord should have been cut. in addition to these tests, live birth may be suspected from the following conditions: the _stomach_ may contain milk or food, recognized by the microscope and by trommer's test for sugar; the _large intestines_ in stillborn children are filled with meconium, in those born alive they are usually empty; the _bladder_ is generally emptied soon after birth; the _skin_ is in a condition of exfoliation soon after birth. the _organs of circulation_ undergo the following changes after birth, and the extent to which these changes have advanced will give an idea of how long the child has lived: the _ductus arteriosus_ begins to contract within a few seconds of birth; at the end of a week it is about the size of a crow quill, and about the tenth day is obliterated. the _umbilical arteries and vein_: the arteries are remarkably diminished in calibre at the end of twenty-four hours, and obliterated almost up to the iliacs in three days; the umbilical vein and the ductus venosus are generally completely contracted by the fifth day. the _foramen ovale_ becomes obliterated at extremely variable periods, and may continue open even in the adult. importance of late has been attached to the _stomach-bowel test_. if the stomach and duodenum contain air, and consequently float in water, the chances are that the child did not die immediately after birth; this is known as breslau's second life test, and the lower the air in the intestinal canal, the greater is the probability that the child survived birth. the umbilical cord in a new-born child is fresh, firm, round, and bluish in colour; blood is contained in its vessels. the cord may be ruptured by the child falling from the maternal parts in a precipitate labour, and the ruptured parts present ragged ends. it is seldom that a child bleeds to death from an untied or cut umbilical cord, and the chances in a torn cord are still more remote. the changes in the cord are as follows: first it shrinks from the ligature towards the navel; this change may begin early, and is rarely delayed beyond thirty hours; the cord becomes flabby, and there is a distinct inflammatory circle round its insertion. the next change is that of desiccation or mummification; the cord becomes reddish-brown, then flattened and shrivelled, then translucent and of the colour of parchment, and falls off about the fifth day. the third stage, that of cicatrization, then ensues about the tenth to the twelfth day. the bright red rim round the insertion of the cord, with inflammatory thickening and slight purulent secretion, may be considered as evidence of live birth, and the stage at which the separation of the cord by ulcerative process has arrived will point to the probable duration of time the child has existed after birth. there are many fallacies in the application of any of these tests, and the whole subject bristles with difficulties. the medical witness would do well to exhibit a cautious reserve, for if the child dies immediately after birth it is almost impossible to prove that it was born alive. xxviii.--cause of death in the foetus the death of the foetus may be due to--(1) immaturity or intra-uterine malnutrition, or simply from deficient vitality; (2) complications occurring during or immediately after birth, which may either be unavoidable or inherent in the process of parturition, or may be induced with criminal intent. in the latter category come such accidents as the pressure of tumours in the pelvic passages, or disease of the bones in the mother, or pressure on the cord from malposition of the child during labour, asphyxiation from the funis being twisted tightly round the neck or limbs, or from injuries due to falls on the floor in sudden labours. where the death of the foetus has been induced with criminal intent, it may be due to punctured wounds of the fontanelles, orbits, heart, or spinal marrow; dislocation of the neck; separation of the head from the body; fracture of the bones of the head and face; strangulation; suffocation; drowning in the closet pan or privy, or from being thrown into water. under the head of infanticide by _commission_, we have injuries of all kinds; under infanticide by _omission_, neglecting to tie the cord, allowing it to be suffocated by discharges in the bed, neglect to provide food, clothes, and warmth, for the new-born child. xxix.--duration of pregnancy the natural period of gestation is considered as forty weeks, ten lunar months, or 280 days. a medical witness would have to admit the possibility of gestation being prolonged to 300 days, and if this time were not very materially exceeded it would be well to give the woman the benefit of the doubt. it may be mentioned that 300 days is the extreme limit fixed by the french and scottish law. no fixed period is assigned in english or american law to the duration of pregnancy, though it is allowed that utero-gestation may be greatly prolonged. in a recent case decided, the lord chancellor accepted a case where it was alleged pregnancy had extended to 331 days. a child only five months old may live, for a short time at all events. there is considerable difficulty in many cases in fixing the date of conception. the data from which it is calculated are the following: (1) _peculiar sensations attending conception_, which are not sufficiently defined to be recognized by those conceiving for the first time. (2) _cessation of the catamenia._ other causes may, however, cause this; and, on the other hand, a woman may menstruate during the whole period of her pregnancy. this datum also gives a variable period, and may involve an error of several days or a month, for the menses may be arrested by cold, etc., at one monthly period, and the woman become pregnant before the next. (3) _the period of quickening._ this, when perceived (which is not always the case), also occurs at variable periods from the tenth to the twenty-sixth week. (4) _a single coitus._ this does not, however, correspond to the time of fertilization. several days may elapse before the spermatozoa meet with an ovum and fertilize it. in scotland a child born six months after marriage is legitimate, which is allowing an ample margin. xxx.--viability of children a child may be born alive, but may not be viable, by which is meant that it is not endowed with a capacity of maintaining its life. speaking generally, 180 days represents the lowest limit at which a child is viable, but prolonged survival under these circumstances is the exception. many cases, however, have been recorded in which children born at six months have been reared. the signs of immaturity and maturity may be thus tabulated: immaturity. maturity. centre of body high; head strong movements and cries as soon disproportionate in size; membrana as born; body clear, red colour, pupillaris present; testicles coated with sebaceous matter; mouth, undescended; deep red colour of nostrils, eyelids, and ears, open; parts of generation; intense red skull somewhat firm, and fontanelles colour, mottled appearance, and not far apart; hair, eyebrows, and downy covering, of skin; nails not nails, perfectly developed; formed; feeble movements; testicles descended; free discharge inability to suck; necessity for of urine and meconium; power of artificial heat; almost unbroken suction, indicated by seizure on the sleep; rare and imperfect nipple or a finger placed in the discharges of urine and meconium; mouth. closed state of mouth, eyelids, and nostrils. xxxi.--legitimacy a child born in wedlock is presumed to have the mother's husband for its father. this may, however, be open to question upon the following grounds: absence or death of the reputed father; impotence or disease in the husband preventing matrimonial intercourse; premature delivery in a newly-married woman; want of access; and the marriage of the woman again immediately on the death of her husband. in the last case, where either husband might have been the father, the child at the age of twenty-one is at liberty to select its father from the possible pair. a child born of parents before marriage is in scotland rendered legitimate by their subsequent marriage, but in england the offspring remains illegitimate whether the parents marry or not after its birth. the offspring of voidable or invalid marriages may be made legitimate by application to the courts. there is a difference between being legitimate and lawfully begotten. a child born in wedlock is legitimate, but if the parents were married only a week previously it could not have been lawfully begotten. the acts and rulings relating to marriage and legitimacy are extremely complicated. it is not putting it too strongly to say that a very large number of people in this country who believe themselves to be legally married are not married at all, and that thousands of children who have not the slightest doubt as to their legitimacy are in the eyes of the law bastards. xxxii.--superfoetation by superfoetation is meant the conception, by a woman already pregnant, of a second embryo, resulting in the birth of two children at the same time, differing much in their degree of maturity, or in two separate births, with a considerable interval between. the possibility of the occurrence of superfoetation has been doubted, but there are well-authenticated cases which countenance the theory of a double conception. it has been shown that the os uteri is not closed, as was once supposed, immediately _on conception_. should an ovum escape into the uterus, it may become impregnated a month or so after a previous conception. the most probable explanation is that the case has been one of twins, one being born prematurely; or, on the other hand, the uterus may have been double, and conception may have taken place in one cornu at a later period than in the other cornu. xxxiii.--inheritance in order to inherit, the child must be born alive, must be born during the lifetime of the mother, and must be born capable of inheriting--that is to say, monsters are incapable of inheriting. there is a mode of inheritance called 'tenancy by courtesy.' when a man marries a woman possessed of an estate or inheritance, and has, by her, issue born alive in her lifetime capable of inheriting her estate, in this case he shall, on the death of his wife, hold the lands for his life as tenant by the courtesy of england. the meaning of the words 'born alive' in this instance is not the same as in cases of infanticide. in civil law any motion of the child's body, however slight, or the fact of it having been heard to cry by witnesses, is held to be sufficient proof of the child having been born alive. it may die immediately afterwards, and it is not necessary that the child be viable. xxxiv.--impotence and sterility in the male, impotence may arise from physical or mental causes. the physical causes may be--too great or too tender an age; malformation of the genital organs; _crypsorchides_, defect or disease in the testicles; constitutional disease (diabetes, neurasthenia, etc.); or debility from acute disease, as mumps. masturbation, and early and excessive sexual indulgence, are also causes. the mental causes include--passion, timidity, apprehension, aversion, and disgust. the case will be remembered of the man who was impotent unless the lady were attired in a black silk dress and high-heeled french kid boots. if a man is impotent when he marries, the marriage may be set aside on the ground that it had never been consummated. the law requires that the impotency should have existed _ab initio_--that is, before marriage--and should be of a permanent or incurable nature; marriage, as far as the law goes, being regarded as a contract in which it is presupposed that both the contracting parties are capable of fulfilling all the objects of marriage. in the case of the earl of essex the defendant admitted the charge as regards the countess, but pleaded that he was not impotent with others, as many of her waiting-maids could testify. when a man becomes impotent _after_ marriage, his wife must accept the situation, and has no redress. a man may be _sterile_ without being impotent, but the law will not take cognizance of that. the wife may be practically impotent, but the law will not assist the husband. he must continue to do his best under difficult circumstances. in former times in case of doubt a husband was permitted to demonstrate his competency in open court, but this custom is no longer regarded with favour by the judges. the removal of the testicles does not of necessity render a man impotent, although it deprives him of his procreative power. eunuchs are capable of affording illicit pleasure, whilst the male sopranos, or _castrati_, are often utilized for that purpose. in the female, impotence may be caused by the narrowness of the vagina, adhesion of the vulva, absence of vagina, imperforate hymen, and tumours of the vagina. sterility in women may occur from the above-named causes of impotence, together with absence of the uterus and ovaries, or from great debility, syphilis, constant amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, or menorrhagia. xxxv.--rape rape is the carnal knowledge of a woman by force and against her will. the resistance of the woman _must be_ to the utmost of her power, but if she yield through fear or duress it is still rape. the woman is a competent witness, but her statements may be impugned on the ground of her previous bad character, and evidence may be called to substantiate the charge. the perpetrator must be above the age of fourteen years. the definition of rape which we have given is not altogether satisfactory. take, for example, the case of a woman who goes to bed expecting her husband to return at a certain hour. the lodger, let us say, takes advantage of this fact, and, getting into bed, has connection with her, she not resisting, assuming all the while that it is her husband. this is rape, but it is not 'by force,' and it is not 'against her will,' but it is 'without her consent,' as she has not been fully informed as to all the circumstances of the case. in all cases of rape in which there is no actual resistance or objection, consent may be assumed. it is not essential that the woman should state in so many words that she does not object. the force used may be moral and not physical--_e.g._, threats, fear, horror, syncope. by 48 and 49 vict., c. 49, the carnal knowledge of a girl under thirteen is technically rape. the consent of the girl makes no difference, since she is not of an age to become a consenting party. an attempt at carnal knowledge of a girl under thirteen is a misdemeanour. her consent makes no difference, and even the solicitation of the act on the part of the child will not exonerate the accused. intercourse with a girl between thirteen and sixteen, even with her consent, is a misdemeanour. this act is a favourite with the blackmailer. the child is sent out to solicit, dressed like a woman, but appears in the witness-box in a much more juvenile costume. to constitute rape there must be _penetration_, but this may be of the slightest. there may be a sufficient degree of penetration to constitute rape without rupturing the hymen. proof of actual emission is now unnecessary. the subject of carnal knowledge (c.k.) or its attempt may be summed up as follows: under thirteen c.k. felony. under thirteen attempt misdemeanour. consent no defence. from thirteen to sixteen c.k. misdemeanour. from thirteen to sixteen attempt misdemeanour. consent and even solicitation no defence. reasonable cause to believe the girl over sixteen is a good defence. charge must be brought within three months. over sixteen c.k. with consent nil. subject to civil action for loss of girl's services by father. idiot or imbecile c.k. with violence rape. idiot or imbecile c.k. without violence misdemeanour. personation of husband rape. tacit consent no defence, for obtained by fraud. married woman c.k. with consent adultery. mother, sister, daughter, c.k. consent immaterial; incest. grand-daughter born in wedlock or not females indecent assaults misdemeanour. it is a misdemeanour to give to a woman any drug so as to stupefy her, and so enable any person to have unlawful connection with her. false charges of rape are very often made. the motive may be to extort blackmail, revenge, or mere delusion. on examining such cases bruises are seldom found, but scratches which the woman has made on the front of her body may be discovered, and the local injuries to the generative organs are slight, if present at all. _physical signs._--in the adult the hymen may be ruptured, the fourchette lacerated, and blood found on the parts, together with scratches and other marks and signs of a struggle. in the child there may be no hæmorrhage, but there will be indications of bruising on the external organs, with probably considerable laceration of the hymen, the laceration in some cases extending into the rectum. severe hæmorrhage, and even death, may follow the rape of a young child. the patient will have difficulty in walking, and in passing water and fæces. after some hours the parts are very tender and swollen, and a sticky greenish-yellow discharge is present. these signs last longer in children than in adults; but as a rule--in the adult, at least--all signs of rape disappear in three or four days. young and delicate children may suffer from a vaginal discharge, with swelling of the external genitals, simulating an attempt at rape. infantile leucorrhoea is common, and many innocent people have been exposed to danger from false charges of rape on children, instituted as a means of levying blackmail. a knowledge of these facts suggests the necessity of giving a guarded opinion when children are brought for examination in suspected cases. pregnancy may follow rape. _seminal stains_ render the clothing stiff and greyish-yellow in colour, with translucent edges. on being moistened they give the characteristic seminal odour. semen may be found on the linen of the woman and man, and will be recognized under the microscope by the presence in it of spermatozoa, minute filamentary bodies with a pear-shaped head; but it must not be forgotten that the non-detection of spermatozoa is no proof of absence of sexual intercourse, for these bodies are not always present in the semen of even healthy adult young men. spermatozoa must not be mistaken for the _trichomonas vaginæ_ found in the vaginæ of some women. the latter have cilia surrounding the head, which is globular. _florence's micro-chemical test for spermatic fluid._--if a drop of the fluid obtained by wetting a supposed spermatic stain be mixed with a drop of the following solution (ki, parts 1.65; pure iodine, 2.54; distilled water, 30) in a watch-glass, brownish-red pointed crystals resembling hæmin crystals are obtained. _barberio's test._--mix a drop of the spermatic stain with a drop of a saturated solution of picric acid, when needle-shaped yellow rhombic crystals are formed. _gonorrhoeal stains._--a cover-glass preparation stained with methylene blue reveals the gonococci lying in pairs within the leucocytes. xxxvi.--unnatural offences trials for =sodomy= and =bestiality= are common at the assizes, but, as they are rarely reported, they fail to attract attention. sodomy is a crime both in the active and passive agent, unless the latter is a non-consenting party. the evidence of either associated may be received as against his colleague. if the crime is committed on a boy under fourteen, it is a felony in the active agent only. as in cases of rape, emission is not essential, and penetration, however slight, answers all practical purposes. there can be no doubt that in the majority of these cases there exists a congenitally abnormal condition of the sexual instinct, these individuals from their childhood manifesting a perverted sexual instinct. the man is physically a man, but psychically a woman, and _vice versâ_. the tendency nowadays is not to charge these people with the more serious offence, but to deal with them under section 11 of the criminal law amendment act, 1885 (48 and 49 vict., c. 69). this section, which is sufficiently comprehensive, runs as follows: 'any male person who in public or private commits or is a party to the commission, or attempts to procure the commission by any male person, of any act of gross indecency with another male person, shall be guilty of a misdemeanour.' the penalty is imprisonment for two years, with or without hard labour. it is provided by section 4 of the same act that a boy under sixteen may be whipped. =incest.=--this crime is dealt with under the punishment of incest act, 1908 (8 edward vii., c. 45). carnal knowledge with mother, sister, daughter, or grand-daughter, is a misdemeanour, provided the relationship is known. it also applies to the half-brother and half-sister. it is equally an offence whether the relationship can or cannot be traced through lawful wedlock. consent is no defence. a woman may be charged under the act if she, being above the age of sixteen, with consent permits her grandfather, father, brother, or son, to have carnal knowledge of her. xxxvii.--blackmailing there are in london and every large city scores of men and women who live by blackmailing or chantage. there are many different forms of this industry. there is the man who knows something about your past life, which he threatens to reveal to your friends or colleagues unless you buy him off. there is the breach-of-promise blackmailer, and there is the female patient, who threatens to charge you with improper conduct or indecent assault. medical men from their position are often selected as victims. the introduction of corridor carriages on many of our railways has done much to stamp out one particular form of blackmailing, but public urinals are still a source of danger. it is the worst possible policy to temporize with a blackmailer. if you give him a single penny, you are his for life. it is as well to remember that it is just as criminal to attempt to extract money from a guilty as from an innocent person. it is of no use attempting to deal with these cases single-handed. you must not only deny the allegation, but 'spurn the allegator.' put the matter into the hands of a good sharp criminal solicitor, and instruct him to rid you of the nuisance by taking criminal proceedings. xxxviii.--marriage and divorce marriage may be accomplished in many ways: (1) by the publication of banns; (2) by an ordinary licence; (3) by a special licence; (4) by the superintendent-registrar's licence; (5) by a special licence granted by the archbishop of canterbury in consideration of the payment of the sum of £25. then, for persons having a domicile in scotland, there is the marriage by repute. the consent of the parties, which is the essence of the contract, may be expressed before witnesses, and it is not requisite that a clergyman should assist, but it is essential that the expressions of consent must be for a matrimonial intent. 'habit and repute' constitute good evidence, but the repute must be the general, constant, and unvarying belief of friends and neighbours. the cohabitation must be in scotland. any irregularity in the marriage ceremony or the non-observance of any formality will not invalidate the marriage, unless it were known to both the contracting parties. if a man were married in a wrong name the contract would still be valid if the wife were unacquainted with the deception at the time. if the person who officiated were a bogus clergyman, the marriage would hold good if the contracting parties supposed him to be a properly ordained priest. in a case in which a marriage was solemnized in a building near the church at a time when the church was undergoing repairs, and where during such alterations divine service had been performed, it was held that the ceremony was good. to all intents and purposes marriage comes under the 'law of contract' (see anson, w.r., bart.), and the law looks to the _intention_ rather than to the actual details. all marriages between persons within the prohibited degrees of consanguinity or affinity are null and void. this prohibition extends both to the illegitimate as well as the legitimate children of the late wife's or husband's parents. a marriage with a deceased wife's sister is now legal in great britain and the colonies, and is recognized in most foreign countries. a common device with people within the prohibited degrees is to get married abroad, but such marriage is strictly speaking inoperative, and the children of such union are illegitimate. practically, however, it is a matter of no importance, for when people live together and say they are married, they are accepted at their own estimate. a man can obtain a divorce from his wife if he can prove that she has been guilty of adultery since her marriage. this may be established by inference. obviously, it is difficult in the majority of cases to establish by ocular demonstration that adultery has been committed. but given evidence of familiarity and affection with opportunity and suspicious conduct, a jury will commonly infer it. a woman cannot obtain a divorce from her husband for adultery alone. she must prove adultery plus cruelty, or adultery plus desertion without reasonable cause. failing this, she may be able to prove either bigamy or incestuous adultery. legal cruelty is a very comprehensive term, and does not of necessity mean physical violence. if the husband as the result of his infidelity were to give his wife a contagious disease, that would constitute cruelty. taking a more extreme case, if a husband were to have connection in her house with his wife's maid, that would probably be held to constitute cruelty, as it would tend to lower her in the eyes of her servants. a wife can obtain a judicial separation if she can prove (1) adultery, (2) cruelty, or (3) desertion without reasonable cause for two years. if a husband is away on his business, as, for example, the case of an officer ordered abroad, that is not desertion. for a woman to get a judicial separation, it is sufficient if she can prove one variety of matrimonial offence, but for a divorce she requires more than one. the jury may find that mrs. a. has committed adultery with mr. b., but that mr. b. has not committed adultery with mrs. a. the explanation is, that a wife's confession is evidence against herself, but not against another person. you can confess your own sins, but not another's. the divorce law of scotland differs materially from that of england. in scotland there is no decree nisi, no decree absolute, and no intervention by the king's proctor. instead there is a single and final judgment, and when a decree of divorce is pronounced the successful litigant at once succeeds to all rights, legal and conventional, that would have come to him or her on the death of the losing party. if the husband is the offender, the wife in such circumstances may claim her right to one-third of his real estate; and if there are children, to one-third of his personal property, and to one-half if there are none. =voidable marriages.=--if a man and woman go through the marriage ceremony, such a contract is null and void under the following circumstances: (1) where bigamy has been committed; (2) if one of the parties were insane at the time of marriage; (3) where the plaintiff is under sixteen years of age; (4) when the marriage has not been consummated or followed by cohabitation; (5) when one of the parties was incapable of performing the marital act (impotent, and such not known by the other at the time); (6) when drunkenness had been induced so as to obtain consent; (7) concealment of pregnancy at the time of marriage. xxxix.--feigned diseases malingering in its various forms is by no means uncommon, and by many is regarded as a disease in itself. it is necessary, however, to distinguish between those cases in which it is feigned for some definite purpose--for example, to escape punishment or avoid public service--and those in which there is adequate motive, and the patient shams simply with the view of exciting sympathy, or from the mere delight of giving trouble. it is not uncommon for individuals summoned on a jury, or to give evidence in the law courts, to apply to their doctor for a certificate, assigning as a cause of exemption neuralgia, or some similar complaint unattended with objective symptoms. in such cases it is well to remind the patient that in most courts such certificates are received with suspicion, and are often rejected, and that the personal attendance of the medical man is required to endorse his certificate on oath. malingering has become much more common since the national health insurance act has been passed. the possibility of obtaining a fair sum each week without the necessity of working for it induces many persons either to feign disease or to make recovery from actual disease or accident much more tedious than it ought really to be. the feasibility of successfully malingering is greatly enhanced by the possession of some chronic organic disease. an old mitral regurgitant murmur is useful for this purpose. it is not flattering to one's vanity to overlook a case of malingering, but should this occur little harm is done. it is a much more serious matter to accuse a person of malingering when in reality he may be suffering from an organic disease. here are some of the diseases which are most frequently feigned: =nervous diseases=, as headache, vertigo, paralysis of limbs, vomiting, sciatica, or incontinence or suppression of urine, spitting of blood; others, again, simulate hysteria, epilepsy, or insanity. on the other hand, the malingerer may actually produce injuries on his person either to excite commiseration or to escape from work. thus, the beggar produces ulcers on his legs by binding a penny-piece tightly on for some days; the hospital patient, in order to escape discharge, produces factitious skin diseases by the application of irritants or caustics. it is much more difficult to decide whether certain symptoms are due to a real disease which is present, or whether they are merely exaggerations of slight symptoms or simulations of past ones. the miner, after an injury to his back, recovers very slowly, if at all. he is suffering from 'traumatic neurasthenia'--a condition only too often simulated, and a disease very difficult to diagnose accurately. the miner takes advantage of our ignorance, and continues to draw his compensation. a workman during his work receives a fracture; instead of being able to resume work in six weeks, he asserts that the pain and stiffness prevent him, and this disability may persist for months. such cases as these frequently come before the courts when the employer has discontinued to pay the weekly compensation for the injury. medical men are called to give evidence for or against the injured workman. =epilepsy= is often simulated. the foaming at the mouth is produced by a piece of soap between the gums and the cheek. the true epileptic, especially if he suspects that a fit is imminent, takes his walks abroad in some secluded spot, whilst the impostor selects a crowded locality for his exertions. the epileptic often injures himself in falling, his imitator never; one bites his tongue, but the other carefully refrains from doing so. the skin of an epileptic during an attack is cold and pallid, but that of the exhibitor is covered with sweat as the result of his exertions. in epilepsy the urine and fæces are passed involuntarily, but his colleague rarely considers it necessary to carry his deception to this extent. in true epilepsy the eyes are partly open, with the eyeballs rolling and distorted, whilst the pupils are dilated and do not contract to light; the impostor keeps his eyes closed, and he cannot prevent the iris from contracting when a bicycle-lamp is flashed across his face. a useful test is to give the impostor a pinch of snuff, which promptly brings the entertainment to an end. =lumbago= is often feigned, and the imposture should be suspected when there is a motive, and when physical signs, such as nodes and tender spots, are absent. a simple test is to inadvertently drop a shilling in front of him, when he will promptly stoop and pick it up. the same principles apply to spurious sciatica. =hæmorrhages= purporting to come from the lungs, stomach, or bowels, rarely present much difficulty. the microscope is of use in all cases of bleeding. possibly the gums or the inside of the cheeks may have been scratched or abraded with a pin. =skin diseases= are excited artificially, especially those which may be produced by mechanical and chemical irritants. the most commonly employed are vinegar, acetic acid, carbolic acid, nitric acid, and carbonate of sodium; but tramps frequently use sorrel and various species of ranunculus. the lesions simulated are usually inflammatory in character, such as erythema, vesicular and bullous eruptions, and ulceration of the skin. they may be complicated by the presence of pediculi and other animal and vegetable parasites. chromidrosis of the lower eyelids in young women often owes its origin to a box of paints. factitious skin diseases are seen most commonly on the face and extremities, especially on the left side--in other words, on the most accessible parts of the body. feigned menstruation, pregnancy, abortion, and recent delivery are common, and should give rise to no difficulty. the same may be said of feigned insanity, aphonia, deaf-mutism, and loss of memory. the following hints may be useful to a medical man when called to a supposed case of malingering: do not be satisfied with one visit, but go again and unexpectedly; see that the patient is watched between the visits; make an objective examination, compare the indications with the statements of the patient, noting especially any discrepancies between his account of his symptoms and the real symptoms of disease; ask questions the reverse of the patient's statements, or take them for granted, and he will often be found to contradict himself; have all dressings and bandages removed; suggest, in the hearing of the patient, some heroic methods of treatment--the actual cautery, or severe surgical operation, for example; finally, chloroform will be found of great use in the detection of many sham diseases. xl.--mental unsoundness the presumption in law is in favour of a person's sanity, even though he may be deaf, dumb, or blind. the terms 'insanity,' 'lunacy,' 'unsoundness of mind,' 'mental derangement,' 'madness,' and 'mental alienation or aberration,' are indifferently applied to those states of disordered mind in which the person loses the power of regulating his actions and conduct according to the ordinary rules of society. the reasoning power is lost or perverted, and he is no longer fitted to discharge those duties which his social position demands. in some cases of insanity, as in confirmed idiocy, there is no evidence of the exercise of the intellectual faculties. it is probable that no standard of sanity as fixed by nature can be said to exist. the medical witness should decline to commit himself to any definition of insanity. there is no practical advantage in attempting to classify the different forms of insanity. according to english law, madness absolves from all guilt, but in order to excuse from punishment on this ground it must be proved that the individual was not capable of distinguishing right from wrong in relation to the particular act of which he is accused, and that he did not know at the time of committing the crime that the offence was against the laws of _god_ and _nature_. lunatics are competent witnesses in relation to testimony, as in relation to crime, if they understand the nature of an oath and the character of the proceedings in which they are engaged. the judge, as in the case of children, examines the lunatic tendered as a witness as to his knowledge of the nature and obligation of an oath, and, if satisfied, he allows him to be sworn. a person, if suffering from such a state of mental unsoundness as to be unable to take care of his property, may be placed under the care of the court of chancery. the court then administers his property, and otherwise allows him entire freedom of action. with regard to the care of lunatics, no person is allowed to receive more than one lunatic into his house unless such house is licensed and the proper certificates have been signed. one patient may be taken without the house being licensed, but the usual certificates must in all cases be signed, and the lunacy commissioners communicated with. if a person receives another not of unsound mind into his house, and such person becomes subsequently insane, the person so keeping him renders himself liable to heavy penalties, unless the legal certificates are at once procured and the commissioners of lunacy communicated with. at common law it appears that a lunatic cannot be placed in an asylum unless dangerous to himself or to others, but under the lunacy acts the placing of a madman in an asylum is considered as a part of the treatment with a view to the cure of the patient. xli.--idiocy, imbecility, cretinism =idiocy= is not a disease, but a congenital condition in which the intellectual faculties are either never manifested or have not been sufficiently developed to enable the idiot to acquire an amount of knowledge equal to that acquired by other persons of his own age and in similar circumstances with himself. idiots, as a rule, are deformed in body as well as deficient in mind. their heads are generally small and badly-shaped, and their features ill-formed and distorted. the teeth are few in number and very irregular. the hard palate has a very deep arch, or may even be cleft. the complexion is sallow and unhealthy, the limbs imperfectly developed, and the gait is awkward, shambling, and unsteady. in his legal relations an absolute idiot is civilly disabled and irresponsible, but in regard to crime, or as a witness, see remarks made above. =imbecility= is a form of mental defect not usually congenital, but commencing in infancy or in early life. the line of demarcation between the imbecile and the idiot may be found in the possession by the former of the faculty of speech, in distinction from the mere parrot-like utterance of a few words which can be taught the idiot. imbecility may be intellectual, moral, or general. questions frequently arise as to their responsibility for actions done by them, or as to their ability to manage their own affairs. =cretinism= is a form of amentia, which is endemic in certain districts, especially in some of the valleys of switzerland, savoy, and france. the malady is not congenital, but its symptoms usually appear within a few months of birth. the characteristics of this form of idiocy are an enlarged thyroid gland constituting a goitre or bronchocele, a high-arched palate, dwarfed stature, squinting eyes, sallow complexion, small legs, conical head, large mouth, and indistinct speech. =feeble-minded.=--these are persons who are capable of earning a living under favourable circumstances, but are incapable, from mental defect which has existed from birth or from an early age, of (a) competing on equal terms with their normal fellows, or (b) of managing themselves and their affairs with ordinary prudence. feeble-mindedness may affect the moral nature only, rendering the person selfish, untruthful, obscene, or unemployable. the act of 1899 controls feeble-minded children; many such become paupers, criminals, prostitutes, etc. =mental deficiency and lunacy act, 1913.=--those included under this act are idiots, imbeciles, feeble-minded persons, and moral imbeciles. the parents or guardians of such children between the ages of five and sixteen years must provide for them education and proper care. if they are unable to do so, the school boards or parish councils must do so. xlii.--dementia: acute, chronic, senile, and paralytic in dementia the mental aberration does not occur until the mind has become fully developed, thus differing from amentia, which is congenital or comes on very early in life. =acute dementia.=--this is a condition of profound melancholy or stupor, which arises from sudden mental shock, the mind being, as it were, arrested and fixed in abstraction on the event. =chronic dementia= is generally caused by the gradual action on the mind of grief or anxiety, by severe pain, mania, apoplexy, paralysis, or repeated attacks of epilepsy. =senile dementia= is a form which is incidental to aged persons, and commences gradually with such symptoms as loss of memory for recent events, dulness of perception, and inability to fix the attention. later on the reasoning powers begin to fail, and finally, memory, reason, and power of attention, are quite lost, the muscular power and force remaining intact. in the last stage there is simply bare physical existence. =general paralysis of the insane, paralytic dementia.=--this is a most interesting form of dementia. it is closely allied to, if not identical with, locomotor ataxy. its most prominent and characteristic symptom consists in delusions of great power, exalted position, and unlimited wealth--megalomania. the exaltation is universal, and the patient may maintain at one and the same time that he is running a theatrical company, that he is the prince of wales, and that he is the almighty. moral perversion is a common symptom, and the patient is often guilty of criminal assaults, indecent exposures, bigamous marriages, and the like. it is accompanied with progressive bodily and mental decay. women are comparatively rarely affected by it, and it generally commences in men about middle age, and its duration is from a few months to three years. it is commonly parasyphilitic in origin. paralytic symptoms first appear in the tongue, lips, and face; the speech becomes thick and hesitating. the paralytic symptoms gradually go on increasing, the sphincters refuse to act, and death may occur from suffocation and choking. sometimes, during the earlier stages especially, there may be maniacal paroxysms or epileptic fits. the delusions remain the same throughout, the patient always expresses himself as being happy, and his last words will probably have reference to money and other absurd delusions. when a person of hitherto blameless life is charged with an act of indecency, he should be examined for g.p.i. the condition of his prostate should also be investigated. he may be suffering from either mental or physical disease, or both (see p. 59). xliii.--mania under the term 'mania' are included all those forms of mental unsoundness in which there is undue excitement. it is divided into general, intellectual, and moral, and each of the two latter classes again into general and partial. =general mania= affects the intellect as well as the passions and emotions. mania is usually preceded by an incubative period in which the patient's general health is affected. the duration of this period may vary from a few days to fifteen or twenty years. when the disease is established, the patient has paroxysms of violence directed against himself as well as others. he tears his clothes to pieces, either abstains from food and drink or eats voraciously, and sustains immense muscular exertion without apparent fatigue. the face becomes flushed, the eye wild and sparkling; there is pain, weight, and giddiness in the head, with restlessness. =general intellectual mania=, attacking the intellect alone, is rare; but some one emotion or passion, as pride, vanity, or love of gain, may obtain ascendancy, and fill the mind with intellectual delusions. a _delusion_ may be defined as a perversion of the judgment, a chimerical thought; an _illusion_, an incorrect impression of the senses, counterfeit appearances; hence we speak of a delusion of the mind, an illusion of the senses. lawyers lay great stress on the presence of delusions as indicative of insanity. an _hallucination_ is a sensation which is supposed by the patient to be produced by external impressions, although no material object acts upon his senses at the time. =partial intellectual mania=, or =monomania=, also called =melancholia=, is a form of the disease in which the patient becomes possessed of some single notion, contradictory alike to common-sense and his own experience. =general moral mania.=--this is a morbid perversion of the natural feelings, affections, inclinations, temper, habits, moral dispositions, and natural impulses, without any remarkable disorder or defect of the intellect, or knowing and reasoning faculties, and particularly without any insane illusion or hallucination. it is often difficult to distinguish this form of mania from the moral depravity which we associate with the criminal classes. =partial moral mania--paranoia--delusional insanity.=--in this form one or two only of the moral powers are perverted. delusions are always present, and very frequently are those of persecution. the patient's conduct is dominated by his delusion; thus murder and suicide may be committed. there are several forms: _kleptomania_, a propensity to theft; common in women in easy circumstances. _dipsomania_, or _oinomania_, an insatiable desire for drink. _morphinomania_, a craving for morphine or its preparations. _erotomania_, or amorous madness. when occurring in women this is also called _nymphomania_, and in men _satyriasis_. it consists in an uncontrollable desire for sexual intercourse. _pyromania_, an insane impulse to set fire to everything. _homicidal mania_, a propensity to murder. _suicidal mania_, a propensity to self-destruction. some consider suicide as always a manifestation of insanity. =insanity of pregnancy.=--this may show itself after the third month of pregnancy in the form of melancholia. it is not recovered from until after delivery. =puerperal mania.=--this form of mania attacks women soon after childbirth. there is in many cases a strong homicidal tendency against the child. =insanity of lactation= comes on four to eight months after parturition, either as mania or melancholia. the mother may repeatedly attempt suicide. =mania with lucid intervals.=--in many cases mania is intermittent or recurrent in its nature, the patient in the interval being in his right mind. the question of the presence or absence of a lucid interval frequently occurs where attempts are made to set aside wills made by persons having property. in these cases the law, from the reasonableness of the provisions of the will, may assume the existence of the lucid interval. a will made during a lucid interval is valid. when an attempt is made to set aside the provisions of a will on the ground of insanity in a person not previously judged insane, the plaintiff must show that the testator was mad; when the provisions of the will of a lunatic are attempted to be upheld, the plaintiff must show that the will was made during a lucid interval. a testator is capable of making a valid will when he has (1) a knowledge of his property and of his kindred; (2) memory sufficient to recognize his proper relations to those about him; (3) freedom from delusions affecting his property and his friends; and (4) sufficient physical and mental power to resist undue influence. the fact of a man being subject to delusions may not affect his testamentary capacity. he may believe himself to be a tea-kettle, and yet be sufficiently sound mentally to make a valid will. =undue influence.=--persons of weak mind or those suffering from senile dementia are often said to have been unduly influenced in making their wills, and subsequently their dispositions are disputed in court. before witnessing the will made by such a person, the medical man should satisfy himself that the testator is of a 'sound disposing mind.' this he will do by questioning, and his knowledge of the home-life of the patient will either confirm or set aside the idea of influence. a person who is aphasic may be competent to make a will. he may not be able to speak, but may understand what is said to him, and may be able to indicate his wishes by nods and shakes of the head. ask him if he wishes to make a will, then inquire if he has £10,000 to leave, then if he has £100, and in this way arrive approximately at the sum. then ask him if he wishes to leave it all to one person. if he nods assent, ask if it be to his wife or some other likely person. if he wishes to divide it, ascertain his intention by definite questions, and, having ascertained his views, commit them to writing, read the document over to him, and ask if it expresses his intentions. that being settled, a mark which he acknowledges in the presence of two witnesses, preferably men of standing, will constitute a valid document. in certain forms of neurasthenia, the 'phobias' are common, but must not be regarded as evidence of insanity. 'agoraphobia' is the fear of crossing an open space, 'batophobia' is the fear that high things will fall, 'siderophobia' is the fear of thunder and lightning, 'pathophobia' is the fear of disease, whilst 'pantophobia' is the fear of everything and everybody. =epilepsy in relation to insanity.=--the subjects of this disease are often subject to sudden fits of uncontrollable passion; their conduct is sometimes brutal, ferocious, and often very immoral. as the fits increase in number, the intellect deteriorates and chronic dementia or delusional insanity may supervene. (1) before a fit the patient may develop paroxysms of rage with brutal impulses (_preparoxysmal insanity_), and may commit crimes such as rape or murder. (2) instead of the usual epileptic fit, the patient may have a violent maniacal attack (_masked epilepsy_, _epileptic equivalent_, _psychic form of epilepsy_). (3) after the fit the patient may perform various automatic actions (_post-epileptic automatism_) of which he has no subsequent recollection. thus the patient may urinate or undress in a public place, and may be arrested for indecent exposure. epileptics who suffer from both petit and grand mal attacks are specially liable to maniacal attacks. such insanity differs from ordinary insanity in its sudden onset, intensity of symptoms, short duration and abrupt ending. to establish a plea of epilepsy in cases of crime, one must show that the individual really did suffer from true epilepsy, and that the crime was committed at a period having a definite relation to the epileptic seizure. =alcoholic insanity.=--this may occur in three forms: 1. _acute alcoholic delirium_ (_mania a potu_), due to excessive amount of alcohol consumed. 2. _delirium tremens_, due to long-continued over-drinking. the patient suffers from horrible dreams, illusions, and suspicions, which may lead him to attack people or commit suicide. 3. _chronic alcoholic insanity._ loss of memory is the chief symptom, with paralysis of motion, hallucinations and delusions of persecution. =responsibility for criminal acts.=--to establish a defence on the ground of insanity, it must be proved that the prisoner at the time when the crime was committed did not know the nature and quality of the act he was committing, and did not know that it was wrong. at the present time, however, the _power of controlling his actions_ is usually made the test. the plea of insanity is brought forward, as a rule, only in capital charges, so that the prisoner, if found guilty, will escape hanging. if proved 'guilty, but insane,' the person is sentenced to be kept in a criminal lunatic asylum 'during his majesty's pleasure.' xliv.--examination of persons of unsound mind the following hints with regard to the examination of patients supposed to be insane will be useful: the general appearance and shape of head, complexion, and expression of countenance, gait, movements, and speech, should be noted; the state of the general health, appetite, bowels, tongue, skin, and pulse, should be inquired into; and in women the state of the menstrual function should be ascertained. the family history must be traced out, and the personal history taken with care, especially as to whether the unsoundness came on late in life or followed any physical cause. ascertain whether it is a first attack, whether the patient has suffered from epilepsy, has squandered his money, grown restless, has absurd delusions, etc. in order to ascertain the capacity of the mind, questions should be asked with regard to age, birthplace, profession, number of family, and common events, such as the day of week, month, and year. the power of performing simple arithmetical operations may be tested. it may be necessary to pay more than one visit. the examiner should be careful to ask questions adapted to the station of life of the supposed lunatic; a man is not necessarily mad because he cannot perform simple arithmetical operations, or does not know about things with which his questioner is well acquainted. the opinion of a supposed lunatic that his examiner's feet _were large_ was not considered by the commissioners among the facts indicating insanity, yet statements quite as absurd are made by medical men as 'facts of insanity' observed by themselves. 'reads his bible and is anxious about the salvation of his soul' is another example of a bad certificate. some well-marked delusion should be recorded. for a lunacy certificate (_reception order on petition_ or _judicial reception order_), except in the case of a pauper patient, there are required the signatures of two independent medical men and of a relation or friend. the medical men must not be in partnership or in any way interested in the patient; they must make separate visits at different times, and write on the proper forms the facts observed by themselves and those observed by others, giving the name of the informer. a certificate is valid only for seven days. in very urgent non-pauper cases the signature of one medical man is sufficient, but such certificate (_emergency certificate_ or _urgency order_) is only valid for two days, and, as the patient can only be detained in the asylum under this order for seven days in england or three in scotland, it must be supplemented by another signed as above directed. the medical certificate must contain a statement that it is expedient for the alleged lunatic to be placed forthwith under care, with reasons for making such statement. the certifying medical practitioner must have personally examined the patient not more than two clear days before his reception. in london and other large towns, where an expert opinion is readily obtainable, it is not expedient to resort to such urgency orders. medical men should be careful how they sign certificates of insanity. no medical man is bound to certify, but if he does so he must be prepared to take the responsibility of his acts. there must be no reasonable ground for alleging want of 'good faith' or 'reasonable care.' the practitioner must exercise that amount of care and skill which he may reasonably be expected to possess. xlv.--the inebriates acts it is somewhat difficult to define an inebriate, but for the moment the following will suffice, and will ultimately, in all probability, be officially adopted: an inebriate is a person who habitually takes or uses any intoxicating thing or things, and while under the influence of such thing or things, or in consequence of the effects thereof, is--(a) dangerous to himself or others; or (b) a cause of harm or serious annoyance to his family or others; or (c) incapable of managing himself or his affairs, or of ordinary proper conduct. under the provisions of the habitual drunkards acts (42 and 43 vict., c. 19, and 51 and 52 vict., c. 19), any habitual drunkard may voluntarily place himself under restraint. he must make an application to the owner of a licensed retreat, stating the time during which he undertakes to remain. his application must be accompanied by a statutory declaration of two persons stating that they knew the applicant to be a confirmed drunkard. without this testimony as to moral character his application cannot be entertained. his signature must also be attested by two justices, who must state that he understands the effect of his application, and that it has been explained to him. the limit to the term of restraint is twelve months, after which he must resume his former habits if he wishes to qualify for another period. the act works automatically, and, when it has been set for a certain time, the patient cannot release himself until the period has expired. the inebriates' retreat must be duly licensed, and the licensee incurs distinct obligation in return for the powers entrusted to him. it is an offence against the act to assist any habitual drunkard to escape from his retreat, and should he succeed in effecting his escape he may be arrested on a warrant. a drunkard who does not obey orders and conform to the rules of the establishment may be sent to prison for seven days. it may be as well to mention that it is an offence to supply any drunkard under the act with any intoxicating drink or sedative or stimulant drug without authority, and that the penalty is a fine of £20 or three months' imprisonment. the act is a good one, but might be carried farther with advantage. it has been ruled that a crime committed during drunkenness is as much a crime as if committed during sobriety. a person is supposed to know the effect of drink, and if he takes away his senses by drink it is no excuse. he is held answerable both for being under the influence of alcohol or of any other drug, and for the acts such influence induces. =inebriates act= (1898-1900).--if an habitual drunkard be sentenced to imprisonment or penal servitude for an offence committed during drunkenness, or if he has been convicted four times in one year, the court may order him to be detained for a term not exceeding three years in an inebriate reformatory. part ii toxicology i.--definition of a poison though the law does not define in definite terms what a poison really is, it lays stress on the _malicious intention_ in giving a drug or other substance to an individual. it is a _felony_ to administer, or cause to be administered, any poison or other destructive thing with intent to murder, or with the intention of stupefying or overpowering an individual so that any indictable offence may be committed. it is a _misdemeanour_ to administer any poison, or destructive or noxious thing, merely to aggrieve, injure, or annoy an individual. for a working _definition_ we may state that a poison is a substance which, when introduced into or applied to the body, is capable of injuring health or destroying life. a poison may therefore be swallowed, applied to the skin, injected into the tissues, or introduced into any orifice of the body. ii.--sale of poisons; scheduled poisons the sale of poisons is regulated by various acts, but chiefly by the pharmacy act, 1868, and by the poisons and pharmacy act, 1908. only registered medical practitioners and legally qualified druggists are permitted to dispense and sell scheduled poisons. they are responsible for any errors which may be committed in the sale of poisons. if a druggist knows that a drug in a prescription is to be used for an improper purpose, he may refuse to dispense it. the practitioner who carelessly prescribes a drug in a poisonous dose is not held responsible, but the dispenser would be if he dispensed it and harmful or fatal consequences followed on its being swallowed. when a dispenser finds an error in a prescription, it is his duty to communicate with the prescriber privately pointing out the mistake. a great responsibility rests on the medical man who does his own dispensing, as there is no one to check his work. if a doctor prescribes a drug with the intention of curing or preventing a disease, but that, contrary to expectation and general experience, it causes illness or even death, no responsibility can rest with the prescriber. it has to be proved that actual injury has been sustained by the complainant before an action for damages can be commenced, and that the plaintiff was free from all contributory negligence. =scheduled poisons.=--by the pharmacy act of 1868 two groups of poisons are scheduled. part i. contains a list of those which are considered very active poisons--_e.g._, arsenic, alkaloids, belladonna, cantharides, coca (if containing more than 1 per cent. alkaloids), corrosive sublimate, diachylon, cyanides, tartar emetic, ergot, nux vomica, laudanum, opium, savin, picrotoxin, veronal and all poisonous urethanes, prussic acid, vermin killers, etc. such poisons must not be sold to strangers, but only to persons known to or introduced by someone known to the druggist. if sold, the latter must enter into the 'poison register' the name of the poison, the name of the person to whom it is sold, the quantity and purpose for which it is to be used, and date of sale. the entry must be signed by the purchaser and by the introducer. the word 'poison' must be affixed to the bottle or package, and also the name and address of the seller. part ii. contains a list of poisons supposed to be less active. these may only be sold if on the bottle, box, or package there is affixed a label with the name of the article, the word 'poison,' and the name and address of the seller. it is not necessary to enter the transaction in a register. chemists are required to keep poisons in specially distinguishable bottles, and these in a special room or locked cupboard. =dangerous drugs act, 1920.=--the regulations restrict the manufacture and sale of opium, morphine, cocaine, and heroin so as to prevent their abuse. preparations containing less than 1/5 per cent. of the first two or less than 1/10 per cent. of the last two are excluded. prescriptions containing the above drugs must be dated and signed with the full name and address of the prescriber, and must have also those of the patient. the total amount of the drug to be supplied must be stated, and it must not be dispensed more than once; the dispenser retains the prescription. special books must be kept recording the purchase and sale of these drugs. =proprietary medicines bill= (introduced in 1920, and likely soon to become law).--the sale of any unregistered proprietary medicine purporting to cure certain diseases or produce abortion is made an offence. a register of proprietary medicines, etc., is established. the object is to protect the public against quack remedies. =notification of poisoning.=--every case of poisoning which occurs in any industry (lead, arsenic, anthrax, etc.) must be notified by the medical attendant to the chief inspector of factories (factory and workshops act, 1895). iii.--action of poisons; classification of poisons =action of poisons.=--they may act either locally or only after absorption into the system. 1. _local action_, as seen in (a) corrosive poisons; (b) irritant poisons, causing congestion and inflammation of the mucous membranes--_e.g._, metallic and vegetable irritants; (c) stimulants or sedatives to the nerve endings, as aconite, conium, cocaine. 2. _remote action._--this may be of reflex character, as seen in the shock produced by the pain caused by corrosive poisons, or the poison may exert a special action on certain structures, as belladonna on the cells of the brain, strychnine on the motor nerve cells of the spinal cord. 3. _in both ways._--certain poisons, as carbolic or oxalic acids, act in this way. age, idiosyncrasy, tolerance, and disease, all exert modifying influences on the action of a poison. the form in which the poison is swallowed and the quantity also determine its action. in the gaseous form, poisons act most rapidly and fatally. when in solution and injected hypodermically, they also act very rapidly. in the solid form they act as a rule slowly, and may even set up vomiting, and so may be entirely ejected by vomiting. poisons act most energetically when the stomach is empty. if taken when the stomach already contains food, solution and absorption may be greatly delayed. some poisons are cumulative in their action, and thus, even if infinitesimal doses be swallowed each day, there is a certain amount of storage in the tissues (though a certain percentage of the poison is being constantly eliminated), and at last symptoms of poisoning show themselves. =classification of poisons.=--as an aid to memory, the following classification is perhaps the best: i. _inorganic._ 1. corrosive acids and alkalies, and caustic salts (carbolic and oxalic acids also). 2. irritant--practically all the metals and the metalloids (i. cl. br. p.). ii. _organic._ { animal--venomous bites, food poisoning, cantharides. 1. irritant { vegetable--all strong purgatives, hellebores, savin, { yew, ergot, hemlock, laburnum, bryony, etc. 2. neuronic. (a) somniferous--opium and its alkaloids. (b) deliriant--belladonna, hyoscyamus, stramonium, cannabis, cocaine, cocculus, camphor, fungi. (c) inebriants--alcohol, ether, chloral, carbolic acid (weak), benzol, aniline, nitro-glycerine. 3. sedative or depressant. (a) neural--conium, lobelia, tobacco, physostigma. (b) cerebral--hydrocyanic acid. (c) cardiac--aconite, digitalis, colchicum, veratrum. 4. excito-motory or convulsives--nux vomica, strychnine. 5. vulnerants--powdered glass. iii. _asphyxiants._ poisonous and irrespirable gases. iv.--evidence of poisoning it may be inferred that poison has been taken from consideration of the following factors: symptoms and post-mortem appearances, experiments on animals, chemical analysis, and the conduct of suspected persons. 1. _symptoms_ in poisoning usually come on suddenly, when the patient is in good health, and soon after taking a meal, drink, or medicine. many diseases, however, come on suddenly, and in cases of slow poisoning the invasion of the symptoms may be gradual. 2. _post-mortem appearances._--these in many poisons and classes of poisons are characteristic and unmistakable. the post-mortem appearances peculiar to the various poisons will be described in due course. 3. _experiments on animals._--these may be of value, but are not always conclusive. 4. _chemical analysis._--this is one of the most important forms of evidence, as a demonstration of the actual presence of a poison in the body carries immense weight. the poison may be discovered in the living person by testing the urine, the blood abstracted by bleeding, or the serum of a blister. in the dead body it may be found in the blood, muscles, viscera--especially the liver--and secretions. its discovery in these cases must be taken as conclusive evidence of administration. if, however, it be found only in substances rejected or voided from the body, the evidence is not so conclusive, as it may be contended that the poison was introduced into or formed in the material examined after its rejection from the body, or if the quantity be very minute it will be argued that it is not sufficient to cause death. a poison may not be detected in the body, owing to defective methods, smallness of the dose required to cause death, or to its ejection by vomiting or its elimination by the excretions. 5. _conduct of suspected persons._--a prisoner may be proved to have purchased poison, to have made a study of the properties and effects of poison, to have concocted medicines or prepared food for the deceased, to have made himself the sole attendant of the deceased, to have placed obstacles in the way of obtaining proper medical assistance, or to have removed substances which might have been examined. v.--symptoms and post-mortem appearances of different classes of poisons whilst recognizing the fact that toxic agents cannot be accurately classified, the following grouping may for descriptive purposes be admitted with the view of saving needless repetition: 1. =corrosives.=--characterized by their destructive action on tissues with which they come in contact. the principal inorganic corrosives are the mineral acids, the caustic alkalies, and their carbonates; the organic are carbolic acid, strong solutions of oxalic acid, and acetic acid. _symptoms._--burning pain in mouth, throat, and gullet, strong acid, metallic or alkaline taste; retching and vomiting, the discharged matters containing shreds of mucus, blood, and the lining membrane of the passages. inside of mouth corroded. there are also dysphagia, thirst, dyspnoea, small and frequent pulse, anxious expression, shock. death may result from shock, destruction of the parts--_e.g._, perforation of stomach or duodenum, suffocation; or some weeks subsequently death may be due to cicatricial contraction of the gullet, stomach, or pylorus. _post-mortem appearances._--those of corrosion, with corrugation from strong contraction of muscular fibres, and followed by inflammation and its consequences. the mouth, gullet, and stomach, and in some cases the intestines, may be white, yellow, or brown, shrivelled and corroded. the corrosions may be small, or may extend over a very large surface. sometimes considerable portions of the lining membrane of the gullet or stomach may be discharged by vomiting or by stool. beyond the corroded parts the textures are acutely inflamed. the stomach is filled with a yellow, brown, or black gelatinous liquid or black blood, and may in rare cases be perforated. 2. =irritants.=--these are substances which inflame parts to which they are applied. the class includes mineral, animal, and vegetable substances, and contains a larger number of poisons than all the other classes together. irritants may be divided into two groups: (1) those which destroy life by the irritation they set up in the parts to which they are applied; (2) those which add to local irritation peculiar or specific remote effects. the first group includes the principal vegetable irritants, some alkaline salts, some metallic poisons, etc.; and the second comprises the metallic irritants, the metalloids (phosphorus and iodine), and one animal substance, cantharides. _symptoms._--burning pain and constriction in throat and gullet, pain and tenderness of stomach and bowels, intense thirst, nausea, vomiting, purging and tenesmus, with bloody stools, dysuria, cold skin, and feeble and irregular pulse. the vomit consists at first of the food, then it becomes bile-stained, and later dark coffee-grounds in appearance, due to extravasation of blood from the over-distended vessels in the gastric mucous membrane. death may occur from shock, convulsions, collapse, exhaustion, or from starvation on account of chronic inflammation of the gastro-intestinal mucous membrane. _post-mortem appearances._--those of inflammation and its consequences. coats of stomach, fauces, gullet, and duodenum, may be thickened, black, ulcerated, gangrenous, or sloughing. vessels filled with dark blood ramify over the surface. acute inflammation is often found in the small intestines, with ulceration and softening of mucous membrane. the rectum is frequently the seat of marked ulceration. 3. =poisons acting on the brain.=--three classes: the opium group, producing sleep; the belladonna group, producing delirium and illusions; and the alcohol group, causing exhilaration, followed by delirium or sleep. _symptoms._--of the opium group, giddiness, headache, dimness of sight, contraction of the pupils, noises in the ears, drowsiness and confusion, passing into insensibility. of the belladonna group, delirium, illusions of sight, dilated pupils, dry mouth, thirst, redness of skin, coma. of the alcohol group, excitement of circulation and of cerebral functions, want of power of co-ordination and of muscular movement, double vision, mania, followed by profound sleep and coma. in the chronic form, delirium tremens. _post-mortem appearances._--in the opium group, fulness of the sinuses and veins of the brain, with effusion of serum into the ventricles and beneath the membranes. in the belladonna group, nil. in the alcohol group, signs of inflammation, congestion of brain and membranes, fluidity of blood, long-continued rigor mortis. 4. =poisons acting on the spinal cord.=--strychnine, brucine, thebaïne. the leading symptom is tetanic spasm. 5. =poisons affecting the heart.=--these kill by sudden shock, syncope, or collapse. they comprise prussic acid, dilute solution of oxalic acid and oxalates, aconite, digitalis, strophanthus, convallaria, and tobacco. 6. =poisons acting on the lungs.=--these have for their type carbonic acid gas and coal gas. the fumes of ammonia are intensely irritating, and may give rise to laryngitis, bronchitis, and even pneumonia. nitric acid fumes sometimes produce no serious symptoms for an hour or more, but there may then be coughing, difficulty of breathing, and tightness in the lower part of the throat, followed by capillary bronchitis (see p. 120). vi.--duty of practitioner in supposed case of poisoning if called to a case supposed or suspected to be one of poisoning, the medical man has two duties to perform: to save the patient's life, and to place himself in a position to give evidence if called on to do so. if life is extinct, his duty is a simple one. he should make inquiries as to symptoms, and time at which food or medicine was last taken. he should take possession of any food, medicine, vomited matter, urine, or fæces, in the room, and should seal them up in clean vessels for examination. he should notice the position and temperature of the body, the condition of rigor mortis, marks of violence, appearance of lips and mouth. he should not make a post-mortem examination without an order in writing from the coroner. in making a post-mortem examination, the alimentary canal should be removed and preserved for further investigation. a double ligature should be passed round the oesophagus, and also round the duodenum a few inches below the pylorus. the gut and the gullet being cut across between these ligatures, the stomach may be removed entire without spilling its contents. the intestines may be removed in a similar way, and the whole or a portion of the liver should be preserved. these should all be put in separate jars without any preservative fluid, tied up, sealed, labelled, and initialled. all observations should be at once committed to writing, or they will not be admitted by the court for the purpose of refreshing the memory whilst giving evidence. if the medical practitioner is in doubt on any point, he should obtain technical assistance from someone who has paid attention to the subject. in a case of attempted suicide by poisoning, is it the duty of the doctor to inform the police? he would be unwise to do so. he had much better stick to his own business, and not act as an amateur detective. vii.--treatment of poisoning the modes of treatment may be ranged under three heads: (1) to eliminate the poison; (2) to antagonize its action; (3) to avert the tendency to death. 1. the first indication is met by the administration of emetics, to produce vomiting, or by the application of the stomach-tube. the best emetic is that which is at hand. if there is a choice, give apomorphine hypodermically. the dose for an adult is 10 minims. it may be given in the form of the injection of the pharmacopoeia, or preferably as a tablet dissolved in water. apomorphine is not allied in physiological action to morphine, and may be given in cases of narcotic poisoning. sulphate of zinc, salt-and-water, ipecacuanha, and mustard, are all useful as emetics. tickling the fauces with a feather may excite vomiting. in using the elastic stomach-tube, some fluid should be introduced into the stomach before attempting to empty it, or a portion of the mucous membrane may be sucked into the aperture. the tube should be examined to see that it is not broken or cracked, as accidents have happened from neglecting this precaution. the bowels and kidneys must also be stimulated to activity, to help in the elimination of the poison. 2. the second indication is met by the administration of the appropriate antidote. antidotes are usually given hypodermically, or, if by mouth, in the form of tablets. in the absence of a hypodermic syringe, the remedy may be given by the rectum. in the selection of the appropriate antidote, a knowledge of pharmacology is required, especially of the physiological antagonism of drugs. antidotes may act (1) chemically, by forming harmless compounds, as lime in oxalic acid poisoning; (2) physiologically, the drug which is administered neutralizing more or less completely the poison which has been absorbed; (3) physically, as charcoal. every doctor should provide himself with an antidote case. the various antidotes will be mentioned under their respective poisons. 3. to avert the tendency to death, we must endeavour to palliate the symptoms and neutralize the effects of the poison. pain must be relieved by the use of morphine; inflamed mucous membrane soothed by such _demulcents_ as oils, milk, starch; stimulants to overcome collapse; saline infusions in shock, etc. in the case of narcotics and depressing agents, stimulants, electricity, and cold affusions, may be found useful. we should endeavour to promote the elimination of the poison from the body by stimulating the secretions. viii.--detection of poisons notice the smell, colour, and general appearance, of the matter submitted for examination. the odour may show the presence of prussic acid, alcohol, opium, or phosphorus. the colour may indicate salts of copper, cantharides, etc. seeds of plants may be found. this examination having been made, the contents of the alimentary canal, and any other substances to be examined, must be submitted to chemical processes. simple filtration will sometimes suffice to separate the required substance; in other cases dialysis will be necessary, in order that crystalloid substances may be separated from colloid bodies. in the case of volatile substances distillation will be required. the poisons thus sought for are alcohol, phosphorus, iodine, chloral, ether, hydrocyanic acid, carbolic acid, nitro-benzol, chloroform, and anilin. the organic matters are placed in a flask, diluted with distilled water if necessary, and acidulated with tartaric acid. the flask is heated in a water-bath, and the vapours condensed by a liebig's condenser. in the case of phosphorus the condenser should be of glass, and the process of distillation conducted in the dark, so that the luminosity of the phosphorus may be noted. for the separation of an alkaloid, the following is the process of stas-otto. this process is based upon the principle that the salts of the alkaloids are _soluble in alcohol and water_, and _insoluble in ether_. the pure alkaloids, with the exception of morphine in its crystalline form, are _soluble_ in ether. make a solution of the contents of the stomach or solid organs minced very fine by digesting them with acidulated alcohol or water and filtering. the filtrate is shaken with ether to remove fat, etc., the ether separated, the watery solution neutralized with soda, and then shaken with ether, which removes the alkaloid in a more or less impure condition. the knowledge of these facts will help to explain the following details, which may be modified to suit individual cases: (1) treat the organic matter, after distillation for the volatile substances just mentioned, with twice its weight of absolute alcohol, free from fusel oil, to which from 10 to 30 grains of tartaric or oxalic acid have been added, and subject to a gentle heat. (2) cool the mixture and filter; wash the residue with strong alcohol, and mix the filtrates. _the residue may be set aside for the detection of the metallic poisons, if suspected._ expel the alcohol by careful evaporation. on the evaporation of the alcohol the resinous and fatty matters separate. filter through a filter moistened with water. evaporate the filtrate to a syrup, and extract with successive portions of absolute alcohol. filter through a filter moistened with alcohol. evaporate filtrate to dryness, and dissolve residue in water, the solution being made distinctly acid. now shake watery solution with ether. (3) ether from the acid solution dissolves out _colchicin_, _digitalin_, _cantharidin_, and _picrotoxin_, and traces of _veratrine_ and _atropine_. separate the ethereal solution and evaporate. hot water will now dissolve out _picrotoxin_, _colchicin_, and _digitalin_, but not cantharidin. (4) the remaining acid watery liquid, holding the other alkaloids in solution or suspension, is made strongly alkaline with soda, mixed with four or five times its bulk of ether, chloroform, or benzole, briskly shaken, and left to rest. the ether floats on the surface, holding the alkaloids, except morphine, in solution. (5) a part of this ethereal solution is poured into a watch-glass and allowed to evaporate. if the alkaloid is volatile, oily streaks appear on the glass; if not volatile, crystalline traces will be visible. if a volatile alkaloid, add a few pieces of calcium chloride to ethereal solution to absorb the water; draw off the ethereal solution with a pipette, allow it to evaporate, and test the residue for the alkaloids, conine and nicotine. if a fixed alkaloid, treat the acid solution with soda or potash and ether, evaporate ethereal solution after separation, when the solid alkaloid will be left in an impure state. to purify it, add a small quantity of dilute sulphuric acid, and, after evaporating to three-quarters of its bulk, add a saturated solution of carbonate of potash or soda. absolute alcohol will then dissolve out the alkaloid, and leave it on evaporation in a crystalline form. _general reactions for alkaloids._--(1) wagner's reagent (iodine dissolved in a solution of potassium iodide) yields a reddish-brown precipitate; (2) mayer's reagent (potassio-mercuric iodide) gives a yellowish-white precipitate; (3) phospho-molybdic acid gives a yellow precipitate; (4) platinic chloride, a brown precipitate; (5) tannic acid, etc. in order to isolate an inorganic substance from organic matter, fresenius's method is adopted. boil the finely divided substance with about one-eighth its bulk of pure hydrochloric acid; add from time to time potassic chlorate until the solids are reduced to a straw-yellow fluid. treat this with excess of bisulphate of sodium, then saturate with sulphuretted hydrogen until metals are thrown down as sulphides. these may be collected and tested. from the acid solution, hydrogen sulphide precipitates copper, lead, and mercury, _dark_; arsenic, antimony, and tin, _yellowish_. if no precipitate, add ammonia and ammonium sulphide, iron, _black_, zinc, _white_, chromium, _green_, manganese, _pink_. the residue of the material after digestion with hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate may have to be examined for silver, lead, and barium. for the detection of minute quantities, the microscope must be used, and guy's and helwig's method of sublimation will be found advantageous. crystalline poisons may be recognized by their characteristic forms. ix.--the mineral acids these are sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids. _symptoms of poisoning by the mineral acids._--acid taste in the mouth, with violent burning pain extending into the oesophagus and stomach, and commencing immediately on the poison being swallowed; eructations, constant retching, and vomiting of brown, black, or yellow matter containing blood, coagulated mucus, epithelium, or portions of the lining membrane of the gullet and stomach. the vomited matters are strongly acid in reaction, and stain articles of clothing on which they may fall. there is intense thirst and constipation, with scanty or suppressed urine, tenesmus, and small and frequent pulse; the lips, tongue, and inside of the mouth, are shrivelled and corroded. exhaustion succeeds, and the patient dies either collapsed, convulsed, or suffocated, the intellect remaining clear to the last. after recovering from the acute form of poisoning, the patient may ultimately die from starvation, due to stricture of the oesophagus, stomach, etc. _post-mortem appearances common to the mineral acids._--stains and corrosions about the mouth, chin, and fingers, or wherever the acid has come in contact. the inside of the mouth, fauces, and oesophagus, is white and corroded, yellow or dark brown, and shrivelled. epiglottis contracted or swollen. stomach filled with brown, yellow, or black glutinous liquid; its lining membrane is charred or inflamed, and the vessels are injected. pylorus contracted. perforation, when it takes place, is on the posterior aspect; the apertures are circular, and surrounded by inflammation and black extravasation. the blood in the large vessels may be coagulated. avoid mistaking gastric or duodenal ulcer, with or without perforation, for the effects of a corrosive poison. _treatment._--calcined magnesia or the carbonate or bicarbonate of sodium, mixed with milk or some mucilaginous liquid, are the best antidotes. in the absence of these, chalk, whiting, milk, oil, soap-suds, etc., will be found of service. the stomach-pump should not be used. if the breathing is impeded, tracheotomy may be necessary. injuries of external parts by the acid must be treated as burns. x.--sulphuric acid =sulphuric acid=, or oil of vitriol, may be concentrated or diluted. it is frequently thrown over the person to disfigure the features or destroy the clothes. parts of the body touched by it are stained, first white, and then dark brown or black. the presence of corrosion of the mouth is as important as the chemical tests. black woollen cloths are turned to a dirty brown, the edges of the spots becoming red in a few days, due to the dilution of the acid from the absorption of moisture; the stains remain damp for long, owing to the hygroscopic property of the acid. _method of extraction from the stomach._--the contents of the stomach or vomited matter should, if necessary, be diluted with pure distilled water and filtered. the stomach should be cut up into small pieces and boiled for some time in water. the solution, filtered and concentrated, is now ready for testing. blood, milk, etc., may be separated by dialysis, and the fluid so obtained tested. a sulphate may be present. take a portion of the liquid, evaporate to dryness, and incinerate; a sulphate, if present, will be obtained, and may be tested. _caution._--sulphuric acid may not be found even after large doses, due to treatment, vomiting, or survival for several days. in all cases every organ should be examined. vomited matters and contents of stomach should not be mixed, but each _separately_ examined. this rule holds good for all poisons. on _cloth_ the stain may be cut out, boiled in water, the solution filtered, and tested with blue litmus and other tests. _post-mortem appearances._--where the acid has come in contact with the mucous membranes there are dark brown or black patches. the stomach is greatly contracted, the summits of the mucous membrane ridges being charred and the furrows greatly inflamed; the contents are black or brown. _tests._--concentrated acid chars organic matter; evolves heat when added to water, and sulphurous fumes when boiled with chips of wood, copper cuttings, or mercury. dilute acid chars paper when the paper is heated; gives a white precipitate with nitrate or chloride of barium, and is entirely volatilized by heat. dilute solutions give a white precipitate with barium nitrate, insoluble in hydrochloric acid even on boiling. _fatal dose._--in an adult, 1 drachm. _fatal period._--shortest, three-quarters of an hour; average period from onset of primary effects, eighteen to twenty-four hours. xi.--nitric acid =nitric acid=, or aqua fortis, is less frequently used as a poison than sulphuric acid. the fumes from nitric acid have caused death from pneumonia in ten or twelve hours. _method of extraction from the stomach._--the same as for sulphuric acid. in beer, etc., the mixture may be neutralized with carbonate of potassium, dialyzed, the fluid concentrated and allowed to crystallize, when crystals of nitrate of potassium may be recognized. _post-mortem appearance._--the mucous membranes are rendered yellow or greenish if bile be present; they are also thickened and hardened. _tests._--concentrated acid gives off irritating orange-coloured fumes of nitric acid gas. when poured on copper, it gives off red fumes and leaves a green solution of nitrate of copper. it gives a red colour with brucine, turns the green sulphate of iron black, and with hydrochloric acid dissolves gold. a delicate test for the acid, free or in combination, is to dissolve in the suspected fluid some crystals of ferrous sulphate, and then to gently pour down the test-tube some strong sulphuric acid. where the two liquids meet, if nitric acid be present, a reddish-brown ring will be formed. it turns the skin bright yellow, and does the same with woollen clothes, from the formation of _picric_ acid. _fatal dose._--two drachms. _fatal period._--shortest, one hour and three-quarters in an adult; in infants in a few minutes, from suffocation. xii.--hydrochloric acid =hydrochloric acid=, muriatic acid, or spirit of salt, is not uncommonly used for suicidal purposes, being fifth in the list. _method of extraction from the stomach._--the same as for sulphuric acid. as hydrochloric acid is a constituent of the gastric juice, the signs of the acid must be looked for. _post-mortem appearances._--the mucous membranes are dry, white, and shrivelled, and often eroded. _tests._--the concentrated acid yields dense white fumes with ammonia. when warmed with black oxide of manganese and strong sulphuric acid it gives off chlorine, recognized by its smell and bleaching properties. diluted it gives with nitrate of silver, a white precipitate, which is insoluble in nitric acid and in caustic potash, but is soluble in ammonia, and when dried and heated melts, and forms a horny mass. stains on clothing are reddish-brown in colour. _fatal dose._--half an ounce. _fatal period._--shortest, two hours; average, twenty-four hours. death may occur after an interval of some weeks from destruction of the gastric glands and inability to digest food. xiii.--oxalic acid =oxalic acid= is used by suicides, though not often by murderers. the crystals closely resemble those of epsom salts or sulphate of zinc; oxalic acid has been taken in mistake for the former. it is in common use for cleansing brass, in laundry work, for dyeing purposes, and especially for bleaching straw hats. _symptoms._--if a concentrated solution be taken, it acts as a corrosive, causing a burning acid, intensely sour taste, which comes on immediately, great pain and tenderness and burning at pit of stomach, pain and tightness in throat. vomiting of mucus, bloody or dark coffee-ground matters, purging and tenesmus, followed by collapse, feeble pulse, cyanosis and pallor of the skin; also swelling of tongue, with dysphagia. in some cases cramps and numbness in limbs, pain in head and back, delirium and convulsions. may be tetanus or coma. if taken freely diluted, the nervous symptoms predominate, and may resemble narcotic poisoning. sometimes almost instant death. _post-mortem appearances._--mucous membrane of mouth, throat, and gullet, white and softened, as if they had been boiled; there are often black or brown streaks in it. stomach contains dark, grumous matter, and is soft, pale, and brittle. intestines slightly inflamed, stomach sometimes quite healthy. _treatment._--warm water, then chalk, carbonate of magnesium, or lime-water, freely. not alkalies, as the oxalates of the alkalies are soluble and poisonous. castor-oil. emetics, but not stomach-pump. _fatal dose._--one drachm is the smallest, but half an ounce is usually fatal. _method of extraction from the stomach._--mince up the coats of the stomach and boil them in water, or boil the contents of the stomach and subject them to dialysis. concentrate the distilled water outside the tube containing the vomited matters, etc., and apply tests. _tests._--white precipitate with nitrate of silver, soluble in nitric acid and ammonia. when the precipitate is dried and heated on platinum-foil, it disperses as white vapour with slight detonation. sulphate of lime in excess gives a white precipitate, soluble in nitric or hydrochloric acid, but insoluble in oxalic, tartaric, acetic, or any vegetable acid. =oxalate or binoxalate of potash= (salts of sorrel or salts of lemon) is almost as poisonous as the acid itself. xiv.--carbolic acid =carbolic acid, phenic acid, or phenol=, is largely employed as a disinfectant, and is often supplied in ordinary beer-bottles without labels. _symptoms._--an intense burning pain extending from the mouth to the stomach and intestines. indications of collapse soon supervene. the skin is cold and clammy, and the lips, eyelids, and ears, are livid. this is followed by insensibility, coma, stertorous breathing, abolition of reflex movements, hurried and shallowed respiration, and death. the pupils are usually contracted, and the urine, if not suppressed, is dark in colour, or even black. patients often improve for a time, and then die suddenly from collapse. when the poison has been absorbed through the skin or mucous membranes, a mild form of delirium, with great weakness and lividity, are the first signs. _post-mortem._--if strong acid has been swallowed, the lips and mucous membranes are hardened, whitened, and corrugated. in the stomach the tops of the folds are whitened and eroded, while the furrows are intensely inflamed. _treatment._--soluble sulphates which form harmless sulpho-carbolates in the blood should be administered at once. an ounce of epsom salts or of glauber's salts dissolved in a pint of water will answer the purpose admirably. after this an emetic of sulphate of zinc may be given. white of egg and water or olive-oil may prove useful. warmth should be applied to the body. _fatal dose._--one drachm, but recovery has taken place after much larger quantities, if well diluted or taken after a meal. _tests_ are not necessary, as the smell of carbolic acid is characteristic. _local action_ of carbolic acid produces anæsthesia and necrosis. accidents sometimes happen from too strong lotions applied as surgical dressings. =lysol= is a compound of cresol and linseed-oil soap, and is much less toxic than carbolic acid. xv.--potash, soda, and ammonia =caustic potash= occurs in cylindrical sticks, is soapy to the touch, has an acrid taste, is deliquescent, fusible by heat, soluble in water. =liquor potassæ= is a strong solution of caustic potash, and has a similar reaction. =carbonate of potassium=, also known as potash, pearlash, salt of tartar, is a white crystalline powder, alkaline and caustic in taste, and very deliquescent. the bicarbonate is in colourless prisms, which have a saline, feebly alkaline taste, and are not deliquescent. _symptoms._--acrid soapy taste in mouth, burning in throat and gullet, acute pain at pit of stomach, vomiting of bloody or brown mucus, colicky pains, bloody stools, surface cold, pulse weak. these preparations are not volatile, so that there is not much fear of lung trouble. in chronic cases death occurs from stricture of the oesophagus causing starvation. _post-mortem appearances._--soapy feeling, softening, inflammation, and corrosion of mucous membrane of mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, and intestines. inflammation may have extended to larynx. _method of extraction from the stomach._--if the contents of the stomach have a strong alkaline action, dilute with water, filter, and apply tests. _tests._--the carbonates effervesce with an acid. the salts give a yellow precipitate with platinum chloride, and a white precipitate with tartaric acid. they are not dissipated by heat, and give a violet colour to the deoxidizing flame of the blowpipe. stains on dark clothing are red or brown. _treatment._--vinegar and water, lemon-juice and water, acidulated stimulant drinks, oil, linseed-tea, opium to relieve pain, stimulants in collapse. do not use the stomach-tube. the glottis may be inflamed, and if there is danger of asphyxia, tracheotomy may have to be performed. =carbonate of sodium= occurs as _soda_ and _best soda_, the former in dirty crystalline masses, the latter of a purer white colour. it is also found as 'washing soda.' _symptoms, post-mortem appearances, treatment, and extraction from the stomach._--as for potash. _tests._--alkaline reaction, effervesces and evolves carbonic acid when treated with an acid; crystallizes, gives yellow tinge to blowpipe flame. no precipitate with tartaric acid, nor with bichloride of platinum. =ammonia= may be taken as _liquor ammoniæ_ (harts-horn), as carbonate of ammonium, as 'cleansel,' or as 'scrubb's cloudy ammonia.' _symptoms._--being volatile, it attacks the air-passages, nose, eyes and lungs, being immediately affected; profuse salivation; lips and tongue swollen, red, and glazed. the urgent symptoms are those of suffocation. inhalation of the fumes of strong ammonia may lead to death from capillary bronchitis or broncho-pneumonia. death may result from inflammation of the larynx and lungs. when swallowed in solution, the symptoms are similar to those of soda and potash. _post-mortem appearances._--similar to other corrosives. _method of extraction from the stomach._--the contents of the stomach, etc., must be first distilled, the gas being conveyed into water free from ammonia. _tests._--nessler's reagent is the most delicate, a reddish-brown colour or precipitate being produced, but ammonia may be recognized by its pungent odour, dense fumes given off with hydrochloric acid, and strong alkaline reaction. _treatment._--vinegar and water. other treatment according to symptoms. _fatal dose._--one drachm of strong solution. _fatal period (shortest)._--four minutes. xvi.--inorganic irritants =nitrate of potassium (nitre, saltpetre)--bitartrate of potassium (cream of tartar)--alum (double sulphate of alumina and potassium)--chlorides of lime, sodium, and potassium.=--all these are irritant drugs, and give the usual symptoms. xvii.--chlorate of potassium, etc. =chlorate of potassium= produces irritation of stomach and bowels; hæmaturia; melæna; cyanosis, weakness, delirium, and coma. _post-mortem._--blood is chocolate-brown in colour, and so are all the internal organs; gastro-enteritis; nephritis. _tests._--spectroscope shows blood contains methæmoglobin; the drug discharges the colour of indigo in acid solution with so_{2}. _treatment._--transfusion of blood or saline fluid; stimulants. =sulphuret of potassium= (liver of sulphur) occurs in mass or powder of a dirty green colour; has a strong smell of sulphuretted hydrogen. _symptoms._--of acute irritant poisoning, with stupor or convulsions. excreta smell of sulphuretted hydrogen. _post-mortem appearances._--stomach and duodenum reddened, with deposits of sulphur. lungs congested. _treatment._--chloride of sodium or lime in dilute solution, and ordinary treatment for irritant poisoning. _fatal period (shortest)._--fifteen minutes. xviii.--barium salts =chloride of barium= occurs crystallized in irregular plates, like magnesium sulphate, soluble in water and bitter in taste. =carbonate of barium= is found in shops as a fine powder, tasteless and colourless, insoluble in water, but effervescing with dilute acids, and readily decomposed by the free acids of the stomach. =nitrate of barium= occurs in octahedral crystals, soluble in water. _method of extraction from the stomach._--dialysis as for other soluble poisons. _tests._--precipitated from its solutions by potassium carbonate or sulphuric acid. burnt on platinum-foil, it gives a green colour to the flame. _symptoms._--besides those of irritants generally, violent cramps and convulsions, headache, debility, dimness of sight, double vision, noises in the ears, and beating at the heart. the salts of barium are also cardiac poisons. _post-mortem appearances._--as of irritants generally. stomach may be perforated. _treatment._--wash out stomach with a solution of sodium or magnesium sulphate, or of alum, and give stimulants by the mouth and hypodermically. xix.--iodine--iodide of potassium =iodine= occurs in scales of a dark bluish-black colour. it strikes blue with solution of starch, and stains the skin and intestines yellowish-brown. liquid preparations, as the liniment or tincture, may be taken accidentally or suicidally. _symptoms._--acrid taste, tightness of throat, epigastric pain, and then symptoms of irritant poisons generally. chronic poisoning (iodism) is characterized by coryza, salivation, and lachrymation, frontal headache, loss of appetite, marked mental depression, acne of the face and chest, and a petechial eruption on the limbs. _post-mortem appearances._--those of irritant poisoning with corrosion, and staining of a dark brown or yellow colour. _treatment._--stomach-pump and emetics, carbonate of sodium, amylaceous fluids, gruel, arrowroot, starch, etc. _analysis of organic mixture containing iodine._--add bisulphide of carbon, and shake. the iodine may be obtained on evaporation as a sublimate. it will be recognized by the blue colour which it gives with starch. =iodide of potassium.=--colourless, generally opaque, cubic crystals, soluble in less than their weight of cold water. _symptoms._--not an active poison, but even small doses sometimes produce the effects of a common cold, including those symptoms already mentioned as occurring with iodine. _analysis._--iodide of potassium in solution gives a bright yellow precipitate with lead salts; a bright scarlet with corrosive sublimate; and a blue colour with sulphuric or nitric acid and starch. xx.--phosphorus =phosphorus= is usually found in small, waxy-looking cylinders, which are kept in water to prevent oxidation. it may also occur as the amorphous non-poisonous variety, a red opaque infusible substance, insoluble in carbon disulphide. ordinary phosphorus is soluble in oil, alcohol, ether, chloroform, and carbon disulphide; insoluble in water. it is much used in rat poisons, made into a paste with flour, sugar, fat, and prussian blue. yellow phosphorus is not allowed to be used in the manufacture of lucifer matches, and the importation of such is prohibited. in 'safety' matches the amorphous phosphorus is on the box. _symptoms._--at first those of an irritant poison, but days may elapse before any characteristic symptoms appear, and these may be mistaken for those of acute yellow atrophy of the liver. the earliest signs are a garlicky taste in the mouth and pain in the throat and stomach. vomited matter luminous in the dark, bile-stained or bloody, with garlic-like odour. great prostration, diarrhoea, with bloody stools. harsh, dry, yellow skin, purpuric spots with ecchymoses under the skin and mucous membranes, retention or suppression of urine, delirium, convulsions, coma, and death. usually there are remissions for two to three days, then jaundice comes on, with enlargement of the liver; hæmorrhages from the mucous surfaces and under the skin; later, coma and convulsions. in chronic cases there is fatty degeneration of most of the organs and tissues of the body. the inhalation of the fumes of phosphorus, as in making vermin-killers, etc., gives rise to 'phossy-jaw.' _post-mortem appearances._--softening of the stomach, hæmorrhagic spots on all organs and under the skin, fatty degeneration of liver, kidneys, and heart, blood-stained urine, phosphorescent contents of alimentary canal. _treatment._--early use of stomach-pump and emetics, followed by the administration of permanganate of potassium or peroxide of hydrogen to oxidize the phosphorus. oil should not be given. sulphate and carbonate of magnesium, mucilaginous drinks. sulphate of copper is a valuable antidote, both as an emetic and as forming an insoluble compound with phosphorus. _fatal dose._--one grain and a half. _fatal period._--four hours; more commonly two to four days. _detection of phosphorus in organic mixtures._--mitscherlich's method is the best. introduce the suspected material into a retort. acidulate with sulphuric acid to fix any ammonia present. distil in the dark, through a glass tube kept cool by a stream of water. as the vapour passes over and condenses, a flash of light is perceived, which is the test. xxi.--arsenic and its preparations =arsenic= is the most important of all the metallic poisons. it is much used in medicine and the arts. it occurs as metallic arsenic, which is of a steel-grey colour, brittle, and gives off a garlic-like odour when heated; as arsenious acid; in the form of two sulphides--the red sulphide, or realgar, and the yellow sulphide, or orpiment; and as arsenite of copper, or scheele's green. it also exists as an impurity in the ores of several metals--iron, copper, silver, tin, zinc, nickel, and cobalt. sulphuric acid is frequently impregnated with arsenic from the iron pyrites used in preparing the acid. it is a constituent of many rat pastes, vermin or weed killers, complexion powders, sheep dips, etc. =arsenious acid= (white arsenic, trioxide of arsenic).--colourless, odourless, and almost tasteless. it occurs in commerce as a white powder or in a solid cake, which is at first translucent, but afterwards becomes opaque. slightly soluble in cold water; 1 ounce of water dissolves about 1/2 grain of arsenic. fowler's solution is the best-known medicinal preparation of arsenic, and contains 1 grain of arsenious anhydride in 110 minims. _symptoms._--commence in from half to one hour. faintness, nausea, incessant vomiting, epigastric pain, headache, diarrhoea, tightness and heat of throat and fauces, thirst, catching in the breath, restlessness, debility, cramp in the legs, and convulsive twitchings. the skin becomes cold and clammy. in some cases the symptoms are those of collapse, with but little pain, vomiting, or diarrhoea. in others the patient falls into a deep sleep, while in the fourth class the symptoms resemble closely those of english cholera. the vomited matters are often blue from indigo, or black from soot, or greenish from bile, mixed with the poison. should the patient survive some days, no trace of arsenic may be found in the body, as the poison is rapidly eliminated by the kidneys. in all suspected cases the urine should be examined. the symptoms of _chronic_ poisoning by arsenic are loss of appetite, silvery tongue, thirst, nausea, colicky pains, diarrhoea, headache, languor, sleeplessness, cutaneous eruptions, soreness of the edges of the eyelids, emaciation, falling out of the hair, cough, hæmoptysis, anæmia, great tenderness on pressure over muscles of legs and arms, due to peripheral neuritis, and convulsions. pigmentation is common; the face becomes dusky red, the rest of the body a dark brown shade. this darkening is most marked in situations normally pigmented and in parts exposed to pressure of the clothes, such as the neck, axilla, and inner aspect of the arms, the extensor aspects being less marked than the flexor. the pigmentation resembles the bronzing of addison's disease, but there are no patches on the mucous membranes, and the normal rosy tint of the lips is not altered. the skin over the feet may show marked hyperkeratosis. the nervous system is notably affected. the sensory symptoms appear first: numbness and tingling of the hands and feet, pain in the soles of the feet on walking, pain on moving the joints, and erythromelalgia. then come the motor symptoms, with drop-wrist and drop-foot. the patient suffers severely from neuritis, and there may be early loss of patellar reflex. the nervous symptoms come on later than the cutaneous manifestations. _post-mortem appearances._--signs of acute inflammation of stomach, duodenum, small intestines, colon, and rectum. stomach may contain dark grumous fluid, and its mucous coat presents the appearance of crimson velvet. ulceration is rare, and cases of perforation still less common, the patient dying before it occurs. if life has been preserved for some days, there is extensive fatty degeneration of the organs. there may be entire absence of _post-mortem_ signs. putrefaction of the body is retarded by arsenic. _treatment._--the stomach-pump, emetics, then milk, milk and eggs, oil and lime-water. inflammatory symptoms, collapse, coma, etc., must be treated on ordinary principles. as an antidote, the best when the poison is in solution is the hydrated sesquioxide of iron, formed by precipitating tinctura ferri perchloridi with excess of ammonia, or carbonate of soda. this is filtered off through muslin and given in tablespoonful doses. it forms ferric arsenate, which is sparingly soluble. colloidal iron hydroxide may be used instead. dialyzed iron in large quantities is efficacious. _fatal dose (smallest)._--two grains. exceptionally, recovery from very large doses if rejected by vomiting. _fatal period (shortest)._--twenty minutes. exceptionally, death as late as the sixteenth day. the effects of arsenic are modified by tolerance, some persons being able to take considerable quantities. the peasants of styria are in the habit of eating it. _method of extraction from the stomach._--the coats of the stomach should be examined with a lens for any white particles. these, if present, may be collected, mixed with a little charcoal in a test-tube, and heated. if arsenic is present, a metallic ring will be formed in the cooler parts of the tube. if this ring be also heated, octahedral crystals of arsenic will be deposited farther up the tube, and are easily recognized by the microscope. the contents of the stomach, or the solid organs minced up, should be boiled with pure hydrochloric acid and water, then filtered. the filtrate can then be subjected to marsh's or reinsch's process. _tests._--in _solution_, arsenic may be detected by the liquid tests. (1) ammonio-nitrate of silver gives a yellow precipitate (arsenite of silver). (2) ammonio-sulphate of copper gives a green precipitate (scheele's green). (3) sulphuretted hydrogen water gives a yellow precipitate. _marsh's process._--put pure distilled water into a marsh's apparatus with metallic zinc and sulphuric acid. hydrogen is set free, and should be tested by lighting the issuing gas and depressing over it a piece of white porcelain. if no mark appears, the reagents are pure, and the suspected liquid may now be added. the hydrogen decomposes arsenious acid, and forms arseniuretted hydrogen. the gas carried off by a fine tube is again ignited. a piece of glass or porcelain held to the flame will have, if arsenic be present, a deposit on it having the following characters: in the centre a deposit of metallic arsenic, round this a mixture of metallic arsenic and arsenious acid, and outside this another ring of arsenious acid in octahedral crystals. the deposit is dissolved by a solution of chloride of lime, turned yellow by sulphide of ammonium after evaporation; on the addition of strong nitric acid, evaporated and neutralized with ammonia and nitrate of silver added, a brick-red colour is produced--arseniate of silver. _reinsch's process._--boil distilled water with one-sixth or one-eighth of hydrochloric acid, and introduce a slip of bright copper. if, after a quarter of an hour's boiling, there is no stain on the copper, add the suspected liquid. if arsenic be present, it will form an iron-grey deposit. if this foil be dried, cut up, put in a reduction-tube, and heated, crystals of arsenious trioxide will be deposited on the cold part of the tube. these tests are difficult to apply, but as arsenic is a ubiquitous poison, and as there are many sources of fallacy, it would be well, when possible, to obtain the services of an expert. _biological test._--put the substance to be tested into a flask with some small pieces of bread, sterilize for half an hour at 120° c. when cold, inoculate with a culture of _penicillium brevicaule_, and keep at a temperature of 37° c. if arsenic is present, a garlic-like odour is noticed in twenty four hours, due to arseniuretted hydrogen or an organic combination of arsenic. this test is delicate, and will detect 1/1000 of a milligramme, but it is not quantitative. =other preparations of arsenic.=--these are arsenite of potash (fowler's solution), cacodylate of sodium, and arsenite of copper (scheele's green), the last frequently used for colouring dresses and wall-papers. persons using these preparations may suffer from catarrhal symptoms, rashes on the neck, ears, and face, thirst, nausea, pain in stomach, vomiting, headache, perhaps peripheral neuritis and loss of patellar reflex. the cacodylates, although formerly employed in the treatment of phthisis, should be used with the utmost caution. the arsenites give the reactions of arsenious acid. arsenic is eliminated not only by the kidneys and bowels, but by the skin, and in women by the menses. it may be detected in the sweat, the saliva, the bronchial secretion, and, during lactation, in the milk. the sale of arsenic and its preparations to the public is properly hedged round with restrictions of all kinds. it is included in part i. of the poisons and pharmacy act (8 edward vii., c. 55). no arsenic may be sold to a person under age, nor may it be sold unless mixed with soot or indigo in the proportion of 1 ounce of soot or 1/2 ounce of indigo at the least to every pound of arsenic. =arseniuretted hydrogen= (arsine, ash_{3}) is an extremely poisonous gas, and is evolved in various chemical and manufacturing processes. when damp, _ferro-silicon_ evolves ash_{3} and ph_{3}, both very lethal gases. _ferrochrome_ is used in making steel, and it also evolves ph_{3}, and in such extreme dilution as 0.02 per cent. may cause death. xxii.--antimony and its preparations =tartar emetic= (tartarized antimony, potassio-tartrate of antimony) occurs as a white powder, or in yellowish-white efflorescent crystals. vinum antimoniale contains 2 grains to a fluid ounce of the wine. _symptoms._--metallic taste, rapidly followed by nausea, incessant vomiting, burning heat and pain in stomach, purging. dysphagia, sense of constriction in throat, intense thirst, cramps, faintness, profound depression; in fatal cases, giddiness and tetanic spasms. in _chronic poisoning_, nausea, vomiting and purging, weak pulse, loss of appetite, debility, cold sweats, great prostration, progressive emaciation. the symptoms in chronic poisoning may simulate gastritis or enteritis. externally applied, it produces an eruption not unlike that of smallpox. _post-mortem appearances._--inflammation, softening, and an aphthous condition of the throat, gullet, and stomach, the last reddened in patches. in chronic poisoning, inflammation also of cæcum and colon. brain and lungs may be congested. decomposition is hindered for long. _treatment._--promote vomiting by warm greasy water, or the stomach-tube may be used. cinchona bark or any preparation containing tannin, as tea, decoction of oak bark, etc. morphine to allay pain. _fatal dose._--in an adult 2 grains (same as arsenic). _fatal period._--death follows in eight to twelve hours, from exhaustion. _method of extraction from the stomach._--the contents of the stomach or its coats should be finely cut up and boiled in water, acidulated with tartaric acid and subjected to dialysis, or strained and filtered. pass hydrogen sulphide through the filtered or dialyzed fluid until a precipitate ceases to fall; collect the sulphide thus formed, wash and dry it. boil the orange-coloured sulphide in a little hydrochloric acid. if the solution be now added to a large bulk of water, the white oxychloride is precipitated, which is soluble in tartaric acid and precipitated orange yellow with hydrogen sulphide. the chloride of bismuth is also precipitated white, but the precipitate is not soluble in tartaric acid, and the precipitate with hydrogen sulphide is black. _tests._--soluble in water, but not in alcohol. heated in substance, it crepitates and chars; and if heat be increased, the metal is deposited. treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, a characteristic orange-red sulphide is formed. a drop of the solution evaporated leaves crystals, either tetrahedric, or cubes with edges bevelled off. sulphuretted hydrogen passed through gives the orange-red precipitate above named. dilute nitric acid gives a white precipitate, soluble in excess, and also in tartaric acid. marsh's and reinsch's processes are applicable for the detection of antimony, but reinsch's is the better. reinsch's process gives a violet deposit instead of the black, lustrous one of arsenic. =chloride of antimony= (butter of antimony).--a light yellow or dark red corrosive liquid. _symptoms._--violet corrosion and irritation of the alimentary canal, with the addition of narcotic symptoms. after death the mucous membrane of the entire canal is charred, softened, and abraded. _treatment._--as for tartar emetic; magnesia in milk. xxiii.--mercury and its preparations the most important salt of mercury, toxicologically, is corrosive sublimate. other poisonous preparations are red precipitate, white precipitate, mercuric nitrate, the cyanide and potassio-mercuric iodide. calomel has very little toxic action. metallic mercury is not poisonous, but its vapour is. =corrosive sublimate= (perchloride of mercury) is in heavy colourless masses of prismatic crystals, possessing an acrid, metallic taste. it is soluble in sixteen parts of cold and two of boiling water. soluble in alcohol and ether, the latter also separating it from its solution in water. _symptoms_ come on rapidly. acrid, metallic taste, constriction and burning in throat and stomach, nausea, vomiting of stringy mucus tinged with blood, tenesmus, purging. feeble, quick, and irregular pulse, dysuria with scanty, albuminous or bloody urine or total suppression. cramp, twitches and convulsions of limbs, occasionally paralysis. in poisoning from the medicinal use of mercury, there may be salivation, a coppery taste in the mouth, peculiar foetor of breath, tenderness and swelling of mouth, inflammation, swelling and ulceration of gums (cancrum oris), a blue line on the gums, and the loosening of teeth. mercury is less quickly eliminated from the body than arsenic. in chronic cases 'mercurialism,' 'hydrargyrism,' 'ptyalism,' or 'salivation,' including most of the symptoms enumerated above. may get _eczema mercuriale_ and periostitis. profound anæmia often a prominent symptom; neuritis not uncommon. if fumes of mercury inhaled, mercurial tremors develop. _post-mortem appearances._--corrosion, softening, and sloughing ulceration of stomach and intestines. the mucous membrane of the oesophagus and stomach is often of a bluish-grey colour. the large intestine and rectum are often ulcerated and gangrenous. inflamed condition of urinary organs, with contraction of the bladder. _treatment._--encourage or produce vomiting. albumin, as white of egg, gluten, or wheat flour, is the best antidote. demulcent drinks, milk, and ice. stomach-tube to be used with care, owing to softened state of gullet and stomach. _fatal dose._--three grains in a child. _fatal period._--half an hour the shortest. _method of extraction from the stomach._--a trial test may be made of the contents of the stomach with copper-foil. if mercury is found, the contents of the stomach may be dialyzed, the resulting clear fluid concentrated and shaken with ether, which has the power of taking corrosive sublimate up, and thus separating it from arsenic and other metallic poisons. the ether allowed to evaporate will leave the corrosive sublimate in white silky-looking prisms. suppose no mercury is found in the dialyzed fluid, owing to the fact that corrosive sublimate enters into insoluble compounds with albumin, fibrin, mucous membrane, gluten, tannic acid, etc., we must dry the insoluble matter, and heat it with nitro-hydrochloric acid until all organic matter is destroyed and excess of nitric acid expelled. the residue dissolved in water, filtered, and tested with copper-foil, etc. _tests._--the following table gives the action of corrosive sublimate with reagents: 1. with iodide of potassium bright scarlet colour. 2. with potash solution bright yellow colour. 3. with hydrochloric acid and first a yellowish and then a black sulphuretted hydrogen colour. 4. heated in a reduction-tube melts, boils, is volatilized, and forms a white crystalline sublimate. 5. with ether freely soluble; the ethereal solution, when allowed to evaporate spontaneously, deposits the salt in white prismatic crystals. 6. heated with carbonate of globules of metallic mercury are sodium in a reduction-tube produced. a very simple process for detecting corrosive sublimate is to put a drop of the suspected solution on a sovereign and touch the gold through the solution with a key, when metallic mercury will be deposited on the gold. xxiv.--lead and its preparations =acetate of lead= (sugar of lead).--a glistening white powder or crystalline mass. soluble in water, with a sweetish taste. it is practically the only lead salt which gives rise to acute symptoms, and only when taken in large doses. _symptoms._--metallic taste, dryness in throat, intense thirst, vomiting, colicky pains, cramps, cold sweat, _constipation_ and scanty urine, severe headache, convulsions. _chronic lead-poisoning_ is liable to occur in those who handle lead in any form--white-lead workers, paint manufacturers, plumbers, pottery workers, etc. in chronic lead-poisoning the most prominent symptoms are a blue line on the gums, anæmia, emaciation, pallor, quick pulse, persistent constipation, colic, cramps in limbs, and paralysis of the extensor muscles, causing 'dropped hand.' may get _saturnine encephalopathies_, of which intense headache, optic neuritis, and epileptiform convulsions, are the most common. albumin in urine, tendency to gout, and in women to abortion. _post-mortem appearances._--inflamed mucous membrane of stomach and intestines, with layers of white or whitish-yellow mucus, impregnated with the salt of lead. _treatment._--sulphate of sodium or magnesium, or a mixture of dilute sulphuric acid, spirits of chloroform, and peppermint-water. milk, or milk and eggs. as a prophylactic among workers in lead, a drink containing sulphuric acid flavoured with treacle should be given. lavatory accommodation should be provided, and scrupulous cleanliness should also be enjoined in the workshops. the dry grinding of lead salts should be prohibited. the ionization method of sir thomas oliver is most useful both as regards cure and also prevention of chronic poisoning by lead. _fatal dose and fatal period._--uncertain. _method of extraction from the stomach._--dry the contents of the stomach or portions of the liver, etc., and incinerate in a porcelain crucible. treat the ash with nitric acid, dry, and dissolve in water. the solution of nitrate of lead may now have the proper tests applied. _tests._--sulphuretted hydrogen gives a black precipitate; liquor potassæ, white precipitate; sulphuric acid, white precipitate, insoluble in nitric acid; iodide of potassium, a bright yellow precipitate. a delicate test for lead in water is to stir the water, concentrated or not, with a glass rod dipped in ammonium sulphide: a brown coloration is produced. one-tenth of a grain of lead in a gallon of water may be detected. chronic lead-poisoning is an 'industrial disease,' and, being an occupation risk, its victims are entitled to compensation at the hands of their employers. in case of death, compensation has been awarded even when at the autopsy the patient has been found to have suffered from acute tuberculosis of the lungs. the responsibility of apportioning the monetary value of disablement resulting from the action of the lead rests with a judge or jury, who are guided by the expert medical evidence available. diachylon, or lead-plaster, is largely used as an abortifacient. xxv.--copper and its preparations poisoning with copper salts is rare. the most important are the sulphate, subacetate, and arsenite. =sulphate of copper= (bluestone, blue vitriol) in half-ounce doses is a powerful irritant. has been given to procure abortion. =subacetate of copper= (verdegris) occurs in masses, or as a greenish powder. powerful, astringent, metallic taste. half-ounce doses have proved fatal. _symptoms._--epigastric pain, vomiting of bluish or greenish matter, diarrhoea. dyspnoea, depression, cold extremities, headache, purple line round the gums. jaundice is common. a _chronic_ form of poisoning may occur, with symptoms closely resembling those of lead. _post-mortem appearances._--inflammation of stomach and intestines, which are bluish or green in colour. _treatment._--encourage vomiting. give albumin or very dilute solution of ferrocyanide of potassium. _method of extraction from the stomach._--boil the contents of the stomach in water, filter, pass hydrogen sulphide, filter, collect precipitate and boil in nitric acid, filter, dilute filtrate with water and apply tests. in the case of the solid organs, dry, incinerate, digest ash in hydrochloric acid, evaporate nearly to dryness, dilute with water, and test. _tests._--polished steel put into a solution containing a copper salt receives a coating of metallic copper. ammonia gives a whitish-blue precipitate, soluble in excess. ferrocyanide of potassium gives a rich red-brown precipitate. sulphuretted hydrogen gives a deep brown precipitate. xxvi.--zinc, silver, bismuth, and chromium the salts of zinc requiring notice are the sulphate and chloride. =sulphate of zinc= has been taken in mistake for epsom salts. in large doses it causes dryness of throat, thirst, vomiting, purging, and abdominal pain. _post-mortem appearances._--those of inflammation of digestive tract. _treatment._--tea, decoction of oak-bark, carbonate of potassium or sodium as antidote. =chloride of zinc.=--a solution containing this substance (230 grains to the ounce) constitutes 'burnett's disinfecting fluid.' it is a corrosive poison. the symptoms are burning sensation in the mouth, throat, stomach, and abdomen, followed by vomiting, diarrhoea, with tenesmus and distension of the abdomen. the vomited matter contains shreds of mucous membrane with blood. there is profound collapse, cold surface, clammy sweats, weak pulse, with great prostration. the _treatment_ is to wash out the stomach with large and weak solutions of carbonate of sodium. mucilaginous drinks may be given, and hypodermic injections of morphine are useful to allay the pain. _method of extraction from the stomach._--dry and incinerate the tissues in a porcelain crucible, digest ash in water, apply tests. _tests._--ammonia, a white precipitate soluble in excess, reprecipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen; ferrocyanide of potassium, a white precipitate; sulphuretted hydrogen, a white precipitate in pure and neutral solutions. nitrate of baryta will show the presence of sulphuric acid, and nitrate of silver of hydrochloric acid. =silver.=--nitrate of silver is a powerful irritant. _tests._--black precipitate with sulphuretted hydrogen; white with hydrochloric acid. _treatment._--common salt. chronic nitrate of silver poisoning is characterized by _argyria_. the gums show a blue line, which is darker than that produced by lead, and the skin presents a greyish hue, which is permanent. =bismuth.=--the bismuth salts are not poisonous, but may contain arsenic as an impurity, although this is far less common than it was some years ago. =chromic acid, chromate, bichromate of potassium.=--these act as corrosives when solid or in concentrated liquid forms. in dilute solutions they act as irritants. used as dyes; have proved fatal more than once. those engaged in their manufacture suffer from unhealthy ulcers on the nasal septum and hands. the former may to some extent be prevented by taking snuff. lead chromate (chrome yellow) is a powerful irritant poison. two drachms of the bichromate caused death in four hours. _tests._--yellow precipitate with salts of lead, deep red with those of silver. _treatment._--emetics, magnesia, and diluents. washing out of the stomach with weak solution of nitrate of silver. xxvii.--gaseous poisons =carbon dioxide.=--carbon dioxide is a product of combustion and respiration, and is generated in many ways during fermentation. it is a constituent of _choke damp_ due to explosions in coal-mines, and is given off from lime-kilns, brick-kilns, and cement-works. it is often met with in dangerous quantities in wells and in brewers' vats. from 10 to 15 per cent. in the atmosphere would prove fatal, but even 2 per cent. inhaled for long would produce serious symptoms. the proportion usually present in air is 0.04 per cent. _symptoms._--inhalation of the _pure_ gas causes spasm of the glottis, insensibility, and death from asphyxia, at once; _diluted_, causes sense of weight in forehead and back of head, giddiness, vomiting, somnolence, loss of muscular power. insensibility, stertorous breathing, lividity of face and body, and death from asphyxia. convulsions occasionally. _post-mortem appearances._--face swollen and livid, or calm and pale; lividity is most marked in eyelids, lips, ears, etc.; limbs usually flaccid, abdomen distended; right side of heart, lungs, and large veins, gorged with dark-coloured blood. brain and membranes congested. _treatment._--pure air, cold affusion, stimulants, artificial respiration, galvanism, inhalation of oxygen, venesection, transfusion. =carbonic oxide.=--this is one of the most poisonous of gases. it is evolved in the process of burning charcoal and coke in stoves or furnaces. water-gas, obtained by passing steam over heated coke, contains 40 per cent. of the substance, the remainder being chiefly hydrogen. it forms the chief part of the deadly 'choke damp' after an explosion in a mine. two per cent. in the atmosphere is immediately fatal. _symptoms._--when in _large amount_, insensibility comes on at once; when in _very small amounts_, headache, giddiness, noises in the ears, nausea, and vomiting, with prostration, insensibility, and coma. there may be convulsions. even in cases which recover, permanent impairment of the brain may result. _post-mortem appearances._--the blood is bright red in colour, due to the interaction of carbonic oxide with hæmoglobin. a rosy hue of the skin-surface and viscera is often noticed. bright red patches of colour are found over the surface of the body. the spectrum of the blood is characteristic. _treatment._--ammonia to the nostrils, inhalation of oxygen, cold douche in moderation, artificial respiration, transfusion of blood. =coal gas.=--coal gas contains light carburetted hydrogen or marsh gas, olefiant gas, ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, free hydrogen, and nitrogen. coal gas has an offensive odour, burns with a yellowish-white flame, yielding water and carbonic acid. cases of poisoning often due to escape of gas into the room. _symptoms._--headache and giddiness, foaming at mouth, vomiting, convulsions, tetanic spasms, stertorous breathing, dilated pupil. the breath smells of gas; there is profound stupor; the patient, if alive, exhales gas from the lungs when removed into a fresh room or into the air. smell of gas in the room and in patient's breath. _post-mortem appearances._--pallor of skin and internal tissues; florid colour of neck, back, and muscles, if much co present in the coal gas; fluid florid blood; infiltration of lungs. _treatment._--fresh air, artificial respiration, cold affusion, diffusible stimulants; inhalation of oxygen freely. =sulphuretted hydrogen= is characterized by its odour, like that of rotten eggs. it is extremely poisonous. _symptoms._--giddiness, pain and oppression in stomach, nausea, loss of power; delirium, tetanus, and convulsions. _post-mortem appearances._--fluid and black blood (sulph-hæmoglobin), smell of h_{2}s on opening the body; loss of contractility of muscles, rapid putrefaction. _treatment._--fresh air, stimulants, inhalation of chlorine. _tests._--acetate of lead throws down a brown or black precipitate according to the quantity of the gas. =sewer gas.=--cesspool emanations usually consist of a mixture of sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphide of ammonium, and nitrogen; but sometimes it is only deoxidized air with an excess of carbonic acid gas. _symptoms._--if poison concentrated, death may ensue at once; if gas diluted, or exposure only short, insensibility, lividity, hurried respiration, weak pulse, dilated pupils, elevation of temperature to 104°, tonic convulsions not unlike those of tetanus. _treatment._--fresh air, oxygen, with artificial respiration. stimulants, hypodermic of strychnine, and alternate hot and cold douche. =irritant gases= are--(1) nitrous acid gas; (2) sulphurous acid gas; (3) hydrochloric acid gas; (4) chlorine; (5) bromine; (6) ammonia. they have the common property of causing irritation and inflammation of the eyes, throat, and air-passages, and may cause spasm of the glottis, bronchitis, and pneumonia. =sulphurous acid gas.=--one of the products of combustion of common coal. =hydrochloric acid gas.=--irrespirable when concentrated, and very irritating when diluted. very destructive to vegetable life. =chlorine.=--used in bleaching, and as a disinfectant. greenish-yellow colour, suffocating odour. in poisoning, inhalation of sulphuretted hydrogen gives relief. xxviii.--vegetable irritants the chief vegetable purgatives are aloes, colocynth, gamboge, jalap, scammony, seeds of castor-oil plant, croton-oil, elaterium, the hellebores, and colchicum. all these have, either alone or combined, proved fatal. the active principle in aloes is aloin; of jalap, jalapin; of white hellebore, veratria; and of colchicum, colchicin. morrison's pills contain aloes and colocynth; aloes is also the chief ingredient in holloway's pills. _symptoms._--vomiting, purging, tenesmus, etc., followed by cold sweats, collapse, or convulsions. _post-mortem appearances._--inflammation of alimentary canal; ulceration, softening, and submucous effusion of dark blood. _treatment._--diluents, opium, stimulants, abdominal fomentations, etc. certain of these irritant poisons exert a marked influence on the central nervous system, as the following: =laburnum= (_cytisis laburnum_).--all parts of the plant are poisonous; the seeds, which are contained in pods, are often eaten by children. contains the alkaloid _cytisine_, which is also contained in arnica. it has a bitter taste, and is powerfully toxic. symptoms are purging, vomiting, restlessness, followed by drowsiness, insensibility, and convulsive twitchings. death due to respiratory paralysis. most of the cases are in children. treatment consists of stomach-pump or emetics, stimulants freely, artificial respiration, warmth and friction to the surface of the body. =yew= (_taxus baccata_) contains the alkaloid _taxine_. the symptoms are convulsions, insensibility, coma, dilated pupils, pallor, laboured breathing, collapse. death may occur suddenly. treatment as above. post-mortem appearances not characteristic, but fragments of leaves or berries may be found in the stomach and intestines. =arum= (_arum maculatum_).--this plant, commonly known as 'lords and ladies,' is common in the woods, and the berries may be eaten by children. it gives rise to symptoms of irritant poisoning, vomiting, purging, dilated pupils, convulsions, followed by insensibility, coma, and death. many plants have an intensely irritating action on the skin, and when absorbed act as active poisons. =rhus toxicodendron= is the poison oak or poison ivy. poisoning by this plant is rare in england, though not uncommon in the united states. mere contact with the leaves or branches will in many people set up an acute dermatitis, with much oedema and hyperæmia of the skin. the inflammation spreads rapidly, and there is formation of blebs with much itching. there is often great constitutional disturbance, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, and pains in the abdomen. the effects may last a week, and the skin may desquamate. =primula obconica= is another plant which, when handled, gives rise to an acute dermatitis of an erysipelatous character. the face swells, and large blisters form on the cheeks and chin. xxix.--opium and morphine =opium.=--the inspissated juice of the unripe capsules of the _papaver somniferum_. as a poison it is generally taken in the form of the tincture (laudanum), which contains 1 grain opium in 15 minims. opium is found in almost all so-called 'soothing syrups' for children, and in godfrey's cordial, dalby's carminative, and collis browne's chlorodyne. laudanum contains 1 per cent. morphine, and it, along with all other preparations (_e.g._, paregoric) which contain 1 or more per cent. morphine, are included in part i. of the schedule of poisons, and come under the dangerous drugs regulations. the most important active principles of opium are the alkaloids morphine and codeine. _symptoms_ usually commence in from twenty to thirty minutes: giddiness, drowsiness and stupor, followed by insensibility. patient seems asleep; may be roused by loud noise, but quickly relapses. breathing slow and stertorous, pulse weak, countenance livid. as coma increases, pulse becomes slower and fuller. the pupils are contracted, even to a pin's point; they are insensible to the action of light. in deep, natural sleep the eyes are turned upwards and the pupils contracted. bowels confined, skin cold and livid or bathed in sweat. temperature subnormal. nausea and vomiting are sometimes present. remissions are not infrequent, the patient appearing about to recover and then relapsing. hæmorrhage into the pons may give rise to contracted pupils. young children and infants are specially susceptible to the poison. _diagnosis_ is not always easy, and one has to differentiate poisoning from _cerebral apoplexy_. in the latter one can seldom rouse the patient, the pupils are often unequal, and hemiplegia is present. in _compression of the brain_, fracture of the skull may be present, subconjunctival hæmorrhages may be seen, the pupils are unequal and dilated, and the paralysis increases. in _uræmic or diabetic coma_ the urine must be examined. the habitual use of opium is not uncommon, and opium-eaters are able to take enormous quantities of the drug. the opium-eater may be known by his attenuated body, withered yellow countenance, stooping posture, and glassy, sunken eyes. _post-mortem appearances._--not characteristic. turgescence of cerebral vessels. there may be effusion under arachnoid, into ventricles, at base of the brain, and around the cord. rarely extravasation of blood. stomach and intestines usually healthy. lungs gorged, skin livid. _fatal period._--usually nine to twelve hours; but in many cases, if life is prolonged for eight hours, recovery takes place. _fatal dose._--four grains of opium is the smallest fatal dose in an adult, or one drachm of laudanum; children are proportionately much more susceptible to the action of opium than adults. _treatment._--stomach-tube, emetics, strong coffee or tea, ammonia to nostrils. give 10 grains of permanganate of potassium in a pint of water acidulated with sulphuric acid, and repeat the dose every half hour. belladonna by mouth, or atropine hypodermically. patient must be kept roused by dashing cold water over him, flagellating with a wet towel, walking about, etc. in conditions of collapse, however, this treatment must not be continued, but everything should be done to preserve the strength. treatment must be continued as long as life remains. _method of extraction from the stomach._--opium itself cannot be directly detected, but we test for morphine and meconic acid. these may be separated from organic mixtures thus: boil the organic matter with distilled water, spirit, and acetic acid; filter, and to the fluid passed through add acetate of lead till precipitate ceases. filter. acetate of morphine passes through, and meconate of lead remains. the solution of acetate of morphine may be freed from excess of lead by hydrogen sulphide and filtered, excess of hydrogen sulphide driven off by heat, and tests applied. put the meconate of lead with water into a beaker and pass hydrogen sulphide; sulphide of lead is formed, and meconic acid set free. filter. concentrate the solution of meconic acid, allow a portion to crystallize, and apply tests. _tests._--morphine and its acetate give an orange-red colour with nitric acid, becoming brighter on standing; decompose iodic acid, setting free iodine; with perchloride of iron, gives a rich indigo-blue; with bichromate of potassium, a green turning to brown. when the alkaloid is heated in a watchglass with a drop of strong sulphuric acid until the acid begins to fume, and is then allowed to get quite cold, a drop of nitric acid produces a brilliant red colour. the iodic acid test is very delicate, but requires great care, and may be used in the presence of organic matter. meconic acid gives a blood-red colour with perchloride of iron, not discharged by corrosive sublimate or chloride of gold. the similar colour produced by sulpho-cyanide of potassium and perchloride of iron is discharged by chloride of gold and corrosive sublimate. =morphine habit.=--individuals who have acquired this habit take the drug usually by hypodermic injection. the victim suffers from nausea and vomiting, and becomes so mentally debilitated that asylum treatment is required. xxx.--belladonna, hyoscyamus, and stramonium =belladonna.=--the root, leaves, and berries, of the _atropa belladonna_ are poisonous from the presence of alkaloid atropine. _symptoms._--dryness of mouth and throat, intense thirst, dysphagia and dysphonia, quick pulse, noisy delirium and stupor. strangury and hæmaturia, and redness of the skin, especially of the face, like that of scarlatina, have been noticed. dilatation of the pupil occurs, whether the poison be taken internally or applied locally to the eye. _post-mortem appearances._--congestion of cerebral vessels, dilated pupils, red patches in alimentary canal. _treatment._--wash out the stomach freely; a hypodermic injection of apomorphine as an emetic, followed by hypodermic injections of pilocarpine or morphine. tea, coffee, or tannin, to precipitate the alkaloid. _tests._--atropine may be recognized by its action on the pupil. the chloro-iodide of potassium and mercury precipitates it from very dilute solutions. =hyoscyamus= (henbane).--_hyoscyamus niger._ =stramonium= (thorn-apple).--_datura stramonium._ _symptoms._--identical with those of belladonna and hyoscyamus, the _post-mortem appearances_ and _treatment_ being also the same. =cannabis indica= (indian hemp).--when smoked, produces intoxication and mania. _hashish_, used in the east as a narcotic, may cause persons to run 'amok' and commit murder. xxxi.--cocaine =cocaine.=--any dose above 1/2 grain applied to a mucous membrane or injected hypodermically may give rise to alarming symptoms. these are intense pallor, faintness, giddiness, dilatation of pupils, paroxysmal dyspnoea, rapid, intermittent, and weak pulse, nausea and vomiting, intense prostration verging on collapse, and convulsions. the patient may recover if allowed to remain in a recumbent position, but stimulants by mouth--_e.g._, ammonia--and the hypodermic injection of brandy or ether may be necessary, with the inhalation of nitrite of amyl. for care in the prescribing of cocaine see under the 'dangerous drugs act, 1920' (p. 82). the =cocaine habit= consists in the self-administration of the drug hypodermically. it induces excitement, which is followed by prostration. in time melancholia or mania develops, with great irritation of the skin ('cocaine bugs'). xxxii.--camphor the liniment, oil, and spirit have been poisonous in large dose. _symptoms._--odour of breath, languor, giddiness, faintness, dimness of vision, difficulty of breathing, delirium, convulsions, with hot skin, flushed face, and dilated pupils. _fatal dose._--thirty grains. =cocculus indicus.=--the fruit of _anamirta cocculus_. contains a poisonous active principle, picrotoxin; used to adulterate beer, and by poachers to stupefy fish. _symptoms._--convulsions, followed by stupor and complete loss of voluntary power. xxxiii.--tetrachlorethane, etc. =tetrachlorethane= ('cellon').--acetylene tetrachloride; vapour has caused poisoning in aeroplane ('dope') and cinema film works. _symptoms._--gastric symptoms and marked jaundice. this may be followed in days or weeks by stupor, coma, death. _post-mortem._--fatty degeneration of internal organs, chiefly liver. =trinitrotoluene (t.n.t.).=--an explosive solid which stains the skin an orange colour; may be absorbed through skin or be inhaled. _symptoms._--shortness of breath, headache, drowsiness. later, skin irritation, gastritis, jaundice, blood degeneration. _treatment._--remove from work, rest in bed, diuretics, purgatives, alkalies. xxxiv.--alcohol, ether, and chloroform alcohol, ether, and chloroform, induce general anæsthesia, often preceded by delirious excitement, and followed by nausea and vomiting. when they cause death, it is by inducing a state like apoplexy or by paralyzing the heart. =alcohol.=--absolute alcohol is ethyl hydroxide (c_{2}h_{5}oh) with not more than 1 per cent. by weight of water. rectified spirit (spiritus rectificatus) contains 90 per cent. of alcohol. methylated spirit consists of rectified spirit with 10 per cent. of wood spirit. proof spirit contains a little over 49 per cent. of absolute alcohol; brandy or whisky, 53 per cent.; port wine, 20 to 25 per cent.; ales and stout, 4 to 6 per cent. _symptoms._--acute poisoning; confusion, giddiness, staggering gait, headache, passing into stupor, with subnormal temperature, and coma. vomiting may occur and recovery ensue, otherwise collapse sets in. pupils usually dilated. dipsomaniacs suffer from indigestion, vomiting and purging, jaundice, albuminuria, diabetes, cirrhosis of liver, degeneration of kidneys, congestion of brain, peripheral neuritis, alcoholic insanity, and various forms of paralysis. in the acute form delirium tremens is the most common manifestation. _post-mortem appearances._--deep red colour of lining membranes of stomach. sometimes congestion of cerebral vessels and meninges. lungs congested, blood fluid. rigor mortis persistent. _fatal dose._--death from 1/2 pint of gin and from two bottles of port, but recovery from larger quantities. _fatal period._--average about twenty-four hours. _treatment._--stomach-tube, cold affusion, electricity, injection of a pint of hot coffee into the rectum. give chloride of ammonium in 30 grain doses to prevent delirium; strychnine or digitalin hypodermically. _method of extraction from the stomach._--neutralize the contents of the stomach, if acid, with sodium carbonate; place them in a retort and carefully distil. collect the distillate, mix with chloride of calcium or anhydrous sulphate of copper, and again distil. agitate distillate with dry potassium carbonate, and draw off some of the supernatant fluid for testing. _tests._--odour. dissolves camphor. with dilute sulphuric acid and bichromate of potassium turns green, and evolves aldehyde. product of combustion makes lime-water white and turbid. =methyl alcohol: wood naphtha.=--used to produce intoxication by painters, furniture-polishers, etc. _symptoms_ are those of alcoholic poisoning, but vomiting and delirium are more persistent. total or partial blindness may follow as a sequel of optic atrophy. a fatal result not infrequently follows. the following table gives the points of distinction between concussion of brain, alcoholic poisoning, and opium poisoning: concussion of brain. alcohol. opium. 1. marks of violence 1. no marks of violence, 1. as alcohol. on head. unless person has fallen. history will be of use. 2. stupor, sudden. 2. excitement precedes 2. symptoms slow. sudden stupor. drowsiness, stupor, lethargy. 3. face pale, cold; 3. face flushed; pupils 3. face pale; pupils pupils sluggish, generally dilated. contracted. sometimes dilated. 4. remission rare. 4. partial recovery may 4. remission rare. patient recovers occur, followed by slowly. death. 5. no odour of alcohol 5. odour of alcohol 5. odour of opium in in breath. in breath. breath. =ether= is a volatile liquid prepared from ethylic alcohol by interaction with sulphuric acid. it contains 92 per cent. of ethyl oxide (c_{2}h_{5})o. it was formerly called 'sulphuric ether.' it is a colourless, inflammable liquid, having a strong and characteristic odour, specific gravity 0.735. =purified ether= from which the ethylic alcohol has been removed by washing with distilled water, and most of the water by subsequent distillation in the presence of calcium chloride and lime. it is this preparation which is used for the production of general anæsthesia. it has a specific gravity of 0.722 to 0.720, and its vapour is very inflammable. _symptoms._--when taken as a liquid, same as alcohol. when inhaled as vapour, causes slow, prolonged, and stertorous breathing; face becomes pale, lips bluish, surface of body cold. pulse first quickens, then slows. pupils dilated, eyes glassy and fixed, muscles become flabby and relaxed, profound anæsthesia. then pulse sinks and coma ensues, sensation being entirely suspended. nausea and vomiting not uncommon. _post-mortem appearances._--brain and lungs congested. cavities of heart full of dark, liquid blood. vessels at upper part of spinal cord congested. _treatment._--exposure to pure air, cold affusion, artificial respiration, galvanism. _method of extraction from the contents of the stomach._--same as for alcohol. during distillation pass some of the vapour into concentrated solution of bichromate of potash, nitric and sulphuric acids, and note reaction as for alcohol. _tests._--vapour burns with smoky flame, depositing carbon. sparingly soluble in water. with bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid same as alcohol. =chloroform.=--a colourless liquid, specific gravity 1.490 to 1.495, very volatile, giving off dense vapour. sweet taste and pleasant odour. _symptoms._--when swallowed, characteristic smell in breath, anxious countenance, burning pain in the throat, stomach, and region of the abdomen, staggering gait, coldness of the extremities, vomiting, insensibility, deepening into coma, with stertorous breathing, dilated pupils, and imperceptible pulse. when inhaled, much the same as ether, but produces insensibility and muscular relaxation more rapidly. it would be impossible to instantly render a person insensible by holding a pocket-handkerchief saturated with chloroform over the face. statements such as this, which are often made in cases of robbery from the person and in cases of rape, are incredible. _delayed chloroform-poisoning._--death may take place in from four to seven days after chloroform has been administered, especially in the case of children. the internal organs are found to be fattily degenerated, and death is thought to be due to acetonuria. _post-mortem appearances._--cerebral and pulmonary congestion. heart empty, or right side distended with dark blood. _treatment._--stomach-tube and free lavage; cold affusion; drawing forward tongue; artificial respiration; galvanism and suspension with head downward. inhalation of nitrite of amyl; strychnine hypodermically. _fatal dose._--when swallowed, from 1 to 2 ounces. _method of extraction from the stomach._--by distillation at 120° f. the vapour, as it passes along a glass tube, may be decomposed by heat into chlorine, hydrochloric acid, and carbon--the first shown by setting free iodine in iodide of starch, the second by reddening blue litmus-paper, and the last by its deposit. _tests._--taste, colour, weight; burns with a green flame; dissolves camphor, guttapercha, and caoutchouc. =iodoform.=--poisoning may result from its use in surgery. it produces delirium, sleepiness, and coma. it may lead to mental weakness or optic neuritis. xxxv.--chloral hydrate it was formerly largely used as a hypnotic, and many fatal consequences ensued. it is prepared from alcohol and chlorine. _symptoms._--deep sleep, loss of muscular power, diminished or abolished reflex action and sensibility, followed by loss of consciousness and marked fall of temperature. pulse may become quick, and face flushed or livid and bloated. prolonged use of this drug may produce a peculiar eruption on the skin. supposed to act in the blood by being decomposed into chloroform and sodium formate. its effects are due chiefly to depression of the central nervous system, the medulla being the last part of the nervous system to be attacked. _method of extraction from the stomach._--by distillation in strongly alkaline solutions, when it may be obtained as chloroform and tested as such. _treatment._--stomach-tube or emetic. hypodermic injections of strychnine. keep patient warm, and inject a pint of hot strong coffee into the rectum. nitrite of amyl and artificial respiration. _tests._--heated with caustic potash, it yields chloroform and potassium formate. the chloroform is readily recognized by its odour, and, if the solution be concentrated, by separating as a heavy layer at the bottom of the test-tube. xxxvi.--petroleum and paraffin-oil cases of poisoning by petroleum and paraffin are common, and occur chiefly in children. =petroleum= is a natural product, and is a mixture of the higher saturated hydrocarbons. the crude petroleum is purified by distillation, and is then free from colour, but retains its peculiar penetrating odour. different varieties are sold under the names of cymogene, gasolene, naphtha, petrol, and benzoline. benzoline is highly inflammable, and is often called mineral naphtha, petroleum naphtha, and petroleum spirit. benzoline is not the same as benzene or benzol, which is one of the products of the dry distillation of coal. from its very general use as a fuel in motor-cars many accidents have happened from inhaling the vapour of petrol. it gives rise to coldness, shallow respiration, syncope, and insensibility, but seldom death. =paraffin=, also known as kerosene and mineral oil, is a mixture of saturated hydrocarbons obtained by the distillation of shale. by the retailer the terms 'petroleum' and 'paraffin' oil are used indifferently, and each is sold for the other without prejudice. _symptoms._--these substances are not very active poisons, and, as a rule, even children recover. the breath has the odour of paraffin, the face is pale and cyanotic, hot and dry, and there may be vomiting. death may result from gastro-enteritis or from coma. _fatal dose._--in the case of an adult, 1/2 pint should not prove lethal, and patients have recovered after drinking a pint. _treatment._--emetics, purgatives, and stimulants. xxxvii.--antipyrine, antifebrin, phenacetin, and aniline many of the synthetical coal-tar products now so largely employed as analgesics are powerful toxic agents. =phenazone, antipyrine, or analgesin=, is a complex benzene derivative prepared from aniline, aceto-acetic ether, and methyl iodide. it is in colourless, inodorous, scaly crystals, which have a bitter taste. it is soluble in its own weight of water. _tests._--can be extracted from an alkaline solution of chloroform. the residue left on the evaporation of chloroform should be employed for testing. if heated with strong nitric acid and allowed to cool, a purple colour is produced. ferric chloride gives a blood-red coloration, destroyed by the addition of mineral acids. _treatment._--stimulants freely, inhalation of oxygen, patient to be kept in the recumbent position. =acetanilide, antifebrin, phenylacetamide= (a constituent of 'daisy' or 'headache' powders), is obtained by the interaction of acetic acid and aniline. it is in colourless, inodorous, lamellar crystals, which have a slight pungent taste. it is insoluble in water. _tests._--may be extracted from acid solutions by ether or chloroform. if heated with solution of potassium hydroxide, odour of aniline is given off; if liquid, when it is warmed with a few drops of chloroform, a penetrating and unpleasant odour of isocyanide. _treatment._--emetics, stimulants, inhalation of ether, recumbent position. =phenacetin, phenacetinum=, is produced by the interaction of glacial acetic acid and para-phenetidin. it is in white, tasteless, inodorous, glistening, scaly crystals, insoluble in water. of all the members of the group, it most rarely produces toxic symptoms. _treatment._--as for the other members of this group. =exalgin, aspirin, etc.=, as well as the above, may all act as poisons to certain persons, and even small medicinal doses may cause serious and even fatal consequences. _symptoms_ (more or less common to all).--nausea, vomiting, hurried respiration, marked cyanosis, syncope. persistent sneezing and widespread urticaria may be present; collapse. =aniline= is an oily liquid, heavier than, and not soluble in, water. it is colourless or reddish-brown; it has a peculiar tar-like odour; it is soluble in alcohol, and forms a soluble sulphate with sulphuric acid. a solution of bleaching-powder gives with solution of the sulphate a purple colour changing to red-brown. _symptoms._--nausea, vomiting, giddiness, intoxication, drowsiness, gasping for breath, feeble pulse, and marked cyanosis. in its _industrial use_ it may act as a poison either by inhalation of the fumes or by absorption through the skin. the symptoms then are mainly those of peripheral neuritis with blindness. _fatal dose._--about 6 drachms. _treatment._--wash out stomach; stimulants, artificial respiration, inhalation of oxygen, transfusion. =nitro-benzol= (artificial oil of bitter almonds).--it is used in perfumery, but is very poisonous when swallowed, or inhaled, or absorbed through skin. it is used in the manufacture of aniline dyes, and may act as an industrial poison. the symptoms closely resemble those of aniline poisoning, but there is perhaps greater mental confusion. _fatal dose._--eight to ten drops have caused death. _treatment._--emetics, stimulants, transfusion of saline or blood, pituitrin, strychnine, or digitalin hypodermically. =nitroglycerine= gives rise to intense and persistent headache ('powder headache'). throbbing and pulsation of all the arteries in the body; flushing of the face and collapse may follow. =dinitrobenzene= causes symptoms resembling nitro-benzol poisoning, and when acting as a chronic poison gives rise to weakness, jaundice, peripheral neuritis. xxxviii.--sulphonal, trional, tetronal, veronal, paraldehyde these are dangerous drugs. the ordinary _symptoms_ of the group are noises in the ears, headache, vertigo, inability to stand or to walk properly, insensibility, and cyanosis. the most interesting point is the condition of the urine. in cases of poisoning it is dark or reddish-brown in colour, due to the presence of _hæmatoporphyrin_. it contains albumin and casts, but no red corpuscles. in cases of hæmatoporphyrinuria the prognosis is bad, and it is said that these cases invariably end fatally. _treatment._--in an ordinary case emetics, strong coffee, hypodermic injections of strychnine, saline injections, and transfusion. cases of chronic poisoning from the 'als' are not uncommon, and are increasing in frequency. hypnogen is apparently identical with veronal. all the above-named aniline derivatives are included in part i. of the scheduled poisons. xxxix.--conium and calabar bean =conium maculatum= (spotted hemlock).--all parts of the plant are poisonous, often mistaken for parsley. contains the poisonous principle _coniine_, a volatile liquid alkaloid with a mousy smell; insoluble in water; soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform. it also contains methyl coniine. _symptoms._--dryness of throat, headache, dilated pupil, dysphagia, loss of muscular power, passing into complete paralysis. delirium, coma, and convulsions, occasionally. _post-mortem appearances._--congested brain and lungs; redness of the mucous membrane of the stomach. the stomach and intestines should be examined for fragments of the leaves and fruit, recognized by their microscopical appearances. _treatment._--emetics, tannic acid or gallic acid. diffusible stimulants. _method of extraction from the stomach._--use stas-otto process. _tests._--the mousy odour. deepened colour and dense white fumes with nitric acid. pale red, deepening, with hydrochloric acid. there are several other umbelliferous plants which are poisonous. the water hemlock (_cicuta virosa_) produces symptoms not unlike those of hemlock; it has been mistaken for parsnip and celery. it contains an active principle, _cicutoxin_, which in some respects is allied to strychnine and picrotoxin. the fool's parsley, or lesser hemlock (_æthusa cynapium_), is another member of this group, although doubt has been expressed as to whether it is really poisonous. the water dropwort (_oenanthe crocata_) is undoubtedly poisonous, especially to cattle. in man it produces abdominal pain with diarrhoea and vomiting; dilated pupils, slow pulse, and cyanosis; delirium, insensibility, and convulsions. the post-mortem appearances are not characteristic, but the stomach and intestines should be examined for portions of the plant. =calabar bean or physostigma.=--the bean of _physostigma venenosum_ contains the alkaloid physostigmine or eserine, with the antagonistic alkaloid calabarine. _symptoms._--vomiting, giddiness, irregular cardiac action, contraction of the pupils, paralysis of lower extremities, and death from asphyxia. _treatment._--emetics; hypodermic injection of 1/50 grain sulphate of atropine, repeated if necessary. _method of extraction from the stomach._--use stas-otto process. _test._--the contraction of the pupil which it causes. xl.--tobacco and lobelia =tobacco.=--_nicotiana tabacum_ owes its poisonous properties to its alkaloid nicotine, a volatile, oily, amber-coloured liquid, with an acrid taste and ethereal odour; soluble in water, alcohol, ether, and chloroform. the drug has an intense depressant action on the heart and respiratory centre. _symptoms._--giddiness, fainting, nausea, and vomiting, with syncope, muscular tremors, stupor, stertorous breathing, and insensible pupil. death has occurred after seventeen or eighteen pipes at a sitting. _post-mortem appearances._--not uniform or characteristic. general relaxed condition of muscles; engorgement of cerebral and pulmonary vessels. congestion of gastric mucous membrane. _treatment._--emetics, stimulants, hypodermic injection of 1/25 grain of strychnine. warmth to the surface by hot bottles, hot blankets. _method of extraction from the stomach._--digest the contents of the stomach in cold distilled water and _very dilute_ sulphuric acid; strain, filter, and press residue. evaporate the filtrate to half its bulk, digest with alcohol, and evaporate alcohol off in a water-bath. dissolve residue (sulphate of nicotine) in water, and make solution alkaline with potash; then shake with ether in a test-tube. remove ether and allow it slowly to evaporate. test resulting alkaloid. _tests._--no change of colour with the mineral acids. white deposit with corrosive sublimate. sulphuric acid and bichromate of potassium give a green colour, oxide of chromium. precipitate with bichloride of platinum and with carbazotic acid. =lobelia inflata= (indian tobacco).--much used in america by the coffenite practitioners, and a valuable remedy for asthma. _symptoms._--nausea, vomiting, giddiness, cold sweats, prostration. headache, giddiness, tremors, insensibility, and convulsions. xli.--hydrocyanic acid =prussic acid= is the most active of poisons. the diluted hydrocyanic acid of the pharmacopoeia contains 2 per cent. of hydrocyanic acid, scheele's 4 per cent. it is a colourless liquid, feebly acid, with odour of bitter almonds. =cyanide of potassium= is largely used in photography and in electro-plating, and is also poisonous. it often contains undecomposed carbonate of potassium, which may act as a corrosive poison and cause erosion of the mucous membranes of the lips, mouth, and stomach. =oil of bitter almonds=, used as a flavouring agent, may contain (when improperly prepared) from 5 to 15 per cent. of the anhydrous acid. _symptoms._--the symptoms usually come on in a few seconds, and are of the shortest possible duration. there is a sudden gasp for breath, possibly a loud cry, and the patient drops down dead. if the fatal termination is prolonged for a few minutes, the symptoms are intense giddiness, pallor of the skin, dilatation of the pupils, laboured and irregular breathing, small and frequent pulse, followed by insensibility. there may be convulsions or tetanic spasms, with evacuation of urine and fæces. death results from paralysis of the central nervous system, but artificial respiration is useless, as the drug promptly arrests the heart's action. it also kills the protoplasm of the red blood-corpuscles, rendering them useless as oxygen-carriers. _post-mortem appearances._--skin livid, pale, or violet, with bright red patches on the dependent parts. the gastro-intestinal mucous membrane is bright red in colour, owing to the presence of cyanmethæmoglobin. hands clenched, nails blue, jaws fixed, froth about mouth. eyes prominent and glistening, odour of acid from body, venous system gorged. _treatment._--empty the stomach by the tube at once, and wash it out with a solution of sodium thiosulphate. strong ammonia to the nostrils. stimulants freely--brandy, chloric ether, ammonia, sal volatile _ad libitum_. if patient cannot swallow, inject hypodermically either brandy or ether. hypodermic injection of 1/50 grain atropine. douche to the face, alternately hot and cold. death commonly occurs so rapidly that there is no time for treatment. _fatal dose (smallest)._--half a drachm of the b.p. acid, equal to 0.6 grain of the anhydrous. _recovery_ from 1/2 ounce of the b.p. acid. these records are fallacious, for in specimens the percentage of anhydrous acid varies enormously. practically, 1 grain of the anhydrous acid is fatal. _fatal period._--from two to five minutes after a large dose, but may be less. _method of extraction from the stomach._--having previously carefully fitted a watchglass to a wide-mouthed bottle, nearly fill the bottle with the contents of the stomach, blood, secretions, etc. place a few drops of a solution of nitrate of silver on the concave surface of the watchglass, and cover the mouth of the bottle with it. the vapour of hydrocyanic acid, if present, will form a white precipitate which may be tested. other watchglasses, treated with sulphide of ammonium or sulphate of iron and liquor potassæ, will give the reactions of the acid with appropriate tests. this method removes all objections as to foreign admixture. if the acid is not at first detected, gentle warming of the bottle in a water-bath will assist the evolution of the vapour. the vapour may be obtained by distillation, but this process is open to objections to which the other is not. in some cases it becomes changed in the body into formic acid, which should therefore be sought for. _tests._--with nitrate of silver a white precipitate, insoluble in cold, but soluble in boiling, nitric acid. the precipitate heated, evolves cyanogen, having an odour of peach-blossoms, and burning, when lighted, with a pink flame. liquor potassæ and sulphate of iron give a brownish-green precipitate, which turns to prussian blue with hydrochloric acid. liquor potassæ and sulphate of copper give a greenish-white precipitate, becoming white with hydrochloric acid. sulphide of ammonium gives sulpho-cyanide of ammonium. this develops a blood-red colour with perchloride of iron, bleached by corrosive sublimate. xlii.--aconite =aconite= (_aconitum napellus_, monkshood).--root and leaves. poisonous property depends upon an alkaloid, aconitine. aconite is one of the constituents of st. jacob's oil. _symptoms._--numbness and tingling in mouth, throat, and stomach, giddiness, loss of sensation, deafness, dimness of sight, paralysis, first of the lower and then of the upper extremities, vomiting, and shallow respiration. pupils dilated. pulse small, irregular, finally imperceptible. the mind remains unaffected. death often sudden. _post-mortem appearances._--venous congestion, engorgement of brain and membranes. _treatment._--emetics, stimulants freely. best antidote is sulphate of atropine, 1/50 grain hypodermically, and also strychnine. digitalis also useful. warmth to whole body. patient to make no exertion. _fatal dose._--of root or tincture, 1 drachm. _fatal period._--average, less than four hours. _method of extraction from the stomach, etc._--extraction from contents of stomach by stas-otto process. it may be found in the urine; gives usual alkaloidal reactions, but no distinctive chemical test known. _tests._--chiefly physiological; tingling and numbness when applied to tongue or inner surface of cheek. effects on mice, etc. a cadaveric alkaloid or ptomaine has been found in the body, possessing many of the actions of aconitine. the presence of this substance was suggested in the lamson trial. the indian aconite, _aconitum ferox_, the bish poison, is much more active than the european variety. it contains a large proportion of pseudaconitine, and is frequently employed in india, not only for the destruction of wild beasts, but for criminal purposes. =aconitine= varies much in activity according to its mode of preparation and the source from which it is derived. the most active kind is probably made from _a. ferox_. xliii.--digitalis all parts of the plant _digitalis purpurea_ (purple foxglove) are poisonous. contains the glucoside digitalin and other active principles. _symptoms._--nausea, vomiting, purging, and abdominal pains. vomited matter grass-green in colour. headache, giddiness, and loss of sight; pupils dilated, insensitive; pulse weak, remarkably slow and irregular; cold sweat. salivation occasionally, or syncope and stupor. death sometimes quite suddenly. _post-mortem appearances._--congested condition of brain and membranes; inflammation of gastric mucous membrane. _treatment._--emetics freely; infusions containing tannin, as coffee, tea, oak-bark, galls, etc. stimulants. hypodermic injection of 1/120 grain of aconitine. _method of extraction from the stomach, etc._--use stas-otto process. _tests for digitalin._--a white substance, sparingly soluble in water, not changed by nitric acid; turns yellow, changing to green, with hydrochloric acid. the minutest trace of digitalin moistened with sulphuric and treated with bromine vapour gives a rose colour, turning to mauve. this is very delicate, but in experienced hands the physiological test is more reliable. the chemist who has had no practical experience in pharmacological methods would be wiser to keep to his chemical tests. xliv.--nux vomica, strychnine, and brucine =nux vomica= consists of the seeds of the _strychnos nux vomica_. from these strychnine and brucine are obtained. the symptoms, post-mortem appearances, and treatment, of poisoning by nux vomica are the same as for strychnine. =strychnine= is a powerful poison, and forms the active ingredient of many 'vermin-killers.' it occurs as a white powder or as colourless crystals, with a persistent bitter taste; very slightly soluble in water; more or less soluble in benzol, ether, and alcohol. _symptoms._--sense of suffocation, twitchings of muscles, followed by tetanic convulsions and opisthotonos, each lasting half to two minutes. mental faculties unaffected, face congested and anxious; eyes staring, lips livid; much thirst. the period of accession of the symptoms varies with the mode of administration of the poison. symptoms, as a rule, come on soon after food has been taken. patient may die within a few hours from asphyxia or from exhaustion. in _tetanus_ there is usually history of a wound; the symptoms come on slowly; lockjaw is an early symptom, and only later complete convulsions; the intervals between the fits are never entirely free from rigidity. death is delayed for some days. _post-mortem appearances._--heart empty, blood fluid, rigor mortis persistent. hands usually clenched; feet arched and inverted. congestion of brain, spinal cord, and lungs. _treatment._--emetics or stomach-pump if the patient is deeply anæsthetized. tannic acid and permanganate of potassium. bromide of potassium 1/2 ounce with chloral 30 grains, repeated if necessary. _fatal dose (smallest)._--quarter of a grain. _fatal period (shortest)._--ten minutes; usually two to four hours. _method of extraction from the stomach._--the alkaloid may be separated by the process of stas-otto. _tests._--strychnine has a characteristic, very bitter taste; it imparts this taste to even very dilute solutions; it is unaffected by sulphuric acid, but gives a purple-blue colour, changing to crimson and light red, when the edge of this solution is touched with dioxide of manganese, potassium bichromate, ferricyanide of potassium, or permanganate of potassium. this test is so delicate as to show the 1/25000 of a grain of the alkaloid. a very minute quantity (1/5000 grain) in solution placed on the skin of a frog after drying causes tetanic convulsions. =brucine.=--this alkaloid, found associated with strychnine, possesses the same properties, though in a less powerful degree. nitric acid gives a blood-red colour, changed to purple with protochloride of tin. xlv.--cantharides =cantharides.=--spanish fly, or blistering beetle, is the basis of most of the blistering preparations. it is sometimes taken as an abortifacient or given as an aphrodisiac, but whether it has any such action is open to question. it acts as an irritant to the kidneys and bladder, and sometimes produces haæmaturia and a good deal of temporary discomfort. _symptoms._--burning sensation in the throat and stomach, with salivation, pain and difficulty in swallowing. vomiting of mucus mixed with blood. tenesmus, diarrhoea, the motions containing blood and mucus. dysuria, with passage of small amounts of albuminous and bloody urine. peritonitis, high temperature, quick pulse, headache, loss of sensibility, and convulsions. _post-mortem._--gastro-intestinal mucous membrane inflamed, with gangrenous patches. genito-urinary tract inflamed. acute nephritis. _treatment._--an emetic of apomorphine; demulcent drinks, such as barley-water, white of egg and water, linseed-tea and gruel (but not oils), with a hypodermic injection of morphine to allay pain. _tests._--the vomited matter often contains shining particles of the powder. the urine will probably be albuminous. xlvi.--abortifacients emmenagogues are remedies which have the property of exciting the catamenial flow; ecbolics, or abortives, are drugs which excite contraction of the uterus, and are supposed to have the power of expelling its contents. the vegetable substances commonly reputed to be abortives are ergot, savin, aloes (hierapicra), digitalis, colocynth, pennyroyal, and nutmeg; but _there is no evidence to show that any drug possesses this property_. lead in some parts of the country is a popular abortifacient. a medicine may be an emmenagogue without being an ecbolic. permanganate of potassium and binoxide of manganese are valuable remedies for amenorrhoea, but will not produce abortion. the vegetable substances frequently used as abortives are savin and ergot. =savin= (_juniperus sabina_).--leaves and tops of the plant yield an acrid oil having poisonous properties, and which has even produced death. _symptoms._--those of irritant poisons. purging not always present, but tenesmus and strangury. _post-mortem appearances._--acute inflammation of alimentary canal. green powder found. this, washed and dried and then rubbed, gives odour of savin. _test._--a watery solution of savin strikes deep green with perchloride of iron, and if an infusion of the twigs has been taken the twigs may be detected with the microscope. the twigs obtained from the stomach, dried and rubbed between the finger and thumb, will give the odour of savin. =ergot= (_secale cornutum_).--a parasitic fungus attacking wheat, barley, oats, and rye, which is reputed to have the power of causing contraction of unstriped muscular fibre, especially that of the uterus. _symptoms._--lassitude, headache, nausea, diarrhoea, anuria, convulsions, coma. small quantities frequently repeated have in the past produced gangrene of the extremities, or anæsthesia of fingers and toes. _tests._--lake-red colour with liquor potassæ; this liquid filtered gives a precipitate of same colour with nitric acid. xlvii.--poisonous fungi and toxic foods =fungi.=--of the poisonous mushrooms, the _amanita phalloides_ and the fly agaric, or _agaricus muscarius_, are the most potent. the active principle of the former is _phallin_, and of the latter _muscarine_. the _amanita phalloides_ is distinguished from the common mushroom (_agaricus campestris_) by having permanent white gills and a hollow stem. the _agaricus muscarius_ is bright red with yellow spots. phallin is a toxalbumin which destroys the red blood-corpuscles, causing the serum to become red in colour and the urine blood-stained. fibrin is liberated, and thromboses occur, especially in the liver. the symptoms may be mistaken for phosphorus-poisoning or acute yellow atrophy of the liver. muscarine affects the nervous system chiefly. _edible fungi_ have an agreeable taste and smell, and are firm in substance. _poisonous fungi_ have an offensive smell and bitter taste, are often of a bright colour, and soon become pulpy. _symptoms._--these may be of the narcotic or irritant types. usually, however, there is violent colic, with thirst, vomiting, and diarrhoea, mental excitement, followed by delirium, convulsions, coma, slow pulse, stertorous breathing, cyanosis, cold extremities, and dilated pupils. _post-mortem._--in phallin-poisoning the blood remains fluid; numerous hæmorrhages are present, with fatty degeneration of the internal organs. _treatment._--use the stomach-tube to give a solution of permanganate of potash, emetics, followed by a hypodermic injection of 1/50 grain of atropine. transfusion of saline fluid. a dose of castor-oil would be useful. =foods.=--the kinds of food which most frequently produce symptoms of poisoning are pork, veal, beef, meat-pies, potted and tinned meats, sausages, and brawn. sausage-poisoning is common in germany. it is not necessary that the food should be 'high' to give rise to poisoning. it may arise from the use of the flesh of an animal suffering from some disease, from inoculation with micro-organisms, or from the presence of toxalbumoses or ptomaines. many diseases, such as diarrhoea, enteric fever, and cholera, and perhaps tuberculosis, may be caused by eating infected food. trichiniasis may also be mentioned. tinned fish often gives rise to symptoms of poisoning, and shell-fish are not uncommonly contaminated with pathogenic micro-organisms. mussel-poisoning was formerly supposed to be due to the copper in them derived from ships' bottoms, but it is more probably the result of the formation of a toxine during life, and not after decomposition has set in. milk, too, may give rise to gastro-intestinal irritation from the occurrence in it of chemical changes. there have been epidemics of poisoning from eating cheese containing _tyrotoxicon_. ergotism from eating bread made with ergotized wheat is now rare, but _pellagra_ from the consumption of mouldy maize, and _lathyrism_, due to the admixture with flour of the seeds of certain kinds of vetch, are still common in southern europe. _symptoms._--the symptoms which result from the ingestion of poisonous meat are often very severe. in some cases their appearance is delayed from twenty-four to forty-eight hours. they may resemble those of an infectious disease or those of acute enteritis. usually there are headache, anorexia, rigors, intestinal disturbance, pains in the back and limbs, and delirium. sometimes the symptoms resemble atropine-poisoning, a condition due to ptomatropine. _treatment._--emetics, purgatives, stimulants, with hypodermic injections of strychnine and atropine along with stimulants. xlviii.--ptomaines or cadaveric alkaloids every medical man, before presenting himself to give evidence in a case of suspected poisoning, should make himself thoroughly acquainted with recent researches on the subject. ptomaines are, for the most part, alkaloids generated during the process of putrefaction, and they closely resemble many of the vegetable alkaloids--veratrine, morphine, and codeine, for example--not only in chemical characters, but in physiological properties. they are probably allied to neurine, an alkaloid obtained from the brain and also from the bile. some of them are analogous in action to muscarine, the active principle of the fly fungus. some are proteids, albumins, and globulins. ptomaines may be produced abundantly in animal substances which, after exposure under insanitary conditions, have been excluded from the air. ptomaines or toxalbumins are sometimes found in potted meats and sausages, and are due to organisms--the _bacillus botulinus_, the _b. enteritidis_ of gärtner, the _b. proteus vulgaris_, or the _b. ærtrycke_ (which is perhaps the most common of all). the symptoms produced by the latter are usually vomiting, abdominal pain, pains in the limbs and cramps, diarrhoea, vertigo, coldness, faintness, and collapse. the symptoms of _botulism_ are dryness of skin and mucous membranes, dilatation of pupils, paralysis of muscles, diplopia, etc. articles of food most often associated with poisoning are pork, ham, bacon, veal, baked meat-pie, milk, cheese, mussels, tinned meats. in a case of suspected poisoning, counsel for the defence, if he knows his work, will probably cross-examine the medical expert on this subject, and endeavour to elicit an admission that the reactions which have been attributed to a poison may possibly be accounted for on the theory of the formation of a ptomaine. there is practically no counter-move to this form of attack. index abdomen, injuries of, 29 abortifacients, 147 abortion, criminal, 42 acetanilide, 136 acetate of lead, 116 aconite, 143 adipocere, 18 adultery, 62 age, determination of, 12 alcohol, 130 alcoholic insanity, 76 alkaloids, 93 alum, 103 ammonia, 102 anæsthetics, death from, 19 aniline, 136 antifebrin, 136 antimony, 112 antipyrine, 135 aqua fortis, 97 arsenic, 107 arsenious acid, 107 artificial oil of bitter almonds, 137 arum, 124 asphyxia, 13 assaults, 21 assizes, 7 atropine, 127 barberio's test, 58 barium salts, 104 belladonna, 127 bestiality, 59 bichromate of potassium, 119 bismuth, 119 blackmailing, 60 bladder, injuries of, 30 blood-stains, 30 born in wedlock, 52 botulism, 151 brain, injuries to, 26 breslau's life test, 49 brucine, 146 bruises, 22 bullet wounds, 24 burnett's fluid, 119 burns, 22 cadaveric alkaloids, 150 rigidity, 17 calabar bean, 139 camphor, 129 cantharides, 146 carbolic acid, 100 carbonic acid gas, 120 oxide, 121 carnal knowledge, 55 cellon, 129 chemical analysis, 91 chest injuries, 28 chloral, 134 chlorate of potassium, 103 chloride of zinc, 119 chlorine, 122 chloroform, 19, 132 choke-damp, 121 chromium, 119 chronic lead-poisoning, 117 clothing, fibres of, 34 coal-gas, 121 cocaine, 128 cocculus indicus, 129 cold, death from, 39 coma, 14 common witness, 2 concealment of birth, 45 of pregnancy, 45 conium, 138 contused wounds, 24 cooling, rate of, 16 copper, 117 coroners, 4 coroner's court, 4 corrosive sublimate, 113 corrosives, 86 cretinism, 69 crimes, 1 criminal abortion, 42 criminal appeal court, 8 courts, 7 cross-examination, 3 crown court of assize, 7 culpable homicide, 21 cut throat, 28 dangerous drugs bill, 82 death in the foetus, 50 signs of, 16 delivery, 41 dementia, 70 depositions, 6 determination of sex, 11 diachylon pills, 117 diaphragm, wounds of, 29 digitalis, 144 dinitrobenzene, 137 divorce, 60 "dope," 129 drowning, 36 duration of pregnancy, 50 dyeing of hair, 11 dying declarations, 10 ecchymosis, 22 electricity, 38 epilepsy, 65, 75 ergot, 148 ether, 132 evidence, giving of, 2 examination-in-chief, 3 experiments on animals, 85 experts, 2 eye injuries, 27 face injuries, 27 feeble-minded, 69 fees for medical witness, 5, 7 feigned diseases, 63 felony, 1 ferro-silicon, 111 finger prints, 11 florence's test, 58 foeticide, 42 foods, poisonous, 150 found dead, 5 fruit stains, 33 fungi, 148 gaseous poisons, 120 general paralysis, 71 genital organs, wounds of, 30 grand jury, 8 gunshot wounds, 24 hæmin crystals, 32 hair, detection of, 33 dyeing of, 11 hanging, 35 head injuries, 26 heart, injuries of, 29 heat, death from, 39 hemlock, 138 henbane, 128 homicide, 21 hydrochloric acid, 98 gas, 122 hydrocyanic acid, 140 hyoscyamus, 128 hypostasis, 16 identification of dead, 12 identity, personal, 10 idiocy, 68 imbecility, 69 impotence, 54 incest, 59 incised wounds, 23 indecent assault, 57 indictable offences, 2 inebriates act, 78 infanticide, 44 inheritance, 54 injuries, 21 insanity, 67-76 intestines, wounds of, 30 iodide of potassium, 104 iodine, 104 irritants, 87 gases, 122 vegetable, 123 judicial separation, 62 jury, coroner's, 4 kidney, injuries of, 30 kleptomania, 73 laborde's method, 37 laburnum, 123 lacerated wounds, 24 lead, 116 lee-metford bullet, 24 legitimacy, 52 lightning, 38 live-birth, 44-46 liver, injuries of, 29 lobelia, 140 lucid intervals, 73 lumbago, 66 lunacy, 67 certification, 77 lungs, injuries of, 29 evidences of live-birth from, 47 magistrate's court, 7 malingering, 63 malpractice, 20 malum regimen, 21 mania, 71 manslaughter, 21 marriage, 60 marsh's process, 110 martini-henry bullet, 25 maturity of infant, 45 mauser bullet, 25 medical evidence, 2 mentally deficients, 70 mercury salts, 113 methyl alcohol, 131 mineral acids, 94 misdemeanour, 1 monkshood, 143 monomania, 72 morphine, 127 murder, 21 muriatic acid, 98 naphtha, 135 nitrate of silver, 119 nitric acid, 95 nitro-benzol, 137 notes, 9 nux vomica, 145 oaths act, 9 oil of bitter almonds, 141 opium, 124 oxalate of potash, 99 oxalic acid, 98 paraffin oil, 135 paranoia, 73 personal identity, 10 petroleum, 134 petty sessions, 7 phenacetin, 136 phenol, 100 phosphorus, 105 phossy-jaw, 106 physostigma, 139 picrotoxin, 129 poison, definition of, 80 poisonous foods, 149 poisons acting on the brain, 88 classification of, 84 detection of, 91 evidence, 85 scheduled, 81 symptoms and post-mortem appearances, 86 treatment of, 90 potash, 101 precipitin test for blood, 33 pregnancy, 40, 50 insanity of, 73 presumption of death, 20 survivorship, 21 primula, 124 privilege, 8 procurator fiscal, 7 prussic acid, 140 ptomaines, 150 puerperal mania, 73 punctured wounds, 23 purgatives, 123 putrefaction, 18 quarter sessions, 7 railway spine, 27 rape, 55 reception orders, 77 rectified spirit, 130 re-examination, 3 reinsch's process, 110 reports, medical, 9 responsibility, 76 resuscitation, 36 rhus, 124 rigor mortis, 17 rust stains, 33 sale of arsenic, 111 saponification, 18 satyriasis, 73 savin, 147 scars, 11 schiller's method of resuscitation, 36 scheduled poisons, 81 scotch oath, 9 secrets, professional, 8 self-inflicted wounds, 24 seminal stains, 58 sewer-gas, 122 sex, determination of, 11 signs of death, 16 silver, 118 skin diseases, 66 soda, 101 sodomy, 59 spanish-fly, 146 spectroscopic examination of blood, 32 spinal cord injuries, 27 spleen, injuries of, 29 staining, post-mortem, 16 starvation, 38 stas-otto process, 92 status lymphaticus, 15 sterility, 54 stomach, injuries of, 29 stramonium, 128 strangulation, 35 strychnine, 145 sudden death, 13, 15 suffocation, 34 sugar of lead, 116 sulphonal, 137 sulphuretted hydrogen, 122 sulphuric acid, 95 sulphurous acid gas, 122 summary offences, 2 sunstroke, 39 superfoetation, 53 syncope, 13 tartar emetic, 112 tattoo marks, 10 teichman's crystals, 32 tetanus, 145 tetrachlorethane, 129 tetronal, 137 throat injuries, 28 tobacco, 139 treason, 1 trinitrotoluene, 129 trional, 137 true bill, 8 undue influence, 74 unnatural offences, 59 unsound mind, 67 veronal, 137 viability, 51 vitriol, 95 voidable marriage, 63 witnesses, 2 wounds, 21 yew, 124 zinc, 118 printed in great britain by billing and sons, ltd., guildford and esher baillière, tindall & cox's manuals for students =blair bell's the principles of gynæcology.= third edition. pp. xxviii+660, with 7 coloured plates and 392 other illustrations. royal 8vo. price 38s. net. =buchanan's manual of anatomy, systematic and practical, including embryology.= fourth edition. complete in 1 volume. demy 8vo. pp. xii+1743, with 677 illustrations, mostly original, and in several colours. price 30s. net. (_university series._) =castellani and chalmers' manual of tropical medicine.= third edition. pp. xii+2436, with 16 coloured plates and 909 other illustrations. price 45s. net. (_university series._) =green's pathology.= twelfth edition. demy 8vo. pp. x+603, with 4 coloured plates and 243 illustrations. price 22s. 6d. net. (_university series._) =jellett and madill's manual of midwifery.= third edition. demy 8vo. pp. xii+1256, with 20 plates and 540 other illustrations. price 42s. net. =mathews' physiological chemistry.= third edition. royal 8vo. pp. xv+1154, with 109 illustrations. price 42s. net. =may & worth's manual of the diseases of the eye.= fourth edition. pp. viii+444, with 337 illustrations, including 22 coloured plates. price 18s. net. =monro's manual of medicine.= fourth edition. demy 8vo. pp. xxiv+1045, with 47 illustrations, plain and coloured. price 21s. net. (_university series._) =rose and carless' manual of surgery.= tenth edition. demy 8vo. pp. xii+1560, with 18 coloured plates and 600 illustrations. price 30s. net. (_university series._) =schmieden and turnbull's operative surgery.= second edition, royal 8vo. pp. xx+350, with 436 illustrations; many in colour. price 25s. net. =stewart's manual of physiology.= eighth edition. demy 8vo. pp. xxiv+1245, with coloured plate and 492 illustrations. price 21s. net. (_university series._) =whitla's dictionary of treatment.= sixth edition. demy 8vo. pp. x+1083. price 30s. net. books for students. =blomfield's anæsthetics.= fourth edition. pp. iv+147, with 22 illustrations. price 6s. net. =brown's physiological principles in treatment.= fourth edition. crown 8vo. pp. viii+427. price 8s. 6d. net. =clarke's refraction of the eye.= fourth edition. pp. viii+243, with 92 illustrations. price 7s. 6d. net. =gray's diseases of the ear.= pp. xii+388, with 53 plates, of which 37 are stereoscopic, and 70 other illustrations. price, with stereoscope, 15s. net. =ince's latin grammar of pharmacy=, including the reading of latin prescriptions. eighth edition. price 7s. 6d. net. =lamb's practical guide to the diseases of the throat, nose and ear.= fourth edition. pp. xii+372, with 61 illustrations. price 10s. 6d. net. =laroquette's atlas for electro-diagnosis and therapeutics.= translated by m.g. cheetham. with foreword by r. knox, m.d. demy 8vo. pp. xvi+180, with 52 plates. price 15s. net. =macewen's surgical anatomy.= second edition. pp. xvi+535, with 77 illustrations, plain and coloured. price 12s. net. =mccaw's diseases of children.= pp. xii+524, with 14 plates and other illustrations. price 12s. net. =marshall and ffrench's syphilis and venereal disease.= for students and practitioners. fourth edition. demy 8vo. pp. x+433, with 7 coloured plates and 90 illustrations. price 25s. net. =minett's diagnosis of bacteria and blood-parasites.= third edition. pp. viii+94. price 4s. 6d. net. =orrin's systemic arteries: an x-ray atlas= showing the systemic arteries in continuity, and precisely as they exist _in situ_ in the undissected body. 4to. pp. viii+92, with 21 original plates and illustrations. price 12s. 6d. net. =richards' practical chemistry=, including simple volumetric analysis and toxicology. third edition. pp. x+150. price 5s. net. =solomons' handbook of gynæcology.= pp. xii+236 with 196 illustrations. price 12s. 6d. net. =stedman's illustrated medical dictionary.= sixth edition. royal 8vo. containing over 70,000 words. bound in limp leather with rounded corners and thumbcut index. price 42s. net. =wheeler's student's handbook of operative surgery.= third edition. pp. x+364, with 226 figures. price 12s. net. =whitla's pharmacy, materia medica, and therapeutics.= tenth edition. pp. xii+674, with 23 figures. price 10s. 6d. net. =williams' minor maladies and their treatment.= fourth edition. pp. viii+404. price 8s. 6d. net. =younger's insanity in everyday practice.= fourth edition. pp. x+134. price 6s. net. students' aids series. _specially designed to assist students in grouping and committing to memory the subjects upon which they are to be examined._ ¶ "_the students' aids series have always been noted for their reliability, and we speak from real personal experience when we say that the student will find the series exceedingly valuable._" charing cross hospital gazette. ¶ "_their popularity is sufficient testimony of their usefulness._" st. thomas's hospital gazette. =aids to the analysis and assay of ores, metals, fuels, etc.= by j.j. morgan, f.i.c., f.c.s. second edition. with 8 illustrations. price 3s. net. =aids to the analysis of food and drugs.= by c.g. moor, m.a., f.i.c., and w. partridge, f.i.c. fourth edition. price 4s. 6d. net. =aids to anatomy (pocket anatomy).= by c.h. fagge, m.b., m.s., f.r.c.s. eighth edition. price 5s. net. =aids to bacteriology.= by c.g. moor, m.a., f.i.c., and w. partridge, f.i.c. third edition. price 4s. net. =aids to chemistry.= by william partridge, f.i.c. pp. viii+280. price 6s. net. =aids to the diagnosis and treatment of the diseases of children.= by j. mccaw, m.d., l.r.c.p. edin. fifth edition. price 6s. net. =aids to the feeding and hygiene of infants and children.= by the same author. price 3s. net. =aids to dental anatomy and physiology.= by arthur s. underwood, m.r.c.s., l.d.s. eng. third edition. price 3s. net. =aids to dental surgery.= by douglas gabell, m.r.c.s., l.r.c.p. lond., l.d.s. eng. third edition. price 3s. 6d. net. =aids to medical diagnosis.= by a.j. whiting, m.d., c.m. edin., m.r.c.p. lond. second edition. price 3s. net. =aids to surgical diagnosis.= by h.w. carson, f.r.c.s. eng. price 3s. 6d. net. =aids to practical dispensing.= by c.j.s. thompson. price 3s. net. =aids to electro-therapeutics.= by j. magnus reading, f.r.c.s. pp. viii+196, with 16 diagrams. price 5s. net. =aids to forensic medicine and toxicology.= by w. murrell, m.d., f.r.c.p. eighth edition. revised by w.g. aitchison robertson, m.d., d.sc., f.r.c.p.e. price 3s. net. legal chemistry. a guide to the detection of poisons, examination of tea, stains, etc., as applied to chemical jurisprudence. translated with additions from the french of a. naquet, _professor to the faculty of medicine of paris_. by j. p. battershall, nat. sc. d., f.c.s. _second edition, revised, with additions._ new york: d. van nostrand, publisher, 23 murray street and 27 warren street. 1884. copyright. d. van nostrand. 1876. transcriber's note: text originally marked up as bold is surrounded by *, text in italics by _. obvious printer errors have been corrected. a list of all other changes can be found at the end of the document. in the appendix of the book, only the most obvious errors of punctuation were remedied. preface. the importance of exact chemical analysis in a great variety of cases which come before the courts is now fully recognized, and the translation of this excellent little book on legal chemistry, by one of the most distinguished french chemists, will be appreciated by a large class of american readers who are not able to consult the original. while it is to be regretted that the author has not presented a much more complete work, there is an advantage in the compact form of this treatise which compensates, in some degree, for its brevity. the translator has greatly increased the value of the book by a few additions and his copious index, and especially by the lists of works and memoirs which he has appended; and while he could have further increased its value by additions from other authors, we recognize the weight of the considerations which induced him to present it in the form given to it by the author. some chapters will have very little value in this country at this day, but the translator could not, with propriety, omit anything contained in the original. c. f. chandler. preface to the second edition. the principal change to note in this edition of the legal chemistry is the addition of a chapter on tea and its adulteration. the general interest at present evinced concerning this species of sophistication appeared to call for a simple and concise method of examination which would include the requisite tests without entering upon an exhaustive treatment of the subject. the translator's practical experience in the testing of tea at the united states laboratory of this city has enabled him to make a few suggestions in this regard which, he trusts, may be of use to those interested in food-analysis. numerous additions have also been made to the bibliographical appendix. j. p. b. contents. page introduction 5 methods of destruction of the organic substances by means of nitric acid 8 " " sulphuric acid 9 " " nitrate of potassa 10 " " potassa and nitrate of lime 12 " " potassa and nitric acid 12 " " chlorate of potassa 13 " " chlorine 13 " " _aqua regia_ 14 dialysis 15 detection of poisons, the presence of which is suspected. detection of arsenic 17 _method used prior to marsh's test_ 17 _marsh's test_ 21 _raspail's test_ 29 _reinsch's test_ 30 detection of antimony 30 _flandin and danger's apparatus_ 32 _naquet's apparatus_ 34 detection of mercury 36 _smithson's pile_ 36 _flandin and danger's apparatus_ 37 detection of phosphorus 39 _orfila's method_ 39 _mistcherlich's method_ 40 _dusart's method, as modified by blondlot_ 40 _fresenius and neubauer's method_ 42 _detection of phosphorus by means of bisulphide of carbon_ 43 _detection of phosphorous acid_ 45 _estimation of phosphorus_ 45 detection of acids 46 _hydrochloric acid_ 46 _nitric_ " 47 _sulphuric acid_ 47 _phosphoric_ " 48 _oxalic_ " 49 _acetic_ " 49 _hydrocyanic_ " 50 detection of alkalies and alkaline earths 52 detection of chlorine, bromine and iodine 54 _chlorine and bleaching chlorides_ 54 _bromine_ 55 _iodine_ 56 detection of metals 56 detection of alkaloids and some ill-defined organic substances 65 _stas's method_ 65 " " _as modified by otto_ 69 " " " " _uslar and erdman_ 70 _rodgers and girdwood's method_ 71 _prollius's method_ 72 _graham and hofman's method_ 73 _application of dialysis in the detection of alkaloids_ 74 _identification of the alkaloid_ 74 _identification of digitaline, picrotoxine and colchicine_ 80 method to be employed when no clew to the nature of the poison present can be obtained 85 indicative tests 86 determinative tests 94 miscellaneous examinations 96 determination of the nature and color of the hair and beard 96 _determination of the color of the hair and beard_ 96 _determination of the nature of the hair_ 99 examination of fire-arms 100 _the gun is provided with a flint-lock and was charged with ordinary powder_ 100 _the gun is not provided with a flint-lock_ 103 detection of human remains in the ashes of a fire-place 104 examination of writings 105 examination of writings, in cases where a sympathetic ink has been used 110 falsification of coins and alloys 112 examination of alimentary and pharmaceutical substances 114 _flour and bread_ 114 _fixed oils_ 128 _a olive oil intended for table use_ 128 _b olive oil intended for manufacturing purposes_ 130 _c hempseed oil_ 130 _tea_ 130 _milk_ 137 _wine_ 142 _vinegar_ 147 _sulphate of quinine_ 148 examination of blood stains 150 examination of spermatic stains 158 appendix 163 books of toxicology, etc. 163 memoirs on toxicology, etc. 168 index 187 legal chemistry. the term legal chemistry is applied to that branch of the science which has for its office the solution of problems proposed in the interest of justice. these most frequently relate to cases of poisoning. when the subject of the symptoms or anatomical lesions produced by the reception of a poison is under consideration, the services of a medical expert are resorted to; but when the presence or absence of a poison in the organs of a body, in the _egesta_ of an invalid or elsewhere is to be demonstrated, recourse is had to the legal chemist. investigations of this character require great practice in manipulation, and, however well the methods of analysis may be described in the works on the subject, there would be great danger of committing errors were the examination executed by an inexperienced person. the detection of poisons, although perhaps the most important, is not the only subject that may come within the province of the legal chemist; indeed, it would be somewhat difficult to define, _a priori_, the multitude of questions that might arise. in addition to cases of supposed poisoning, the following researches are most often required: 1. the examination of fire-arms. 2. the analysis of ashes, in cases where the destruction of a human body is suspected. 3. the detection of alteration of writings, and of falsification of coins and precious alloys. 4. the analysis of alimentary substances. 5. the examination of stains produced by blood and by the spermatic fluid. each of these researches justly demands a more extended consideration than the limits of this work would permit. the several subjects will be treated as briefly as possible, and at the same time, so as to convey an exact idea of the methods employed, leaving to the expert the selection of the particular one adapted to the case under investigation. we will first mention the methods used in the search for toxical substances. the poisons employed for criminal purposes are sometimes met with in a free state, either in the stomach or intestines of the deceased person, or in the bottles discovered in the room of the criminal or the victim. under these circumstances, it is only necessary to establish their identity by means of their chemical properties, as directed in the general treatises on chemistry, or by their botanical, or zoological character, in case a vegetable or animal poison, such as cantharides, has been administered. examinations of this class are extremely simple, the analysis of the substances found, confined to a few characteristic reactions, being a matter of no great difficulty. we will not here dwell longer upon this subject, inasmuch as the analytical methods used are identical with those employed in more complicated cases, with the sole difference that, instead of performing minute and laborious operations in order to extract the poisons from the organs in which they are contained, with a view of their subsequent identification, we proceed at once to establish their identity. the directions given in regard to complicated investigations apply, therefore, equally well to cases of a more simple nature. the detection of a poison mixed with the organic substances encountered in the stomach, or absorbed by, and intimately united with the tissues of the various organs is more difficult. if, however, other information than chemical can be obtained, indicating the poison supposed to be present, and the presence or absence of this one poison is the only thing to be determined, positive methods exist which admit of a speedy solution of the question. when, on the other hand, the chemical expert has not the advantage of extraneous information, but is simply asked,--whether the case be one of poisoning?--nothing being specified as to the nature of the poison used, the difficulty of his task is greatly increased. up to the present time, the works on toxicology have, it is true, given excellent special tests for the detection of particular poisons; but none have contained a reliable general method, which the chemical expert could use with the certainty of omitting nothing. impressed with this need, we proposed, in 1859, in an inaugural dissertation then presented to the faculty of medicine, a general method, which, after some slight modifications, is now reproduced. the special methods which allow of the detection of various individual poisons will, however, first be indicated. in cases where the poison is mixed with organic matter, the latter must be removed as the first step in the investigation, as otherwise the reactions characteristic of the poison searched for would be obscured. when the poison itself is an organic substance, this separation is effected by processes modified according to the circumstances. if the detection or isolation of a metallic poison is to be accomplished, the most simple method consists in the destruction of the organic substances. the various methods for effecting this decomposition will now be described. i. methods of destruction of the organic substances. by means of nitric acid. in order to destroy the organic matters by this process, a quantity of nitric acid equal to one and a half times the weight of the substances taken is heated in a porcelain evaporating dish, the amount of acid being increased to four or six times that of the organic substances if these comprise the brains or liver. as soon as the acid becomes warm, the suspected organs, which have previously been cut into pieces, are added in successive portions: the organs become rapidly disintegrated, brownish-red vapors being evolved. when all is brought into solution, the evaporation is completed and the carbonaceous residue obtained separated from the dish and treated either with water, or with water acidulated with nitric acid, according to the nature of the poison supposed to be present. several objections to this method exist, the most serious of which is based upon the fact that the carbonaceous residue, containing, as it may, nitric acid, readily takes fire and may therefore be consumed, or projected from the vessel. this objection is a grave one, and is not always entirely removed by the continual stirring of the materials. according to _m. filhol_, the addition of 10 to 15 drops of sulphuric acid to the nitric acid taken obviates the difficulty; not having personally tested the question we cannot pronounce upon it. if it be the case, this process is an advantageous one, as it is not limited in its application, but can be used in the separation of all mineral poisons. by means of sulphuric acid. the organic matter to be decomposed is heated with about one-fifth of its weight of concentrated sulphuric acid, the complete solution of the materials being thus accomplished. the excess of acid is next removed by heating until a spongy carbonaceous mass remains. the further treatment of this residue depends upon the nature of the poison supposed to be present. if the sulphate of the suspected poison is a soluble and stable compound, the residue is directly treated with water; if, on the contrary, there is reason to think that the sulphate has suffered decomposition, the mass is taken up with dilute nitric acid; if, finally, the presence of arsenic is suspected, the residue is moistened with nitric acid, in order to convert this body into arsenic acid. the acid is afterwards removed by evaporation, the well pulverized residue boiled with distilled water, and the solution then filtered. this method, when applied in the detection of arsenic, is objectionable in that the carbonaceous residue, in contact with sulphuric acid, almost invariably contains sulphurous acid, detected by means of permanganate of potassa. this acid, being reduced in the presence of hydrogen, would cause the formation of insoluble sulphide of arsenic, and in this way prevent the detection of small amounts of arsenic by the use of marsh's apparatus. _m. gaultier de claubry_, indeed, states that he has not been able to detect the presence of sulphurous acid in the carbonaceous residue; but one affirmative result would, in this case, outweigh twenty negative experiments. a further objection to this process consists in the fact that the materials to be destroyed almost always contain chlorides, which, in presence of sulphuric acid and an arsenical compound, might determine the formation of chloride of arsenic, a volatile body, and therefore one easily lost. this difficulty is doubtless of a less serious nature than the preceding, as the operation can be performed in a closed vessel provided with a receiver which admits of the condensation of the evolved vapors; but even then the process would be prolonged. the above method is still again objectionable on account of its too limited application, it being serviceable almost exclusively in cases where the poisoning has been caused by arsenic, for, if applied in other instances, a subsequent treatment would be necessary in order to redissolve the metal separated from its decomposed sulphate. by means of nitrate of potassa. this method was formerly executed as follows: nitrate of potassa was fused in a crucible, and the substances to be destroyed added in small portions to the fused mass. the organic matter soon acquired a pure white color; owing, however, to the imperfect admixture of the organic matter with the salt used for its decomposition, it was necessary to take a large excess of the latter. the following process, suggested by _m. orfila_, remedies this inconvenience: the organs are placed in an evaporating dish, together with one tenth of their weight of caustic potassa, and a quantity of water varying with the weight of the substances taken. an amount of nitrate of potassa equal to twice the weight of the organic matter is next added, and the mixture evaporated to dryness. the residue is then thrown by fragments into a hessian crucible heated to redness, the portions first taken being allowed to become perfectly white before more is added. whichever process has been employed, the fused mass is decanted into a porcelain crucible, which has previously been heated in order to avoid danger of breakage. the portion remaining in the vessel is taken up by boiling with a small quantity of distilled water, and the solution so obtained likewise added to the crucible. the mass is then heated with sulphuric acid until all nitrous fumes are expelled, as these could give rise to an explosion, when, in the search for arsenic, the substance is introduced into marsh's apparatus. as soon as the nitric acid is completely expelled, the liquid is allowed to cool; the greater portion of the sulphate of potassa formed now separating out in crystals. the fluid is next filtered and the crystalline salt remaining on the filter, washed, at first with a little distilled water, then with absolute alcohol, which is subsequently removed from the filtrate by boiling. this method is scarcely applicable otherwise than in the detection of arsenic, as in other instances the presence of a large amount of sulphate of potassa would be liable to affect the nicety of the reactions afterwards used. its application, even in the search for arsenic, is not to be strongly recommended; on the contrary, the separation of the potassa salt by filtration is indispensable, as otherwise a double salt of zinc and potassium, which might be formed, being deposited upon the zinc used in marsh's apparatus, would prevent the disengagement of hydrogen, and every chemist is too well aware of the difficulty of thoroughly washing a precipitate, not to fear the possible loss of arsenic by this operation. by means of potassa and nitrate of lime. in this method the organic materials are heated with water and 10 to 15 per cent. of caustic potassa. as soon as disintegration is completed, nitrate of lime is added, and the mixture evaporated to dryness. a glowing coal is then placed upon the carbonaceous residue obtained: the mass, undergoing combustion, leaves a perfectly white residue. this residue dissolves in hydrochloric acid to a clear fluid which is then examined for poisons. the above process possesses the undeniable advantage of completely destroying the organic substances, at the same time avoiding the introduction of sulphate of potassa, the presence of which impairs the usefulness of the preceding method; but it necessitates the presence of numerous foreign bodies in the substance to be analysed, and this should be avoided. the _absolute purity_ of reagents is not always to be attained, and the results of an analysis are the more certain, in proportion as they are less numerous and more easily purified. by means of potassa and nitric acid. it has been proposed, instead of using nitrate of lime, to dissolve the organic matter in potassa and then saturate the fluid with nitric acid. this method is evidently more complicated than the simple treatment with nitrate of potassa, and possesses, moreover, no advantages over the latter process. by means of chlorate of potassa. the organic materials are treated with an equal weight of pure hydrochloric acid, and water added, so as to form a clear pulp. this being accomplished, two grammes of chlorate of potassa are added to the mixture at intervals of about five minutes. the fluid is next filtered, and the insoluble residue remaining on the filter washed until the wash-water ceases to exhibit an acid reaction. the filtrate is then evaporated, an aqueous solution of sulphurous acid added, until the odor of this reagent remains distinctly perceptible, and the excess of the acid removed by boiling the solution for about an hour. the fluid is now adapted to further examination for arsenic, or other metallic poisons. this method is one of the best in use, both chlorate of potassa and hydrochloric acid being reagents easily procured in a state of great purity; their use, however, is liable to the objection that they convert silver and lead into insoluble chlorides. by means of chlorine. _m. jacquelain_ suggests, in the search for arsenic, the decomposition of the organic matters by means of a current of chlorine, and recommends the following process: the organic substances are bruised in a mortar and then macerated with water. the fluid so obtained, in which the organic matter is held suspended, is next placed in a flask into which a current of chlorine is passed until all the organic matter is deposited in colorless flakes on the bottom of the vessel. the flask is then well closed and allowed to stand for 24 hours, when the odor of the gas should still be perceptible. the fluid is now filtered, the filtrate concentrated by heating in a vessel which permits of the preservation of the volatile chloride of arsenic possibly present, and then examined for poisons. this process fails to possess the degree of generality desirable, and presents the disadvantage of requiring considerable time for its execution. by means of aqua regia. this method is exceedingly simple: _aqua regia_ (a mixture of two parts of hydrochloric and one part of nitric acids) is placed in a tubular retort provided with a receiver, and the organic materials, which have previously been cut into small pieces, added; the reaction commences immediately; if it is not sufficiently active, it is accelerated by a gentle heat: lively effervescence now occurs, and the destruction of all non-oleaginous substances is soon accomplished. the latter substances alone are not immediately decomposed by _aqua regia_, which attacks them only after prolonged action. as soon as the operation is concluded, the apparatus is removed from the fire and taken apart. the fluid condensed in the receiver is added to that remaining in the retort, and the whole thoroughly cooled in an open dish. the fatty matters now form a solid crust upon the surface of the fluid, which is removed and washed with distilled water, and, the washings being added to the rest of the solution, the latter is directly examined for metallic poisons. it is recommended by _gaultier de claubry_, in cases where the detection of arsenic is desired, to saturate and afterwards boil the suspected fluid with sulphuric acid, in order to remove the nitric and hydrochloric acids present. dialysis. the application of the dialytic method was first proposed by _graham_. by its use we are enabled to distinguish between two large classes of bodies, viz., _colloids_ and _crystalloids_. albumen, gelatine, and analogous substances are typical of colloid bodies; crystalloid substances, on the other hand, are those that are capable of crystallization, either directly or in their compounds, or, in case they are fluids, would possess this property when brought to the solid state. graham discovered that when an aqueous solution containing a mixture of colloid and crystalloid substances is placed in a vessel having for its bottom a piece of parchment or animal membrane, and this is immersed in a larger vessel filled with water, all of the crystalloids contained in the first vessel transverse the porous membrane and are to be found in the larger vessel, the colloid bodies being retained above the membrane. the organic matter to be eliminated in toxicological researches being colloids, and the poisons usually employed being crystalloids, the value of dialysis as a method of separation is evident. the process is executed as follows: [illustration: fig. 1.] a wooden,--or better, a gutta-percha--cylinder (fig. 1), 5 cubic centimetres in height and from 20 to 25 c. c. in diameter, is employed. a piece of moistened parchment is securely attached to one of the openings of the cylinder, which, upon drying, shrinks and completely closes the aperture. if its continuity becomes impaired, the pores of the membrane should be covered with the white of an egg which is subsequently coagulated by the application of heat. the organs previously cut into small pieces, or the materials found in the alimentary canal, etc., after having been allowed to digest for 24 hours in water at 32â°[a]--or, in dilute acids, if the presence of an alkaloid is suspected,--are then placed in the upper vessel, which is termed the dialyser. the whole should form a layer not over 2 cubic centimetres in height. the dialyser is next placed in the larger vessel filled with distilled water. in about 24 hours three-quarters of the crystalloid substances present will have passed into the lower vessel. the solution is then evaporated over a water-bath, and submitted to analysis. the portion remaining in the dialyser is decomposed by one of the methods previously described, in order to effect the detection of any poisonous substances possibly present. instead of the above apparatus, the one represented in fig. 2 can be employed. the fluid under examination is placed in a bell-shaped jar, open at the top and closed below with a piece of parchment, which is then suspended in the centre of a larger vessel containing water. in other respects the operation is performed in the same manner as with the apparatus represented in fig. 1. [illustration: fig. 2.] [a] the degrees of temperature given in the text refer to the centigrade thermometer; their equivalents on the fahrenheit scale can be obtained by means of the formula: 9/5 câ° + 32 = fâ°. --_trans._ ii. detection of poisons, the presence of which is suspected. detection of arsenic. it is frequently required, in chemical jurisprudence, to institute a search for arsenic in the remains of a deceased person, whose death is supposed to have been caused by the reception of a poison. under these circumstances the poison is mixed with a mass of substances which would obscure its characteristic properties, and it becomes necessary, in order to accomplish its identification, to isolate it, and then, by decisive reactions, determine its character. three methods exist which permit of this result; they are: 1st. the method used prior to marsh's test. 2nd. marsh's test. 3rd. a method more recent than marsh's, proposed by _m. raspail_. method used prior to marsh's test. the materials supposed to contain arsenic are boiled in water which has been rendered strongly alkaline by the addition of pure potassa. the fluid is then filtered, an excess of hydrochloric acid added, and a current of sulphuretted hydrogen conducted through it. if arsenic be present in the suspected fluid, it is soon precipitated as a yellow sulphide. in dilute solutions the formation of the precipitate fails to take place immediately, and only a yellow coloration of the fluid is perceptible; upon slightly boiling the solution, however, the precipitation of the sulphide is soon induced. the precipitate is collected on a filter, well washed with boiling water, and then removed, if present in a quantity sufficient to admit of this operation. it is next dissolved in ammonia,[b] and the solution so obtained subsequently evaporated to dryness on a watch-glass. the residue of sulphide of arsenic is placed in a tube closed at one end containing nitrate of potassa in a state of fusion: it is decomposed by this treatment into a mixture of sulphate and arsenate of potassa, the reaction being completed in about fifteen minutes. the mixture is now dissolved in water, and lime water added to the solution: a precipitate of arsenate of lime is formed, which is separated from the fluid by filtration, dried, mixed with charcoal, and introduced into a second tube. a few pieces of charcoal are then placed in the tube adjoining the mixture and exposed to a red heat, the part of the tube containing the arsenical compound being also heated. by this operation the arsenic acid is reduced to arsenic, which is deposited upon the cold portion of the tube in the form of a metallic mirror. this mirror is then identified by subsequent reactions. the method just described is no longer in use, although the precipitation of the arsenic by sulphuretted hydrogen is still often resorted to in its separation from the other metals with which it may be mixed. the destruction of the organic substances is, however, accomplished by means of chlorate of potassa and hydrochloric acid. to insure the complete precipitation of the arsenic, it is advisable to conduct sulphuretted hydrogen through the solution, at a temperature of 70â° for twelve hours, and then allow the fluid to remain in a moderately warm place, until the odor of the gas is no longer perceptible, the vessel being simply covered with a piece of paper. the precipitate is next freed from the other metals possibly present, as directed in the general method of analysis, collected on a filter, and dissolved in ammonia. the ammoniacal solution is evaporated on a watch crystal, as previously described, and the residuary sulphide reduced to metallic arsenic. this reduction is effected by a process somewhat different from the one previously mentioned: the residue is fused, in a current of carbonic acid gas, with a mixture of carbonate of soda and cyanide of potassium. the apparatus employed is represented in fig. 3: _a_, is an apparatus producing a constant supply of carbonic acid. upon opening mohr's clamp, _g_, the gas passes into the flask _h_, which contains sulphuric acid; it is then conducted, by means of the tube _i_, into the reduction tube _k_, which has an interior diameter of 8 mm. this tube is represented, in half size, in fig 4. [b] the sulphur, usually accompanying the precipitate of sulphide of arsenic, is insoluble in ammonia.--_trans._ [illustration: fig. 3.] [illustration: fig. 4.] the reduction is performed as follows: the sulphide of arsenic is ground in a small mortar, previously warmed, together with 12 parts of a mixture consisting of 3 parts of carbonate of soda and 1 part of cyanide of potassium, both salts being perfectly dry. the powder thus obtained is placed upon a piece of paper rolled in the form of a gutter, and introduced into the reduction tube. the latter is then turned half round its axis, so as to cause the mixture to fall in _de_ without soiling the other parts of the tube. the paper is now withdrawn and the apparatus mounted. upon opening the clamp _g_, and strongly heating the mixture by either the flame of a gas or an alcohol lamp, a mirror-like ring of metallic arsenic is deposited at _h_, if this poison be present in the substances under examination. when the coating is too minute to permit of perfect identification, it should be driven by heat to a thinner part of the tube; in this way it is rendered easily visible, being condensed upon a smaller space. the above process possesses the advantage of not allowing arsenic to be confounded with any other body; it also permits of a quantitative estimation of the poison present. for this purpose, it is only necessary to previously weigh the watch-crystal, upon which the ammoniacal solution of sulphide of arsenic was evaporated, and to determine its increased weight after the evaporation; the difference of the two weighings multiplied by 0.8049, gives the corresponding weight of arsenious acid, and by 0.6098, the weight of the corresponding amount of metallic arsenic. marsh's test. marsh's test is based upon the reduction of arsenious and arsenic acids by nascent hydrogen, and the subsequent transformation of these bodies into water and arsenetted hydrogen, a compound from which the arsenic can be readily isolated. when pure hydrogen is generated in a flask having two openings, one of which is provided with a perforated cork through which a safety-tube passes, the other with a tube bent at a right angle and drawn out to a small point at the free extremity, the evolved gas, if ignited, burns with a pale non-luminous flame. the air should be completely expelled from the apparatus before igniting the gas. upon bringing a cold porcelain saucer in contact with the point of the flame, only water is formed. if, however, a small quantity of a solution containing arsenious or arsenic acids is introduced into the apparatus by means of the safety-tube, arsenetted hydrogen is produced. this gas burns with a bright flame, yielding fumes of arsenious acid. in case a large amount of the poison is present, it can be recognized by the appearance of the flame, and by inclining a glass tube towards it upon which a portion of the arsenious acid becomes deposited. these indications are, however, not distinguishable in presence of only a small amount of arsenic, and the following distinctive properties of the gas should be verified: 1st. at an elevated temperature it is decomposed into its two constituent elements. [illustration: fig. 5.] [illustration: fig. 6.] 2nd. the combustibility of the constituents differs: the arsenic being less combustible than the hydrogen, begins to burn only after the complete consumption of the latter body has taken place. for this reason the flame (fig. 5) is composed of a dark portion _o_ and a luminous portion _i_, which surrounds the first. the maximum temperature exists in _o_ at the point of union of the two parts of the flame. owing to an insufficient supply of oxygen, the complete combustion of the arsenic in this part of the flame is impossible, and if it be intersected by the cold surface _a b_, that body is deposited as a brown spot, possessing a metallic lustre. the metallic deposit originates, therefore, from the decomposition of the arsenetted hydrogen by heat and from its incomplete combustion. if the spot is not large, it fails to exhibit a metallic lustre; an experienced chemist, however, will be able to identify it by the aid of proper tests. spots are sometimes obtained when the substance under examination does not contain the least trace of arsenic. these may be caused by antimony or by a portion of the zinc salt in the generating flask being carried over by the gaseous current. this difficulty is remedied by giving the apparatus the form represented in fig. 6. _a_ is the flask in which the gas is generated. the delivery-tube _i_ connects with a second tube _h_, filled with asbestus or cotton; this is united by means of a cork with a third tube _c_, made of bohemian glass. the latter tube is quite long, and terminates in a jet at its free end, enclosed in tin-foil;[c] it passes through the sheet-iron furnace _r_, supported upon _g_. the screen _d_ protects the portion _d e_ of the tube _c_ from the heat. the gas disengaged is ignited at _e_ and the porcelain dish _p_ is held by the hand in contact with the flame. the apparatus being mounted, zinc, water and some sulphuric acid are placed in the generating flask,[d] and the solution containing arsenious acid added: the evolution of gas commences immediately. the tube _h_ serves to retain any liquids that may be held suspended. the gas then passes through the part _c d_ of the tube _c_, which is heated by placing a few live coals upon the furnace _r_. the greater portion of the arsenetted hydrogen is decomposed here, and is deposited on the cold part of the tube, in a mirror-like ring. the small quantity of gas that escapes decomposition, if ignited at _e_, produces a metallic spot on the dish _p_. in order to determine that the spots are due to the presence of arsenic, and not produced by antimony, the following tests should be applied: [c] the fusing of the point of the tube is also prevented by platinizing it. the tube is drawn out, its end roughened by filing, and then immersed in solution of bichloride of platinum, so that a drop or two of the fluid adheres. the point, upon heating, now acquires a fine metallic lustre, and by repeating the operation a few times a good coating of platinum is produced both on the exterior and interior of the tube.--_trans._ [d] the addition of a few drops of solution of bichloride of platinum to the mixture of zinc, water and sulphuric acid is advisable.--_trans._ 1. the color of the spots is distinctive: arsenical spots are brown and exhibit a metallic lustre, whereas those originating from antimony possess a black color, especially near their border. this difference is, however, not perceptible when the deposits have a large surface. 2. if the mirror be arsenical, it is readily volatilized from one part of the tube to another, when the latter is heated, and a current of hydrogen, or carbonic acid gas made to pass through it. spots that are due to the presence of antimony are much less volatile. 3. if the tube is held in an inclined position so that a current of air traverses it, and the part containing the arsenical mirror heated, the arsenic oxidizes and arsenious acid is sublimed and deposited higher up in the tube in the form of a ring, which exhibits octahedral crystals when examined with a magnifying glass. this ring should be further tested as follows: _a._ if it is dissolved in a drop of hydrochloric acid and a solution of sulphuretted hydrogen added, a yellow precipitate of sulphide of arsenic is formed. this compound is soluble in ammonia and in alkaline sulphides, but insoluble in hydrochloric acid. _b._ if the ring is dissolved in pure water and an ammoniacal solution of sulphate of copper added, a beautiful green precipitate ("_scheele's green_"), consisting of arsenite of copper, is produced. 4. when produced by arsenic the spots are soluble in nitric acid, and upon evaporating the solution so obtained to dryness, a residue of arsenic acid, which is easily soluble in water, remains. if an ammoniacal solution of nitrate of silver is added to the aqueous solution of the residue, a brick-red precipitate is produced. spots consisting of antimony give, when treated with nitric acid, a residue of an intermediate oxide, insoluble in water. 5. upon treating the spots with a drop of solution of sulphide of ammonium, the sulphide of the metal present is formed: if sulphide of arsenic is produced its properties, as enumerated above, can be recognized. it may be added that the sulphide of antimony formed is soluble in hydrochloric acid, and possesses an orange red color, whereas sulphide of arsenic is yellow. 6. when spots originating from arsenic are treated with a solution of hypochlorite of soda (prepared by passing chlorine into solution of carbonate of soda), they are immediately dissolved; if, on the other hand, they are produced by antimony, they remain unaltered by this treatment. such are the properties exhibited by soluble compounds of arsenic when treated by marsh's process; the following precautions are, however, necessary when this test is made use of in medico-legal examinations. 1. if small white gritty particles, resembling arsenious acid, are discovered in the stomach or intestines, they are directly introduced into marsh's apparatus. when this is not the case, the destruction of the organic matter is indispensable even though, instead of the organs themselves, the contents of the alimentary canal are taken. in the latter instance, the solids are separated from the fluids present by filtration, the solution evaporated to dryness and the residue united with the solid portion; the organic matter is then destroyed by one of the methods previously described. in the special case of arsenic, the separation of the poison from the accompanying organic materials can be accomplished by a process not yet mentioned which may prove to be of service. the suspected substances are distilled with common salt and concentrated sulphuric acid. by this operation the arsenic is converted into a volatile chloride which distils over. the poison is isolated by treating this compound with water, by which it is decomposed into hydrochloric and arsenious acids. we must give preference, however, to the method by means of chlorate of potassa and hydrochloric acid. 2. the solution having been obtained in a condition suitable for examination, the air is completely expelled from the apparatus by allowing the gas to evolve for some time, and the suspected fluid then introduced into the generating flask. danger of explosion would be incurred were the gas ignited when mixed with air.[e] [e] the effervescence of the mixture is prevented by _slowly_ adding the arsenical solution to the generating flask. in order to avoid loss of arsenetted hydrogen, the cold dish should be directly applied to the flame even before the introduction of the suspected solution, and its position changed at short intervals, so as to allow the deposit to be formed on different parts.-_trans._ 3. it is indispensable, in applying this test, to have a second apparatus in which only the reagents necessary to generate hydrogen are placed: in this way, if no spots are now produced by the use of the second apparatus, it is certain that those obtained when the first apparatus is employed do not originate from impurities present in the reagents used. it has come under the author's observation, however, that a sheet of zinc sometimes contains arsenic in one part and not in another; in fact, the shavings of this metal, as purchased for laboratory use, are often taken from lots previously collected, and may therefore have been prepared from several different sheets. if this be the case, it is supposable that the zinc used in the second apparatus may be free from arsenic, whereas the metal with which the suspected solution is brought in contact may contain this poison; serious danger would then exist of finding indications of the presence of arsenic in materials that did not originally contain a trace of the metal. in order to obviate this important objection, which might possibly place a human life in jeopardy, we propose the following modifications: pure mercury is distilled and its absolute purity established. as the metal is a fluid and is therefore homogeneous, it is evident if one portion be found pure, the entire mass is so. sodium is then fused under oil of naphtha, in order to cause the complete admixture of its particles, and the purity of the fused metal in regard to arsenic tested. an amalgam is next prepared by uniting the mercury and sodium. this is eminently adapted to toxicological investigations: in order to generate a supply of very pure hydrogen, it is only necessary to place the amalgam in water kept slightly acid by the addition of a few drops of sulphuric acid, by means of which the disengagement of gas is rendered more energetic.[f] [f] owing to the impurities often occurring in zinc, the use of distilled magnesium in marsh's apparatus has also been suggested. this metal is now to be obtained in a state of great purity; it is, however, sometimes contaminated with silicium, which body likewise gives rise to a metallic deposit, but one that is readily distinguished from arsenical spots by its insolubility in nitric acid, _aqua regia_, and in hypochlorite of soda. the presence of magnesium causes the precipitation of the non-volatile metals possibly contained in the fluid tested for arsenic.--_trans._ it should be borne in mind that the solution introduced into marsh's apparatus must not contain organic substances, and that, in case their destruction has been accomplished by means of nitric acid all traces of this compound are to be removed. the sulphuric acid used should also be completely freed from nitrous vapors. according to _m. blondeau_, nascent hydrogen in the presence of nitrous compounds converts the acids of arsenic not into arsenetted hydrogen (as h{3}), but into the _solid_ arsenide of hydrogen (as{4} h{2}). this latter compound, upon which pure nascent hydrogen has no effect, is transformed into gaseous arsenetted hydrogen by the simultaneous action of nascent hydrogen and organic substances. these facts are of the greatest importance, for they might possibly cause a loss of arsenic when it is present, as well as determine its discovery when it is absent. the first case is supposable: should traces of nitric acid remain in the solution, the arsenic would be transformed into solid arsenide of hydrogen and its detection rendered impossible. the second case may also occur: if the zinc placed in the apparatus contains arsenic, and the sulphuric acid used contains nitrous compounds, the evolved gas will fail to exhibit any evidence of the presence of arsenic, owing to the formation of the solid arsenide of hydrogen. upon adding the suspected solution, which, perchance, may still contain organic substances, this arsenide is converted into arsenetted hydrogen, and the presence of arsenic will be detected, although the solution under examination was originally free from this metal. raspail's method. m. raspail suggests the following method for detecting arsenic: the surface of a brass plate is rasped by filing. in this condition the plate may be regarded as an innumerable quantity of voltaic elements, formed by the juxtaposition of the molecules of zinc and copper. the suspected materials are boiled with caustic potassa, the solution filtered, a drop of the filtrate placed upon the brass plate, and a drop of chlorine water added. if the plate is then allowed to stand for a moment and the substance under examination contains arsenic, a mirror-like spot is soon deposited upon its surface. in order to avoid confounding this deposit with those produced by other metals, the substitution of granulated brass for the plate is in some cases advisable. the granulated metal is dipped successively in the suspected solution and in chlorine water. the granules retain a small quantity of the solutions and, owing to the action of the chlorine water, become covered with metallic spots, if arsenic be present. they are then dried, placed in a tube closed at one end, and exposed to the heat of an alcohol lamp. in case the spots are arsenical, the metal volatilizes and condenses in a ring upon the cold part of the tube, which is submitted to the tests previously described. this method can hardly be of great service, inasmuch as it extracts the poison from but a very small portion of the solution containing it: we have not, however, personally tested its merits.[g] [g] the omission in the text of reinsch's test should be supplied. this test is based upon the fact that when solutions of arsenious acid or an arsenide are acidulated with hydrochloric acid and boiled with metallic copper, the latter becomes covered with a film consisting largely of metallic arsenic: it is extensively employed in chemico-legal examinations. the materials to be examined are completely disintegrated by boiling with hydrochloric acid, and the fluid filtered. some pure copper gauze or foil, having a polished surface, is then immersed in the boiling solution, and notice taken of the formation of a grey deposit. if a coating be formed, fresh pieces of the metal are added, so long as they become affected. the copper is then withdrawn from the solution, thoroughly washed with water, and dried, either by means of the water-bath or by pressing between bibulous paper. it is next introduced into a dry tube, and heated over a spirit lamp. the arsenic present volatilizes and is oxidized to arsenious acid which forms a deposit, consisting of octahedral crystals, on the cold part of the tubes. these are subsequently tested by means of the reactions distinctive of arsenious acid. it need hardly be added that the absolute purity of both the hydrochloric acid and of the copper is to be carefully established. the deposit obtained in the above operation was formerly regarded as pure arsenic, but it has been proved to be an alloy consisting of 32 per cent. arsenic, and 68 per cent. copper. reinsch's test possesses the advantage of requiring but little time for its execution, of being applicable to complex organic mixtures, and of effecting the detection of a very minute trace of the poison.--_trans._ detection of antimony. strictly speaking the salts of antimony are more therapeutic than poisonous in their action. in fact they usually act as emetics and, under certain circumstances, may be taken in large doses without incurring serious results. there are instances, however, in which their action is truly toxical, and it becomes necessary to effect their detection in the organs of a body. it should be remarked that these salts, if absorbed, remain by a kind of predilection in the liver and spleen. a special examination of these organs should therefore be instituted, particularly if the fluids of the alimentary canal are not at hand, which is frequently the case when some time has elapsed before the investigation is undertaken. the remarks made in the preceding article concerning the distinctive properties of arsenic and antimony need not be repeated here. the search for antimony is likewise executed by aid of marsh's apparatus. we will confine ourselves to a description of a modification to this apparatus proposed by _mm. flandin_ and _danger_, and employed in the separation of antimony and arsenic, when a mixture of these metals is under examination. another process, by means of which we arrive at the same result with greater certainty and by the use of a less expensive apparatus, will then be mentioned. we will, however, first indicate the preferable method of destruction of the organic substances. were the decomposition performed by means of sulphuric acid, sulphate of antimony, a slightly soluble salt and one not well adapted to the subsequent treatment with nascent hydrogen, would be formed. in order to obtain the metal in a soluble state, the formation of a double tartrate of antimony and soda is desirable. this may be accomplished in the following manner: 1. a cold mixture of nitrate of soda, sulphuric acid, and the suspected materials is prepared in the proportion of 25 grammes of the nitrate to 39 grammes of the acid, and 100 grammes of the substance under examination. this mixture is heated and evaporated to dryness, and the decomposition of the organic matter completed in the usual manner. the carbonaceous residue obtained is pulverized, and then boiled with a solution of tartaric acid. by this treatment the antimonate of soda present is converted into a double tartrate of antimony and soda, which is easily soluble in water. the solution is filtered and then introduced into marsh's apparatus. 2. another method consists in heating the substances under examination with one half of their weight of hydrochloric acid for six hours on a sand-bath, avoiding boiling. the temperature is then increased until the liquid is in a state of ebullition, and 15 to 20 grammes of chlorate of potassa, for every 100 grammes of the suspected matter taken, added in successive portions, so that a quarter of an hour is required for the operation. the liquid is next filtered, and the resinous matter remaining on the filter well washed with distilled water; the washings being added to the principal solution. a strip of polished tin is then immersed in the liquid: in presence of a large amount of antimony the tin becomes covered with a black incrustation: if but a minute quantity of the metal is contained, only a few blackish spots are perceptible. after the tin has remained immersed for 24 hours, it is withdrawn and placed in a flask together with an amount of hydrochloric acid sufficient for its solution in the cold. if, after several hours, blackish particles are still observed floating in the liquid, they can be dissolved in a few drops of _aqua regia_. the solution may then be directly introduced into marsh's apparatus. apparatus proposed by flandin and danger. [illustration: fig. 7.] this apparatus consists of a wide necked jar _a_ (fig. 7) for the generation of the gas, the mouth of which is closed with a cork having two openings. the safety tube _s_, which is funnel-shaped at its upper extremity and has its lower end drawn out to a point, passes through one of these apertures; the other opening contains the small delivery tube _b_, open at both ends, and terminating in a point at its upper extremity: it is also provided with lateral openings, in order to prevent the solution being carried up to the flame. the second part of the apparatus is the condenser _c_, 0.03 metre in diameter, and 0.25 metre in length. this terminates at its lower extremity with a cone, and connects at the side with the tube _t_, slanting slightly downwards. in the interior of the condenser, the cooler _e_ is contained, the lower end of which is nearly in contact with the sides of the opening _o_. the combustion tube _d_, 0.01 metre in diameter, is connected by means of a cork with the tube _t_; it is bent at right angles, and encloses the tube _b_, in such a manner as to allow the evolved gas to burn in its interior. the dish _f_ is placed beneath the opening _o_. if the gas which burns in the combustion tube contains arsenetted hydrogen, water and arsenious acid are produced. a portion of this acid is retained in the tube _d_, the remainder is carried over, with the aqueous vapor, into _c_, where it condenses, and finally falls into the dish _f_. both portions are subsequently examined by means of reactions necessary to establish the presence of the acid. if the ignited gas contains antimonetted hydrogen, water and an intermediate oxide of antimony are formed. the latter compound is entirely retained in the tube _d_ separated from the greater part of the arsenious acid, if this body be present, and can be brought into solution by means of a mixture of hydrochloric and tartaric acids. a fluid is then obtained which can be introduced into marsh's apparatus, or otherwise examined for antimony. naquet's apparatus. [illustration: fig. 8.] although the separation of arsenic from antimony is the chief object in making use of the apparatus proposed by flandin and danger, it is evident that this result is not fully accomplished, since a small portion of arsenious acid remains in the tube _d_ (fig. 7), together with the intermediate oxide of antimony. the following method secures the complete separation of these metals: an amalgam of sodium and mercury is introduced into the flask _a_, (fig. 8), which is provided with two openings. the tube _b_, terminating in a funnel at its upper extremity, passes through one of these orifices. the other aperture contains a cork enclosing the small tube _c_, which is bent at a right angle and communicates, by means of a cork, with the larger tube _d_ filled with cotton or asbestus. a set of liebig's bulbs, _e_, containing a solution of nitrate of silver, is attached to the other extremity of this tube. the apparatus being mounted, the solution under examination is slightly acidulated and introduced by means of the tube _b_ into the flask _a_: the disengagement of gas begins immediately. if arsenic and antimony are contained in the solution, arsenetted hydrogen and antimonetted hydrogen are evolved. both gases are decomposed in passing through the solution of nitrate of silver contained in the liebig bulbs: the arsenetted hydrogen causes a precipitation of metallic silver, all the arsenic remaining in solution as arsenious acid; the antimonetted hydrogen is decomposed into insoluble antimonate of silver. after the operation has continued for several hours, the apparatus is taken apart, the nitrate of silver solution thrown on a filter, and the precipitate thoroughly washed. an excess of hydrochloric acid is then added to the filtrate, and the precipitate formed separated from the solution by filtration, and well washed. the wash-water is added to the solution, and the whole then examined for arsenic by means of marsh's test. the precipitate formed in the nitrate of silver solution, which contains antimonate of silver, is well dried, mixed with a mixture of carbonate and nitrate of soda, and calcined in a porcelain crucible for about three-quarters of an hour. the crucible is then removed from the fire, and the cooled mass treated with hydrochloric acid until a drop of the filtered fluid ceases to give a residue when evaporated upon a watch-glass to dryness. a current of sulphurous acid is now conducted through the filtered solution until the odor of this gas remains persistent. the excess of acid is then removed by boiling, and the solution placed in marsh's apparatus and tested for antimony. detection of mercury. if a mercurial salt exists in a considerable quantity in the substances extracted from the alimentary canal, or ejected either by stools or vomiting, it can be isolated by treating these materials with water, filtering the liquid, and evaporating the filtrate to dryness. the residual mass is taken up with alcohol, and the solution again filtered and evaporated. upon dissolving the residue obtained by this operation in ether and filtering and evaporating the solution, a residue is obtained which when dissolved in water forms a fluid wherein the presence of mercury can be detected by means of the ordinary tests. when, however, only a minute quantity of mercury is present, and this has been absorbed, its detection is more difficult. it will be necessary under these circumstances to make use of either smithson's pile or flandin and danger's apparatus. smithson's pile. smithson's pile consists of a small plate of copper around which a piece of thin gold foil is wrapped. this is immersed in the solution to be tested for mercury, which has previously been slightly acidulated: if mercury be present, the plate acquires a white color which disappears upon exposure to the flame of a spirit-lamp. a similar reaction occurs in presence of tin, as this metal would likewise be deposited upon the plate, and, upon heating, would penetrate the metal and restore to it its natural color. the danger of mistake arising from this fact is obviated by introducing the copper plate into a tube closed at one end and bent at a right angle. the open extremity of the tube is drawn out to a fine point and immersed in water contained in a second tube also closed at one end. upon heating the plate in the flame of an alcohol lamp, the white color disappears if produced by mercury, and at the same time this metal condenses in the narrow extremity of the tube. the metallic globules formed can be recognized either by the naked eye or with the aid of a lens, or by rubbing them with a piece of gold foil when the latter will acquire a white coating. when smithson's pile is employed, the organic substances are most advantageously decomposed by means of chlorine. it is advisable to operate with as small a quantity of fluid as possible, for, owing to the volatility of bichloride of mercury, a portion of this salt may be lost by the evaporation of aqueous, alcoholic, and even etherial solutions, and the detection of minute quantities rendered impossible. apparatus proposed by flandin and danger. [illustration: fig. 9.] this apparatus consists of a stand _s_, (fig. 9) supporting a balloon _a_, which serves as the reservoir of the suspected solution, and a funnel _b_, into which the neck of the balloon is dipped. the funnel _b_ is bent at a right angle and is drawn out at its lower end under which the dish _c_ is placed for the reception of the escaping fluids. a fine wire of pure gold, forming the negative electrode of a bunsen's battery, passes through the lower extremity of the funnel. the end of this wire nearly comes in contact with a second wire, inserted in the upper part of the funnel, and connected with the positive pole of the battery. if the balloon filled with the solution is inverted and immersed in the funnel _b_, its neck will be submerged at first; soon, however, it becomes uncovered, owing to the depression of the level of the fluid caused by the escape of the latter through the tapering extremity of the funnel: a bubble of air then passes in the balloon and expels a drop of the solution. this process is repeated at short intervals, causing a continuous flow of the fluid, the rapidity of which is easily regulated by elevating or lowering the balloon, thus raising or depressing the level of the liquid. the apparatus having been mounted in this manner and the battery set in action, the disengagement of gas commences. should mercury be contained in the solution under examination, this metal will be deposited upon the negative wire. when the operation is completed this wire is detached from the apparatus, washed with ether, and dried. it is then introduced into a small tube provided with a bulb, and the mercury volatilized by means of the blow pipe flame: the metal condenses in the bulb of the tube in globules which are readily recognized. they can also be dissolved in nitric acid, and the presence of a mercurial salt in the solution confirmed by further tests. the solution to be examined in the preceding apparatus, is prepared as follows: the suspected organic matter is treated with cold sulphuric acid of 66â° _b._ until liquefied, and hypochlorite of lime, and distilled water then added: if necessary, the evolution of chlorine can be accelerated by a further addition of sulphuric acid. as soon as the liquid becomes clear, it is filtered, concentrated and examined as described above. the solution contains the mercury in the state of bichloride, a salt soluble in water and well adapted to the above test. the substitution of a large balloon, having a capacity of about 2 litres, in place of the small vessel of flandin and danger's apparatus, is to be recommended as doing away with the necessity of evaporation; an operation which invariably causes a loss of substance. the apparatus, modified in this manner, is the most delicate in use for the detection of mercury. detection of phosphorus. orfila's method. the solid substances found in the alimentary canal are mechanically separated from the fluids present by means of a linen cloth. they are then examined by aid of a magnifying glass, and any fragments of phosphorus found separated and preserved under water. if none are discovered, the presence of phosphorescent vapors may possibly be detected by examining the materials in the dark. in any case, a portion of the suspected materials should be treated with nitrate of silver: in presence of phosphorus the materials acquire, first, a reddish-brown, then, a black color. the remaining portion is spread upon a shovel and heated: a white flame, burning at various points of the mass, and originating from the combustion of phosphorus, is observed, if this body be contained in the substances under examination. this method is evidently far from perfect. mitscherlich's method. mistcherlich's method is based upon the luminosity of the vapors of phosphorus. the suspected materials are moistened with dilute sulphuric acid, and heated, in a flask communicating with a glass worm which passes through a glass cooler into a receiver. if the apparatus is placed in the dark, and the materials contain phosphorus, luminous vapors will be observed in the flask and receiver. when the quantity of the poison present is considerable, the phosphorous acid formed can be collected and its properties tested. dusart's method, as modified by blondlot. [illustration: fig. 10.] dusart's process takes advantage of the facility with which hydrogen combines with phosphorus. the substances under examination are placed between two asbestus stoppers in a tube, one end of which tapers to a point, and a current of pure hydrogen conducted over them. in presence of phosphorus the evolved gas will burn with a green flame, and, upon bringing this in contact with a porcelain plate, red spots will be deposited upon the latter. _blondlot_ prefers to introduce the suspected materials into the flask in which the hydrogen is generated. he employs the apparatus represented in fig. 10: _a_ is a flask for evolving hydrogen; _b_ is a u tube, filled with fragments of pumice stone which are saturated with a concentrated solution of potassa; _c_ is a mohr clamp; _d_ a screw-clamp; _e_ a platinum jet. this jet is necessary in order to avoid a yellow coloration of the flame by the soda contained in the glass. pure hydrogen is at first evolved, in order to ascertain that the flame is colorless and red spots are not produced when it is intersected by a cold plate. the purity of the reagents used having thus been confirmed, the clamp _d_ is closed until the acid is forced back into _f_; and the materials to be examined are then added to the fluid. upon opening the clamp the liquid passes from _f_ into _a_, and the evolution of gas recommences. the gas is then ignited: the flame possesses the characteristic properties mentioned above, if the suspected substances contain phosphorus. method proposed by fresenius and neubauer. according to this method, the materials are brought into a flask provided with a doubly-perforated stopper, and water, acidulated with sulphuric acid, added. the flask is then heated over a water-bath, and a current of carbonic acid conducted through the mixture for at least two hours. the gas, on leaving the flask, passes into a solution of nitrate of silver. should no precipitate form in this solution, the absence of free phosphorus is established, for, were this body present, a portion would be volatilized, and a black precipitate, consisting of phosphide of silver, together with phosphoric acid, produced. the formation of a black precipitate is, however, not necessarily a proof of the presence of phosphorus. in order to conclusively determine the character of the precipitate, it is collected on a filter and examined by the method of dusart and blondlot. this process has given result in cases where none were obtained by mistcherlich's method. it possesses, moreover, an advantage over the latter process, in not being influenced by the presence of foreign bodies; whereas, in mistcherlich's method, some time must elapse before the luminosity of the vapors becomes apparent if ether or alcohol is contained in the solutions, and this phenomenon totally fails to appear in presence of oil of turpentine. detection of phosphorus by the use of bisulphide of carbon. in a report read before the academy of sciences in 1856, presented by an examining commission, of which mm. _dumas_, _pelouze_ and _claude bernard_ were the reporters, the following results were contained: phosphorus may remain, in the _free state_, in the organs fifteen days after death, and even then its isolation can easily be accomplished. for this purpose the stomach or intestines, and the articles of food contained therein, are cut into pieces and treated with bisulphide of carbon. upon filtering the liquid, a solution is obtained containing all the phosphorus present, which exhibits the following properties: 1st, when ignited, it burns with a very luminous flame; 2nd, if allowed to spontaneously evaporate (the combustion of the phosphorus being prevented by the organic matter present [_naquet_]) an inflammable residue is obtained, which, if dissolved in boiling monohydrated nitric acid, gives a solution that, after saturation with ammonia, produces a precipitate soluble in acids in solutions of barium salts. if the solution is mixed with perchloride of iron, and the sesquioxide of this metal subsequently eliminated by the addition of ammonia, it no longer causes a precipitation in barium solutions. the fluid acquires a yellow coloration when boiled with a solution of molybdate of ammonia. according to our personal experience, the apparatus employed by flandin and danger for the detection of arsenic, can also be made use of in the examination of the bisulphide of carbon solution. to this end, the fluid supposed to contain phosphorus is mixed with perfectly pure alcohol, and the mixture placed in a small spirit-lamp provided with a very loose asbestus wick. the lamp is then ignited and the flame introduced in the combustion tube _d_ (fig. 11). [illustration: fig. 11.] by the combustion of the mixture, sulphurous, carbonic, phosphorous acids and water are formed. the water condenses in _c_, and, falling into the dish _f_, carries with it the sulphurous and phosphorous acids. the acid liquid collected in this way is evaporated to dryness, some nitric acid added, and the solution again evaporated. the remaining mass is then dissolved in water to which some ammonia is added, and the solution tested for phosphoric acid. this method is an advantageous one as the phosphoric acid formed must originate from phosphorus in the _free state_, and not from any phosphates which, owing to the presence of organic matter, might be contained in the bisulphide of carbon solution. it would, however, lead the analyst into error if the person, supposed to have been poisoned had eaten cerebral substances or eggs previous to death, as these contain glycero-phosphoric acid; it is therefore advisable to compare the results given by this process with those obtained by the use of other methods. detection of phosphorous acid. provided free phosphorus has not been detected, it is necessary to search for phosphorous acid. to this end, the residue remaining in the flask, in either mistcherlich's or fresenius and neubauer's method, is introduced into the apparatus of dusard and blondlot. if the phosphorus reaction appears, it is sufficient; otherwise, its production may have been hindered by the presence of organic matter. in case, therefore, the flame is colorless, the evolved gas is conducted into a neutral solution of nitrate of silver. if the materials contain phosphorous acid, a precipitate of phosphide of silver is formed which should be collected and washed. the precipitate, which is now free from organic matter, is then examined for phosphorous acid by means of the apparatus of dusard and blondlot. estimation of phosphorus. the best process for determining quantitatively the amount of phosphorus present is the one recommended by fresenius and neubauer. the gaseous current is continued until a fresh nitrate of silver solution is no longer precipitated. the solution is filtered, the precipitate washed and then dissolved in nitric acid. the silver is next precipitated by addition of hydrochloric acid, the fluid again filtered, and the precipitate well washed. the washings are added to the filtrate, and the liquid concentrated in a porcelain capsule. a solution of sulphate of magnesia, containing ammonia, is next added to the fluid, and the phosphoric acid determined as pyrophosphate of magnesia: the precipitate formed, is washed, heated to redness, in order to convert it into the pyrophosphate, and then weighed. detection of acids. the search for acids is to be instituted exclusively in the alimentary canal and its contents. were acids contained in the other organs, their presence would be due to the blood in which they had previously been absorbed, and, as in this case they would be partially neutralized by the bases contained in the blood, a conclusive decision in regard to their original existence in the suspected materials would be impossible, the salts of the acids usually searched for being normal constituents of the blood. in order to detect the presence of acids, the alimentary canal and contents are first boiled with water which is renewed until the solution ceases to exhibit an acid reaction when tested with litmus paper. the fluid is then filtered, alcohol added to the filtrate, in order to precipitate organic substances, the liquid again filtered, and the solution tested separately for the various acids as directed below. hydrochloric acid. the solution is placed in a retort provided with a receiver and distilled until the residual fluid assumes a pasty consistence: the operation is then discontinued. if hydrochloric acid be present in the materials under examination, the distillate will have an acid reaction, and, upon addition of solution of nitrate of silver, a white precipitate, which is easily soluble in ammonia but insoluble in nitric acid and in short possesses all the properties of chloride of silver, will be formed. nitric acid. the distillate, obtained as in the preceding process, is neutralized by the addition of potassa or soda, and evaporated to dryness. the residue is mixed with copper filings, and introduced into a glass tube closed at one end and provided at the other with a cork through which a delivery-tube passes. sulphuric acid is then added to the mixture, the cork inserted, the tube heated, and the evolved vapors conducted into a solution of protosulphate of iron. the latter solution acquires a brown coloration which, upon addition of sulphuric acid, changes to a violet, if nitric acid be present. upon conducting the disengaged gas into a solution of narcotine, the latter acquires a beautiful red color. another portion of the residue should deflagrate when saturated with an alkali and projected upon live coals. sulphuric acid. in order to detect this acid, the solution obtained by treating the organs with water is not distilled but is concentrated to one-sixth of its original volume, and then agitated with ether for about ten minutes. by this treatment the ether takes up the free sulphuric acid, but not the acid sulphates present. after ten minutes contact, the ether is decanted and allowed to spontaneously evaporate. upon treating the residue, which contains the free sulphuric acid and fatty substances, with water, a solution containing only the sulphuric acid is obtained. nitrate of baryta is then added to a portion of the fluid: in presence of sulphuric acid, a white precipitate, insoluble in acids, is produced. if this is heated on charcoal before the blow-pipe, a mass is formed, which, when moistened with hydrochloric acid and placed upon a clean silver coin, produces a black spot on the metal. another portion of the solution is mixed with copper and the mixture evaporated in a tube closed at one end: sulphurous acid is evolved towards the end of the operation. this gas is detected by allowing it to pass over paper saturated with a mixture of iodic acid and starch; a blue coloration is produced which, owing to the transformation of the iodine set free into hydriodic acid, subsequently disappears. (we have never been able to effect the disengagement of sulphurous acid spoken of above when an exceedingly dilute sulphuric acid was used, even upon evaporating the mixture to dryness, notwithstanding orfila's statement that the reaction occurs very readily.) phosphoric acid. the aqueous solution is evaporated to dryness, the residue taken up with alcohol of 44â° b., the fluid again evaporated, and the second residue dissolved in water. upon adding acetate of lead to the solution, a white precipitate is produced if phosphoric acid be present. the precipitate is washed, suspended in water and a current of sulphuretted hydrogen passed through the mixture. if the fluid is then filtered, and the excess of sulphuretted hydrogen expelled from the filtrate by boiling, a liquid possessing the distinctive properties of a solution of phosphoric acid will be obtained. this should then be submitted to the following tests: some pulverized charcoal is added to a portion of the solution, the mixture evaporated to dryness, and the residue obtained introduced into a hessian crucible heated to redness: in presence of a considerable amount of the acid, free phosphorous is liberated and burns with a bright flame in the upper part of the crucible. in case this reaction fails to occur, other portions of the fluid are treated with a solution of a baryta salt, which causes a white precipitate, soluble in nitric acid; with an ammoniated solution of sulphate of magnesia, which throws down a crystalline white precipitate; and by boiling with molybdate of ammonia, acidulated with nitric acid, which produces a yellow precipitation, or at least a yellow coloration of the solution. oxalic acid. the solution is subjected to the same treatment as in the search for phosphoric acid, with the exception that, instead of adding acetate of lead to the fluid obtained by taking up the residue left from the alcohol with water, it is divided into two portions which are examined separately. a solution of a lime salt is added to one portion: if oxalic acid be present, a precipitate, which is insoluble in acetic acid or in chloride of ammonium, and effervesces when slightly calcined and treated with hydrochloric acid, is formed. nitrate of silver is added to the remaining portion of the solution: the formation of a precipitate, which detonates when dried and heated in a glass tube closed at one end, is further evidence of the presence of the acid. acetic acid. the solution obtained by treating the alimentary canal with water is distilled, as in testing for nitric and hydrochloric acids, and the following properties verified in the distillate: 1st. it has an acid reaction, and possesses the odor of vinegar; 2nd, unless previously neutralized with a base, it fails to redden the per-salts of iron; 3rd, if the distillate is added to a solution of the per-salts mentioned and sulphuretted hydrogen conducted through the fluid, a black precipitate is formed; 4th, upon boiling the still acid fluid with a small quantity of starch, the property of the latter to become colored in presence of free iodine is not changed; 5th, if heated with an excess of litharge, a basic salt which restores the blue color to reddened litmus paper is produced. hydrocyanic acid. the detection of hydrocyanic acid requires special precautions. the substances to be examined are mixed with water, if solids are present, and introduced into a retort provided with a delivery-tube which dips in a solution of nitrate of silver. the retort is then heated over a water-bath. if the evolved vapors produce a precipitate in the silver solution, the heating is continued until a fresh portion of the latter is no longer affected. the operation is now interrupted, hydrochloric acid added to the retort, and heat again applied. should a second precipitation of cyanide of silver occur, the presence of a _cyanide_ in the suspected materials is indicated; whereas the formation of a precipitate by the simple action of heat would point to the presence of free hydrocyanic acid or cyanide of ammonium.[h] in case the latter compound is present, ammonia will be contained in the distillate. [h] ferrocyanides and ferricyanides--non-poisonous compounds--likewise, evolve hydrocyanic acid when distilled with a strong acid. their presence is indicated by stirring a small portion of the materials with water, filtering the fluid, acidulating the filtrate with hydrochloric acid, and testing two portions: one with sesquichloride of iron, the other with protosulphate of iron. if either of the above salts be present, a blue precipitate is produced.--_trans._ in order to identify the cyanogen, a portion of the precipitate is collected upon a small filter, washed, dried, and then allowed to fall into a rather long tube, closed at one end, in the bottom of which some iodine has previously been placed. a column of carbonate of soda is then introduced above the precipitate for the purpose of retaining the excess of iodine probably taken. upon heating the lower end of the tube, white fumes of iodide of cyanogen, which condense in needles upon the cold portion of the tube, are produced. these are easily recognized by aid of a magnifying glass. they are colorless and are readily volatilized by heat. some ammonia is next added to a solution of protosulphate of iron, the precipitate formed thoroughly washed, and exposed to the air until it acquires a greenish hue. the iodide of cyanogen is then withdrawn from the tube and mixed with potassa-lye and the precipitate mentioned above. the mixture is evaporated to dryness, the residue obtained treated with water and the filtered solution then acidulated with hydrochloric acid. if a solution of a persalt of iron is now added to the fluid, a blue precipitate is formed. the addition of salts of copper produces a reddish precipitation. the remainder of the precipitate formed in the nitrate of silver solution is heated with sulphur and then boiled with an aqueous solution of chloride of sodium: if cyanogen is contained in the precipitate, a solution of sulphocyanate of soda will be formed, and upon adding sesquichloride of iron an intense red coloration produced. it is evident that the presence of another acid in the solution examined for hydrocyanic acid would render the detection of _cyanides_ impossible, but in all cases hydrocyanic acid can be separated without arriving at a decision in regard to its original state of combination. nitric, hydrochloric, and several other acids would not be distilled at the temperature of the water-bath; an examination for these by the methods already described can therefore be instituted simultaneously with the search for hydrocyanic acid. detection of alkalies and alkaline earths. the separation of these bodies in the caustic state is a matter of difficulty owing to the great tendency they possess to become converted into carbonates; the carbonates of lime, baryta and strontia, moreover, being non-poisonous in their effects, will not be employed with criminal intent, and the carbonates of soda and potassa are extensively used as pharmaceutical preparations. notwithstanding the small chances of success, the isolation of the compounds under consideration in the caustic state is to be attempted. to this intent, the organs to be analysed, together with their contents, are placed in a glass retort provided with a receiver, water added, and the mixture boiled. the distillate will contain the ammonia present. when, however, putrefaction has begun, the detection of this compound does not necessarily indicate its original presence in the suspected materials. if, after an hour's boiling, the fluid in the retort possess an alkaline reaction, it is to be examined for soda, potassa, strontia, baryta and lime. the undistilled solution is filtered, the filtrate evaporated to dryness, and the residual mass treated with alcohol. by this treatment, potassa and soda go in solution, lime, baryta and strontia[i]--as well as the alkaline carbonates--remaining undissolved. the potassa and soda are separated from the other salts present by filtering and evaporating the alcoholic solution to dryness and then calcining the residue in a silver crucible. the mass, which should still be alkaline, is then dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid. if the solution is turbid, traces of baryta or strontia may still be present and should be removed by filtration. some hydrochloric acid and solution of bichloride of platinum are then added to a portion of the filtered liquid: in presence of _potassa_ a yellow precipitate is formed. [i] baryta and strontia dissolve in alcohol, but only when they are anhydrous and the alcohol is absolute, which is not the case here. another portion is treated with tartaric acid: a white granular precipitate is produced. hydrofluosilicic acid is added to a third portion of the solution: the formation of a gelatinous precipitate is a further indication of the presence of potassa. if the preceding tests have given negative results, and a white precipitate is formed by the addition of antimonate of potassa to another portion of the solution, _soda_ is present. in both cases, it is necessary to confirm the results by means of the spectroscope. the above reactions are distinctive only in the absence of metals precipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphide of ammonium or carbonate of soda, and small portions of the solution should be tested with these reagents. in order to detect baryta, strontia and lime, the residue, insoluble in alcohol is dissolved in dilute nitric acid, and an excess of carbonate of ammonia added to the solution: the three bases, if present, are precipitated as carbonates. the precipitate formed is separated from the solution by filtration, dissolved on the filter in dilute hydrochloric acid, and the solution then filtered and divided into two parts: sulphuric acid is added to one, the fluid filtered from the precipitate of sulphate of baryta formed, and the filtrate treated with ammonia and oxalate of ammonia. if _lime_ be present,--although its sulphate is not easily soluble--sufficient will be contained in the filtrate to give a white precipitate of oxalate of lime. the remaining portion of the solution is evaporated to dryness, and the residue treated with absolute alcohol. chloride of strontium goes into solution, chloride of barium remaining undissolved. if upon evaporating the alcoholic solution a residue is obtained which, when dissolved in water, produces turbidity in a solution of sulphate of lime, _strontia_ is present. the residue, insoluble in alcohol, is dissolved in water. if a precipitate is produced by the addition of sulphuric acid or hydrofluosilicic acid to the solution, _baryta_ is present. the latter reaction distinguishes baryta from strontia, which is not precipitated by hydrofluosilicic acid. should the tests mentioned above fail to give affirmative results, and poisoning by means of baryta and strontia be nevertheless suspected, these compounds may possibly have remained in the materials contained in the alimentary canal, in the state of insoluble sulphates. to effect their detection under these circumstances the organic substances must be decomposed by means of sulphuric acid. the carbonaceous residue is calcined in a crucible at an elevated temperature, and the remaining mass treated with water. in this way, a solution of sulphides of barium and strontium is obtained, which is then tested as directed above. detection of chlorine, bromine, and iodine. chlorine and bleaching chlorides. the detection of chlorine is very difficult owing to the great tendency it possesses to become converted into chlorides or hydrochloric acid, and it is only when found in a free state that its discovery is of importance. in case the gas exists uncombined in the alimentary canal, its odor will be perceptible, and, upon boiling the suspected materials with water, vapors will be evolved which impart a blue color to paper saturated with a mixture of iodide of potassium and starch paste. if the addition of sulphuric acid is necessary in order to produce the above reactions, there is reason to suspect the presence of "chloride of lime" or "_eau de javelle_."[j] [j] the so-called "chloride of lime" is probably either a mixture of chloride and hypochlorite of calcium or an oxydichloride of the metal; "_eau de javelle_" is the corresponding potassium compound.--_trans._ bromine. in case bromine exists in a free state at the time the autopsy is made, its presence will be detected by the reddish color and unpleasant odor it possesses. its isolation is accomplished by treating the materials with bisulphide of carbon which, upon dissolving the bromine, acquires a red color. if potassa is then added to the solution, it combines with the bromine and, upon evaporating the decanted fluid, calcining the residue, and treating it with water, a solution of bromide of potassium is obtained. upon adding chlorine-water and ether to a portion of the fluid, and shaking the mixture, the bromine is liberated and is dissolved by the ether. the etherial solution of bromine, which possesses a reddish-yellow color, does not mingle with, but floats upon the surface of the colorless aqueous solution. if nitrate of silver is added to another portion of the aqueous solution of bromide of potassium, a precipitate of bromide of silver, soluble in ammonia, is formed. in case the bromine has been converted into a bromide, it is necessary to boil the alimentary canal and the articles of food contained therein with water. the fluid is next filtered and agitated with chlorine-water and ether. the liberated bromine is dissolved by the ether, which acquires a reddish-yellow color. upon decanting the solution, and treating it with potassa, bromide of potassium is formed, and can be detected as directed above. iodine. the detection of iodine is accomplished by a process almost identical with the above. the isolation of the iodine having been effected, it remains to be ascertained that it imparts a blue color to starch paste, and a violet color to bisulphide of carbon. detection of metals. under this head we will indicate the systematic course of analysis to be pursued, supposing a mixture of several metals including arsenic and antimony, to be under examination. the organic substances are first destroyed by means of chlorate of potassa and hydrochloric acid. when this is accomplished, the excess of chlorine is removed by boiling and the liquid filtered. the portion remaining on the filter is preserved: it contains all the silver and a large portion of the lead, if these metals are present. we will designate the residue as a, the filtrate as b. treatment of residue a. the residue is calcined with a little carbonate of soda and cuttings of pure swedish filtering paper, the chlorides present being reduced to the metallic state by this treatment. the residue is next taken up with water acidulated with nitric acid, and the solution filtered. an insoluble residue, that may remain, is washed with hot water until the wash-water ceases to precipitate solution of nitrate of silver, and dried. it is then dissolved in boiling nitric acid, the solution diluted with water, and filtered.[k] [k] if an insoluble residue remains by the treatment with nitric acid, it may consist of _tin_. in this case, it is dissolved in _aqua regia_, the metal precipitated by immersing a plate of zinc in the solution and then re-dissolved in boiling hydrochloric acid. upon adding chloride of gold to the solution so obtained, a purple precipitate is formed. sulphuretted hydrogen produces a brown precipitate, soluble in sulphide of ammonium, in presence of tin. sulphuric acid is added to the filtrate: if no precipitate forms, the absence of _lead_, in the residue a, is indicated. if, on the contrary, a precipitate is produced, it is collected upon a filter and washed. in order to make sure that the precipitate consists of sulphate of lead, it is treated with a solution of tartrate of ammonia: it should dissolve, forming a solution in which sulphuretted hydrogen produces a black precipitate. the fluid which has failed to be precipitated by the addition of sulphuric acid, or the filtrate separated from the precipitate formed, can contain only silver. upon adding hydrochloric acid, this metal is thrown down as a caseous white precipitate, which is soluble in ammonia, but insoluble in boiling nitric acid, and blackens upon protracted exposure to light. the formation of a precipitate possessing these properties, leaves no doubt as to the presence of _silver_. _remark._--in the operations described above, as well as in those following, the difficulty in separating minute precipitates from the filter is often experienced. when the precipitate is to be dissolved in reagents that do not affect the paper, such as ammonia, tartrate of ammonia, and dilute acids, it can be brought in solution directly on the filter. in cases, however, where reagents which attack the paper are employed, the precipitate should be separated. this is accomplished by mixing a small quantity of pure silica, obtained by the decomposition of fluoride of silicium by water, with the solution, before filtering. the precipitate becomes intimately mixed with the silica, and can then be readily removed from the paper. the presence of silica does not interfere, it being insoluble in the reagents commonly made use of. treatment of filtrate b. a current of sulphuretted hydrogen is conducted for twelve hours through the solution, which is kept at a temperature of 70â°. by means of a water-bath. the flask containing the liquid is then closed with a piece of paper, and allowed to remain in a moderately warm place until the odor of the gas is no longer perceptible. the solution is next filtered with the precaution mentioned in the preceding remark, and the precipitate (_a_) thoroughly washed. the water used in this operation is united to the filtrate, and the fluid (_b_) examined as directed further on. treatment of precipitate _a_. in order to free the precipitate from the organic substances possibly present, at the same time avoiding a loss of any metal, it is dried, moistened with nitric acid, and the mass heated on a water-bath. some swedish filtering paper is next added, the mixture well impregnated with sulphuric acid, and then maintained for several hours at a temperature of about 170â°. until a small portion (afterwards returned) gives a colorless solution when treated with water. the residue is now heated with a mixture of one part of hydrochloric acid and eight parts of water, the liquid filtered, the matter remaining undissolved washed with dilute hydrochloric acid, and the washings united with the filtrate. the residue i. and the solution ii. are separately examined as directed below. residue i. this may contain lead, mercury, tin, bismuth and antimony. it is heated for a considerable time with _aqua regia_, the solution filtered, and the second residue, should one remain, washed with dilute hydrochloric acid. if the second residue is fused with cyanide of potassium, the compounds present are reduced to the metallic state. the liberated metals are treated with nitric acid, which dissolves _lead_, but leaves _tin_ as insoluble metastannic acid. the nitrate of lead is then filtered from the metastannic acid, and both metals are identified as described in the treatment of residue a. the solution, obtained by the action of _aqua regia_ on residue i, is treated with sulphuretted hydrogen. the tin and antimony are separated from the lead, mercury and bismuth by treating the precipitate produced with sulphide of ammonium, which dissolves only the sulphides of the first two metals. the solution in sulphide of ammonium is afterwards examined for these metals, as directed under the head of solution iv., the search for arsenic, however, being here omitted. upon treating the residue insoluble in sulphide of ammonium with nitric acid, lead, copper and bismuth go into solution, mercury remaining undissolved. the liquid is filtered, and the undissolved mercury submitted to the special examination previously described. sulphuric acid is added to the solution and the precipitate of sulphate of lead formed, separated, washed, and examined as directed while treating of residue a. finally, the solution separated from the lead is tested for _bismuth_ and _copper_, as in examination of precipitate iii. solution ii. the solution is concentrated by heating on a water-bath, a small quantity of carbonate of soda cautiously added to a portion, and notice taken if a precipitate forms. the part taken is then acidulated with a little hydrochloric acid, returned to the principal solution, and sulphuretted hydrogen conducted through the fluid, as in the examination of solution b. in case a precipitate fails to form, all metals are absent; if, on the contrary, a precipitate (_c_) is produced, it is examined as directed below. examination of precipitate _c_. if the solution merely became turbid, or the precipitate formed was of a pure white color, it consists probably of sulphur. it is, however, indispensable, even in this case, to collect the precipitate and examine it for _arsenic_. provided it is of a pure yellow color, it is treated with ammonia. in case it is entirely dissolved by this treatment, and the addition of carbonate of ammonia failed to produce a precipitate in solution ii., it is certain that arsenic, and no other metal, is present. under these circumstances, the ammoniacal solution is examined as directed in the article on the detection of arsenic. if, on the other hand, the precipitate is not yellow, or being yellow, is but imperfectly soluble in ammonia, and a precipitate was formed by the addition of carbonate of ammonia to solution ii., it is necessary to likewise search for tin, antimony, mercury, copper, bismuth and cadmium. in this case, the precipitate is placed in a small flask, allowed to digest for several hours with ammonia and sulphide of ammonium in a moderately warm place, and the solution filtered. the remaining residue (iii.) is washed, labelled, and preserved for subsequent examination; the _filtrate_ (iv.) is treated as directed below. treatment of solution iv. the solution, to which the water used in washing the residue has been added, is evaporated to dryness, the residue obtained taken up with pure fuming nitric acid, and the liquid again evaporated. the second residue is next saturated with a solution of carbonate of soda. a mixture of 1 part of carbonate and 2 of nitrate of soda is then added, the mixture evaporated to dryness, and the residual mass heated to fusion. the fused mass, when cold, is treated with cold water, and any remaining residue washed with a mixture of equal parts of alcohol and water. the filtered fluids are now evaporated in order to remove the alcohol, sulphuric acid is then added, and the mixture heated until white fumes of the acid begin to evolve. in this way the complete expulsion of the nitric acid present is rendered certain. when cold, the residue is treated with water and the _solution_ introduced into marsh's apparatus, or, in case a quantitative estimation of the arsenic is desired, it is treated with sulphuretted hydrogen and the weight of the precipitate formed determined, as directed under the detection of arsenic. should a residue insoluble in water remain, it may contain tin, antimony and traces of copper. upon dissolving it in _aqua regia_ and placing a sheet of pure zinc in the solution, these metals are thrown down in the metallic state. the precipitate is collected, the zinc present completely removed by treatment with _dilute_ hydrochloric acid, and the residue boiled with concentrated hydrochloric acid which dissolves the _tin_ present. the fluid is filtered and the _filtrate_ tested for this metal by adding solution of chloride of gold, which, in its presence, produces a purple precipitate, and, by treating it with sulphurated hydrogen, which forms a brown precipitate, soluble in sulphide of ammonium. if the _residue_, insoluble in concentrated hydrochloric acid, is thoroughly washed and then treated with nitric acid, the copper present goes in solution. the fluid is filtered, and ammonia added to the filtrate: in presence of _copper_, the solution acquires a blue color, and gives a reddish precipitate upon addition of ferrocyanide of potassium. _antimony_, if present, remains by the treatment with nitric acid as an insoluble intermediate oxide. this is dissolved in hydrochloric acid, in which it is now soluble, and the solution introduced into marsh's apparatus. treatment of precipitate iii. this precipitate may contain the sulphides of mercury, copper, cadmium and bismuth. upon treating it with nitric acid, all but the sulphide of mercury are dissolved. in case no residue remains, the absence of _mercury_ is indicated; if, on the other hand, a residue is left, it is well washed, dissolved in _aqua regia_, and the solution examined, either by means of smithson's pile, or in the apparatus of flandin and danger. (_vide detection of mercury._) whether a residue remains or not, an excess of ammonia is next added to the filtered solution in nitric acid: the formation of a permanent precipitate denotes the presence of _bismuth_. in this case, the fluid is filtered, and the alkaline filtrate further tested for copper and cadmium. for this purpose, cyanide of potassium is added, and sulphuretted hydrogen conducted through the filtrate: if _cadmium_ be present, a yellow precipitate is produced, copper not being thrown down in presence of an alkaline cyanide. the precipitate of sulphide of cadmium is separated from the solution by filtration, and the filtrate saturated with hydrochloric acid. _copper_, if present, is now precipitated as sulphide: its separation is completed by conducting sulphuretted hydrogen through the fluid. the precipitate is collected, washed, dissolved in nitric acid, and its identity established as previously directed. if the metal be present in sufficient quantity, it should be obtained in a metallic state upon a plate of iron; it is then coherent, possesses its natural color, and can conveniently be exhibited to the jury. treatment of solution _b_. this solution may contain: cobalt, nickel, iron, manganese, chromium, zinc and aluminium. of these, only zinc and chromium are poisonous; the search for these two metals is therefore all that is necessary in criminal cases. the solution is treated with a slight excess of ammonia, sulphide of ammonium added, and the fluid, after being allowed to stand for several hours, filtered. the precipitate may consist of sulphide of zinc and hydrated oxide of chromium, as well as of traces of sulphide of iron and phosphate of lime. if the suspected materials contained a _chromate_, this salt, in presence of hydrochloric acid and sulphuretted hydrogen, would be converted into sesquichloride of chromium a compound which is precipitated by sulphide of ammonium as a hydrated oxide. the precipitate is washed with water, to which a little sulphide of ammonium is added, then dried, and fused with four times its weight of a mixture of equal parts of carbonate and nitrate of potassa. after the mass has remained in a state of fusion for a quarter of an hour, it is treated with boiling water, mixed with a little alcohol, in order to decompose the manganate that would be present were manganese contained in the materials under examination. the alcohol is then expelled by boiling the fluid, and the solution filtered. the _filtrate_ may contain phosphate of potassa, originating from the phosphate of lime present, and _chromate of potassa_, resulting from the oxidation of the sesquioxide of chromium. in presence of the latter compound, the following reactions will occur in the solution: 1st., upon acidulation with acetic acid and addition of solution of acetate of lead, a yellow precipitate, soluble in potassa, is formed; 2nd., if hydrochloric acid is added and sulphuretted hydrogen conducted into the solution, the latter acquires a green color, and, upon adding ammonia, a bluish-grey precipitate of chromic hydrate is produced; 3rd., if nitrate of silver is added to the solution, a brick-red precipitate is formed. the _precipitate_ remaining on the filter, may consist of zinc, mixed with the oxides of iron, nickel, cobalt, aluminium and manganese. it is dissolved in boiling hydrochloric acid, acetate of soda added, and the fluid boiled until no further precipitation occurs. the iron is now completely separated. the solution is then filtered, the precipitate washed, and an excess of potassa added to the _filtrate_; if the solution contains cobalt, nickel or manganese--which is improbable--a permanent precipitate is formed. this is separated from the fluid by filtration: its further examination is, however, unnecessary, as the metals of which it consists are not poisonous. the _filtrate_ may contain aluminium and _zinc_. the latter metal is detected by acidulating the filtrate with acetic acid, and adding a solution of sulphuretted hydrogen: in presence of zinc a white precipitate of its sulphide is formed. in case organic substances are present, the precipitation of chromium by sulphide of ammonium may possibly have been hindered, and the metal have passed into the filtrate. when, therefore, chromium is not detected in the precipitate, the filtrate should also be examined. for this purpose, the fluid is evaporated to dryness, and the residue obtained fused with a mixture of nitrate and carbonate of soda. the fused mass is then taken up with water, the solution acidulated with acetic acid, and a solution of acetate of lead added: if chromium be present, a yellow precipitate, soluble in potassa, is produced. detection of alkaloids and some ill-defined organic substances.[l] a general method for effecting the detection of alkaloids was first proposed by _stas_. since the publication of this method, modifications to it have been recommended by _otto_, and by _l. uslar_ and _j. erdman_. other processes have been suggested by _rodgers_ and _girwood_, by _e. prollius_, and by _graham_ and _hofman_. the latter will doubtless become general in their application; but up to the present time they have been employed exclusively in the detection of strychnine. dialysis has also been recently applied in the separation of alkaloids. [l] colchicine, picrotoxine and digitaline. stas's method. this method is based upon the facts: (_a_), that the acid salts of the alkaloids, especially those containing an excess of tartaric or oxalic acids, are decomposed by caustic alkalies and by the bicarbonates of soda and potassa; (_b_), that the alkaloids, when liberated in this manner, are combined with a certain amount of water which determines their solution in ether, although, in a desiccated state they may be insoluble in this menstruum; (_c_), that they may be extracted from their aqueous solutions by agitation with ether. stas's original method is as follows: the suspected substances, if organs are contained, are cut into fine shreds, then mixed with absolute alcohol, 0.5 to 2. grammes of tartaric or oxalic acid added and the whole introduced into a flask and heated at a temperature of 60â° to 75â°. when quite cold, the mixture is filtered, and the undissolved portion remaining on the filter washed with absolute alcohol, the washings being added to the filtrate. the alcoholic solution is evaporated, either by placing it under a bell-jar connected with an air-pump, or by passing a current of air, having a temperature not exceeding 35â° over it, until reduced to a quarter of its original volume: the complete expulsion of the alcohol being then rendered certain. if insoluble matter separates during this operation, the concentrated fluid is passed through a moistened filter, the water used in washing the residue being united to the filtrate which is then evaporated to dryness by aid of the air-pump or by placing the fluid in a bell-jar over concentrated sulphuric acid. when the evaporation is completed, the residue is treated with absolute alcohol, the alcohol allowed to evaporate at the ordinary temperature of the air, and the second residue dissolved in the smallest possible amount of water. the fluid thus obtained is placed in a test-tube, and a concentrated solution of bicarbonate of soda added so long as effervescence takes place. ether is then added, the mixture thoroughly shaken, and after it has remained at rest for some time, a small portion of the supernatant ether removed and evaporated on a watch-glass: the residue obtained will consist of the alkaloid present. two cases are now possible: the alkaloid is a solid, or it is a liquid and is volatile. the further treatment of the solution is modified according to these circumstances. _a._ the alkaloid is liquid and volatile. if, upon the evaporation of the ether, oily streaks were left on the watch-glass, a volatile alkaloid is probably present. in this case, a solution of caustic potassa is added to the test-tube, the mixture shaken, the supernatant ether decanted[m] into a flask and the remaining solution again washed with ether until the last portion fails to leave a residue upon evaporation. the etherial fluids are then united, and two cubic centimetres of water, acidulated with one-fifth of its weight of sulphuric acid, added. this acid retains the alkaloid, which is now in the state of a pure acid-sulphate soluble in water, the animal matters present remaining dissolved in the ether. the ether, in which some sulphate of conia may be contained--although the greater portion of this compound would remain in the aqueous solution--is then decanted. the remaining aqueous solution of the pure sulphate of the alkaloid is placed in a test-tube, a solution of caustic potassa and some ether added, and the mixture well shaken. the ether is next decanted and allowed to spontaneously evaporate in a dry place at a very low temperature, and the ammonia possibly present is then removed by placing the vessel containing the residue over sulphuric acid. the residue now obtained consists of the alkaloid present in a state of purity, and can be directly identified by means of the reactions described further on. [m] the necessity of decanting etherial and other solutions is advantageously obviated by the use of a pipette.--_trans._ _b._ the alkaloid is solid. it sometimes occurs that ether fails to take up all of the alkaloid present in the fluid treated with bicarbonate of soda. under these circumstances the fluid should be mixed with caustic potassa, the mixture shaken, and the ether decanted; this operation being repeated several times, until the entire amount of the alkaloid is removed; the ethereal fluids are then united in a capsule, and allowed to spontaneously evaporate. the result of the evaporation may be solid; more frequently, however, a milky liquid remains which restores the blue color to reddened litmus paper; if so, the presence of a vegetable alkaloid is certain. in order to purify the residue, a few drops of water, slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid, are added to the capsule, and the latter turned, so as to bring the fluid in contact with the substance at all points; in this manner a colorless and limpid fluid is obtained, the fatty substances adhering to the dish. the liquid is decanted into a second capsule, the remaining residue washed with a little acidulated water, and the washings likewise added to the principal solution. the fluid is now evaporated either _in vacuo_, or over sulphuric acid, to about three-fourths of its original volume a concentrated solution of neutral carbonate of potassa added, and the mixture treated with absolute alcohol, which dissolves the liberated alkaloid, and separates it from the sulphate of potassa formed and the excess of carbonate of potassa. the alcoholic solution is decanted and allowed to evaporate _in vacuo_ or in the air: the alkaloid now crystallizes out in a state suitable for further examination. modifications to stas's method, proposed by otto. in stas's method, the loss of morphine is possible, for, if ether is not added immediately after the addition of carbonate of soda, this alkaloid crystallizes and is then no longer soluble in that menstruum; and, if the ethereal solution is not quickly decanted, the portion dissolved will likewise separate out in small crystals. in both cases, morphine will remain in the aqueous solution from which the other alkaloids have been extracted by the ether. _m. otto_ recommends the addition of chloride of ammonium and a little soda-lye, in order to dissolve the alkaloid. upon allowing the solution so obtained to stand for some time exposed to the air, crystals of morphine are deposited. according to the same authority, it is advisable to omit the distinction drawn by stas between volatile and fixed alkaloids, and submit both to the treatment recommended for those that are volatile. otto also recommends the agitation of the fluid containing the oxalates or tartrates of the alkaloids with ether, previously to their separation by means of bicarbonate of soda. by this treatment the elimination of the coloring matter present--as well as of _colchicine_, _digitaline_, _picrotoxine_, traces of _atropine_, and various impurities--is accomplished. as soon as the ether ceases to become colored and to leave a residue upon evaporation, alkali is added, and the operation concluded as usual. in this way the alkaloid is obtained, almost directly, in a pure condition. this last modification appears to us to be a very happy one, inasmuch as it greatly facilitates the purification of the alkaloid present. modifications to stas's method, proposed by uslar and erdman. 1st. the materials to be examined are brought to the consistence of a thin paste, and digested for about two hours with water, to which some hydrochloric acid has been added, at a temperature of 60â° to 80â°. the mixture is then filtered through a moistened linen cloth, and the residue washed with warm acidulated water; the washings being added to the solution. 2nd. some pure quartz sand--or, preferably, silica prepared by the decomposition of fluoride of silicium--is added to the filtrate, the fluid supersaturated with ammonia, and evaporated to dryness over a water-bath: the addition of silica renders the residue friable. 3rd. the residue is boiled repeatedly with amylic alcohol, which extracts all the alkaloid present as well as the fatty and coloring matters, and the extracts filtered through filter paper that has been moistened with amylic alcohol. 4th. the filtered fluid is thoroughly agitated with ten or twelve times its volume of almost boiling water acidulated with hydrochloric acid: the hydrochlorate of the alkaloid present goes into the aqueous solution, the fatty and coloring substances remaining dissolved in the oily supernatant layer. the latter is separated by means of a pipette, and the acid aqueous solution shaken with fresh quantities of amylic alcohol until completely decolorized. 5th. the aqueous solution is then concentrated, ammonia added, and the mixture well shaken with warm amylic alcohol, in which the alkaloid dissolves. as soon as the solution forms a supernatant layer upon the surface of the fluid, it is drawn off with a pipette and evaporated on a water-bath. in this manner, the alkaloid is usually obtained in a sufficient state of purity to admit of its immediate identification; if, however, a small portion turns brown when treated with concentrated sulphuric acid, the process of purification must be repeated. under these circumstances it is re-dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid, the solution repeatedly shaken with amylic alcohol, in order to extract the impurities present, and the alkaloid then extracted with ammonia and amylic alcohol, as previously directed. the method of _von uslar_ and _erdman_ differs from that of stas merely in the substitution of amylic alcohol for ether, and of hydrochloric acid for oxalic or tartaric acid. it offers no advantages over stas's method if the alkaloids present are soluble in ether but is even less advantageous in this case, inasmuch as its execution requires a longer time. in cases where the detection of morphine, or an unknown alkaloid, is desired, the use of amylic alcohol instead of ether is, it is true, preferable; still, with the exercise of care, ether can also be employed, and, as this process greatly facilitates examinations when no clew to the poison present exists and all alkaloids may possibly be absent, we prefer it to the one just described. rodgers and girdwood's method. this method--which as yet has only been employed in the detection of strychnine--is based upon the solubility of this alkaloid in chloroform. the substances under examination are digested with dilute hydrochloric acid, and the mixture filtered. the filtrate is then evaporated to dryness on the water-bath, the residue taken up with pure alcohol, the alcoholic solution evaporated, the second residue treated with water, and the solution so obtained filtered. the filtrate is next supersaturated with ammonia, and well shaken with chloroform, which, upon being separated by means of a pipette and evaporated, leaves the alkaloid in an impure state. concentrated sulphuric acid is then poured upon the alkaloid: the latter is not affected by this treatment, whereas the foreign organic substances present are carbonized. after the lapse of several hours, the mixture is treated with water, the fluid filtered, and the strychnine extracted from the filtrate by means of ammonia and chloroform, as already described. the operation is repeated until the residue obtained by evaporating the chloroform is no longer affected by the treatment with sulphuric acid. prollius's method. the suspected substances are boiled with aqueous alcohol, mixed with tartaric acid, and evaporated at a gentle heat. the remaining aqueous solution is then passed through a moistened filter, ammonia added to the filtrate, and the mixture shaken with chloroform. the chloroform is separated, the last trace of the original solution removed by washing with water, three parts of alcohol added, and the fluid evaporated. if strychnine be present, it will now separate out in crystals. this method is applicable only in presence of a considerable quantity of strychnine, and is less serviceable than the one preceding. graham and hofman's method. this method, which is applied to the detection of strychnine in beer, is founded upon the fact that an aqueous solution of a strychnine salt yields the alkaloid to animal charcoal, from which it can be subsequently extracted by boiling with alcohol. the beer to be examined is shaken with 30 grammes of animal charcoal, and the mixture then allowed to stand twenty-four hours, with occasional shaking. the solution is next filtered, the animal charcoal washed with water, and boiled for half-an-hour with four times its weight of 90 per cent. alcohol. the apparatus represented in fig. 12 is employed, in order to avoid a loss of substance in this operation. [illustration: fig. 12.] the alcohol is filtered hot, evaporated, and the residue obtained treated with a small quantity of solution of potassa, and then agitated with ether. upon spontaneous evaporation, the ethereal solution leaves the strychnine present in a comparatively pure state. _macadam_ proposes to use this process for the detection of strychnine in animal bodies. for this purpose, the suspected materials are heated with a solution of oxalic acid, as in stas's method, and the strychnine detected in the filtered solution in the manner just described. this method is scarcely to be recommended: the use of animal charcoal is doubtless serviceable in the examination of beer, as it effects the separation of a small amount of strychnine from a large quantity of fluid, but its application to other researches is much less to be advised. application of dialysis in the detection of alkaloids. in order to apply the dialytic method to the separation of alkaloids, the suspected substances are heated with hydrochloric acid, and the solution introduced into the dialyzer. the hydrochlorates of the alkaloids, being crystalline bodies, transverse the membrane, and are contained, for the greater part, after twenty-four hours, in the outer solution. the fluid is then concentrated, and the alkaloids either directly precipitated, or purified by one of the preceding methods. identification of the alkaloid. the alkaloid having been isolated by one of the preceding methods, it remains to establish its identity. owing to the small number of reactions characteristic of organic compounds, this is a matter of considerable difficulty. there are two cases possible: the alkaloid may either be volatile or fixed. the alkaloid is volatile. in this case it may consist of nicotine, conine or aniline: less known alkaloids (piccoline, etc.) may also be present. we will confine ourselves to the consideration of the three first mentioned. the alkaloid is divided into several portions which are placed on watch-glasses and submitted to the following tests: _a._ a drop is treated with nitric acid: this may, or may not, impart a red tint to the alkaloid; if it does, another drop is treated with dry hydrochloric acid gas: if it assumes a deep violet color, it probably consists of _conine_. _b._ in case a red color was not produced by the addition of nitric acid, another drop is treated with chloride of lime. if it acquires a violet tint, and two other drops, when heated, one with arsenic acid, the other with nitrate of mercury, become red, the body present consists of _aniline_. or an homologous base. _c._ should the above tests fail to give positive results, and the substance, when treated with chlorine, assumes a blood-red color, and with hydrochloric acid does not change in the cold but turns to a deep violet color upon boiling, it probably consists of _nicotine_. the alkaloid is fixed. a very minute quantity is dissolved in the smallest possible amount of hydrochloric acid, and an excess of ammonia added. three cases are now possible: (_a_) a precipitate, insoluble in an excess of the precipitant, is immediately formed; (_b_) a precipitate is formed, which, at first dissolves, but is subsequently deposited from the fluid; (_c_) no precipitate is produced, or, in case one forms, it dissolves in an excess of the precipitant and fails to separate out upon allowing the fluid to stand. _a. ammonia produces a permanent precipitate._ a small quantity of an aqueous solution of carbonic acid is poured over the alkaloid in the water-glass, and notice taken whether it dissolves or not: in either case the mixture is evaporated on a water-bath to dryness, in order to avoid a loss of substance. carbonic acid fails to dissolve the alkaloid. after the evaporation is completed, ether is added to the watch-glass: the alkaloid may, or may not, be dissolved. the ether is then evaporated at the ordinary temperature of the air. _ether fails to dissolve the alkaloid._ it probably consists of _berberine_. in this case, it will possess a yellow color, and its hydrochlorate will give a reddish-brown precipitate upon addition of sulphide of ammonia. _ether dissolves the alkaloid._--a small portion is treated with nitric acid. if an intense green coloration is produced, the remaining portion is dissolved in ether, and an ethereal solution of oxalic acid added. if the precipitate now formed does not dissolve upon the addition of a little water, there is reason to suppose the presence of _aricine_. provided the addition of nitric acid did not produce a coloration, the mixture of the alkaloid and this acid is treated with a small quantity of sulphuric acid: if the fluid now acquires a red color, the substance probably consists of _narcotine_. should both nitric and sulphuric acids fail to cause a reaction, the alkaloid is dissolved in ether, precipitated by an ethereal solution of oxalic acid, and the precipitate treated with a little water. if it dissolves, it probably consists of _papaverine_. carbonic acid dissolves the alkaloid. the substance is treated with ether, notice being taken if it dissolves, which is evaporated at the ordinary temperature of the air so as to prevent a loss of minute portions of the alkaloid. _ether dissolves the alkaloid._--if nitric acid gives first a scarlet, then a yellow color, sulphuric acid a yellow, changing to red and violet, and hydrochloric acid a violet color, the alkaloid present is probably _veratrine_. if the above colorations are not produced, chlorine water is added to another portion of the substance, then ammonia; the formation of a green color, changing to violet and turning red upon a renewed addition of chlorine water, denotes the presence of _quinine_. in case all of these tests give but negative results, and the alkaloid is soluble in concentrated sulphuric acid, a solution being formed which assumes a reddish-violet tint when stirred with a glass rod previously dipped in bromine water, the presence of _delphine_. is indicated. _ether fails to dissolve the alkaloid._--if the substance is capable of being sublimed,[n] it consists of _cinchonine_. [n] cinchonine, when sublimed, condenses in minute brilliant needles.--_trans._ _b. ammonia produces a precipitate, which redissolves in an excess of the precipitant, but separates out after the lapse of an hour._ the substance is treated with cold absolute alcohol and its solubility in this menstruum noted. if it readily dissolves, it probably consists of _brucine_. the presence of this alkaloid is confirmed by applying the following tests: (1) nitric acid imparts a blood-red color to the substance; (2) if treated with sulphuric acid, it acquires a reddish tint which subsequently changes to yellow and green; (3) chlorine at first fails to cause a coloration, but after some time a yellow color which afterwards changes to a red is produced; (4) upon treating the substance with bromine, it immediately assumes a violet tinge. in case the alkaloid is only slightly soluble in alcohol, there is reason to infer the presence of _strychnine_. the following confirmatory tests should be applied: (1) if the substance is treated with a mixture of sulphuric acid and an oxidizing body, such as bichromate of potassa, binoxide of manganese, or peroxide of lead it acquires a violet color, which changes into red and finally passes into a clear yellow; (2) the addition of bichloride of platinum produces a precipitation of the hydrochlorate. should, however, the substance be only slightly soluble in alcohol, and the above reactions fail to take place, the presence of _solanine_. is indicated. in presence of this alkaloid the following reactions will occur: (1) upon treating the substance with concentrated sulphuric acid, it assumes a rose tint, which changes after some time has elapsed first to a deep violet, then to a brown color; (2) a solution of a salt of the alkaloid reduces gold and silver salts; (3) the addition of oxalic acid produces a precipitate in the aqueous and even acid solution of its salts. _c. ammonia fails to produce a precipitate, or redissolves permanently the one formed._ the solubility of the alkaloid in ether is ascertained. if it be soluble, it may consist of aconitine, atropine or codeine; if insoluble, of emetine or morphine. _the alkaloid is soluble in ether._--if bichloride of platinum fails to precipitate the hydrochlorate from a neutral solution of the alkaloid, and sulphuric acid causes it to assume a yellow color which subsequently changes to a reddish-violet, it probably consists of _aconitine_. in case bichloride of platinum causes a precipitate and sulphuric acid fails to produce the yellow coloration referred to above, the presence of either atropine or codeine is indicated. in order to decide which of these bases is present, the substance is dissolved in pure chloric acid and the solution allowed to spontaneously evaporate. if the alkaloid is deposited during this operation, it probably consists of _atropine_. if this is not the case, there is reason to infer the presence of _codeine_. _the alkaloid is insoluble in ether._--if it dissolves in acetone it probably consists of _emetine_. if acetone fails to dissolve it, the presence of _morphine_. is indicated. the following confirmatory tests should be applied: (1) upon treating the substance with nitric acid, it acquires a blood-red color; (2) the addition of a solution of a persalt of iron produces an evanescent blue coloration; (3) chloride of gold is colored blue, when treated with the alkaloid; (4) the substance reduces iodic acid: this reduction is detected by adding to the acid a little starch-paste, which turns blue upon the liberation of the iodine; (5) permanganate of potassa, if heated with the substance, is reduced and acquires a green color. identification of digitaline, picrotoxine and colchicine. it has already been remarked that in exhausting the first acid solution with ether--previous to the neutralization, according to otto's method--colchicine, a weak alkaloid, digitaline, an indefinite mixture, picrotoxine (which appears to possess the properties of an acid), and traces of atropine, pass into solution. the ether is evaporated on a water-bath to dryness, the residuary mass treated with slightly warmed water and the solution filtered from the undissolved resinous matter. the aqueous solution is next rendered feebly alkaline by addition of soda lye, and then well agitated with ether, until this fluid ceases to leave a residue upon evaporation. the ethereal solution is now decanted, and the water present removed by means of chloride of calcium. if it is evaporated, a residue containing the _colchicine_, _digitaline_ and traces of atropine (mixed possibly with a minute quantity of picrotoxine, which is here left out of consideration) is obtained. _a._ the _alkaline solution_, from which the ether has been removed, is acidulated with hydrochloric acid and again shaken with ether. the _picrotoxine_ present is now dissolved, and upon dehydrating (by means of fused chloride of sodium) and evaporating the ethereal solution can be obtained in crystals. the crystals of picrotoxine are easily recognized by their forming in feathery tufts as well as by their length and silky brilliancy. should crystals fail to form in a short time, it is advisable to take up the residue, left by the evaporations of the ether, with slightly warmed alcohol, and to allow the latter to spontaneously evaporate on a watch-glass, or, if the quantity of substance is exceedingly minute, on the slide of a microscope. after determining the form of the crystals, it should be ascertained that they possess an intense bitter taste and exhibit the other characteristic properties of picrotoxine. the following reaction is distinctive: if the crystals are dissolved in an aqueous solution of soda and a few drops of "fehling's solution"[o] added, a reddish precipitate of cuprous oxide is formed. [o] an alkaline solution of tartrate of copper, employed in the examination of sugar, urine, and wine.--_trans._ _b._ provided picrotoxine has not been found, the _ethereal solution_ obtained by agitating the alkaline fluid with ether is to be examined for colchicine and digitaline. to this end, the residue obtained upon evaporating the solution to dryness is taken up with water, and the filtered fluid tested as follows: 1. it is ascertained if a drop of the solution possesses the bitter taste of digitaline. 2. another drop is treated with solution of tannin; if either alkaloid be present, a precipitate is formed. 3. two drops of the solution are next tested: one with tincture of iodine, the other with chloride of gold. these reagents precipitate colchicine, but do not affect solutions of digitaline or picrotoxine. unfortunately traces of atropine, possibly present, would cause the same reaction; the test therefore fails to be conclusive. 4. several portions of the solution are evaporated on watch crystals. concentrated nitric acid is added to one portion: if colchicine be present, an evanescent violet coloration is produced, which changes to a light yellow upon addition of water, and to a pure yellow or reddish-orange color, if the mixture is saturated with a slight excess of caustic alkali. 5. another portion of the residue is dissolved in a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid, and the solution stirred with a glass rod moistened with bromine water: in presence of digitaline a violet-red color is produced. this coloration is more distinct when a small quantity of the alkaloid and an excess of sulphuric acid are present. 6. if a large amount of substance is at hand, the residue can be boiled with hydrochloric acid, and the green or brownish color and characteristic odor of digitaline produced, in case this body be present: this, however, is not a very delicate test. 7. finally; it is advisable when the presence of digitaline is suspected to ascertain its physiological action. for this purpose, a minute quantity of the substance is placed upon the heart of a frog: in presence of the alkaloid, the pulsations are immediately retarded, or even arrested. * * * * * although by means of the tests given above the existence of a special alkaloid, or of one of the ill-defined substances just mentioned, may be justly regarded as probable, its presence has not yet with certainty been demonstrated. this is especially true in cases where the compound possesses but few characteristic properties. when possible, the suspected substance should be obtained in a crystaline form, and then compared by aid of the microscope--if the small quantity present permits of no other examination--with crystals of the pure alkaloid, prepared under the same conditions. in case 20 or even 10 centigrammes of substance are at hand, it is best to convert the alkaloid into its hydrochlorate, and evaporate the solution of this salt to dryness. the residue, after being weighed, is dissolved in water, and a solution of sulphate of silver added. the precipitate of chloride of silver formed is collected and carefully weighed, in order to calculate the weight of the chlorine contained in the hydrochlorate and consequently the molecular weight of the alkaloid. the filtrate from the chloride of silver, which contains the alkaloid in the state of sulphate, is treated with hydrochloric acid, to remove the excess of silver present and the fluid then filtered. the filtrate is next shaken with potassa and ether. upon decanting and evaporating the ethereal solution, a residue consisting of the alkaloid present is obtained, which is then purified by crystallization from alcohol. an elementary analysis of the alkaloid is now executed. _certainty_ as to the presence of an individual alkaloid is attainable only when the execution of this confirmatory test is possible. the reactions previously described can be performed with fifteen centigrammes of substance, and this amount is sometimes contained in a cadaver. if but one or two centigrammes are at hand, it is still possible to detect the presence of an alkaloid; a conclusion, however, as to _which_ cannot be arrived at, especially if the substance found is a liquid or an amorphous body, and one that presents few distinctive properties. iii. methods to be employed, when no clew to the nature of the poison present can be obtained. if poisoning has been caused by the administration of a mixture of numerous substances and these greatly differ in their properties, it is impossible to demonstrate in an incontestible manner the presence of each individual poison. this contingency fortunately but seldom arises; the criminal usually has recourse to one or two poisons, the detection of which is possible. it must not be imagined, however, that the presence of a poison in an organ can at once be detected with certainty by the mere application of a few tests; because, in searching for a substance which is absent, we may unwittingly destroy the one present, or, at least, transform it into combinations which would not allow of a definite conclusion as to its original condition. in order to follow a systematic method in researches of this nature, it is advisable to divide the materials under examination into three parts: one portion is preserved, in order to ascertain its physiological effects on animals, the chemical analysis having failed to give positive results. the other portions are submitted to analysis, but with slightly different objects in view; one is subjected to a series of tests which are adapted, under all circumstances, to place the chemist on the track of the poison present, and which, in some cases, may even give conclusive and definite results. should these tests furnish only _indications_ of the nature of the poison, the remaining portion serves, with the assistance of this information, to establish beyond doubt the identity of the substance. indicative tests. two cases may present themselves: the materials to be examined possess either an alkaline (or neutral) or an acid reaction. as the methods to be pursued in either of these cases differ somewhat, they will be treated separately. the substance possesses an acid reaction. the materials are mixed with water, placed in a retort provided with a delivery-tube which dips in a solution of nitrate of silver, and heated over a water-bath: if a _cyanide_ be present, hydrocyanic acid will be disengaged, and a white precipitate of cyanide of silver formed: this is examined as previously directed (_vide_ p. 50). in case a precipitate is not produced by the above treatment, more water is added to the retort, and the mixture boiled for about an hour, care being taken to collect the evolved vapors in a well-cooled receiver. the portion remaining in the retort is thrown on a filter and the filtrate obtained united with the distillate. the residue remaining on the filter is next washed with boiling absolute alcohol, the washings being added to the aqueous solution. in this way, the suspected substances are divided into soluble and insoluble portions, which are examined separately, as directed below. _a._ liquid portion. if the addition of alcohol caused a precipitation of animal matters, these are separated by filtering the solution. the filtrate is then placed under a bell-jar over concentrated sulphuric acid until its volume is considerably reduced. the solution may contain organic and inorganic bases and acids. in order to detect all bodies that are present, the following course is pursued: (1). a current of sulphuretted hydrogen is conducted through the solution: the precipitation of some metals, usually thrown down by this gas, may fail to take place in this instance, owing to the presence of organic substances; however, some metals are precipitated, even in presence of organic compounds, and organic acids are but seldom present. in case a precipitate is formed, it is mixed with pure silica, collected on a filter, and treated with nitric acid. if the precipitate fails to dissolve, it is treated with _aqua regia_. in either case, the solution obtained is examined for metals by the ordinary methods. (2). the solution in which sulphuretted hydrogen failed to produce a precipitate, or the filtrate separated from the precipitate formed, is divided into two parts: one portion is treated with ether and a solution of potassa; the other with ether and a solution of soda. both mixtures are then well agitated, and notice taken if the ether dissolves any thing: if so, the operation is repeated several times until all soluble substances are removed. the ethereal solutions are next decanted and united, and then submitted to the examination for alkaloids as directed pp. 65-84. (3). if--the above treatment giving either positive or negative results--a precipitate insoluble in ether is formed by the addition of potassa or soda, it is collected on a filter, washed, and dissolved in an acid. the solution is then tested for mineral bases. (4). in case no definite result has been obtained by the preceding operations, one of the portions (for instance, the one to which potassa was added) is tested for the acids possibly present in the state of salts. the solution is divided into two parts (a and b) which are examined separately: portion a.--this is evaporated to dryness and the residue divided into four parts which are then tested for hydrofluoric, nitric, oxalic, and acetic and formic acids. _a._ hydrofluoric acid.--a portion of the residue is heated in a platinum crucible with sulphuric acid, and the crucible covered with the convex face of a watch-crystal coated with wax in which lines have been traced with a pointed piece of wood. if, after gently heating the crucible for some time and removing the watch-crystal, the lines traced in the wax are found to be etched in the glass, the substance under examination contains a _fluoride_. _b._ nitric acid.--if this acid be present, and a second portion of the residue is heated with sulphuric acid and copper, reddish-fumes are evolved. upon conducting the vapors into a solution of sulphate of iron or narcotine, the reactions already mentioned in treating of nitric acid take place. _c._ oxalic acid.--the third portion of the residue is heated with sulphuric acid, and the evolved gas carefully collected. it should then be confirmed by an elementary analysis that the gas consists of equal volumes of carbonic oxide and carbonic acid. this test is not conclusive; it is also necessary to ascertain if the precipitate produced by the addition of a baryta solution (_vide_: under portion _b._) produces the same reaction, inasmuch as other organic bodies could give rise to carbonic oxide and carbonic acid, and the danger of both admitting the presence of oxalic acid, when it is absent, and omitting its detection, in case it is present, would be incurred. _d._ acetic and formic acids.--the fourth portion of the residue is distilled with dilute sulphuric acid. after determining that a small portion, previously neutralized with a base, acquires a red color, upon addition of a solution of a persalt of iron, the distillate is divided into two parts. one portion is treated with bichloride of mercury: if _formic acid_ be present, metallic mercury is formed, with evolution of carbonic acid which produces turbidity in lime-water. the remaining portion of the fluid is digested, in the cold, with an excess of litharge: in presence of _acetic acid_, a soluble basic salt of lead, possessing an alkaline reaction, is produced. portion b.--the second portion of the solution is supersaturated with nitric acid, and this neutralized by addition of a slight excess of ammonia. the ammonia is then expelled by boiling the fluid, and a solution of nitrate of baryta added. if a _precipitate_ forms, it is collected and subsequently examined for sulphuric, phosphoric, oxalic and boric acids as directed below. the _filtrate_ is preserved and tested for hydrochloric, hydrobromic and hydriodic acids. _a._ oxalic acid.--a portion of the precipitate produced by the addition of nitrate of baryta is submitted to the test mentioned under the treatment of portion _a_. _b._ sulphuric acid.--if an insoluble residue remains upon treating the remainder of the precipitate with dilute hydrochloric acid, it consists of sulphate of baryta and indicates the presence of _sulphuric acid_. _c._ phosphoric acid.--an excess of solution of alum and ammonia is added to the portion of the precipitate dissolved in hydrochloric acid. if phosphoric acid be present, insoluble phosphate of alumina is precipitated. this is brought upon a filter: the _filtrate_ being preserved and subsequently examined for boric acid. upon boiling the precipitate with solution of silicate of potassa, silicate of alumina is thrown down, and phosphate of potassa remains in solution. chloride of ammonia is now added to the liquid--in order to eliminate the excess of silica from the silicate--and the solution filtered. the _filtrate_ is then tested for phosphates, by means of molybdate of ammonia (_vide_: _detection of phosphoric acid_, p. 48). _d._ boric acid.--the filtrate from the precipitate of phosphate of alumina is evaporated to dryness, the residue mixed with sulphuric acid and alcohol, and the latter ignited. if the substance contains _boric acid_, the alcohol will burn with a _green_ flame. the _filtrate_, separated from the precipitate produced by the addition of nitrate of baryta, may contain hydrochloric, hydrobromic and hydriodic acids. in order to detect these compounds, some nitrate of silver is added to the solution, and the precipitate that may form carefully washed and decomposed by fusion with potassa. the mass is then dissolved in water, and the solution submitted to the following tests: _e._ hydriodic acid.--some starch paste and nitric acid--containing nitrous acid in solution--are added to a portion of the solution: in presence of an _iodide_, the fluid immediately acquires a blue color. _f._ hydrobromic acid.--in case iodine has not been detected, chlorine water and ether are added to a second portion of the fluid, and the mixture well agitated. if _bromine_ be present, the ether will assume a _brown_ color. in case iodine is also contained in the fluid, and the detection of bromine is desired, it is necessary to acidulate the solution with hydrochloric acid, and then shake it with chloride of lime and bisulphide of carbon. the bisulphide of carbon dissolves the iodine, acquiring a _violet_ color, which disappears upon a renewed addition of chloride of lime; whereas, in presence of bromine an _orange_ coloration remains, even after the disappearance of the iodine reaction. _g._ hydrochloric acid.--since the substance under examination will already contain hydrochloric acid, it is unnecessary, in most cases, to institute a search for this compound. nevertheless, it may be well to take a quantity of the solution, corresponding to a known weight of the original substance, and precipitate the acid by adding nitrate of silver. the precipitate formed is dried and weighed. it is then heated in a current of chlorine, in order to completely convert it into chloride of silver, and its weight again determined. only in case the amount of chloride found is very large, is it to be inferred that the poisoning has been caused by hydrochloric acid. _h._ hydrosulphuric acid.--(_sulphuretted hydrogen_). if the precipitate produced by nitrate of silver possesses a black color, it may consist of a _sulphide_. upon treating a portion with solution of hyposulphite of soda, all but the sulphide of silver is dissolved. in case a residue remains, it is calcined with nitrate of soda, and the sulphate formed detected by adding a soluble barium salt to its solution. sulphates, chlorides, carbonates and phosphates are most frequently met with in the preceding examination, and it should be carefully noticed which of these salts exist in the greatest abundance. if acids of comparatively rare occurrence (such as the oxalic and tartaric) are found, their approximate amount is also to be noted. these facts, together with the original acidity of the materials and the absence of other toxical bodies, would lead to the conclusion that the poisoning was caused by the reception of an acid, as well as to the identification of the special acid used. in subsequently effecting the detection of the poison by the determinative tests, the danger of destroying other poisons possibly contained in the substance will be obviated, as the question of the absence or presence of these latter will have been previously decided. (5). the examination for acids concluded, the various fluids which have accumulated, and from which the acids present have been separated, are united and the whole evaporated to dryness. the organic substances, present in the residue obtained, are destroyed by means of nitric acid, and the residual mass examined for _soda_. if this substance has not been introduced into the portion of fluid examined, and is discovered in a quantity largely in excess of the amount normally contained in the organism, it is probable that poisoning has been caused by its administration, and that an acid has also been given, either in order to mask the poison, or to act as an antidote. in this case, it is necessary to carefully search for acetic acid, as this is the substance usually employed as an antidote for alkalies. (6.) whatever results have been obtained by the preceding examinations, the portion of the fluid which has been treated with soda (_vide_ p. 87) is evaporated to dryness. the organic matters possibly present are destroyed by means of nitric acid, or _aqua regia_, and the residue taken up with water. the solution so obtained is then examined for metals (including potassa, which salt has not been introduced into this portion of the fluid in any of the preceding operations) by the usual methods. (7). the soluble portion of the suspected materials having been thoroughly tested, the undissolved substances remaining on the filter are next examined. _b._ solid portion. (1). the organic matter present is first destroyed by treatment with _aqua regia_. the fluid is then evaporated to dryness, and the residue heated until the nitric acid is entirely expelled; the escaping vapors being collected in a cold receiver. the residue is next taken up with water, the solution filtered, and sulphuric acid added. should a precipitate of sulphate of lime, sulphate of baryta or sulphate of strontia form, it is separated from the fluid and further examined. the filtered solution is then introduced into marsh's apparatus, sodium amalgam being employed for generating the hydrogen, and tested for _arsenic_ and _antimony_ by means of the reactions previously given. (2). whether one of the above poisons be discovered or not, the still acid fluid is removed from the flask, a current of chlorine conducted through it for several hours and the solution then examined for _mercury_ by flandin and danger's method. in case mercury is found it could scarcely have originated from the metal in marsh's apparatus, as this would not be attacked by cold dilute sulphuric acid: however, to remove all doubts, the test should be repeated with a portion of the substances reserved for the examination by the determinative tests. (3). whatever have been the results of the above examinations, it is still to be ascertained if the fluid, which has been successively treated by marsh's and flandin and danger's methods, does not contain other metals. this is accomplished by means of the ordinary reactions. the substance possesses a neutral or an alkaline reaction. the examination is conducted in precisely the same manner as in the preceding case, excepting that the materials are first acidulated with oxalic or tartaric acids. particular attention should be given to the search for soda, potassa, lime, baryta and strontia, and the determinative tests subsequently applied according to the indications obtained. determinative tests. in many instances the tests we have termed indicative become determinative in their character. this is the case when the isolation of an alkaloid or a metal (unless mercury be found under the circumstances already mentioned) is accomplished; the results obtained are then _conclusive_. if, on the other hand,--not being able to separate either an alkaloid or a metal--upon saturating the originally acid fluid with potassa, or soda, the salts of these bases have been found in abundance, there is reason to _infer_ that the poisoning has been caused by an acid; or, if, after the neutralization of the originally alkaline solution with an acid, potassa or soda are discovered in a large quantity, poisoning by an alkali is _indicated_. in case the fluid is neutral, but more or less colored and odoriferous, and iodides or bromides are detected, we may justly _suspect_ that the poisoning has been caused by the reception of iodine or bromine. according to the indications furnished, iodine, bromine, one, or all of the acids, the caustic alkalies, etc., are then detected by means of the methods to be employed in cases where the expert has a clew to the poison present. in this manner, the presence of potassa and soda, and of bromine and iodine, even in mixtures, is easily ascertained. it only remains to mention the course to be pursued when suspicion exists that poisoning has been caused by the administration of a mixture of several acids. the suspected materials are boiled with water, and alcohol added to the solution in order to coagulate the animal matters. the solution is next filtered, the filtrate placed in a retort provided with a receiver and distilled until the residual portion acquires a pasty consistency. in this way, the acids present are separated into two classes: (_a_) those that are sufficiently volatile to have passed into the receiver, such as, acetic, nitric, hydrochloric and sulphuric acids (the latter acid will only be partially volatilized); and (_b_) those that remain in the retort. the former are detected by examining the distillate as previously directed. the residue remaining in the retort is treated with absolute alcohol, the fluid filtered, and a solution of acetate of lead added to the filtrate: sulphuric, phosphoric and oxalic acids, if present, are precipitated. the precipitate is suspended in water and decomposed by means of sulphuretted hydrogen. the acids contained are now set free, and are detected by applying the tests already mentioned. if there be reason to suspect the presence of both sulphuric and oxalic acids, the distillation is discontinued after a short time. the two acids are dissolved by shaking the moderately concentrated fluid remaining in the retort with ether, and, upon evaporating the solution, will be obtained in a state suitable for examination. oxalic acid is then detected by means of sulphate of lime; sulphuric by means of oxalate of baryta. the above examinations would fail to effect the detection of _phosphorus_, and it is necessary to examine a separate portion of the original substance for this body. iv. miscellaneous examinations. determination of the nature and color of the hair and beard. a criminal, in order to conceal his identity, may change the color of the hair and beard by artificial means; either to a darker shade, in case they were naturally of a light color, or, to a lighter hue, if they were originally dark, and the chemical expert may be called upon to detect this artificial coloration, and restore the original color of the hair. it may also happen, that portions of hair still adhere to the clots of blood sometimes found on an instrument which has been employed in the commission of a crime, and consequently the question may arise as to the nature of the hair, whether it be human or animal. determination of the color of the hair and beard. the mode of examination necessary when the hair has been blackened is different from that used when it has been decolorized. _the hair has been blackened._ as various methods of dyeing hair black are in use, the means of restoring the original color differ. the following are the methods most usually employed in dyeing: 1âº. the hair is well rubbed with a pomade, in which finely pulverized charcoal is incorporated. this preparation, which is sold under the name of "_mã©laã¯nocome_," possesses the disadvantage of soiling the fingers and clothing, even for several days after its application. 2âº. the hair is moistened with a dilute solution of ammonia, and a perfectly neutral solution of a bismuth salt (chloride or nitrate) is then applied. it is subsequently washed, and allowed to remain in contact with a solution of sulphuretted hydrogen. 3âº. the same operation is performed, a lead compound being substituted for the bismuth salt. 4âº. a mixture of litharge, chalk, and slacked lime is applied, and the head covered with a warm cloth. the hair is afterwards washed, first with dilute vinegar, then with the yolk of an egg. 5âº. the hair is first cleansed with the yolk of an egg, and then moistened with a solution of plumbate of lime; or, 6âº. it is moistened with a solution of nitrate of silver, to which a quantity of ammonia sufficient to dissolve the precipitate first formed has been added. the first method merely causes a mechanical admixture of a coloring matter with the hair. in the four succeeding processes, a black metallic sulphide is produced; either by the subsequent application of a solution of sulphuretted hydrogen, or by the action of the sulphur normally present in the hair. in the last method, the formation of sulphide of silver doubtless occurs; but the principal change that takes place is probably due to the action of light, which, as is well known, decomposes the salts of silver. in order to restore the original color to hair which has been treated with "_mã©laã¯nocome_," it is only necessary to dissolve in ether the fatty matters present, and then remove the charcoal by washing with water. in case the hair has been dyed by means of a bismuth or lead salt (as in methods 2, 3, 4 and 5), it is immersed for several hours in dilute hydrochloric acid: the metal present dissolves, as chloride, and the original color of the hair is rendered apparent. it then remains to detect the metal dissolved in the acid solution, in order to establish, beyond doubt, the fact that a dye has been employed. this is accomplished by means of the methods used for the detection of metals in cases of supposed poisoning. if, finally, an ammoniacal solution of nitrate of silver has been employed to cause the coloration, the hair is immersed, for some time, in a dilute solution of cyanide of potassium, and the fluid subsequently examined for silver. in case a portion of the salt has been converted into the sulphide, it will be difficult to restore the original color, as the removal of this compound is not easily effected. _the hair has been decolorized._ black hair can be bleached by means of chlorine-water, the various shades of the blonde being produced by the more or less prolonged action of the reagent. in this case, the odor of chlorine is completely removed only with great difficulty, and the hair is rarely uniformly decolorized. the expert may therefore be able to observe indication that will greatly assist him in arriving at a definite conclusion. the hair should be carefully examined up to the roots: if several days have elapsed since the decolorization has been performed, the lower portion of the hair will have grown and will exhibit its natural color. no method has yet been proposed that restores the original color to bleached hair. it is very possible, however, that this end would be attained by allowing nascent hydrogen to act upon the decolorized hair. for this purpose, it would be necessary to immerse it in water containing some sodium amalgam, and slightly acidulated with acetic acid. determination of the nature of the hair. in examinations of this character use is made of the microscope. the hair to be examined is suspended in syrup, oil, or glycerine and placed between two thin glass plates. human hair is sometimes cylindrical; sometimes flattened. it consists either of a central canal, or of a longitudinal series of oblong cavities which contain oily coloring matter, and possesses the same diameter throughout its entire length. the brown hair of the beard and whiskers, medium-sized chestnut hair, the hair of a young blonde girl, and the downy hair of a young man possess respectively a diameter of 0.03 to 0.15; 0.08 to 0.09; 0.06; and 0.015 to 0.022 millimetres. these exhibit on the surface slightly projecting scales, which are irregularly sinuous at the border, separated from each other by a space of about 0.01 m.m., and are transparent, whatever may be their color. the hair of ruminants is short and stiff, and is characterized by containing cavities filled with air. wool, however, forms an exception, as it consists of entire hairs, homogeneous in appearance and possessing imbricated scales, which bestow upon it the property of being felted. the hair of the horse, ox and cow never exceeds 12 m.m. in length, and is tapering, its diameter gradually diminishing from the base. it is perfectly opaque, and does not appear to possess a central canal; has a reddish color, and frequently exhibits lateral swellings, from which small filaments occasionally become detached, in the same manner as a twig separates itself from the parent branch. examination of fire-arms. (_proposed by m. boutigny._) the examination of fire-arms is sometimes useful in determining the date at which a weapon has been discharged or reloaded. the methods used in examinations of this nature vary, as the weapon under inspection is one provided with a flint or an ordinary percussion lock. the value of the tests employed is also affected by the kind of powder used; _i. e._, whether common gunpowder, gun-cotton or white gunpowder (prepared by mixing yellow prussiate of potassa, chlorate of potassa and sugar) has been taken. the gun is provided with a flint-lock, and was charged with ordinary powder. in case the weapon has been wiped or exposed to moisture subsequent to its seizure, it is impossible to form any conclusion as to the date of its discharge, etc. it is therefore advisable, upon receiving the weapon, to carefully wrap the lock in a woollen cloth, and to close the barrel. the exterior of the gun is at first submitted to a careful examination, and notice taken of the approximate thickness of any existing rust spots. the fire-pan and adjacent portion of the barrel are also examined by aid of a magnifying glass, especial attention being given to the detection of traces of a moist and pulverulent incrustation of a greyish or blackish color, formed by the combustion of the gunpowder, and of crystals of sulphate of iron. if the weapon is loaded, the wad is withdrawn and the color of its cylindrical portion and of the powder, as well as the size of the ball or shot, noted. this preliminary examination ended, the barrel and fire-pan are separately washed with distilled water, and the washings passed through filter paper which has previously been well washed, first with pure hydrochloric acid, then with distilled water. the filtrate is next divided into three portions, and these separately examined for: (1) sulphuric acid, by addition of chloride of barium; (2) for iron, by oxidizing the salts contained in the fluid with a few drops of nitric acid and adding a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium, the presence of iron being indicated by the formation of a blue coloration, or a blue precipitate; and (3) for sulphides, by means of a solution of subacetate of lead. if a bluish-black incrustation is discovered on the fire-pan or on the neighboring portions of the barrel, and both rust and crystals of sulphate of iron are absent, and the washings, which were originally of a light-yellow color, assume a chocolate-brown coloration upon the addition of solution of subacetate of lead, _the gun has been discharged within two hours at the longest_. if the incrustation possesses a lighter color and traces of iron have been detected in the washings, but neither rust nor crystals have been discovered on the barrel or fire-pan, _the weapon has been discharged more than two, but less than twenty-four hours_. in case minute crystals of sulphate of iron and spots of rust are found, and the washings contain iron in a considerable quantity, _the weapon has been discharged at least twenty-four hours, at the longest ten days_. if the quantity of rust found is considerable, but iron is no longer to be detected, _the discharge of the gun occurred ten days, at the longest fifty days, previously_. _if the weapon has been reloaded immediately after its discharge without having been previously washed_, the portions of the wadding which have come in contact with the barrel will possess a greyish-black color during the first four days, the color gradually becoming lighter, until, at the fifteenth day, it turns grey and remains so permanently. in this case, the washings will contain sulphuric acid. the objection has been advanced to the last test that sulphuric acid might be discovered, even if the gun had not been discharged, if the paper of which the wadding was made contained plaster. m. boutigny states, however, that this objection is untenable, if the wadding has not been moistened by the water introduced into the barrel. _in case the gun has been washed and dried before being reloaded_, the cylindrical portion of the wadding possesses an ochre-yellow color up to the first or second day, assumes a decided red hue on the days following, and acquires a clear rusty color on the sixth day. during the fifth day the powder also possesses a reddish appearance, owing to an admixture of rust. sulphuric acid is not present in the washings. _if the weapon has been reloaded immediately after being washed_, the wadding possesses a greenish-yellow appearance for the first few hours, and subsequently acquires a reddish color, as in the preceding case. _if, finally, the barrel has been washed with turbid lime-water_, rust is still to be found and the wadding possesses the color mentioned above. the following colorations are also to be observed in case the gun has not been washed, or has been dried near a fire: barrel dried near a fire. unwashed barrel. after 1 day slight reddish yellow color greenish yellow color. 2 or 3 days a little darker " reddish-brown " 4 days a redder " reddish-brown " 5 or more days a rusty-red " rusty-red. " the gun is not provided with a flint lock. at present weapons having flint-locks have almost entirely gone out of use and have been superseded by the ordinary percussion gun; these latter, in turn, are being gradually replaced by breech-loaders, charged with or without a metallic cartridge. the indications obtained in the preceding examinations by means of the fire-pan, will therefore disappear; the results given by the inspection of the barrel may possibly hold good. in regard to breech-loaders, all the useful indications furnished by the coloration of the wadding and powder fail to occur; the latter being enclosed either in a paper cylinder or in a copper socket. the fact that gun cotton and white gunpowder are occasionally made use of, adds to the difficulty of obtaining reliable results by the mere inspection of a weapon. white gunpowder does not oxidize the gun, fails to give rise to any salt of iron, and possesses a white color; gun-cotton produces distinctive indications varying with its purity. owing to these facts, it is evident that the method proposed by m. boutigny is of no real value, save in the rare instances where a gun provided with a fire-pan, and charged with ordinary powder, is under examination, and the question of the lapse of time since the discharge of a weapon must remain undetermined so far as scientific tests are concerned. detection of human remains in the ashes of a fire-place. this class of examinations is particularly necessary when the crime of infanticide is suspected. as the complete incineration of a cadaver is a long and difficult operation, it frequently occurs that bones--partially or completely carbonized, but retaining their original form--are discovered by the careful examination of the ashes of the fire-place in which the combustion was accomplished. when this is not the case and complete incineration and disaggregation have occurred, recourse must be had to the indications furnished by a chemical analysis. these indications are reliable, however, only when the certainty exists that bones of animals have not been consumed in the same fire-place; otherwise, the results obtained are entirely worthless, the reactions given by ashes of animal bones being identical with those produced by the ashes of a human body. two tests are employed to detect the presence of bones in the residue left by the combustion of animal matter. 1. a portion of the ashes is placed in a silver crucible, heated with potassa, and the mass afterwards treated with cold water. if animal matter is contained in the consumed materials, cyanide of potassium will be present in the aqueous solution. in order to detect this salt, the fluid is acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and a solution of persulphate of iron added: the formation of a blue precipitate indicates the presence of the cyanide. 2. the ashes are next examined for phosphate of lime. as wood, coal, and the other substances usually employed for heating purposes contain none or little of this salt, its detection in a notable quantity would lead to the inference that bones have been consumed. the ashes are allowed to digest for twenty-four hours with one-quarter of their weight of sulphuric acid. water is next added to the pasty mixture, and the fluid filtered. if phosphate of lime be present, it is converted by this treatment into a soluble acid phosphate, which passes into the filtrate. upon adding ammonia to the filtrate, a precipitate of neutral phosphate of lime is formed, neutral phosphate of ammonia remaining in solution. the fluid is again filtered, the filtrate acidulated with nitric acid, and then boiled with a solution of molybdate of ammonia likewise acidulated with nitric acid: in presence of a phosphate, a yellow precipitate, or at least a yellow coloration of the fluid, will be produced. it has been stated that the disengagement of sulphuretted hydrogen, upon treating the ashes with sulphuric acid, is an indication that the combustion of a human body has occurred; this reaction is, however, valueless, inasmuch as coal and certain vegetable ashes likewise evolve the gas when subjected to the same treatment. examination of writings. contracts, checks, etc., are frequently altered with criminal intent, either by erasing the portion of the writing over the signature and substituting other matter, or by changing certain words, in order to modify the signification of a sentence. writings are altered either by erasure or by washing. erasure, although more easily executed, is seldom employed, as it renders the paper thin in places, and in this way leaves effects apparent even to the naked eye, and, although the original thickness can be restored by application of sandarac or alum, these substances possess properties differing from those exhibited by paper, and may, moreover, be completely removed, thus exposing the thinning of the paper. in case washing by means of chlorine has been resorted to, the sizing--which renders the paper non-bibulous, and which is only with difficulty replaced--may have been removed. formerly paper was sized by immersion in a solution of gelatine; at present, however, a soap of resin, or wax, and alumina (a little starch being added) is more commonly used. in the latter case, the sizing is less easily removed by the action of water than when the gelatine preparation is employed; the detection of its attempted restoration is also a matter of less difficulty, as gelatine would be employed for this purpose, and this body possesses properties different from those exhibited by the substances normally contained in paper: iodine, for instance, which imparts a yellow color to gelatine, turns starch violet-blue. in order to detect the alteration of a writing, the following examinations are made: 1âº. the paper is carefully examined in all of its parts, and in various positions, by aid of a lens. in this way, either thinned points, caused by erasure, or remaining traces of words, may possibly be discovered. 2âº. the paper is next placed upon a perfectly clean piece of glass, and completely and uniformly moistened with water. the glass is then removed, and the transparency of the paper examined by aid of a lens. when uniform transparency is exhibited, and certain portions are neither more transparent nor more opaque than the rest of the paper, it is probable that erasure has not been attempted. if, on the other hand, opaque points are observed, it is almost certain that letters have been erased, and sandarac, which is not affected by water, subsequently applied. in case transparent points are detected, there is reason to suspect that words have been removed, and the spots either left intact or afterwards coated with a substance soluble in water, such as alum. 3âº. the paper is dried and the above operation repeated with alcohol of 87 per cent. indications may now be observed which failed to occur in the treatment with water; as well as these latter confirmed. as alcohol dissolves sandarac, the points that formerly appeared opaque may now become transparent. 4âº. the paper is again dried, then placed under a sheet of very thin silk-paper, and a warm iron passed over it. this operation frequently causes the reappearance of words that have been partially obliterated. it is also advisable--as suggested by _m. lassaigne_--to expose the paper to the action of iodine vapors. if alteration has not been attempted, the paper will acquire an uniform color; yellow, if sized with gelatine; violet blue, if sized with the mixture of soap, resin and starch. when, on the contrary, a subsequent sizing of gelatine has been applied in order to mask the alteration--the paper having been originally sized with the above mixture--it will assume in some portions a yellow, in others a violet-blue color. 5âº. it is ascertained whether the paper possesses an acid reaction. if so, its acidity may result from the presence of hydrochloric acid, in case the paper was washed with chlorine, or of other acids. alum, used to disguise erasure, would also cause an acid reaction. the mere detection of acidity is, in itself, of little importance, as, in the manufacture of paper, the pulp is bleached by means of chlorine, and this reagent may not have been entirely removed by washing. if, however, the paper is acid only in certain spots, and these points produce a red coloration upon blue litmus paper, having the form of letters, the indication is of value. in order to ascertain if this be the case, it is advisable, before wetting the paper, to slightly press it upon a sheet of moist litmus paper: the acid spots will then leave a reddish trace upon the latter. 6âº. the manuscript under examination is again spread upon a glass-plate, and a solution of tannin (or preferably, a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium containing one per cent. of the salt, and acidulated with acetic acid) applied by means of a brush. if the original writing was executed with ordinary ink (which has as its base tannate of iron), and the washing has been but imperfectly performed, it is quite possible that a blue coloration will be produced by the action of the ferrocyanide. it is, however, often necessary to apply the above reagents several times before the original writing becomes apparent; indeed, in some cases months have elapsed before the reaction has occurred. in case the alteration or destruction of the document is feared in the above test, it is well to previously provide the court with a certified copy, and then proceed with the examination. 7âº. if the paper possesses a friable appearance, it has possibly been washed with sulphuric acid. this property may however originate from other causes, and the presence of the acid should be confirmed by washing the document with distilled water, and adding a solution of chloride of barium to the washings. the precipitate should form in a considerable quantity, as a slight cloudiness could be due to sulphates contained in the water used in the preparation of the pulp. if much sulphuric acid be present, it may be so concentrated by heating as to cause the carbonization of the paper. 8âº. it is also well, should washing with sulphuric acid be suspected, to ascertain, by aid of a lens, if the filaments on the surface of the manuscript possess an inflated appearance. this would be caused by the escape of carbonic acid, originating from the action of sulphuric acid upon the carbonates contained in the water used in the manufacture of the paper. 9âº. old ink is more difficult to remove than new, and it is therefore sometimes possible to cause the reappearance of old writings, over which words have been subsequently written. for this purpose, a solution containing 50 per cent. of oxalic acid is applied with a fine brush over the suspected points. as soon as the ink disappears, the acid is immediately removed by washing with water, and the paper dried. upon now repeating the operation, the presence of a former writing may be detected after the complete disappearance of the words last written. 10âº. according to _m. lassaigne_, when the same ink has not been used throughout a document, washing with dilute hydrochloric acid will demonstrate the fact. this acid, while causing the gradual obliteration of characters written with ordinary ink--the shade of the paper not being altered--produces a red color, if ink containing log-wood has been employed, and a green coloration, in case the ink used contained prussian blue. the expert may possibly be called upon to give evidence as to the existence of a "_trompe-l'oeil_;" as was the case in the trial of _m. de preigne_, which took place at montpelier in 1852. a "_trompe-l'oeil_" consists of two sheets of paper, glued together at the edges, but having the upper sheet shorter than the other which therefore extends below it. this species of fraud is executed by writing unimportant matter on the uppermost sheet, and then obtaining the desired signature, care being taken that it is written on the portion of the paper projecting below. the signature having been procured, it is only necessary to detach the two sheets in order to obtain a blank paper containing the signature, over which whatever is desired can be inserted. the trial referred to above, was in reference to a receipt for 3,000 francs. the expert, upon placing pieces of moistened paper upon the suspected document, noticed that they adhered to certain points, and that these formed a border around the paper but passing _above_ the signature. the fraudulency of the act was thus established, and so recognized by the court, although the accused was acquitted by the jury. numerous means have been proposed, in order to render the falsification of documents a matter of difficulty. the most reliable of these is the use of "grimpe's safety-paper," containing microscopic figures, the reproduction of which is impossible. unfortunately, up to the present, the government has adopted methods less sure. examination of writings in cases where a sympathetic ink has been used. sympathetic inks are those which, although invisible at the time of writing, become apparent by the application of certain agents. they are of two classes: those which are rendered visible by the mere application of heat, such as chloride of cobalt, or the juice of onions; and those which are brought out only by the action of a reagent. the inks of the second class most frequently used are solutions of acetates of lead, and other metals which give a colored sulphide when treated with sulphuretted hydrogen. characters written with a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium acquire a blue color, if washed with a solution of perchloride of iron. it is scarcely necessary to add that the latter solution can be used as the ink, and the ferrocyanide as the developer. when the presence of characters written with a sympathetic ink is suspected, the document is examined as follows: 1. the paper is at first warmed: if the ink used is of the first class, the characters will now become legible; otherwise the examination is continued as below. 2. the paper is exposed to the action of steam, in order to moisten the ink present (care being taken to avoid dissolving the characters), and a current of sulphuretted hydrogen allowed to act upon it. if the ink used consists of a lead, bismuth, or gold salt, a black coloration will ensue; if salts of cadmium or arsenic were employed, the characters will acquire a yellow color; if, finally, a salt of antimony was used, a red coloration will be produced. 3. if no coloration was caused by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen, it is probably that either a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium or a persalt of iron has been resorted to. each of these solutions is separately applied on a small portion of paper by means of a brush, and notice taken if the characters become visible. the solution that produced the change is then applied over the entire sheet. 4. in case only negative results were obtained in the preceding operations, it must not yet be concluded that a sympathetic ink has not been used, although we are left without further recourse to chemical tests. numerous organic compounds may have been resorted to, the detection of which is almost impossible; moreover, if a mistake was made in regard to the preparation supposed to have been used, the reagents employed for its detection may render the discovery of another ink absolutely impossible. it is therefore often necessary to apply mechanical tests. for this purpose, the paper is spread upon a glass plate, uniformly moistened with water, and a second plate placed over it: if the characters were written with a pulverulent substance suspended in water or mucilage, they may often be observed upon examining the transparency of the paper. in case the substance used is both colorless and soluble, the detection of the written characters will be more difficult; still, indelible traces may possibly have been left by the pen. if, however, the ink employed is a colorless and transparent organic compound of rare occurrence, and was applied with a fine pencil-brush which failed to affect the paper, it must be acknowledged that little or nothing can be definitely determined as to its presence or absence. falsification of coins and alloys. in all civilized countries a fixed standard for coins and precious alloys is established by law, in order to prevent the perpetration of frauds which would be of serious injury to the public welfare. the substitution of coins consisting of an alloy inferior in value to the standard fixed by law, is too advantageous a fraud not to be often attempted. coins are most frequently altered by _clipping_; by _stuffing_, that is, by boring the coin and inserting an alloy of small value; by _doubling_, which operation consists in covering its face with two thin laminã¦ taken from a genuine coin; and by applying a coating of gold or silver by means of electro-plating. in order to ascertain if a coin has been counterfeited, its weight should at first be determined. if it has been clipped, or consists of an alloy possessing a density less than that of silver or gold, the fact is immediately demonstrated by its decreased gravity. the coin is further tested by throwing it down upon a hard substance: gold and silver give a ringing sound, whereas the majority of other metals produce a dull sound. the result obtained by this latter test often fails to be reliable. a skilful counterfeiter may prepare an alloy equally sonorous and heavy as silver or gold; in fact, _m. duloz_ exhibited to the author an alloy, prepared by him, possessing the density, sonorousness and lustre of silver; the composition of which, for obvious reasons, has not been published. in instances of this nature the fusibility of the coin should be determined, and the result obtained compared with the melting point of the legal alloy, or, this failing, a chemical analysis executed. in order to perform the latter test, the coin under examination is boiled with nitric acid: all metals are dissolved, with exception of gold and platinum, which remain unaltered, and tin and antimony, which are converted respectively into metastannic and antimonic acids. the fluid is filtered, the insoluble residue well washed, and then boiled with hydrochloric acid, which dissolves the metastannic and antimonic acids. the solution is again filtered, and the second residue dissolved in _aqua regia_. the metals dissolved in the several filtrates are then detected, either by the processes previously given for the detection of metallic poisons, or by the more complete methods contained in works on chemical analysis. this qualitative test is, however, insufficient, in case the falsification consisted in merely diminishing the proportions of the valuable metals contained in the alloy, without changing its qualitative composition: it is then necessary to execute a quantitative estimation of the metals present. as this operation requires considerable practice and the methods employed are to be found in all treatises on quantitative analysis, we will not reproduce them here. examination of alimentary and pharmaceutical substances. we will next enumerate the methods employed in the detection of the principal adulterations to which flour, bread, oils of seeds, milk, wines, vinegar and the sulphate of quinine are subjected. these researches, united with those preceding, fail to embrace all the diverse examinations which the chemical expert may be expected to execute; but we do not claim to foresee all the contingencies that may arise, and will describe the steps to be pursued in instances which are anticipated, at the same time indicating general methods applicable to cases not here included. flour and bread. the adulterations to which flour and bread are exposed usually consist in adding damaged or an inferior grade of flour to wheaten flour, or in disguising the presence of a poor quality of flour by the addition of mineral substances, such as: plaster, chalk, lime, alum, and sulphate of copper. good flour has a white color, possessing a slightly yellow tinge, but is entirely free from red, grey or black specks. it is soft to the touch and adheres to the fingers, acquiring, when compressed in the hand, a soft cushion-like form. if mixed with water, it forms an elastic, homogeneous, but slightly coherent dough, which can be extended out in thin layers. flour of an inferior quality possess a dull white color, and does not assume the cushion-like condition mentioned above, when pressed in the hand, but escapes between the fingers: the dough formed is of a poorer quality. flour which has been damaged by moisture has a dull or reddish-white hue, and possesses a mouldy, or even a noxious, odor, as well as a bitter and nauseous taste which produces a marked acid sensation in the throat. occasionally the presence of moisture causes the growth of _fungi_, the introduction of which in the digestive organs would cause serious results. the constituents of pure flour are: _gluten._ _starch_, in the proportion of 50 to 75 per cent. _dextrine_, in the proportion of several per cent. _glucose_, in the proportion of several per cent. _salts_, remaining in the ash obtained by the calcination of the flour, in a proportion not exceeding 2 per cent. _water_, of which it loses 12 to 15 per cent., at the heat of a water-bath, and 15 to 20 per cent., at a temperature of 160â°. _bran_, (ligneous and fatty matter,) in a very small proportion, when the flour has been properly bolted. in the process of bread-making, the gluten undergoes fermentation by the action of the leaven and liberates carbonic acid, which causes the dough to become porous and swell up, or, as it is termed, to _rise_. bread contains the same substances as flour, but gluten and starch are present in a state that does not admit of their separation by mechanical means, and glucose, if present at all, exists in a smaller quantity: the proportion of dextrine and water is, on the other hand, considerably increased. the bread of the paris city bakeries contains 40 per cent. of water--the crumb, which forms 5/6 of the weight of the bread, containing 45 per cent.; the crust, which constitutes the remaining 1/6, containing 15 per cent. in army bread 43 per cent. of water are contained--the crumb, which constitutes 4/5 of the weight of the bread, holding 50 per cent.; the crust which forms the remaining 1/5, containing 15 per cent. the addition of common salt naturally increases the proportion of ash left upon calcining bread. water is contained in stale bread in the same quantity as in fresh bread; but exists in a modified molecular condition: upon heating stale bread, it acquires the properties of fresh bread. the following substances are used in the adulteration of wheaten flour:[p] potato-starch. meals of various grains (rice, barley, corn, oats and rye). vegetable meals, (beans, horse-beans, kidney-beans, peas, vetch, lentils, etc.). darnel meal. buckwheat flour. linseed-meal. mineral substances (plaster, chalk, lime, alum, and sulphate of copper). [p] most of the substances here enumerated are rarely, if ever, used for the adulteration of flour in this country. the analyst should, however, give attention to the examination for such salts as alum, sulphate of copper, plaster, kaolin, etc.--_trans._ in order to detect these substances, the gluten, the starch, and the ash are separately examined. _a._ examination of the gluten. in order to separate the gluten, two parts of the flour to be examined and one part of water are mixed into a paste, and this is placed in a fine linen sack, in which it is kneaded under a stream of water so long as the washings have a turbid appearance: these are preserved. the gluten obtained from good wheaten flour possesses a light-yellow color; emits a stale odor; and spreads out, when placed in a saucer. in case the flour has been too strongly heated in the grinding, or otherwise badly prepared, the gluten is granulous, difficult to collect in the hand, and somewhat resembles flint-stone in appearance. gluten prepared from a mixture of equal parts of wheat and _rye_ is adhesive, blackish, without homogeneousness, spreads out more readily than pure wheaten gluten, separates easily and adheres somewhat to the fingers. gluten obtained from a mixture of wheat and _barley_ is non-adhesive, of a dirty reddish-brown color, and appears to be formed of intertwined vermicular filaments. gluten formed from a mixture of equal parts of wheat and _oats_ has a blackish-yellow color and exhibits, at the surface, numerous small white specks. the gluten from a mixture of wheat and _corn_ has a yellowish color, is non-adhesive, but firm, and does not readily spread. gluten prepared from a mixture of wheat and _leguminous flour_ is neither cohesive nor elastic, and, if the proportion of the latter present be considerable, can be separated and passed through a sieve, like starch. the gluten obtained from a mixture of equal parts of wheat and _buckwheat_ flour is very homogeneous, and is as easily prepared as the gluten from pure wheaten flour. it possesses when moist a dark-grey color; which changes to a deep black upon drying. the proportion of gluten in flour is exceedingly variable: good flour contains from 10 to 11 per cent. of dry gluten; poor flour from 8 to 9 per cent. of moist gluten, equal to about one-third of its weight of the dry compound. _b._ examination of the starch. the washings of the flour are allowed to stand for some time in a conical-shaped vessel. as soon as the amylaceous matter has entirely settled to the bottom of the vessel, the greater portion of the water is decanted, and the residual mass brought upon a small filter and allowed to dry. the residue is then examined for potato and rice starch. _potato starch._ the grains of potato starch are much larger than those of wheaten starch. if a portion of the residue mentioned above is crushed in an agate mortar, the granules of potato starch present are ruptured, and their contents liberated; the wheaten starch remaining unaltered. the mass is then taken up with water, and the fluid filtered. if potato starch be present, the filtrate will acquire a blue color upon addition of an aqueous solution of iodine; otherwise, a yellow or violet-rose coloration is produced. it is necessary to avoid crushing the residue for too long a time, as the granules of wheaten starch would also become ruptured by prolonged comminution. besides the difference presented by potato starch in the size of the granules in comparison to those of wheaten starch, the former swell to ten or fifteen times the volume of the latter, when treated with a solution of potassa: wheaten starch granules are not affected by the treatment, if the solution used does not contain more than 2 per cent. of the salt. the results obtained by the above operation should be confirmed by a microscopic examination. a portion of the residue is moistened with solution of iodine, then carefully dried, and placed on the slide of a microscope. the mass is next moistened with a solution containing 2 per cent. of potassa, and examined. the addition of iodine causes the potato starch granules to acquire a blue color, and renders their shape and volume more easily perceptible; thus allowing the two varieties of starch to be readily distinguished. fig. 13 represents the relative size of the granules as observed under the microscope.[q] [q] it may be added, as a distinguishing property, that granules of potato starch, when viewed in polarized light by aid of a nicol's prism, present a well-defined black cross, corresponding to the hilum; wheaten-starch fails to exhibit this phenomenon.--_trans._ [illustration: fig. 13.] the presence of potato starch in bread is also detected by crushing a small portion of the sample under examination on the glass, and then adding a few drops of the alkaline solution. _rice and corn._--if rice or corn meal have been mixed with the flour, angular and translucent fragments (fig. 14) are observed in the microscopic examination. corn meal acquires a yellow color, if treated with dilute potassa solution. [illustration: fig. 14.] miscellaneous tests. _linseed and rye meals._--if linseed meal is moistened with an aqueous solution containing 14 per cent. of potassa and examined under the microscope, numerous minute characteristic granules, smaller than the grains of potato-starch, are observed. these possess a vitreous appearance, sometimes a reddish color, and usually form in squares or very regular rectangles. the test is equally applicable to bread. the detection of linseed and rye meals is simultaneously effected by exhausting the suspected flour with ether, then filtering the solution and allowing it to evaporate. if the flour contains rye, the oil left by the evaporation, when heated with a solution of mercury in concentrated nitric acid, is converted into a solid substance having a fine red color; but it remains unaltered, if entirely due to linseed. in case the oil becomes solidified, the mercury salt present should be removed by washing with water, the residue taken up with boiling alcohol of 36â° b. and the solution filtered: upon evaporating the alcoholic filtrate, a residue is obtained consisting of the linseed oil present. _buckwheat._--flour adulterated with buckwheat is less soft to the touch, does not pack as easily, and passes more readily through a sieve than pure wheaten flour. it presents, here and there, blackish particles, due to the perisperm of the grain, and has a dirty-white color. as previously remarked, the gluten obtained from a mixture of buckwheat and wheaten flour possesses a grey or even a black color. the starch furnished by buckwheat flour exhibits polyhedral agglomerations, analogous to those presented by corn. _darnel._--the use of darnel in the adulteration of wheaten flour may give rise to serious sanitary results. to effect its detection, the flour to be examined is digested with alcohol of 35â° b.: if the flour be pure, the alcohol remains limpid: it acquires a straw-yellow tint, due to traces of bran present, but--although a peculiar resin may be dissolved--the solution does not possess a disagreeable taste. when, on the contrary, darnel is present, the alcohol assumes a green tint, which gradually deepens, and possesses a bitter and nauseous taste; the residue, left by the evaporation of the tincture to dryness, has a greenish-yellow color, and a still more disagreeable flavor than the alcoholic solution. _legumens._--leguminous meals cannot be added otherwise than in small proportions to wheaten flour, owing to the rapidity with which they change the properties of the latter, and communicate to it their characteristic odor--noticeable upon treating the flour with a little boiling water. their presence is also easily detected by the distinctive properties of the vegetable itself, and by the appearance of the amylaceous residue in the microscopic examination. in order to decide as to the presence of legumens, the washings containing the starchy matter of the flour, after the particles of gluten present have been separated by passing the fluid through a silk sieve, are divided into two portions. one portion is allowed to undergo fermentation, at a temperature of 18â° to 20â°: in case leguminous substances are not present, lactic fermentation occurs and the odor of sour milk is alone perceptible; if, on the other hand, legumens are contained in the fluid, rancid fermentation takes place, and an odor is emitted resembling that of decayed cheese. the remaining portion of the washings, after being decanted from the residue of amylaceous matter, is filtered and evaporated until a yellowish translucent pellicle appears upon its surface. the fluid is then again filtered from the coagulated albumen common to all flours, and the leguminous substances present coagulated by the addition, drop by drop, of acetic acid. the leguminous deposit produced appears white and flaky; when examined under the microscope, it presents lamilla emarginated at the border; it is odorless and tasteless; when dried, it assumes a horny appearance; it is insoluble, both in water and alcohol, and does not become gelatinous when treated with boiling water; it is readily soluble in potassa and other alkaline solutions, from which it is precipitated upon addition of nitric, hydrochloric, acetic, oxalic, and citric acids; upon protracted boiling in water, it loses its property of being soluble in ammonia. the above tests having been applied, the residue containing the starch is next examined. for this purpose, a small portion is moistened with a little water, a few drops of iodine solution added, and the mixture placed on the side of the microscope: the bluish grains contained in the polyhedral and cellular envelope (fig. 15) are easily recognized. the mixture on the glass may also be treated with an aqueous solution of potassa (containing 10 per cent. of the salt), or with dilute hydrochloric acid: these reagents dissolve the starch present, leaving the reticulated tissue intact. should this examination fail to give a definite result, the remaining portion of the amylaceous residue is subjected to a sort of levigation, and the part most slowly deposited separated. in this portion the reticulated tissues of the leguminous substances present are contained, and, as they are comparatively free from foreign matters, their identification is a matter of comparative ease. in case the presence of reticulated tissue is indicated, it is still necessary to apply confirmatory chemical tests. [illustration: fig. 15.] meals prepared from beans, horse-beans, and lentils, contain a tannin which imparts a green or black color to salts of iron. the coloration is rendered very sensitive if a rather considerable quantity of the flour to be examined is passed through a silk sieve, and the remaining bran treated with a solution of sulphate of iron (_ferrico-ferrous_ sulphate): the reaction immediately occurs, even if the sample contains but 10 per cent. of bean meal. the meals of horse-beans and of vetches acquire a red color, when exposed to the successive action of nitric acid and of ammonia vapors. in order to apply this test, the suspected flour is placed upon the edge of a capsule containing nitric acid, the latter heated, and, as a yellow coloration appears, the acid removed and replaced by ammonia. the capsule is then set aside: if the flour is adulterated with either of the above vegetables, reddish spots, which are easily perceptible by aid of a magnifying glass, are soon produced. in case bread is to be examined, it is exhausted with water, the fluid passed through a sieve, the upper layer decanted, then evaporated, and the residue taken up with alcohol. the tincture so obtained is evaporated, and the second residuum treated with nitric acid and ammonia, as directed above. when meals prepared from beans, vetches, or lentils are heated on a water-bath with hydrochloric acid, diluted with three to four times its volume of water, a cellular tissue, possessing the color of wine-dregs, remains behind; flours of wheat, peas, and kidney-beans leave a colorless residue, when subjected to the same treatment. finally; the grains of the starch (_fecula_) of legumens possess a volume about equal to that of potato granules, and exhibit either a longitudinal furrow in the direction of their longer axis, or a double furrow arranged in a star-like form. _c._ examination of the ash. leguminous substances, and more particularly mineral salts, are detected by the examination of the ash left upon the incineration of the flour. _detection of legumens._--pure wheaten flour furnishes an ash consisting of about 2 per cent. of its weight; whereas meals of legumens leave from 3 to 4 per cent. of their weight in ash. this difference is, however, too slight to furnish conclusive results; the analysis of the ash is also necessary. the ash of wheaten flour is non-deliquescent, dry, semi-fused, and chiefly consists of phosphates of potassa, soda, magnesia and lime, of sulphates, and of silica. the solution obtained by treating the ash with water has an alkaline reaction. the phosphates of the alkalies, present in the ash of wheat, exist in the state of pyrophosphates, and, as chlorides are absent, the addition of nitrate of silver to the aqueous solution of the ash produces a white precipitate, consisting entirely of pyrophosphate of silver, which is not affected by exposure to the light. the ash of leguminous meals is deliquescent and soluble in water, forming a _strongly_ alkaline solution, which contains both chlorides and _neutral_ phosphates. the latter give a clear yellow precipitate with nitrate of silver. upon adding a solution of this salt to the aqueous solution of the ash, a _pale_ yellow precipitate, which turns violet if exposed to the light, is therefore produced. _detection of mineral substances._--the principal mineral substances, that are fraudulently added to flour, are ground calcined bones, sand, lime, plaster, alum, and sulphate of copper. the two last named salts are almost invariably added in small quantities; alum renders the flour white, even when used in the proportion of one per cent.; sulphate of copper is added to impart a good appearance to bread made from a damaged flour. _a. ground bones_ (carbonate and phosphate of lime).--the washings of the gluten are placed in a conical vessel, and, after some time has elapsed, the clear supernatant fluid is removed by means of a syphon, a conical shaped deposit remaining on the bottom of the vessel: two hours later, the fresh layer of fluid that has formed is removed with a pipette. as soon as the residue becomes nearly solid, it is detached from the vessel, placed upon a fragment of plaster, and allowed to dry. the bones, being heavier than the amylaceous substances, are to be found in the apex of the cone formed by the residue. this is detached, and incinerated: in case the ash obtained contains phosphate and carbonate of lime, the addition of hydrochloric acid will cause effervescence, and, upon adding ammonia to the acid solution, a white precipitate will be formed. if the solution is then filtered and oxalate of ammonia added to the filtrate, a precipitate will be produced which, when heated to redness, leaves a residue of caustic lime possessing an alkaline reaction. _b. sand._--as this substance possesses a much greater specific gravity than the usual constituents of flour, it is only necessary, in order to accomplish its separation, to repeatedly stir the flour with water, and remove the deposit at first formed, which, if consisting of sand, will be insoluble in acids, and will grate, when placed between the teeth. _c. carbonates of lime and magnesia; vegetable ashes._--carbonic acid is always evolved, upon treating flour with hydrochloric acid. if the base present be calcium, upon adding oxalate of ammonia to the filtered solution--which has previously been neutralized with ammonia--a white precipitate, possessing the properties mentioned above, will be formed; in case the base is magnesia, the addition of oxalate of ammonia will fail to cause a precipitate, but upon adding solution of phosphate of ammonia to the fluid a granular precipitate of phosphate of ammonia and magnesia is produced; if, finally, the flour contains vegetable ashes--_i. e._ carbonates of the alkalies--bichloride of platinum will produce in the acid solution a yellow precipitate: the addition of vegetable ashes, moreover, would render the ash of the flour deliquescent and very strongly alkaline. _d. lime._--in presence of lime, carbonic acid produces a white precipitate, when conducted into the filtered aqueous extract of the flour. _e. plaster._--the flour is boiled with water acidulated with hydrochloric acid, the fluid filtered, and lime detected in the filtrate by means of ammonia and oxalate of ammonia. the presence of sulphuric acid is indicated by the formation of a precipitate insoluble in acids, upon addition of solution of chloride of barium. upon calcining the flour without access of air, sulphate of lime is converted into the corresponding sulphide: the residue of the calcination, when treated with hydrochloric acid, evolves sulphuretted hydrogen, and the lime present in the filtered acid solution is likewise precipitated by the addition of ammonia and oxalate of ammonia. _f. alum._--a portion of the flour to be examined is treated with water, the fluid filtered, and the filtrate divided in two portions: in one, sulphuric acid is detected by means of chloride of barium; in the other, alumina by adding a solution of potassa, which gives with its salts a white gelatinous precipitate, soluble in an excess of the reagent.[r] [r] if the detection of alum in bread is desired, a portion of the crumb is incinerated in a platinum dish, the ash is treated with concentrated hydrochloric acid, the filtered solution evaporated to dryness, and the residue treated with hydrochloric acid, which now leaves the silica present undissolved. the acid solution is then filtered, nearly neutralized with carbonate of soda, and an alcoholic solution of potassa added in excess. the earthy phosphates present are now precipitated, alumina remaining in solution. the use of aqueous potassa in this case--as well as in the case mentioned in the text--is not advisable, as it is seldom entirely free from alumina. upon slightly acidulating the alkaline filtrate with hydrochloric acid, and adding carbonate of ammonia, the alumina present is precipitated, and may be dried and tested by means of the reaction with nitrate of cobalt before the blow-pipe. in the quantitative estimation of alumina, the phosphoric acid usually present in the precipitate should be removed. this is done by dissolving the precipitate in nitric acid and immersing a piece of metallic tin in the boiling solution: phosphoric acid is thrown down as a mixture of stannic oxide and phosphate, and the alumina is then precipitated as usual by carbonate of ammonia.--_trans._ _g. sulphate of copper._--about 200 grammes of the bread under examination are incinerated; the ash treated with nitric acid; the mixture evaporated until it acquires a sticky consistence, and the mass then taken up with water. the aqueous solution is next filtered; an excess of ammonia and several drops of solution of carbonate of ammonia added; the fluid again filtered, the filtrate slightly acidulated with nitric acid, and divided into two parts. it is then ascertained if sulphuretted hydrogen produces in one portion of the solution a brown precipitate of sulphide of copper, and if solution of ferrocyanide of potassium produces in the other a reddish-brown precipitate of ferrocyanide of copper.[s] [s] according to wagner, if the ash, obtained by incinerating the adulterated bread, is washed with water, shining spangles of metallic copper are separated.--_trans._ fixed oils. olive oil designed for table use is frequently adulterated with the oils of poppy, sesamã©, cotton-seed, pea-nuts, and other nuts; olive oil, intended for manufacturing purposes, is often mixed with colza and nut oils. the tests used are of a rather unsatisfactory character. in all instances, when the chemist is called upon to pronounce as to the adulteration of an oil, it is necessary to execute comparative experiments with the pure oil, and with admixtures arbitrarily prepared: it is only when this is done that the indications obtained are of value. examination of olive oil intended for table use. _a._ the density of the oil is determined by means of a hydrometer (_oleometer_) provided with a scale giving the densities from 0.8 to 0.94, for the temperature of 15.â° pure olive oil possesses a specific gravity of 0.917; poppy oil one of 0.925; a mixture of the two, an intermediate density. since the fixed oils are not definite chemical compounds, this test is seldom conclusive. _b._ two or three cubic centimetres of concentrated nitric acid, containing nitric peroxide in solution (or a solution of mercury in strong nitric acid), are added to the oil to be examined, as well as to a sample of pure olive oil. the two samples are then allowed to stand in a room where the temperature does not exceed 10.â° the _oleine_ of the olive oil is converted into solid _elaidine_, and the mixture after some time becomes sufficiently thick to remain in the vessel upon inversion. if the sample under examination is free from adulteration, it will solidify at the same time as the pure oil; whereas, the presence of one per cent. of poppy oil, or of other drying oils, suffices to retard the solidification for forty minutes. _c._ fifteen grammes of the oil are mixed in a glass vessel with the same amount of strong sulphuric acid, the temperature of the two liquids being previously observed. the mixture is stirred with a thermometer, and the maximum temperature noted: pure olive oil produces an elevation of temperature of 37.â°7; pure poppy oil, an elevation of 70.â°5; and a mixture of the two an elevation of temperature intermediate between 37.â°7 and 70.â°5. _d._ one volume of nitric acid of sp. gr. 1.33 is agitated with 5 grammes of the oil, and notice taken of the coloration produced after the lapse of five minutes. if the olive oil is pure, it acquires a pale green color; in case it is mixed with sesamã© or nut oil, a deep-red color appears: poppy oil also communicates a reddish coloration, but one less deep than the preceding. if an acid of sp. gr. 1.22 is taken, it is still less difficult to distinguish between sesamã©, nut and poppy oils; the latter assumes, in this case, a pale yellowish-red color. pea-nut oil fails to exhibit a coloration; but can be recognized by its conversion into a white solid, when mixed with 1/5 of its volume of a solution of caustic soda of sp. gr. 1.34. examination of olive oil intended for manufacturing purposes. the chief adulterations are colza and nut oils. the latter is detected by means of the reaction with nitric acid, as described above. colza oil is recognized by mixing 5 volumes of the sample to be examined, with 1 volume of sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1.655: if colza or nut oils are present, a brown coloration ensues; under the same circumstances, pure olive oil assumes a pale greenish hue. in case the sample acquires a brown color when treated with sulphuric acid, and a red coloration is produced by the addition of nitric acid, it contains nut oil; if sulphuric acid produces a brown coloration, and nitric acid fails to change it, the presence of oil of colza is indicated. examination of hempseed oil. this oil is frequently adulterated with linseed oil. the reactions exhibited by these oils are nearly identical, and the detection of the admixture is extremely difficult. it is advisable to mix the suspected oil with sulphuric acid, notice being taken of the elevation of temperature produced, and to treat it with nitric acid and with dilute potassa solution, subjecting, at the same time, an artificial mixture of the two pure oils to the same treatment, and comparing the results obtained. tea and its adulteration. among alimentary substances probably no article is subjected to more adulteration than tea. the sophistications practised may be conveniently divided into three classes: 1. additions made for the purpose of giving increased bulk and weight, which include foreign leaves and exhausted tea-leaves, and also certain mineral substances, such as metallic iron, sand, brick-dust, etc. 2. substances added in order to produce an artificial appearance of strength in the tea decoction, catechu, or other bodies rich in tannin, and iron salts being chiefly resorted to for this purpose. 3. the imparting of a bright and shining appearance to the tea by means of various coloring mixtures or "facings," which adulteration, while sometimes practised upon black tea, is much more common with the green variety. this sophistication involves the use of steatite (soap-stone), sulphate of lime, china clay, prussian blue, indigo, turmeric, and graphite; chromate of lead and copper salts being but very rarely employed. the compound most frequently used consists of a mixture of soap-stone (or gypsum) with prussian blue, to which a little turmeric is sometimes added. genuine tea is the prepared leaf of _thea sinensis_. it contains: moisture, 6% to 10%; theine, 0.4% to 4.0%; tannin, (green) 20%, (black) 10%; ash, 5% to 6%; soluble extractive matters, 32% to 50%; and insoluble leaf, 47% to 54%. [illustration: fig. 16.] [illustration: fig. 17.] [illustration: fig. 18.] [illustration: fig. 19.] the presence of foreign leaves, and, in some instances, of mineral adulterants, in tea is best detected by means of a microscopic examination of the suspected sample. the genuine tea-leaf is characterized by its peculiar serrations and venations. its border exhibits serrations which stop a little short of the stalk, while the venations extend from the central rib, nearly parallel to one another, but turn just before reaching the border of the leaf (see fig. 16). the chinese are said to employ ash, plum, camellia, velonia, and dog-rose leaves for admixture with tea, and the product is stated to be often subjected in england to the addition of the leaves of willow, sloe, beech, hawthorn, elm, box-poplar, horse-chestnut, and fancy oak (see figs. 17, 18, and 19). for scenting purposes chulan flowers, rose, jasmine, and orange leaves are frequently employed. in the microscopic examination the sample should be moistened with hot water, spread out upon a glass plate, and then submitted to a careful inspection, especial attention being given to the general outline of the leaf and its serrations and venations. most foreign leaves will, in this way, be identified by their botanical character. the presence of exhausted tea-leaves may also often be detected by their soft and disintegrated appearance. if a considerable quantity of the tea be placed in a long glass cylinder and agitated with water, the coloring and other abnormal bodies present frequently become detached, and either rise to the surface of the liquid as a sort of scum or fall to the bottom as a deposit. in this way prussian blue, indigo, soap-stone, gypsum, sand, and turmeric can sometimes be separated and subsequently recognized by their characteristic microscopic appearance. the separated substances should also be chemically tested. prussian blue is detected by heating with a solution of caustic soda, filtering, and acidulating the filtrate with acid, and then adding chloride of iron, when, in its presence, a blue color will be produced. indigo is best discovered by its appearance under the microscope; it is not decolorized by caustic alkali, but it dissolves in sulphuric acid to a blue liquid. soap-stone, gypsum, sand, metallic iron, etc., are identified by means of the usual chemical tests. a compound, very aptly termed "lie-tea," is often met with. it forms little pellets consisting of tea-dust mixed with foreign leaves, sand, etc., and held together by means of gum or starch. this, when treated with boiling water, falls to powder. in the presence of catechu the tea infusion usually becomes muddy upon cooling; in case iron salts have been employed to deepen the color of the liquor, they can be detected by treating the ground tea-leaves with acetic acid and testing the solution with ferrocyanide of potassium. tea should not turn black upon immersion in hydrosulphuric acid water, nor should it impart a blue color to ammonia solution. the infusion should be amber-colored, and not become reddened by the addition of an acid. tea assay. in the following tea assay proper the estimation of theine is not included. the processes suggested for this determination are rather unsatisfactory; and there appears, moreover, to exist no direct relation between the quality of tea and the proportion of theine contained. the tests here mentioned, in connection with those already given, will, it is believed, usually suffice to indicate to the analyst the presence of spent leaves, inorganic coloring matters, and other mineral adulterations. tannin.--a good process for the estimation of tannin in tea has been published by allen (_chem. news_, vol. xxix. p. 169 et seq.) a standard solution of lead acetate is prepared by dissolving 5 grammes of the salt in distilled water and diluting the liquid to 1,000 c.c. as an indicator, 5 milligrammes of potassic ferricyanide are dissolved in 5 c.c. of water, and an equal volume of strong ammonia-water added. the exact strength of the lead solution is to be determined by means of a solution of pure tannin of known strength. two grammes of the tea to be tested are powdered, boiled with water, and, after filtering and thorough washing, the decoction is made up to a volume of 250 c.c.; 10 c.c. of the lead solution are now diluted with 90 c.c. of boiling water, and the tea infusion is gradually added from a burette until a few drops of the liquid, when filtered and added to a little of the indicator placed upon a porcelain slab, causes a pink coloration to appear; 125, divided by the number of c.c. of tea infusion found to be necessary to produce the pink color, will give directly the percentage of tannin in the sample examined. as previously stated, green tea contains 20% of tannin, and black tea 10%. in spent tea, however, only about 2% of tannin is present; and, although any tea deficient in this constituent could be fortified by the addition of catechu, its determination often affords indications of value. the ash--_a. total ash._--5 grammes of the sample are placed in a platinum vessel and heated over a bunsen burner until complete incineration has been accomplished. the vessel is allowed to cool in a desiccator, and is then weighed as quickly as possible. in genuine tea the total ash should not be much below 5% or much above 6%, and it should not be magnetic; in "faced" teas the proportion of total ash is often 10% or 15%; in "lie-tea" it may reach 30%, and in spent leaves it may fall as low as 3%, the ash in this case being abnormally rich in lime salts and poor in potash salts. tea-dust sometimes contains 10% of total ash without necessarily being considered bad in quality. in the proposed united states tea-adulteration law (1884) a maximum of 8% of total ash is allowed for tea-leaf. _b. ash insoluble in water._--the total ash obtained in _a_ is washed into a beaker and boiled with water for a considerable time. it is then brought upon a filter and the insoluble residue washed, dried, ignited, and weighed. in unadulterated tea it will not exceed 3% of the sample taken. _c. ash soluble in water._--this proportion is obtained by deducting ash insoluble in water from the total ash. genuine tea contains from 3% to 3.5% of soluble ash, or at least 50% of the total ash, whereas in spent or exhausted tea the amount is often but 0.5%. _d. ash insoluble in acid._--the ash insoluble in water is boiled with dilute hydrochloric acid and the residue separated by filtration, washed, ignited, and weighed. in pure tea the remaining ash ranges between 0.3% and 0.8%; in "faced" teas, or in teas adulterated by the addition of sand, etc., it may reach the proportion of 2% to 5%. fragments of silica and brick-dust are occasionally to be found in the ash insoluble in acid. the extract.--two grammes of the carefully-sampled tea are boiled with water until all soluble matter is dissolved, water being added from time to time to prevent the solution becoming too concentrated. the solution is poured upon a tared filter, and the remaining insoluble leaf repeatedly washed with hot water until the filtered liquid becomes colorless. the filtrate is now diluted to a volume of 200 c.c., and of this 50 c.c. are taken and evaporated in a weighed dish over the steam-bath until the weight of the extract remains constant; its weight is then determined. genuine tea affords from 32% to 50% of extract, according to its age and quality; in spent tea the proportion of extract will be greatly reduced. insoluble leaf.--the insoluble leaf obtained in the preceding operation, together with the weighed filter, is placed in an air-bath and dried for at least eight hours at a temperature of 110â° c.; its weight is then determined. in unadulterated tea the amount of insoluble leaf ranges between 47% and 54%; in exhausted tea it may reach a proportion of 75%. it should be noted that in the foregoing estimations the tea is taken in its ordinary air-dried condition. if it be desired to reduce the results obtained to a dry basis, an allowance for the moisture present in the sample (an average of 8%), or a direct determination of the same, must be made. the following tabulation gives the constituents of genuine tea so far as the ash, extract, and insoluble leaf are involved: _total ash_--ranges between 4.7% and 6.2%. _ash soluble in water_--ranges between 3% and 3.5%; should equal 50% of total ash. _ash insoluble in water_--not over 2.75%. _ash insoluble in acid_--ranges between 0.3% and 0.8%. _extract_--ranges between 32% and 48%. _insoluble leaf_--ranges between 43% and 58%. the table below may prove useful as indicating the requirements to be exacted when the chemist is asked to give an opinion concerning the presence of facing admixtures or of exhausted or foreign leaves in a sample of tea: _total ash_--should not be under 4.5% or over 7%. _ash soluble in water_--should not be under 40% of total ash. _ash insoluble in water_--should not be over 3%. _ash insoluble in acid_--should not be over 1%. _extract_--should not be under 30%. _insoluble leaf_--should not be over 60%. note.--the british society of public analysts adopt: _total ash_ (dry basis)--not over 8% (at least 3% should be soluble in water). _extract_ (tea as sold)--not under 30%. milk. the chief constituents of milk are water, butter, caseine, lactose (milk-sugar), traces of albumen and mineral salts. butter is present in the form of minute globules, held in suspension; the caseine, for the greater part, is in solution, only a small portion being present in an insoluble suspended condition. in milk only a few days old, the _colostrum_ (the milk secreted during the first few days after parturition) consists largely of rather voluminous cellular conglomerations, containing a sufficient quantity of albumen to coagulate upon heating. the normal density of milk is 1.030, water being 1.000; the density rising to 1.036, if the fluid has been skimmed. good milk contains, on an average, 3.7 per cent. of butter; 5.7 per cent. of lactose, and leaves upon evaporation 12 to 14 per cent. of solid matters.[t] the most common adulteration of milk consists in the addition of water. this fraud is detected by means of an areometer (_lactodensimeter_) which gives directly the specific gravity of the fluid under examination. should the density be much below 1.030, it is certain that water has been added. it does not, however, necessarily follow if it is about 1.030 that the milk is pure, since the gravity of the fluid, which would be increased upon skimming, could be subsequently reduced to 1.030 by the addition of water. the lactodensimeter, therefore, although useful in the detection of a simple admixture, fails to give reliable results if the fraud perpetrated is a double one; and a determination of the proportion of butter present is also usually necessary. numerous methods have been proposed to accomplish this estimation. the most preferable of these, owing to the rapidity with which the operation is executed, is the use of the lactoscope (_galactoscope_). this instrument consists of a tube provided with a glass plate fitted at one end, and with a movable glass plate at the other extremity. a few drops of the milk to be tested are placed between the two plates, and the tube lengthened, by screwing out the movable plate, until the fluid no longer transmits the light of a candle placed at a distance of one metre. as the opacity of milk is due to the butter present, it is evident that the proportion of this substance contained in the sample can be estimated by the relative distance which the plates have been separated. [t] the british society of public analysts regard the following as the _minimum_ proportions of constituents in unadulterated milk: fat 2.5 per cent. solids, not fat 9. " " --- total 11.5 " " water 88.5 " " --_trans._ the lactoscope possesses, however, but a limited degree of precision. _m. marchand_ substitutes to its use the following tests: a test-tube is graduated in three equal divisions, the upper one being subdivided into hundredths extending above, in order to determine accurately the correct volume of the fluid, expanded, as it is, by the temperature of 40â°, at which the examination is executed. the first division of the tube is filled with milk, a drop, or two of strong potassa lye added, and the mixture well shaken: the second portion is then filled with ether, and the third with alcohol. the mixture is next again thoroughly agitated, and then exposed to a temperature of 40â° in a water-bath. after standing for several hours, a layer of fatty matter becomes sufficiently separated to allow of measurement: but, as it contains some ether and as a small amount of butter may still be retained in the lower aqueous fluid, a correction of the results obtained is necessary. m. marchand has compiled a table, which facilitates this correction (_vide_: _journ. de pharm., novembre 1854_, and _bulletin de l'acadã©mie de mã©decine, paris, 1854_, xix., p. 1101). previously to the introduction of marchand's apparatus, use was made of the _lactometer_, which consists simply of a graduated glass tube, in which the suspected milk is allowed to remain for 24 hours, at a temperature of 15â°. after the lapse of this time, the cream present completely separates as a supernatant layer, the thickness of which indicates the quality of the sample taken. _m. lacomte_ recommends the addition of glacial acetic acid, in order to cause the more rapid separation of the cream. the estimation of the butter being accomplished, it is frequently needful to determine the amount of lactose present. for this purpose, recourse is had to barreswil's method, based upon the reduction of cupro-potassic tartrate by milk-sugar in the presence of alkalies. a solution is prepared containing 40 grammes of pure crystallized sulphate of copper, 600 or 700 grammes of caustic soda lye of sp. gr. 1.12, and 160 grammes of neutral tartrate of potassa. the sulphate of copper and tartrate of potassa are previously dissolved separately in a little water, the three solutions united, and water added until the fluid acquires a volume of 1154.4 cubic centimetres. in order to standardize this test solution, a known weight of pure lactose is dissolved in water and the fluid added, drop by drop, from a graduated burette, to a small flask containing 10 cubic centimetres of the copper solution, diluted with 40 cubic centimetres of distilled water, and heated to boiling. at first a yellow precipitate forms, which gradually turns red, and is deposited on the bottom of the flask, leaving the solution colorless. as soon as the test solution is completely decolorized, the addition of the lactose solution is discontinued, and the weight of lactose corresponding to 10 cubic centimetres of the test fluid calculated from the quantity used. the standard of the test solution having been determined, the above operation is repeated, the milk under examination being substituted for the solution of pure lactose. the quantity of milk necessary to decolorize 10 cubic centimetres of the copper solution will evidently contain the same amount of lactose as the quantity of solution used in the preliminary test, and the actual amount of lactose present is very easily calculated. when an estimation of the solid matter contained in the milk is required, a known weight is evaporated to dryness over a water-bath, and the residue weighed. in performing this evaporation, the addition of a known amount of sand, or ground glass, is advisable. the amount of ash present is determined by incinerating the residue left by the evaporation. foreign substances are sometimes added to milk, for the purpose of disguising the presence of an abnormal quantity of water, the principal of which are: chalk, bicarbonate of soda, emulsion of almonds, gum tragacanth, gum arabic, starch, flour, decoction of barley or rice, sugar, and cerebral substances. these bodies are detected as follows: _chalk._--if chalk is contained in the milk, it readily subsides upon allowing the sample to remain at rest for some time in a flask, forming a deposit which effervesces when heated with hydrochloric acid, and dissolves to a solution, in which the characteristic properties of a lime salt can be recognized. _bicarbonate of soda._--in presence of this compound the milk possesses a strongly alkaline reaction, furnishes a serum having a sharp and bitter taste, and leaves a residue of the salt upon evaporation. _emulsion of almonds._--the milk has a specific gravity of at least, 1.033. if it is passed through a gauze, small opaque lumps are separated. when examined under the microscope, numerous minute globules, having a diameter of 1/400 of a millimetre, are observed, and, upon adding a few centigrammes of amygdaline to one or two grammes of the milk, the characteristic odor of bitter almonds is produced. _gum tragacanth._--when shaken in a glass flask and allowed to rest, the milk deposits on the sides small transparent lumps, which usually present a slightly elongated or angular form. _gum arabic._--the addition of alcohol produces an abundant white opaque precipitate. _starch, flour, decoction of barley, rice, etc._--upon boiling the suspected milk, and adding tincture of iodine, the amylaceous substances present produce a blue coloration in the fluid. _sugar._--if yeast is added, and the mixture allowed to stand for some time at a temperature of 30â°, alcoholic fermentation ensues; under these circumstances, lactose does not undergo fermentation. _cerebral substances._--adulteration by these substances is probably of much less frequent occurrence than was formerly supposed. the admixture is detected by evaporating the milk to dryness, dissolving the residue in ether, evaporating the etherial solution, and fusing the second residue, which consists of fatty matters, with nitrate of potassa in a platinum crucible. the mass is then taken up with water, and chloride of barium added to the solution. if cerebral substances were contained in the milk, ether will dissolve the fatty matters present, the phosphorus of which is converted into a soluble phosphate by the calcination with nitrate of potassa and is thrown down as a white precipitate, upon the addition of a solution of chloride of barium. this test may be confirmed by a microscopic examination of the milk, when the peculiar appearance of cerebral matter will be detected.[u] [u] fragments of nerves, and other organic structures, are frequently observed in this examination.--_trans._ wine. the most common adulteration to which wines are subjected is the addition of water: wines having a rich color are frequently mixed by the dealer with lighter wines, and the fraud consummated by adding water. the detection of this adulteration is somewhat difficult, as water is a normal constituent of wine. in paris the following method is usually employed: as soon as the wine is confiscated, it is ascertained what kinds of wine are manufactured by the inculpated dealer, and a statement obtained from him, giving the proportions of alcohol, etc., contained in the various brands. a wine is then prepared, according to the information received, an estimation of the alcohol contained in the prepared sample made, and the results compared with those furnished by a similar examination of the suspected wine. in case the proportion of alcohol is less in the suspected wine than in the prepared sample, it is evident that a fraudulent adulteration has been committed. if, however, the quantity of alcohol is the same in both wines, it does not necessarily follow that the wine has escaped admixture, since this body may have been added after the adulteration with water. in addition to the estimation of alcohol, it is also necessary to determine the amount of cream of tartar (bitartrate of potassa) present, as the proportion of this salt would be sensibly decreased by the addition of alcohol and water to the wine. this fraud could, however, be disguised by subsequently adding the proper amount of cream of tartar. it is also well to ascertain if two equal quantities of the prepared sample and the wine under examination require the same amount of solution of hypochlorite of lime for decolorization. in case the suspected wine has been adulterated, the quantity of hypochlorite solution used will be less than the amount necessary to decolorize the prepared wine. foreign coloring matter may be added by the adulterator, but this fraud is easily detected by adding potassa to the sample: if its coloration is natural, a green tint is produced; whereas, if foreign matter has been introduced, the wine assumes various other colors upon the addition of the alkali.[v] [v] _cotlini_ (_ann. du genie civil_, no. 3, 1873) states that the following reactions occur when artificially colored wines are heated with potassa: pure wine no precipitate greenish hue elderberry violet " beet-sugar red " logwood red violet-red " privet violet-blue " turmeric light-blue " according to _m. de cherville_ (_quar. jour. sc._), a bright violet coloration is produced in the above test, if litmus be present. fuchsin is separated by treatment with subacetate of lead and addition of amylic alcohol (_jour. de ph. et de ch. mar. 1873_).--_trans._ the indications furnished by the above test are rendered valueless, if the wine has been artificially colored by the addition of the coloring matter of grape-skins; but the execution of this fraud would require some knowledge of chemistry, and fortunately adulterators, as a class, are deficient in this branch of science. another method for detecting the addition of water is based upon the fact that fermented liquors do not contain air in solution, but only carbonic acid; whereas, water dissolves oxygen and nitrogen. it is executed as follows: the wine to be tested is placed in a flask, the delivery-tube of which is also filled, and heated; the evolved gas being collected in a tube filled with mercury. in case the wine is pure, the disengaged gas will be completely absorbed by potassa; if, on the other hand, water has been added, an unabsorbed residue, consisting of oxygen and nitrogen, will remain. this test is useless in case water, through which a current of carbonic acid gas has been passed for a considerable time, has been employed. under these circumstances, however, the presence of the gas would probably be detected by the taste of the wine, as well as by the estimation just mentioned, since the sample would invariably contain a larger proportion of the gas than the standard with which it is compared; indeed, it would be almost impossible to prepare a solution which contained exactly the proportion of carbonic acid ordinarily present in wine. it remains to mention the methods employed in determining the amount of alcohol and cream of tartar contained in wine. the alcometrical method usually employed is based upon the difference in density possessed by pure alcohol and by mixtures of alcohol and water. _gay-lussac_ has proposed an areometer (_alcoholmeter_), provided with a scale which directly indicates the proportion of alcohol contained in a mixture. as the indications furnished by this instrument vary with the temperature, and the scale is constructed on the basis of a temperature of 15â°, a correction of the results obtained is necessary if the determination is made at other temperatures. gay-lussac has compiled a table which indicates at once the required correction; the following formula can also be used: _x = c â± 0.4 t_, where _x_ is the quantity of alcohol present in the sample; _c_ the degree indicated by the alcoholmeter, and _t_ the number of degrees differing from the temperature of 15â°: the second member of the formula is subtracted from, or added to the first, as the temperature at which the estimation is made is greater or less than 15â°.[w] [w] tralles alcoholmeter is almost exclusively employed in this country.--_trans._ in case the wine to be examined contains substances other than water and alcohol, which would affect its density, it is necessary, before making use of the alcoholmeter, to distil the sample and subsequently examine the distillate, which will consist of a simple mixture of water and alcohol. usually the distillation is discontinued as soon as one-third of the sample has passed over, and a quantity of distilled water, sufficient to render the volume of the mixture equal to the original volume of the wine, added to the distillate: the fluid remaining in the flask will be entirely free from alcohol. the addition of water to the distillate is not indispensable, but otherwise it is necessary to divide the degrees indicated by the alcoholmeter by 3, in order to reduce the result to the original volume of the wine taken. _m. salleron_ offers for sale a small apparatus (fig. 20) used in examinations of this character, consisting of a flask, closed with a gutta-percha cork, containing a tube which connects with a worm passing through a cooler. the flask is supported by an iron stand, and heated with a gas or spirit lamp. [illustration: fig. 20.] in order to estimate the cream of tartar, the wine is evaporated to the consistency of an extract, alcohol of 82â° b. added, and the residue obtained calcined in a crucible. the amount of salt present in the fused mass is then determined by the alkalimetric method, as directed in all works on quantitative analysis. the carbonate obtained from 1 gr. of cream of tartar exactly saturates 9.75 cubic centimetres of a solution containing 100 grammes of sulphuric acid of 66â° b., and 1800 grammes of distilled water. the detection of toxical substances, often contained in wine, is accomplished by the methods described under the head of detection of poisons. vinegar. vinegar is frequently adulterated with water, and occasionally sulphuric acid is added to artificially increase its acidity. the ordinary reagents--such as chloride of barium, or nitrate of silver--are not adapted to the direct detection of sulphuric acid, or of other mineral acids, as sulphates and chlorides, which are as readily precipitated as the free acids, may also be present. the following method, proposed by _m. payen_, is usually employed: five centigrammes of starch (fecula) are added to a decilitre of table vinegar, the mixture boiled for 12 or 15 minutes, and, after the fluid has become _completely cooled_, a few drops of iodine solution added: dilute acetic acid does not affect starch, and, in case the vinegar is pure, a blue coloration is produced; if, on the other hand, even a minute quantity of a mineral acid be present, the starch is converted into dextrine, and the addition of iodine fails to cause a blue coloration. the water present is indirectly estimated by determining the amount of acetic acid contained in the vinegar. this can be accomplished in different ways: either the quantity of a standard solution of an alkali, necessary to exactly neutralize a measured quantity of the vinegar, is ascertained, or the vinegar is supersaturated with solution of baryta, the excess of the salt eliminated by conducting carbonic acid through the fluid, the precipitate removed by filtration, and the baryta salt in the filtrate precipitated by the addition of sulphuric acid. the second precipitate is then collected on a filter, washed, weighed, and the amount of acetic acid present calculated: this is done by multiplying its weight by 0.515. sulphate of quinine. owing to the high price of this salt, it is frequently adulterated. the substances used for this purpose are: crystalline sulphate of lime, boric acid, mannite, sugar, starch, salicine, stearic acid, and the sulphates of cinchonine and quinidine. these bodies are detected as follows: _a._ upon slightly warming 2 grammes of sulphate of quinine with 120 grammes of alcohol of 21â° b., the pure salt completely dissolves; if, however, starch, magnesia, mineral salts, or various other foreign substances are present, they are left as insoluble residues. _b._ those mineral substances that are soluble in alcohol are detected by calcining the suspected sample: pure sulphate of quinine is completely consumed; whereas, the mineral substances present remain behind as a residue. _c._ in presence of salicine, the salt acquires a deep red color, when treated with concentrated sulphuric acid. _d._ stearic acid remains undissolved upon treating sulphate of quinine with acidulated water. _e._ to detect sugar and mannite, the sample is dissolved in acidulated water, and an excess of hydrate of baryta added: a precipitate, consisting of quinine and sulphate of baryta, is produced. carbonic acid is then passed through the fluid, in order to precipitate the excess of baryta as insoluble carbonate, the fluid saturated with ammonia, to throw down the quinine which may have been re-dissolved by the carbonic acid, and the mixture filtered. if the salt be pure, no residue will be obtained upon evaporating the filtrate; a residue of sugar or mannite is formed, if these substances are present. _f._ sulphate of quinine invariably contains 2 or 3 per cent. of cinchonine, originating, not from a fraudulent admixture, but from an incomplete purification of the salt. one of the best methods for detecting the respective quantities of quinine and cinchonine, present in a sample of the sulphate, is the following: several grammes of ammonia and ether (which has previously been washed with water) are added to one or two grammes of the salt under examination, the mixture thoroughly agitated, and then allowed to remain at rest. the supernatant etherial solution contains all of the quinine; the cinchonine, which is almost completely insoluble, both in water and ether, remaining suspended between the layers of the two fluids. the ether is next removed by means of a stop-cock funnel, evaporated to dryness, and the weight of the residue obtained determined. the operation is then repeated, the ether being replaced by chloroform in which both quinine and cinchonine are soluble. the residue, formed by the evaporation of the second solution, will be heavier than the first residue: the difference between the two weighings gives the weight of the cinchonine present. _g._ the detection of the presence of sulphate of quinidine is based upon the difference in the solubilities of the oxalates of quinine and quinidine. oxalate of quinidine is sufficiently soluble in cold water not to be precipitated by double decomposition when solutions of oxalate of ammonia and sulphate of quinidine are mixed. under the same circumstances, quinine is almost completely thrown down. the test is applied as follows: the suspected salt is dissolved in water, a slight excess of oxalate of ammonia added, and the precipitate formed separated by filtration. if the salt be pure, the filtrate is scarcely rendered turbid by the addition of ammonia; when, however, sulphate of quinidine is present, it will be entirely contained in the filtrate, in which ammonia will produce an abundant precipitate. examination of blood stains. this branch of legal chemistry formerly gave but very unreliable results. it is scarcely ten years since the reactions that are now regarded as only secondary and confirmative in their character, and far from conclusive, were the only ones in use: these are the tests based upon the presence of iron and albumen in the blood. since then, great progress has been made in the methods employed. it must not be understood, however, that the question under consideration always admits of an easy and decisive solution: the stains are sometimes too greatly altered to be identified; but in cases where the distinctive reactions of blood can be produced, the real nature of the stains under examination can, at present, be determined with certainty. the tests more recently introduced consist in the production of small characteristic crystals, termed _haemin_ crystals, and in the use of the spectroscope. crystals of haemin (first discovered by _teichman_) are formed when dry blood is dissolved in concentrated acetic acid, and the solution evaporated to dryness: they are of a brownish-red color. _brã¼cke_ first suggested an analytical method, based upon this property of blood, which is equally characteristic and sensitive: it is only necessary to dissolve a minute portion of the matter to be examined (dried blood, or the residue left by the evaporation of the fluid obtained by treating the stain, or the dried blood, with cold water) in glacial acetic acid and evaporate the solution to dryness in order to obtain crystals of haemin, which can be readily recognized by means of a microscope having a magnifying power of 300 diameters. if the crystals originate from fresh blood, they appear as represented in fig. 21; crystals from old blood are represented in fig. 22. [illustration: fig. 21.] [illustration: fig. 22.] the former possess a reddish-brown, the latter a lighter color. the various methods now employed to produce haemin crystals were proposed by _hoppe-seyler_, by _brã¼cke_ and by _erdman_. whichever process is used, the suspected stains are at first carefully separated from the material upon which they are deposited. if they are present on linen, or other fabrics, the stained portions, which always remain somewhat stiff, are cut off: they will present a reddish-brown color, in case the cloth is not dyed: if the stains are on wood, they are removed by means of a sharp knife; if on stone or iron, they are detached by scraping. in case hoppe-seyler's method is used, the stains, separated as directed above, are macerated with a little _cold_ water (warm water would coagulate the albumen present, and consequently prevent solution taking place): the stains become soft, striae and brown or reddish clouds are observed, especially when the dried blood is fresh, and, at the same time, the objects upon which the stains were deposited are decolorized. upon allowing the fluid obtained in this way to spontaneously evaporate on a watch-glass, a reddish brown or brownish residue is left, from which the crystals of haemin are prepared in the following manner: an almost imperceptible amount of common salt is added to the residue, then, six to eight drops of concentrated acetic acid, and the mass thoroughly mixed by stirring with a small glass rod. the mixture is at first heated over a small gas flame, then evaporated to dryness by the heat of a water-bath. if the stains were produced by blood, a microscopic examination of the residue will reveal the presence of haemin crystals. this method presents an objection: if the stained objects have been washed with warm water previously to the examination, the albumen will be coagulated, and the blood rendered insoluble; in this case, cold water will fail to dissolve anything, and the residue will not produce crystals when treated with acetic acid. in order to remedy this difficulty brã¼cke operates directly upon the stained woven or ligneous fibre, or the matter removed from the stone or iron: the materials are boiled in a test-tube with glacial acetic acid, the fluid decanted or filtered, a trace of common salt added, and the liquid then evaporated on a watch-glass at a temperature between 40 and 80â°. if the stains really originated from blood, haemin crystals will now be easily perceptible upon examining the residue obtained under the microscope. the stained fabric, the matter removed from the stone or iron, or the residue left by the solution with which the stains have been treated, is placed on the glass, a trace of chloride of sodium added, and the whole covered with a thin glass plate. a drop of acetic acid is then placed at the edge of the plates--between which it is soon introduced by capillary attraction--and the mixture allowed to rest in the cold for a few moments. the mass is next brought into solution by slightly heating, and is then evaporated by holding the plate at a considerable distance above a gas burner. the fluid is examined from time to time under the microscope: when it is sufficiently concentrated, crystals, presenting the appearance represented in figs. 21 or 22, will be observed. these are especially well-defined, if an insoluble substance is also present between the plates--which prevents their adhering. the fluid collects by capillary attraction at the points of contact of the plates as a more or less colored layer, in which the crystals are deposited. should the above test fail to present distinctive indications at first, one or two fresh drops of acetic acid are introduced between the plates, and the examination is repeated. the result is not to be regarded as negative, until several trials have proved fruitless, as the stained portions are but slowly soluble, and crystallization may have been prevented by the too rapid evaporation of the acetic solution. haemin crystals, once seen, can hardly be confounded with other substances; still, it is well to identify them by confirming their insolubility in water, alcohol, and cold acetic acid, as well as their instantaneous solubility in soda lye. the addition of common salt is ordinarily superfluous, as it is normally contained in the blood; but it is possible, if the stains were washed with warm water, that, in addition to the coagulation of the albumen, the solution of the salt may have taken place, in which case crystals will fail to form. the addition of salt is to remedy this possible contingency; albeit, the delicacy of the test is not affected, even if crystals of chloride of sodium are produced, as these are easily soluble in water, and are readily distinguished from those of haemin by aid of the microscope. the indications furnished by means of the spectroscope are less reliable than those given by the production of haemin crystals; moreover, the spectroscopic examination requires favorable weather for its execution. still, the test should be employed in all possible instances. the course pursued is the following: the aqueous fluid, with which the stains have been treated, is placed in a watch glass, and evaporated _in vacuo_ over sulphuric acid; the last remaining portion of the fluid being united in the bottom of the glass by causing it to collect in a single drop. when the evaporation of fluid is completed, the watch-glass is placed before the narrowed slit of a spectroscope, and a ray of diffused light (or better, light reflected from a heliostat) made to pass through the part of the glass containing the residue. if the stains originate from blood, the absorption lines of _haemoglobin_, consisting of two large dark bands, to the right of the sodium line (_frauenhofer's_ line d), will be observed in the spectrum. in case both of the above tests fail to give positive results, it is almost certain that the stains examined were not caused by blood. if, on the contrary, the reactions were produced, scarcely any doubt exists as to the presence of blood. under these circumstances it is advisable to confirm the results by means of the tests that have been previously spoken of as being formerly exclusively employed; these are the following: _a._ 1/2 to 1 c. c. of ozonized oil of turpentine, _i. e._ turpentine which has been exposed to the air sufficiently long to acquire the property of decolorizing water that is slightly tinted with indigo--is introduced in a test-tube, and an equal volume of tincture of guaiacum added (the latter tincture is prepared by treating an inner portion of the resin with alcohol, until its brownish color is changed to a brownish-yellow). if upon adding some of the substance under examination to the above mixture a clear blue coloration ensues, and the insoluble matter thrown down possesses a deep blue color, the presence of coloring matter of the blood is indicated. the mixture also imparts a blue color to moistened spots from which the blood stains have been as completely extracted as possible. unfortunately sulphate of iron gives the same reaction.[x] [x] fresh gluten, gum arabic, and caseine also cause the blue coloration.--_trans._ _b._ upon heating the fluid obtained by treating the stains with cold water in a test-tube, its brown or reddish color disappears, and greyish-white flakes of coagulated albumen are thrown down. the precipitate acquires a brick-red color, when treated with an acid solution of nitrate of mercury containing nitrous acid. the albumen is also coagulated by the addition of nitric acid: it assumes a more or less yellow color, if heated with a slight excess of the acid. chlorine-water, especially upon heating, likewise precipitates albumen in the form of white flakes. _c._ if the fluid is acidulated with a few drops of acetic acid, and a drop of ferrocyanide of potassium added, a white precipitate, or, at least, turbidity is produced. _d._ the flakes of albumen, separated by heating, dissolve in caustic alkalies to a solution, from which they are re-precipitated by nitric acid, or chlorine water. _e._ upon treating blood stains with chlorine-water, a solution which contains chloride of iron, and acquires a red coloration by the addition of sulphocyanide of potassium, is formed. _f._ should the stains have failed to be affected by cold water (which, as has already been remarked, is the case when they have been previously washed with hot water), they are treated with weak soda lye. nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, and chlorine water will produce in the solution so obtained a white precipitate, which exhibits the general properties of albumen previously described. in case the stains are deposited upon linen, it is necessary to replace the soda by ammonia, in order to avoid dissolving the fabric. _g._ solutions of the alkalies, which dissolve the albumen, leave the coloring matters intact, and consequently do not decolorize the fabric. if the latter is afterwards subjected to the action of hydrochloric acid, the coloring matter is dissolved, forming a solution that leaves upon evaporation to dryness a residue containing iron, which gives a blue coloration with ferrocyanide of potassium, and a red coloration with sulphocyanide of potassium. _h._ the coloring matter of blood dissolves in boiling alcohol, to which sulphuric acid has been added, to a brown dichroic fluid (appearing green by transmitted light, and red by reflected light). a mixture of rust and blood exhibits the same phenomenon. _i._ if substances containing blood are heated in a dry tube, an odor resembling that of burnt horn is emitted. in case the stained fabric is a substance that would produce this odor, (such as wool, silk, or hair), the test naturally loses all value. _j._ if the fluid obtained by treating the stains either with water or alkali is evaporated with a little carbonate of potassa, and the residue heated, at first at 100â°, then to redness, in a glass tube to which a fresh quantity of carbonate of potassa has been added, cyanide of potassium is formed. when cold, the tube is cut above the part containing the fused mixture, the mass heated with iron-filings and water, the fluid filtered, and the filtrate then acidulated with hydrochloric acid: ferrocyanide of potassium will be present in the fluid, and upon adding a drop of solution of perchloride of iron a green, or blue, color will be produced, and a precipitate of prussian blue gradually thrown down. if the stained cloth is non-nitrogenous (_per ex._: hemp, linen, or cotton), instead of treating it with water, it may be heated until pulverulent, mixed with carbonate of potassa, the mixture calcined, and the operation then completed as just described. this test having given affirmative results, the operations should be repeated with an unstained portion of the cloth, to remove all doubt that the indications obtained do not really originate from the fabric. in the present state of science, it is impossible to discriminate chemically between human and animal blood. _m. barruel_, it is true, is able, not only to accomplish this, but also to distinguish the blood of the various species of animals by its odor! but this test has a somewhat hypothetical value for scientific purposes. in regard to the crystals of haemin, they do not present sufficient difference to allow the blood of different animals to be distinguished. we have not yet treated of the globules. it often occurs that these minute organs are so altered as to be no longer recognized in the microscopic examination; when, however, the stains are tolerably recent, they may be detected by examining the moistened stained cloth, directly under the microscope: a discrimination between animal and human blood is then possible: corpuscules of human blood possess the greater size: those of the sheep, for instance, have only one-half the diameter of the former. it is, however, but seldom that this distinction can be made use of.[y] [y] _menstrual blood_ is recognized by the presence of epithelial cells.--_trans._ examination of spermatic stains. in cases where attempt at violence, rape or pederasty is suspected, the expert may be required to determine the nature of stains found on clothing, sheets, etc. the fact that the stains were produced by semen, may often be regarded, _per se_, as criminating evidence. this class of investigation possesses, therefore, considerable importance. _external appearance of the stains._--dry spermatic stains are thin, and exhibit a greyish or, occasionally, a citron-yellow color, if present on white cloth. in case the fabric is colored, they appear whitish and, if on linen, present a glossy aspect. they are translucid, when observed by transmitted light. if the fabric, upon which the stains are deposited, is of a heavy texture, they are visible only on one side: under all circumstances, their circumference is irregular and undulated. these indications, however, are not conclusive, but vary according to whether the stains were produced by the thick semen of a vigorous man, or the aqueous seminal fluid of an aged and diseased person, or by semen more or less mixed with the prostatic fluid. upon moistening spermatic stains, the distinctive stale odor of fresh semen is sometimes emitted, but this characteristic is usually obscured by the presence of foreign substances. semen stains are soluble in water, forming a gummy fluid, in which chlorine, alcohol, bichloride of mercury, acetate and subacetate of lead produce a white precipitate, but which fails to be coagulated by heating. plumbate of potassa does not impart a fawn-color to these stains, at a temperature above 20â°, as is the case with those produced by albuminous substances. persulphate of iron imparts to spermatic stains a pale yellow color, sulphate of copper, a bluish grey color, cupro-potassic tartrate, a bluish grey color, nitrate of silver, a pale grey color, nitric acid, a pale yellow color. the above reactions, separate or united, are insufficient; they are not very delicate, and are likewise produced by stains originating from the other varieties of mucus: the indications furnished by a microscopic examination of the stains are alone conclusive. _microscopic examination._--semen contains as its principal and fecundating constituent, peculiar vibratory filaments, (_spermatozoa_), held suspended in a viscous fluid. these filaments, when preserved in a warm and moist place, retain their activity for a considerable time: it is even possible that they may exhibit vitality in the organs, into which they have been voluntarily or forcibly ejaculated, for ten, or even twenty-four hours. when exposed to cold air, the spermatozoa quickly expire; still, they preserve their form for some time, and, as this is very characteristic, it is then easy to identify them; moreover, since they originate exclusively in the testicles, their detection may be considered as certain evidence of the presence of semen. in stains produced by aged persons, and by persons enfeebled by excesses, the spermatozoa fail to be presented; in case they are discovered, this fact evidently does not affect the certainty of the spermatic origin of the stains. the contrary conclusion is never absolutely certain: still, if the use of the microscope fails to establish the presence of spermatozoa, it is almost certain that the stains were not produced by semen. of the various methods for obtaining from the stains a preparation adapted to the microscopic examination, the one proposed by m. charles robin is the most simple and reliable. a strip, 1 c. c. in size (comprising the entire stain, if this be small, containing its inner portion, if it be large), is cut from the fabric under examination, care being taken that the two extremities of the sample extend beyond the stained portion. one end of the cloth is then immersed in a capsule, or watch-glass, containing pure water: the stains become moistened by capillary attraction, and, in a space of time varying from twenty minutes to two hours, acquire the appearance of fresh semen. as soon as the stained portion becomes swollen and softened, the surface of the cloth is gently scraped with a spatula, and the substance removed placed on the slide of the microscope. the particles are next slightly detached, a drop of water added, if necessary, and the whole covered with a small plate of very thin glass. the preparation is then examined by a microscope, having a magnifying power of from 500 to 600 diameters. in this way, the presence of either entire or broken spermatozoa is readily detected. their existence is rendered still more apparent, if the mucus present is dissolved by adding a drop of acetic acid to the preparation. entire spermatozoa consist of long slender filaments, having a length of 0.04041 to 0.04512 millimetre; the anterior extremity presents an oval enlargement, either round or pyriform, exhibiting a double outline, when magnified to 500 diameters. this enlarged end is termed the "head;" the entire remaining portion being regarded as the "tail." in case the spermatozoa are broken, they are severed either near the head or in the middle of the tail, and a mass of detached fragments will be observed in the microscopic examination. the spermatozoa are not the only corpuscules revealed by the microscope; other substances, entirely different in character, are often observed. although the detection of these bodies is, in itself, of no value, it will be well to enumerate and characterize them; they are: _a._ oily globules. _b._ leucocytes, or spherical and finely granulous globules of mucus. _c._ corpuscules, originating from the seminal vesicles, termed sympexions. these are rounded or ovoid, possess an irregular outline, and are usually mixed with the spermatozoa and globules of mucus. _d._ crystals of phosphate of magnesia, varying greatly in size; the largest are from 0.mm. 001 to 0.mm. 002 in length. the crystals formed upon cooling the semen, present the form of an oblique prism, with a rhomboidal base. occasionally they are elongated and flattened; they then assume the form of a rhomboid. _e._ epithelial cells; originating from the mucous follicles of the urethra. _f._ irregular grains of dust; soluble in acetic and hydrochloric acids, with gaseous evolution. _g._ brownish-red grains of rust; only slightly soluble in acetic acid, but easily soluble in hydrochloric acid. _h._ filaments of the strained fabric; detected by their texture, and general appearance. _i._ grains of starch, in case the cloth has been stiffened. these are almost invariably swollen, and are frequently broken and deformed. if the examination is to be secretly executed, and the cloth cannot well be cut, it is rolled in a cone, in such a way that the external side contains the stained portion. the lower extremity of the cone (which should be free from stains) is dipped in a watch-glass containing water, so as to avoid directly wetting the stains. the cone soon becomes moistened by absorption, and the operation is then completed in the same manner as when the fabric has been cut; which is always preferable, when possible. the examination of spermatic stains consists, then, in moistening the stains with water, separating them as completely as possible from the stained cloth, and determining the presence of the spermatozoa by means of the microscope. all other tests are valueless; even their execution for confirmatory purposes is not advisable; inasmuch as they fail to possess a distinctive character, and the reagents employed in their production may destroy the fabric, and thus prevent the formation of the only conclusive reaction--the detection of the spermatozoa. in case the stains are deposited upon a woman's chemise, they are usually present on both the front and back portions, and are sometimes to be found on the sleeves. when a man's shirt is under examination, especial attention should be given to the anterior portions. the pantaloons are also often stained; usually in the interior, but sometimes also on the exterior, just above the thighs. in reporting the decision to the court, as to the nature of the stains, their precise position should invariably be stated, as, by this means, the circumstances attending the commission of the crime may be, at least partially, elucidated. the end. appendix. the following list of the literature of toxicology, and its allied branches, will, it is hoped, be of service to those readers who are desirous of obtaining further information on the subjects treated in this work.--_trans._ books. *accum*; a treatise on adulteration of food, and culinary poisons. london, 1822. *adrien*; recherches sur le lait au point de vue de sa composition, de son analyse, de ses falsifications et surtout de l'approvisionnement de paris. paris, 1859. *angell and hehner*; butter; its analysis and adulterations. london, 1874. *anglada*; traitã© de toxicologie. paris, 1835. *atcherly*; adulteration of food. london, 1874. *bandein*; die gifte und ihre gegengifte. basel, 1869. *beck*; elements of medical jurisprudence. albany, 1851. *bellini*; lezionis perementali di tossicologia. firenze, 1865. *bergman*; zur kentniss der putriden gifte. dorpat, 1868. *bernard*; leã§ons sur les substances toxiques. paris, 1857. *billard*; considerations medico-lã©gale sur les empoisonnements par les irritants. paris, 1821. *blondlot*; sur la recherche de l'arsenic par la methode de marsh. nancy, 1857. _ibid_; sur la recherche toxicologique du phosphore par la coloration de la flamme. nancy, 1861. _ibid_; sur le dosage de l'antimoine dans les recherches toxicologiques. nancy, 1865. *boettcher*; ueber blutkrystalle. dorpat, 1862. *bonsels*; ein beitrag zur analyse des arsens, vorzugsweise in gerichtlichen fã¤llen. kiel, 1874. *borie*; catechisme toxicologique. tuelle, 1841. *bouchardt et quevenne*; du lait. paris, 1857. *bowman and bloxam*; medical chemistry. london, 1874. *briand et chaudã©*; manuel complet de mã©dicine lã©gale; contenant un manuel de chimie lã©gale. paris, 1873. *buchner*; toxikologie. nã¼remburg, 1859. *bureaux*; histoire des falsifications des substances alimentaires. paris, 1855. *chapman*; manual of toxicology. london, 1853. *chatin*; recherches experimentals et considerations sur quelques princips de la toxicologie. paris, 1844. *chiaje*; tossicologia. napoli, 1835. *chaussier*; mã©dicine lã©gale. paris, 1858. *chevalier*; dictionaire des alterations et falsifications des substances alimentaires, mã©dicamenteuses et commerciales, avec l'indication des moyens de les reconnaitre. paris, 1856. _ibid_; essais practiques sur l'examen chimique des vins, considã©rã© sous la rapport judiciaire. paris, 1857. *christison*; a treatise on poisons. edinburg, 1836. *collier*; paradoxology of poisoning. london, 1856. *cooper*; tracts on medical jurisprudence. phila., 1819. *cormenin*; memoire sur l'empoisonnement par l'arsenic. paris, 1842. *cotter*; adulteration of liquors. n. y., 1874. *cottereau*; des alterations et des falsifications du vin, et des moyens physiques et chimiques employã©s pour les reconnaitre. paris, 1851. *cox*; poisons; their effects, tests and antidotes. london, 1852. *culbrush*; lectures on the adulteration of food, and culinary poisons. newburg, 1823. *dalton*; adulteration of food. london, 1857. *divergie*; mã©dicine lã©gale. paris, 1852. *dragendorff*; beitrã¤ge zur gerichtlichen chemie einzelner organischen gifte. st. petersburg, 1872. _ibid_; untersuchungen aus dem pharmaceutischen institut in dorpat. st. petersburg, 1872. _ibid_; manuel de toxicologie; traduit par e. ritter. paris, 1873. *druitt*; on wines. london, 1866. *duflos*; die wichtigsten lebenbedã¼rfnisse, ihre aechtheit und gã¼te; verunreinigungen, verfã¤lschungen, etc. breslau, 1846. _ibid_; die prã¼fung chemischer gifte. breslau, 1871. _ibid_; handbuch der angewandten gerichtlich-chemischen analyse der chemischen gifte; ihre erkennung in reinem zustand und in gemischen betreffend. leipzig, 1873. *duflos u. hirsch*; das arsen; seine erscheinung, u. s. w. breslau, 1842. *dupasquier*; consultation medico-lã©gale relative ã  une accusation d'empoisonnement par le plomb. lyon, 1843. *erhard*; die giftigen pflanzenalkaloiden und deren ausmittelung auf mikroskopischem wege. passau, 1867. *eulenberg*; die lehre von den schã¤dlichen und giftigen gasen. braunschweig, 1849. *flandin*; traitã© des poisons. paris, 1852. *flandin et danger*; de l'arsenic. paris, 1853. *fop*; adulteration of food. london, 1855. *fraise*; alimentation publique; le lait, ses falsifications, etc. nancy, 1864. *frank*; manuel de toxicologie; traduit de l'allemand par vrankan. anvers, 1803. *fresenius*; auffindung unorganischen gifte in speisen, u. s. w. braunschweig, 1856. *friedrich*; die verfã¤lschung der speisen und getrã¤nke. mã¼nster, 1859. *galtier*; traitã© de toxicologie. paris, 1855. *galtier de claubry*; de la recherche des alcalis organiques dans les cas d'empoisonnement. paris, 1862. *ganeau*; alterations et falsifications des farines. lille, 1856. *garnier*; des falsification des substances alimentaires et des moyens de les reconnaitre. paris, 1844. *gerhardt*; prã©cis d'analyse pour la recherche des alterations et falsifications des produits chimiques et pharmaceutiques. paris, 1860. *garland*; prã©cis d'analyse chemique qualitative. paris, 1855. *gmelin*; allgemeine geschichte der thierischen und mineralischen gifte. erfurt, 1806. *gorup-besanez*; anleitung zur qualitativen und quantitativen zoochemischen analyse. braunschweig, 1871. *gosse*; des taches, au point de vue medico-lã©gale. paris, 1862. *griffin*; the chemical testing of wines and spirits. london, 1872. *griffith and taylor*; a practical manual of the general, chemical, and microscopical character of the blood, etc. london, 1843. *guerin*; nouvelle toxicologie. paris, 1826. *guy*; principles of forensic medicine. london, 1843. *gwosden*; ueber die darstellung des hã¤min aus dem blut und den qualitativen nachweis minimaler blutmengen. wien, 1866. *hager*; untersuchungen. leipzig, 1873. *hartung-schwarzkoff*; chemie der organischen alkalien. mã¼nchen, 1855. *hassall*; adulteration of food. london, 1855. *van hassett*; handbuch der giftlehre. braunschweig, 1862. *helwig*; das mikroskop in der toxikologie. mainz, 1864. *herman*; lehrbuch der experimentellen toxikologie. berlin, 1875. *hitzig*; studien ã¼ber bleivergiftung. berlin, 1870. *hoffman*; manual of chemical analysis. n. y., 1873. *hoppe-seyler*; handbuch der physiologisch und pathologisch chemischen analyse. berlin, 1870. _ibid_; medicinisch-chemische untersuchungen. berlin, 1871. *horsley*; the toxicologist's guide. london, 1866. *how*; adulteration of food and drink. london, 1855. *huseman*; handbuch der toxikologie. berlin, 1870. *jaillard*; de la toxicologie du bichromate de potasse. strasbourg, 1861. *jones (h. bence)*; chemistry of wines. london, 1874. *klincke*; die verfã¤lschung der nahrungsmittel, getrã¤nke, etc. leipzig, 1858. *v. kupffer*; handbuch der alkoholometrie. wien, 1866. *de lapparent*; les moyens de constater la puretã© des principales huiles fixes. cherbourg, 1855. *lefort*; etudes chimiques et toxicologiques sur la morphine. paris, 1861. *legrand*; traitã© de mã©dicine lã©gale et de jurisprudence mã©dical. paris, 1873. *letheby*; on food. n. y., 1872. *lerwin*; toxikologischen tabellen. berlin, 1856. *liebreich*; outlines of toxicology. london, 1875. *lindes*; beitrã¤ge zur gerichtlichen chemie. berlin, 1852. *lunel*; guide pratique pour reconnaã¯tre les falsifications et alterations des substances alimentaires. paris, 1874. *malle*; essai d'analyse toxique gã©nerale. strasbourg, 1838. *marset*; composition, adulteration, and analysis of food. london, 1856. *marshall*; remarks on arsenic. london, 1817. *marx*; geschichtlich darstellung der giftlehre. gã¶ttingen, 1829. *mata*; tratado de medicina y cirugia legal. paris, 1874. *mayercon and bergeret*; recherches sur la passage de l'arsenic et de l'antimoine dans les tissus et les humeurs. paris, 1874. *meissner*; arã¤ometrie in ihrer anwendung auf chemie und technik. wien, 1816. *mitchell*; falsification of food. london, 1848. *mohr*; chemische toxikologie. braunschweig, 1874. *monier*; memoires sur l'analyse de la lait et des farines. paris, 1858. *montgarney*; essai de toxicologie. paris, 1818. *muller*; anleitung zur prã¼fung der kuhmilch. bern, 1858. *mã¼nk und leyden*; phosphorvergiftung. berlin, 1865. *neubauer*; chemie des weines. wiesbaden, 1874. *neuman*; die erkennung des bluts bei gerichtlichen untersuchungen. leipzig, 1869. *normandy*; the commercial hand-book of chemical analysis. london, 1875. *odling*; a course of practical chemistry. london, 1872. *oesterlen*; das menschliche haar und seine gerichtã¤rtliche bedeutung. tã¼bingen, 1875. *orfila*; rapport sur les moyens de constater la presence de l'arsenic dans les empoisonnements par ce toxique. paris, 1841. _ibid_; traitã© de mã©dicine lã©gale. paris, 1848. _ibid_; elements de chimie mã©dicale. paris, 1851. _ibid_; traitã© de toxicologie. paris, 1852. *otto*; anleitung zur ausmittelung der gifte, und zur erkennung der blutflecken bei gerichtlich-chemischen untersuchungen. braunschweig, 1870. *payen*; substances alimentaires. paris, 1856. *pelliken*; beitrã¤ge zur gerichtlichen medizin, toxikologie und pharmakodynamik. wã¼rztburg, 1858. *petit lafitte*; instruction simplifiã©e pour la constatation des propriã©tã©es des altã©rations et des falsifications des principales, denrã©es alimentaires. bordeaux, 1858. *plaff*; anleitung zur vornahme gericthlicher blutuntersuchungen. plauen, 1860. *pierce*; examination of drugs, chemicals, etc. cambridge, 1852. *planta*; verhaltung der wichtigsten alkaloiden gegen reagenten. heidelberg, 1846. *pleck*; toxicologia. viennae, 1801. *prescott*; chemical examination of alcoholic liquors. n. y., 1875. *preyer*; die blutkrystalle. jena, 1871. *reese*; a manuel of toxicology. phila., 1874. *reveil*; introduction ã  un cours de toxicologie. paris, 1859. *reyer*; die blausã¤ure physiologisch untersucht. bonn., 1868. *rich*; the analyst's annual note-book for 1874. london, 1875. *ritter*; ueber die ermittelung von blut, samen und excrementenflecken in kriminalfã¤llen. wã¼rztburg, 1854. _ibid_; beitrã¤ge zur gerichtlichen chemie. st. petersburg, 1872. _ibid_; manuel de chimie practique, analytique, toxicologique et zoochimique. paris, 1874. *robinet (fils)*; manuel practique d'analyse chimique des vins. paris, 1872. *rebuteau*; elements de toxicologie et de mã©decine lã©gale appliquã©e ã  l'empoisonnements. paris. 1873. *roucher*; recherches toxicologiques. paris, 1852. *roussin*; falsification des vins par l'alun. paris, 1861. *ryan*; medical jurisprudence. london, 1836. *schmidt*; ein beitrag zur kentniss der milch. dorpat 1874. *schmidt*; diagnostik verdã¤chtlicher flecken. leipzig, 1848. *schneider*; die gerichtliche chemie. wien, 1852. *schroff*; toxikologische versuche ã¼ber arsen. wien, 1858. _ibid_; beitrã¤ge zur kentniss des aconite. *simon*; die frauenmilch. berlin, 1838. *sonnenkalb*; l'aniline et ses couleurs, au point de vue toxicologique. leipzig, 1864. *sonnenschein*; ueber ein neues reagent auf alkaloiden. berlin, 1857. _ibid_; handbuch der gerichtliche chemie. berlin, 1869. *soubeiran*; nouveau dictionnaire des falsifications et des alterations des aliments, etc. paris, 1874. *speyer*; recherche de la colchicine. dorpat, 1870. *spratt*; toxicology. london, 1843. *stowe*; a toxicological chart. london, 1872. *tanner*; memoranda on poisons. london, 1872. *tardieu*; etude medico-lã©gale sur l'empoisonnement. paris, 1866. *tardieu, lorain et roussin*; empoisonnement par la strychnine, l'arsenic, et les sels de cuivre. paris, 1865. *tatra*; traitã© d'empoisonnement par l'acide nitrique. paris, 1802. *taylor*; poisoning by strychnine. london, 1856. _ibid_; on poisons, in relation to medical jurisprudence and medicine. london, 1859. _ibid_; a manual of medical jurisprudence. phila., 1873. _ibid_; the principles and practice of medical jurisprudence. phila., 1873. *thompson*; medical jurisprudence. london, 1831. *traill*; medical jurisprudence. phila., 1841. *trommer*; die kuhmilch in berzug auf ihre verdã¼nnung und verfã¤lschung. berlin, 1859. *valser*; etude sur la recherche, les caractã¨res distinctifs, et la dosage des alcaloã¯des organiques naturels. paris, 1862. *vernois*; du lait chez la femme dans l'etã¢t de santã© et dans l'etã¢t de maladie. paris, 1858. *vogel*; eine neue milchprobe. stuttgart, 1860. *walchner*; die nahrungsmittel des menchens, ihre verfã¤lschungen und verunreinigungen. berlin, 1875. *walther*; ueber erkennung des arsens bei arsenvergiftung. bayreuth, 1854. *wanklyn*; milk analysis. london, 1874. *wenke*; das bier und seine verfã¤lschung. weimar, 1861. *werber*; lehrbuch der praktischen toxikologie. erlangen, 1870. *wharton and stille*; medical jurisprudence. phila., 1855. *wickler*; toxikologische briefe. weimar, 1852. *wirthgen*; die verschiedenen methoden zur ermittelung von blutflecken in forensischen fallen. erlangen, 1861. *witting*; uebersicht der wichtigsten erfahrungen in der toxikologie. hannover, 1827. *wã¶hler und liebold*; das forensisch-gerichtlichen verfahren bei einer arsenvergiftung. berlin, 1847. *wood*; therapeutics, materia medica and toxicology. phila., 1874. *wormely*; the micro-chemistry of poisons. n. y., 1867. *wurtz*; chimie mã©dicale. paris, 1868. *zalewsky*; untersuchung ã¼ber das conin. dorpat, 1869. memoirs. on poisons generally and those not elsewhere classified. *accum*; ed. month. rev. iii, 276; quar. rev. xxiv, 341; ed. rev. xviii, 370. *andrews*; sill am. jour. [2] xlvii, 25. *bouis*; compt. rend. lxxiii. *bunsen*; ann. ch. pharm. cvi, 1. *brunner*; archiv. der pharm. ccii, 4. *cossa*; gaz. med. di lomb., 1863. *diakanow*; med. chem. unters. ii, 144. *duflos u. millon*; ann. chem. pharm. xlix, 308. *elliot and storer*; am. jour. pharm., sept., 1860 *joubert*; compt. rend., no. 26. *moitessier*; annal d'hygiene, 1868. *orfila*; mem. de l'acad. roy. de mã©d. viii. 493. *otto*; ann. chem. pharm. c., 39. *pellissie*; jour. de pharm. et de chim., jan., 1874. *reveil*; compt. rend. lx, 433. *reynolds*; the irish hosp. gaz. feb. 15, 1873. *selmi*; gaz. chim. ital. 1874. fasc. i, ii. *stein*; polyt. centralb., 1866, p. 1023 and 1870, pp. 1035, 1209. *vierchow*; arch. f. path. anat. xxi, 444. on the destruction of organic matter. *brande*; arch. f. pharm. xlviii, 206. *buchner*; n. rept. f. pharm. xvii, 21. *fresenius*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem. 1 jahrg, 447. *fype*; jour. f. prakt. chem. lv, 103. *graham*; phil. mag. [4] xxiii. *liebig*; chem. centbl., 1857, v. 357. *ludwig*; arch. f. pharm. xcvii, p. 23. *schacht*; arch. f. pharm. lxxvi, 139. *schneider*; jahrb. der chem. 1851, 630. *sonnenschein*; deutsche klinik, 1867, no. 3. *wurtz*; am. jour. sci. [2] xi, 405. on the detection of arsenic. *avery*; sill am. j. [2] xlvii, 25. *barker*; am. chem. june, 1872. *becker*; arch. f. pharm. xlvi, 287. *bettendorff*; zeitsch. f. chem. v. 492, 592. *blondlot*; jahresb. 1863, 681; compt. rend. july 7, 1845. *bloxam*; jahresb. f. chem. 1860. 645; chem. soc. q. jour. xiii, 14, 138. *brescius*; ding. poly. jour., clxxxvi, 226. *buchner*; rept. f. pharm. xii. *christison*; lond. and edinb., jour. med. sc., sept., 1843; med. recorder, apr., 1827. *davy*; jahresb., 1858, 609. *draper*; dingl. poly. jour. cciv. 385. *elliot and storer*; sill. jour. 32, p. 380. *erlenmeyer*; zeitsch. f. ch. u. pharm. 1862, 38. *feuchtwanger*; sill. jour. xix, 339. *franck*; zeit. f. anal. chem. iv. 201. *fresenius*; arch. f. pharm. lxii, 57; ann. der chem. u. pharm. xliii. 361; ibid, xlix, 275; zeits. f. anal. chem. vi, 196; ibid ii, 19; ibid i. 483; qual. chem. anal. p. 346. *fresenius u. v. baho*; pogg, anal. vol. xc, 565; ann. chem. pharm. xlix, 287. *fype*; phil. mag. ii 487; jour. f. prakt. chem. lx. 103. *gatehouse*; chem. news. no. 699, 1873. *gaultier de claubry*; j. pharm. [3] xxii, 125. *graham*; ann. chem. pharm. cxxi, 63: elements of chem. 2nd. edit. vol. ii, 215. *gray*; chem. news, v. 23 p. 73. *hager*; pharm. zeitsch. 1870, no. 27: ding. poly. jour. vol. 207, no. 6; centralhalle xiii, 195. *hasson*; compt. rend, lxvii, 56. *houzeau*; ding. poly. jour. bd. 207, heft. 2, 3. *hume*; phil. mag. sept. 1812, 109. *keber*; viertlj. f. gerichtl. med. ix. 96. *kirschgassner*; j. f. prakt. chem. lxviii. 168; jahresb., 1860, 170. *lippirt*; j. f. prakt. chem. lxviii, 168; jahresb., 1860, 170. *lois*; oest. zeitsch. f. prakt. heilkunde, xlix, 1859. *mayer*; pharm. zeitsch. russ. 2 jahrgang. *meyer*; ann. chem. u. pharm., lxvi. *montmeja*; la france mã©d., jan. 8, 1873. *odling*; guys. hosp. rep. [3] v. 367; zeitsch. f. anal. chem. ii. 388. *pearson*; sill, am. j. [2] xlviii, 190. *puller*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem. x, 52. *rose*; pogg. annal., vol. xc; zeitsch. f. anal. chem. i, 418; chimie anal. paris, 1859, p. 405. *roussin*; jahresb. 1866, 801. *saikowski*; arch. f. path. anat. xxxi, 400. *selmi*; dent. chem. gess. ber. 1872, 477. *schafer*; jour. f. prakt. chem. lxxxii, 286. *schneider*; wien. akad. ber. 1851, vi, 409 *sklarek*; arch. f. anat. u. phys. 1866, 481. *slater*; chem. gaz. 1851, 57. *sonnenschein*; arch. f. pharm, cxciii, 245: ibid. [2] cxliii, 250. *taylor*; guys. hosp. rep. ii, 83; ibid. vi; pharm. zeitsch. f. russl. 10, jahrg. 129. *ugers*; ann. chem. pharm. clix, 127. *ures*; dict. arts, etc., new edit, i, 189. *vitry*; annal d'hygiã¨ne publ. xxxvi, 14. *wackenroder*; arch. f. pharm. lxx, 14. *watt's* chem. dict. i, 365; supp. 215. *werther*; j. pr. chem. lxxxii, 235; jahresb. 1861, 851. *wiggers*; canstatt's jahresb. der pharm. 1864. *wittstein*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem. ii, 19. *wohler*; ann. der chem. u. pharm. lxix, 364; mineral analyse, gã¶ttingen, 1861, 213. *wood and doremus*; n. y. med. press, 1859, 543. *zenger*; zeitsch. f. ch. pharm. 1862, 38; jahresb. 1862, 595. on the detection of antimony. *bellini*; jhb. f. pharm. 1868, p. 453. *bottger*; chem. centralbl., 3 jahrgang. *bunsen*; ann. chem. pharm. cvi, p. 3. *hofman*; ann. chem. pharm. p, 155; chem. soc. quar. j. xiii, 79. *millon and levaran*; compt. rend. 21. *odling*; guys hosp. rep. [3] ii, 249. *pfaff*; pogg. ann. f. phys xl, 339. *thompson*; jour. f. prakt. chem. ii, 369. *vogel*; ibid, xiii, 57. on the detection of mercury. *buchner*; n. rept. f. pharm. xvii, 272. *erdman and marchand*; jour. f. prakt. chem. xxxi. *hittdorf*; pogg. annal. cvi. *konig*; jour. f. prakt. chem. lxx. *mayencon and bergeret*; jour. de l'anat. et de la physiol. 1873, no. 1; jour. de pharm. et de chim., aug., 1873. *schneider*; ber. d. wien, akad. d. wiss. xl. *wormley*; chem. news, ii, no. 43. on the detection of phosphorus. *barrett*; phil. mag. [4] xxx, 321. *blondlot*; jour. de. phy. et de chim. 3 ã© serie xl, p. 25. *bostelaer*; jour. de pharm. et de chim., may, 1873. *christoffle and beilstein*; ann. de chim. v, iii, p. 80. *dalmon*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem. 1871, 132. *dusard*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem. i, 129; compt. rend. xliii, 1126. *ferrand*; la france med., jan. 18, 1873. *fresenius and neubauer*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem. i, 366. *hager*; zeitsch f. anal. chem. 1870, 465. *hoffman*; jahresb. 1859, 663. *klewer*; pharm. zeitsch. f. russl., 386. *kohler*; poly. centralh., 1871, 263. *lapeyrere*; la france mã©d., jan. 4, 1873. *lefort*; jour. de pharm. et de chim., aug., 1874. *lispowitz*; ann. f. phys. u. pharm. cviii, 625. *mistcherlich*; jour. f. prakt. chem. lxvi, 238. *mulder*; arch. f. d. holl. zeit. ii, 4; zeitsch. f. anal. chem. ii, 3. *otto*; zeitsch. f. chem. [2] ii, 733. *pribram*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem. 1871, 109. *ritter*; thã©se de doctorat es sciences, paris, 1872. *scherer*; ann. ch. pharm. cxii, 214. *schieffendecker*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem. 1872, iii. *schom*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem. [2] v, 664. *wiggers*; canstatt's jahresb. f. pharm. 1854. on the detection of prussic acid. *almen*; chem. centralb., 1871, 797. *bonjean*; compt. rend. lxx, 532. *braun*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem. iii, 464. *duvignan and parent*; am. med. rec. 1819, 534. *hagenbach*; arch. f. path. anat. xl, 125. *hoppe-seyler*; vierschow's arch. f. path. anat 38. *jacquemin*; compt. rend. lxxxix, 1499, 1502. *letheby*; lond. lanc. 1844, 244; ibid, vol. 2, p. 139. *ralph*; n. jahresb. f. pharm. xxx, 179. *rennard*; pharm. zeitsch. f. russl. xii, no. 8. *schonbein*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem. 1868, 503. *siegel*; arch. f. heilkunde, 1858. *struve*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem. 1873, i; mon. scien. ques. juin, 1874, 538. *taylor*; ann. ch. pharm. lxv, 263. on the detection of alkaloids in general. *anderson*; pharm. centralbl., 1848, 591. *armstrong*; j. chem. soc., v. 8, p. 56. *back*; jour. f. prakt. chem. nos. 5-6, 1873. *beas*; jour. de phys. et de chim., sept. 1872. *bolton*; (trans. of the stas-otto method) am. chem., nov., 1873. *bonnemains*; compt. rend. xxxvi, 150. *bouchardt*; ann. de phys. et de chim., 3e sã©rie. t. ix. *brunner*; archiv der pharm., april, 1873. *buignet*; jour. de pharm. et de chim. t. xx, 252. *deane and brady*; chem. soc. j. [2] iii, 34. *deefs*; n. jahresb. f. pharm. ii, 31; wittstein's viertelj. vi. *dragendorff*; pharm. zeitsch. f. russl. ii, 459; archiv der pharm. may, 1874. *erhard*; n. jahresb. f. pharm. xxv, 129, 193, 283; ibid, xxvi, 9, 129. *ewers*; pharm. zeitsch. f. russl. xii, no. 23. *graham and hofman*; chem. soc. qu. j. v, 173; pharm. j. trans. xi, 504; ann. ch. pharm. lxxxiii, 39. *grandean*; bull. soc. chim. [2] ii, 74. *guy*; pharm. jour. ii, pp. 553, 602; ibid, iii, pp. 11, 112. *hagers*; chem. ctbl., 1869, 131. *horsley*; chem. news, v, 355 *huseman*; ann. chem. pharm. cxxviii, 305. *kletzinsky*; mitthel. v. d. geb. d. rein. u. angew. chem. 1865. *kohler*; archiv der pharm. mar. 1873. *kuhne*; ann. chem. pharm. vol. civ. *lefort*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem. i, 134. *lehrman*; archiv der pharm. 2 bd. lxxvi, 144. *liebig*, poggendorff u. wohler; handwã¶rterb. d. chem. 2 aus. i, 464. *macadams*; pharm. jour. trans. xvi, 120, 160. *marchattie*; chem. news. x, 183. *marme*; bull. soc. chim [2] ix, 203; zeitsch. f. rat. med. 1867. *mayer*; jour. de pharm. et de chim., oct. 1873; oest zeitsch. f. pharm. ii, 232. *nowak*; dingls. poly. jour., vol. 206, p. 422; sitzber. d. wiener akad. d. wissensch., 1872. *otto*; ann. ch. pharm. c, 39. *orfila*; jour. de. chim. et mã©d. [4] t. vii, 397. *palm*; pharm. zeitsch. f. russl. i, jahxgang. *pierce*; j. chem. soc., nov. 1874. *prollius*; chem. centralbl., 1857, 231. *ritter*; pharm. zeitsch. f. russl. 5-6 jahrg. *rodgers and girdwood*; jahresb. v. liebig u. kopp, 1857, 603; pharm. jour. trans. xvi, 497. *rorsch and fasbender*; deut. chem. gess. ber. xii, 1064. *scheibler*; jahresb. 1863, 702; arch. f. pharm. lix; jour. f. prakt. chem. lxxx, 211. *schneider*; ann. chem. pharm., von poggendorff, no. 9. *schrage*; archiv der pharm., dec., 1874. *schroof*; apothet. jahrg., ix, 148. *schulze*; ann. ch. pharm. cxix, 177. *schwanert*; deut. chem. gess. ber., no. 14, 1874. *sonnenschein*; ibid, civ, 45. *stas*; bull. de l'acad. roy. de mã©d. de belgique, xi, 304 (1851); ann. ch. pharm., lxxxiv, 379, j. pharm. chim., xxii, 281; jahresb., 1851, 640; jour. f. prakt. chem., lix, 232. *struve*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem., no. 2, 1873. *thomas*; ibid, vol. i, 317. *v. uslar and erdman*; ann. der chem. u. pharm., 120, p. 121; 122, p. 360. *de vrij and van der burg*; jahresb. v. liebig u. kopp, 1857, 602. *watts*; chem. dict., vol. i, p. 125. *wagner*; fresen. zeitsch. f. anal. chem., iv. on atropine. *brunner*; archiv der pharm., april, 1873. *calmberg*; ibid. nov., 1874. *gulielmo*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem., ii, 404. *helwig*; wiener akad. ber. vii, 433. *koppe*; pharm. zeitsch. f. russl., 5 jahrgang. *pelikan*; ibid, 1 jahrgang. *wormley*; chem. news, vol. ii, june, 1860. on brucine. *cotton*; zeitsch. f. chem. [2] v. 728. *helwig*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem., iii, 43. *luck*; zeitsch. f. chem. [2] vi, 275. *mayer*; rep. chim. app., v, 102. *strecker*; ann. ch. pharem., xci, 76. *trapp*; jahresb. 1863, 702. *wormley*; chem. news, vol. ii, july, 1860. on morphine. *anderson*; ann. ch. pharm., lxxv, 80. *dupre*; chem. news, viii, 267; jahresb., 1863, 704. *erdman*; ann. ch. pharm. cxx, 88; ibid, cxxii, 360. *flandin*; compt. rend., xxxvi, 517. *frohde*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem. v, 214; arch. f. pharm., clxxvi. *huseman*; ann. ch. pharm., cxxviii, 305. *kalkbrunner*; zeitsch. d. all. oest. apot. ver., no. 27. *lassaigne*; ann. ch. pharm. [2] xxv, 102. *lefert*; j. pharm. [3] xl, 97. *mermer*; j. chim., xxiii, 12. *wormley*; chem. news, vol. ii, sept., 1860. on strychnine. *bingley*; chem. gaz., 1856, 229. *brieger*; jahresb. pr. pharm. xx, 87. *cloetta*; zeirsch. f. anal. chem., v, 265. *davy*; j. pharm. [3] xxiv., 204. *djurberg*; chem centralb., 1872, 153; zeitsch. f. anal. chem., 1872, 440. *eboli*; archiv der pharm., cxxxv, 186. *erdman and marchand*; jour. f. prakt. chem., xxxi, 374. *gorup-besenez*; handwã¶rterb. [2] i, 468. *graham and hofman*; pharm. trans., xi, 504; chem. gaz., 1852, 197; ann. ch. pharm., lxxxiii, 39. *hagen*; ann. ch. pharm. ciii, 159. *hunefeld*; schw., lx. 454. *janssen*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem., 4 jahrgang. *jordan*; n. repert., x, 156. *letheby*; pharm. j. trans. xvi, 10. *mack*; n. br. arch., xlvi, 314. *marchand*; chem. gaz., june 15, 1844. *mayer*; j. pharm. [3] xlvi. *reese*; chem. news. 1862, 316. *rousseau*; j. chim. mã©d. xx, 415. *sonnenschein*; jahresb. 1870, 1032; ber. d. deutsch. chem. gess. iii, 653. *schroder*; n. br. arch., xciii, 190. *thomas*; amer. jour. pharm. 1862, 227. *thompson*; pharm. j. trans., ix., 24. *vogel*; n. repert. pharm., ii, 560. *de vrij and van der burg*; pharm. j. trans. xvi, 448. *wagner*; kopp's jahresb., 1861, 857; zeitsch. f. anal. chem., vi, 387. *wittstein*; pharm. viertelj., vi, 273. *wormley*; am. jour. sc. and arts., xxviii, sept., 1859. on the detection of falsifications of writings. *lucas*; chem. centralb., 1868, 1517. *knecht-senefelder*; technol., xxvi, 143. *moride*; compt. rend., lviii, 367; ding. poly. jour. clxxii, 390. *vorwerk*; ding. poly. jour., clxxii, 158. *----*; berl. ind. z., 1864, 41. on the detection of adulterations in flour and bread. *barral*; compt. rend., lvi, 834. *bastelaer*; chem. centralb., 1868, 1342. *cailletet*; ibid, 1858, 1392. *corput*; ibid, 1860, 207. *crooks*; chem. news., vol. xxxiii, 73. *danckwort*; archiv der pharm. [2] xx, 47. *davis*; chem. news, xxv., 207. *eulenberg and vohl*; poly. centralb., cxcvii, 530. *gobley*; jour. de pharm., april, 1844. *hadon*; chem. news, 1862. *hager*; ding. poly. jour., clxxiii, 159. *harsley*; archiv der pharm., july and dec., 1873; chem. news, xxv, 230. *moitessier*; annal. d'hygiene, 1868. *odling*; j. soc. arts, april 9, 1858. *oser*; ding. poly. jour., clxxxiii, 256. *rivot*; ann. de phys. et de chim., 3e sã©rie t, xlvii. *rummel*; ding. poly. jour., cxxxix, 49. *tasbender*; ding. poly. jour., no. 6, ccvi. *wanklyn*; archiv der pharm., dec., 1873; chem. news, xxxiii, no. 736; ber. med. jour., march 29, 1873. on the examination of fatty oils. *behrens*; ding. poly. jour., cxxxi, 50. *calvert*; pharm. j. trans., xiii, 356. *clarke*; chem. news, xxiii, 145. *dingl*; poly. jour., clxxiv. *donny*; bull. soc. d'erc, 1864, 372; jahresb., 1864, 734. *dragendorff*; pharm. zeitsch. f. russl., ii, 434. *fluckiger*; chem. centralb., 1871, 55. *glassner*; (trans.) am. chem., dec., 1873. *gobley*; j. pharm. [3], iv, 285; ibid. v. 67. *jacobson*; bull. soc. chim., [2] vii, 96. *langlies*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem., 1870, 534. *ludwig*; archiv der pharm., [3] i, 1. *macnaught*; chem. centralb., 1862, 742. *massie*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem., 1871, 495. *maumene*; compt. rend., xxxv, 572. *nickles*; bull. soc. chim., [2] vi, 89 *penot*; bull. de mullh., xxvi, 7; jahresb., 1866, 827. *roth*; bull. de mullh., 1864, 104. *ure's* dict. of arts, etc., iii, 300. *vogel*; chem. centralbl., 1863, 945. *watt's* dict. of chem., iv., 182. on the examination of milk. *boussingault*; ann. chem. phys. [4] xxv, 382. *baumhauer*; j. pr. chem., lxxxiv, 145. *casselman*; chem. centralb., 1863, 689. *dancer*; chem. news, v, 21, p. 51. *daubrawa*; jour. f. prakt. chem., lxxviii, 426. *donne*; compt. rend., xvii, pp. 585, 591. *filhol and joly*; wurtz's dict. de chim., t. ii, p. 195. *gmelin*; handb. der chem., viii, [2] 246-273. *heeren*; chem. centralb., 1870, 304. *hermstaedt*; pharm. centralb., 1833, 401. *kletzinsky*; chem. centralb., 1861, 244. *lade*; chem. centralb., 1858, 144. *leconte*; ibid, 1854, 1465. *lehman*; lehrb. der phys. chem., 1863, ii, pp. 287, 301; (trans. by day) ii, pp. 449, 475. *macadams*; am. chem., may, 1875, 419. *marchand*; jour. de pharm., nov., 1854. *michaelson*; ding. poly. jour., cxlix, 59. *millon*; compt. rend., lix, 396. *muller*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem., no. 3, 1872. *otto*; ann. chem. pharm., cii, 47. *pelouze and fremy*; traitã© de chim. gen., [2 edit.] paris, 1857, p. 195. *pribram*; dings. poly. jour., cxcvii, 448 *reichelt*; bayr. k. u. gwbl., 1859, 602. *reineck*; ding. poly. jour., cci, 433. *rosenthal*; chem. centralb., 1854, 1392. *seely*; sill. am. j., vii, 293. *vernois and becqueret*; ann. d'hygiã©ne, april, 1853. *voelcker*; am. chem., may, 1875, p. 412. *vogel*; poly. notizbl., no. 10, 1874. *wanklyn*; pharm. viertelj., xx, 201: milk jour., 1, 109, 160; chem. news, xxviii, no. 623; ibid, no. 736; pharm. journ. trans., [3] i, 605. on the detection of adulteration in wine and beer. wine. *beck*; edinb. phil. jour., 1835. *berthelot and fleurien*; compt. rend., lvii, 394. *blume*; dings. poly. jour., clxx, 240. *bolly and paul*; manual of tech. anal., p. 331. *boyer and coulet*; compt. rend., lxxvi, 585. *brande*; phil. trans., 1811. *cotlini*; ann. du genie civil, no. 3, 1873. *cotlini and fantazini*; ann. di chim. appl. alla medi., juli, 1870. *christison*; edinb. phil. jour., 1838. *diez*; ann. ch. pharm., xcvi, 304. *duclaux*; ann. de chim. et de phys., july and sept., 1874; compt. rend. lxxviii, 1159. *duffield*; am. jour. pharm., mar. 1862. *dupre*; chem. soc. jour. xx, 493. *fantenelle*; j. chim. mã©d., iii, 332. *faure*; j. pharm., vii, 200. *fischern*; ann. chem. pharm., lviii, 705. *fresenius*; ibid, lxiii, 384. *geiger*; mag. f. pharm., xix, 266. *geromont*; ann. ch. pharm., xvii, 158. *hager*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem., 1872, 337. *hitchcock*; edinb. phil. jour., xxxvii, 176. *jacquemin*; ann. de chim. et de phys. v, sã©rie, nov., 1874; compt. rend., lxxix, 523. *kersting*; ann. ch. pharm., lxx, 50. *khol*; j. chim. mã©d., [4] ii, 251. *liebig, poggendorff and wohler*; handwã¶rterb. ix, 676. *ludersdorf*; j. f. prak. chem., xxiv, 102. *maisch*; proc. am. pharm. assn., 1863, 296; 1864, 291; 1866, 267. *mallard*; j. chim. mã©d., iii, 326. *maumene*; bull. soc. chim., xxii, no. 1. *miller*; jour. de pharm. et de chim., mar., 1873. *mitis*; baierisch. k. u. gewerbeblatt, 1838. *phipson*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem., ix, 121. *reiman's* farb. zeit., nos. 14-15, 1874. *romei*; mon. scien., iii, t. iii, no. 382. *salleron*; compt. rend., lxxviii, no. 16. *scheitz*; arch. pharm., [3] v, 331. *schubert*; pogg. annal., lxx, 397. *sestini*; landwirthsch. ver. stat., xv, 9. *tuchschmeidt*; jahresb., 1871, 967. *zierl*; baierisch. kunst. gewerbebl, 1838. beer. *blas*; viertelj. f. prakt. pharm., xxi, 584. *brunner*; archiv der pharm., april, 1873; dings. poly. jour., ccix, no. 6; jour. de pharm. et de chim., sept., 1873; poly. nolizblatt, no. 17, 1873. *dietz*; neues jahresb. f. pharm., xxxix, no. 1. *dragendorff*; archiv. der pharm., april and may, 1874; dings. poly. jour., ccxiv, pp. 33, 389. *dullo*; wieck's gaz., 1865, 64. *gunckel*; arch. f. pharm., clxiv. *kubinki*; le technol, no. 397; (trans.) amer. chem., nov., 1874; dings. poly. jour. ccxi, 360. *langley*; chem. centralb., 1865, 184. *meme*; compt. rend., 2me sem., no. 123. *michã¦lis*; ill. gewerbz., 1871, 8. *muspratt's* chem. i, 281. *pohl*; wiener akad. ber., xii, 88. *ritter*; pharm. zeitsch. f. russl., i, pp. 304, 414. *shafhauel*; ding. poly. jour., cxxxii, 299. *schmidt*; jour. f. prakt. chem., lxxxvii, 344. *stolber*; ibid, xciv, iii. *ure's* dict. chem., 4th edit., 1831, p. 203. *vogel and hammon's* mitth., 1860, 184. *wittstein*; archiv der pharm., jan. 1875. on the testing of vinegar. *bussy and buignet*; jahresb., 1865, 69. *greville*; ding. poly. jour., cxxxi, 139. *liebig, poggendorff and wohler*; handwã¶rterb, ii, 867. *mohr*; ann. ch. pharm., xxxi, 277. *mollerat*; ann. chim., lxviii, 88. *nicholson*; ding. pol. jour., cxxxix, 441. *otto*; ann. chem. pharm., cii, 69. *roscoe*; chem. soc. jour., xv, 270. *runge*; gewz. bayer. 1871, 4. *strohl*; jour. de pharm. et de chim., sept., 1874. *toorn*; jour. f. chem., vi, 171. *wagner*; chem. tech., (english trans.) p. 467. *williams*; pharm. j. trans., xiii, 594. on the detection of adulterations in sulphate of quinine. *delondre and henry*; j. pharm., [3] xxi, 281. *gmelin's* handbuch, xvii, 280. *guibourt*; j. pharm., [3] xxi, 47. *henry*; ibid, xiii, 107. *hesse*; ann. ch. pharm., cxxxv, 325; jahresb., 1865, 441. *korner*; zeitsch. f. chem., j. i, 150; jahresb. 1862, 619. *phillips*; lond. lanc., i, 820. *riegel*; jahresb. f. pharm., xxv, 340. on the detection of blood stains. *barruel*; ann. d'hygiã©ne pub., i. 267; ibid, no. 6, 1829. *bertolet*; am. jour. med., sc., jan., 1874. *brucke*; jahresb., 1857, 609. *van deen*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem., ii, 459. *erdman*; jour. pr. chem., lxxxv, 1; jahresb., 1862, 634. *falck*; ber. klinisch. wochb., 1872. *van geuns and gunning*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem., 1871, 508. *gwosden*; wiener akad. ber., liii, [2] 683; jahresb., 1866, 746. *helwig*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem., 1872, 244. *hirsch*; n. j. pharm., xxxii, 140. *hoppe-seyler*; med. chem. unters., i, 298; jahresb., 1867, 805. *krauss*; jahresb., 1861, 792. *liebig, poggendorff and wohler*; handwã¶rterb., iv, 177. *liman*; jahresb., 1863, 715. *lowe*; pharm. centralb., 1854, 137. *mandl*; lond. lanc., dec. 17, 1842, 176. *muller*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem., 1872, iii. *orfila*; jour. des progã©s des sc., iv, 1827; archiv. gen. de mã©d., fev., 1828. *papillon*; mon. scien. ques., jan., 1874, 59. *reynolds*; br. med. jour., jan. 4, 1873. *rose*; jahresb. der pharm., ii, 365; jahresb., 1854, 754. *roussin*; ann. d'hyg. et de mã©d. lã©g., 1865. *scriba, simon and buchner*; jahresb., 1859, 706. *sonnenschein*; jour. de pharm. et de chim., july, 1874; mon. scien., ii, 370. *sorby*; chem. news, 1865, xi, pp. 186, 194, 232, 256. *struve*; zeitsch. f. anal. chem., 1872, 29. *taylor*; guy's hosp. rep., 1868. *wicke*; pharm. centralb., 1854, 431. *wittstein*; arch. der pharm., ii, 128. *zollikopfer*; ann. d. chem. u. pharm., xciii, 237; pharm. centralb., 1855, 217. on the detection of spermatic stains. *bayard*; ann. d'hygiã©ne. pub., 1849, no. 43. *renak*; diagnostisch. u. pathologisch. unters. berlin, 1845, pp. 148, 171. *schmidt*; diagnostik verdã¤ch. flecken, leipzig, 1848, pp. 42-48. * * * * * the following are the most important works relating to poisons and food-adulteration that have been issued since the publication of the first edition of this book: *adam*; ã�tude sur les principales methodes d'essai et d'analyse du lait. paris, 1879. *averbeck*; die verfã¤lschung der nahrungsmittel. bremen, 1878. *bastide*; vins sophistiquã©s. beriã¨s, 1876. *bauer*; die verfã¤lschung der nahrungsmittel. berlin, 1877. *bell*; analysis and adulteration of food. 1881. *binz*; intoxicationen. tã¼bingen, 1878. *birnbaum*; einfache methoden zur prã¼fung lebensmittel. 1877. *blane*; de la contrefaã§on. *blas*; de la prã©sence de l'acide salicylique dans les bierres. paris, 1879. *blochman*; ueber verfã¤lschung der nahrungsmittel. kã¶nigsberg, 1881. *blyth*; dictionary of hygiene. london, 1877. _ibid_; manual of chemistry. london, 1879. _ibid_; foods, composition and analysis. london, 1882. _ibid_; poisons, effects and detection of. london, 1882. *boehn*; herzgifte. *bolley*; manuel pratique d'essai et de recherches chimiques. paris, 1877. *bronner*; chemistry of food and drink. london. *caldwell*; agricultural chemical analysis. n. y., 1879. *casper*; handbuch der gerichtlichen medizin. berlin, 1881. *church*; food. n. y., 1877. *cooley's* practical receipts. *dannehl*; die verfã¤lschung des bieres. berlin, 1877. *dietzsch*; die wichtigsten nahrungsmittel, etc. zurich, 1878. *dragendorff*; recherches des substances amã¨res dans la biã¨re. paris, 1876. _ibid_; gerichtlich chemische ermittellung von giften. st. petersburg, 1876. *elsner*; die praxis nahrungsmittel chemikers. leipzig, 1880. *eulenberg*; handbuch der gewerbe-hygiene. berlin, 1876. *falk*; lehrbuch der praktischen toxicologie. stuttgart, 1880. *flick*; die chemie im dienst der ã¶ffentlichen gesundheitspflege. dresden, 1882. *fluegge*; lehrbuch der hygienischen untersuchungsmethoden. leipzig, 1881. *focke*; massregeln gegen verfã¤lschung der nahrungsmittel. chemnitz, 1877. *fox*; sanitary examination of water, air, and food. 1878. *franchini*; palmelle prodigieuse. bologne, 1880. *gamgee*; text-book of physiological chemistry. london, 1880. *gaultier*; la sophistication des vins. paris, 1877. *gimlini*; experimentelle untersuchung ã¼ber die wirkung des aconitins. erlangen, 1876. *goppelsroeder*; sur l'analyse des vins. mulhouse, 1877. *grandeau*; handbuch fã¼r agricultur-chemische analysen. berlin, 1880. *griessmayer*; die verfã¤lschung der wichtigsten nahrungs-und genussmittel. 1880. *hahn*; die wichtigsten d. his jetzt bekannten geheimmittel u. specialitã¤ten. 1876. *hausner*; fabrikation der conserven und conditen. leipzig, 1877. *hemming*; aids to forensic medicine and toxicology. london, 1877. *hilger*; die wichtigsten nahrungsmittel. erlangen, 1879. *hoffman*; lehrbuch der gerichtlichen medizin. wien, 1880. *hoppe-seyler*; physiologische chemie. berlin, 1878. *husson*; du vin. paris, 1877. _ibid_; le lait, la crã©me, et le beurre. 1878. *johnson's* encyclopã¦dia, vol. iv. p. 752. *johnson*; chemistry of common life. n. y., 1880. *judell*; die vergiftung mit blausã¤ure. erlangen, 1876. *kensington*; analysis of foods. london, 1879. *klencke*; illustrirtes lexicon der verfã¤lschung der nahrungsmittel und getrã¤nke. leipzig, 1878. *koenig*; chemische zusammensetzung der menschlichen nahrungsmittel. *lang*; die fabrikation der kunstbutter, sparbutter, und butterin. 1878. *lessner*; atlas der gerichtlichen medizin. berlin, 1883. *lieberman*; anleitung zur chemischen untersuchung auf der gebiete der medicinal-polizei. stuttgart, 1877. *lintner*; lehrbuch der bierbrauerei. 1877. *loebner*; massregeln gegen verfã¤lschung der nahrungsmittel. chemnitz, 1877. *luerssen*; medicinisch botanik. leipzig, 1883. *maschka*; handbuch der gerichtlichen medizin. tã¼bingen, 1882. *medicus*; gerichtlich-chemische prã¼fung von nahrungs-und genussmitteln. 1881. *montgomery*; essai de toxicologie. paris, 1878. *muter*; a key to organic materia medica. 1879. *ogston*; lectures on medical jurisprudence. london, 1878. *palm*; die wichtigsten und gebrauchlichsten nahrungsmittel. st. petersburg, 1882. *parkes*; hygiene. phila., 1878. *pasteur*; ã�tudes sur la biã¨re. paris, 1876. *pavy*; a treatise on food and dietetics. london, 1875. *pennetier*; leã§ons sur les matiã¨res premiã¨res organiques. paris, 1881. *praag*; leerbock voor practische giftleer. utrecht. *pratt*; food adulteration. chicago, 1880. *prescott*; proximate organic analysis. n. y., 1882. *ritter*; des vins colorã©s par la fuchsine. paris, 1876. *reitleitner*; die analyse des weines. wien, 1877. *schnacke*; wã¶rterbuch der verfã¤lschung. jena, 1877. *schmidt*; anleitung sanitarisch-und polizeilich-chemischen untersuchungen. zurich, 1878. *schroff*; beitrag zur kenntniss des aconits. wien, 1876. *selmi*; chimica applicata all' igiene alla economia domestica. milan. *sharples*; food and its adulteration. preston, 1879. *smith*; on foods. n. y., 1873. *smith, ed.*; manual for medical officers of health. london, 1874. _ibid_; handbook for inspectors of nuisances. london. *spon's* encyclopã¦dia. london, 1882. *squibb*; proper legislation on adulteration of food. n. y., 1879. *steirlin*; ueber weinverfã¤lschung und weinfarbung. bern, 1877. _ibid_; das bier und seine verfã¤lschung. bern, 1878. *thudicum and dupre*; wine. *vogel*; praktische spectral-analyse. nordlingen, 1877. *wanklyn*; tea, coffee, and cocoa. london, 1874. *wanklyn and cooper*; bread analysis. london, 1881. *wenyl*; analytisches hã¼lfsbuch. berlin, 1882. *wittstein*; taschenbuch des nahrungs-und genussmittel lehre. nordlingen, 1877. *woodman*; handbook of forensic medicine. london, 1877. *wurtz*; traitã© ã©lã©mentaire de chimie mã©dicale. paris. memoirs. alkaloids. journal chem. soc. i, 1877, p. 143; ibid, i, 1878, p. 151; ibid, may, 1882; ibid, ccxliv, 1883, p. 358. trans. internat'l med. cong., 1881, vol. i, p. 472. virch., arch. bd. 79, 1880, s. 292; ibid, bd. 87, 1882, s. 410. archiv. d. pharm., jan. 7, 1882; ibid, [3] vii, pp. 23-26; ibid, [3] vi, p. 402. liebig, anal. bd. 708, 1881. berl. klin. wochenschr. 1876, 27. pflã¼ger's, 23, 433. lancet, sept. 30, 1880; ibid, nov. 28, 1882; ibid, nov. 13, 1882. bull. farm. milano, 1881, p. 197. zeitsch. f. anal. chem. i, 517. gazett. chim. ital. vi, 153-166. pharm. zeitschr. f. russland, i, p. 277. vierteljahrsschr. f. gericht. med. xxiii, p. 78. arsenic and antimony. archiv, f. exper. path. u. pharm., leipzig, 1882. pharm. journ. trans. [3] pp. 81-83. med. jahrbuch, 1880. journ. d'hygiã¨ne, juil., 1878. medical times and gaz. 1876, p. 367. chem. news, jan., 1881, p. 21; ibid, xxxiii., pp. 58 and 74. am. chem. journ. ii, no. 4. bull. soc. chim. [2] xxvi, p. 541; ibid, jan. 7, 1877. zeitsch. f. anal. chem. xiv, pp. 250, 281, 356; ibid, i, p. 445. liebig, anal. ccvii, p. 182. lancet, 1879, p. 699; ibid, may 19, 1883. journ. chem. soc. no. 1, 1876. mercury, copper and lead. zeit. f. phys. chem. 1882, i, p. 495. analyst, 1878, p. 241. chem. news, xxxi, p. 77; ibid, xxxi, p. 801; ibid, xxxiv, pp. 176, 200, and 313. analyst, 1877, pp. 13 and 216. journ. chem. soc. 1876, ii, p. 4. dingl. pol. journ. ccxx, 446. med. gazette, xlviii, 1047. prussic acid. analyst, apr., 1877, p. 5. bull. gen. de thã©r. no. 30. am. journ. phys. sci., arnold, 1869. virch., arch. f. path. anat. bd. 38, p. 435. news repert. f. pharm., 18, 356. journ. chem. soc. 1876, i, p. 112. bericht. d. deutsch. chem. gess. ix, p. 1023. viertelj. f. ger. med. 1881, p. 193. zeit. f. anal. chem. von fresenius, xii, p. 4. flour and bread. analyst, june, 1878; ibid, jan., 1882; ibid, 1878, no. 28; ibid, vi, 1879, p. 126; ibid, iii, pp. 274, 355. chem. news, 1873, 1879, xxxix, p. 80. dingl. pol. journ. bd. 209. journ. pharm. [4] iv, 108. chem. centr'b't, 1877, 585. pharm. journ. xiii, 857. journ. chem. med. 1878, p. 240. an. d. chem. u. pharm, bd. 10, 45 u. 101. journ. f. pract. chem. xcix, 296; ciii, 65, 193, 233, 273. zeit. anal. chem. 1878, p. 440; ibid, 1879, vol. xviii, p. 120. chem. soc. jour. xxxv, p. 610. jour. d'hygiã¨ne, may, 1878. pharm. jour. trans. 1876, cccxii, 1001. pharmacographia, 1879, p. 62. sanitary engineer, vol. v, p. 66. tea. pharm. journ. 1873; 3d series, 1874. chem. news, xxx, 1874 (allen); xxx, 125; xxviii, 186. journ. pharm. [2] xxvi, 63; xii, 234, 229. analyst, june, 1877; 1876 (wigner). journ. chem. soc. 1875, 385, 1217; ix, 321, 33; 1858. journ. f. pract. chem. x, 273; xciv, 65; li, 401. bull. soc. chim. [2] xxvii, 199. journ. de pharm. d'anvers, 1876, 121. journ. pharm. et chim. 3 sã©rie, 1856, xxiv, 228. repert. de pharm. 1856, vii, p. 117. journ. chim. mã©d. 2 sã©rie, 1844, x, 459; 1844, 24. ann. chem. pharm. xxvi, 244; xxix, 271; xxxvi, 93. ann. chem. pharm. lxxxii, 197; cxii, 96; i, 19; 1, 231; lxiii, 201; lxix, 120; lxxi; cxviii, 151. ann. chem. xxv, 63. med. press and circular, 1871, p. 415. kastu. arch. vii, 266. deut. chem. ges. ber. ix, 1312. parliamentary papers, 1871. mag. pharm. xix, 45. ann. chim. phys. [3] xi, 138. schweigg, journ. chem. phys. lxi, 487; lxiv, 372. phil. mag. j. xxiii, 426; xiii, 21. milk. analyst, 1876, jan. and may; 1877, p. 82; no. 21; sept., dec.; 1878, jan.; p. 249; 1880, mar. chem. news, 1879. journ. chem. soc. clxxxix, sept., 1878. comptes rendus, t. 82, 1876. ann. chem. pharm. lxi, 221. milch zeit. 1870, 1884. wine and beer. analyst, 1877, pp. 26, 99, 146, 148. ann. chim. phys. [5] ii, pp. 233-289. bull. soc. chim. [2] xxv. deut. chem. ges. ber. ix, 1900. comptes rendus, lxxxiv, 348. journ. chim. mã©d. t. ix, p. 495. arch. pharm. [3] v. 25, 23, bd. 185, p. 225. chem. soc. journ. ii, 1877, p. 372. ann. d'hyg. et mã©d. lã©g. 1861, xvii, pp. 33, 430. vinegar. analyst, iii, 1878, p. 268; i, 1877, p. 105. ann. d'hyg. et mã©d. lã©g. 2 sã©r. t. xii. pharm. journ., jul. 3, 1875. * * * * * within the last few years the subject of food-adulteration has been so prominently brought before the public that, in many instances, the various state boards of health have commissioned their chemists to furnish reports on this subject. these may be found in the annual publications of the same, notably in the volumes issued by the massachusetts, michigan, new jersey, and new york state boards of health. it may also be mentioned in this connection that the _sanitary engineer_ of new york, the _analyst_ of london, the _zeitschrift fã¼r untersuchung von lebensmitteln_, eichstatt, and the _zeitschrift gegen verfã¤lschung der lebensmittel_, leipzig, are journals devoted to the consideration of adulterations and the more recent methods employed for their detection. j. p. b. index. a. acetic acid, 49, 89 acids, 46, 95 acetic, 49, 89 boric, 90 formic, 89 hydriodic, 90 hydrobromic, 90 hydrochloric, 46 hydrocyanic, 50 hydrofluoric, 88 hydrosulphuric, 91 nitric, 47, 88 oxalic, 49, 88, 89, 95 phosphoric, 48, 90, 95 phosphorous, 45 sulphuric, 47, 89, 95 aconitine, 79 alcoholmeter (gay-lussac's), 145 alkalies, 32, 93 ammonia, 50 baryta, 54 lime, 53 potassa, 53 soda, 53 strontia, 54 alkaloids, 65 aconitine, 79 aniline, 75 aricine, 77 atropine, 80 beberine, 76 brucine, 78 cinchonine, 78 codeine, 80 colchicine, 80 conine, 75 delphine, 78 digitaline, 80 emetine, 80 morphine, 80 narcotine, 77 nicotine, 75 papaverine, 77 picrotoxine, 80 quinine, 77 solanine, 79 strychnine, 78 veratrine, 77 alkaloids, separation of, by stas's method, 65 separation of, by otto's method, 69 separation of, by v. uslar and erdman's method, 70 separation of, by rodgers & girdwood's method, 71 separation of, by prollius's method, 72 separation of, by graham & hofman's method, 73 separation of, by dialysis, 74 alkaloids, identification of, 74 alloys, examination of, 112 alum in flour and bread, 126 aniline, 75 antimony, 30, 62, 93 detection of, by flandin and danger's method, 32 detection of, by naquet's method, 34 aricine, 77 arsenic, 17, 60, 93 detection of, by the method used prior to marsh's test, 17 detection of, by marsh's test, 21 detection of, by raspail's test, 29 detection of, by reinsch's test, 30 arsenic, estimation of, 21 ashes, examination of, 104 atropine, 80 b. barley meal in flour, 117 baryta, 54 barreswil's test for milk, 140 berberine, 76 bicarbonate of soda in milk, 141 bismuth, 62 blood stains, detection of, 150 bleaching of hair, 98 boric acid, 90 boutigny's examination of fire-arms, 100 bromine, 55, 90, 93, 94 brã¼cke's test for blood stains, 152 brucine, 78 buckwheat in flour, 117, 120 c. cadmium, 63 carbonate of lime and magnesia in flour, 125 cerebral substances in milk, 142 chalk in milk, 141 chlorine, 54 chromium, 64 cinchonine in sulphate of quinine, 149 codeine, 80 conine, 75 coins, examination of, 112 colchicine, 80 copper, 62, 63 corn meal in flour, 117, 120 d. darnel in flour, 121 delphine, 78 determinative tests for poisons, 94 digitaline, 80 dusart's test for phosphorus, 40 dialysis, 15, 74 dyeing of hair, 97 e. emetine, 80 emulsion of almonds in milk, 141 f. fire-arms, examination of, 100 weapons provided with a flint, 100 weapons not provided with a flint, 103 fixed oils, examination of, 128 hempseed, 130 olive, 128 flandin and danger's test for antimony, 32 flandin and danger's test for mercury, 37 food (flour and bread), 114 examination of the gluten, 116 examination of the starch, 118 examination of the ash, 124 formic acid, 89 fresenius & neubauer's test for phosphorus, 42 g. galactoscope, 138 graham and hofman's method for alkaloids, 73 ground bones in bread and flour, 125 gum arabic in milk, 141 gum tragacanth in milk, 141 h. hã¦min crystals, 150 hair, examination of, 96 hempseed oil, 130 hoppe-seyler's test for blood, 151 hydriodic acid, 90 hydrobromic acid, 90 hydrochloric acid, 46, 91 hydrocyanic acid, 50 hydrofluoric acid, 88 hydrosulphuric acid, 91 i. iodides, 90, 94 iodine, 56, 94 indicative tests for poisons, 36 l. lactodensimeter, 138 lactometer, 139 lactoscope, 138 lassaigne's test for writings, 107 lead, 57 legumens in flour, 117, 121, 124 lentils in flour, 123 lime, 53 lime in flour, 126 linseed meal in flour, 120 m. macadam's method for alkaloids, 73 magnesia in sulphate of quinine, 148 mannite in sulphate of quinine, 148 marchand's test for milk, 139 marsh's test for arsenic, 21 mercury, 36, 62, 93 detection of, by smithson's pile, 36 detection of, by flandin and danger's method, 37 metals, 56 antimony, 30, 62, 93 arsenic, 17, 60, 93 bismuth, 62 cadmium, 63 chromium, 64 copper, 62, 63 lead, 57 mercury, 36, 62, 93 silver, 57 tin, 56, 61 zinc, 64 milk, examination of, 137 mineral substances, in flour and bread, 124 in milk, 141 in sulphate of quinine, 148 mistcherlich's test for phosphorus, 40 morphine, 80 n. naquet's test for antimony, 34 narcotine, 77 nicotine, 75 nitric acid, 47, 88 o. oatmeal in flour, 117 oleometer, 128 olive oil, 128 orfila's test for phosphorus, 39 organic matter destruction of, by _aqua regia_, 14 destruction of, by chlorate of potassa, 13 destruction of, by chlorine, 13 destruction of, by nitrate of potassa, 10 destruction of, by nitric acid, 8 destruction of, by potassa and nitrate of lime, 12 destruction of, by potassa and nitric acid, 12 destruction of, by sulphuric acid, 9 otto's method for alkaloids, 69 oxalic acid, 49, 88, 89, 95 p. papaverine, 77 payen's test for vinegar, 147 phosphoric acid, 48, 90, 95 phosphorous acid, 45 phosphorus, 39, 95 detection of, by orfila's method, 39 detection of, by mistcherlich's method, 40 detection of, by dusart's method, 40 detection of, by fresenius and neubauer's method, 42 estimation of, 45 picrotoxine, 80 plaster in flour, 126 poisons, detection of in cases where no clew exists, 85 in cases where a clew exists, 17 destruction of the organic matter, 8 indicative tests, 86 determinative tests, 94 potato meal in flour, 118 potassa, 53, 93 prollius' method for alkaloids, 72 prussic acid, 50 q. quinine, 77 r. raspail's test for arsenic, 29 reinsch's test for arsenic, 30 reveil's test for vinegar, 148 rice meal in flour, 120 robin's method for spermatic stains, 160 rodgers and girdwood's method for alkaloids, 71 rye meal in flour, 117, 120 s. salicine in sulphate of quinine, 148 sand in flour, 125 silver, 57 smithson's pile, 36 soda, 53, 92, 93 solanine, 79 spermatic stains, detection of, 158 spermatozoa, 159 starch in sulphate of quinine, 148 stearic acid in sulphate of quinine, 148 stas's method for alkaloids, 65 strychnine, 78 sugar in milk, 142 sugar in sulphate of quinine, 148 sulphate of copper in bread, 127 sulphate of quinidine in sulphate of quinine, 149 sulphate of quinine, examination of, 148 sulphuretted hydrogen, 91 sulphuric acid, 47, 89, 95 sympathetic inks, tests for, 110 t. tea, 130 tin, 56, 61 u. v. uslar and erdman's method for alkaloids, 70 v. veratrine, 77 vinegar, examination of, 147 w. wines, examination of, 142 writings, examination of, 105 z. zinc, 64 becker & sons, manufacturers of balances and weights of precision, for [illustration] chemists, assayers, jewelers, druggists, _and in general for every use where accuracy is required_, no. 6 murray st., new york. every balance and set of weights leaving this establishment is guaranteed to be accurately adjusted, as represented in our price list. --> our illustrated price list mailed on application. catalogue of the scientific, military, and naval publications of d. van nostrand, 23 murray street and 27 warren street, new york. *abbot, maj. henry l.--siege artillery against richmond.* illustrated. 8vo, cloth $3 50 *adams, j. w.--sewers and drains for populous districts.* embracing rules and formulas for the dimensions and construction of works of sanitary engineers. second edition. 8vo, cloth 2 50 *aldrich, m. almy.--history of the united states marine corps.* from official reports and other documents. compiled by capt. richard s. collum. 8vo, cloth 2 50 *alexander, j. h.--universal dictionary of weights and measures*, ancient and modern, reduced to the standards of the united states of america. new edition, enlarged. 8vo, cloth 3 50 *anderson, gen. robert.--evolutions of field batteries of artillery.* translated from the french, and arranged for the army and militia of the united states. published by order of the war department. 33 plates. 24mo, cloth 1 00 *andrews, maj.-gen. c. c.--campaign of mobile.* including the co-operation of general wilson's cavalry in alabama. with five maps and views. 8vo, cloth 2 50 ---*hints to company officers on their military duties.* 18mo, cloth 50 *arnold, maj. a. k.--cavalry service.* notes on horses for cavalry service, embodying the quality, purchase, care, and diseases most frequently encountered, with lessons for bitting the horse and bending the neck. illustrated. 18mo, cloth 75 *arnold, maj. frank s.--the discipline and drill of militia.* crown 8vo, limp cloth 2 00 *atwood, geo.--practical blow-pipe assaying.* 12mo, cloth, illustrated 2 00 *auchincloss, w. s.--link and valve motions simplified.* illustrated with 37 wood-cuts and 21 lithographic plates, together with a travel scale and numerous useful tables. 8vo, cloth 3 00 *axon, w. e. a.--the mechanic's friend.* a collection of receipts and practical suggestions relating to aquaria--bronzing--cements--drawing--dyes--electricity--gilding- glass-working--glues--horology--lacquers--locomotives--magnetism- metal-working--modelling--photography--pyrotechny--railways--solders- steam-engine--telegraphy--taxidermy--varnishes--waterproofing, and miscellaneous tools, instruments, machines, and processes connected with the chemical and mechanic arts. with numerous diagrams and wood-cuts. fancy cloth 1 50 *bacon, f. w.--a treatise on the richards steam-engine indicator, with directions for its use.* by charles t. porter. revised, with notes and large additions as developed by american practice; with an appendix containing useful formulã¦ and rules for engineers. illustrated. fourth edition. 12mo, cloth 1 00 *barba, j.--the use of steel for constructive purposes;* method of working, applying, and testing plates and brass. with a preface by a. l. holley, c.e. 12mo, cloth 1 50 *barnard, maj.-gen. j. g.--the "c. s. a." and the battle of bull run.* 8vo, cloth 1 25 ---*the peninsular campaign and its antecedents,* as developed by the report of maj.-gen. geo. b. mcclellan and other published documents. 8vo, cloth 1 00 12mo, paper 30 ---*notes on sea-coast defence.* consisting of sea-coast fortification; the fifteen-inch gun; and casemate embrasure. with an engraved plate of the fifteen-inch gun. 8vo, cloth 2 00 *barnard, maj.-gen. j. g., and barry, maj.-gen. w. f.--report of the engineer and artillery operations of the army of the potomac,* from its organization to the close of the peninsular campaign. illustrated by 18 maps, plans, etc. 8vo, cloth 2 50 *barnes, lieut.-com. john s.--submarine warfare, defensive and offensive.* comprising a full and complete history of the invention of the torpedo, its employment in war, and results of its use. descriptions of the various forms of torpedoes, submarine batteries, and torpedo boats actually used in war. with 20 lithographic plates and many wood-cuts, 8vo, cloth 5 00 *barre duparcq, edward de la.--elements of military art and history.* translated by col. geo. w. cullum, u.s.e. 8vo, cloth 3 50 *barrett, capt. edward.--dead reckoning; or, day's work.* 8vo, flexible cloth 1 25 ---*gunnery instructions.* 12mo, cloth 1 25 *beilstein, f.-an introduction to qualitative chemical analysis.* translated by i. j. osbun. 12mo, cloth 75 *benet, gen. s. v.--electro-ballistic machines,* and the schultz chronoscope. second edition. illustrated. 4to, cloth 3 00 ---*military law and courts-martial.* a treatise on military law and the practice of courts-martial. sixth edition, revised and enlarged. 8vo, law sheep 4 00 *benton, col. j. g.--ordnance and gunnery.* a course of instruction in ordnance and gunnery. compiled for the use of the cadets of the u. s. military academy. illustrated. fourth edition, revised and enlarged. 8vo, cloth 5 00 *berriman, maj. m. w--the militiaman's manual and sword-play without a master.* rapier and broad-sword exercises, copiously explained and illustrated; small-arm light infantry drill of the united states army; infantry manual of percussion musket; company drill of the united states cavalry. fourth edition. 12mo, cloth 1 00 *blake, w. p.--report upon the precious metals;* being statistical notices of the principal gold and silver producing regions of the world, represented at the paris universal exposition. 8vo, cloth 2 00 ---*ceramic art.* a report on pottery, porcelain, tiles, terra-cotta, and brick. 8vo, cloth 2 00 *bow, r. h.--a treatise on bracing,* with its application to bridges and other structures of wood or iron. 156 illustrations. 8vo, cloth 1 50 *bowser, prof. e. a.--an elementary treatise on analytic geometry.* embracing plain geometry, and an introduction to geometry of three dimensions. 12mo, cloth 1 75 ---*an elementary treatise on the differential and integral calculus.* with numerous examples. 12mo, cloth 2 25 *boynton, maj. edward c.--history of west point,* and its military importance during the american revolution; and the origin and progress of the u. s. military academy. with 36 maps and engravings. second edition. 8vo, fancy cloth 3 50 *brandt, j. d.--gunnery catechism.* as applied to the service of the naval ordnance. adapted to the latest official regulations, and approved by the bureau of ordnance, navy department. revised edition. illustrated. 18mo, cloth 1 50 *brewerton, g. d.--the automaton battery; or, artillerist's practical instructor.* for all mounted artillery manoeuvres in the field. in box 1 00 when sent by mail 1 30 ---*the automaton regiment; or, infantry soldier's practical instructor.* for all regimental movements in the field. in box 1 00 when sent by mail 1 33 ---*the automaton company; or, infantry soldier's practical instructor.* for all company movements in the field. in box 1 25 when sent by mail 1 94 *brinkerhoff, capt. r.--the volunteer quartermaster.* 12mo, cloth 1 00 *buckner, lieut. w. p.--calculated tables of ranges for navy and army guns.* 8vo, cloth 1 50 *burgh, n. p.--modern marine engineering,* applied to paddle and screw propulsion. consisting of 36 colored plates, 259 practical wood-cut illustrations, and 403 pages of descriptive matter, the whole being an exposition of the present practice of james watt & co., j. & g. rennie, r. napier & sons, and other celebrated firms. thick 4to vol., cloth 10 00 half morocco 15 00 *burt, w. a.--key to the solar compass, and surveyor's companion.* comprising all the rules necessary for use in the field; also description of the linear surveys and public land system of the united states, notes on the barometer, suggestions for an outfit for a survey of four months, etc. fifth edition. pocket-book form, tuck 2 50 *butler, capt. john s.--projectiles and rifled cannon.* a critical discussion of the principal systems of rifling and projectiles, with practical suggestions for their improvement, as embraced in a report to the chief of ordnance, u. s. army. 4to, 36 plates, cloth 6 00 *cain, prof. wm.--a practical treatise on voussoir and solid and braced arches.* 16mo, cloth extra 1 75 *caldwell, prof. geo. c., and breneman, prof. a. a.--manual of introductory chemical practice.* for the use of students in colleges and normal and high schools. third edition revised and corrected. 8vo, cloth, illustrated. new and enlarged edition 1 50 *campin, francis.--on the construction of iron roofs.* 8vo, with plates, cloth 2 00 *casey, brig.-gen. silas--u. s. infantry tactics.* vol. i.--school of the soldier; school of the company; instruction for skirmishers. vol. ii.--school of the battalion, vol. iii.--evolutions of a brigade; evolutions of a corps d'armã©e. lithographed plates. 3 vols. 24mo, cloth 1 50 *chauvenet, prof. w.--new method of correcting lunar distances, and improved method of finding the error and rate of a chronometer, by equal altitudes.* 8vo, cloth 2 00 *church, john a.--notes of a metallurgical journey in europe.* 8vo, cloth 2 00 *clark, d. kinnear, c.e.--fuel,* its combustion and economy; consisting of abridgments of treatise on the combustion of coal and the prevention of smoke, by c. w. williams; and the economy of fuel, by t. s. prideaux. with extensive additions on recent practice in the combustion and economy of fuel: coal, coke, wood, peat, petroleum, etc. 12mo, cloth 1 50 ---*a manual of rules, tables, and data for mechanical engineers.* based on the most recent investigations. illustrated with numerous diagrams. 1,012 pages. 8vo, cloth 7 50 half morocco 10 00 *clark, lt. lewis, u. s. n.--theoretical navigation and nautical astronomy.* illustrated with 41 wood-cuts. 8vo, cloth 1 50 *clarke, t. c.--description of the iron railway bridge over the mississippi river at quincy, illinois.* illustrated with 21 lithographed plans. 4to, cloth 7 50 *clevenger, s. r.--a treatise on the method of government surveying,* as prescribed by the u. s. congress and commissioner of the general land office, with complete mathematical, astronomical, and practical instructions for the use of the united states surveyors in the field. 16mo, morocco 2 50 *coffin, prof. j. h. c.--navigation and nautical astronomy.* prepared for the use of the u. s. naval academy. sixth edition. 52 wood-cut illustrations. 12mo, cloth 3 50 *colburn, zerah.--the gas-works of london.* 12mo, boards 60 *collins, jas. e.--the private book of useful alloys and memoranda for goldsmiths, jewellers, etc.* 18mo, cloth 50 *cooke, brig.-gen. philip. st. george.--new cavalry tactics.* 16mo, morocco 2 00 ---*cavalry practice.* regulations for the movements of the cavalry of the army. 12mo. 1 00 *cornwall, prof. h. b.--manual of blow-pipe analysis, qualitative and quantitative.* with a complete system of descriptive mineralogy. 8vo, cloth, with many illustrations 2 50 *craig, b. f.--weights and measures.* an account of the decimal system, with tables of conversion for commercial and scientific uses. square 32mo, limp cloth 50 *craig, prof. thos.--elements of the mathematical theory of fluid motion.* 16mo, cloth 1 25 *craighill, wm. p.--the army officer's companion.* principally designed for staff officers in the field. partly translated from the french of m. de rouvre, lieut.-col. of the french staff corps, with additions from standard american, french, and english authorities. 18mo, full roan 1 50 *cullum, col. george w.--military bridges.* systems of military bridges in use by the u. s. army; those adopted by the great european powers; and such as are employed in british india. with directions for the preservation, destruction, and re-establishment of bridges. with 7 folding plates. 8vo, cloth 3 50 *davis, c. b., and rae, f. b.--hand-book of electrical diagrams and connections.* illustrated with 32 full-page illustrations. second edition. oblong 8vo, cloth extra 2 00 *diedrich, john.--the theory of strains.* a compendium for the calculation and construction of bridges, roofs, and cranes. illustrated by numerous plates and diagrams. 8vo, cloth 5 00 *dixon, d. b.--the machinist's and steam-engineer's practical calculator.* a compilation of useful rules, and problems arithmetically solved, together with general information applicable to shop-tools, mill-gearing, pulleys and shafts, steam-boilers and engines. embracing valuable tables, and instruction in screw-cutting, valve and link motion, etc. 16mo, full morocco, pocket form 2 00 *dodd, geo.--dictionary of manufactures, mining, machinery, and the industrial arts.* 12mo, cloth 1 50 *douglass, prof. s. h., and prescott, prof. a. b.--qualitative chemical analysis.* a guide in the practical study of chemistry, and in the work of analysis. fourth edition. 8vo, cloth 3 50 *duane, gen. j. c.--manual for engineering troops.* consisting of--part i. ponton drill; ii. practical operations of a siege; iii. school of the sap; iv. military mining; v. construction of batteries. with 16 plates and numerous wood-cut illustrations. 12mo, half morocco 1 50 *dubois, a. j.--the new method of graphical statics.* with 60 illustrations. 8vo, cloth 1 50 *dufour, gen. g. h.--the principles of strategy and grand tactics.* translated from the french, by william p. craighill, u. s. engineers, from the last french edition. illustrated. 12mo, cloth 1 50 *duryea, col. a.--standing orders of the seventh regiment national guards.* new edition. 16mo, cloth 50 *eassie, p. b.--wood and its uses.* a hand-book for the use of contractors, builders, architects, engineers, and timber merchants. upwards of 250 illustrations. 8vo, cloth 1 50 *eddy, prof. h. t.--researches in graphical statics.* embracing new constructions in graphical statics, a new general method in graphical statics, and the theory of internal stress in graphical statics. 8vo, cloth 1 50 *eliot, prof. c. w., and storer, prof. f. h.--a compendious manual of qualitative chemical analysis.* revised with the co-operation of the authors. by prof. william r. nichols. illustrated. 12mo, cloth 1 50 *elliot, maj. geo. h., u. s. e--european light-house systems.* being a report of a tour of inspection made in 1873. 51 engravings and 21 wood-cuts. 8vo, cloth 5 00 *engineering facts and figures.* an annual register of progress in mechanical engineering and construction for the years 1863-64-65-66-67-68. fully illustrated 6 vols. 18mo, cloth (each volume sold separately), per vol: 2 50 *fanning, j. t.--a practical treatise on water-supply engineering.* relating to the hydrology, hydrodynamics, and practical construction of water-works in north america. third edition. with numerous tables and 180 illustrations. 650 pages. 8vo, cloth 5 00 *fiske, lieut. bradley a., u. s. n.--electricity in theory and practice; or, the elements of electrical engineering.* 8vo, cloth 2 50 *foster, gen. j. g., u. s. a.--submarine blasting in boston harbor, massachusetts.* removal of tower and corwin rocks. illustrated with seven plates. 4to, cloth 3 50 *foye, prof. j. c.--chemical problems.* with brief statements of the principles involved. second edition, revised and enlarged. 16mo, boards 50 *francis, jas. b., c. e.--lowell hydraulic experiments:* being a selection from experiments on hydraulic motors, on the flow of water over weirs, in open canals of uniform rectangular section, and through submerged orifices and diverging tubes. made at lowell, massachusetts. fourth edition, revised and enlarged, with many new experiments, and illustrated with twenty-three copperplate engravings. 4to, cloth 15 00 *free-hand drawing.* a guide to ornamental figure and landscape drawing. by an art student. 18mo, boards 0 50 *fry, brig.-gen. james b.--army sacrifices; or, briefs from official pigeon-holes.* sketches based on official reports, grouped together for the purpose of illustrating the services of the regular army of the united states on the indian frontier. 16mo. 1 25 ---*history of brevet rank.* the history and legal effects of brevets in the armies of great britain and the united states, from the origin in 1692 until the present time. crown 8vo, extra cloth 3 00 *gillmore, gen. q. a.--treatise on limes, hydraulic cements, and mortars.* papers on practical engineering, u. s. engineer department, no. 9, containing reports of numerous experiments conducted in new york city during the years 1858 to 1861, inclusive. with numerous illustrations. 8vo, cloth 4 00 ---*practical treatise on the construction of roads, streets, and pavements.* with 70 illustrations. 12mo, cloth 2 00 ---*report on strength of the building-stones in the united states, etc.* 8vo, illustrated, cloth 1 50 ---*coignet beton and other artificial stone.* 9 plates, views, etc. 8vo, cloth 2 50 ---*fort sumter.* official report of operations against the defences of charleston harbor, 1863. comprising the descent upon morris island, the demolition of fort sumter, and the siege and reduction of forts wagner and gregg. with 76 lithographic plates, views, maps, etc. 8vo, cloth 7 50 half russia 12 00 ---*supplementary report on fort sumter.* supplementary report to the engineer and artillery operations against the defences of charleston harbor in 1863. with 7 lithographed maps and views. 8vo, cloth 3 50 ---*siege and reduction of fort pulaski, georgia.* illustrated by maps and views. 8vo, cloth 2 50 *goodeve, t. m.--a text-book on the steam-engine.* 143 illustrations. 12mo, cloth 2 00 *gordon, j. e. h.--four lectures on static induction.* 12mo, cloth 80 *grafton, capt. henry d.--a treatise on the camp and march.* with which is connected the construction of field-works and military bridges. 12mo, cloth 75 *greener, wm., r. c. e.--a treatise on rifles, cannon, and sporting arms.* 8vo, cloth 4 00 full calf 6 00 *gruner, m. l.--the manufacture of steel.* translated from the french, by lenox smith, with an appendix on the bessemer process in the united states, by the translator. illustrated. 8vo, cloth 3 50 *guide to west point and the u. s. military academy.* with maps and engravings. 18mo, flexible cloth 1 00 *half-hours with modern scientists.--lectures and essays,* by professors huxley, barker, stirling, cope, tyndall, wallace, roscoe, huggins, lockyer, young, mayer, and reed. being the university series bound up. with a general introduction by noah porter, president of yale college. 2 vols. 12mo, cloth, illustrated 2 50 *hamersly, lewis b.--the records of living officers of the u. s. navy and marine corps.* compiled from official sources. third edition. cloth, 8vo. 2 50 *hamilton, w. g.--useful information for railway men.* sixth edition, revised and enlarged. 562 pages, pocket form. morocco, gilt 2 00 *harrison, col. walter.--pickett's men.* a fragment of war history. with portrait of gen. pickett. 12mo, cloth 1 25 *harrison, w. b.--the mechanic's tool book,* with practical rules and suggestions for use of machinists, iron-workers, and others. illustrated with 44 engravings. 12mo, cloth 1 50 *harwood, a. a.--naval courts-martial.* law and practice of united states naval courts-martial. adopted as a text-book at the u. s. naval academy. 8vo, law-sheep 3 00 *haskins, c. h.--the galvanometer and its uses.* a manual for electricians and students. second edition. 12mo, morocco 1 50 *haupt, brig.-gen. herman.--military bridges.* for the passage of infantry, artillery, and baggage-trains; with suggestions of many new expedients and constructions for crossing streams and chasms. including also designs for trestle and truss bridges for military railroads, adapted specially to the wants of the service of the united states. illustrated by 69 lithographic engravings. 8vo, cloth 6 50 *head, capt. george e.--a new system of fortifications.* illustrated. 4to, paper 50 *heavy artillery tactics: 1863.* instructions for heavy artillery; prepared by a board of officers, for the use of the army of the united states. with service of a gun mounted on an iron carriage, and 39 plates. 12mo, cloth 1 00 *henrici, olaus.--skeleton structures, especially in their application to the building of steel and iron bridges.* with folding plates and diagrams. 8vo, cloth 1 50 *henry, guy v.--military record of civilian appointments in the united states army.* 2 vols. 8vo, cloth 10 00 *heth, capt. henry.--system of target practice.* for the use of troops when armed with the musket, rifle-musket, rifle, or carbine. prepared principally from the french. 18mo, cloth 50 *hewson, wm.--principles and practice of embanking lands from river floods, as applied to the levees of the mississippi.* 8vo, cloth 2 00 *holley, alexander l.--a treatise on ordnance and armor.* embracing descriptions, discussions, and professional opinions concerning the materials, fabrication, requirements, capabilities, and endurance of european and american guns, for naval, sea-coast, and iron-clad warfare, and their rifling, projectiles, and breech-loading; also, results of experiments against armor, from official records, with an appendix referring to gun-cotton, hooped guns, etc., etc. 948 pages, 493 engravings, and 147 tables of results, etc. 8vo, half roan 7 50 half russia 10 00 ---*railway practice.* american and european railway practice in the economical generation of steam, including the materials and construction of coal-burning boilers, combustion, the variable blast, vaporization, circulation, superheating, supplying and heating feed-water, etc., and the adaptation of wood and coke-burning engines to coal-burning; and in permanent way, including road-bed, sleepers, rails, joint-fastenings, street railways, etc., etc. with 77 lithographed plates. folio, cloth 12 00 *hotchkiss, jed., and allan, william.--the battle-fields of virginia.* chancellorsville, embracing the operations of the army of northern virginia, from the first battle of fredericksburg to the death of lt.-gen. t. j. jackson. illustrated with five maps and portrait of stonewall jackson. 8vo, cloth 3 50 *howard, c. r.--earthwork mensuration on the basis of the prismoidal formulã¦.* containing simple and labor-saving method of obtaining prismoidal contents directly from end areas. illustrated by examples, and accompanied by plain rules for practical uses. illustrated. 8vo, cloth 1 50 *hunter, capt. r. f.--manual for quartermasters and commissaries.* containing instructions in the preparation of vouchers, abstracts, returns, etc. 12mo, cloth 1 00 flexible morocco 1 50 *induction-coils.--how made and how used.* 63 illustrations. 16mo, boards 50 *instructions for field artillery.* prepared by a board of artillery officers. to which is added the "evolutions of batteries." translated from the french by brig.-gen. r. anderson, u. s. a. 122 plates. 12mo, cloth 1 00 *isherwood, b. f.--engineering precedents for steam machinery.* arranged in the most practical and useful manner for engineers. with illustrations. two volumes in one. 8vo, cloth 2 50 *ives, lieut. r. a.--military law.* a treatise on military law, and the jurisdiction, constitution, and procedure of military courts. with a summary of the rules of evidence as applicable to such courts. 400 pages. 8vo, law-sheep 4 00 *jannettaz, edward--a guide to the determination of rocks:* being an introduction to lithology. translated from the french by g. w. plympton, professor of physical science at brooklyn polytechnic institute. 12mo, cloth 1 50 *jeffers, capt. w. n., u. s. n.--nautical surveying.* illustrated with 9 copperplates and 31 wood-cut illustrations. 8vo, cloth 5 00 *jomini, gen. baron de.--campaign of waterloo.* the political and military history of the campaign of waterloo. translated from the french by gen. s. v. benã©t. third edition. 12mo, cloth 1 25 ---*treatise on grand military operations.* illustrated by a critical and military history of the wars of frederick the great. with a summary of the most important principles of the art of war. illustrated by maps and plans. translated from the french by col. s. b. holabird, u. s. a. 2 vols. 8vo and atlas. cloth 15 00 half calf or morocco 21 00 half russia 22 50 *jones, h. chapman.--text-book of experimental organic chemistry for students.* 18mo, cloth 1 00 *joynson, f. h.--the metals used in construction: iron, steel, bessemer metal, etc., etc.* illustrated. 12mo, cloth 75 ---*designing and construction of machine gearing.* illustrated. 8vo, cloth 2 00 *kansas city bridge, the.* with an account of the regimen of the missouri river, and a description of the methods used for founding in that river. by o. chanute, chief-engineer, and george morrison, assistant-engineer. illustrated with five lithographic views and twelve plates of plans. 4to, cloth 6 00 *kelton, gen. j. c.--new bayonet exercise.* a new manual of the bayonet, for the army and militia of the united states. with 40 beautifully engraved plates. fifth edition. revised. 12mo, cloth 2 00 *king, w. h.--lessons and practical notes on steam,* the steam-engine, propellers, etc., etc., for young marine engineers, students, and others. revised by chief-engineer j. w. king, u. s. navy. nineteenth edition, enlarged. 8vo, cloth 2 00 *kirkwood, jas. p.--report on the filtration of river waters for the supply of cities,* as practised in europe, made to the board of water commissioners of the city of st. louis. illustrated by 30 double-plate engravings. 4to, cloth 15 00 *larrabee, c. s.--cipher and secret letter and telegraphic code, with hogg's improvements.* the most perfect secret code ever invented or discovered. impossible to read without the key. 18mo, cloth 1 00 *lazelle, capt. h. m., u. s. a.--one law in nature.* a new corpuscular theory, comprehending unity of force, identity of matter and its multiple atom constitution; applied to the physical affections, or modes of energy. 12mo. 1 50 *lecomte, ferdinand.--the war in the united states.* a report to the swiss military department. translated from the french by a staff officer. 12mo, cloth 75 *le gal, col. eugene.--school of the guides.* designed for the use of the militia of the united states. 16mo, cloth 60 *lendy, capt.--maxims and instructions on the art of war.* a practical military guide for the use of soldiers of all arms and of all countries. translated from the french. 18mo, cloth 75 *levy, com. u. p.--manual of internal rules and regulations for men-of-war.* third edition, revised and enlarged. 18mo, flexible cloth 30 *lieber, francis, ll.d.--instructions for armies.* instructions for the government of armies of the united states in the field. 12mo, paper 25 *lippitt.--special operations of war.* 12mo, cloth 1 00 ---*field service in war.* 12mo, cloth 1 00 ---*tactical use of the three arms.* 12mo, cloth 1 00 ---*intrenchments.* 12mo, cloth 1 25 *lock, c. g., wigner, g. w., and harland, r. h.--sugar growing and refining.* treatise on the culture of sugar-yielding plants, and the manufacture and refining of cane, beet, and other sugars. 8vo, cloth, illustrated 12 00 *lockwood, thos. d.--electricity, magnetism, and electro-telegraphy.* a practical guide for students, operators, and inspectors. 8vo, cloth *loring, a. e.--a hand-book on the electro-magnetic telegraph.* paper boards 0 50 cloth 75 morocco 1 00 *luce, capt. s. b.--seamanship.* for the use of the united states naval academy. fourth edition. crown 8vo, revised and improved, illustrated by 89 full-page copperplate engravings, half roan 7 50 --> text-book at the u. s. naval academy, annapolis. ---*naval light artillery.* by lieut. w. h. parker, u. s. n. third edition, revised by capt. s. b. luce, assistant instructor of gunnery and tactics at the u. s. naval academy. 22 plates. 8vo, cloth 3 00 *maccord, prof. c. w.--a practical treatise on the slide-valve by eccentrics,* examining by methods the action of the eccentric upon the slide-valve, and explaining the practical processes of laying out the movements, adapting the valve for its various duties in the steam-engine. second edition. illustrated. 4to, cloth 2 50 *mcclellan, gen. geo. b.--report of the army of the potomac,* of its operations while under his command. with maps and plans. 8vo, cloth 1 00 paper 50 *mcculloch, prof. r. s.--elementary treatise on the mechanical theory of heat, and its application to air and steam engines.* 8vo, cloth 3 50 *manual of boat exercise.* at the u. s. naval academy, designed for the practical instruction of the senior class in naval tactics. 18mo, flexible cloth 50 *mendell, g. h.--military surveying.* a treatise on military surveying, theoretical and practical, including a description of surveying instruments. with 70 wood-cut illustrations. 12mo, cloth 1 50 *merrill, col. wm. e., u. s. a.--iron truss bridges for railroads.* the method of calculating strains in trusses, with a careful comparison of the most prominent trusses, in reference to economy in combination, etc., etc. illustrated. 4to, cloth 5 00 *michaelis, capt. o. e.--the le boulenge chronograph.* with three lithographed folding plates of illustrations. 4to, illustrated, cloth 3 00 *michie, prof. p. s.--elements of wave motion relating to sound and light.* text-book for the u. s. military academy. 8vo, cloth, illustrated 5 00 *minifie, wm--mechanical drawing.* a text-book of geometrical drawing for the use of mechanics and schools, in which the definitions and rules of geometry are familiarly explained; the practical problems are arranged, from the most simple to the more complex, and in their description technicalities are avoided as much as possible. with illustrations for drawing plans, sections, and elevations of railways and machinery; an introduction to isometrical drawing, and an essay on linear perspective and shadows. illustrated with over 200 diagrams engraved on steel. ninth edition. with an appendix on the theory and application of colors. 8vo, cloth 4 00 "it is the best work on drawing that we have ever seen, and is especially a text-book of geometrical drawing for the use of mechanics and schools. no young mechanic, such as a machinist, engineer, cabinet-maker, millwright, or carpenter, should be without it."--_scientific american._ ---*geometrical drawing.* abridged from the octavo edition, for the use of schools. illustrated with 48 steel plates. fifth edition. 12mo, cloth 2 00 *modern meteorology.* a series of six lectures, delivered under the auspices of the meteorological society in 1878. illustrated. 12mo, cloth 1 50 *monroe, col. j.--light infantry company and skirmish drill.* bayonet fencing; with a supplement on the handling and service of light infantry. 32mo, cloth 75 *moore, frank--the rebellion record.* containing a full and concise diary of events from december, 1860, to the close of the war of the rebellion, with official reports of state officers and narratives of all the battles and skirmishes that occurred. complete in twelve volumes royal 8vo. illustrated with 158 steel engraved portraits of distinguished generals and prominent men, together with numerous maps and plans of battles. price in cloth 60 00 library sheep 72 00 half calf, antique 78 00 half morocco 78 00 half russia 84 00 ---*portrait gallery of the war, civil, military, and naval.* a biographical record. illustrated with 60 fine portraits on steel. 1 vol. 8vo, cloth 6 00 half calf 7 50 *morris, e.--easy rules for the measurement of earthworks, by means of the prismoidal formula.* 78 illustrations. 8vo, cloth 1 50 *morris, gen. wm. h.--field tactics for infantry.* illustrated. 18mo, cloth 75 ---*infantry tactics.* 2 vols. 24mo. 2 00 2 vols. in one, cloth 1 50 transcriber's notes: the following corrections which did not concern obvious printer's errors have been made to the text. -in the table of content, the formatting of the entry for "dialysis" was changed in order to indicate that this part is a section of the chapter "methods of destruction of the organic substances" -"treated with "_mã©laã¯nocome_"" was: "treated with "melaniocome"" -the sentence "m. salleron offers for sale a small apparatus (fig. 20)" wrongly referred to fig. 16. -"if the crystals originate from fresh blood, they appear as represented in fig. 21; crystals from old blood are represented in fig. 22." wrongly referred to fig. 17 and 18; the same was the case in "the fluid is examined from time to time under the microscope: when it is sufficiently concentrated, crystals, presenting the appearance represented in figs. 21 or 22, will be observed." -"an oxidizing body" was: "an oxydizing body" -"condenser" was: "condensor" -"areometer (alcoholmeter)" was: "areometer (alcoolmeter)" jezebel's daughter by wilkie collins to alberto caccia let me begin by informing you, that this new novel does not present the proposed sequel to my last work of fiction--"the fallen leaves." the first part of that story has, through circumstances connected with the various forms of publications adopted thus far, addressed itself to a comparatively limited class of readers in england. when the book is finally reprinted in its cheapest form--then, and then only, it will appeal to the great audience of the english people. i am waiting for that time, to complete my design by writing the second part of "the fallen leaves." why? your knowledge of english literature--to which i am indebted for the first faithful and intelligent translation of my novels into the italian language--has long since informed you, that there are certain important social topics which are held to be forbidden to the english novelist (no matter how seriously and how delicately he may treat them), by a narrow-minded minority of readers, and by the critics who flatter their prejudices. you also know, having done me the honor to read my books, that i respect my art far too sincerely to permit limits to be wantonly assigned to it, which are imposed in no other civilized country on the face of the earth. when my work is undertaken with a pure purpose, i claim the same liberty which is accorded to a writer in a newspaper, or to a clergyman in a pulpit; knowing, by previous experience, that the increase of readers and the lapse of time will assuredly do me justice, if i have only written well enough to deserve it. in the prejudiced quarters to which i have alluded, one of the characters in "the fallen leaves" offended susceptibilities of the sort felt by tartuffe, when he took out his handkerchief, and requested dorine to cover her bosom. i not only decline to defend myself, under such circumstances as these--i say plainly, that i have never asserted a truer claim to the best and noblest sympathies of christian readers than in presenting to them, in my last novel, the character of the innocent victim of infamy, rescued and purified from the contamination of the streets. i remember what the nasty posterity of tartuffe, in this country, said of "basil," of "armadale," of "the new magdalen," and i know that the wholesome audience of the nation at large has done liberal justice to those books. for this reason, i wait to write the second part of "the fallen leaves," until the first part of the story has found its way to the people. turning for a moment to the present novel, you will (i hope) find two interesting studies of humanity in these pages. in the character called "jack straw," you have the exhibition of an enfeebled intellect, tenderly shown under its lightest and happiest aspect, and used as a means of relief in some of the darkest scenes of terror and suspense occurring in this story. again, in "madame fontaine," i have endeavored to work out the interesting moral problem, which takes for its groundwork the strongest of all instincts in a woman, the instinct of maternal love, and traces to its solution the restraining and purifying influence of this one virtue over an otherwise cruel, false, and degraded nature. the events in which these two chief personages play their parts have been combined with all possible care, and have been derived, to the best of my ability, from natural and simple causes. in view of the distrust which certain readers feel, when a novelist builds his fiction on a foundation of fact, it may not be amiss to mention (before i close these lines), that the accessories of the scenes in the deadhouse of frankfort have been studied on the spot. the published rules and ground-plans of that curious mortuary establishment have also been laid on my desk, as aids to memory while i was writing the closing passages of the story. with this, i commend "jezebel's daughter" to my good friend and brother in the art--who will present this last work also to the notice of italian readers. w. c. gloucester place, london: february 9, 1880. part i mr. david glenney consults his memory and opens the story chapter i in the matter of jezebel's daughter, my recollections begin with the deaths of two foreign gentlemen, in two different countries, on the same day of the same year. they were both men of some importance in their way, and both strangers to each other. mr. ephraim wagner, merchant (formerly of frankfort-on-the-main), died in london on the third day of september, 1828. doctor fontaine--famous in his time for discoveries in experimental chemistry--died at wurzburg on the third day of september, 1828. both the merchant and the doctor left widows. the merchant's widow (an englishwoman) was childless. the doctor's widow (of a south german family) had a daughter to console her. at that distant time--i am writing these lines in the year 1878, and looking back through half a century--i was a lad employed in mr. wagner's office. being his wife's nephew, he most kindly received me as a member of his household. what i am now about to relate i saw with my own eyes and heard with my own ears. my memory is to be depended on. like other old men, i recollect events which happened at the beginning of my career far more clearly than events which happened only two or three years since. good mr. wagner had been ailing for many months; but the doctors had no immediate fear of his death. he proved the doctors to be mistaken; and took the liberty of dying at a time when they all declared that there was every reasonable hope of his recovery. when this affliction fell upon his wife, i was absent from the office in london on a business errand to our branch-establishment at frankfort-on-the-main, directed by mr. wagner's partners. the day of my return happened to be the day after the funeral. it was also the occasion chosen for the reading of the will. mr. wagner, i should add, had been a naturalized british citizen, and his will was drawn by an english lawyer. the fourth, fifth, and sixth clauses of the will are the only portions of the document which it is necessary to mention in this place. the fourth clause left the whole of the testator's property, in lands and in money, absolutely to his widow. in the fifth clause he added a new proof of his implicit confidence in her--he appointed her sole executrix of his will. the sixth and last clause began in these words:-"during my long illness, my dear wife has acted as my secretary and representative. she has made herself so thoroughly well acquainted with the system on which i have conducted my business, that she is the fittest person to succeed me. i not only prove the fullness of my trust in her and the sincerity of my gratitude towards her, but i really act in the best interests of the firm of which i am the head, when i hereby appoint my widow as my sole successor in the business, with all the powers and privileges appertaining thereto." the lawyer and i both looked at my aunt. she had sunk back in her chair; her face was hidden in her handkerchief. we waited respectfully until she might be sufficiently recovered to communicate her wishes to us. the expression of her husband's love and respect, contained in the last words of the will, had completely overwhelmed her. it was only after she had been relieved by a burst of tears that she was conscious of our presence, and was composed enough to speak to us. "i shall be calmer in a few days' time," she said. "come to me at the end of the week. i have something important to say to both of you." the lawyer ventured on putting a question. "does it relate in any way to the will?" he inquired. she shook her head. "it relates," she answered, "to my husband's last wishes." she bowed to us, and went away to her own room. the lawyer looked after her gravely and doubtfully as she disappeared. "my long experience in my profession," he said, turning to me, "has taught me many useful lessons. your aunt has just called one of those lessons to my mind. "may i ask what it is, sir?" "certainly." he took my arm and waited to repeat the lesson until we had left the house; "always distrust a man's last wishes on his death-bed--unless they are communicated to his lawyer, and expressed in his will." at the time, i thought this rather a narrow view to take. how could i foresee that coming events in the future life of my aunt would prove the lawyer to be right? if she had only been content to leave her husband's plans and projects where he had left them at his death, and if she had never taken that rash journey to our branch office at frankfort--but what is the use of speculating on what might or might not have happened? my business in these pages is to describe what did happen. let me return to my business. chapter ii at the end of the week we found the widow waiting to receive us. to describe her personally, she was a little lady, with a remarkably pretty figure, a clear pale complexion, a broad low forehead, and large, steady, brightly-intelligent gray eyes. having married a man very much older than herself, she was still (after many years of wedded life) a notably attractive woman. but she never seemed to be conscious of her personal advantages, or vain of the very remarkable abilities which she did unquestionably possess. under ordinary circumstances, she was a singularly gentle, unobtrusive creature. but let the occasion call for it, and the reserves of resolution in her showed themselves instantly. in all my experience i have never met with such a firm woman, when she was once roused. she entered on her business with us, wasting no time in preliminary words. her face showed plain signs, poor soul, of a wakeful and tearful night. but she claimed no indulgence on that account. when she spoke of her dead husband--excepting a slight unsteadiness in her voice--she controlled herself with a courage which was at once pitiable and admirable to see. "you both know," she began, "that mr. wagner was a man who thought for himself. he had ideas of his duty to his poor and afflicted fellow-creatures which are in advance of received opinions in the world about us. i love and revere his memory--and (please god) i mean to carry out his ideas." the lawyer began to look uneasy. "do you refer, madam, to mr. wagner's political opinions?" he inquired. fifty years ago, my old master's political opinions were considered to be nothing less than revolutionary. in these days--when his opinions have been sanctioned by acts of parliament, with the general approval of the nation--people would have called him a "moderate liberal," and would have set him down as a discreetly deliberate man in the march of modern progress. "i have nothing to say about politics," my aunt answered. "i wish to speak to you, in the first place, of my husband's opinions on the employment of women." here, again, after a lapse of half a century, my master's heresies of the year 1828 have become the orthodox principles of the year 1878. thinking the subject over in his own independent way, he had arrived at the conclusion that there were many employments reserved exclusively for men, which might with perfect propriety be also thrown open to capable and deserving women. to recognize the claims of justice was, with a man of mr. wagner's character, to act on his convictions without a moment's needless delay. enlarging his london business at the time, he divided the new employments at his disposal impartially between men and women alike. the scandal produced in the city by this daring innovation is remembered to the present day by old men like me. my master's audacious experiment prospered nevertheless, in spite of scandal. "if my husband had lived," my aunt continued, "it was his intention to follow the example, which he has already set in london, in our house at frankfort. there also our business is increasing, and we mean to add to the number of our clerks. as soon as i am able to exert myself, i shall go to frankfort, and give german women the same opportunities which my husband has already given to english women in london. i have his notes on the best manner of carrying out this reform to guide me. and i think of sending you, david," she added, turning to me, "to our partners in frankfort, mr. keller and mr. engelman, with instructions which will keep some of the vacant situations in the office open, until i can follow you." she paused, and looked at the lawyer. "do you see any objection to what i propose?" she said. "i see some risks," he answered, cautiously. "what risks?" "in london, madam, the late mr. wagner had special means of investigating the characters of the women whom he took into his office. it may not be so easy for you, in a strange place like frankfort, to guard against the danger----" he hesitated, at a loss for the moment to express himself with sufficient plainness and sufficient delicacy. my aunt made no allowances for his embarrassment. "don't be afraid to speak out, sir," she said, a little coldly. "what danger are you afraid of?" "yours is a generous nature, madam: and generous natures are easily imposed upon. i am afraid of women with bad characters, or, worse still, of other women----" he stopped again. this time there was a positive interruption. we heard a knock at the door. our head-clerk was the person who presented himself at the summons to come in. my aunt held up her hand. "excuse me, mr. hartrey--i will attend to you in one moment." she turned to the lawyer. "what other women are likely to impose on me?" she asked. "women, otherwise worthy of your kindness, who may be associated with disreputable connections," the lawyer replied. "the very women, if i know anything of your quick sympathies, whom you would be most anxious to help, and who might nevertheless be a source of constant trouble and anxiety, under pernicious influences at home." my aunt made no answer. for the moment, the lawyer's objections seemed to annoy her. she addressed herself to mr. hartrey; asking rather abruptly what he had to say to her. our head-clerk was a methodical gentleman of the old school. he began by confusedly apologizing for his intrusion; and ended by producing a letter. "when you are able to attend to business, madam, honor me by reading this letter. and, in the meantime, will you forgive me for taking a liberty in the office, rather than intrude on your grief so soon after the death of my dear and honored master?" the phrases were formal enough; but there was true feeling in the man's voice as he spoke. my aunt gave him her hand. he kissed it, with the tears in his eyes. "whatever you have done has been well done, i am sure," she said kindly. "who is the letter from?" "from mr. keller, of frankfort, madam." my aunt instantly took the letter from him, and read it attentively. it has a very serious bearing on passages in the present narrative which are yet to come. i accordingly present a copy of it in this place: "private and confidential. "dear mr. hartrey,--it is impossible for me to address myself to mrs. wagner, in the first days of the affliction that has fallen on her. i am troubled by a pressing anxiety; and i venture to write to you, as the person now in charge at our london office. "my only son fritz is finishing his education at the university of wurzburg. he has, i regret to say, formed an attachment to a young woman, the daughter of a doctor at wurzburg, who has recently died. i believe the girl to be a perfectly reputable and virtuous young person. but her father has not only left her in poverty, he has done worse--he has died in debt. besides this, her mother's character does not stand high in the town. it is said, among other things, that her extravagance is mainly answerable for her late husband's debts. under these circumstances, i wish to break off the connection while the two young people are separated for the time by the event of the doctor's recent death. fritz has given up the idea of entering the medical profession, and has accepted my proposal that he shall succeed me in our business. i have decided on sending him to london, to learn something of commercial affairs, at headquarters, in your office. "my son obeys me reluctantly; but he is a good and dutiful lad--and he yields to his father's wishes. you may expect him in a day or two after receipt of these lines. oblige me by making a little opening for him in one of your official departments, and by keeping him as much as possible under your own eye, until i can venture on communicating directly with mrs. wagner--to whom pray convey the expression of my most sincere and respectful sympathy." my aunt handed back the letter. "has the young man arrived yet?" she asked. "he arrived yesterday, madam." "and have you found some employment for him?" "i have ventured to place him in our corresponding department," the head-clerk answered. "for the present he will assist in copying letters; and, after business-hours, he will have a room (until further orders) in my house. i hope you think i have done right, madam?" "you have done admirably, mr. hartrey. at the same time, i will relieve you of some of the responsibility. no grief of mine shall interfere with my duty to my husband's partner. i will speak to the young man myself. bring him here this evening, after business-hours. and don't leave us just yet; i want to put a question to you relating to my husband's affairs, in which i am deeply interested." mr. hartrey returned to his chair. after a momentary hesitation, my aunt put her question in terms which took us all three by surprise. chapter iii "my husband was connected with many charitable institutions," the widow began. "am i right in believing that he was one of the governors of bethlehem hospital?" at this reference to the famous asylum for insane persons, popularly known among the inhabitants of london as "bedlam," i saw the lawyer start, and exchange a look with the head-clerk. mr. hartrey answered with evident reluctance; he said, "quite right, madam"--and said no more. the lawyer, being the bolder man of the two, added a word of warning, addressed directly to my aunt. "i venture to suggest," he said, "that there are circumstances connected with the late mr. wagner's position at the hospital, which make it desirable not to pursue the subject any farther. mr. hartrey will confirm what i say, when i tell you that mr. wagner's proposals for a reformation in the treatment of the patients----" "were the proposals of a merciful man," my aunt interposed "who abhorred cruelty in all its forms, and who held the torturing of the poor mad patients by whips and chains to be an outrage on humanity. i entirely agree with him. though i am only a woman, i will not let the matter drop. i shall go to the hospital on monday morning next--and my business with you to-day is to request that you will accompany me." "in what capacity am i to have the honor of accompanying you?" the lawyer asked, in his coldest manner. "in your professional capacity," my aunt replied. "i may have a proposal to address to the governors; and i shall look to your experience to express it in the proper form." the lawyer was not satisfied yet. "excuse me if i venture on making another inquiry," he persisted. "do you propose to visit the madhouse in consequence of any wish expressed by the late mr. wagner?" "certainly not! my husband always avoided speaking to me on that melancholy subject. as you have heard, he even left me in doubt whether he was one of the governing body at the asylum. no reference to any circumstance in his life which might alarm or distress me ever passed his lips." her voice failed her as she paid that tribute to her husband's memory. she waited to recover herself. "but, on the night before his death," she resumed, "when he was half waking, half dreaming, i heard him talking to himself of something that he was anxious to do, if the chance of recovery had been still left to him. since that time i have looked at his private diary; and i have found entries in it which explain to me what i failed to understand clearly at his bedside. i know for certain that the obstinate hostility of his colleagues had determined him on trying the effect of patience and kindness in the treatment of mad people, at his sole risk and expense. there is now in bethlehem hospital a wretched man--a friendless outcast, found in the streets--whom my noble husband had chosen as the first subject of his humane experiment, and whose release from a life of torment he had the hope of effecting through the influence of a person in authority in the royal household. you know already that the memory of my husband's plans and wishes is a sacred memory to me. i am resolved to see that poor chained creature whom he would have rescued if he had lived; and i will certainly complete his work of mercy, if my conscience tells me that a woman should do it." hearing this bold announcement--i am almost ashamed to confess it, in these enlightened days--we all three protested. modest mr. hartrey was almost as loud and as eloquent as the lawyer, and i was not far behind mr. hartrey. it is perhaps to be pleaded as an excuse for us that some of the highest authorities, in the early part of the present century, would have been just as prejudiced and just as ignorant as we were. say what we might, however, our remonstrances produced no effect on my aunt. we merely roused the resolute side of her character to assert itself. "i won't detain you any longer," she said to the lawyer. "take the rest of the day to decide what you will do. if you decline to accompany me, i shall go by myself. if you accept my proposal, send me a line this evening to say so." in that way the conference came to an end. early in the evening young mr. keller made his appearance, and was introduced to my aunt and to me. we both took a liking to him from the first. he was a handsome young man, with light hair and florid complexion, and with a frank ingratiating manner--a little sad and subdued, in consequence, no doubt, of his enforced separation from his beloved young lady at wurzburg. my aunt, with her customary kindness and consideration, offered him a room next to mine, in place of his room in mr. hartrey's house. "my nephew david speaks german; and he will help to make your life among us pleasant to you." with those words our good mistress left us together. fritz opened the conversation with the easy self-confidence of a german student. "it is one bond of union between us that you speak my language," he began. "i am good at reading and writing english, but i speak badly. have we any other sympathies in common? is it possible that you smoke?" poor mr. wagner had taught me to smoke. i answered by offering my new acquaintance a cigar. "another bond between us," cried fritz. "we must be friends from this moment. give me your hand." we shook hands. he lit his cigar, looked at me very attentively, looked away again, and puffed out his first mouthful of smoke with a heavy sigh. "i wonder whether we are united by a third bond?" he said thoughtfully. "are you a stiff englishman? tell me, friend david, may i speak to you with the freedom of a supremely wretched man?" "as freely as you like," i answered. he still hesitated. "i want to be encouraged," he said. "be familiar with me. call me fritz." i called him "fritz." he drew his chair close to mine, and laid his hand affectionately on my shoulder. i began to think i had perhaps encouraged him a little too readily. "are you in love, david?" he put the question just as coolly as if he had asked me what o'clock it was. i was young enough to blush. fritz accepted the blush as a sufficient answer. "every moment i pass in your society," he cried with enthusiasm, "i like you better--find you more eminently sympathetic. you are in love. one word more--are there any obstacles in your way?" there _were_ obstacles in my way. she was too old for me, and too poor for me--and it all came to nothing in due course of time. i admitted the obstacles; abstaining, with an englishman's shyness, from entering into details. my reply was enough, and more than enough, for fritz. "good heavens!" he exclaimed; "our destinies exactly resemble each other! we are both supremely wretched men. david, i can restrain myself no longer; i must positively embrace you!" i resisted to the best of my ability--but he was the stronger man of the two. his long arms almost strangled me; his bristly mustache scratched my cheek. in my first involuntary impulse of disgust, i clenched my fist. young mr. keller never suspected (my english brethren alone will understand) how very near my fist and his head were to becoming personally and violently acquainted. different nations--different customs. i can smile as i write about it now. fritz took his seat again. "my heart is at ease; i can pour myself out freely," he said. "never, my friend, was there such an interesting love-story as mine. she is the sweetest girl living. dark, slim, gracious, delightful, desirable, just eighteen. the image, i should suppose, of what her widowed mother was at her age. her name is minna. daughter and only child of madame fontaine. madame fontaine is a truly grand creature, a roman matron. she is the victim of envy and scandal. would you believe it? there are wretches in wurzburg (her husband the doctor was professor of chemistry at the university)--there are wretches, i say, who call my minna's mother 'jezebel,' and my minna herself 'jezebel's daughter!' i have fought three duels with my fellow-students to avenge that one insult. alas, david, there is another person who is influenced by those odious calumnies!--a person sacred to me--the honored author of my being. is it not dreadful? my good father turns tyrant in this one thing; declares i shall never marry 'jezebel's daughter;' exiles me, by his paternal commands, to this foreign country; and perches me on a high stool to copy letters. ha! he little knows my heart. i am my minna's and my minna is mine. in body and soul, in time and in eternity, we are one. do you see my tears? do my tears speak for me? the heart's relief is in crying freely. there is a german song to that effect. when i recover myself, i will sing it to you. music is a great comforter; music is the friend of love. there is another german song to _that_ effect." he suddenly dried his eyes, and got on his feet; some new idea had apparently occurred to him. "it is dreadfully dull here," he said; "i am not used to evenings at home. have you any music in london? help me to forget minna for an hour or two. take me to the music." having, by this time, heard quite enough of his raptures, i was eager on my side for a change of any kind. i helped him to forget minna at a vauxhall concert. he thought our english orchestra wanting in subtlety and spirit. on the other hand, he did full justice, afterwards, to our english bottled beer. when we left the gardens he sang me that german song, 'my heart's relief is crying freely,' with a fervor of sentiment which must have awakened every light sleeper in the neighborhood. retiring to my bedchamber, i found an open letter on my toilet-table. it was addressed to my aunt by the lawyer; and it announced that he had decided on accompanying her to the madhouse--without pledging himself to any further concession. in leaving the letter for me to read, my aunt had written across it a line in pencil: "you can go with us, david, if you like." my curiosity was strongly aroused. it is needless to say i decided on being present at the visit to bedlam. chapter iv on the appointed monday we were ready to accompany my aunt to the madhouse. whether she distrusted her own unaided judgment, or whether she wished to have as many witnesses as possible to the rash action in which she was about to engage, i cannot say. in either case, her first proceeding was to include mr. hartrey and fritz keller in the invitation already extended to the lawyer and myself. they both declined to accompany us. the head-clerk made the affairs of the office serve for his apology, it was foreign post day, and he could not possibly be absent from his desk. fritz invented no excuses; he confessed the truth, in his own outspoken manner. "i have a horror of mad people," he said, "they so frighten and distress me, that they make me feel half mad myself. don't ask me to go with you--and oh, dear lady, don't go yourself." my aunt smiled sadly--and led the way out. we had a special order of admission to the hospital which placed the resident superintendent himself at our disposal. he received my aunt with the utmost politeness, and proposed a scheme of his own for conducting us over the whole building; with an invitation to take luncheon with him afterwards at his private residence. "at another time, sir, i shall be happy to avail myself of your kindness," my aunt said, when he had done. "for the present, my object is to see one person only among the unfortunate creatures in this asylum." "one person only?" repeated the superintendent. "one of our patients of the higher rank, i suppose?" "on the contrary," my aunt replied, "i wish to see a poor friendless creature, found in the streets; known here, as i am informed, by no better name than jack straw." the superintendent looked at her in blank amazement. "good heavens, madam!" he exclaimed; "are you aware that jack straw is one of the most dangerous lunatics we have in the house?" "i have heard that he bears the character you describe," my aunt quietly admitted. "and yet you wish to see him?" "i am here for that purpose--and no other." the superintendent looked round at the lawyer and at me, appealing to us silently to explain, if we could, this incomprehensible desire to see jack straw. the lawyer spoke for both of us. he reminded the superintendent of the late mr. wagner's peculiar opinions on the treatment of the insane, and of the interest which he had taken in this particular case. to which my aunt added: "and mr. wagner's widow feels the same interest, and inherits her late husband's opinions." hearing this, the superintendent bowed with his best grace, and resigned himself to circumstances. "pardon me if i keep you waiting for a minute or two," he said, and rang a bell. a man-servant appeared at the door. "are yarcombe and foss on duty on the south side?" the superintendent asked. "yes, sir." "send one of them here directly." we waited a few minutes--and then a gruff voice became audible on the outer side of the door. "present, sir," growled the gruff voice. the superintendent courteously offered his arm to my aunt. "permit me to escort you to jack straw," he said, with a touch of playful irony in his tone. we left the room. the lawyer and i followed my aunt and her escort. a man, whom we found posted on the door-mat, brought up the rear. whether he was yarcombe or whether he was foss, mattered but little. in either case he was a hulking, scowling, hideously ill-looking brute. "one of our assistants," we heard the superintendent explain. "it is possible, madam, that we may want two of them, if we are to make things pleasant at your introduction to jack straw." we ascended some stairs, shut off from the lower floor by a massive locked door, and passed along some dreary stone passages, protected by more doors. cries of rage and pain, at one time distant and at another close by, varied by yelling laughter, more terrible even than the cries, sounded on either side of us. we passed through a last door, the most solid of all, which shut out these dreadful noises, and found ourselves in a little circular hall. here the superintendent stopped, and listened for a moment. there was dead silence. he beckoned to the attendant, and pointed to a heavily nailed oaken door. "look in," he said. the man drew aside a little shutter in the door, and looked through the bars which guarded the opening. "is he waking or sleeping?" the superintendent asked. "waking, sir." "is he at work?" "yes, sir." the superintendent turned to my aunt. "you are fortunate, madam--you will see him in his quiet moments. he amuses himself by making hats, baskets, and table-mats, out of his straw. very neatly put together, i assure you. one of our visiting physicians, a man with a most remarkable sense of humor, gave him his nickname from his work. shall we open the door?" my aunt had turned very pale; i could see that she was struggling with violent agitation. "give me a minute or two first," she said; "i want to compose myself before i see him." she sat down on a stone bench outside the door. "tell me what you know about this poor man?" she said. "i don't ask out of idle curiosity--i have a better motive than that. is he young or old?" "judging by his teeth," the superintendent answered, as if he had been speaking of a horse, "he is certainly young. but his complexion is completely gone, and his hair has turned gray. so far as we have been able to make out (when he is willing to speak of himself), these peculiarities in his personal appearance are due to a narrow escape from poisoning by accident. but how the accident occurred, and where it occurred, he either cannot or will not tell us. we know nothing about him, except that he is absolutely friendless. he speaks english--but it is with an odd kind of accent--and we don't know whether he is a foreigner or not. you are to understand, madam, that he is here on sufferance. this is a royal institution, and, as a rule, we only receive lunatics of the educated class. but jack straw has had wonderful luck. being too mad, i suppose, to take care of himself, he was run over in one of the streets in our neighborhood by the carriage of an exalted personage, whom it would be an indiscretion on my part even to name. the personage (an illustrious lady, i may inform you) was so distressed by the accident--without the slightest need, for the man was not seriously hurt--that she actually had him brought here in her carriage, and laid her commands on us to receive him. ah, mrs. wagner, her highness's heart is worthy of her highness's rank. she occasionally sends to inquire after the lucky lunatic who rolled under her horse's feet. we don't tell her what a trouble and expense he is to us. we have had irons specially invented to control him; and, if i am not mistaken," said the superintendent, turning to the assistant, "a new whip was required only last week." the man put his hand into the big pocket of his coat, and produced a horrible whip, of many lashes. he exhibited this instrument of torture with every appearance of pride and pleasure. "this is what keeps him in order, my lady," said the brute, cheerfully. "just take it in your hand." my aunt sprang to her feet. she was so indignant that i believe she would have laid the whip across the man's shoulders, if his master had not pushed him back without ceremony. "a zealous servant," said the superintendent, smiling pleasantly. "please excuse him." my aunt pointed to the cell door. "open it," she said, "let me see _anything,_ rather than set eyes on that monster again!" the firmness of her tone evidently surprised the superintendent. he knew nothing of the reserves of resolution in her, which the mere sight of the whip had called forth. the pallor had left her face; she trembled no longer; her fine gray eyes were bright and steady. "that brute has roused her," said the lawyer, looking back at the assistant, and whispering to me; "nothing will restrain her, david--she will have her way now." chapter v the superintendent opened the cell door with his own hand. we found ourselves in a narrow, lofty prison, like an apartment in a tower. high up, in one corner, the grim stone walls were pierced by a grated opening, which let in air and light. seated on the floor, in the angle formed by the junction of two walls, we saw the superintendent's "lucky lunatic" at work, with a truss of loose straw on either side of him. the slanting rays of light from the high window streamed down on his prematurely gray hair, and showed us the strange yellow pallor of his complexion, and the youthful symmetry of his hands, nimbly occupied with their work. a heavy chain held him to the wall. it was not only fastened round his waist, it also fettered his legs between the knee and the ankle. at the same time, it was long enough to allow him a range of crippled movement, within a circle of five or six feet, as well as i could calculate at the time. above his head, ready for use if required, hung a small chain evidently intended to confine his hands at the wrists. unless i was deceived by his crouching attitude, he was small in stature. his ragged dress barely covered his emaciated form. in other and happier days, he must have been a well-made little man; his feet and ankles, like his hands, were finely and delicately formed. he was so absorbed in his employment that he had evidently not heard the talking outside his cell. it was only when the door was banged to by the assistant (who kept behind us, at a sign from the superintendent) that he looked up. we now saw his large vacantly-patient brown eyes, the haggard outline of his face, and his nervously sensitive lips. for a moment, he looked from one to the other of the visitors with a quiet childish curiosity. then his wandering glances detected the assistant, waiting behind us with the whip still in his hand. in an instant the whole expression of the madman's face changed. ferocious hatred glittered in his eyes; his lips, suddenly retracted, showed his teeth like the teeth of a wild beast. my aunt perceived the direction in which he was looking, and altered her position so as to conceal from him the hateful figure with the whip, and to concentrate his attention on herself. with startling abruptness, the poor creature's expression changed once more. his eyes softened, a faint sad smile trembled on his lips. he dropped the straw which he had been plaiting, and lifted his hands with a gesture of admiration. "the pretty lady!" he whispered to himself. "oh, the pretty lady!" he attempted to crawl out from the wall, as far as his chain would let him. at a sign from the superintendent he stopped, and sighed bitterly. "i wouldn't hurt the lady for the world," he said; "i beg your pardon, mistress, if i have frightened you." his voice was wonderfully gentle. but there was something strange in his accent--and there was perhaps a foreign formality in his addressing my aunt as "mistress." englishmen in general would have called her "ma'am." we men kept our places at a safe distance from his chain. my aunt, with a woman's impulsive contempt of danger when her compassion is strongly moved, stepped forward to him. the superintendent caught her by the arm and checked her. "take care," he said. "you don't know him as well as we do." jack's eyes turned on the superintendent, dilating slowly. his lips began to part again--i feared to see the ferocious expression in his face once more. i was wrong. in the very moment of another outbreak of rage, the unhappy man showed that he was still capable, under strong internal influence, of restraining himself. he seized the chain that held him to the wall in both hands, and wrung it with such convulsive energy that i almost expected to see the bones of his fingers start through the skin. his head dropped on his breast, his wasted figure quivered. it was only for an instant. when he looked up again, his poor vacant brown eyes turned on my aunt, dim with tears. she instantly shook off the superintendent's hold on her arm. before it was possible to interfere, she was bending over jack straw, with one of her pretty white hands laid gently on his head. "how your head burns, poor jack!" she said simply. "does my hand cool it?" still holding desperately by the chain, he answered like a timid child. "yes, mistress; your hand cools it. thank you." she took up a little straw hat on which he had been working when his door was opened. "this is very nicely done, jack," she went on. "tell me how you first came to make these pretty things with your straw." he looked up at her with a sudden accession of confidence; her interest in the hat had flattered him. "once," he said, "there was a time when my hands were the maddest things about me. they used to turn against me and tear my hair and my flesh. an angel in a dream told me how to keep them quiet. an angel said, "let them work at your straw." all day long i plaited my straw. i would have gone on all night too, if they would only have given me a light. my nights are bad, my nights are dreadful. the raw air eats into me, the black darkness frightens me. shall i tell you what is the greatest blessing in the world? daylight! daylight!! daylight!!!" at each repetition of the word his voice rose. he was on the point of breaking into a scream, when he took a tighter turn of his chain and instantly silenced himself. "i am quiet, sir," he said, before the superintendent could reprove him. my aunt added a word in his favor. "jack has promised not to frighten me; and i am sure he will keep his word. have you never had parents or friends to be kind to you, my poor fellow?" she asked, turning to him again. he looked up at her. "never," he said, "till you came here to see me." as he spoke, there was a flash of intelligence in the bright gratitude of his eyes. "ask me something else," he pleaded; "and see how quietly i can answer you." "is it true, jack, that you were once poisoned by accident, and nearly killed by it?" "yes!" "where was it?" "far away in another country. in the doctor's big room. in the time when i was the doctor's man." "who was the doctor?" he put his hand to his head, "give me more time," he said. "it hurts me when i try to remember too much. let me finish my hat first. i want to give you my hat when it's done. you don't know how clever i am with my fingers and thumbs. just look and see!" he set to work on the hat; perfectly happy while my aunt was looking at him. the lawyer was the unlucky person who produced a change for the worse. having hitherto remained passive, this worthy gentleman seemed to think it was due to his own importance to take a prominent part in the proceedings. "my professional experience will come in well here," he said; "i mean to treat him as an unwilling witness; you will see we shall get something out of him in that way. jack!" the unwilling witness went on impenetrably with his work. the lawyer (keeping well out of reach of the range of the chain) raised his voice. "hullo, there!" he cried, "you're not deaf, are you?" jack looked up, with an impish expression of mischief in his eyes. a man with a modest opinion of himself would have taken warning, and would have said no more. the lawyer persisted. "now, my man! let us have a little talk. 'jack straw' can't be your proper name. what is your name?" "anything you like," said jack. "what's yours?" "oh, come! that won't do. you must have had a father and mother." "not that i know of." "where were you born?" "in the gutter." "how were you brought up?" "sometimes with a cuff on the head." "and at other times?" "at other times with a kick. do be quiet, and let me finish my hat." the discomfited lawyer tried a bribe as a last resource. he held up a shilling. "do you see this?" "no, i don't. i see nothing but my hat." this reply brought the examination to an end. the lawyer looked at the superintendent, and said, "a hopeless case, sir." the superintendent looked at the lawyer, and answered, "perfectly hopeless." jack finished his hat, and gave it to my aunt. "do you like it, now it's done?" he asked. "i like it very much," she answered: "and one of these days i shall trim it with ribbons, and wear it for your sake." she appealed to the superintendent, holding out the hat to him. "look," she said. "there is not a false turn anywhere in all this intricate plaiting. poor jack is sane enough to fix his attention to this subtle work. do you give him up as incurable, when he can do that?" the superintendent waved away the question with his hand. "purely mechanical," he replied. "it means nothing." jack touched my aunt. "i want to whisper," he said. she bent down to him, and listened. i saw her smile, and asked, after we had left the asylum, what he had said. jack had stated his opinion of the principal officer of bethlehem hospital in these words: "don't you listen to him, mistress; he's a poor half-witted creature. and short, too--not above six inches taller than i am!" but my aunt had not done with jack's enemy yet. "i am sorry to trouble you, sir," she resumed--"i have something more to say before i go, and i wish to say it privately. can you spare me a few minutes?" the amiable superintendent declared that he was entirely at her service. she turned to jack to say good-bye. the sudden discovery that she was about to leave him was more than he could sustain; he lost his self-control. "stay with me!" cried the poor wretch, seizing her by both hands. "oh, be merciful, and stay with me!" she preserved her presence of mind--she would permit no interference to protect her. without starting back, without even attempting to release herself, she spoke to him quietly. "let us shake hands for to-day," she said; "you have kept your promise, jack--you have been quiet and good. i must leave you for a while. let me go." he obstinately shook his head, and still held her. "look at me," she persisted, without showing any fear of him. "i want to tell you something. you are no longer a friendless creature, jack. you have a friend in me. look up." her clear firm tones had their effect on him; he looked up. their eyes met. "now, let me go, as i told you." he dropped her hand, and threw himself back in his corner and burst out crying. "i shall never see her again," he moaned to himself. "never, never, never again!" "you shall see me to-morrow," she said. he looked at her through his tears, and looked away again with an abrupt change to distrust. "she doesn't mean it," he muttered, still speaking to himself; "she only says it to pacify me." "you shall see me to-morrow," my aunt reiterated; "i promise it." he was cowed, but not convinced; he crawled to the full length of his chain, and lay down at her feet like a dog. she considered for a moment--and found her way to his confidence at last. "shall i leave you something to keep for me until i see you again?" the idea struck him like a revelation: he lifted his head, and eyed her with breathless interest. she gave him a little ornamental handbag, in which she was accustomed to carry her handkerchief, and purse, and smelling-bottle. "i trust it entirely to you, jack: you shall give it back to me when we meet to-morrow." those simple words more than reconciled him to her departure--they subtly flattered his self-esteem. "you will find your bag torn to pieces, to-morrow," the superintendent whispered, as the door was opened for us to go out. "pardon me, sir," my aunt replied; "i believe i shall find it quite safe." the last we saw of poor jack, before the door closed on him, he was hugging the bag in both arms, and kissing it. chapter vi on our return to home, i found fritz keller smoking his pipe in the walled garden at the back of the house. in those days, it may not be amiss to remark that merchants of the old-fashioned sort still lived over their counting-houses in the city. the late mr. wagner's place of business included two spacious houses standing together, with internal means of communication. one of these buildings was devoted to the offices and warehouses. the other (having the garden at the back) was the private residence. fritz advanced to meet me, and stopped, with a sudden change in his manner. "something has happened," he said--"i see it in your face! has the madman anything to do with it?" "yes. shall i tell you what has happened, fritz?" "not for the world. my ears are closed to all dreadful and distressing narratives. i will imagine the madman--let us talk of something else." "you will probably see him, fritz, in a few weeks' time." "you don't mean to tell me he is coming into this house?" "i am afraid it's likely, to say the least of it." fritz looked at me like a man thunderstruck. "there are some disclosures," he said, in his quaint way, "which are too overwhelming to be received on one's legs. let us sit down." he led the way to a summer-house at the end of the garden. on the wooden table, i observed a bottle of the english beer which my friend prized so highly, with glasses on either side of it. "i had a presentiment that we should want a consoling something of this sort," said fritz. "fill your glass, david, and let out the worst of it at once, before we get to the end of the bottle." i let out the best of it first--that is to say, i told him what i have related in the preceding pages. fritz was deeply interested: full of compassion for jack straw, but not in the least converted to my aunt's confidence in him. "jack is supremely pitiable," he remarked; "but jack is also a smoldering volcano--and smoldering volcanos burst into eruption when the laws of nature compel them. my only hope is in mr. superintendent. surely he will not let this madman loose on us, with nobody but your aunt to hold the chain? what did she really say, when you left jack, and had your private talk in the reception-room? one minute, my friend, before you begin," said fritz, groping under the bench upon which we were seated. "i had a second presentiment that we might want a second bottle--and here it is! fill your glass; and let us establish ourselves in our respective positions--you to administer, and i to sustain, a severe shock to the moral sense. i think, david, this second bottle is even more deliciously brisk than the first. well, and what did your aunt say?" my aunt had said much more than i could possibly tell him. in substance it had come to this:--after seeing the whip, and seeing the chains, and seeing the man--she had actually determined to commit herself to the perilous experiment which her husband would have tried, if he had lived! as to the means of procuring jack straw's liberation from the hospital, the powerful influence which had insisted on his being received by the institution, in defiance of rules, could also insist on his release, and could be approached by the intercession of the same official person, whose interest in the matter had been aroused by mr. wagner in the last days of his life. having set forth her plans for the future in these terms, my aunt appealed to the lawyer to state the expression of her wishes and intentions, in formal writing, as a preliminary act of submission towards the governors of the asylum. "and what did the lawyer say to it?" fritz inquired, after i had reported my aunt's proceedings thus far. "the lawyer declined, fritz, to comply with her request. he said, 'it would be inexcusable, even in a man, to run such a risk--i don't believe there is another woman in england who would think of such a thing.' those were his words." "did they have any effect on her?" "not the least in the world. she apologized for having wasted his valuable time, and wished him good morning. 'if nobody will help me,' she said, quietly, 'i must help myself.' then she turned to me. 'you have seen how carefully and delicately poor jack can work,' she said; 'you have seen him tempted to break out, and yet capable of restraining himself in my presence. and, more than that, on the one occasion when he did lose his self-control, you saw how he recovered himself when he was calmly and kindly reasoned with. are you content, david, to leave such a man for the rest of his life to the chains and the whip?' what could i say? she was too considerate to press me; she only asked me to think of it. i have been trying to think of it ever since--and the more i try, the more i dread the consequences if that madman is brought into the house." fritz shuddered at the prospect. "on the day when jack comes into the house, i shall go out of it," he said. the social consequences of my aunt's contemplated experiment suddenly struck him while he spoke. "what will mrs. wagner's friends think?" he asked piteously. "they will refuse to visit her--they will say she's mad herself." "don't let that distress you, gentlemen--i shan't mind what my friends say of me." we both started in confusion to our feet. my aunt herself was standing at the open door of the summer-house with a letter in her hand. "news from germany, just come for you, fritz." with those words, she handed him the letter, and left us. we looked at each other thoroughly ashamed of ourselves, if the truth must be told. fritz cast an uneasy glance at the letter, and recognized the handwriting on the address. "from my father!" he said. as he opened the envelope a second letter enclosed fell out on the floor. he changed color as he picked it up, and looked at it. the seal was unbroken--the postmark was wurzburg. chapter vii fritz kept the letter from wurzburg unopened in his hand. "it's not from minna," he said; "the handwriting is strange to me. perhaps my father knows something about it." he turned to his father's letter; read it; and handed it to me without a word of remark. mr. keller wrote briefly as follows:-"the enclosed letter has reached me by post, as you perceive, with written instructions to forward it to my son. the laws of honor guide me just as absolutely in my relations with my son as in my relations with any other gentleman. i forward the letter to you exactly as i have received it. but i cannot avoid noticing the postmark of the city in which the widow fontaine and her daughter are still living. if either minna or her mother be the person who writes to you, i must say plainly that i forbid your entering into any correspondence with them. the two families shall never be connected by marriage while i live. understand, my dear son, that this is said in your own best interests, and said, therefore, from the heart of your father who loves you." while i was reading these lines fritz had opened the letter from wurzburg. "it's long enough, at any rate," he said, turning over the closely-written pages to find the signature at the end. "well?" i asked. "well," fritz repeated, "it's an anonymous letter. the signature is 'your unknown friend.'" "perhaps it relates to miss minna, or to her mother," i suggested. fritz turned back to the first page and looked up at me, red with anger. "more abominable slanders! more lies about minna's mother!" he burst out. "come here, david. look at it with me. what do you say? is it the writing of a woman or a man?" the writing was so carefully disguised that it was impossible to answer his question. the letter (like the rest of the correspondence connected with this narrative) has been copied in duplicate and placed at my disposal. i reproduce it here for reasons which will presently explain themselves--altering nothing, not even the vulgar familiarity of the address. "my good fellow, you once did me a kindness a long time since. never mind what it was or who i am. i mean to do you a kindness in return. let that be enough. "you are in love with 'jezebel's daughter.' now, don't be angry! i know you believe jezebel to be a deeply-injured woman; i know you have been foolish enough to fight duels at wurzburg in defense of her character. "it is enough for you that she is a fond mother, and that her innocent daughter loves her dearly. i don't deny that she is a fond mother; but is the maternal instinct enough of itself to answer for a woman? why, fritz, a cat is a fond mother; but a cat scratches and swears for all that! and poor simple little minna, who can see no harm in anybody, who can't discover wickedness when it stares her in the face--is _she_ a trustworthy witness to the widow's character? bah! "don't tear up my letter in a rage; i am not going to argue the question with you any further. certain criminal circumstances have come to my knowledge, which point straight to this woman. i shall plainly relate those circumstances, out of my true regard for you, in the fervent hope that i may open your eyes to the truth. "let us go back to the death of doctor-professor fontaine, at his apartments in the university of wurzburg, on the 3rd of september, in the present year 1828. "the poor man died of typhoid fever, as you know--and died in debt, through no extravagance on his own part, as you also know. he had outlived all his own relatives, and had no pecuniary hopes or expectations from anyone. under these circumstances, he could only leave the written expression of his last wishes, in place of a will. "this document committed his widow and child to the care of his widow's relations, in terms of respectful entreaty. speaking next of himself, he directed that he should be buried with the strictest economy, so that he might cost the university as little as possible. thirdly, and lastly, he appointed one of his brother professors to act as his sole executor, in disposing of those contents of his laboratory which were his own property at the time of his death. "the written instructions to his executor are of such serious importance that i feel it my duty to copy them for you, word for word. "thus they begin:-"'i hereby appoint my dear old friend and colleague, professor stein--now absent for a while at munich, on university business--to act as my sole representative in the disposal of the contents of my laboratory, after my death. the various objects used in my chemical investigations, which are my own private property, will be all found arranged on the long deal table that stands between the two windows. they are to be offered for sale to my successor, in the first instance. if he declines to purchase them, they can then be sent to munich, to be sold separately by the manufacturer, as occasion may offer. the furniture of the laboratory, both movable and stationary, belongs entirely to the university, excepting the contents of an iron safe built into the south wall of the room. as to these, which are my own sole property, i seriously enjoin my executor and representative to follow my instructions to the letter:-"'(1) professor stein will take care to be accompanied by a competent witness, when he opens the safe in the wall. "'(2) the witness will take down in writing, from the dictation of professor stein, an exact list of the contents of the safe. these are:--bottles containing drugs, tin cases containing powders, and a small medicine-chest, having six compartments, each occupied by a labeled bottle, holding a liquid preparation. "'(3) the written list being complete, i desire professor stein to empty every one of the bottles and cases, including the bottles in the medicine-chest, into the laboratory sink, with his own hands. he is also to be especially careful to destroy the labels on the bottles in the medicine-chest. these things done, he will sign the list, stating that the work of destruction is accomplished; and the witness present will add his signature. the document, thus attested, is to be placed in the care of the secretary to the university. "'my object in leaving these instructions is simply to prevent the dangerous results which might follow any meddling with my chemical preparations, after my death. "'in almost every instance, these preparations are of a poisonous nature. having made this statement, let me add, in justice to myself, that the sole motive for my investigations has been the good of my fellow-creatures. "'i have been anxious, in the first place, to enlarge the list of curative medicines having poison for one of their ingredients. i have attempted, in the second place, to discover antidotes to the deadly action of those poisons, which (in cases of crime or accident) might be the means of saving life. "'if i had been spared for a few years longer, i should so far have completed my labors as to have ventured on leaving them to be introduced to the medical profession by my successor. as it is--excepting one instance, in which i ran the risk, and was happily enabled to preserve the life of a poisoned man--i have not had time so completely to verify my theories, by practical experiment, as to justify me in revealing my discoveries to the scientific world for the benefit of mankind. "'under these circumstances, i am resigned to the sacrifice of my ambition--i only desire to do no harm. if any of my preparations, and more particularly those in the medicine-chest, fell into ignorant or wicked hands, i tremble when i think of the consequences which might follow. my one regret is, that i have not strength enough to rise from my bed, and do the good work of destruction myself. my friend and executor will take my place. "'the key of the laboratory door, and the key of the safe, will be secured this day in the presence of my medical attendant, in a small wooden box. the box will be sealed (before the same witness) with my own seal. i shall keep it under my pillow, to give it myself to professor stein, if i live until he returns from munich. "'if i die while my executor is still absent, my beloved wife is the one person in the world whom i can implicitly trust to take charge of the sealed box. she will give it to professor stein, immediately on his return to wurzburg; together with these instructions, which will be placed in the box along with the keys.'" "there are the instructions, friend fritz! they are no secret now. the professor has felt it his duty to make them public in a court of law, in consequence of the events which followed doctor fontaine's death. you are interested in those events, and you shall be made acquainted with them before i close my letter. "professor stein returned from munich too late to receive the box from the hands of his friend and colleague. it was presented to him by the widow fontaine, in accordance with her late husband's wishes. "the professor broke the seal. having read his instructions, he followed them to the letter, the same day. "accompanied by the secretary to the university, as a witness, he opened the laboratory door. leaving the sale of the objects on the table to be provided for at a later date, he proceeded at once to take the list of the bottles and cases, whose contents he was bound to destroy. on opening the safe, these objects were found as the instructions led him to anticipate: the dust lying thick on them vouched for their having been left undisturbed. the list being completed, the contents of the bottles and cases were thereupon thrown away by the professor's own hand. "on looking next, however, for the medicine-chest, no such thing was to be discovered in the safe. the laboratory was searched from end to end, on the chance that some mistake had been made. still no medicine-chest was to be found. "upon this the widow fontaine was questioned. did she know what had become of the medicine-chest? she was not even aware that such a thing existed. had she been careful to keep the sealed box so safely that no other person could get at it? certainly! she had kept it locked in one of her drawers, and the key in her pocket. "the lock of the drawer, and the locks of the laboratory door and the safe, were examined. they showed no sign of having been tampered with. persons employed in the university, who were certain to know, were asked if duplicate keys existed, and all united in answering in the negative. the medical attendant was examined, and declared that it was physically impossible for doctor fontaine to have left his bed, and visited the laboratory, between the time of writing his instructions and the time of his death. "while these investigations were proceeding, doctor fontaine's senior assistant obtained leave to examine through a microscope the sealing-wax left on the box which had contained the keys. "the result of this examination, and of the chemical analyses which followed, proved that two different kinds of sealing-wax (both of the same red color, superficially viewed) had been used on the seal of the box--an undermost layer of one kind of wax, and an uppermost layer of another, mingled with the undermost in certain places only. the plain inference followed that the doctor's sealing-wax had been softened by heat so as to allow of the opening of the box, and that new sealing-wax had been afterwards added, and impressed by the doctor's seal so that the executor might suspect nothing. here, again, the evidence of the medical attendant (present at the time) proved that doctor fontaine had only used one stick of sealing-wax to secure the box. the seal itself was found in the possession of the widow; placed carelessly in the china tray in which she kept her rings after taking them off for the night. "the affair is still under judicial investigation. i will not trouble you by reporting the further proceedings in detail. "of course, widow fontaine awaits the result of the investigation with the composure of conscious innocence. of course, she has not only submitted to an examination of her lodgings, but has insisted on it. of course, no red sealing-wax and no medicine-chest have been found. of course, some thief unknown, for some purpose quite inconceivable, got at the box and the seal, between the doctor's death and the return of the professor from munich, and read the instructions and stole the terrible medicine-chest. such is the theory adopted by the defense. if you can believe it--then i have written in vain. if, on the other hand, you are the sensible young man i take you to be, follow my advice. pity poor little minna as much as you please, but look out for another young lady with an unimpeachable mother; and think yourself lucky to have two such advisers as your excellent father, and your unknown friend." chapter viii "i will lay any wager you like," said fritz, when we had come to the end of the letter, "that the wretch who has written this is a woman." "what makes you think so?" "because all the false reports about poor madame fontaine, when i was at wurzburg, were traced to women. they envy and hate minna's mother. she is superior to them in everything; handsome, distinguished, dresses to perfection, possesses all the accomplishments--a star, i tell you, a brilliant star among a set of dowdy domestic drudges. isn't it infamous, without an atom of evidence against her, to take it for granted that she is guilty? false to her dead husband's confidence in her, a breaker of seals, a stealer of poisons--what an accusation against a defenseless woman! oh, my poor dear minna! how she must feel it; she doesn't possess her mother's strength of mind. i shall fly to wurzburg to comfort her. my father may say what he pleases; i can't leave these two persecuted women without a friend. suppose the legal decision goes against the widow? how do i know that judgment has not been pronounced already? the suspense is intolerable. do you mean to tell me i am bound to obey my father, when his conduct is neither just nor reasonable?" "gently, fritz--gently!" "i tell you, david, i can prove what i say. just listen to this. my father has never even seen minna's mother; he blindly believes the scandals afloat about her--he denies that any woman can be generally disliked and distrusted among her neighbors without some good reason for it. i assure you, on my honor, he has no better excuse for forbidding me to marry minna than that. is it just, is it reasonable, to condemn a woman without first hearing what she has to say in her own defense? ah, now indeed i feel the loss of my own dear mother! if she had been alive she would have exerted her influence, and have made my father ashamed of his own narrow prejudices. my position is maddening; my head whirls when i think of it. if i go to wurzburg, my father will never speak to me again. if i stay here, i shall cut my throat." there was still a little beer left in the bottom of the second bottle. fritz poured it out, with a gloomy resolution to absorb it to the last drop. i took advantage of this momentary pause of silence to recommend the virtue of patience to the consideration of my friend. news from wurzburg, i reminded him, might be obtained in our immediate neighborhood by consulting a file of german journals, kept at a foreign coffee-house. by way of strengthening the good influence of this suggestion, i informed fritz that i expected to be shortly sent to frankfort, as the bearer of a business communication addressed to mr. keller by my aunt; and i offered privately to make inquiries, and (if possible) even to take messages to wurzburg--if he would only engage to wait patiently for the brighter prospects that might show themselves in the time to come. i had barely succeeded in tranquilizing fritz, when my attention was claimed by the more serious and pressing subject of the liberation of jack straw. my aunt sent to say that she wished to see me. i found her at her writing-table, with the head-clerk established at the desk opposite. mr. hartrey was quite as strongly opposed as the lawyer to any meddling with the treatment of mad people on the part of my aunt. but he placed his duty to his employer before all other considerations; and he rendered, under respectful protest, such services as were required of him. he was now engaged in drawing out the necessary memorials and statements, under the instructions of my aunt. her object in sending for me was to inquire if i objected to making fair copies of the rough drafts thus produced. in the present stage of the affair, she was unwilling to take the clerks at the office into her confidence. as a matter of course, i followed mr. hartrey's example, and duly subordinated my own opinions to my aunt's convenience. on the next day, she paid her promised visit to poor jack. the bag which she had committed to his care was returned to her without the slightest injury. naturally enough, she welcomed this circumstance as offering a new encouragement to the design that she had in view. mad jack could not only understand a responsibility, but could prove himself worthy of it. the superintendent smiled, and said, in his finely ironical way, "i never denied, madam, that jack was cunning." from that date, my aunt's venturesome enterprise advanced towards completion with a rapidity that astonished us. applying, in the first instance, to the friend of her late husband, holding a position in the royal household, she was met once more by the inevitable objections to her design. she vainly pleaded that her purpose was to try the experiment modestly in the one pitiable case of jack straw, and that she would willingly leave any further development of her husband's humane project to persons better qualified to encounter dangers and difficulties than herself. the only concession that she could obtain was an appointment for a second interview, in the presence of a gentleman whose opinion it would be important to consult. he was one of the physicians attached to the court, and he was known to be a man of liberal views in his profession. mrs. wagner would do well, in her own interests, to be guided by his disinterested advice. keeping this second appointment, my aunt provided herself with a special means of persuasion in the shape of her husband's diary, containing his unfinished notes on the treatment of insanity by moral influence. as she had anticipated, the physician invited to advise her was readier to read the notes than to listen to her own imperfect explanation of the object in view. he was strongly impressed by the novelty and good sense of the ideas that her husband advocated, and was candid enough openly to acknowledge it. but he, too, protested against any attempt on the part of a woman to carry out any part of the proposed reform, even on the smallest scale. exasperated by these new remonstrances, my aunt's patience gave way. refusing to submit herself to the physician's advice, she argued the question boldly from her own point of view. the discussion was at its height, when the door of the room was suddenly opened from without. a lady in walking-costume appeared, with two ladies in attendance on her. the two gentlemen started to their feet, and whispered to my aunt, "the princess!" this was the exalted personage whom the superintendent at bethlehem had been too discreet to describe more particularly as a daughter of george the third. passing the door on her way to the palace-gardens, the princess had heard the contending voices, and the name of jack distinctly pronounced in a woman's tones. inheriting unusually vigorous impulses of curiosity from her august father, her highness opened the door and joined the party without ceremony. "what are you quarreling about?" inquired the princess. "and who is this lady?" mrs. wagner was presented, to answer for herself. she made the best of the golden opportunity that had fallen into her hands. the princess was first astonished, then interested, then converted to my aunt's view of the case. in the monotonous routine of court life, here was a romantic adventure in which even the king's daughter could take some share. her highness quoted boadicea, queen elizabeth, and joan of arc, as women who had matched the men on their own ground--and complimented mrs. wagner as a heroine of the same type. "you are a fine creature," said the princess, "and you may trust to me to help you with all my heart. come to my apartments tomorrow at this time--and tell poor jack that i have not forgotten him." assailed by royal influence, all the technical obstacles that lawyers, doctors, and governors could raise to the liberation of jack straw were set aside by an ingenious appeal to the letter of the law, originating in a suggestion made by the princess herself. "it lies in a nutshell, my dear," said her highness to my aunt. "they tell me i broke the rules when i insisted on having jack admitted to the hospital. now, your late husband was one of the governors; and you are his sole executor. very good. as your husband's representative, complain of the violation of the rules, and insist on the discharge of jack. he occupies a place which ought to be filled by an educated patient in a higher rank of life. oh, never mind me! i shall express my regret for disregarding the regulations--and, to prove my sincerity, i shall consent to the poor creature's dismissal, and assume the whole responsibility of providing for him myself. there is the way out of our difficulty. take it--and you shall have jack whenever you want him." in three weeks from that time, the "dangerous lunatic" was free (as our friend the lawyer put it) to "murder mrs. wagner, and to burn the house down." how my aunt's perilous experiment was conducted--in what particulars it succeeded and in what particulars it failed--i am unable to state as an eyewitness, owing to my absence at the time. this curious portion of the narrative will be found related by jack himself, on a page still to come. in the meanwhile, the course of events compels me to revert to the circumstances which led to my departure from london. while mrs. wagner was still in attendance at the palace, a letter reached her from mr. keller, stating the necessity of increasing the number of clerks at the frankfort branch of our business. closely occupied as she then was, she found time to provide me with those instructions to her german partners, preparing them for the coming employment of women in their office, to which she had first alluded when the lawyer and i had our interview with her after the reading of the will. "the cause of the women," she said to me, "must not suffer because i happen to be just now devoted to the cause of poor jack. go at once to frankfort, david. i have written enough to prepare my partners there for a change in the administration of the office, and to defer for the present the proposed enlargement of our staff of clerks. the rest you can yourself explain from your own knowledge of the plans that i have in contemplation. start on your journey as soon as possible--and understand that you are to say no positively, if fritz proposes to accompany you. he is not to leave london without the express permission of his father." fritz did propose to accompany me, the moment he heard of my journey. i must own that i thought the circumstances excused him. on the previous evening, we had consulted the german newspapers at the coffee-house, and had found news from wurzburg which quite overwhelmed my excitable friend. being called upon to deliver their judgment, the authorities presiding at the legal inquiry into the violation of the seals and the loss of the medicine-chest failed to agree in opinion, and thus brought the investigation to a most unsatisfactory end. the moral effect of this division among the magistrates was unquestionably to cast a slur on the reputation of widow fontaine. she was not pronounced to be guilty--but she was also not declared to be innocent. feeling, no doubt, that her position among her neighbors had now become unendurable, she and her daughter had left wurzburg. the newspaper narrative added that their departure had been privately accomplished. no information could be obtained of the place of their retreat. but for this last circumstance, i believe fritz would have insisted on traveling with me. ignorant of what direction to begin the search for minna and her mother, he consented to leave me to look for traces of them in germany, while he remained behind to inquire at the different foreign hotels, on the chance that they might have taken refuge in london. the next morning i started for frankfort. my spirits were high as i left the shores of england. i had a young man's hearty and natural enjoyment of change. besides, it flattered my self-esteem to feel that i was my aunt's business-representative; and i was almost equally proud to be fritz's confidential friend. never could any poor human creature have been a more innocent instrument of mischief in the hands of destiny than i was, on that fatal journey. the day was dark, when the old weary way of traveling brought me at last to frankfort. the unseen prospect, at the moment when i stepped out of the mail-post-carriage, was darker still. chapter ix i had just given a porter the necessary directions for taking my portmanteau to mr. keller's house, when i heard a woman's voice behind me asking the way to the poste restante--or, in our roundabout english phrase, the office of letters to be left till called for. the voice was delightfully fresh and sweet, with an undertone of sadness, which made it additionally interesting. i did what most other young men in my place would have done--i looked round directly. yes! the promise of the voice was abundantly kept by the person. she was quite a young girl, modest and ladylike; a little pale and careworn, poor thing, as if her experience of life had its sad side already. her face was animated by soft sensitive eyes--the figure supple and slight, the dress of the plainest material, but so neatly made and so perfectly worn that i should have doubted her being a german girl, if i had not heard the purely south-german accent in which she put her question. it was answered, briefly and civilly, by the conductor of the post-carriage in which i had traveled. but, at that hour, the old court-yard of the post-office was thronged with people arriving and departing, meeting their friends and posting their letters. the girl was evidently not used to crowds. she was nervous and confused. after advancing a few steps in the direction pointed out to her, she stopped in bewilderment, hustled by busy people, and evidently in doubt already about which way she was to turn next. if i had followed the strict line of duty, i suppose i should have turned my steps in the direction of mr. keller's house. i followed my instincts instead, and offered my services to the young lady. blame the laws of nature and the attraction between the sexes. don't blame me. "i heard you asking for the post-office," i said. "will you allow me to show you the way?" she looked at me, and hesitated. i felt that i was paying the double penalty of being a young man, and of being perhaps a little too eager as well. "forgive me for venturing to speak to you," i pleaded. "it is not very pleasant for a young lady to find herself alone in such a crowded place as this. i only ask permission to make myself of some trifling use to you." she looked at me again, and altered her first opinion. "you are very kind, sir; i will thankfully accept your assistance." "may i offer you my arm?" she declined this proposal--with perfect amiability, however. "thank you, sir, i will follow you, if you please." i pushed my way through the crowd, with the charming stranger close at my heels. arrived at the post-office, i drew aside to let her make her own inquiries. would she mention her name? no; she handed in a passport, and asked if there was a letter waiting for the person named in it. the letter was found; but was not immediately delivered. as well as i could understand, the postage had been insufficiently paid, and the customary double-rate was due. the young lady searched in the pocket of her dress--a cry of alarm escaped her. "oh!" she exclaimed, "i have lost my purse, and the letter is so important!" it occurred to me immediately that she had had her pocket picked by some thief in the crowd. the clerk thought so too. he looked at the clock. "you must be quick about it if you return for the letter," he said, "the office closes in ten minutes." she clasped her hands in despair. "it's more than ten minutes' walk," she said, "before i can get home." i immediately offered to lend her the money. "it is such a very small sum," i reminded her, "that it would be absurd to consider yourself under any obligation to me." between her eagerness to get possession of the letter, and her doubt of the propriety of accepting my offer, she looked sadly embarrassed, poor soul. "you are very good to me," she said confusedly; "but i am afraid it might not be quite right in me to borrow money of a stranger, however little it may be. and, even if i did venture, how am i----?" she looked at me shyly, and shrank from finishing the sentence. "how are you to pay it back?" i suggested. "yes, sir." "oh, it's not worth the trouble of paying back. give it to the first poor person you meet with to-morrow." i said this, with the intention of reconciling her to the loan of the money. it had exactly the contrary effect on this singularly delicate and scrupulous girl. she drew back a step directly. "no, i couldn't do that," she said. "i could only accept your kindness, if----" she stopped again. the clerk looked once more at the clock. "make up your mind, miss, before it's too late." in her terror of not getting the letter that day, she spoke out plainly at last. "will you kindly tell me, sir, to what address i can return the money when i get home?" i paid for the letter first, and then answered the question. "if you will be so good as to send it to mr. keller's house----" before i could add the name of the street, her pale face suddenly flushed. "oh!" she exclaimed impulsively, "do you know mr. keller?" a presentiment of the truth occurred to my mind for the first time. "yes," i said; "and his son fritz too." she trembled; the color that had risen in her face left it instantly; she looked away from me with a pained, humiliated expression. doubt was no longer possible. the charming stranger was fritz's sweetheart--and "jezebel's daughter." my respect for the young lady forbade me to attempt any concealment of the discovery that i had made. i said at once, "i believe i have the honor of speaking to miss minna fontaine?" she looked at me in wonder, not unmixed with distrust. "how do you know who i am?" she asked. "i can easily tell you, miss minna. i am david glenney, nephew of mrs. wagner, of london. fritz is staying in her house, and he and i have talked about you by the hour together." the poor girl's face, so pale and sad the moment before, became radiant with happiness. "oh!" she cried innocently, "has fritz not forgotten me?" even at this distance of time, my memory recalls her lovely dark eyes riveted in breathless interest on my face, as i spoke of fritz's love and devotion, and told her that she was still the one dear image in his thoughts by day, in his dreams by night. all her shyness vanished. she impulsively gave me her hand. "how can i be grateful enough to the good angel who has brought us together!" she exclaimed. "if we were not in the street, i do believe, mr. david, i should go down on my knees to thank you! you have made me the happiest girl living." her voice suddenly failed her; she drew her veil down. "don't mind me," she said; "i can't help crying for joy." shall i confess what my emotions were? for the moment, i forgot my own little love affair in england--and envied fritz from the bottom of my heart. the chance-passengers in the street began to pause and look at us. i offered minna my arm, and asked permission to attend her on the way home. "i should like it," she answered, with a friendly frankness that charmed me. "but you are expected at mr. keller's--you must go there first." "may i call and see you to-morrow?" i persisted, "and save you the trouble of sending my money to mr. keller's?" she lifted her veil and smiled at me brightly through her tears. "yes," she said; "come to-morrow and be introduced to my mother. oh! how glad my dear mother will be to see you, when i tell her what has happened! i am a selfish wretch; i have not borne my sorrow and suspense as i ought; i have made her miserable about me, because i was miserable about fritz. it's all over now. thank you again and again. there is our address on that card. no, no, we must say good-bye till to-morrow. my mother is waiting for her letter; and mr. keller is wondering what has become of you." she pressed my hand warmly and left me. on my way alone to mr. keller's house, i was not quite satisfied with myself. the fear occurred to me that i might have spoken about fritz a little too freely, and might have excited hopes which could never be realized. the contemplation of the doubtful future began to oppress my mind. minna might have reason to regret that she had ever met with me. i was received by mr. keller with truly german cordiality. he and his partner mr. engelman--one a widower, the other an old bachelor--lived together in the ancient building, in main street, near the river, which served for house and for offices alike. the two old gentlemen offered the completest personal contrast imaginable. mr. keller was lean, tall, and wiry--a man of considerable attainments beyond the limits of his business, capable (when his hot temper was not excited) of speaking sensibly and strongly on any subject in which he was interested. mr. engelman, short and fat, devoted to the office during the hours of business, had never read a book in his life, and had no aspiration beyond the limits of his garden and his pipe. "in my leisure moments," he used to say, "give me my flowers, my pipe, and my peace of mind--and i ask no more." widely as they differed in character, the two partners had the truest regard for one another. mr. engelman believed mr. keller to be the most accomplished and remarkable man in germany. mr. keller was as firmly persuaded, on his side, that mr. engelman was an angel in sweetness of temper, and a model of modest and unassuming good sense. mr. engelman listened to mr. keller's learned talk with an ignorant admiration which knew no limit. mr. keller, detesting tobacco in all its forms, and taking no sort of interest in horticulture, submitted to the fumes of mr. engelman's pipe, and passed hours in mr. engelman's garden without knowing the names of nine-tenths of the flowers that grew in it. there are still such men to be found in germany and in england; but, oh! dear me, the older i get the fewer i find there are of them. the two old friends and partners were waiting for me to join them at their early german supper. specimens of mr. engelman's flowers adorned the table in honor of my arrival. he presented me with a rose from the nosegay when i entered the room. "and how did you leave dear mrs. wagner?" he inquired. "and how is my boy fritz?" asked mr. keller. i answered in terms which satisfied them both, and the supper proceeded gaily. but when the table was cleared, and mr. engelman had lit his pipe, and i had kept him company with a cigar, then mr. keller put the fatal question. "and now tell me, david, do you come to us on business or do you come to us on pleasure?" i had no alternative but to produce my instructions, and to announce the contemplated invasion of the office by a select army of female clerks. the effect produced by the disclosure was highly characteristic of the widely different temperaments of the two partners. mild mr. engelman laid down his pipe, and looked at mr. keller in helpless silence. irritable mr. keller struck his fist on the table, and appealed to mr. engelman with fury in his looks. "what did i tell you," he asked, "when we first heard that mr. wagner's widow was appointed head-partner in the business? how many opinions of philosophers on the moral and physical incapacities of women did i quote? did i, or did i not, begin with the ancient egyptians, and end with doctor bernastrokius, our neighbor in the next street?" poor mr. engelman looked frightened. "don't be angry, my dear friend," he said softly. "angry?" repeated mr. keller, more furiously than ever. "my good engelman, you never were more absurdly mistaken in your life! i am delighted. exactly what i expected, exactly what i predicted, has come to pass. put down your pipe! i can bear a great deal--but tobacco smoke is beyond me at such a crisis as this. and do for once overcome your constitutional indolence. consult your memory; recall my own words when we were first informed that we had a woman for head-partner." "she was a very pretty woman when i first saw her," mr. engelman remarked. "pooh!" cried mr. keller. "i didn't mean to offend you," said mr. engelman. "allow me to present you with one of my roses as a peace-offering." _"will_ you be quiet, and let me speak?" "my dear keller, i am always too glad to hear you speak! you put ideas into my poor head, and my poor head lets them out, and then you put them in again. what noble perseverance! if i live a while longer i do really think you will make a clever man of me. let me put the rose in your buttonhole for you. and i say, i wish you would allow me to go on with my pipe." mr. keller made a gesture of resignation, and gave up his partner in despair. "i appeal to _you,_ david," he said, and poured the full flow of his learning and his indignation into my unlucky ears. mr. engelman, enveloped in clouds of tobacco-smoke, enjoyed in silence the composing influence of his pipe. i said, "yes, sir," and "no, sir," at the right intervals in the flow of mr. keller's eloquence. at this distance of time, i cannot pretend to report the long harangue of which i was made the victim. in substance, mr. keller held that there were two irremediable vices in the composition of women. their dispositions presented, morally speaking, a disastrous mixture of the imitativeness of a monkey and the restlessness of a child. having proved this by copious references to the highest authorities, mr. keller logically claimed my aunt as a woman, and, as such, not only incapable of "letting well alone," but naturally disposed to imitate her husband on the most superficial and defective sides of his character. "i predicted, david, that the fatal disturbance of our steady old business was now only a question of time--and there, in mrs. wagner's ridiculous instructions, is the fulfillment of my prophecy!" before we went to bed that night, the partners arrived at two resolutions. mr. keller resolved to address a written remonstrance to my aunt. mr. engelman resolved to show me his garden the first thing in the morning. chapter x on the afternoon of the next day, while my two good friends were still occupied by the duties of the office, i stole out to pay my promised visit to minna and minna's mother. it was impossible not to arrive at the conclusion that they were indeed in straitened circumstances. their lodgings were in the cheap suburban quarter of frankfort on the left bank of the river. everything was scrupulously neat, and the poor furniture was arranged with taste--but no dexterity of management could disguise the squalid shabbiness of the sitting-room into which i was shown. i could not help thinking how distressed fritz would feel, if he could have seen his charming minna in a place so unworthy of her as this. the rickety door opened, and the "jezebel" of the anonymous letter (followed by her daughter) entered the room. there are certain remarkable women in all countries who, whatever sphere they may be seen in, fill that sphere as completely as a great actor fills the stage. widow fontaine was one of these noteworthy persons. the wretched little room seemed to disappear when she softly glided into it; and even the pretty minna herself receded into partial obscurity in her mother's presence. and yet there was nothing in the least obtrusive in the manner of madame fontaine, and nothing remarkable in her stature. her figure, reaching to no more than the middle height, was the well-rounded figure of a woman approaching forty years of age. the influence she exercised was, in part, attributable, as i suppose, to the supple grace of all her movements; in part, to the commanding composure of her expression and the indescribable witchery of her manner. her dark eyes, never fully opened in my remembrance, looked at me under heavy overhanging upper eyelids. her enemies saw something sensual in their strange expression. to my mind it was rather something furtively cruel--except when she looked at her daughter. sensuality shows itself most plainly in the excessive development of the lower part of the face. madame fontaine's lips were thin, and her chin was too small. her profuse black hair was just beginning to be streaked with gray. her complexion wanted color. in spite of these drawbacks, she was still a striking, i might almost say a startling, creature, when you first looked at her. and, though she only wore the plainest widow's weeds, i don't scruple to assert that she was the most perfectly dressed woman i ever saw. minna made a modest attempt to present me in due form. her mother put her aside playfully, and held out both her long white powerful hands to me as cordially as if we had known each other for years. "i wait to prove other people before i accept them for my friends," she said. "mr. david, you have been more than kind to my daughter--and _you_ are my friend at our first meeting." i believe i repeat the words exactly. i wish i could give any adequate idea of the exquisite charm of voice and manner which accompanied them. and yet, i was not at my ease with her--i was not drawn to her irresistibly, as i had felt drawn to her daughter. those dark, steady, heavy-lidded eyes of hers seemed to be looking straight into my heart, and surprising all my secrets. to say that i actually distrusted and disliked her would be far from the truth. distrust and dislike would have protected me, in some degree at least, from feeling her influence as i certainly did feel it. how that influence was exerted--whether it was through her eyes, or through her manner, or, to speak the jargon of these latter days, through some "magnetic emanation" from her, which invisibly overpowered me--is more than i can possibly say. i can only report that she contrived by slow degrees to subject the action of my will more and more completely to the action of hers, until i found myself answering her most insidious questions as unreservedly as if she had been in very truth my intimate and trusted friend. "and is this your first visit to frankfort, mr. david?" she began. "oh, no, madam! i have been at frankfort on two former occasions." "ah, indeed? and have you always stayed with mr. keller?" "always." she looked unaccountably interested when she heard that reply, brief as it was. "then, of course, you are intimate with him," she said. "intimate enough, perhaps, to ask a favor or to introduce a friend?" i made a futile attempt to answer this cautiously. "as intimate, madam, as a young clerk in the business can hope to be with a partner," i said. "a clerk in the business?" she repeated. "i thought you lived in london, with your aunt." here minna interposed for the first time. "you forget, mamma, that there are three names in the business. the inscription over the door in main street is wagner, keller, and engelman. fritz once told me that the office here in frankfort was only the small office--and the grand business was mr. wagner's business in london. am i right, mr. david?" "quite right, miss minna. but we have no such magnificent flower-garden at the london house as mr. engelman's flower-garden here. may i offer you a nosegay which he allowed me to gather?" i had hoped to make the flowers a means of turning the conversation to more interesting topics. but the widow resumed her questions, while minna was admiring the flowers. "then you are mr. wagner's clerk?" she persisted. "i _was_ mr. wagner's clerk. mr. wagner is dead." "ha! and who takes care of the great business now?" without well knowing why, i felt a certain reluctance to speak of my aunt and her affairs. but widow fontaine's eyes rested on me with a resolute expectation in them which i felt myself compelled to gratify. when she understood that mr. wagner's widow was now the chief authority in the business, her curiosity to hear everything that i could tell her about my aunt became all but insatiable. minna's interest in the subject was, in quite another way, as vivid as her mother's. my aunt's house was the place to which cruel mr. keller had banished her lover. the inquiries of the mother and daughter followed each other in such rapid succession that i cannot pretend to remember them now. the last question alone remains vividly impressed on my memory, in connection with the unexpected effect which my answer produced. it was put by the widow in these words: "your aunt is interested, of course, in the affairs of her partners in this place. is it possible, mr. david, that she may one day take the journey to frankfort?" "it is quite likely, madam, that my aunt may be in frankfort on business before the end of the year." as i replied in those terms the widow looked round slowly at her daughter. minna was evidently quite as much at a loss to understand the look as i was. madame fontaine turned to me again, and made an apology. "pardon me, mr. david, there is a little domestic duty that i had forgotten." she crossed the room to a small table, on which writing-materials were placed, wrote a few lines, and handed the paper, without enclosing it, to minna. "give that, my love, to our good friend downstairs--and, while you are in the kitchen, suppose you make the tea. you will stay and drink tea with us, mr. david? it is our only luxury, and we always make it ourselves." my first impulse was to find an excuse for declining the invitation. there was something in the air of mystery with which madame fontaine performed her domestic duties that was not at all to my taste. but minna pleaded with me to say yes. "do stay with us a little longer," she said, in her innocently frank way, "we have so few pleasures in this place." i might, perhaps, have even resisted minna--but her mother literally laid hands on me. she seated herself, with the air of an empress, on a shabby little sofa in the corner of the room, and beckoning me to take my place by her side, laid her cool firm hand persuasively on mine. her touch filled me with a strange sense of disturbance, half pleasurable, half painful--i don't know how to describe it. let me only record that i yielded, and that minna left us together. "i want to tell you the whole truth," said madame fontaine, as soon as we were alone; "and i can only do so in the absence of my daughter. you must have seen for yourself that we are very poor?" her hand pressed mine gently. i answered as delicately as i could--i said i was sorry, but not surprised, to hear it. "when you kindly helped minna to get that letter yesterday," she went on, "you were the innocent means of inflicting a disappointment on me--one disappointment more, after others that had gone before it. i came here to place my case before some wealthy relatives of mine in this city. they refused to assist me. i wrote next to other members of my family, living in brussels. the letter of yesterday contained their answer. another refusal! the landlady of this house is an afflicted creature, with every claim on my sympathies; she, too, is struggling with poverty. if i failed to pay her, it would be too cruel. only yesterday i felt it my hard duty to give her notice of our departure in a week more. i have just written to recall that notice. the reason is, that i see a gleam of hope in the future--and you, mr. david, are the friend who has shown it to me." i was more than surprised at this. "may i ask how?" i said. she patted my hand with a playful assumption of petulance. "a little more patience," she rejoined; "and you shall soon hear. if i had only myself to think of, i should not feel the anxieties that now trouble me. i could take a housekeeper's place to-morrow. yes! i was brought up among surroundings of luxury and refinement; i descended in rank when i married--but for all that, i could fill a domestic employment without repining my lot, without losing my self-respect. adversity is a hard teacher of sound lessons, david. may i call you david? and if you heard of a housekeeper's place vacant, would you tell me of it?" i could hardly understand whether she was in jest or in earnest. she went on without waiting for me to reply. "but i have my daughter to think of," she resumed, "and to add to my anxieties my daughter has given her heart to mr. keller's son. while i and my dear minna had only our own interests to consider, we might have earned our daily bread together; we might have faced the future with courage. but what might once have been the calm course of our lives is now troubled by a third person--a rival with me in my daughter's love--and, worse still, a man who is forbidden to marry her. is it wonderful that i feel baffled, disheartened, helpless? oh, i am not exaggerating! i know my child's nature. she is too delicate, too exquisitely sensitive, for the rough world she lives in. when she loves, she loves with all her heart and soul. day by day i have seen her pining and fading under her separation from fritz. you have revived her hopes for the moment--but the prospect before her remains unaltered. if she loses fritz she will die of a broken heart. oh, god! the one creature i love--and how i am to help her and save her i don't know!" for the first time, i heard the fervor of true feeling in her voice. she turned aside from me, and hid her face with a wild gesture of despair that was really terrible to see. i tried, honestly tried, to comfort her. "of one thing at least you may be sure." i said. "fritz's whole heart is given to your daughter. he will be true to her, and worthy of her, through all trials." "i don't doubt it," she answered sadly, "i have nothing to say against my girl's choice. fritz is good, and fritz is true, as you say. but you forget his father. personally, mind, i despise mr. keller." she looked round at me with unutterable contempt flashing through the tears that filled her eyes. "a man who listens to every lie that scandal can utter against the character of a helpless woman--who gives her no opportunity of defending herself (i have written to him and received no answer)--who declares that his son shall never marry my daughter (because we are poor, of course); and who uses attacks on my reputation which he has never verified, as the excuse for his brutal conduct--can anybody respect such a man as that? and yet on this despicable creature my child's happiness and my child's life depend! for her sake, no matter what my own feeling may be, i must stoop to defend myself. i must make my opportunity of combating his cowardly prejudice, and winning his good opinion in spite of himself. how am i to get a hearing? how am i to approach him? i understand that you are not in a position to help me. but you have done wonders for me nevertheless, and god bless you for it!" she lifted my hand to her lips. i foresaw what was coming; i tried to speak. but she gave me no opportunity; her eloquent enthusiasm rushed into a new flow of words. "yes, my best of friends, my wisest of advisers," she went on; "you have suggested the irresistible interference of a person whose authority is supreme. your excellent aunt is the head of the business; mr. keller _must_ listen to his charming chief. there is my gleam of hope. on that chance, i will sell the last few valuables i possess, and wait till mrs. wagner arrives at frankfort. you start, david! what is there to alarm you? do you suppose me capable of presuming on your aunt's kindness--of begging for favors which it may not be perfectly easy for her to grant? mrs. wagner knows already from fritz what our situation is. let her only see my minna; i won't intrude on her myself. my daughter shall plead for me; my daughter shall ask for all i want--an interview with mr. keller, and permission to speak in my own defense. tell me, honestly, am i expecting too much, if i hope that your aunt will persuade fritz's father to see me?" it sounded modestly enough in words. but i had my own doubts, nevertheless. i had left mr. keller working hard at his protest against the employment of women in the office, to be sent to my aunt by that day's post. knowing them both as i did, i thought it at least probable that a written controversy might be succeeded by a personal estrangement. if mr. keller proved obstinate, mrs. wagner would soon show him that she had a will of her own. under those circumstances, no favors could be asked, no favors could be granted--and poor minna's prospects would be darker than ever. this was one view of the case. i must own, however, that another impression had been produced on me. something in madame fontaine's manner suggested that she might not be quite so modest in her demands on my aunt, when they met at frankfort, as she had led me to believe. i was vexed with myself for having spoken too unreservedly, and was quite at a loss to decide what i ought to say in answer to the appeal that had been made to me. in this state of perplexity i was relieved by a welcome interruption. minna's voice reached us from the landing outside. "i have both hands engaged," she said; "please let me in." i ran to the door. the widow laid her finger on her lips. "not a word, mind, to minna!" she whispered. "we understand each other--don't we?" i said, "yes, certainly." and so the subject was dropped for the rest of the evening. the charming girl came in carrying the tea-tray. she especially directed my attention to a cake which she had made that day with her own hands. "i can cook," she said, "and i can make my own dresses--and if fritz is a poor man when he marries me, i can save him the expense of a servant." our talk at the tea-table was, i dare say, too trifling to be recorded. i only remember that i enjoyed it. later in the evening, minna sang to me. i heard one of those simple german ballads again, not long since, and the music brought the tears into my eyes. the moon rose early that night. when i looked at my watch, i found that it was time to go. minna was at the window, admiring the moonlight. "on such a beautiful night," she said, "it seems a shame to stay indoors. do let us walk a part of the way back with mr. david, mamma! only as far as the bridge, to see the moon on the river." her mother consented, and we three left the house together. arrived at the bridge, we paused to look at the view. but the clouds were rising already, and the moonlight only showed itself at intervals. madame fontaine said she smelt rain in the air, and took her daughter's arm to go home. i offered to return with them as far as their own door; but they positively declined to delay me on my way back. it was arranged that i should call on them again in a day or two. just as we were saying good-night, the fitful moonlight streamed out brightly again through a rift in the clouds. at the same moment a stout old gentleman, smoking a pipe, sauntered past us on the pavement, noticed me as he went by, stopped directly, and revealed himself as mr. engelman. "good-night, mr. david," said the widow. the moon shone full on her as she gave me her hand; minna standing behind her in the shadow. in a moment more the two ladies had left us. mr. engelman's eyes followed the smoothly gliding figure of the widow, until it was lost to view at the end of the bridge. he laid his hand eagerly on my arm. "david!" he said, "who is that glorious creature?" "which of the two ladies do you mean?" i asked, mischievously. "the one with the widow's cap, of course!" "do you admire the widow, sir?" "admire her!" repeated mr. engelman. "look here, david!" he showed me the long porcelain bowl of his pipe. "my dear boy, she has done what no woman ever did with me yet--she has put my pipe out!" chapter xi there was something so absurd in the association of madame fontaine's charms with the extinction of mr. engelman's pipe, that i burst out laughing. my good old friend looked at me in grave surprise. "what is there to laugh at in my forgetting to keep my pipe alight?" he asked. "my whole mind, david, was absorbed in that magnificent woman the instant i set eyes on her. the image of her is before me at this moment--an image of an angel in moonlight. am i speaking poetically for the first time in my life? i shouldn't wonder. i really don't know what is the matter with me. you are a young man, and perhaps you can tell. have i fallen in love, as the saying is?" he took me confidentially by the arm, before i could answer this formidable question. "don't tell friend keller!" he said, with a sudden outburst of alarm. "keller is an excellent man, but he has no mercy on sinners. i say, david! couldn't you introduce me to her?" still haunted by the fear that i had spoken too unreservedly during my interview with the widow, i was in the right humor to exhibit extraordinary prudence in my intercourse with mr. engelman. "i couldn't venture to introduce you," i said; "the lady is living here in the strictest retirement." "at any rate, you can tell me her name," pleaded mr. engelman. "i dare say you have mentioned it to keller?" "i have done nothing of the sort. i have reasons for saying nothing about the lady to mr. keller." "well, you can trust me to keep the secret, david. come! i only want to send her some flowers from my garden. she can't object to that. tell me where i am to send my nosegay, there's a dear fellow." i dare say i did wrong--indeed, judging by later events, i _know_ i did wrong. but i could not view the affair seriously enough to hold out against mr. engelman in the matter of the nosegay. he started when i mentioned the widow's name. "not the mother of the girl whom fritz wants to marry?" he exclaimed. "yes, the same. don't you admire fritz's taste? isn't miss minna a charming girl?" "i can't say, david. i was bewitched--i had no eyes for anybody but her mother. do you think madame fontaine noticed me?" "oh, yes. i saw her look at you." "turn this way, david. the effect of the moonlight on you seems to make you look younger. has it the same effect on me? how old should you guess me to be to-night? fifty or sixty?" "somewhere between the two, sir." (he was close on seventy. but who could have been cruel enough to say so, at that moment?) my answer proved to be so encouraging to the old gentleman that he ventured on the subject of madame fontaine's late husband. "was she very fond of him, david? what sort of man was he?" i informed him that i had never even seen dr. fontaine; and then, by way of changing the topic, inquired if i was too late for the regular supper-hour at main street. "my dear boy, the table was cleared half an hour ago. but i persuaded our sour-tempered old housekeeper to keep something hot for you. you won't find keller very amiable to-night, david. he was upset, to begin with, by writing that remonstrance to your aunt--and then your absence annoyed him. 'this is treating our house like an hotel; i won't allow anybody to take such liberties with us.' yes! that was really what he said of you. he was so cross, poor fellow, that i left him, and went out for a stroll on the bridge. and met my fate," added poor mr. engelman, in the saddest tones i had ever heard fall from his lips. my reception at the house was a little chilly. "i have written my mind plainly to your aunt," said mr. keller; "you will probably be recalled to london by return of post. in the meantime, on the next occasion when you spend the evening out, be so obliging as to leave word to that effect with one of the servants." the crabbed old housekeeper (known in the domestic circle as mother barbara) had her fling at me next. she set down the dish which she had kept hot for me, with a bang that tried the resisting capacity of the porcelain severely. "i've done it this once," she said. "next time you're late, you and the dog can sup together." the next day, i wrote to my aunt, and also to fritz, knowing how anxious he must be to hear from me. to tell him the whole truth would probably have been to bring him to frankfort as fast as sailing-vessels and horses could carry him. all i could venture to say was, that i had found the lost trace of minna and her mother, and that i had every reason to believe there was no cause to feel any present anxiety about them. i added that i might be in a position to forward a letter secretly, if it would comfort him to write to his sweetheart. in making this offer, i was, no doubt, encouraging my friend to disobey the plain commands which his father had laid on him. but, as the case stood, i had really no other alternative. with fritz's temperament, it would have been simply impossible to induce him to remain in london, unless his patience was sustained in my absence by a practical concession of some kind. in the interests of peace, then--and i must own in the interests of the pretty and interesting minna as well--i consented to become a medium for correspondence, on the purely jesuitical principle that the end justified the means. i had promised to let minna know of it when i wrote to fritz. my time being entirely at my own disposal, until the vexed question of the employment of women was settled between mr. keller and my aunt, i went to the widow's lodgings, after putting my letters in the post. having made minna happy in the anticipation of hearing from fritz, i had leisure to notice an old china punch-bowl on the table, filled to overflowing with magnificent flowers. to anyone who knew mr. engelman as well as i did, the punch-bowl suggested serious considerations. he, who forbade the plucking of a single flower on ordinary occasions, must, with his own hands, have seriously damaged the appearance of his beautiful garden. "what splendid flowers!" i said, feeling my way cautiously. "mr. engelman himself might be envious of such a nosegay as that." the widow's heavy eyelids drooped lower for a moment, in unconcealed contempt for my simplicity. "do you really think you can mystify _me?"_ she asked ironically. "mr. engelman has done more than send the flowers--he has written me a too-flattering note. and i," she said, glancing carelessly at the mantelpiece, on which a letter was placed, "have written the necessary acknowledgment. it would be absurd to stand on ceremony with the harmless old gentleman who met us on the bridge. how fat he is! and what a wonderful pipe he carries--almost as fat as himself!" alas for mr. engelman! i could not resist saying a word in his favor--she spoke of him with such cruelly sincere contempt. "though he only saw you for a moment," i said, "he is your ardent admirer already." "is he indeed?" she was so utterly indifferent to mr. engelman's admiration that she could hardly take the trouble to make that commonplace reply. the next moment she dismissed the subject. "so you have written to fritz?" she went on. "have you also written to your aunt?" "yes, by the same post." "mainly on business, no doubt? is it indiscreet to ask if you slipped in a little word about the hopes that i associate with mrs. wagner's arrival at frankfort?" this seemed to give me a good opportunity of moderating her "hopes," in mercy to her daughter and to herself. "i thought it undesirable to mention the subject--for the present, at least," i answered. "there is a serious difference of opinion between mrs. wagner and mr. keller, on a subject connected with the management of the office here. i say serious, because they are both equally firm in maintaining their convictions. mr. keller has written to my aunt by yesterday's post; and i fear it may end in an angry correspondence between them." i saw that i had startled her. she suddenly drew her chair close to mine. "do you think the correspondence will delay your aunt's departure from england?" she asked. "on the contrary. my aunt is a very resolute person, and it may hasten her departure. but i am afraid it will indispose her to ask any favors of mr. keller, or to associate herself with his personal concerns. any friendly intercourse between them will indeed be impossible, if she asserts her authority as head-partner, and forces him to submit to a woman in a matter of business." she sank back in her chair. "i understand." she said faintly. while we had been talking, minna had walked to the window, and had remained there looking out. she suddenly turned round as her mother spoke. "mamma! the landlady's little boy has just gone out. shall i tap at the window and call him back?" the widow roused herself with an effort. "what for, my love?" she asked, absently. minna pointed to the mantelpiece. "to take your letter to mr. engelman, mamma." madame fontaine looked at the letter--paused for a moment--and answered, "no, my dear; let the boy go. it doesn't matter for the present." she turned to me, with an abrupt recovery of her customary manner. "i am fortunately, for myself, a sanguine person," she resumed. "i always did hope for the best; and (feeling the kind motive of what you have said to me) i shall hope for the best still. minna, my darling, mr. david and i have been talking on dry subjects until we are tired. give us a little music." while her daughter obediently opened the piano, she looked at the flowers. "you are fond of flowers, david?" she went on. "do you understand the subject? i ignorantly admire the lovely colors, and enjoy the delicious scents--and i can do no more. it was really very kind of your old friend mr. engelman. does he take any part in this deplorable difference of opinion between your aunt and mr. keller?" what did that new allusion to mr. engelman mean? and why had she declined to despatch her letter to him, when the opportunity offered of sending it by the boy? troubled by the doubts which these considerations suggested, i committed an act of imprudence--i replied so reservedly that i put her on her guard. all i said was that i supposed mr. engelman agreed with mr. keller, but that i was not in the confidence of the two partners. from that moment she saw through me, and was silent on the subject of mr. engelman. even minna's singing had lost its charm, in my present frame of mind. it was a relief to me when i could make my excuses, and leave the house. on my way back to main street, when i could think freely, my doubts began to develop into downright suspicion. madame fontaine could hardly hope, after what i had told her, to obtain the all-important interview with mr. keller, through my aunt's intercession. had she seen her way to trying what mr. engelman's influence with his partner could do for her? would she destroy her formal acknowledgment of the receipt of his flowers, as soon as my back was turned, and send him a second letter, encouraging him to visit her? and would she cast him off, without ceremony, when he had served her purpose? these were the thoughts that troubled me on my return to the house. when we met at supper, some hours later, my worst anticipations were realized. poor innocent mr. engelman was dressed with extraordinary smartness, and was in the highest good spirits. mr. keller asked him jestingly if he was going to be married. in the intoxication of happiness that possessed him, he was quite reckless; he actually retorted by a joke on the sore subject of the employment of women! "who knows what may happen," he cried gaily, "when we have young ladies in the office for clerks?" mr. keller was so angry that he kept silence through the whole of our meal. when mr. engelman left the room i slipped out after him. "you are going to madame fontaine's," i said. he smirked and smiled. "just a little evening visit, david. aha! you young men are not to have it all your own way." he laid his hand tenderly on the left breast-pocket of his coat. "such a delightful letter!" he said. "it is here, over my heart. no, a woman's sentiments are sacred; i mustn't show it to you." i was on the point of telling him the whole truth, when the thought of minna checked me for the time. my interest in preserving mr. engelman's tranquillity was in direct conflict with my interest in the speedy marriage of my good friend fritz. besides, was it likely that anything i could say would have the slightest effect on the deluded old man, in the first fervor of his infatuation? i thought i would give him a general caution, and wait to be guided by events. "one word, sir, for your private ear," i said. "even the finest women have their faults. you will find madame fontaine perfectly charming; but don't be too ready to believe that she is in earnest." mr. engelman felt infinitely flattered, and owned it without the slightest reserve. "oh, david! david!" he said, "are you jealous of me already?" he put on his hat (with a jaunty twist on one side), and swung his stick gaily, and left the room. for the first time, in my experience of him, he went out without his pipe; and (a more serious symptom still) he really did not appear to miss it. chapter xii two days passed, and i perceived another change in mr. engelman. he was now transformed into a serious and reticent man. had he committed indiscretions which might expose him to ridicule if they were known? or had the widow warned him not to be too ready to take me into his confidence? in any case, he said not one word to me about madame fontaine's reception of him, and he left the house secretly when he paid his next visit to her. having no wish to meet him unexpectedly, and feeling (if the truth be told) not quite at ease about the future, i kept away from minna and her mother, and waited for events. on the third day, an event happened. i received a little note from minna:-"dear mr. david,--if you care to see mamma and me, stay at home this evening. good mr. engelman has promised to show us his interesting old house, after business hours." there was nothing extraordinary in making an exhibition of "the old house." it was one among the many picturesque specimens of the domestic architecture of bygone days, for which frankfort is famous; and it had been sketched by artists of all nations, both outside and in. at the same time, it was noticeable (perhaps only as a coincidence) that the evening chosen for showing the house to the widow, was also the evening on which mr. keller had an engagement with some friends in another part of the city. as the hour approached for the arrival of the ladies, i saw that mr. engelman looked at me with an expression of embarrassment. "are you not going out this evening, david?" he asked. "am i in the way, sir?" i inquired mischievously. "oh, no!" "in that case then, i think i shall stay at home." he said no more, and walked up and down the room with an air of annoyance. the bell of the street-door rang. he stopped and looked at me again. "visitors?" i said. he was obliged to answer me. "friends of mine, david, who are coming to see the house." i was just sufficiently irritated by his persistence in keeping up the mystery to set him the example of speaking plainly. "madame fontaine and her daughter?" i said. he turned quickly to answer me, and hesitated. at the same moment, the door was opened by the sour old housekeeper, frowning suspiciously at the two elegantly-dressed ladies whom she ushered into the room. if i had been free to act on my own impulse, i should certainly (out of regard for mr. engelman) have refrained from accompanying the visitors when they were shown over the house. but minna took my arm. i had no choice but to follow mr. engelman and her mother when they left the room. minna spoke to me as confidentially as if i had been her brother. "do you know," she whispered, "that nice old gentleman and mamma are like old friends already. mamma is generally suspicious of strangers. isn't it odd? and she actually invites him to bring his pipe when he comes to see us! he sits puffing smoke, and admiring mamma--and mamma does all the talking. do come and see us soon! i have nobody to speak to about fritz. mamma and mr. engelman take no more notice of me than if i was a little dog in the room." as we passed from the ground floor to the first floor, madame fontaine's admiration of the house rose from one climax of enthusiasm to another. among the many subjects that she understood, the domestic architecture of the seventeenth century seemed to be one, and the art of water-color painting soon proved to be another. "i am not quite contemptible as a lady-artist," i heard her say to mr. engelman; "and i should so like to make some little studies of these beautiful old rooms--as memorials to take with me when i am far away from frankfort. but i don't ask it, dear mr. engelman. you don't want enthusiastic ladies with sketch-books in this bachelor paradise of yours. i hope we are not intruding on mr. keller. is he at home?" "no," said mr. engelman; "he has gone out." madame fontaine's flow of eloquence suddenly ran dry. she was silent as we ascended from the first floor to the second. in this part of the house our bedrooms were situated. the chamber in which i slept presented nothing particularly worthy of notice. but the rooms occupied by mr. keller and mr. engelman contained some of the finest carved woodwork in the house. it was beginning to get dark. mr. engelman lit the candles in his own room. the widow took one of them from him, and threw the light skillfully on the different objects about her. she was still a little subdued; but she showed her knowledge of wood-carving by picking out the two finest specimens in the room--a wardrobe and a toilet-table. "my poor husband was fond of old carving," she explained modestly; "what i know about it, i know from him. dear mr. engelman, your room is a picture in itself. what glorious colors! how simple and how grand! might we----" she paused, with a becoming appearance of confusion. her voice dropped softly to lower tones. "might we be pardoned, do you think, if we ventured to peep into mr. keller's room?" she spoke of "mr. keller's room" as if it had been a shrine, approachable only by a few favored worshippers. "where is it?" she inquired, with breathless interest. i led the way out into the passage, and threw open the door without ceremony. madame fontaine looked at me as if i had committed an act of sacrilege. mr. engelman, following us with one of his candles, lit an ancient brass lamp which hung from the middle of the ceiling. "my learned partner," he explained, "does a great deal of his reading in his bedroom, and he likes plenty of light. you will have a good view when the lamp has burnt up. the big chimney-piece is considered the finest thing of that sort in frankfort." the widow confronted the chimney-piece, and clasped her hands in silent rapture. when she was able to speak, she put her arm round minna's waist. "let me teach you, my love, to admire this glorious work," she said, and delivered quite a little lecture on the merits of the chimney-piece. "oh, if i could but take the merest sketch of it!" she exclaimed, by way of conclusion. "but no, it is too much to ask." she examined everything in the room with the minutest attention. even the plain little table by the bed-side, with a jug and a glass on it, did not escape her observation. "is that his drink?" she asked, with an air of respectful curiosity. "do you think i might taste it?" mr. engelman laughed. "it's only barley-water, dear lady," he said. "our rheumatic old housekeeper makes as few journeys as possible up and down stairs. when she sets the room in order in the evening, she takes the night-drink up with her, and so saves a second journey." "taste it, minna," said the widow, handing the glass to her daughter. "how refreshing! how pure!" mr. engelman, standing on the other side of her, whispered in her ear. i was just behind them, and could not help hearing him. "you will make me jealous," he said; "you never noticed _my_ night-drink--_i_ have beer." the widow answered him by a look; he heaved a little sigh of happiness. poor mr. engelman! minna innocently broke in on this mute scene of sentiment. she was looking at the pictures in the room, and asked for explanations of them which mr. engelman only could afford. it struck me as odd that her mother's artistic sympathies did not appear to be excited by the pictures. instead of joining her daughter at the other end of the room, she stood by the bedside with her hand resting on the little table, and her eyes fixed on the jug of barley-water, absorbed in thought. on a sudden, she started, turned quickly, and caught me observing her. i might have been deceived by the lamp-light; but i thought i saw a flash of expression under her heavy eyelids, charged with such intensity of angry suspicion that it startled me. she was herself again, before i could decide whether to trust my own strong impression or not. "do i surprise you, david?" she asked in her gentlest tones. "i ought to be looking at the pictures, you think? my friend! i can't always control my own sad recollections. they will force themselves on me--sometimes when the most trifling associations call them up. dear mr. engelman understands me. he, no doubt, has suffered too. may i sit down for a moment?" she dropped languidly into a chair, and sat looking at the famous chimney-piece. her attitude was the perfection of grace. mr. engelman hurried through his explanation of the pictures, and placed himself at her side, and admired the chimney-piece with her. "artists think it looks best by lamplight," he said. "the big pediment between the windows keeps out the light in the daytime." madame fontaine looked round at him with a softly approving smile. "exactly what i was thinking myself, when you spoke," she said. "the effect by this light is simply perfect. why didn't i bring my sketch-book with me? i might have stolen some little memorial of it, in mr. keller's absence." she turned towards me when she said that. "if you can do without colors," i suggested, "we have paper and pencils in the house." the clock in the corridor struck the hour. mr. engelman looked uneasy, and got up from his chair. his action suggested that the time had passed by us unperceived, and that mr. keller's return might take place at any moment. the same impression was evidently produced on minna. for once in her life, the widow's quick perception seemed to have deserted her. she kept her seat as composedly as if she had been at home. "i wonder whether i could manage without my colors?" she said placidly. "perhaps i might try." mr. engelman's uneasiness increased to downright alarm. minna perceived the change, as i did, and at once interfered. "i am afraid, mamma, it is too late for sketching to-night," she said. "suppose mr. keller should come back?" madame fontaine rose instantly, with a look of confusion. "how very stupid of me not to think of it!" she exclaimed. "forgive me, mr. engelman--i was so interested, so absorbed--thank you a thousand times for your kindness!" she led the way out, with more apologies and more gratitude. mr. engelman recovered his tranquillity. he looked at her lovingly, and gave her his arm to lead her down-stairs. on this occasion, minna and i were in front. we reached the first landing, and waited there. the widow was wonderfully slow in descending the stairs. judging by what we heard, she was absorbed in the old balusters now. when she at last joined us on the landing, the doors of the rooms on the first floor delayed her again: it was simply impossible, she said, to pass them without notice. once more, minna and i waited on the ground floor. here, there was another ancient brass lamp which lighted the hall; and, therefore, another object of beauty which it was impossible to pass over in a hurry. "i never knew mamma to behave so oddly before," said minna. "if such a thing wasn't impossible, in our situation, one would really think she wanted mr. keller to catch us in the house!" there was not the least doubt in my mind (knowing as i did, how deeply madame fontaine was interested in forcing her acquaintance on mr. keller) that this was exactly what she did want. fortune is proverbially said to favor the bold; and fortune offered to the widow the perilous opportunity of which she had been in search. while she was still admiring the lamp, the grating sound became audible of a key put into the street door. the door opened, and mr. keller walked into the hall. he stopped instantly at the sight of two ladies who were both strangers to him, and looked interrogatively at his partner. mr. engelman had no choice but to risk an explanation of some kind. he explained, without mentioning names. "friends of mine, keller," he said confusedly, "to whom i have been showing the house." mr. keller took off his hat, and bowed to the widow. with a boldness that amazed me, under the circumstances, she made a low curtsey to him, smiled her sweetest smile, and deliberately mentioned her name. "i am madame fontaine, sir," she said. "and this is my daughter, minna." chapter xiii mr. keller fixed his eyes on the widow in stern silence; walked past her to the inner end of the hall; and entered a room at the back of the house, closing the door behind him. even if he had felt inclined to look at minna, it would not have been possible for him to see her. after one timid glance at him, the poor girl hid herself behind me, trembling piteously. i took her hand to encourage her. "oh, what hope is there for us," she whispered, "with such a man as that?" madame fontaine turned as mr. keller passed her, and watched his progress along the hall until he disappeared from view. "no," she said quietly to herself, "you don't escape me in that way." as if moved by a sudden impulse, she set forth on the way by which mr. keller had gone before her; walking, as he had walked, to the door at the end of the hall. i had remained with minna, and was not in a position to see how her mother looked. mr. engelman's face, as he stretched out his hands entreatingly to stop madame fontaine, told me that the fierce passions hidden deep in the woman's nature had risen to the surface and shown themselves. "oh, dear lady! dear lady!" cried the simple old man, "don't look like that! it's only keller's temper--he will soon be himself again." without answering him, without looking at him, she lifted her hand, and put him back from her as if he had been a troublesome child. with her firm graceful step, she resumed her progress along the hall to the room at the end, and knocked sharply at the door. mr. keller's voice answered from within, "who is there?" "madame fontaine," said the widow. "i wish to speak to you." "i decline to receive madame fontaine." "in that case, mr. keller, i will do myself the honor of writing to you." "i refuse to read your letter." "take the night to think of it, mr. keller, and change your mind in the morning." she turned away, without waiting for a reply, and joined us at the outer end of the hall. minna advanced to meet her, and kissed her tenderly. "dear, kind mamma, you are doing this for my sake," said the grateful girl. "i am ashamed that you should humble yourself--it is so useless!" "it shall _not_ be useless," her mother answered. "if fifty mr. kellers threatened your happiness, my child, i would brush the fifty out of your way. oh, my darling, my darling!" her voice--as firm as the voice of a man, while she declared her resolution--faltered and failed her when the last words of endearment fell from her lips. she drew minna to her bosom, and embraced in silent rapture the one creature whom she loved. when she raised her head again she was, to my mind, more beautiful than i had ever yet seen her. the all-ennobling tears of love and grief filled her eyes. knowing the terrible story that is still to be told, let me do that miserable woman justice. hers was not a wholly corrupted heart. it was always in minna's power to lift her above her own wickedness. when she held out the hand that had just touched her daughter to mr. engelman, it trembled as if she had been the most timid woman living. "good night, dear friend," she said to him; "i am sorry to have been the innocent cause of this little embarrassment." simple mr. engelman put his handkerchief to his eyes; never, in all his life, had he been so puzzled, so frightened, and so distressed. he kissed the widow's hand. "do let me see you safe home!" he said, in tones of the tenderest entreaty. "not to-night," she answered. he attempted a faint remonstrance. madame fontaine knew perfectly well how to assert her authority over him--she gave him another of those tender looks which had already become the charm of his life. mr. engelman sat down on one of the hall chairs completely overwhelmed. "dear and admirable woman!" i heard him say to himself softly. taking leave of me in my turn, the widow dropped my hand, struck, to all appearance, by a new idea. "i have a favor to ask of you, david," she said. "do you mind going back with us?" as a matter of course i took my hat, and placed myself at her service. mr. engelman got on his feet, and lifted his plump hands in mute and melancholy protest. "don't be uneasy," madame fontaine said to him, with a faint smile of contempt. "david doesn't love me!" i paused for a moment, as i followed her out, to console mr. engelman. "she is old enough to be my mother, sir," i whispered; "and this time, at any rare, she has told you the truth." hardly a word passed between us on our way through the streets and over the bridge. minna was sad and silent, thinking of fritz; and whatever her mother might have to say to me, was evidently to be said in private. arrived at the lodgings, madame fontaine requested me to wait for her in the shabby little sitting-room, and graciously gave me permission to smoke. "say good night to david," she continued, turning to her daughter. "your poor little heart is heavy to-night, and mamma means to put you to bed as if you were a child again. ah! me, if those days could only come back!" after a short absence the widow returned to me, with a composed manner and a quiet smile. the meeting with mr. keller seemed to have been completely dismissed from her thoughts, in the brief interval since i had seen her last. "we often hear of parents improving their children," she said. "it is my belief that the children quite as often improve the parents. i have had some happy minutes with minna--and (would you believe it?) i am already disposed to forgive mr. keller's brutality, and to write to him in a tone of moderation, which must surely have its effect. all minna's doing--and my sweet girl doesn't in the least suspect it herself! if you ever have children of your own, david, you will understand me and feel for me. in the meantime, i must not detain you by idle talk--i must say plainly what i want of you." she opened her writing-desk and took up a pen. "if i write to mr. keller under your own eye, do you object to take charge of my letter?" i hesitated how to answer. to say the least of it, her request embarrassed me. "i don't expect you to give it to mr. keller personally," she explained. "it is of very serious importance to me" (she laid a marked emphasis on those words) "to be quite sure that my letter has reached him, and that he has really had the opportunity of reading it. if you will only place it on his desk in the office, with your own hand, that is all i ask you to do. for minna's sake, mind; not for mine!" for minna's sake, i consented. she rose directly, and signed to me to take her place at the desk. "it will save time," she said, "if you write the rough draft of the letter from my dictation. i am accustomed to dictate my letters, with minna for secretary. of course, you shall see the fair copy before i seal it." she began to walk up and down the little room, with her hands crossed behind her in the attitude made famous by the great napoleon. after a minute of consideration, she dictated the draft as follows: "sir,--i am well aware that scandalous reports at wurzburg have prejudiced you against me. those reports, so far as i know, may be summed up under three heads. "(first.) that my husband died in debt through my extravagance. "(second.) that my respectable neighbors refuse to associate with me. "(third.) that i entrapped your son fritz into asking for my daughter's hand in marriage, because i knew his father to be a rich man. "to the first calumny i reply, that the debts are due to expensive chemical experiments in which my late husband engaged, and that i have satisfied the creditors to the last farthing. grant me an audience, and i will refer you to the creditors themselves. "to the second calumny i reply, that i received invitations, on my arrival in wurzburg after my marriage, from every lady of distinguished social position in the town. after experience of the society thus offered to me, i own to having courteously declined subsequent invitations, and having devoted myself in retirement to my husband, to my infant child, and to such studies in literature and art as i had time to pursue. gossip and scandal, with an eternal accompaniment of knitting, are not to my taste; and, while i strictly attend to domestic duties, i do not consider them as constituting, in connection with tea-drinking, the one great interest of a woman's life. i plead guilty to having been foolish enough to openly acknowledge these sentiments, and to having made bitter enemies everywhere as the necessary consequence. if this plain defense of myself fails to satisfy you, grant me an audience, and i will answer your questions, whatever they may be. "to the third calumny, i reply, that if you had been a prince instead of a merchant, i would still have done everything in my power to keep your son away from my daughter--for this simple reason, that the idea of parting with her to any man fills me with grief and dismay. i only yielded to the marriage engagement, when the conviction was forced upon me that my poor child's happiness depended on her union with your son. it is this consideration alone which induces me to write to you, and to humiliate myself by pleading for a hearing. as for the question of money, if through some unexpected misfortune you became a bankrupt to-morrow, i would entreat you to consent to the marriage exactly as i entreat you now. poverty has no terrors for me while i have health to work. but i cannot face the idea of my child's life being blighted, because you choose to believe the slanders that are spoken of her mother. for the third time i ask you to grant me an audience, and to hear me in my own defense." there she paused, and looked over my shoulder. "i think that is enough," she said. "do you see anything objectionable in my letter?" how could i object to the letter? from beginning to end, it was strongly, and yet moderately, expressed. i resigned my place at the desk, and the widow wrote the fair copy, with her own hand. she made no change whatever, except by adding these ominous lines as a postscript: "i implore you not to drive me to despair. a mother who is pleading for her child's life--it is nothing less, in this case--is a woman who surely asserts a sacred claim. let no wise man deny it." "do you think it quite discreet," i ventured to ask, "to add those words?" she looked at me with a moment's furtive scrutiny, and only answered after she had sealed the letter, and placed it in my hands. "i have my reasons," she replied. "let the words remain." returning to the house at rather a late hour for frankfort, i was surprised to find mr. keller waiting to see me. "i have had a talk with my partner," he said. "it has left (for the time only, i hope), a painful impression on both sides--and i must ask you to do me a service, in the place of mr. engelman--who has an engagement to-morrow, which prevents him from leaving frankfort." his tone indicated plainly enough that the "engagement" was with madame fontaine. hard words must have passed between the two old friends on the subject of the widow. even mr. engelman's placid temper had, no doubt, resented mr. keller's conduct at the meeting in the hall. "the service i ask of you," he resumed, "will be easily rendered. the proprietor of a commercial establishment at hanau is desirous of entering into business-relations with us, and has sent references to respectable persons in the town and neighborhood, which it is necessary to verify. we are so busy in the office that it is impossible for me to leave frankfort myself, or to employ our clerks on this errand. i have drawn out the necessary instructions--and hanau, as you are aware, is within an easy distance of frankfort. have you any objection to be the representative of the house in this matter?" it is needless to say that i was gratified by the confidence that had been placed in me, and eager to show that i really deserved it. we arranged that i should leave frankfort by the earliest conveyance the next morning. on our way upstairs to our bed-chambers, mr. keller detained me for a moment more. "i have no claim to control you in the choice of your friends," he said; "but i am old enough to give you a word of advice. don't associate yourself too readily, david, with the woman whom i found here to-night." he shook hands cordially, and left me. i thought of madame fontaine's letter in my pocket, and felt a strong conviction that he would persist in his refusal to read it. the servants were the only persons stirring in the house, when i rose the next morning. unobserved by anyone, i placed the letter on the desk in mr. keller's private room. that done, i started on my journey to hanau. chapter xiv thanks to the instructions confided to me, my errand presented no difficulties. there were certain persons to whom i was introduced, and certain information to be derived from them, which it was my duty to submit to mr. keller on my return. fidelity was required of me, and discretion was required of me--and that was all. at the close of my day's work, the hospitable merchant, whose references i had been engaged in verifying, refused to permit me to return to the hotel. his dinner-hour had been put off expressly to suit my convenience. "you will only meet the members of my family," he said, "and a cousin of my wife's who is here with her daughter, on a visit to us--frau meyer, of wurzburg." i accepted the invitation, feeling privately an englishman's reluctance to confronting an assembly of strangers, and anticipating nothing remarkable in reference to frau meyer, although she did come from wurzburg. even when i was presented to the ladies in due form, as "the honored representative of mr. keller, of frankfort," i was too stupid, or too much absorbed in the business on which i had been engaged, to be much struck by the sudden interest with which frau meyer regarded me. she was a fat florid old lady, who looked coarsely clever and resolute; and she had a daughter who promised to resemble her but too faithfully, in due course of time. it was a relief to me, at dinner, to find myself placed between the merchant's wife and her eldest son. they were far more attractive neighbors at table, to my thinking, than frau meyer. dinner being over, we withdrew to another room to take our coffee. the merchant and his son, both ardent musicians in their leisure hours, played a sonata for pianoforte and violin. i was at the opposite extremity of the room, looking at some fine proof impressions of prints from the old masters, when a voice at my side startled me by an unexpected question. "may i ask, sir, if you are acquainted with mr. keller's son?" i looked round, and discovered frau meyer. "have you seen him lately?" she proceeded, when i had acknowledged that i was acquainted with fritz. "and can you tell me where he is now?" i answered both these questions. frau meyer looked thoroughly well satisfied with me. "let us have a little talk," she said, and seated herself, and signed to me to take a chair near her. "i feel a true interest in fritz," she resumed, lowering her voice so as not to be heard by the musicians at the other end of the room. "until to-day, i have heard nothing of him since he left wurzburg. i like to talk about him--he once did me a kindness a long time since. i suppose you are in his confidence? has he told you why his father sent him away from the university?" my reply to this was, i am afraid, rather absently given. the truth is, my mind was running on some earlier words which had dropped from the old lady's lips. "he once did me a kindness a long time since." when had i last heard that commonplace phrase? and why did i remember it so readily when i now heard it again? "ah, his father did a wise thing in separating him from that woman and her daughter!" frau meyer went on. "madame fontaine deliberately entrapped the poor boy into the engagement. but perhaps you are a friend of hers? in that case, i retract and apologize." "quite needless," i said. "you are _not_ a friend of madame fontaine?" she persisted. this cool attempt to force an answer from me failed in its object. it was like being cross-examined in a court of law; and, in our common english phrase, "it set my back up." in the strict sense of the word, madame fontaine might be termed an acquaintance, but certainly not a friend, of mine. for once, i took the prudent course, and said, no. frau meyer's expansive bosom emitted a hearty sigh of relief. "ah!" she said, "now i can talk freely--in fritz's interest, mind. you are a young man like himself, he will be disposed to listen to you. do all you can to back his father's influence, and cure him of his infatuation. i tell you plainly, his marriage would be his ruin!" "you speak very strongly, madam. do you object to the young lady?" "not i; a harmless insignificant creature--nothing more and nothing less. it's her vile mother that i object to." "as i have heard, frau meyer, there are two sides to that question. fritz is persuaded that madame fontaine is an injured woman. he assures me, for instance, that she is the fondest of mothers." "bah! what does _that_ amount to? it's as much a part of a woman's nature to take to her child when she has got one, as it is to take to her dinner when she is hungry. a fond mother? what stuff! why, a cat is a fond mother!--what's the matter?" _a cat is a fond mother._ another familiar phrase--and this time a phrase remarkable enough to lead my memory back in the right direction. in an instant i recollected the anonymous letter to fritz. in an instant i felt the conviction that frau meyer, in her eagerness to persuade me, had unconsciously repeated two of the phrases which she had already used, in her eagerness to persuade fritz. no wonder i started in my chair, when i felt that i was face to face with the writer of the anonymous letter! i made some excuse--i forget what--and hastened to resume the conversation. the opportunity of making discoveries which might be invaluable to fritz (to say nothing of good mr. engelman) was not an opportunity to be neglected. i persisted in quoting fritz's authority; i repeated his assertion relative to the love of scandal at wurzburg, and the envy of madame fontaine's superior attractions felt among the ladies. frau meyer laughed disdainfully. "poor fritz!" she said. "an excellent disposition--but so easily persuaded, so much too amiable. our being all envious of widow fontaine is too ridiculous. it is a mere waste of time to notice such nonsense. wait a little, mr. david, and you will see. if you and mr. keller can only keep fritz out of the widow's way for a few months longer, his eyes will be opened in spite of himself. he may yet come back to us with a free heart, and he may choose his future wife more wisely next time." as she said this her eyes wandered away to her daughter, at the other end of the room. unless her face betrayed her, she had evidently planned, at some past time, to possess herself of fritz as a son-in-law, and she had not resigned the hope of securing him yet. madame fontaine might be a deceitful and dangerous woman. but what sort of witness against her was this abusive old lady, the unscrupulous writer of an anonymous letter? "you prophesy very confidently about what is to come in the future," i ventured to say. frau meyer's red face turned a shade redder. "does that mean that you don't believe me?" she asked. "certainly not, madam. it only means that you speak severely of doctor fontaine's widow--without mentioning any facts that justify you." "oh! you want facts, do you? i'll soon show you whether i know what i am talking about or not. has fritz mentioned that among madame fontaine's other virtues, she has paid her debts? i'll tell you how she has paid them--as an example, young gentleman, that i am not talking at random. your admirable widow, sir, is great at fascinating old men; they are always falling in love with her, the idiots! a certain old man at wurzburg--close on eighty, mind--was one of her victims. i had a letter this morning which tells me that he was found dead in his bed, two days since, and that his nephew is the sole heir to all that he leaves behind him. examination of his papers has shown that _he_ paid the widow's creditors, and that he took a promissory note from her--ha! ha! ha!--a promissory note from a woman without a farthing!--in payment of the sum that he had advanced. the poor old man would, no doubt, have destroyed the note if he had known that his end was so near. his sudden death has transferred it to the hands of his heir. in money-matters, the nephew is reported to be one of the hardest men living. when that note falls due, he will present it for payment. i don't know where madame fontaine is now. no matter! sooner or later, she is sure to hear of what has happened--and she must find the money, or see the inside of a debtor's prison. those are the facts that i had in my mind, mr. david, when i spoke of events opening fritz's eyes to the truth." i submitted with all possible humility to the lady's triumph over me. my thoughts were with minna. what a prospect for the innocent, affectionate girl! assuming the statement that i had just heard to be true, there was surely a chance that madame fontaine (with time before her) might find the money. i put this view of the case to frau meyer. "if i didn't know mr. keller to be a thoroughly resolute man," she answered, "i should say she might find the money too. she has only to succeed in marrying her daughter to fritz, and mr. keller would be obliged to pay the money for the sake of the family credit. but he is one of the few men whom she can't twist round her finger. if you ever fall in with her, take care of yourself. she may find your influence with fritz an obstacle in her way--and she may give you reason to remember that the mystery of her husband's lost chest of poisons is not cleared up yet. it was all in the german newspapers--you know what i mean." this seemed to me to be passing all bounds of moderation. "and _you_ know, madam," i answered sharply, "that there was no evidence against her--nothing whatever to associate her with the robbery of the medicine chest." "not even suspicion, mr. david?" "not even suspicion." i rose from my chair as i spoke. minna was still in my thoughts; i was not merely unwilling, i was almost afraid to hear more. "one minute," said frau meyer. "which of the two hotels here are you staying at? i want to send you something to read to-night, after you have left us." i told her the name of the hotel; and we joined our friends at the other end of the room. not long afterwards i took my leave. my spirits were depressed; a dark cloud of uncertainty seemed to hang over the future. even the prospect of returning to frankfort, the next day, became repellent to me. i was almost inclined to hope that my aunt might (as mr. keller had predicted) recall me to london. chapter xv from these reflections i was roused by the appearance of a waiter, with a letter for me. the envelope contained a slip cut from a german newspaper, and these lines of writing, signed by frau meyer:-"you are either a very just, or a very obstinate young man. in either case, it will do you no harm to read what i enclose. i am not such a scandal-mongering old woman as you seem to think. the concealment of the names will not puzzle you. please return the slip. it belongs to our excellent host, and forms part of his collection of literary curiosities." such was the introduction to my reading. i translate it from the german newspaper into english as literally as i can. the editor's few prefatory words were at the top of the column, bearing the date of september 1828. "we have received, in strictest confidence, extracts from letters written by a lady to a once-beloved female friend. the extracts are dated and numbered, and are literally presented in this column--excepting the obviously necessary precaution of suppressing names, places, and days of the month. taken in connection with a certain inquiry which is just now occupying the public mind, these fragments may throw some faint glimmer of light on events which are at present involved in darkness." _number i._ 1809.--"yes, dearest julie, i have run the grand risk. only yesterday, i was married to doctor ----. the people at the church were our only witnesses. "my father declares that i have degraded his noble blood by marrying a medical man. he forbade my mother to attend the ceremony. poor simple soul! she asked me if i loved my young doctor, and was quite satisfied when i said yes. as for my father's objections, my husband is a man of high promise in his profession. in his country--i think i told you in my last letter that he was a frenchman--a famous physician is ennobled by the state. i shall leave no stone unturned, my dear, to push my husband forward. and when he is made a baron, we shall see what my father will say to us then." _number ii._ 1810.--"we have removed, my julie, to this detestably dull old german town, for no earthly reason but that the university is famous as a medical school. "my husband informs me, in his sweetest manner, that he will hesitate at no sacrifice of our ordinary comforts to increase his professional knowledge. if you could see how the ladies dress in this lost hole of a place, if you could hear the twaddle they talk, you would pity me. i have but one consolation--a lovely baby, julie, a girl: i had almost said an angel. were you as fond of your first child, i wonder, as i am of mine? and did you utterly forget your husband, when the little darling was first put into your arms? write and tell me." _number iii._ 1811.--"i have hardly patience to take up my pen but i shall do something desperate, if i don't relieve my overburdened mind in some way. "after i wrote to you last year, i succeeded in getting my husband away from the detestable university. but he persisted in hanging about germany, and conferring with moldy old doctors (whom he calls "princes of science"!) instead of returning to paris, taking a handsome house, and making his way to the top of the tree with my help. i am the very woman to give brilliant parties, and to push my husband's interests with powerful people of all degrees. no; i really must not dwell on it. when i think of what has happened since, it will drive me mad. "six weeks ago, a sort of medical congress was announced to be at the university. something in the proposed discussion was to be made the subject of a prize-essay. the doctor's professional interest in this matter decided him on trying for the prize--and the result is our return to the hateful old town and its society. "of course, my husband resumes his professional studies; of course, i am thrown once more among the dowdy gossiping women. but that is far from being the worst of it. among the people in the school of chemistry here, there is a new man, who entered the university shortly after we left it last year. this devil--it is the only right word for him--has bewitched my weak husband; and, for all i can see to the contrary, has ruined our prospects in life. "he is a hungarian. small, dirty, lean as a skeleton, with hands like claws, eyes like a wild beast's, and the most hideously false smile you ever saw in a human face. what his history is, nobody knows. the people at the medical school call him the most extraordinary experimental chemist living. his ideas astonish the professors themselves. the students have named him 'the new paracelsus.' "i ventured to ask him, one day, if he believed he could make gold. he looked at me with his frightful grin, and said, "yes, and diamonds too, with time and money to help me." he not only believes in the philosopher's stone; he says he is on the trace of some explosive compound so terrifically destructive in its effect, that it will make war impossible. he declares that he will annihilate time and space by means of electricity; and that he will develop steam as a motive power, until travelers can rush over the whole habitable globe at the rate of a mile in a minute. "why do i trouble you with these ravings? my dear, this boastful adventurer has made himself master of my husband, has talked him out of his senses, has reduced my influence over him to nothing. do you think i am exaggerating? hear how it has ended. my husband absolutely refuses to leave this place. he cares no longer even to try for the prize. the idea of medical practice has become distasteful to him, and he has decided on devoting his life to discovery in chemical science. "and this is the man whom i married with the sincerest belief in the brilliant social career that was before him! for this contemptible creature i have sacrificed my position in the world, and alienated my father from me for ever. i may look forward to being the wife of a poor professor, who shows experiments to stupid lads in a school. and the friends in paris, who, to my certain knowledge, are now waiting to give him introductions to the imperial court itself, may transfer their services to some other man. "no words can tell you what i feel at this complete collapse of all my hopes and plans. the one consideration of my child is all that restrains me from leaving my husband, never to see him again. as it is, i must live a life of deceit, and feign respect and regard for a man whom i despise with my whole heart. "power--oh, if i had the power to make the fury that consumes me felt! the curse of our sex is its helplessness. every day, julie, the conviction grows on me that i shall end badly. who among us knows the capacity for wickedness that lies dormant in our natures, until the fatal event comes and calls it forth? "no! i am letting you see too much of my tortured soul. let me close my letter, and play with my child." _number iv._ 1812.--"my heartfelt congratulations, dearest, on your return to germany, after your pleasant visit to the united states. and more congratulations yet on the large addition to your income, due to your husband's intelligence and spirit of enterprise on american ground. ah, you have married a man! happy woman! i am married to a machine. "why have i left your kind letters from america without reply? my julie, i have constantly thought of you; but the life i lead is slowly crushing my energies. over and over again, i have taken up my pen; and over and over again, i have laid it aside, recoiling from the thought of myself and my existence; too miserable (perhaps too proud) to tell you what a wretched creature i am, and what thoughts come to me sometimes in the wakeful hours of the night. "after this confession, you wonder, perhaps, why i write to you now. "i really believe it is because i have been threatened with legal proceedings by my creditors, and have just come victoriously out of a hard struggle to appease them for the time. this little fight has roused me from my apathy; it has rallied my spirits, and made me feel like my old self again. i am no longer content with silently loving my dearest friend; i open my heart and write to her. "'oh, dear, how sad that she should be in debt!' i can hear you say this, and sigh to yourself--you who have never known what it was to be in want of money since you were born. shall i tell you what my husband earns at the university? no: i feel the blood rushing into my face at the bare idea of revealing it. "let me do the professor justice. my animated mummy has reached the height of his ambition at last--he is professor of chemistry, and is perfectly happy for the rest of his life. my dear, he is as lean, and almost as dirty, as the wretch who first perverted him. do you remember my once writing to you about a mysterious hungarian, whom we found in the university? a few years since, this man died by suicide, as mysteriously as he had lived. they found him in the laboratory, with a strange inscription traced in chalk on the wall by which he lay dead. these were the words:--'after giving it a fair trial, i find that life is not worth living for. i have decided to destroy myself with a poison of my own discovery. my chemical papers and preparations are hereby bequeathed to my friend doctor ----, and my body is presented as a free gift to the anatomy school. let a committee of surgeons and analysts examine my remains. i defy them to discover a trace of the drug that has killed me.' and they did try, julie--and discovered nothing. i wonder whether the suicide has left the receipt for that poison, among his other precious legacies, to his 'friend doctor ----.' "why do i trouble you with these nauseous details? because they are in no small degree answerable for my debts. my husband devotes all his leisure hours to continuing the detestable experiments begun by the hungarian; and my yearly dress-money for myself and my child has been reduced one half, to pay the chemical expenses. "ought i, in this hard case, to have diminished my expenditure to the level of my reduced income? "if you say yes, i answer that human endurance has its limits. i can support the martyrdom of my life; the loss of my dearest illusions and hopes; the mean enmity of our neighbors; the foul-mouthed jealousy of the women; and, more than all, the exasperating patience of a husband who never resents the hardest things i can say to him, and who persists in loving and admiring me as if we were only married last week. but i cannot see my child in a stuff frock, on promenade days in the palace gardens, when other people's children are wearing silk. and plain as my own dress may be, i must and will have the best material that is made. when the wife of the military commandant (a woman sprung from the people) goes out in an indian shawl with brussels lace in her bonnet, am i to meet her and return her bow, in a camelot cloak and a beaver hat? no! when i lose my self-respect let me lose my life too. my husband may sink as low as he pleases. i always have stood above him, and i always will! "and so i am in debt, and my creditors threaten me. what does it matter? i have pacified them, for the time, with some small installments of money, and a large expenditure of smiles. "i wish you could see my darling little minna; she is the loveliest and sweetest child in the world--my pride at all times, and my salvation in my desperate moods. there are moments when i feel inclined to set fire to the hateful university, and destroy all the moldy old creatures who inhabit it. i take minna out and buy her a little present, and see her eyes sparkle and her color rise, and feel her innocent kisses, and become, for awhile, quite a good woman again. yesterday, her father--no, i shall work myself up into a fury if i tell you about it. let me only say that minna saved me as usual. i took her to the jeweler's and bought her a pair of pearl earrings. if you could have heard her, if you could have seen her, when the little angel first looked at herself in the glass! i wonder when i shall pay for the earrings? "ah, julie, if i only had such an income as yours, i would make my power felt in this place. the insolent women should fawn on me and fear me. i would have my own house and establishment in the country, to purify me after the atmosphere of the professor's drugs. i would--well! well! never mind what else i would have. "talking of power, have you read the account of the execution last year of that wonderful criminal, anna maria zwanziger? wherever she went, the path of this terrific woman is strewed with the dead whom she has poisoned. she appears to have lived to destroy her fellow-creatures, and to have met her doom with the most undaunted courage. what a career! and what an end! (1) "the foolish people in wurzburg are at a loss to find motives for some of the murders she committed, and try to get out of the difficulty by declaring that she must have been a homicidal maniac. that is not _my_ explanation. i can understand the murderess becoming morally intoxicated with the sense of her own tremendous power. a mere human creature--only a woman, julie!--armed with the means of secretly dealing death with her, wherever she goes--meeting with strangers who displease her, looking at them quietly, and saying to herself, "i doom you to die, before you are a day older"--is there no explanation, here, of some of zwanziger's poisonings which are incomprehensible to commonplace minds? "i put this view, in talking of the trial, to the military commandant a few days since. his vulgar wife answered me before he could speak. 'madame fontaine,' said this spitfire, 'my husband and i don't feel _your_ sympathy with poisoners!' take that as a specimen of the ladies of wurzburg--and let me close this unmercifully long letter. i think you will acknowledge, my dear, that, when i do write, i place a flattering trust in my friend's patient remembrance of me." there the newspaper extracts came to an end. as a picture of a perverted mind, struggling between good and evil, and slowly losing ground under the stealthy influence of temptation, the letters certainly possessed a melancholy interest for any thoughtful reader. but (not being a spiteful woman) i failed to see, in these extracts, the connection which frau meyer had attempted to establish between the wickedness of madame fontaine and the disappearance of her husband's medicine chest. at the same time, i must acknowledge that a vague impression of distrust _was_ left on my mind by what i had read. i felt a certain sense of embarrassment at the prospect of renewing my relations with the widow, on my return to frankfort; and i was also conscious of a decided increase of anxiety to hear what had been mr. keller's reception of madame fontaine's letter. add to this, that my brotherly interest in minna was sensibly strengthened--and the effect on me of the extracts in the newspaper is truly stated, so far as i can remember it at this distant time. on the evening of the next day, i was back again at frankfort. (1) the terrible career of anna maria zwanziger, sentenced to death at bamberg in the year 1811, will be found related in lady duff-gordon's translation of feuerbach's "criminal trials." chapter xvi mr. keller and mr. engelman were both waiting to receive me. they looked over my written report of my inquiries at hanau, and expressed the warmest approval of it. so far, all was well. but, when we afterwards sat down to our supper, i noticed a change in the two partners, which it was impossible to see without regret. on the surface they were as friendly towards each other as ever. but a certain constraint of look and manner, a palpable effort, on either side, to speak with the old unsought ease and gaiety, showed that the disastrous discovery of madame fontaine in the hall had left its evil results behind it. mr. keller retired, when the meal was over, to examine my report minutely in all its details. when we were alone, mr. engelman lit his pipe. he spoke to me once more with the friendly familiarity of past days--before he met the too-fascinating widow on the bridge. "my dear boy, tell me frankly, do you notice any change in keller?" "i see a change in both of you," i answered: "you are not such pleasant companions as you used to be." mr. engelman blew out a mouthful of smoke, and followed it by a heavy sigh. "keller has become so bitter," he said. "his hasty temper i never complained of, as you know. but in these later days he is hard--hard as stone. do you know what he did with dear madame fontaine's letter? a downright insult, david--he sent it back to her!" "without explanation or apology?" i asked. "with a line on the envelope. 'i warned you that i should refuse to read your letter. you see that i am a man of my word.' what a message to send to a poor mother, who only asks leave to plead for her child's happiness! you saw the letter. enough to melt the heart of any man, as i should have thought. i spoke to keller on the subject; i really couldn't help it." "wasn't that rather indiscreet, mr. engelman?" "i said nothing that could reasonably offend him. 'do you know of some discreditable action on the part of madame fontaine, which has not been found out by anyone else?' i asked. 'i know the character she bears in wurzburg,' he said; 'and the other night i saw her face. that is all i know, friend engelman, and that is enough for me.' with those sour words, he walked out of the room. what lamentable prejudice! what an unchristian way of thinking! the name of madame fontaine will never be mentioned between us again. when that much-injured lady honors me with another visit, i can only receive her where she will be protected from insult, in a house of my own." "surely you are not going to separate yourself from mr. keller?" i said. "not for the present. i will wait till your aunt comes here, and brings that restless reforming spirit of hers into the business. changes are sure to follow--and my change of residence may pass as one of them." he got up to leave the room, and stopped at the door. "i wish you would come with me, david, to madame fontaine's. she is very anxious to see you." feeling no such anxiety on my side, i attempted to excuse myself; but he went on without giving me time to speak--"nice little miss minna is very dull, poor child. she has no friend of her own age here at frankfort, excepting yourself. and she has asked me more than once when mr. david would return from hanau." my excuses failed me when i heard this. mr. engelman and i left the house together. as we approached the door of madame fontaine's lodgings, it was opened from within by the landlady, and a stranger stepped out into the street. he was sufficiently well dressed to pass for a gentleman--but there were obstacles in his face and manner to a successful personation of the character. he cast a peculiarly furtive look at us both, as we ascended the house-steps. i thought he was a police spy. mr. engelman set him down a degree lower in the social scale. "i hope you are not in debt, ma'am," he said to the landlady; "that man looks to me like a bailiff in disguise." "i manage to pay my way, sir, though it is a hard struggle," the woman replied. "as for the gentleman who has just gone out, i know no more of him than you do." "may i ask what he wanted here?" "he wanted to know when madame fontaine was likely to quit my apartments. i told him my lodger had not appointed any time for leaving me yet." "did he mention madame fontaine's name?" "yes, sir." "how did he know that she lived here?" "he didn't say." "and you didn't think of asking him?" "it was very stupid of me, sir--i only asked him how he came to know that i let apartments. he said, 'never mind, now; i am well recommended, and i'll call again, and tell you about it.' and then i opened the door for him, as you saw." "did he ask to see madame fontaine?" "no, sir." "very odd!" said mr. engelman, as we went upstairs. "do you think we ought to mention it?" i thought not. there was nothing at all uncommon in the stranger's inquiries, taken by themselves. we had no right, that i could see, to alarm the widow, because we happened to attach purely fanciful suspicions to a man of whom we knew nothing. i expressed this opinion to mr. engelman; and he agreed with me. the same subdued tone which had struck me in the little household in main street, was again visible in the welcome which i received in madame fontaine's lodgings. minna looked weary of waiting for the long-expected letter from fritz. minna's mother pressed my hand in silence, with a melancholy smile. her reception of my companion struck me as showing some constraint. after what had happened on the night of her visit to the house, she could no longer expect him to help her to an interview with mr. keller. was she merely keeping up appearances, on the chance that he might yet be useful to her, in some other way? the trifling change which i observed did not appear to present itself to mr. engelman. i turned away to minna. knowing what i knew, it grieved me to see that the poor old man was fonder of the widow, and prouder of her than ever. it was no very hard task to revive the natural hopefulness of minna's nature. calculating the question of time in the days before railroads, i was able to predict the arrival of fritz's letter in two, or at most three days more. this bright prospect was instantly reflected in the girl's innocent face. her interest in the little world about her revived. when her mother joined us, in our corner of the room, i was telling her all that could be safely related of my visit to hanau. madame fontaine seemed to be quite as attentive as her daughter to the progress of my trivial narrative--to mr. engelman's evident surprise. "did you go farther than hanau?" the widow asked. "no farther." "were there any guests to meet you at the dinner-party?" "only the members of the family." "i lived so long, david, in dull old wurzburg, that i can't help feeling a certain interest in the town. did the subject turn up? did you hear of anything that was going on there?" i answered this as cautiously as i had answered the questions that had gone before it. frau meyer had, i fear, partially succeeded in perverting my sense of justice. before my journey to hanau, i might have attributed the widow's inquiries to mere curiosity. i believed suspicion to be the ruling motive with her, now. before any more questions could be asked, mr. engelman changed the topic to a subject of greater interest to himself. "i have told david, dear lady, of mr. keller's inhuman reception of your letter." "don't say 'inhuman,'" madame fontaine answered gently; "it is i alone who am to blame. i have been a cause of estrangement between you and your partner, and i have destroyed whatever little chance i might once have had of setting myself right in mr. keller's estimation. all due to my rashness in mentioning my name. if i had been less fond of my little girl here, and less eager to seize the first opportunity of pleading for her, i should never have committed that fatal mistake." so far, this was sensibly said--and, as an explanation of her own imprudence, was unquestionably no more than the truth. i was less favorably impressed by what followed, when she went on; "pray understand, david, that i don't complain. i feel no ill-will towards mr. keller. if chance placed the opportunity of doing him a service in my hands, i should be ready and willing to make use of it--i should be only too glad to repair the mischief that i have so innocently done." she raised her handkerchief to her eyes. mr. engelman raised his handkerchief to his eyes. minna took her mother's hand. i alone sat undemonstrative, with my sympathies in a state of repose. frau meyer again! nothing but the influence of frau meyer could have hardened me in this way! "i have entreated our sweet friend not to leave frankfort in despair," mr. engelman explained in faltering tones. "although my influence with keller is, for the present, a lost influence in this matter, i am more than willing--i am eager--to speak to mrs. wagner on madame fontaine's behalf. my advice is, wait for mrs. wagner's arrival, and trust to _my_ zeal, and _my_ position in the firm. when both his partners summon him to do justice to an injured woman, even keller must submit!" the widow's eyes were still hidden behind her handkerchief. but the lower part of her face was visible. unless i completely misinterpreted the mute language of her lips, she had not the faintest belief in the fulfillment of mr. engelman's prediction. whatever reason she might have for remaining in frankfort, after the definite rejection of her too-confident appeal to mr. keller's sympathies, was thus far undoubtedly a reason known only to herself. that very night, after we had left her, an incident occurred which suggested that she had some motive for ingratiating herself with one of the servants in mr. keller's house. our domestic establishment indoors consisted of the sour-tempered old housekeeper (who was perfectly unapproachable); of a little kitchen-maid (too unimportant a person to be worth conciliating); and of the footman joseph, who performed the usual duties of waiting on us at table, and answering the door. this last was a foolish young man, excessively vain of his personal appearance--but a passably good servant, making allowance for these defects. having occasion to ring for joseph, to do me some little service, i noticed that the loose ends of his necktie were connected by a smart new pin, presenting a circle of malachite set in silver. "have you had a present lately," i asked, "or are you extravagant enough to spend your money on buying jewelry?" joseph simpered in undisguised satisfaction with himself. "it's a present, sir, from madame fontaine. i take her flowers almost every day from mr. engelman, and i have done one or two trifling errands for her in the town. she was pleased with my attention to her wishes. 'i have very little money, mr. joseph,' she said; 'oblige me by accepting this pin in return for the trouble i have given you.' and she took the pin out of the beautiful white lace round her neck, and made me a present of it with her own hand. a most liberal lady, isn't she, sir?" "liberal indeed, joseph, considering the small services which you seem to have rendered to her. are you quite sure that she doesn't expect something more of you?" "oh, quite sure, sir." he blushed as he said that--and rather hurriedly left the room. how would frau meyer have interpreted joseph's blushes, and the widow's liberality? i went to bed without caring to pursue that question. a lapse of two days more brought with it two interesting events: the opening night of a traveling opera company on a visit to frankfort, and the arrival by a late post of our long-expected letters from london. the partners (both of them ardent lovers of music) had taken a box for the short season, and, with their usual kindness, had placed a seat at my disposal. we were all three drinking our coffee before going to the theater, and joseph was waiting on us, when the rheumatic old housekeeper brought in the letters, and handed them to me, as the person who sat nearest to the door. "why, my good creature, what has made you climb the stairs, when you might have rung for joseph?" asked kind-hearted mr. engelman. "because i have got something to ask of my masters," answered crabbed mother barbara. "there are your letters, to begin with. is it true that you are, all three of you, going to the theater to-night?" she never used any of the ordinary terms of respect. if she had been their mother, instead of their housekeeper, she could not have spoken more familiarly to the two old gentlemen who employed her. "well," she went on, "my daughter is in trouble about her baby, and wants my advice. teething, and convulsions, and that sort of thing. as you are all going out for the evening, you don't want me, after i have put your bedrooms tidy. i can go to my daughter for an hour or two, i suppose--and joseph (who isn't of much use, heaven knows) can take care of the house." mr. keller, refreshing his memory of the opera of the night (gluck's "armida") by consulting the book, nodded, and went on with his reading. mr. engelman said, "certainly, my good soul; give my best wishes to your daughter for the baby's health." mother barbara grunted, and hobbled out of the room. i looked at the letters. two were for me--from my aunt and fritz. one was for mr. keller--addressed also in the handwriting of my aunt. when i handed it to him across the table, he dropped "armida" the moment he looked at the envelope. it was the answer to his remonstrance on the subject of the employment of women. for minna's sake, i opened fritz's letter first. it contained the long-expected lines to his sweetheart. i went out at once, and, enclosing the letter in an envelope, sent joseph away with it to the widow's lodgings before mother barbara's departure made it necessary for him to remain in the house. fritz's letter to me was very unsatisfactory. in my absence, london was unendurably dull to him, and minna was more necessary to the happiness of his life than ever. he desired to be informed, by return of post, of the present place of residence of madame fontaine and her daughter. if i refused to comply with this request, he could not undertake to control himself, and he thought it quite likely that he might "follow his heart's dearest aspirations," and set forth on the journey to frankfort in search of minna. my aunt's letter was full of the subject of jack straw. in the first place she had discovered, while arranging her late husband's library, a book which had evidently suggested his ideas of reformation in the treatment of the insane. it was called, "description of the retreat, an institution near york for insane persons of the society of friends. written by samuel tuke." she had communicated with the institution; had received the most invaluable help; and would bring the book with her to frankfort, to be translated into german, in the interests of humanity. (1) (1) tuke's description of the retreat near york is reviewed by sydney smith in a number of the "edinburgh review," for 1814. as for her merciful experiment with poor jack, it had proved to be completely successful--with one serious drawback. so long as he was under her eye, and in daily communication with her, a more grateful, affectionate, and perfectly harmless creature never breathed the breath of life. even mr. hartrey and the lawyer had been obliged to confess that they had been in the wrong throughout, in the view they had taken of the matter. but, when she happened to be absent from the house, for any length of time, it was not to be denied that jack relapsed. he did nothing that was violent or alarming--he merely laid himself down on the mat before the door of her room, and refused to eat, drink, speak, or move, until she returned. he heard her outside the door, before anyone else was aware that she was near the house; and his joy burst out in a scream which did certainly recall bedlam. that was the drawback, and the only drawback; and how she was to take the journey to frankfort, which mr. keller's absurd remonstrance had rendered absolutely necessary, was more than my aunt's utmost ingenuity could thus far discover. setting aside the difficulty of disposing of jack, there was another difficulty, represented by fritz. it was in the last degree doubtful if he could be trusted to remain in london in her absence. "but i shall manage it," the resolute woman concluded. "i never yet despaired of anything--and i don't despair now." returning to the sitting-room, when it was time to go to the theater, i found mr. keller with his temper in a flame, and mr. engelman silently smoking as usual. "read that!" cried mr. keller, tossing my aunt's reply to him across the table. "it won't take long." it was literally a letter of four lines! "i have received your remonstrance. it is useless for two people who disagree as widely as we do, to write to each other. please wait for my answer, until i arrive at frankfort." "let's go to the music!" cried mr. keller. "god knows, i want a composing influence of some kind." at the end of the first act of the opera, a new trouble exhausted his small stock of patience. he had been too irritated, on leaving the house, to remember his opera-glass; and he was sufficiently near-sighted to feel the want of it. it is needless to say that i left the theater at once to bring back the glass in time for the next act. my instructions informed me that i should find it on his bedroom-table. i thought joseph looked confused when he opened the house-door to me. as i ran upstairs, he followed me, saying something. i was in too great a hurry to pay any attention to him. reaching the second floor by two stairs at a time, i burst into mr. keller's bedroom, and found myself face to face with--madame fontaine! chapter xvii the widow was alone in the room; standing by the bedside table on which mr. keller's night-drink was placed. i was so completely taken by surprise, that i stood stock-still like a fool, and stared at madame fontaine in silence. on her side she was, as i believe, equally astonished and equally confounded, but better able to conceal it. for the moment, and only for the moment, she too had nothing to say. then she lifted her left hand from under her shawl. "you have caught me, mr. david!" she said--and held up a drawing-book as she spoke. "what are you doing here?" i asked. she pointed with the book to the famous carved mantelpiece. "you know how i longed to make a study of that glorious work," she answered. "don't be hard on a poor artist who takes her opportunity when she finds it." "may i ask how you came to know of the opportunity, madame fontaine?" "entirely through your kind sympathy, my friend," was the cool reply. "my sympathy? what do you mean?" "was it not you, david, who considerately thought of minna when the post came in? and did you not send the man-servant to us, with her letter from fritz?" the blubbering voice of joseph, trembling for his situation, on the landing outside, interrupted me before i could speak again. "i'm sure i meant no harm, sir. i only said i was in a hurry to get back, because you had all gone to the theater, and i was left (with nobody but the kitchen girl) to take care of the house. when the lady came, and showed me her drawing-book----" "that will do, friend joseph," said the widow, signing to him to go downstairs in her easy self-possessed way. "mr. david is too sensible to take notice of trifles. there! there! go down," she turned to me, with an expression of playful surprise. "how very serious you look!" she said gaily. "it might have been serious for _you,_ madame fontaine, if mr. keller had returned to the house to fetch his opera-glass himself." "ah! he has left his opera-glass behind him? let me help you to look for it. i have done my sketch; i am quite at your service." she forestalled me in finding the opera-glass. "i really had no other chance of making a study of the chimney-piece," she went on, as she handed the glass to me. "impossible to ask mr. engelman to let me in again, after what happened on the last occasion. and, if i must confess it, there is another motive besides my admiration for the chimney-piece. you know how poor we are. the man who keeps the picture-shop in the zeil is willing to employ me. he can always sell these memorials of old frankfort to english travelers. even the few forms he gives me will find two half-starved women in housekeeping money for a week." it was all very plausible; and perhaps (in my innocent days before i met with frau meyer) i might have thought it quite likely to be true. in my present frame of mind, i only asked the widow if i might see her sketch. she shook her head, and sheltered the drawing-book again under her shawl. "it is little better than a memorandum at present," she explained. "wait till i have touched it up, and made it saleable--and i will show it to you with pleasure. you will not make mischief, mr. david, by mentioning my act of artistic invasion to either of the old gentlemen? it shall not be repeated--i give you my word of honor. there is poor joseph, too. you don't want to ruin a well-meaning lad, by getting him turned out of his place? of course not! we part as friends who understand each other, don't we? minna would have sent her love and thanks, if she had known i was to meet you. good-night." she ran downstairs, humming a little tune to herself, as blithe as a young girl. i heard a momentary whispering with joseph in the hall. then the house-door closed--and there was an end of madame fontaine for that time. after no very long reflection, i decided that my best course would be to severely caution joseph, and to say nothing to the partners of what had happened--for the present, at least. i should certainly do mischief, by setting the two old friends at variance again on the subject of the widow, if i spoke; to say nothing (as another result) of the likelihood of joseph's dismissal by mr. keller. actuated by these reasonable considerations, i am bound frankly to add that i must have felt some vague misgivings as well. otherwise, why did i carefully examine mr. keller's room (before i returned to the theater), without any distinct idea of any conceivable discovery that i might make? not the vestige of a suspicious appearance rewarded my search. the room was in its customary state of order, from the razors and brushes on the toilet-table to the regular night-drink of barley-water, ready as usual in the jug by the bedside. i left the bedchamber at last. why was i still not at my ease? why was i rude enough, when i thought of the widow, to say to myself, "damn her!" why did i find gluck's magnificent music grow wearisome from want of melody as it went on? let the learned in such things realize my position, and honor me by answering those questions for themselves. we were quite gay at supper; the visit to the theater had roused the spirits of the two partners, by means of a wholesome break in the monotony of their lives. i had seldom seen mr. keller so easy and so cheerful. always an abstemious man, he exercised his usual moderation in eating and drinking; and he was the first to go to bed. but, while he was with us, he was, in the best sense of the word, a delightful companion; and he looked forward to the next opera night with the glee of a schoolboy looking forward to a holiday. chapter xviii the breakfast-room proved to be empty when i entered it the next morning. it was the first time in my experience that i had failed to find mr. keller established at the table. he had hitherto set the example of early rising to his partner and to myself. i had barely noticed his absence, when mr. engelman followed me into the room with a grave and anxious face, which proclaimed that something was amiss. "where is mr. keller?" i asked. "in bed, david." "not ill, i hope?" "i don't know what is the matter with him, my dear boy. he says he has passed a bad night, and he can't leave his bed and attend to business as usual. is it the close air of the theater, do you think?" "suppose i make him a comfortable english cup of tea?" i suggested. "yes, yes! and take it up yourself. i should like to know what you think of him." mr. keller alarmed me in the first moment when i looked at him. a dreadful apathy had possessed itself of this naturally restless and energetic man. he lay quite motionless, except an intermittent trembling of his hands as they rested on the counterpane. his eyes opened for a moment when i spoke to him--then closed again as if the effort of looking at anything wearied him. he feebly shook his head when i offered him the cup of tea, and said in a fretful whisper, "let me be!" i looked at his night-drink. the jug and glass were both completely empty. "were you thirsty in the night?" in the same fretful whisper he answered, "horribly!" "are you not thirsty now?" he only repeated the words he had first spoken--"let me be!" there he lay, wanting nothing, caring for nothing; his face looking pinched and wan already, and the intermittent trembling still at regular intervals shaking his helpless hands. we sent at once for the physician who had attended him in trifling illnesses at former dates. the doctor who is not honest enough to confess it when he is puzzled, is a well-known member of the medical profession in all countries. our present physician was one of that sort. he pronounced the patient to be suffering from low (or nervous) fever--but it struck mr. engelman, as it struck me, that he found himself obliged to say something, and said it without feeling sure of the correctness of his own statement. he prescribed, and promised to pay us a second visit later in the day. mother barbara, the housekeeper, was already installed as nurse. always a domestic despot, she made her tyranny felt even in the sick-room. she declared that she would leave the house if any other woman presumed to enter it as nurse. "when my master is ill," said mother barbara, "my master is my property." it was plainly impossible that a woman, at her advanced age, could keep watch at the bedside by day and night together. in the interests of peace we decided on waiting until the next day. if mr. keller showed no signs of improvement by that time, i undertook to inquire at the hospital for a properly qualified nurse. later in the day, our doubts of the doctor were confirmed. he betrayed his own perplexity in arriving at a true "diagnosis" of the patient's case, by bringing with him, at his second visit, a brother-physician, whom he introduced as doctor dormann, and with whom he asked leave to consult at the bedside. the new doctor was the younger, and evidently the firmer person of the two. his examination of the sick man was patient and careful in the extreme. he questioned us minutely about the period at which the illness had begun; the state of mr. keller's health immediately before it; the first symptoms noticed; what he had eaten, and what he had drunk; and so on. next, he desired to see all the inmates of the house who had access to the bed-chamber; looking with steady scrutiny at the housekeeper, the footman, and the maid, as they followed each other into the room--and dismissing them again without remark. lastly, he astounded his old colleague by proposing to administer an emetic. there was no prevailing on him to give his reasons. "if i prove to be right, you shall hear my reasons. if i prove to be wrong, i have only to say so, and no reasons will be required. clear the room, administer the emetic, and keep the door locked till i come back." with those parting directions he hurried out of the house. "what _can_ he mean?" said mr. engelman, leading the way out of the bedchamber. the elder doctor left in charge heard the words, and answered them, addressing himself, not to mr. engelman, but to me. he caught me by the arm, as i was leaving the room in my turn. "poison!" the doctor whispered in my ear. "keep it a secret; that's what he means." i ran to my own bedchamber and bolted myself in. at that one word, "poison," the atrocious suggestion of frau meyer, when she had referred to doctor fontaine's lost medicine-chest, instantly associated itself in my memory with madame fontaine's suspicious intrusion into mr. keller's room. good god! had i not surprised her standing close by the table on which the night-drink was set? and had i not heard doctor dormann say, "that's unlucky," when he was told that the barley-water had been all drunk by the patient, and the jug and glass washed as usual? for the first few moments, i really think i must have been beside myself, so completely was i overpowered by the horror of my own suspicions. i had just sense enough to keep out of mr. engelman's way until i felt my mind restored in some degree to its customary balance. recovering the power of thinking connectedly, i began to feel ashamed of the panic which had seized on me. what conceivable object had the widow to gain by mr. keller's death? her whole interest in her daughter's future centered, on the contrary, in his living long enough to be made ashamed of his prejudices, and to give his consent to the marriage. to kill him for the purpose of removing fritz from the influence of his father's authority would be so atrocious an act in itself, and would so certainly separate minna and fritz for ever, in the perfectly possible event of a discovery, that i really recoiled from the contemplation of this contingency as i might have recoiled from deliberately disgracing myself. doctor dormann had rashly rushed at a false conclusion--that was the one comforting reflection that occurred to me. i threw open my door again in a frenzy of impatience to hear the decision, whichever way it might turn. the experiment had been tried in my absence. mr. keller had fallen into a broken slumber. doctor dormann was just closing the little bag in which he had brought his testing apparatus from his own house. even now there was no prevailing on him to state his suspicions plainly. "it's curious," he said, "to see how all mortal speculations on events, generally resolve themselves into threes. have we given the emetic too late? are my tests insufficient? or have i made a complete mistake?" he turned to his elder colleague. "my dear doctor, i see you want a positive answer. no need to leave the room, mr. engelman! you and the young english gentleman, your friend, must not be deceived for a single moment so far as i am concerned. i see in the patient a mysterious wasting of the vital powers, which is not accompanied by the symptoms of any disease known to me to which i can point as a cause. in plain words, i tell you, i don't understand mr. keller's illness." it was perhaps through a motive of delicacy that he persisted in making a needless mystery of his suspicions. in any case he was evidently a man who despised all quackery from the bottom of his heart. the old doctor looked at him with a frown of disapproval, as if his frank confession had violated the unwritten laws of medical etiquette. "if you will allow me to watch the case," he resumed, "under the superintendence of my respected colleague, i shall be happy to submit to approval any palliative treatment which may occur to me. my respected colleague knows that i am always ready to learn." his respected colleague made a formal bow, looked at his watch, and hastened away to another patient. doctor dormann, taking up his hat, stopped to look at mother barbara, fast asleep in her easy chair by the bedside. "i must find you a competent nurse to-morrow," he said. "no, not one of the hospital women--we want someone with finer feelings and tenderer hands than theirs. in the meantime, one of you must sit up with mr. keller to-night. if i am not wanted before, i will be with you to-morrow morning." i volunteered to keep watch; promising to call mr. engelman if any alarming symptoms showed themselves. the old housekeeper, waking after her first sleep, characteristically insisted on sending me to bed, and taking my place. i was too anxious and uneasy (if i may say it of myself) to be as compliant as usual. mother barbara, for once, found that she had a resolute person to deal with. at a less distressing time, there would have been something irresistibly comical in her rage and astonishment, when i settled the dispute by locking her out of the room. soon afterwards joseph came in with a message. if there was no immediate necessity for his presence in the bedchamber, mr. engelman would go out to get a breath of fresh air, before he retired for the night. there was no necessity for his presence; and i sent a message downstairs to that effect. an hour later mr. engelman came in to see his old friend, and to say good-night. after an interval of restlessness, the sufferer had become composed, and was dozing again under the influence of his medicine. making all allowances for the sorrow and anxiety which mr. engelman must necessarily feel under the circumstances, i thought his manner strangely absent and confused. he looked like a man with some burden on his mind which he was afraid to reveal and unable to throw off. "somebody must be found, david, who does understand the case," he said, looking at the helpless figure on the bed. "who can we find?" i asked. he bade me good-night without answering. it is no exaggeration to say that i passed my night at the bedside in a miserable state of indecision and suspense. the doctor's experiment had failed to prove absolutely that the doctor's doubts were without foundation. in this state of things, was it my bounden duty to tell the medical men what i had seen, when i went back to the house to look for mr. keller's opera-glass? the more i thought of it, the more i recoiled from the idea of throwing a frightful suspicion on minna's mother which would overshadow an innocent woman for the rest of her life. what proof had i that she had lied to me about the sketch and the mantlepiece? and, without proof, how could i, how dare i, open my lips? i succeeded in deciding firmly enough for the alternative of silence, during the intervals when my attendance on the sick man was not required. but, when he wanted his medicine, when his pillows needed a little arrangement, when i saw his poor eyes open, and look at me vacantly--then my resolution failed me; my indecision returned; the horrid necessity of speaking showed itself again, and shook me to the soul. never in the trials of later life have i passed such a night as that night at mr. keller's bedside. when the light of the new day shone in at the window, it was but too plainly visible that the symptoms had altered for the worse. the apathy was more profound, the wan pinched look of the face had increased, the intervals between the attacks of nervous trembling had grown shorter and shorter. come what might of it, when dr. dormann paid his promised visit, i felt i was now bound to inform him that another person besides the servants and ourselves had obtained access secretly to mr. keller's room. i was so completely worn out by agitation and want of sleep--and i showed it, i suppose, so plainly--that good mr. engelman insisted on my leaving him in charge, and retiring to rest. i lay down on my bed, with the door of my room ajar, resolved to listen for the doctor's footsteps on the stairs, and to speak to him privately after he had seen the patient. if i had been twenty years older, i might have succeeded in carrying out my intention. but, with the young, sleep is a paramount necessity, and nature insists on obedience to its merciful law. i remember feeling drowsy; starting up from the bed, and walking about my room, to keep myself awake; then lying down again from sheer fatigue; and after that--total oblivion! when i woke, and looked at my watch, i found that i had been fast asleep for no less than six hours! bewildered and ashamed of myself--afraid to think of what might have happened in that long interval--i hurried to mr. keller's room, and softly knocked at the door. a woman's voice answered me, "come in!" i paused with my hand on the door--the voice was familiar to me. i had a moment's doubt whether i was mad or dreaming. the voice softly repeated, "come in!" i entered the room. there she was, seated at the bedside, smiling quietly and lifting her finger to her lips! as certainly as i saw the familiar objects in the room, and the prostrate figure on the bed, i saw--madame fontaine! "speak low," she said. "he sleeps very lightly; he must not be disturbed." i approached the bed and looked at him. there was a faint tinge of color in his face; there was moisture on his forehead; his hands lay as still on the counterpane, in the blessed repose that possessed him, as the hands of a sleeping child. i looked round at madame fontaine. she smiled again; my utter bewilderment seemed to amuse her. "he is left entirely to me, david," she said, looking tenderly at her patient. "go downstairs and see mr. engelman. there must be no talking here." she lightly wiped the perspiration from his forehead; lightly laid her fingers on his pulse--then reclined in the easy chair, with her eyes fixed in silent interest on the sleeping man. she was the very ideal of the nurse with fine feelings and tender hands, contemplated by doctor dormann when i had last seen him. any stranger looking into the room at that moment would have said, "what a charming picture! what a devoted wife!" chapter xix "a tumbler of the old marcobrunner, david, and a slice of the game pie--before i say one word about what we owe to that angel upstairs. off with the wine, my dear boy; you look as pale as death!" with those words mr. engelman lit his pipe, and waited in silence until the good eating and drinking had done their good work. "now carry your mind back to last night," he began. "you remember my going out to get a breath of fresh air. can you guess what that meant?" i guessed of course that it meant a visit to madame fontaine. "quite right, david. i promised to call on her earlier in the day; but poor keller's illness made that impossible. she wrote to me under the impression that something serious must have happened to prevent me, for the first time, from keeping an appointment that i had made with her. when i left you i went to answer her note personally. she was not only distressed to hear of mr. keller's illness, she was interested enough in my sad news to ask particularly in what form the illness declared itself. when i mentioned what the symptoms were, she showed an agitation which took me quite by surprise. 'do the doctors understand what is the matter with him?' she asked. i told her that one of the doctors was evidently puzzled, and that the other had acknowledged that the malady was so far incomprehensible to him. she clasped her hands in despair--she said, 'oh, if my poor husband had been alive!' i naturally asked what she meant. i wish i could give her explanation, david, in her own delightful words. it came in substance to this. some person in her husband's employment at the university of wurzburg had been attacked by a malady presenting exactly the same symptoms from which mr. keller was suffering. the medical men had been just as much at a loss what to do as our medical men. alone among them doctor fontaine understood the case. he made up the medicine that he administered with his own hand. madame fontaine, under her husband's instructions, assisted in nursing the sick man, and in giving the nourishment prescribed when he was able to eat. his extraordinary recovery is remembered in the university to this day." i interrupted mr. engelman at that point. "of course you asked her for the prescription?" i said. "i begin to understand it now." "no, david; you don't understand it yet. i certainly asked her for the prescription. no such thing was known to be in existence--she reminded me that her husband had made up the medicine himself. but she remembered that the results had exceeded his anticipations, and that only a part of the remedy had been used. the bottle might still perhaps be found at wurzburg. or it might be in a small portmanteau belonging to her husband, which she had found in his bedroom, and had brought away with her, to be examined at some future time. 'i have not had the heart to open it yet,' she said; 'but for mr. keller's sake, i will look it over before you go away.' there is a christian woman, david, if ever there was one yet! after the manner in which poor keller had treated her, she was as eager to help him as if he had been her dearest friend. minna offered to take her place. 'why should you distress yourself, mamma?' she said. 'tell me what the bottle is like, and let me try if i can find it.' no! it was quite enough for madame fontaine that there was an act of mercy to be done. at any sacrifice of her own feelings, she was prepared to do it." i interrupted him again, eager to hear the end. "and she found the bottle?" i said. "she found the bottle," mr. engelman resumed. "i can show it to you, if you like. she has herself requested me to keep it under lock and key, so long as it is wanted in this house." he opened an old cabinet, and took out a long narrow bottle of dark-blue glass. in form, it was quaintly and remarkably unlike any modern bottle that i had ever seen. the glass stopper was carefully secured by a piece of leather, for the better preservation, i suppose, of the liquid inside. down one side of the bottle ran a narrow strip of paper, notched at regular intervals to indicate the dose that was to be given. no label appeared on it; but, examining the surface of the glass carefully, i found certain faintly-marked stains, which suggested that the label might have been removed, and that some traces of the paste or gum by which it had been secured had not been completely washed away. i held the bottle up to the light, and found that it was still nearly half full. mr. engelman forbade me to remove the stopper. it was very important, he said, that no air should be admitted to the bottle, except when there was an actual necessity for administering the remedy. "i took it away with me the same night," he went on. "and a wretched state of mind i was in, between my anxiety to give the medicine to poor dear keller immediately, and my fear of taking such a serious responsibility entirely on myself. madame fontaine, always just in her views, said, 'you had better wait and consult the doctors.' she made but one condition (the generous creature!) relating to herself. 'if the remedy is tried,' she said, 'i must ask you to give it a fair chance by permitting me to act as nurse; the treatment of the patient when he begins to feel the benefit of the medicine is of serious importance. i know this from my husband's instructions, and it is due to his memory (to say nothing of what is due to mr. keller) that i should be at the bedside.' it is needless to say that i joyfully accepted the offered help. so the night passed. the next morning, soon after you fell asleep, the doctors came. you may imagine what they thought of poor keller, when i tell you that they recommended me to write instantly to fritz in london summoning him to his father's bedside. i was just in time to catch the special mail which left this morning. don't blame me, david. i could not feel absolutely sure of the new medicine; and, with time of such terrible importance, and london so far off, i was really afraid to miss a post." i was far from blaming him--and i said so. in his place i should have done what he did. we arranged that i should write to fritz by that night's mail, on the chance that my announcement of the better news might reach him before he left london. "my letter despatched," mr. engelman continued, "i begged both the doctors to speak with me before they went away, in my private room. there i told them, in the plainest words i could find, exactly what i have told you. doctor dormann behaved like a gentleman. he said, 'let me see the lady, and speak to her myself, before the new remedy is tried.' as for the other, what do you think he did? walked out of the house (the old brute!) and declined any further attendance on the patient. and who do you think followed him out of the house, david, when i sent for madame fontaine? another old brute--mother barbara!" after what i had seen myself of the housekeeper's temper on the previous evening, this last piece of news failed to surprise me. to be stripped of her authority as nurse in favor of a stranger, and that stranger a handsome lady, was an aggravation of the wrong which mother barbara had contemplated, when she threatened us with the alternative of leaving the house. "well," mr. engelman resumed, "doctor dormann asked his questions, and smelt and tasted the medicine, and with madame fontaine's full approval took away a little of it to be analyzed. that came to nothing! the medicine kept its own secret. all the ingredients but two set analysis at defiance! in the meantime we gave the first dose. half an hour since we tried the second. you have seen the result with your own eyes. she has saved his life, david, and we have you to thank for it. but for you we might never have known madame fontaine." the door opened as he spoke, and i found myself confronted by a second surprise. minna came in, wearing a cook's apron, and asked if her mother had rung for her yet. under the widow's instructions, she was preparing the peculiar vegetable diet which had been prescribed by doctor fontaine as part of the cure. the good girl was eager to make herself useful to us in any domestic capacity. what a charming substitute for the crabbed old housekeeper who had just left us! so here were madame fontaine and minna actually established as inmates under the same roof with mr. keller! what would fritz think, when he knew of it? what would mr. keller say when he recognized his nurse, and when he heard that she had saved his life? "all's well that ends well" is a good proverb. but we had not got as far as that yet. the question in our case was, _how_ will it end? chapter xx when, late that night, i entered my bedroom again, how i blessed the lucky accident of my six hours' sleep, after a night's watching at mr. keller's bedside! if i had spoken to doctor dormann as i had positively resolved to speak, he would, beyond all doubt, have forbidden the employment of madame fontaine's remedy; mr. keller would have died; and the innocent woman who had saved his life would have been suspected, perhaps even tried, on a charge of murdering him. i really trembled when i looked back on the terrible consequences which must have followed, if i had succeeded that morning in keeping myself awake. the next day, the doses of the wonderful medicine were renewed at the regular intervals; and the prescribed vegetable diet was carefully administered. on the day after, the patient was so far advanced on the way to recovery, that the stopper of the dark-blue bottle was permanently secured again under its leather guard. mr. engelman told me that nearly two doses of it were still left at the bottom. he also mentioned, on my asking to look at it again, that the widow had relieved him of the care of the bottle, and had carefully locked it up in her own room. late on this day also, the patient being well-enough to leave his bed and to occupy the armchair in his room, the inevitable disclosure took place; and madame fontaine stood revealed in the character of the good samaritan who had saved mr. keller's life. by doctor dormann's advice, those persons only were permitted to enter the bedroom whose presence was absolutely necessary. besides madame fontaine and the doctor himself, mr. engelman and minna were the other witnesses of the scene. mr. engelman had his claim to be present as an old friend; and minna was to be made useful, at her mother's suggestion, as a means of gently preparing mr. keller's mind for the revelation that was to come. under these circumstances, i can only describe what took place, by repeating the little narrative with which minna favored me, after she had left the room. "we arranged that i should wait downstairs," she said, "until i heard the bedroom bell ring--and then i myself was to take up mr. keller's dinner of lentils and cream, and put it on his table without saying a word." "exactly like a servant!" i exclaimed. gentle sweet-tempered minna answered my foolish interruption with her customary simplicity and good sense. "why not?" she asked. "fritz's father may one day be my father; and i am happy to be of the smallest use to him, whenever he wants me. well, when i went in, i found him in his chair, with the light let into the room, and with plenty of pillows to support him. mr. engelman and the doctor were on either side of him; and poor dear mamma was standing back in a corner behind the bed, where he could not see her. he looked up at me, when i came in with my tray. 'who's this?' he asked of mr. engelman--'is she a new servant?' mr. engelman, humoring him, answered, 'yes.' 'a nice-looking girl,' he said; 'but what does mother barbara say to her?' upon this, mr. engelman told him how the housekeeper had left her place and why. as soon as he had recovered his surprise, he looked at me again. 'but who has been my nurse?' he inquired; 'surely not this young girl?' 'no, no; the young girl's mother has nursed you,' said mr. engelman. he looked at the doctor as he spoke; and the doctor interfered for the first time. 'she has not only nursed you, sir,' he said; 'i can certify medically that she has saved your life. don't excite yourself. you shall hear exactly how it happened.' in two minutes, he told the whole story, so clearly and beautifully that it was quite a pleasure to hear him. one thing only he concealed--the name. 'who is she?' mr. keller cried out. 'why am i not allowed to express my gratitude? why isn't she here?' 'she is afraid to approach you, sir,' said the doctor; 'you have a very bad opinion of her.' 'a bad opinion,' mr. keller repeated, 'of a woman i don't know? who is the slanderer who has said that of me?' the doctor signed to mr. engelman to answer. 'speak plainly,' he whispered, behind the chair. mr. engelman did speak plainly. 'pardon me, my dear keller, there is no slanderer in this matter. your own action has spoken for you. a short time since--try if you cannot remember it yourself--a lady sent a letter to you; and you sent the letter back to her, refusing to read it. do you know how she has returned the insult? that noble creature is the woman to whom you owe your life.' when he had said those words, the doctor crossed the room, and returned again to mr. keller, leading my mother by the hand." minna's voice faltered; she stopped at the most interesting part of her narrative. "what did mr. keller say?" i asked. "there was silence in the room," minna answered softly. "i heard nothing except the ticking of the clock." "but you must have seen something?" "no, david. i couldn't help it--i was crying. after a while, my mother put her arm round me and led me to mr. keller. i dried my eyes as well as i could, and saw him again. his head was bent down on his breast--his hands hung helpless over the arms of the chair--it was dreadful to see him so overwhelmed by shame and sorrow! 'what can i do?' he groaned to himself. 'god help me, what can i do?' mamma spoke to him--so sweetly and so prettily--'you can give this poor girl of mine a kiss, sir; the new servant who has waited on you is my daughter minna.' he looked up quickly, and drew me to him. 'i can make but one atonement, my dear,' he said--and then he kissed me, and whispered, 'send for fritz.' oh, don't ask me to tell you any more, david; i shall only begin crying again--and i am so happy!" she left me to write to fritz by that night's post. i tried vainly to induce her to wait a little. we had no electric telegraphs at our disposal, and we were reduced to guessing at events. but there was certainly a strong probability that fritz might have left london immediately on the receipt of mr. engelman's letter, announcing that his father was dangerously ill. in this case, my letter, despatched by the next mail to relieve his anxiety, would be left unopened in london; and fritz might be expected to arrive (if he traveled without stopping) in the course of the next day or two. i put this reasonable view of the matter to minna, and received a thoroughly irrational and womanly reply. "i don't care, david; i shall write to him, for all that." "why?" "because i like writing to him. "what! whether he receives your letter or not?" "whether he receives it or not," she answered saucily, "i shall have the pleasure of writing to him--that is all i want." she covered four pages of note-paper, and insisted on posting them herself. the next morning mr. keller was able, with my help and mr. engelman's, to get downstairs to the sitting-room. we were both with him, when madame fontaine came in. "well," he asked, "have you brought it with you?" she handed to him a sealed envelope, and then turned to explain herself to me. "the letter that you put on mr. keller's desk," she said pleasantly. "this time, david, i act as my own postman--at mr. keller's request." in her place, i should certainly have torn it up. to keep it, on the bare chance of its proving to be of some use in the future, seemed to imply either an excessive hopefulness or an extraordinary foresight, on the widow's part. without in the least comprehending my own state of mind, i felt that she had, in some mysterious way, disappointed me by keeping that letter. as a matter of course, i turned to leave the room, and mr. engelman (from a similar motive of delicacy) followed me to the door. mr. keller called us both back. "wait, if you please," he said, "until i have read it." madame fontaine was looking out of the window. it was impossible for us to discover whether she approved of our remaining in the room or not. mr. keller read the closely written pages with the steadiest attention. he signed to the widow to approach him, and took her hand when he had arrived at the last words. "let me ask your pardon," he said, "in the presence of my partner and in the presence of david glenney, who took charge of your letter. madame fontaine, i speak the plain truth, in the plainest words, when i tell you that i am ashamed of myself." she dropped on her knees before him, and entreated him to say no more. mr. engelman looked at her, absorbed in admiration. perhaps it was the fault of my english education--i thought the widow's humility a little overdone. what mr. keller's opinion might be, he kept to himself. he merely insisted on her rising, and taking a chair by his side. "to say that i believe every word of your letter," he resumed, "is only to do you the justice which i have too long delayed. but there is one passage which i must feel satisfied that i thoroughly understand, if you will be pleased to give me the assurance of it with your own lips. am i right in concluding, from what is here written of your husband's creditors, that his debts (which have now, in honor, become your debts) have been all actually _paid_ to the last farthing?" "to the last farthing!" madame fontaine answered, without a moment's hesitation. "i can show you the receipts, sir, if you like." "no, madam! i take your word for it--i require nothing more. your title to my heart-felt respect is now complete. the slanders which i have disgraced myself by believing would never have found their way to my credulity, if they had not first declared you to have ruined your husband by your debts. i own that i have never been able to divest myself of my inbred dislike and distrust of people who contract debts which they are not able to pay. the light manner in which the world is apt to view the relative positions of debtor and creditor is abhorrent to me. if i promise to pay a man money, and fail to keep my promise, i am no better than a liar and a cheat. that always has been, and always will be, _my_ view." he took her hand again as he made that strong declaration. "there is another bond of sympathy between us," he said warmly; "you think as i do." good heavens, if frau meyer had told me the truth, what would happen when madame fontaine discovered that her promissory note was in the hands of a stranger--a man who would inexorably present it for payment on the day when it fell due? i tried to persuade myself that frau meyer had _not_ told me the truth. perhaps i might have succeeded--but for my remembrance of the disreputable-looking stranger on the door-step, who had been so curious to know if madame fontaine intended to leave her lodgings. chapter xxi the next day, my calculation of possibilities in the matter of fritz turned out to be correct. returning to main street, after a short absence from the house, the door was precipitately opened to me by minna. before she could say a word, her face told me the joyful news. before i could congratulate her, fritz himself burst headlong into the hall, and made one of his desperate attempts at embracing me. this time i succeeded (being the shorter man of the two) in slipping through his arms in the nick of time. "do you want to kiss _me,"_ i exclaimed, "when minna is in the house!" "i have been kissing minna," fritz answered with perfect gravity, until we are both of us out of breath. "i look upon you as a sort of safety-valve." at this, minna's charming face became eloquent in another way. i only waited to ask for news of my aunt before i withdrew. mrs. wagner was already on the road to frankfort, following fritz by easy stages. "and where is jack straw?" i inquired. "traveling with her," said fritz. having received this last extraordinary piece of intelligence, i put off all explanations until a fitter opportunity, and left the lovers together until dinner-time. it was one of the last fine days of the autumn. the sunshine tempted me to take a turn in mr. engelman's garden. a shrubbery of evergreens divided the lawn near the house from the flower-beds which occupied the further extremity of the plot of ground. while i was on one side of the shrubbery, i heard the voices of mr. keller and madame fontaine on the other side. then, and then only, i remembered that the doctor had suggested a little walking exercise for the invalid, while the sun was at its warmest in the first hours of the afternoon. madame fontaine was in attendance, in the absence of mr. engelman, engaged in the duties of the office. i had just turned back again towards the house, thinking it better not to disturb them, when i heard my name on the widow's lips. better men than i, under stress of temptation, have been known to commit actions unworthy of them. i was mean enough to listen; and i paid the proverbial penalty for gratifying my curiosity--i heard no good of myself. "you have honored me by asking my advice, sir," i heard madame fontaine say. "with regard to young david glenney, i can speak quite impartially. in a few days more, if i can be of no further use to you, i shall have left the house." mr. keller interrupted her there. "pardon me, madame fontaine; i can't let you talk of leaving us. we are without a housekeeper, as you know. you will confer a favor on me and on mr. engelman, if you will kindly undertake the direction of our domestic affairs--for the present, at least. besides, your charming daughter is the light of our household. what will fritz say, if you take her away just when he has come home? no! no! you and minna must stay with us." "you are only too good to me, sir! perhaps i had better ascertain what mr. engelman's wishes are, before we decide?" mr. keller laughed--and, more extraordinary still, mr. keller made a little joke. "my dear madam, if you don't know what mr. engelman's wishes are likely to be, without asking him, you are the most unobservant lady that ever lived! speak to him, by all means, if you think it formally necessary--and let us return to the question of taking david glenney into our office here. a letter which he has lately received from mrs. wagner expresses no intention of recalling him to london--and he has managed so cleverly in a business matter which i confided to him, that he would really be an acquisition to us. besides (until the marriage takes place), he would be a companion for fritz." "that is exactly where i feel a difficulty," madame fontaine replied. "to my mind, sir, mr. david is not at all a desirable companion for your son. the admirable candor and simplicity of fritz's disposition might suffer by association with a person of mr. david's very peculiar character." "may i ask, madame fontaine, in what you think his character peculiar?" "i will endeavor to express what i feel, sir. you have spoken of his cleverness. i venture to say that he is _too_ clever and i have observed that he is--for a young man--far too easily moved to suspect others. do i make myself understood?" "perfectly. pray go on." "i find, mr. keller, that there is something of the jesuit about our young friend. he has a way of refining on trifles, and seeing under the surface, where nothing is to be seen. don't attach too much importance to what i say! it is quite likely that i am influenced by the popular prejudice against 'old heads on young shoulders.' at the same time, i confess i wouldn't keep him here, if i were in your place. shall we move a little further on?" madame fontaine was, i daresay, perfectly right in her estimate of me. looking back at the pages of this narrative, i discover some places in which i certainly appear to justify her opinion. i even justified it at the time. before she and mr. keller were out of my hearing, i began to see "under the surface," and "to refine" on what she had said. was it jesuitical to doubt the disinterestedness of her advice? i did doubt it. was it jesuitical to suspect that she privately distrusted me, and had reasons of her own for keeping me out of her way, at the safe distance of london? i did suspect it. and yet she was such a good christian! and yet she had so nobly and so undeniably saved mr. keller's life! what right had i to impute self-seeking motives to such a woman as this? mean! mean! there was no excuse for me. i turned back to the house, with my head feeling very old on my young shoulders. madame fontaine's manner to me was so charming, when we all met at the dinner-table, that i fell into a condition of remorseful silence. fortunately, fritz took most of the talking on himself, and the general attention was diverted from me. his high spirits, his boisterous nonsense, his contempt for all lawful forms and ceremonies which placed impediments in the way of his speedy marriage, were amusingly contrasted by mr. engelman's courteous simplicity in trying to argue the question seriously with his reckless young friend. "don't talk to me about the customary delays and the parson's duty!" cried fritz. "tell me this: does he do his duty without being paid for it?" "we must all live," pleaded good mr. engelman; "the parson must pay the butcher and the baker, like the rest of us." "that's shirking the question, my dear sir! will the parson marry minna and me, without being paid for it?" "in all civilized countries, fritz, there are fees for the performance of the marriage ceremony." "very well. now follow my train of reasoning, mr. engelman! on your own showing, the whole affair is a matter of money. the parson gets his fee for making minna my wife, after the customary delays." there minna modestly interposed. "why do you object to the customary delays, dear fritz?" "i'll tell you, my angel, when we are married. in the meantime, i resume my train of reasoning, and i entreat mr. engelman not to forget that this is a matter of money. make it worth the parson's while to marry us, _without_ the customary delays. double his fee, treble his fee--give him ten times his fee. it's merely a question of what his reverence can resist. my father is a rich man. favor me with a blank cheque, papa--and i will make minna mrs. keller before the end of the week!" the father, hitherto content to listen and be amused, checked the son's flow of nonsense at this point. "there is a time for everything, fritz," he said. "we have had laughing enough. when you talk of your marriage, i am sorry to observe that you entirely pass over the consideration which is due to your father's only surviving relative." madame fontaine laid down her knife and fork as if her dinner had come to an end. the sudden appearance in the conversation of the "surviving relative," had evidently taken her by surprise. mr. keller, observing her, turned away from his son, and addressed himself exclusively to the widow when he spoke next. "i referred, madame fontaine, to my elder sister," he said. "she and i are the sole survivors of a large family." "does the lady live in this city, sir?" the widow inquired. "no, she still lives in our birthplace--munich." "may i ask another question?" "as many questions, dear madam, as you like." "is your sister married?" "my sister has never been married." "not for want of suitors," said courteous mr. engelman. "a most majestic person. witty and accomplished. possessed of an enviable little fortune, entirely at her own disposal." mr. keller gently reproved this latter allusion to the question of money. "my good friend, madame fontaine has a mind above all mercenary considerations. my sister's place in her esteem and regard will not be influenced by my sister's fortune, when they meet (as i hope they will meet) at fritz's marriage." at this, fritz burst into the conversation in his usual headlong way. "oh, dear me, papa, have some consideration for us! if we wait for my aunt, we shall never be married on this side of eternity." "fritz!" "don't be angry, sir, i meant no harm. i was thinking of my aunt's asthma. at her age, she will never take the long journey from munich to frankfort. permit me to offer a suggestion. let us be married first, and then pay her a visit in the honeymoon." mr. keller passed his son's suggestion over without notice, and addressed himself once more to madame fontaine. "i propose writing to my sister in a day or two," he resumed, "to inform her of the contemplated marriage. she already knows your name through mr. engelman, who kindly wrote to allay her anxiety about my illness." "and to tell her," mr. engelman interposed, "to whose devotion he owes his recovery." the widow received this tribute with eyes fixed modestly on her plate. her black dress, rising and falling over her bosom, betrayed an agitation, which her enemies at wurzburg might have attributed to the discovery of the rich sister at munich. mr. keller went on-"i am sure i may trust to your womanly sympathies to understand the affection which binds me to my last living relative. my sister's presence at the marriage will be an inexpressible comfort and happiness to me. in spite of what my son has said (you are sadly given to talking at random, fritz), i believe she will not shrink from the journey to frankfort, if we only make it easier to her by consulting her health and convenience. our young people have all their lives before them--our young people can wait." "certainly, sir." she gave that short answer very quietly, with her eyes still on her plate. it was impossible to discover in what frame of mind she viewed the prospect of delay, involved in mr. keller's consideration for his sister. for the moment, fritz was simply confounded. he looked at minna--recovered himself--and favored his father with another suggestion. "i have got it now!" he exclaimed. "why not spare my aunt the fatigue of the journey? let us all start for bavaria to--morrow, and have the marriage at munich!" "and leave the business at frankfort to take care of itself, at the busiest time of the year!" his father added ironically. "when you open your mouth again, fritz, put food and drink into it--and confine yourself to that." with those words the question of the marriage was closed for the time. when dinner was over, mr. keller retired, to take some rest in his own room. fritz and his sweetheart left the house together, on an errand in which they were both equally interested--the purchase of the ring which was to typify minna's engagement. left alone with mr. engelman and the widow, i felt that i might be an obstacle to confidential conversation, and withdrew to the office. though not regularly employed as one of the clerks, i had been admitted to serve as a volunteer, since my return from hanau. in this way, i improved my experience of the details of our business, and i made some small return for the hospitable welcome which i had received from the two partners. half an hour or more had passed, when some papers arrived from the bank, which required the signature of the firm. mr. engelman being still absent, the head-clerk, at my suggestion, proceeded to the dining-room with the papers in his charge. he came back again immediately, looking very much alarmed. "pray go into the dining-room!" he said to me. "i am afraid something is seriously wrong with mr. engelman. "do you mean that he is ill?" i asked. "i can hardly say. his arms are stretched out on the table, and his face is hidden on them. he paid no attention to me. i am almost afraid he was crying." crying? i had left him in excellent spirits, casting glances of the tenderest admiration at madame fontaine. without waiting to hear more, i ran to the dining-room. he was alone--in the position described by the clerk--and, poor old man, he was indeed weeping bitterly! i put my hand with all possible gentleness on his shoulder, and said, with the tenderness that i really felt for him: "dear mr. engelman, what has happened to distress you?" at the sound of my voice he looked up, and caught me fervently by the hand. "stay here with me a little while, david," he said. "i have got my death-blow." i sat down by him directly. "try and tell me what has happened," i went on. "i left you here with madame fontaine----" his tears suddenly ceased; his hand closed convulsively on mine. "don't speak of her," he cried, with an outburst of anger. "you were right about her, david. she is a false woman." as the words passed his lips, he changed again. his voice faltered; he seemed to be frightened by his own violent language. "oh, what am i talking about! what right have i to say that of her! i am a brute--i am reviling the best of women. it was all my fault, david--i have acted like a madman, like a fool. oh, my boy! my boy!--would you believe it?--i asked her to marry me!" it is needless to say that i wanted no further explanation. "did she encourage you to ask her?" i inquired. "i thought she did, david--i thought i would be clever and seize the opportunity. she said she wanted to consult me. she said: 'mr. keller has asked me to stay here, and keep house for you; i have not given my answer yet, i have waited to know if you approved it.' upon that, i said the rash words. i asked her to be more than our housekeeper--to be my wife. i am naturally stupid," said the poor simple gentleman; "whenever i try to do anything clever i always fail. she was very forbearing with me at first; she said no, but she said it considerately, as if she felt for me. i presumed on her kindness, like a fool; i couldn't help it, david, i was so fond of her. i pressed her to say why she refused me. i was mad enough to ask if there was some other man whom she preferred. oh, she said some hard things to me in her anger! and, worse still, when i went down on my knees to her, she said, 'get up, you old fool!'--and laughed--and left me. take me away somewhere, david; i am too old to get over it, if i stay here. i can never see her or speak to her again. take me to england with you--and, oh, don't tell keller!" he burst into another fit of tears. it was dreadful to see and hear him. i tried to think of some consoling words. before i could give expression to my thought, the door of the room was gently opened; and madame fontaine herself stood before us. her eyes looked at mr. engelman from under their heavy lids, with a quiet and scornful compassion. the poor wretch was of no further use to her. quite needless to be on her best behavior with him now! "there is not the least occasion, sir, to disturb yourself," she said. "it is _my_ duty to leave the house--and i will do it." without waiting to be answered, she turned back to the door, and left us. chapter xxii "for heaven's sake, sir, allow me to go!" "on no account, madame fontaine. if you won't remain here, in justice to yourself, remain as a favor to me." when i opened my bedroom door the next morning, the widow and mr. keller were on the landing outside, and those were the words exchanged between them. mr. keller approached, and spoke to me. "what do you know, david, about the disappearance of mr. engelman?" "disappearance?" i repeated. "i was with him yesterday evening--and i bade him good-night in his own room." "he must have left the house before the servants were up this morning," said mr. keller. "read that." he handed me a morsel of paper with writing on it in pencil:-"forgive me, dear friend and partner, for leaving you without saying good-bye; also for burdening you with the direction of business, before you are perhaps strong enough to accept the charge. my mind is in such a state of confusion that i should be worse than useless in the office. while i write this, my poor weak head burns as if there was fire in it. i cannot face _her,_ i cannot face _you_--i must go, before i lose all control over myself. don't attempt to trace me. if change and absence restore me to myself i will return. if not, a man at my age and in my state of mind is willing to die. please tell madame fontaine that i ask her pardon with all my heart. good-bye--and god bless and prosper you." i was unaffectedly distressed. there was something terrible in this sudden break-up of poor engelman's harmless life--something cruel and shocking in the passion of love fixing its relentless hold on an innocent old man, fast nearing the end of his days. there are hundreds of examples of this deplorable anomaly in real life; and yet, when we meet with it in our own experience, we are always taken by surprise, and always ready to express doubt or derision when we hear of it in the experience of others. madame fontaine behaved admirably. she sat down on the window-seat at the end of the landing, and wrung her hands with a gesture of despair. "oh!" she said, "if he had asked me for anything else! if i could have made any other sacrifice to him! god knows i never dreamed of it; i never gave him the smallest encouragement. we might have all been so happy together here--and i, who would have gone to the world's end to serve mr. keller and mr. engelman, i am the unhappy creature who has broken up the household!" mr. keller was deeply affected. he sat down on the window-seat by madame fontaine. "my dear, dear lady," he said, "you are entirely blameless in this matter. even my unfortunate partner feels it, and asks your pardon. if inquiries can discover him, they shall be set on foot immediately. in the meantime, let me entreat you to compose yourself. engelman has perhaps done wisely, to leave us for a time. he will get over his delusion, and all may be well yet." i went downstairs, not caring to hear more. all my sympathies, i confess, were with mr. engelman--though he _was_ a fat simple old man. mr. keller seemed to me (here is more of the "old head on young shoulders!") to have gone from one extreme to the other. he had begun by treating the widow with unbecoming injustice; and he was now flattering her with unreasonable partiality. for the next few days there was tranquillity, if not happiness, in the house. mr. keller wrote to his sister in munich, inviting her to mention the earliest date at which it might suit her convenience to be present at the marriage of his son. madame fontaine assumed the regular management of our domestic affairs. fritz and minna found sufficient attraction in each other's society. the new week was just beginning, and our inquiries after mr. engelman had thus far led to no result--when i received a letter containing news of the fugitive, confided to me under strict reserve. the writer of the letter proved to be a married younger brother of mr. engelman, residing at bingen, on the rhine. "i write to you, dear sir, at my brother's request. my wife and i are doing all that we can to relieve and comfort him, but his mind has not yet sufficiently recovered to enable him to write to you himself. he desires to thank you heartily for your sympathy, at the most trying period of his life; and he trusts to your kindness to let him hear, from time to time, of mr. keller's progress towards recovery, and of the well-being of the business. in addressing your letters to me at bingen, you will be pleased to consider the information of my brother's whereabouts herein afforded to you as strictly confidential, until you hear from me to the contrary. in his present frame of mind, it would be in the last degree painful to him to be made the subject of inquiries, remonstrances, or entreaties to return." the arrival of this sad news proved to be not the only noteworthy event of the day. while i was still thinking of poor mr. engelman, fritz came into the office with his hat in his hand. "minna is not in very good spirits this morning," he said. "i am going to take her out for half an hour to look at the shops. can you come with us?" this invitation rather surprised me. "does minna wish it?" i asked. fritz dropped his voice so that the clerks in the room could not hear his reply. "minna has sent me to you," he answered. "she is uneasy about her mother. i can make nothing of it--and she wants to ask your advice." it was impossible for me to leave my desk at that moment. we arranged to put off the walk until after dinner. during the meal, i observed that not minna only, but her mother also, appeared to be out of spirits. mr. keller and fritz probably noticed the change as i did. we were all of us more silent than usual. it was a relief so find myself with the lovers, out in the cheerful street. minna seemed to want to be encouraged before she could speak to me. i was obliged to ask in plain words if anything had happened to annoy her mother and herself. "i hardly know how to tell you," she said. "i am very unhappy about my mother." "begin at the beginning," fritz suggested; "tell him where you went, and what happened yesterday." minna followed her instructions. "mamma and i went to our lodgings yesterday," she began. "we had given notice to leave when it was settled we were to live in mr. keller's house. the time was nearly up; and there were some few things still left at the apartments, which we could carry away in our hands. mamma, who speaks considerately to everybody, said she hoped the landlady would soon let the rooms again. the good woman answered: 'i don't quite know, madam, whether i have not let them already.'--don't you think that rather a strange reply?" "it seems to require some explanation, certainly. what did the landlady say?" "the landlady's explanation explained nothing," fritz interposed. "she appears to have spoken of a mysterious stranger, who had once before inquired if madame fontaine was likely to leave the lodgings--and who came yesterday to inquire again. you tell him the rest of it, minna." before she could speak, i had already recognized the suspicious-looking personage whom mr. engelman and i had some time since encountered on the door-step. i inquired what the man had said when he heard that the lodgings were to let. "there is the suspicious part of it," cried fritz. "be very particular, minna, to leave nothing out." fritz's interruptions seemed only to confuse minna. i begged him to be silent, and did my best to help her to find the lost thread of her story. "did the man ask to see the lodgings?" i said. "no." "did he talk of taking the lodgings?" "he said he wished to have the refusal of them until the evening," minna replied; "and then he asked if madame fontaine had left frankfort. when the landlady said no, he had another question ready directly. he wanted to know in what part of frankfort madame fontaine was now living." "and the old fool of a landlady actually told him the address," said fritz, interrupting again. "and, i am afraid, did some serious mischief by her folly," minna added. "i saw mamma start and turn pale. she said to the landlady, 'how long ago did this happen?' 'about half an hour ago,' the landlady answered. 'which way did he turn when he left you--towards mr. keller's house or the other way?' the landlady said, 'towards mr. keller's house.' without another word, mamma took me by the arm. 'it's time we were home again,' she said--and we went back at once to the house." "you were too late, of course, to find the man there?" "yes, david--but we heard of him. mamma asked joseph if anyone had called while we were out. joseph said a stranger had called, and had inquired if madame fontaine was at home. hearing that she was out, he had said, 'i think i had better write to her. she is here for a short time only, i believe?' and innocent joseph answered, 'oh, dear no! madame fontaine is mr. keller's new housekeeper.' 'well?' mamma asked, 'and what did he say when he heard that?' 'he said nothing,' joseph answered, 'and went away directly.'" "was that all that passed between your mother and joseph?" "all," minna replied. "my mother wouldn't even let me speak to her. i only tried to say a few words of sympathy--and i was told sharply to be silent. 'don't interrupt me,' she said, 'i want to write a letter.'" "did you see the letter?" "oh, no! but i was so anxious and uneasy that i did peep over her shoulder while she was writing the address." "do you remember what it was?" "i only saw the last word on it. the last word was 'wurzburg.'" "now you know as much as we do," fritz resumed. "how does it strike you, david? and what do you advise?" how could i advise? i could only draw my own conclusions privately. madame fontaine's movements were watched by somebody; possibly in the interests of the stranger who now held the promissory note. it was, of course, impossible for me to communicate this view of the circumstances to either of my two companions. i could only suggest a patient reliance on time, and the preservation of discreet silence on minna's part, until her mother set the example of returning to the subject. my vaguely-prudent counsels were, naturally enough, not to the taste of my young hearers. fritz openly acknowledged that i had disappointed him; and minna turned aside her head, with a look of reproach. her quick perception had detected, in my look and manner, that i was keeping my thoughts to myself. neither she nor fritz made any objection to my leaving them, to return to the office before post-time. i wrote to mr. engelman before i left my desk that evening. recalling those memorable days of my early life, i remember that a strange and sinister depression pervaded our little household, from the time when mr. engelman left us. in some mysterious way the bonds of sympathy, by which we had been hitherto more or less united, seemed to slacken and fall away. we lived on perfectly good terms with one another; but there was an unrecognized decrease of confidence among us, which i for one felt sometimes almost painfully. an unwholesome atmosphere of distrust enveloped us. mr. keller only believed, under reserve, that madame fontaine's persistent low spirits were really attributable, as she said, to nothing more important than nervous headaches. fritz began to doubt whether mr. keller was really as well satisfied as he professed to be with the choice that his son had made of a portionless bride. minna, observing that fritz was occasionally rather more subdued and silent than usual, began to ask herself whether she was quite as dear to him, in the time of their prosperity, as in the time of their adversity. to sum up all, madame fontaine had her doubts of me--and i had my doubts (although she _had_ saved mr. keller's life) of madame fontaine. from this degrading condition of dullness and distrust, we were roused, one morning, by the happy arrival of mrs. wagner, attended by her maid, her courier--and jack straw. chapter xxiii circumstances had obliged my aunt to perform the last stage of her journey to frankfort by the night mail. she had only stopped at our house on her way to the hotel; being unwilling to trespass on the hospitality of her partners, while she was accompanied by such a half-witted fellow as jack. mr. keller, however, refused even to hear of the head partner in the business being reduced to accept a mercenary welcome at an hotel. one whole side of the house, situated immediately over the offices, had been already put in order in anticipation of mrs. wagner's arrival. the luggage was then and there taken off the carriage; and my aunt was obliged, by all the laws of courtesy and good fellowship, to submit. this information was communicated to me by joseph, on my return from an early visit to one of our warehouses at the riverside. when i asked if i could see my aunt, i was informed that she had already retired to rest in her room, after the fatigue of a seven hours' journey by night. "and where is jack straw?" i asked. "playing the devil already, sir, with the rules of the house," joseph answered. fritz's voice hailed me from the lower regions. "come down, david; here's something worth seeing!" i descended at once to the servants' offices. there, crouched up in a corner of the cold stone corridor which formed the medium of communication between the kitchen and the stairs, i saw jack straw again--in the very position in which i had found him at bedlam; excepting the prison, the chains, and the straw. but for his prematurely gray hair and the strange yellow pallor of his complexion, i doubt if i should have recognized him again. he looked fat and happy; he was neatly and becomingly dressed, with a flower in his button-hole and rosettes on his shoes. in one word, so far as his costume was concerned, he might have been taken for a lady's page, dressed under the superintendence of his mistress herself. "there he is!" said fritz, "and there he means to remain, till your aunt wakes and sends for him." "upsetting the women servants, on their way to their work," joseph added, with an air of supreme disgust--"and freezing in that cold corner, when he might be sitting comfortably by the kitchen fire!" jack listened to this with an ironical expression of approval. "that's very well said, joseph," he remarked. "come here; i want to speak to you. do you see that bell?" he pointed to a row of bells running along the upper wall of the corridor, and singled out one of them which was numbered ten. "they tell me that's the bell of mistress's bedroom," he resumed, still speaking of my aunt by the name which he had first given to her on the day when they met in the madhouse. "very well, joseph! i don't want to be in anybody's way; but no person in the house must see that bell ring before me. here i stay till mistress rings--and then you will get rid of me; i shall move to the mat outside her door, and wait till she whistles for me. now you may go. that's a poor half-witted creature," he said as joseph retired. "lord! what a lot of them there are in this world!" fritz burst out laughing. "i'm afraid you're another of them," said jack, looking at him with an expression of the sincerest compassion. "do you remember me?" i asked. jack nodded his head in a patronizing way. "oh, yes--mistress has been talking of you. i know you both. you're david, and he's fritz. all right! all right!" "what sort of journey from london have you had?" i inquired next. he stretched out his shapely little arms and legs, and yawned. "oh, a pretty good journey. we should have been better without the courier and the maid. the courier is a tall man. i have no opinion of tall men. i am a man myself of five foot--that's the right height for a courier. i could have done all the work, and saved mistress the money. her maid is another tall person; clumsy with her fingers. i could dress mistress's hair a deal better than the maid, if she would only let me. the fact is, i want to do everything for her myself. i shall never be quite happy till i'm the only servant she has about her." "ah, yes," said fritz, good-naturedly sympathizing with him. "you're a grateful little man; you remember what mrs. wagner has done for you." "remember?" jack reported scornfully. "i say, if you can't talk more sensibly than that, you had better hold your tongue." he turned and appealed to me. "did you ever hear anything like fritz? he seems to think it wonderful that i remember the day when she took me out of bedlam!" "ah, jack, that was a great day in your life, wasn't it?" "a great day? oh, good lord in heaven! where are there words that are big enough to speak about it?" he sprang to his feet, wild with the sudden tumult of his own recollections. "the sun--the warm, golden, glorious, beautiful sun--met us when we came out of the gates, and all but drove me stark-staring-mad with the joy of it! forty thousand devils--little straw-colored, lively, tempting devils--(mind, i counted them!)--all crawled over me together. they sat on my shoulders--and they tickled my hands--and they scrambled in my hair--and they were all in one cry at me like a pack of dogs. 'now, jack! we are waiting for you; your chains are off, and the sun's shining, and mistress's carriage is at the gate--join us, jack, in a good yell; a fine, tearing, screeching, terrifying, mad yell!' i dropped on my knees, down in the bottom of the carriage; and i held on by the skirts of mistress's dress. 'look at me!' i said; 'i won't burst out; i won't frighten you, if i die for it. only help me with your eyes! only look at me!' and she put me on the front seat of the carriage, opposite her, and she never took her eyes off me all the way through the streets till we got to the house. 'i believe in you, jack,' she said. and i wouldn't even open my lips to answer her--i was so determined to be quiet. ha! ha! how you two fellows would have yelled, in my place!" he sat down again in his corner, delighted with his own picture of the two fellows who would have yelled in his place. "and what did mistress do with you when she brought you home?" i asked. his gaiety suddenly left him. he lifted one of his hands, and waved it to and fro gently in the air. "you are too loud, david," he said. "all this part of it must be spoken softly--because all this part of it is beautiful, and kind, and good. there was a picture in the room, of angels and their harps. i wish i had the angels and the harps to help me tell you about it. fritz there came in with us, and called it a bedroom. i knew better than that; i called it heaven. you see, i thought of the prison and the darkness and the cold and the chains and the straw--and i named it heaven. you two may say what you please; mistress said i was right." he closed his eyes with a luxurious sense of self-esteem, and appeared to absorb himself in his own thoughts. fritz unintentionally roused him by continuing the story of jack's introduction to the bedroom. "our little friend," fritz began confidentially, "did the strangest things when he found himself in his new room. it was a cold day; and he insisted on letting the fire out. then he looked at the bedclothes, and----" jack solemnly opened his eyes again, and stopped the narrative at that point. "you are not the right person to speak of it," he said. "nobody must speak of it but a person who understands me. you shan't be disappointed, david. i understand myself--_i'll_ tell you about it. you saw what sort of place i lived in and slept in at the madhouse, didn't you?" "i saw it, jack--and i can never forget it." "now just think of my having a room, to begin with. and add, if you please, a fire--and a light--and a bed--and blankets and sheets and pillows--and clothes, splendid new clothes, for me! and then ask yourself if any man could bear it, all pouring on him at once (not an hour after he had left bedlam), without going clean out of his senses and screeching for joy? no, no. if i have a quality, it's profound common sense. down i went on my knees before her again! 'if you have any mercy on me, mistress, let me have all this by a bit at a time. upon my soul, i can't swallow it at once!' she understood me. we let the fire out--and surprised that deficient person, fritz. a little of the bedlam cold kept me nice and quiet. the bed that night if you like--but heaven defend me from the blankets and the sheets and the pillows till i'm able to bear them! and as to putting on coat, waistcoat, and breeches, all together, the next morning--it was as much as i could do, when i saw myself in my breeches, to give the word of command in the voice of a gentleman--'away with the rest of them! the shirt for to-morrow, the waistcoat for next day, and the coat--if i can bear the sight of it without screaming--the day after!' a gradual process, you see, david. and every morning mistress helped me by saying the words she said in the carriage, 'i believe in you, jack.' you ask her, when she gets up, if i ever once frightened her, from the day when she took me home." he looked again, with undiminished resentment, at fritz. _"now_ do you understand what i did when i got into my new room? is fritz in the business, david? he'll want a deal of looking after if he is. just step this way--i wish to speak to you." he got up again, and taking my arm with a look of great importance, led me a few steps away--but not far enough to be out of sight of my aunt's bell. "i say," he began, "i've heard they call this place frankfort. am i right?" "quite right!" "and there's a business here, like the business in london?" "certainly." "and mistress _is_ mistress here, like she is in london?" "yes." "very well, then, i want to know something. what about the keys?" i looked at him, entirely at a loss to understand what this last question meant. he stamped his foot impatiently. "do you mean to say, david, you have never heard what situation i held in the london office?" "never, jack!" he drew himself up and folded his arms, and looked at me from the immeasurable height of his own superiority. "i was keeper of the keys in london!" he announced. "and what i want to know is--am i to be keeper of the keys here?" it was now plain enough that my aunt--proceeding on the wise plan of always cultivating the poor creature's sense of responsibility--had given him some keys to take care of, and had put him on his honor to be worthy of his little trust. i could not doubt that she would find some means of humoring him in the same way at frankfort. "wait till the bells rings," i answered "and perhaps you will find the keys waiting for you in mistress' room." he rubbed his hands in delight. "that's it!" he said. "let's keep watch on the bell." as he turned to go back again to his corner, madame fontaine's voice reached us from the top of the kitchen stairs. she was speaking to her daughter. jack stopped directly and waited, looking round at the stairs. "where is the other person who came here with mrs. wagner?" the widow asked. "a man with an odd english name. do you know, minna, if they have found a room for him?" she reached the lower stair as she spoke--advanced along the corridor--and discovered jack straw. in an instant, her languid indifferent manner disappeared. her eyes opened wildly under their heavy lids. she stood motionless, like a woman petrified by surprise--perhaps by terror. "hans grimm!" i heard her say to herself. "god in heaven! what brings _him_ here?" chapter xxiv almost instantaneously madame fontaine recovered her self-control. "i really couldn't help feeling startled," she said, explaining herself to fritz and to me. "the last time i saw this man, he was employed in a menial capacity at the university of wurzburg. he left us one day, nobody knew why. and he suddenly appears again, without a word of warning, in this house." i looked at jack. a smile of mischievous satisfaction was on his face. he apparently enjoyed startling madame fontaine. his expression changed instantly for the better, when minna approached and spoke to him. "don't you remember me, hans?" she said. "oh, yes, missie, i remember you. you are a good creature. you take after your papa. _he_ was a good creature--except when he had his beastly medical bottles in his hand. but, i say, i mustn't be called by the name they gave me at the university! i was a german then--i am an englishman now. all nations are alike to me. but i am particular about my name, because it's the name mistress knew me by. i will never have another. 'jack straw,' if you please. there's my name, and i am proud of it. lord! what an ugly little hat you have got on your head! i'll soon make you a better one." he turned on madame fontaine, with a sudden change to distrust. "i don't like the way you spoke of my leaving the university, just now. i had a right to go, if i liked--hadn't i?" "oh, yes, hans." "not hans! didn't you hear what i mentioned just now? say jack." she said it, with a ready docility which a little surprised me. "did i steal anything at the university?" jack proceeded. "not that i know of." "then speak respectfully of me, next time. say, 'mr. jack retired from the university, in the exercise of his discretion.'" having stated this formula with an air of great importance, he addressed himself to me. "i appeal to you," he said. "suppose you had lost your color here" (he touched his cheek), "and your color there" (he touched his hair); "and suppose it had happened at the university--would _you"_ (he stood on tip-toe, and whispered the next words in my ear) "would _you_ have stopped there, to be poisoned again? no!" he cried, raising his voice once more, "you would have drifted away like me. from germany to france; from france to england--and so to london, and so under the feet of her highness's horses, and so to bedlam, and so to mistress. oh, lord help me, i'm forgetting the bell! good-bye, all of you. let me be in my corner till the bell rings." madame fontaine glanced at me compassionately, and touched her bead. "come to my sitting-room, jack," she said, "and have something to eat and drink, and tell me your adventures after you left wurzburg." she favored him with her sweetest smile, and spoke in her most ingratiating tones. that objectionable tendency of mine to easily suspect others was, i suppose, excited once more. at any rate, i thought the widow showed a very remarkable anxiety to conciliate jack. he was proof, however, against all attempts at fascination--he shook his head obstinately, and pointed to the bell. we went our several ways, and left the strange little man crouched up in his corner. in the afternoon, i was sent for to see my aunt. i found jack at his post; established in a large empty wardrobe, on the landing outside his mistress's door. his fingers were already busy with the framework of the new straw hat which he had promised to make for minna. "all right, david!" he said, patronizing me as indulgently as ever. "mistress has had her good sleep and her nice breakfast, and she looks lovely. go in, and see her--go in!" i thought myself that she looked perhaps a little worn, and certainly thinner than when i had seen her last. but these were trifles. it is not easy to describe the sense of relief and pleasure that i felt--after having been accustomed to the sleepy eyes and serpentine graces of madame fontaine--when i looked again at the lithe active figure and the bright well-opened gray eyes of my dear little english aunt. "tell me, david," she began, as soon as the first greetings were over, "what do you think of jack straw? was my poor dear husband not right? and have i not done well to prove it?" i could, and did, honestly congratulate her on the result of the visit to bedlam. "and now about the people here," she went on. "i find fritz's father completely changed on the subject of fritz's marriage. and when i ask what it means, i am told that madame fontaine has set everything right, in the most wonderful manner, by saving mr. keller's life. is this true?" "quite true. what do you think of madame fontaine?" "ask me that, david, to-morrow or the next day. my head is muddled by traveling--i have not made up my mind yet." "have you seen minna?" "seen her, and kissed her too! there's a girl after my own heart. i consider our scatter-brained friend fritz to be the luckiest young fellow living." "if minna was not going to be married," i suggested, "she would just do for one of your young-lady clerks, wouldn't she?" my aunt laughed. "exactly what i thought myself, when i saw her. but you are not to make a joke of my young-lady clerks. i am positively determined to carry out that useful reform in the office here. however, as mr. keller has been so lately ill, and as we are sure to have a fight about it, i will act considerately towards my opponent--i won't stir in the matter until he is quite himself again. in the meantime, i must find somebody, while i am away, to take my place in the london house. the business is now under the direction of mr. hartrey. he is perfectly competent to carry it on; but, as you know, our excellent head-clerk has his old--fashioned prejudices. according to strict rule, a partner ought always to be in command, at the london business--and hartrey implores me (if mr. keller is not well enough to take the journey) to send mr. engelman to london. where is mr. engelman? how is it that i have neither heard nor seen anything of him?" this was a delicate and difficult question to answer--at least, to my way of thinking. there was little prospect of keeping the poor old gentleman's sad secret. it was known to fritz and minna, as well as to mr. keller. still, i felt an unconquerable reluctance to be the first person who revealed the disaster that had befallen him. "mr. engelman is not in good health and spirits," i said. "he has gone away for a little rest and change." my aunt looked astonished. "both the partners ill!" she exclaimed. "i remember mr. engelman, in the days when i was first married. he used to boast of never having had a day's illness in his life. not at all a clever man--but good as gold, and a far more sensitive person than most people gave him credit for being. he promised to be fat as years grew on him. has he kept his promise? what is the matter with him?" i hesitated. my aunt eyed me sharply, and put another question before i had quite made up my mind what to say. "if you can't tell me what is the matter with him, can you tell me where he is? i may want to write to him." i hesitated again. mr. engelman's address had been confidentially communicated to me, for reasons which i was bound to respect. "i am afraid i can't answer that question either," i said awkwardly enough. "good heavens!" cried my aunt, "what does all this mystery mean? has mr. engelman killed a man in a duel? or run away with an opera-dancer? or squandered the whole profits of the business at the gambling-table? or what? as she put these bold views of the case, we heard voices outside, followed by a gentle knock at the door. minna entered the room with a message. "mamma has sent me, mrs. wagner, to ask at what time you would like to dine." "my dear, i am much obliged to your mother. i have only just breakfasted, and i can wait quite well till supper-time comes. stop a minute! here is my nephew driving me to the utmost verge of human endurance, by making a mystery of mr. engelman's absence from frankfort. should i be very indiscreet if i asked--good gracious, how the girl blushes! you are evidently in the secret too, miss minna. _is_ it an opera-dancer? leave us together, david." this made minna's position simply unendurable. she looked at me appealingly. i did at last, what i ought to have done at first--i spoke out plainly. "the fact is, aunt," i said, "poor mr. engelman has left us for awhile, sadly mortified and distressed. he began by admiring madame fontaine; and he ended in making her an offer of marriage." "mamma was indeed truly sorry for him," minna added; "but she had no other alternative than to refuse him, of course." "upon my word, child, i see no 'of course' in the matter!" my aunt answered sharply. minna was shocked. "oh, mrs. wagner! mr. engelman is more than twenty years older than mamma--and (i am sure i pity him, poor man)--and _so_ fat!" "fat is a matter of taste," my aunt remarked, more and more resolute in taking mr. engelman's part. "and as for his being twenty years older than your mother, i can tell you, young lady, that my dear lost husband was twenty years my senior when he married me--and a happier couple never lived. i know more of the world than you do; and i say madame fontaine has made a great mistake. she has thrown away an excellent position in life, and has pained and humiliated one of the kindest-hearted men living. no! no! i am not going to argue the matter with you now; i'll wait till you are married to fritz. but i own i should like to speak to your mother about it. ask her to favor me by stepping this way for a few minutes, when she has nothing to do." minna seemed to think this rather a high-handed method of proceeding, and entered a modest protest accordingly. "mamma is a very sensitive person," she began with dignity. my aunt stopped her with a pat on the cheek. "good child! i like you for taking your mother's part. mamma has another merit, my dear. she is old enough to understand me better than you do. go and fetch her." minna left us, with her pretty little head carried high in the air. "mrs. wagner is a person entirely without sentiment!" she indignantly whispered to me in passing, when i opened the door for her. "i declare that girl is absolute perfection!" my aunt exclaimed with enthusiasm. "the one thing she wanted, as i thought, was spirit--and i find she has got it. ah! she will take fritz in hand, and make something of him. he is one of the many men who absolutely need being henpecked. i prophesy confidently--their marriage will be a happy one." "i don't doubt it, aunt. but tell me, what are you going to say to madame fontaine?" "it depends on circumstances. i must know first if mr. engelman has really set his heart on the woman with the snaky movements and the sleepy eyes. can you certify to that?" "positively. her refusal has completely crushed him." "very well. then i mean to make madame fontaine marry him--always supposing there is no other man in his way." "my dear aunt, how you talk! at madame fontaine's age! with a grown-up daughter!" "my dear nephew, you know absolutely nothing about women. counting by years, i grant you they grow old. counting by sensations, they remain young to the end of their days. take a word of advice from me. the evidence of their gray hair may look indisputable; the evidence of their grown-up children may look indisputable. don't believe it! there is but one period in the women's lives when you may feel quite certain that they have definitely given the men their dismissal--the period when they are put in their coffins. hush! what's that outside? when there is a noisy silk dress and a silent foot on the stairs, in this house, i know already what it means. be off with you!" she was quite right. madame fontaine entered, as i rose to leave the room. the widow showed none of her daughter's petulance. she was sweet and patient; she saluted mrs. wagner with a sad smile which seemed to say, "outrage my most sacred feelings, dear madam; they are entirely at your disposal." if i had believed that my aunt had the smallest chance of carrying her point, i should have felt far from easy about mr. engelman's prospects. as it was, i left the two ladies to their fruitless interview, and returned composedly to my work. chapter xxv when supper was announced, i went upstairs again to show my aunt the way to the room in which we took our meals. "well?" i said. "well," she answered coolly, "madame fontaine has promised to reconsider it." i confess i was staggered. by what possible motives could the widow have been animated? even mr. engelman's passive assistance was now of no further importance to her. she had gained mr. keller's confidence; her daughter's marriage was assured; her employment in the house offered her a liberal salary, a respectable position, and a comfortable home. why should she consent to reconsider the question of marrying a man, in whom she could not be said to feel any sort of true interest, in any possible acceptation of the words? i began to think that my aunt was right, and that i really did know absolutely nothing about women. at supper madame fontaine and her daughter were both unusually silent. open-hearted minna was not capable of concealing that her mother's concession had been made known to her in some way, and that the disclosure had disagreeably surprised her. however, there was no want of gaiety at the table--thanks to my aunt, and to her faithful attendant. jack straw followed us into the room, without waiting to be invited, and placed himself, to joseph's disgust, behind mrs. wagner's chair. "nobody waits on mistress at table," he explained, "but me. sometimes she gives me a bit or a drink over her shoulder. very little drink--just a sip, and no more. i quite approve of only a sip myself. oh, i know how to behave. none of your wine-merchant's fire in _my_ head; no bedlam breaking loose again. make your minds easy. there are no cooler brains among you than mine." at this, fritz burst into one of his explosions of laughter. jack appealed to fritz's father, with unruffled gravity. "your son, i believe, sir? ha! what a blessing it is there's plenty of room for improvement in that young man. i only throw out a remark. if i was afflicted with a son myself, i think i should prefer david." this specimen of jack's method of asserting himself, and other similar outbreaks which fritz and i mischievously encouraged, failed apparently to afford any amusement to madame fontaine. once she roused herself to ask mr. keller if his sister had written to him from munich. hearing that no reply had been received, she relapsed into silence. the old excuse of a nervous headache was repeated, when mr. keller and my aunt politely inquired if anything was amiss. when the letters were delivered the next morning, two among them were not connected with the customary business of the office. one (with the postmark of bingen) was for me. and one (with the postmark of wurzburg) was for madame fontaine. i sent it upstairs to her immediately. when i opened my own letter, i found sad news of poor mr. engelman. time and change had failed to improve his spirits. he complained of a feeling of fullness and oppression in his head, and of hissing noises in his ears, which were an almost constant annoyance to him. on two occasions he had been cupped, and had derived no more than a temporary benefit from the employment of that remedy. his doctor recommended strict attention to diet, and regular exercise. he submitted willingly to the severest rules at table--but there was no rousing him to exert himself in any way. for hours together, he would sit silent in one place, half sleeping, half waking; noticing no one, and caring for nothing but to get to his bed as soon as possible. this statement of the case seemed to me to suggest very grave considerations. i could no longer hesitate to inform mr. keller that i had received intelligence of his absent partner, and to place my letter in his hands. whatever little disagreements there had been between them were instantly forgotten. i had never before seen mr. keller so distressed and so little master of himself. "i must go to engelman directly," he said. i ventured to submit that there were two serious objections to his doing this: in the first place, his presence in the office was absolutely necessary. in the second place, his sudden appearance at bingen would prove to be a serious, perhaps a fatal, shock to his old friend. "what is to be done, then?" he exclaimed. "i think my aunt may be of some use, sir, in this emergency." "your aunt? how can she help us?" i informed him of my aunt's project; and i added that madame fontaine had not positively said no. he listened without conviction, frowning and shaking his head. "mrs. wagner is a very impetuous person," he said. "she doesn't understand a complex nature like madame fontaine's." "at least i may show my aunt the letter from bingen, sir?" "yes. it can do no harm, if it does no good." on my way to my aunt's room, i encountered minna on the stairs. she was crying. i naturally asked what was the matter. "don't stop me!" was the only answer i received. "but where are you going, minna?" "i am going to fritz, to be comforted." "has anybody behaved harshly to you?" "yes, mamma has behaved harshly to me. for the first time in my life," said the spoilt child, with a strong sense of injury, "she has locked the door of her room, and refused to let me in." "but why?" "how can i tell? i believe it has something to do with that horrid man i told you of. you sent a letter upstairs this morning. i met joseph on the landing, and took the letter to her myself. why shouldn't i look at the postmark? where was the harm in saying to her, 'a letter, mamma, from wurzburg'? she looked at me as if i had mortally offended her--and pointed to the door, and locked herself in. i have knocked twice, and asked her to forgive me. not a word of answer either time! i consider myself insulted. let me go to fritz." i made no attempt to detain her. she had set those every-ready suspicions of mine at work again. was the letter which i had sent upstairs a reply to the letter which minna had seen her mother writing? was the widow now informed that the senile old admirer who had advanced the money to pay her creditors had been found dead in his bed? and that her promissory note had passed into the possession of the heir-at-law? if this was the right reading of the riddle, no wonder she had sent her daughter out of the room--no wonder she had locked her door! my aunt wasted no time in expressions of grief and surprise, when she was informed of mr. engelman's state of health. "send the widow here directly," she said. "if there is anything like a true heart under that splendid silk dress of hers, i shall write and relieve poor engelman by to-night's post." to confide my private surmises, even to my aunt, would have been an act of inexcusable imprudence, to say the least of it. i could only reply that madame fontaine was not very well, and was (as i had heard from minna) shut up in the retirement of her own room. the resolute little woman got on her feet instantly. "show me where she is, david--and leave the rest to me." i led her to the door, and was dismissed with these words--"go and wait in my room till i come back to you." as i retired, i heard a smart knock, and my aunt's voice announcing herself outside--"mrs. wagner, ma'am, with something serious to say to you." the reply was inaudible. not so my aunt's rejoinder: "oh, very well! just read that letter, will you? i'll push it under the door, and wait for an answer." i lingered for a minute longer--and heard the door opened and closed again. in little more than half an hour, my aunt returned. she looked serious and thoughtful. i at once anticipated that she had failed. her first words informed me that i was wrong. "i've done it," she said. "i am to write to engelman to-night; and i have the widow's permission to tell him that she regrets her hasty decision. her own words, mind, when i asked her how i should put it!" "so there is a true heart under that splendid silk dress of hers?" i said. my aunt walked up and down the room, silent and frowning--discontented with me, or discontented with herself; it was impossible to tell which. on a sudden, she sat down by me, and hit me a smart slap on the shoulder. "david!" she said, "i have found out something about myself which i never suspected before. if you want to see a cold-blooded wretch, look at me!" it was so gravely said, and so perfectly absurd, that i burst out laughing. she was far too seriously perplexed about herself to take the smallest notice of my merriment. "do you know," she resumed, "that i actually hesitate to write to engelman? david! i ought to be whipped at the cart's tail. i don't believe in madame fontaine." she little knew how that abrupt confession interested me. "tell me why!" i said eagerly. "that's the disgraceful part of it," she answered. "i can't tell you why. madame fontaine spoke charmingly--with perfect taste and feeling. and all the time some devilish spirit of distrust kept whispering to me, "don't believe her; she has her motive!" are you sure, david, it is only a little illness that makes her shut herself up in her room, and look so frightfully pale and haggard? do you know anything about her affairs? engelman is rich; engelman has a position. has she got into some difficulty since she refused him? and could he, by the barest possibility, be of any use in helping her out of it?" i declare solemnly that the idea suggested by my aunt never occurred to me until she asked those questions. as a rejected suitor, mr. engelman could be of no possible use to the widow. but suppose he was her accepted husband? and suppose the note fell due before minna was married? in that case, mr. engelman might unquestionably be of use--he might lend the money. my aunt's sharp eyes were on me. "out with it, david!" she cried. "you don't believe in her, either--and you know why." "i know absolutely nothing," i rejoined; "i am guessing in the dark; and the event may prove that i am completely at fault. don't ask me to degrade madame fontaine's character in your estimation, without an atom of proof to justify what i say. i have something to propose which i think will meet the difficulty." with a strong exercise of self-restraint, my aunt resigned herself to listen. "let's hear your proposal," she said. "have you any scotch blood in your veins, david? you are wonderfully prudent and cautious for so young a man." i went straight on with what i had to say. "send the widow's message to mr. engelman, by all means," i proceeded; "but not by post. i was with him immediately after his offer of marriage had been refused; and it is my belief that he is far too deeply wounded by the manner in which madame fontaine expressed herself when she rejected him, to be either able, or willing, to renew his proposal. i even doubt if he will believe in her expression of regret. this view of mine may turn out, of course, to be quite wrong; but let us at least put it to the test. i can easily get leave of absence for a few days. let me take your letter to bingen tomorrow, and see with my own eyes how it is received." at last i was fortunate enough to deserve my aunt's approval. "an excellent suggestion," she said. "but--i believe i have caught the infection of your prudence, david--don't let us tell madame fontaine. let her suppose that you have gone to bingen in consequence of the unfavorable news of engelman's health." she paused, and considered a little. "or, better still, bingen is on the way to england. there will be nothing extraordinary in your stopping to visit engelman, on your journey to london." this took me completely, and far from agreeably, by surprise. i said piteously, "must i really leave frankfort?" "my good fellow, i have other interests to consider besides engelman's interests," my aunt explained. "mr. hartrey is waiting to hear from me. there is no hope that engelman will be able to travel to london, in his present state of health, and no possibility of mr. keller taking his place until something is settled at frankfort. i want you to explain all this to mr. hartrey, and to help him in the management of the business. there is nobody else here, david, whom i can trust, as i trust you. i see no alternative but to ask you to go to london." on my side, i had no alternative but to submit--and, what is more (remembering all that i owed to my aunt), to submit with my best grace. we consulted mr. keller; and he entirely agreed that i was the fittest person who could be found to reconcile mr. hartrey to the commercial responsibilities that burdened him. after a day's delay at bingen, to study the condition of mr. engelman's health and to write the fullest report to frankfort, the faster i could travel afterwards, and the sooner i could reach london, the better. so hard necessity compelled me to leave the stage, before the curtain rose on the final acts of the drama. the mail-post started at six in the morning. i packed up, and took leave of everybody, overnight--excepting madame fontaine, who still kept her room, and who was not well enough to see me. the dear kind-hearted minna offered me her cheek to kiss, and made me promise to return for her marriage. she was strangely depressed at my departure. "you first consoled me," she said; "you have brought me happiness. i don't like your leaving us. oh, david, i do wish you were not going away!" "come! come!" my aunt interposed; "no crying, young lady! always keep a man's spirits up when he leaves you. give me a good hug, david--and think of the time when you will be a partner in the business." ah! what a woman she was! look as you may, my young friends, you will not find the like of her now. jack straw was the one person up and stirring when the coach stopped the next morning at the door. i expected to be amused--but there was no reckoning with jack. his farewell words literally frightened me. "i say!" he whispered, as i hurried into the hall, "there's one thing i want to ask you before you go." "be quick about it, jack." "all right, david. i had a talk with minna yesterday, about mr. keller's illness. is it true that he was cured out of the blue-glass bottle?" "perfectly true. "look here, david! i have been thinking of it all night. _i_ was cured out of the blue-glass bottle." i suddenly stood still, with my eyes riveted on his face. he stepped close up to me, and lowered his voice suddenly. "and _i_ was poisoned," he said. "what i want to know is--who poisoned mr. keller?" between the parts mr. david glenney produces his correspondence, and throws some new lights on the story i be pleased to read the following letter from mr. lawyer's-clerk-schmuckle to mr. town-councilor-hof: "my honored sir,--i beg to report that you may make your mind easy on the subject of madame fontaine. if she leaves frankfort, she will not slip away privately as she did at wurzburg. wherever she may go now, we need not apply again to her relations in this place to help us to find her. henceforth i undertake to keep her in view until the promissory note falls due. "the lady is at present established as housekeeper in the employment of the firm of wagner, keller, and engelman; and there (barring accidents, which i shall carefully look after) she is likely to remain. "i have made a memorandum of the date at which her promissory note falls due--viz., the 31st december in the present year. the note being made payable at wurzburg, you must take care (in the event of its not being honored) to have the document protested in that town, and to communicate with me by the same day's post. i will myself see that the law takes its regular course. "permit me most gratefully to thank you for the advance on my regular fees which you have so graciously transmitted, and believe me your obedient humble servant to command." ii i next submit a copy of a letter addressed by the late chemistry-professor fontaine to an honored friend and colleague. this gentleman is still living; and he makes it a condition of supplying the copy that his name shall not appear:-"illustrious friend and colleague,--you will be surprised at so soon hearing from me again. the truth is, that i have some interesting news for you. an alarming accident has enabled me to test the value of one of my preparations on a living human subject--that subject being a man. "my last letter informed you that i had resolved on making no further use of the formula for recomposing some of the borgia poisons (erroneously supposed to be destroyed) left to me on the death of my lamented hungarian friend--my master in chemical science. "the motives which have led me to this decision are, i hope, beyond the reach of blame. "you will remember agreeing with me, that the two specimens of these resuscitated poisons which i have succeeded in producing are capable--like the poisons already known to modern medical practice--of rendering the utmost benefit in certain cases of disease, if they are administered in carefully regulated doses. should i live to devote them to this good purpose, there will still be the danger (common to all poisonous preparations employed in medicine) of their doing fatal mischief, when misused by ignorance or crime. "bearing this in mind, i conceive it to be my duty to provide against dangerous results, by devoting myself to the discovery of efficient antidotes, before i adapt the preparations themselves to the capacities of the healing art. i have had some previous experience in this branch of what i call preservative chemistry, and i have already in some degree succeeded in attaining my object. "the formula in cipher which i now send to you, on the slip of paper enclosed, is an antidote to that one of the two poisons known to you and to me by the fanciful name which you suggested for it--'alexander's wine.' "with regard to the second of the poisons, which (if you remember) i have entitled--in anticipation of its employment as medicine--'the looking-glass drops,' i regret to say that i have not yet succeeded in discovering the antidote in this case. "having now sufficiently explained my present position, i may tell you of the extraordinary accident to which i have alluded at the beginning of my letter. "about a fortnight since, i was sent for, just as i had finished my lecture to the students, to see one of my servants. he had been suffering from illness for one or two days. i had of course offered him my medical services. he refused, however, to trouble me; sending word that he only wanted rest. fortunately one of my assistants happened to see him, and at once felt the necessity of calling in my help. "the man was a poor half-witted friendless creature, whom i had employed out of pure pity to keep my laboratory clean, and to wash and dry my bottles. he had sense enough to perform such small services as these, and no more. judge of my horror when i went to his bedside, and instantly recognized the symptoms of poisoning by "alexander's wine!" "i ran back to my laboratory, and unlocked the medicine-chest which held the antidote. in the next compartment, the poison itself was always placed. looking into the compartment now, i found it empty. "i at once instituted a search, and discovered the bottle left out on a shelf. for the first time in my life, i had been guilty of inexcusable carelessness. i had not looked round me to see that i had left everything safe before quitting the room. the poor imbecile wretch had been attracted by the color of "alexander's wine," and had tasted it (in his own phrase) "to see if it was nice." my inquiries informed me that this had happened at least thirty-six hours since! i had but one hope of saving him--derived from experiments on animals, which had shown me the very gradual progress of the deadly action of the poison. "what i felt when i returned to the suffering man, i shall not attempt to describe. you will understand how completely i was overwhelmed, when i tell you that i meanly concealed my own disgraceful thoughtlessness from my brethren in the university. i was afraid that my experiments might be prohibited as dangerous, and my want of common prudence be made the subject of public reprimand by the authorities. the medical professors were permitted by me to conclude that it was a case of illness entirely new in their experience. "in administering the antidote, i had no previous experiments to guide me, except my experiments with rabbits and dogs. whether i miscalculated or whether i was deluded by my anxiety to save the man's life, i cannot say. this at least is certain, i gave the doses too copiously and at too short intervals. "the patient recovered--but it was after sustaining some incomprehensibly deteriorating change in the blood, which destroyed his complexion, and turned his hair gray. i have since modified the doses; and in dread of losing the memorandum, i have attached a piece of notched paper to the bottle, so as to render any future error of judgment impossible. at the same time, i have facilitated the future administration of the antidote by adding a label to the bottle, stating the exact quantity of the poison taken by my servant, as calculated by myself. "i ought, by the way, to have mentioned in the cipher that experience has shown me the necessity, if the antidote is to be preserved for any length of time, of protecting it in blue glass from the influence of light. "let me also tell you that i found a vegetable diet of use in perfecting the effect of the treatment. that mean dread of discovery, which i have already acknowledged, induced me to avail myself of my wife's help in nursing the man. when he began to talk of what had happened to him, i could trust madame fontaine to keep the secret. when he was well enough to get up, the poor harmless creature disappeared. he was probably terrified at the prospect of entering the laboratory again. in any case, i have never seen him or heard of him since. "if you have had patience to read as far as this, you will understand that i am not sure enough yet of my own discoveries to risk communicating them to any other person than yourself. favor me with any chemical suggestions which may strike you--and then, in case of accidents, destroy the cipher. for the present farewell." _note to doctor fontaine's letter_ "alexander's wine" refers to the infamous roderic borgia, historically celebrated as pope alexander the sixth. he was accidentally, and most deservedly, killed by drinking one of the borgia poisons, in a bowl of wine which he had prepared for another person. the formula for "the looking-glass drops" is supposed to have been found hidden on removing the wooden lining at the back of a looking-glass, which had been used by lucrezia borgia. hence the name. iii the third and last letter which i present is written by me, and was addressed to mrs. wagner during her stay at frankfort:-"i exaggerate nothing, my dear aunt, when i say that i write in great distress. let me beg you to prepare yourself for very sad news. "it was late yesterday evening before i arrived at bingen. a servant was waiting to take my portmanteau, when i got out of the coach. after first asking my name, he communicated to me the melancholy tidings of dear mr. engelman's death. he had sunk under a fit of apoplexy, at an early hour that morning. "medical help was close at hand, and was (so far as i can hear) carefully and intelligently exercised. but he never rallied in the least. the fit appears to have killed him, as a bullet might have killed him. "he had been very dull and heavy on the previous day. in the few words that he spoke before retiring to rest, my name was on his lips. he said, "if i get better i should like to have david here, and to go on with him to our house of business in london." he was very much flushed, and complained of feeling giddy; but he would not allow the doctor to be sent for. his brother assisted him to ascend the stairs to his room, and asked him some questions about his affairs. he replied impatiently, 'keller knows all about it--leave it to keller.' "when i think of the good old man's benevolent and happy life, and when i remember that it was accidentally through me that he first met madame fontaine, i feel a bitterness of spirit which makes my sense of the loss of him more painful than i can describe. i call to mind a hundred little instances of his kindness to me--and (don't be offended) i wish you had sent some other person than myself to represent you at frankfort. "he is to be buried here, in two days' time. i hope you will not consider me negligent of your interest in accepting his brother's invitation to follow him to the grave. i think it will put me in a better frame of mind, if i can pay the last tribute of affection and respect to my old friend. when all is over, i will continue the journey to london, without stopping on the road night or day. "write to me at london, dear aunt; and give my love to minna and fritz--and ask them to write to me also. i beg my best respects to mr. keller. please assure him of my true sympathy; i know, poor man, how deeply he will be grieved." part ii mr. david glenney collects his materials and continues the story historically chapter i in the preceding portion of this narrative i spoke as an eye-witness. in the present part of it, my absence from frankfort leaves me dependent on the documentary evidence of other persons. this evidence consists (first) of letters addressed to myself; (secondly) of statements personally made to me; (thirdly) of extracts from a diary discovered after the lifetime of the writer. in all three cases the materials thus placed at my disposal bear proof of truthfulness on the face of them. early in the month of december, mr. keller sent a message to madame fontaine, requesting to see her on a matter of importance to both of them. "i hope you feel better to-day, madam," he said, rising to receive the widow when she entered the room. "you are very good, sir," she answered, in tones barely audible--with her eyes on the ground. "i can't say that i feel much better." "i have news for you, which ought to act as the best of all restoratives," mr. keller proceeded. "at last i have heard from my sister on the subject of the marriage." he stopped, and, suddenly stepping forward, caught the widow by the arm. at his last words she had started to her feet. her face suddenly turned from pale to red--and then changed again to a ghastly whiteness. she would have fallen if mr. keller had not held her up. he placed her at once in his own easy chair. "you must really have medical advice," he said gravely; "your nerves are seriously out of order. can i get you anything?" "a glass of water, sir, if you will be so kind as to ring for it." "there is no need to ring for it; i have water in the next room." she laid her hand on his arm, and stopped him as he was about to leave her. "one word first, sir. you will forgive a woman's curiosity on such an interesting subject as the marriage of her child. does your sister propose a day for the wedding?" "my sister suggests," mr. keller answered, "the thirtieth of this month." he left her and opened the door of the next room. as he disappeared, she rapidly followed out a series of calculations on her fingers. her eyes brightened, her energies rallied. "no matter what happens so long as my girl is married first," she whispered to herself. "the wedding on the thirtieth, and the money due on the thirty-first. saved by a day! saved by a day!" mr. keller returned with a glass of water. he started as he looked at her. "you seem to have recovered already--you look quite a different woman!" he exclaimed. she drank the water nevertheless. "my unlucky nerves play me strange tricks, sir," she answered, as she set the empty glass down on a table at her side. mr. keller took a chair and referred to his letter from munich. "my sister hopes to be with us some days before the end of the year," he resumed. "but in her uncertain state of health, she suggests the thirtieth so as to leave a margin in case of unexpected delays. i presume this will afford plenty of time (i speak ignorantly of such things) for providing the bride's outfit?" madame fontaine smiled sadly. "far more time than we want, sir. my poor little purse will leave my girl to rely on her natural attractions--with small help from the jeweler and the milliner, on her wedding day." mr. keller referred to his letter again, and looked up from it with a grim smile. "my sister will in one respect at least anticipate the assistance of the jeweler," he said. "she proposes to bring with her, as a present to the bride, an heirloom on the female side of our family. it is a pearl necklace (of very great value, i am told) presented to my mother by the empress maria theresa--in recognition of services rendered to that illustrious person early in life. as an expression of my sister's interest in the marriage, i thought an announcement of the proposed gift might prove gratifying to you." madame fontaine clasped her hands, with a fervor of feeling which was in this case, at least, perfectly sincere. a pearl necklace, the gift of an empress, would represent in money value a little fortune in itself. "i can find no words to express my sense of gratitude," she said; "my daughter must speak for herself and for me." "and your daughter must hear the good news as soon as possible," mr. keller added kindly. "i won't detain you. i know you must be anxious to see minna. one word before you go. you will, of course, invite any relatives and friends whom you would like to see at the wedding." madame fontaine lifted her sleepy eyes by slow gradations to the ceiling, and devoutly resigned herself to mention her family circumstances. "my parents cast me off, sir, when i married," she said; "my other relatives here and in brussels refused to assist me when i stood in need of help. as for friends--you, dear mr. keller, are our only friend. thank you again and again." she lowered her eyes softly to the floor, and glided out of the room. the back view of her figure was its best view. even mr. keller--constitutionally inaccessible to exhibitions of female grace--followed her with his eyes, and perceived that his housekeeper was beautifully made. on the stairs she met with the housemaid. "where is miss minna?" she asked impatiently. "in her room?" "in your room, madam. i saw miss minna go in as i passed the door." madame fontaine hurried up the next flight of stairs, and ran along the corridor as lightly as a young girl. the door of her room was ajar; she saw her daughter through the opening sitting on the sofa, with some work lying idle on her lap. minna started up when her mother appeared. "am i in the way, mamma? i am so stupid, i can't get on with this embroidery----" madame fontaine tossed the embroidery to the other end of the room, threw her arms round minna, and lifted her joyously from the floor as if she had been a little child. "the day is fixed, my angel!" she cried; "you are to be married on the thirtieth!" she shifted one hand to her daughter's head, and clasped it with a fierce fondness to her bosom. "oh, my darling, you had lovely hair even when you were a baby! we won't have it dressed at your wedding. it shall flow down naturally in all its beauty--and no hand shall brush it but mine." she pressed her lips on minna's head, and devoured it with kisses; then, driven by some irresistible impulse, pushed the girl away from her, and threw herself on the sofa with a cry of pain. "why did you start up, as if you were afraid of me, when i came in?" she said wildly. "why did you ask if you were in the way? oh, minna! minna! can't you forget the day when i locked you out of my room? my child! i was beside myself--i was mad with my troubles. do you think i would behave harshly to you? oh, my own love! when i came to tell you of your marriage, why did you ask me if you were in the way? my god! am i never to know a moment's pleasure again without something to embitter it? people say you take after your father, minna. are you as cold-blooded as he was? there! there! i don't mean it; i am a little hysterical, i think--don't notice me. come and be a child again. sit on my knee, and let us talk of your marriage." minna put her arm round her mother's neck a little nervously. "dear, sweet mamma, how can you think me so hard-hearted and so ungrateful? i can't tell you how i love you! let this tell you." with a tender and charming grace, she kissed her mother--then drew back a little and looked at madame fontaine. the subsiding conflict of emotions still showed itself with a fiery brightness in the widow's eyes. "do you know what i am thinking?" minna asked, a little timidly. "what is it, my dear?" "i think you are almost too fond of me, mamma. i shouldn't like to be the person who stood between me and my marriage--if _you_ knew of it." madame fontaine smiled. "you foolish child, do you take me for a tigress?" she said playfully. "i must have another kiss to reconcile me to my new character." she bent her head to meet the caress--looked by chance at a cupboard fixed in a recess in the opposite wall of the room--and suddenly checked herself. "this is too selfish of me," she said, rising abruptly. "all this time i am forgetting the bridegroom. his father will leave him to hear the good news from you. do you think i don't know what you are longing to do?" she led minna hurriedly to the door. "go, my dear one--go and tell fritz!" the instant her daughter disappeared, she rushed across the room to the cupboard. her eyes had not deceived her. the key _was_ left in the lock. chapter ii madame fontaine dropped into a chair, overwhelmed by the discovery. she looked at the key left in the cupboard. it was of an old-fashioned pattern--but evidently also of the best workmanship of the time. on its flat handle it bore engraved the words, "pink-room cupboard"--so called from the color of the curtains and hangings in the bedchamber. "is my brain softening?" she said to herself. "what a horrible mistake! what a frightful risk to have run!" she got on her feet again, and opened the cupboard. the two lower shelves were occupied by her linen, neatly folded and laid out. on the higher shelf, nearly on a level with her eyes, stood a plain wooden box about two feet in height by one foot in breadth. she examined the position of this box with breathless interest and care--then gently lifted it in both hands and placed it on the floor. on a table near the window lay a half-finished watercolor drawing, with a magnifying glass by the side of it. providing herself with the glass, she returned to the cupboard, and closely investigated the place on which the box had stood. the slight layer of dust--so slight as to be imperceptible to the unassisted eye--which had surrounded the four sides of the box, presented its four delicate edges in perfectly undisturbed straightness of line. this mute evidence conclusively proved that the box had not been moved during her quarter of an hour's absence in mr. keller's room. she put it back again, and heaved a deep breath of relief. but it was a bad sign (she thought) that her sense of caution had been completely suspended, in the eagerness of her curiosity to know if mr. keller's message of invitation referred to the wedding day. "i lose my best treasure," she said to herself sadly, "if i am beginning to lose my steadiness of mind. if this should happen again----" she left the expression of the idea uncompleted; locked the door of the room; and returned to the place on which she had left the box. seating herself, she rested the box on her knee and opened it. certain tell-tale indentations, visible where the cover fitted into the lock, showed that it had once been forced open. the lock had been hampered on some former occasion; and the key remained so fast fixed in it that it could neither be turned nor drawn out. in her newly-aroused distrust of her own prudence, she was now considering the serious question of emptying the box, and sending it to be fitted with a lock and key. "have i anything by me," she thought to herself, "in which i can keep the bottles?" she emptied the box, and placed round her on the floor those terrible six bottles which had been the special subjects of her husband's precautionary instructions on his death-bed. some of them were smaller than others, and were manufactured in glass of different colors--the six compartments in the medicine-chest being carefully graduated in size, so as to hold them all steadily. the labels on three of the bottles were unintelligible to madame fontaine; the inscriptions were written in barbarously abridged latin characters. the bottle which was the fourth in order, as she took them out one by one, was wrapped in a sheet of thick cartridge-paper, covered on its inner side with characters written in mysterious cipher. but the label pasted on the bottle contained an inscription in good readable german, thus translated: "the looking-glass drops. fatal dose, as discovered by experiment on animals, the same as in the case of 'alexander's wine.' but the effect, in producing death, more rapid, and more indistinguishable, in respect of presenting traces on post-mortem examination." the lines thus written were partially erased by strokes of the pen--drawn through them at a later date, judging by the color of the ink. in the last blank space left at the foot of the label, these words were added--also in ink of a fresher color: "after many patient trials, i can discover no trustworthy antidote to this infernal poison. under these circumstances, i dare not attempt to modify it for medical use. i would throw it away--but i don't like to be beaten. if i live a little longer i will try once more, with my mind refreshed by other studies." madame fontaine paused before she wrapped the bottle up again in its covering, and looked with longing eyes at the ciphers which filled the inner side of the sheet of paper. there, perhaps, was the announcement of the discovery of the antidote; or possibly, the record of some more recent experiment which placed the terrible power of the poison in a new light! and there also was the cipher defying her to discover its secret! the fifth bottle that she took from the chest contained "alexander's wine." the sixth, and last, was of the well-remembered blue glass, which had played such an important part in the event of mr. keller's recovery. david glenney had rightly conjectured that the label had been removed from the blue-glass bottle. madame fontaine shook it out of the empty compartment. the inscription (also in the german language) ran as follows:-"antidote to alexander's wine. the fatal dose, in case of accident, is indicated by the notched slip of paper attached to the bottle. two fluid drachms of the poison (more than enough to produce death) were accidentally taken in my experience. so gradual is the deadly effect that, after a delay of thirty-six hours before my attention was called to the case, the administration of the antidote proved successful. the doses are to be repeated every three or four hours. any person watching the patient may know that the recovery is certain, and that the doses are therefore to be discontinued, by these signs: the cessation of the trembling in the hands; the appearance of natural perspiration; and the transition from the stillness of apathy to the repose of sleep. for at least a week or ten days afterwards a vegetable diet, with cream, is necessary as a means of completing the cure." she laid the label aside, and looked at the two bottles--the poison and the antidote--ranged together at her feet. "power!" she thought, with a superb smile of triumph. "the power that i have dreamed of all my life is mine at last! alone among mortal creatures, i have life and death for my servants. you were deaf, mr. keller, to my reasons, and deaf to my entreaties. what wonderful influence brought you to my feet, and made you the eager benefactor of my child? my servant death, who threatened you in the night; and my servant life, who raised you up in the morning. what a position! i stand here, a dweller in a populous city--and every creature in it, from highest to lowest, is a creature in my power!" she looked through the window of her room over the houses of frankfort. at last her sleepy eyes opened wide; an infernal beauty irradiated her face. for one moment, she stood--a demon in human form. the next, she suddenly changed into a timid woman, shaken in every limb by the cold grasp of fear. what influence had wrought the transformation? nothing but a knock at the door. "who's there?" she cried. the voice that answered her was the voice of jack straw. "hullo, there, mrs. fontaine! let me in." she placed a strong constraint on herself; she spoke in friendly tones. "what do you want, jack?" "i want to show you my keys." "what do i care about the crazy wretch's keys?"--was the thought that passed through madame fontaine's mind, when jack answered her from the outer side of the door. but she was still careful, when she spoke to him, to disguise her voice in its friendliest tones. "excuse me for keeping you waiting, jack. i can't let you in yet." "why not?" "because i am dressing. come back in half an hour; and i shall be glad to see you." there was no reply to this. jack's step was so light that it was impossible to hear, through the door, whether he had gone away or not. after waiting a minute, the widow ventured on peeping out. jack had taken himself off. not a sign of him was to be seen, when she bent over the railing of the corridor, and looked down on the stairs. she locked herself in again. "i hope i haven't offended him!" she thought, as she returned to the empty medicine-chest. the fear that jack might talk of what had happened to him in the laboratory at wurzburg, and that he might allude to his illness in terms which could not fail to recall the symptoms of mr. keller's illness, was constantly present to her mind. she decided on agreeably surprising him by a little present, which might help her to win his confidence and to acquire some influence over him. as a madman lately released from bedlam, it might perhaps not greatly matter what he said. but suspicion was easily excited. though david glenney had been sent out of the way, his aunt remained at frankfort; and an insolent readiness in distrusting german ladies seemed to run in the family. having arrived at these conclusions, she gave her mind again to the still unsettled question of the new lock to the medicine-chest. measuring the longest of the bottles (the bottle containing the antidote), she found that her dressing case was not high enough to hold it, while the chest was in the locksmith's workshop. her trunks, on the other hand, were only protected by very ordinary locks, and were too large to be removed to the safe keeping of the cupboard. she must either leave the six bottles loose on the shelf or abandon the extra security of the new lock. the one risk of taking the first of these two courses, was the risk of leaving the key again in the cupboard. was this likely to occur, after the fright she had already suffered? the question was not really worth answering. she had already placed two of the bottles on the shelf--when a fatal objection to trusting the empty box out of her own possession suddenly crossed her mind. her husband's colleagues at wurzburg and some of the elder students, were all acquainted (externally, at least) with the appearance of the professor's ugly old medicine-chest. it could be easily identified by the initials of his name, inscribed in deeply-burnt letters on the lid. suppose one of these men happened to be in frankfort? and suppose he saw the stolen chest in the locksmith's shop? two such coincidences were in the last degree improbable--but it was enough that they were possible. who but a fool, in her critical position, would run the risk of even one chance in a hundred turning against her? instead of trusting the chest in a stranger's hands, the wiser course would be to burn it at the first safe opportunity, and be content with the security of the cupboard, while she remained in mr. keller's house. arriving at this conclusion, she put the chest and its contents back again on the shelf--with the one exception of the label detached from the blue-glass bottle. in the preternatural distrust that now possessed her, this label assumed the character of a dangerous witness, if, through some unlucky accident, it happened to fall into the hands of any person in the house. she picked it up--advanced to the fireplace to destroy it--paused--and looked at it again. nearly two doses of the antidote were still left. who could say, looking at the future of such a life as hers, that she might not have some need of it yet--after it had already served her so well? could she be sure, if she destroyed it, of remembering the instructions which specified the intervals at which the doses were to be given, the signs which signified recovery, and the length of time during which the vegetable diet was to be administered? she read the first sentences again carefully. "antidote to alexander's wine. the fatal dose, in case of accident, is indicated by the notched slip of paper attached to the bottle. two fluid drachms of the poison (more than enough to produce death) were accidentally taken in my experience. so gradual is the deadly effect that, after a delay of thirty-six hours before my attention was called to the case, the administration of the antidote proved successful. the doses are to be repeated----" the remaining instructions, beginning with this last sentence, were not of a nature to excite suspicion. taken by themselves, they might refer to nothing more remarkable than a remedy in certain cases of illness. first she thought of cutting off the upper part of the label: but the lines of the writing were so close together, that they would infallibly betray the act of mutilation. she opened her dressing-case and took from it a common-looking little paper-box, purchased at the chemist's, bearing the ambitious printed title of "macula exstinctor, or destroyer of stains"--being an ordinary preparation, in powder, for removing stains from dresses, ink-stains included. the printed directions stated that the powder, partially dissolved in water, might also be used to erase written characters without in any way injuring the paper, otherwise than by leaving a slight shine on the surface. by these means, madame fontaine removed the first four sentences on the label, and left the writing on it to begin harmlessly with the instructions for repeating the doses. "now i can trust you to refresh my memory without telling tales," she said to herself, when she put the label back in the chest. as for the recorded dose of the poison, she was not likely to forget that. it was her medicine-measuring glass, filled up to the mark of two drachms. having locked the cupboard, and secured the key in her pocket, she was ready for the reception of jack. her watch told her that the half-hour's interval had more than expired. she opened the door of her room. there was no sign of him outside. she looked over the stairs, and called to him softly. there was no reply; the little man's sensitive dignity had evidently taken offense. the one thing to be done (remembering all that she had to dread from the wanton exercise of jack's tongue) was to soothe his ruffled vanity without further delay. there would be no difficulty in discovering him, if he had not gone out. wherever his mistress might be at the moment, there he was sure to be found. trying mrs. wagner's room first, without success, the widow descended to the ground floor and made her way to the offices. in the private room, formerly occupied by mr. engelman, david glenney's aunt was working at her desk; and jack straw was perched on the old-fashioned window-seat, putting the finishing touches to minna's new straw hat. chapter iii in the gloom thrown over the household by mr. engelman's death, mrs. wagner, with characteristic energy and good sense, had kept her mind closely occupied. during the office hours, she studied those details of the business at frankfort which differed from the details of the business in london; and soon mastered them sufficiently to be able to fill the vacancy which mr. engelman had left. the position that he had held became, with all its privileges and responsibilities, mrs. wagner's position--claimed, not in virtue of her rank as directress of the london house, but in recognition of the knowledge that she had specially acquired to fit her for the post. out of office-hours, she corresponded with the english writer on the treatment of insane persons, whose work she had discovered in her late husband's library, and assisted him in attracting public attention to the humane system which he advocated. even the plan for the employment of respectable girls, in suitable departments of the office, was not left neglected by this indefatigable woman. the same friendly consideration which had induced her to spare mr. keller any allusion to the subject, while his health was not yet completely restored, still kept her silent until time had reconciled him to the calamity of his partner's death. privately, however, she had caused inquiries to be made in frankfort, which would assist her in choosing worthy candidates for employment, when the favorable time came--probably after the celebration of fritz's marriage--for acting in the interests of the proposed reform. "pray send me away, if i interrupt you," said madame fontaine, pausing modestly on the threshold before she entered the room. she spoke english admirably, and made a point of ignoring mrs. wagner's equally perfect knowledge of german, by addressing her always in the english language. "come in by all means," mrs. wagner answered. "i am only writing to david glenney, to tell him (at minna's request) that the wedding-day is fixed." "give your nephew my kind regards, mrs. wagner. he will be one of the party at the wedding, of course?" "yes--if he can be spared from his duties in london. is there anything i can do for you, madame fontaine?" "nothing, thank you--except to excuse my intrusion. i am afraid i have offended our little friend there, with the pretty straw hat in his hand, and i want to make my peace with him." jack looked up from his work with an air of lofty disdain. "oh, dear me, it doesn't matter," he said, in his most magnificent manner. "i was dressing when he knocked at my door," pursued madame fontaine; "and i asked him to come back, and show me his keys in half an hour. why didn't you return, jack? won't you show me the keys now?" "you see it's a matter of business," jack replied as loftily as ever. "i am in the business--keeper of the keys. mistress is in the business; mr. keller is in the business. you are not in the business. it doesn't matter. upon my soul, it doesn't matter." mrs. wagner held up her forefinger reprovingly. "jack! don't forget you are speaking to a lady." jack audaciously put his hand to his head, as if this was an effort of memory which was a little too much to expect of him. "anything to please you, mistress," he said. "i'll show her the bag." he exhibited to madame fontaine a leather bag, with a strap fastened round it. "the keys are inside," he explained. "i wore them loose this morning: and they made a fine jingle. quite musical to _my_ ear. but mistress thought the noise likely to be a nuisance in the long run. so i strapped them up in a bag to keep them quiet. and when i move about, the bag hangs from my shoulder, like this, by another strap. when the keys are wanted, i open the bag. you don't want them--you're not in the business. besides, i'm thinking of going out, and showing myself and my bag in the fashionable quarter of the town. on such an occasion, i think i ought to present the appearance of a gentleman--i ought to wear gloves. oh, it doesn't matter! i needn't detain you any longer. good morning." he made one of his fantastic bows, and waved his hand, dismissing madame fontaine from further attendance on him. secretly, he was as eager as ever to show the keys. but the inordinate vanity which was still the mad side of him and the incurable side of him, shrank from opening the leather bag unless the widow first made a special request and a special favor of it. feeling no sort of interest in the subject, she took the shorter way of making her peace with him. she took out her purse. "let me make you a present of the gloves," she said, with her irresistible smile. jack lost all his dignity in an instant. he leapt off the window seat and snatched at the money, like a famished animal snatching at a piece of meat. mrs. wagner caught him by the arm, and looked at him. he lifted his eyes to hers, then lowered them again as if he was ashamed of himself. "oh, to be sure!" he said, "i have forgotten my manners, i haven't said thank you. a lapse of memory, i suppose. thank you, mrs. housekeeper." in a moment more, he and his bag were on their way to the fashionable quarter of the town. "you will make allowances for my poor little jack, i am sure," said mrs. wagner. "my dear madam, jack amuses me!" mrs. wagner winced a little at the tone of the widow's reply. "i have cured him of all the worst results of his cruel imprisonment in the mad-house," she went on. "but his harmless vanity seems to be inbred; i can do nothing with him on that side of his character. he is proud of being trusted with anything, especially with keys; and he has been kept waiting for them, while i had far more important matters to occupy me. in a day or two he will be more accustomed to his great responsibility, as he calls it." "of course you don't trust him," said madame fontaine, "with keys that are of any importance; like the key of your desk there, for instance." mrs. wagner's steady gray eyes began to brighten. "i can trust him with anything," she answered emphatically. madame fontaine arched her handsome brows in a mutely polite expression of extreme surprise. "in my experience of the world," mrs. wagner went on, "i have found that the rarest of all human virtues is the virtue of gratitude. in a hundred little ways my poor friendless jack has shown me that he is grateful. to my mind that is reason enough for trusting him." "with money?" the widow inquired. "certainly. in london i trusted him with money--with the happiest results. i quieted his mind by an appeal to his sense of trust and self-respect, which he thoroughly appreciated. as yet i have not given him the key of my desk here, because i reserve it as a special reward for good conduct. in a few days more i have no doubt he will add it to the collection in his bag." "ah," said madame fontaine, with the humility which no living woman knew better when and how to assume, "you understand these difficult questions--you have your grand national common-sense. i am only a poor limited german woman. but, as you say in england, 'live and learn.' you have indescribably interested me. good morning." she left the room. "hateful woman!" she said in her own language, on the outer side of the door. "humbug!" said mrs. wagner in her language, on the inner side of the door. if there had been more sympathy between the two ladies, or if madame fontaine had felt a little curiosity on the subject of crazy jack's keys, she might have taken away with her some valuable materials for future consideration. as it was, mrs. wagner had not troubled her with any detailed narrative of the manner in which she had contrived to fill jack's leather bag. in london, she had begun cautiously by only giving him some of the useless old keys which accumulate about a house in course of years. when the novelty of merely keeping them had worn off, and when he wanted to see them put to some positive use, she had added one or two keys of her own, and had flattered his pride by asking him to open the box or the desk for her, as the case might be. proceeding on the same wisely gradual plan at frankfort, she had asked mr. keller to help her, and had been taken by him (while jack was out of the way) to a lumber-room in the basement of the house, on the floor of which several old keys were lying about. "take as many as you like," he had said; "they have been here, for all i know, ever since the house was repaired and refurnished in my grandfather's time, and they might be sold for old iron, if there were only enough of them." mrs. wagner had picked up the first six keys that presented themselves, and had made jack straw the happiest of men. he found no fault with them for being rusty. on the contrary, he looked forward with delight to the enjoyment of cleaning away the rust. "they shall be as bright as diamonds," he had said to his mistress, "before i have done with them." and what did madame fontaine lose, by failing to inform herself of such trifles as these? she never discovered what she had lost. but she had not done with jack straw yet. chapter iv after leaving mrs. wagner, the widow considered with herself, and then turned away from the commercial regions of the house, in search of her daughter. she opened the dining-room door, and found the bagatelle-board on the table. fritz and minna were playing a game of the desultory sort--with the inevitable interruptions appropriate to courtship. "are you coming to join us, mamma? fritz is playing very badly." "this sort of thing requires mathematical calculation," fritz remarked; "and minna distracts my attention." madame fontaine listened with a smile of maternal indulgence. "i am on my way back to my room," she said. "if either of you happen to see jack straw----" "he has gone out," fritz interposed. "i saw him through the window. he started at a run--and then remembered his dignity, and slackened his pace to a walk. how will he come back, i wonder?" "he will come back with greater dignity than ever, fritz. i have given him the money to buy himself a pair of gloves. if you or minna happen to meet with him before i do, tell him he may come upstairs and show me his new gloves. i like to indulge the poor imbecile creature. you mustn't laugh at him--he is to be pitied." expressing these humane sentiments, she left the lovers to their game. while jack was still pleasurably excited by the new gift, he would be in the right frame of mind to feel her influence. now or never (if the thing could be done) was the time to provide against the danger of chance-allusions to what had happened at wurzburg. it was well known in the house that mrs. wagner wished to return to london, as soon after the marriage as certain important considerations connected with the management of the office would permit. by madame fontaine's calculations, jack would be happily out of the way of doing mischief (if she could keep him quiet in the meanwhile) in a month or six weeks' time. the game went on in the dining-room--with the inevitable intervals. beyond reproach as a lover, fritz showed no signs of improvement as a bagatelle-player. in a longer pause than usual, during which the persons concerned happened to have their backs turned to the door, a disagreeable interruption occurred. at a moment of absolute silence an intruding voice made itself heard, inviting immediate attention in these words:-"i say, you two! if you want to see the finest pair of gloves in frankfort, just look here." there he stood with outstretched hands, exhibiting a pair of bright green gloves, and standing higher in his own estimation than ever. "why do you always come in without knocking?" fritz asked, with excusable indignation. "why have _you_ always got your arm round her waist?" jack retorted. "i say, miss minna (i only offer a remark), the more he kisses you the more you seem to like it." "send him away, for heaven's sake!" minna whispered. "go upstairs!" cried fritz. "what! do you want to be at it again?" asked jack. "go and show your new gloves to madame fontaine," said minna. the girl's quick wit had discovered the right way to get rid of jack. he accepted the suggestion with enthusiasm. "ah!" he exclaimed, "that's a good idea! it would never have entered your head, fritz, would it?" before fritz could reply, jack was out of his reach. the widow sat in her room, innocently reading the newspaper. a cake happened to be on the table at her side; and a bottle of sparkling lemonade, by the merest coincidence, was in the near neighborhood of the cake. jack's eyes brightened, as they turned towards the table when he entered the room. "and those are the gloves!" said madame fontaine, with her head held critically a little on one side, as if she was a connoisseur enjoying a fine picture. "how very pretty! and what good taste you have!" jack (with his eyes still on the cake) accepted these flattering expressions as no more than his due. "i am pleased with my walk," he remarked. "i have made a successful appearance in public. when the general attention was not occupied with my bag of keys, it was absorbed in my gloves. i showed a becoming modesty--i took no notice of anybody." "perhaps your walk has given you a little appetite?" the widow suggested. "what did you say?" cried jack. "appetite! upon my soul, i could eat---no, that's not gentleman-like. mistress gave me one of her looks when i said 'upon my soul' down in the office. thank you. yes; i like cake. excuse me--i hope it has got plums in it?" "plums and other fine things besides. taste!" jack tried hard to preserve his good manners, and only taste as he was told. but the laws of nature were too much for him. he was as fond of sweet things as a child--he gobbled. "i say, you're uncommonly good to me all of a sudden," he exclaimed between the bites. "you didn't make much of me like this at wurzburg!" he had given madame fontaine her opportunity. she was not the woman to let it slip. "oh, jack!" she said, in tones of gentle reproach, "didn't i nurse you at wurzburg?" "well," jack admitted, "you did something of the sort." "what do you mean?" he had finished his first slice of cake; his politeness began to show signs of wearing out. "you did what my master the doctor told you to do," he said. "but i don't believe you cared whether i lived or died. when you had to tuck me up in bed, for instance, you did it with the grossest indifference. ha! you have improved since that time. give me some more cake. never mind cutting it thick. is that bottle of lemonade for me?" "you hardly deserve it, jack, after the way you have spoken of me. don't you remember," she added, cautiously leading him back to the point, "i used to make your lemonade when you were ill?" jack persisted in wandering away from the point. "you are so hungry for compliments," he objected. "haven't i told you that you have improved? only go on as you are going on now, and i dare say i shall put you next to mistress in my estimation, one of these days. let the cork go out with a pop; i like noises of all kinds. your good health! is it manners to smack one's lips after lemonade?--it is such good stuff, and there's _such_ pleasure in feeling it sting one's throat as it goes down. you didn't give me such lemonade as this, when i was ill--oh! that reminds me." "reminds you of something that happened at wurzburg?" madame fontaine inquired. "yes. wait a bit. i'm going to try how the cake tastes dipped in lemonade. ha! ha! how it fizzes as i stir it round! yes; something that happened at wurzburg, as you say. i asked david about it, the morning he went away. but the coach was waiting for him; and he ran off without saying a word. i call that rude." he was still stirring his lemonade with his bit of cake--or he might have seen something in the widow's face that would have startled him. he did look up, when she spoke to him. his sense of hearing was his quickest sense; and he was struck by the sudden change in her voice. "what did you ask david?"--was all she ventured to say. jack still looked at her. "anything the matter with you?" he inquired. "nothing. what did you ask david?" "something i wanted to know." "perhaps _i_ can tell you what you want to know?" "i shouldn't wonder. no: dipping the cake in lemonade doesn't improve it, and it leaves crumbs in the drink." "throw away that bit of cake, jack, and have some more. "may i help myself?" "certainly. but you haven't told me yet what you want to know." at last he answered directly. "what i want to know is this," he said. "who poisoned mr. keller?" he was cutting the cake as he spoke, and extracted a piece of candied orange peel with the point of the knife. once more, the widow's face had escaped observation. she turned away quickly, and occupied herself in mending the fire. in this position, her back was turned towards the table--she could trust herself to speak. "you are talking nonsense!" she said. jack stopped--with the cake half-way to his mouth. here was a direct attack on his dignity, and he was not disposed to put up with it. "i never talk nonsense," he answered sharply. "you do," madame fontaine rejoined, just as sharply on her side. "mr. keller fell ill, as anyone else might fall ill. nobody poisoned him." jack got on his legs. for the moment he actually forgot the cake. "nobody?" he repeated. "tell me this, if you please: wasn't mr. keller cured out of the blue-glass bottle--like me?" (who had told him this? joseph might have told him; minna might have told him. it was no time for inquiry; the one thing needful was to eradicate the idea from his mind. she answered boldly, "quite right, so far"--and waited to see what came of it.) "very well," said jack, "mr. keller was cured out of the blue-glass bottle, like me. and _i_ was poisoned. now?" she flatly contradicted him again. "you were _not_ poisoned!" jack crossed the room, with a flash of the old bedlam light in his eyes, and confronted her at the fire place. "the devil is the father of lies," he said, lifting his hand solemnly. "no lies! i heard my master the doctor say i was poisoned." she was ready with her answer. "your master the doctor said that to frighten you. he didn't want you to taste his medicines in his absence again. you drank double what any person ought to have drunk, you greedy jack, when you tasted that pretty violet-colored medicine in your master's workshop. and you had yourself to thank--not poison, when you fell ill." jack looked hard at her. he could reason so far as that he and mr. keller must have taken the same poison, because he and mr. keller had been cured out of the same bottle. but to premise that he had been made ill by an overdose of medicine, and that mr. keller had been made ill in some other way, and then to ask, how two different illnesses could both have been cured by the same remedy--was an effort utterly beyond him. he hung his head sadly, and went back to the table. "i wish i hadn't asked you about it," he said. "you puzzle me horribly." but for that unendurable sense of perplexity, he would still have doubted and distrusted her as resolutely as ever. as it was, his bewildered mind unconsciously took its refuge in belief. "if it was medicine," asked the poor creature vacantly, "what is the medicine good for?" at those words, an idea of the devil's own prompting entered madame fontaine's mind. still standing at the fireplace, she turned her head slowly, and looked at the cupboard. "it's a better remedy even than the blue-glass bottle," she said; "it cures you so soon when you are tired, or troubled in your mind, that i have brought it away with me from wurzburg, to use it for myself." jack's face brightened with a new interest. "oh," he said eagerly, "do let me see it again!" she put her hand in her pocket, took out the key, and hesitated at the last moment. "just one look at it," jack pleaded, "to see if it's the same." she unlocked the cupboard. chapter v jack attempted to follow her, and look in. she waved him back with her hand. "wait at the window," she said, "where you can see the medicine in the light." she took the bottle of "alexander's wine" from the chest, and having locked the cupboard again, replaced the key in her pocket. "do you remember it?" she asked, showing him the bottle. he shuddered as he recognized the color. "medicine?" he said to himself--troubled anew by doubts which he was not able to realize. "i don't remember how much i took when i tasted it. do you?" "i have told you already. you took twice the proper dose." "did my master the doctor say that?" "yes." "and did he tell you what the proper dose was?" "yes." jack was not able to resist this. "i should like to see it!" he said eagerly. "my master was a wonderful man--my master knew everything." madame fontaine looked at him. he waited to see his request granted, like a child waiting to see a promised toy. "shall i measure it out, and show you?" she said. "i suppose you don't know what two drachms mean?" "no, no! let me see it." she looked at him again and hesitated. with a certain reluctance of manner, she opened her dressing-case. as she took out a medicine-measuring-glass, her hand began to tremble. a faint perspiration showed itself on her forehead. she put the glass on the table, and spoke to jack. "what makes you so curious to see what the dose is?" she said. "do you think you are likely to want some of it yourself?" his eyes looked longingly at the poison. "it cures you when you are tired or troubled in your mind," he answered, repeating her own words. "i am but a little fellow--and i'm more easily tired sometimes than you would think." she passed her handkerchief over her forehead. "the fire makes the room rather warm," she said. jack took no notice of the remark; he had not done yet with the confession of his little infirmities. he went on proving his claim to be favored with some of the wonderful remedy. "and as for being troubled in my mind," he said, "you haven't a notion how bad i am sometimes. if i'm kept away from mistress for a whole day--when i say or do something wrong, you know--i tell you this, i'm fit to hang myself! if you were to see me, i do think your heart would be touched; i do indeed!" instead of answering him, she rose abruptly, and hurried to the door. "surely there's somebody outside," she exclaimed--"somebody wanting to speak to me!" "i don't hear it," said jack; "and mine are the quickest ears in the house." "wait a minute, and let me see." she opened the door: closed it again behind her; and hurried along the lonely corridor. throwing up the window at the end, she put her head out into the keen wintry air, with a wild sense of relief. she was almost beside herself, without knowing why. poor jack's innocent attempts to persuade her to his destruction had, in their pitiable simplicity, laid a hold on that complex and terrible nature which shook it to its center. the woman stood face to face with her own contemplated crime, and trembled at the diabolical treachery of it. "what's the matter with me?" she wondered inwardly. "i feel as if i could destroy every poison in the chest with my own hands." slowly she returned along the corridor, to her room. the refreshing air had strung up her nerves again! she began to recover herself. the strengthened body reacted on the wavering mind. she smiled as she recalled her own weakness, looking at the bottle of poison which she had mechanically kept in her hand. "that feeble little creature might do some serious mischief, between this and the wedding-day," she thought; "and yet----and yet----" "well, was there anybody outside?" jack asked. "nothing to matter," she said. the answer was spoken mechanically. something in him or something in herself, it was impossible to say which, had suddenly set her thinking of the day when her husband had dragged him out of the jaws of death. it seemed strange that the memory of the dead doctor should come between them in that way, and at that time. jack recalled her to the passing moment. he offered her the medicine-measuring-glass left on the table. "it frightens me, when i think of what i did," he said. "and yet it's such a pretty color--i want to see it again." in silence, she took the glass; in silence, she measured out the fatal two drachms of the poison, and showed it to him. "do put it in something," he pleaded, "and let me have it to keep: i know i shall want it." still in silence, she turned to the table, and searching again in her dressing-case, found a little empty bottle. she filled it and carefully fitted in the glass stopper. jack held out his hand. she suddenly drew her own hand back. "no," she said. "on second thoughts, i won't let you have it." "why not?" "because you can't govern your tongue, and can't keep anything to yourself. you will tell everybody in the house that i have given you my wonderful medicine. they will all be wanting some--and i shall have none left for myself." "isn't that rather selfish?" said jack. "i suppose it's natural, though. never mind, i'll do anything to please you; i'll keep it in my pocket and not say a word to anybody. now?" once more, he held out his hand. once more madame fontaine checked herself in the act of yielding to him. her dead husband had got between them again. the wild words he had spoken to her, in the first horror of the discovery that his poor imbecile servant had found and tasted the fatal drug, came back to her memory--"if he dies i shall not survive him. and i firmly believe i shall not rest in my grave." she had never been, like her husband, a believer in ghosts: superstitions of all sorts were to her mind unworthy of a reasonable being. and yet at that moment, she was so completely unnerved that she looked round the old gothic room, with a nameless fear throbbing at her heart. it was enough--though nothing appeared: it was enough--though superstitions of all sorts were unworthy of a reasonable being--to shake her fell purpose, for the time. nothing that jack could say had the least effect on her. having arrived at a determination, she was mistress of herself again. "not yet," she resolved; "there may be consequences that i haven't calculated on. i'll take the night to think of it." jack tried a last entreaty as she put her hand into her pocket, searching for the cupboard key, and tried it in vain. "no," she said; "i will keep it for you. come to me when you are really ill, and want it." her pocket proved to be entangled for the moment in the skirt of her dress. in irritably trying to disengage it, she threw out the key on the floor. jack picked the key up and noticed the inscription on the handle. "pink-room cupboard," he read. "why do they call it by that name?" in her over-wrought state of mind, she had even felt the small irritating influence of an entangled pocket. she was in no temper to endure simple questions patiently. "look at the pink curtains, you fool!" she said--and snatched the key out of his hand. jack instantly resented the language and the action. "i didn't come here to be insulted," he declared in his loftiest manner. madame fontaine secured the poison in the cupboard without noticing him, and made him more angry than ever. "take back your new gloves," he cried, "i don't want them!" he rolled up his gloves, and threw them at her. "i wish i could throw all the cake i've eaten after them!" he burst out fervently. he delivered this aspiration with an emphatic stamp of his foot. the hysterical excitement in madame fontaine forced its way outwards under a new form. she burst into a frantic fit of laughter. "you curious little creature," she said; "i didn't mean to offend you. don't you know that women will lose their patience sometimes? there! shake hands and make it up. and take away the rest of the cake, if you like it." jack looked at her in speechless surprise. "leave me to myself!" she cried, relapsing into irritability. "do you hear? go! go! go!" jack left the room without a word of protest. the rapid changes in her, the bewildering diversity of looks and tones that accompanied them, completely cowed him. it was only when he was safe outside in the corridor, that he sufficiently recovered himself to put his own interpretation on what had happened. he looked back at the door of madame fontaine's room, and shook his little gray head solemnly. "now i understand it," he thought to himself "mrs. housekeeper is mad. oh, dear, dear me--bedlam is the only place for her!" he descended the first flight of stairs, and stopped again to draw the moral suggested by his own clever discovery. "i must speak to mistress about this," he concluded. "the sooner we are back in london, the safer i shall feel." chapter vi mrs. wagner was still hard at work at her desk, when jack straw made his appearance again in the private office. "where have you been all this time?" she asked. "and what have you done with your new gloves?" "i threw them at madame fontaine," jack answered. "don't alarm yourself. i didn't hit her." mrs. wagner laid down her pen, smiling. "even business must give way to such an extraordinary event as this," she said. "what has gone wrong between you and madame fontaine?" jack entered into a long rambling narrative of what he had heard on the subject of the wonderful remedy, and of the capricious manner in which a supply of it had been first offered to him, and then taken away again. "turn it over in your own mind," he said grandly, "and tell me what your opinion is, so far." "i think you had better let madame fontaine keep her medicine in the cupboard," mrs. wagner answered; "and when you want anything of that sort, mention it to me." the piece of cake which jack had brought away with him attracted her attention, as she spoke. had he bought it himself? or had he carried it off from the housekeeper's room? "does that belong to you, or to madame fontaine?" she asked. "anything that belongs to madame fontaine must be taken back to her." "do you think i would condescend to take anything that didn't belong to me?" said jack indignantly. he entered into another confused narrative, which brought him, in due course of time, to the dropping of the key and the picking of it up. "i happened to read 'pink-room cupboard' on the handle," he proceeded; "and when i asked what it meant she called me a fool, and snatched the key out of my hand. do you suppose i was going to wear her gloves after that? no! i am as capable of self-sacrifice as any of you--i acted nobly--i threw them at her. wait a bit! you may laugh at that, but there's something terrible to come. what do you think of a furious person who insults me, suddenly turning into a funny person who shakes hands with me and bursts out laughing? she did that. on the honor of a gentleman, she did that. follow my wise example; keep out of her way--and let's get back to london as soon as we can. oh, i have got a reason for what i say. just let me look through the keyhole before i mention it. all right; there's nobody at the keyhole; i may say it safely. it's a dreadful secret to reveal--mrs. housekeeper is mad! no, no; there can be no possible mistake about it. if there's a creature living who thoroughly understands madness when he sees it--by heaven, i'm that man!" watching jack attentively while he was speaking. mrs. wagner beckoned to him to come nearer, and took him by the hand. "no more now," she said quietly; "you are beginning to get a little excited." "who says that?" cried jack. "your eyes say it. come here to your place." she rose, and led him to his customary seat in the recess of the old-fashioned window. "sit down," she said. "i don't want to sit down." "not if i ask you?" he instantly sat down. mrs. wagner produced her pocket-book, and made a mark in it with her pencil. "one good conduct-mark already for jack," she said. "now i must go on with my work; and you must occupy yourself quietly, in some way that will amuse you. what will you do?" jack, steadily restraining himself under the firm kind eyes that rested on him, was not in the right frame of mind for discovering a suitable employment. "you tell me," he said. mrs. wagner pointed to the bag of keys, hanging over his shoulder. "have you cleaned them yet?" she asked. his attention was instantly diverted to the keys; he was astonished at having forgotten them. mrs. wagner rang the bell, and supplied him with sandpaper, leather, and whiting. "now then," she said, pointing to the clock, "for another hour at least--silence and work!" she returned to her desk; and jack opened his bag. he spread out the rusty keys in a row, on the seat at his side. looking from one to the other before he began the cleansing operations, he started, picked out one key, and held it up to the light. there was something inscribed on the handle, under a layer of rust and dirt. he snatched up his materials, and set to work with such good will that the inscription became visible in a few minutes. he could read it plainly--"pink-room cupboard." a word followed which was not quite so intelligible to him--the word "duplicate." but he had no need to trouble himself about this. "pink-room cupboard," on a second key, told him all he wanted to know. his eyes sparkled--he opened his lips--looked at mrs. wagner, busily engaged with her pen--and restrained himself within the hard limits of silence. "aha! i can take mrs. housekeeper's medicine whenever i like," he thought slily. his faith in the remedy was not at all shaken by his conviction that madame fontaine was mad. it was the doctor who had made the remedy--and the doctor could not commit a mistake. "she's not fit to have the keeping of such a precious thing," he concluded. "i'll take the whole of it under my own charge. shall i tell mistress, when we have done work?" he considered this question, cleaning his keys, and looking furtively from time to time at mrs. wagner. the cunning which is almost invariably well developed in a feeble intelligence, decided him on keeping his discovery to himself. "anything that belongs to madame fontaine must be taken back to her"--was what the mistress had just said to him. he would certainly be ordered to give up the duplicate key (which meant giving up the wonderful remedy) if he took mrs. wagner into his confidence. "when i have got what i want," he thought, "i can throw away the key--and there will be an end of it." the minutes followed each other, the quarters struck--and still the two strangely associated companions went on silently with their strangely dissimilar work. it was close on the time for the striking of the hour, when a third person interrupted the proceedings--that person being no other than madame fontaine again. "a thousand pardons, mrs. wagner! at what time can i say two words to you in confidence?" "you could not have chosen your time better, madame fontaine. my work is done for to-day." she paused, and looked at jack, ostentatiously busy with his keys. the wisest course would be to leave him in the window-seat, harmlessly employed. "shall we step into the dining-room?" she suggested, leading the way out. "wait there, jack, till i return; i may have another good mark to put in my pocket-book." the two ladies held their conference, with closed doors, in the empty dining-room. "my only excuse for troubling you, madam," the widow began, "is that i speak in the interest of that poor little jack, whom we have just left in the office. may i ask if you have lately observed any signs of excitement in him?" "certainly!" mrs. wagner answered, with her customary frankness of reply; "i found it necessary to compose him, when he came to me about an hour ago--and you have just seen that he is as quiet again as a man can be. i am afraid you have had reason to complain of his conduct yourself?" madame fontaine lifted her hands in gently-expressed protest. "oh, dear, no--not to complain! to pity our afflicted jack, and to feel, perhaps, that your irresistible influence over him might be required--no more." "you are very good," said mrs. wagner dryly. "at the same time, i beg you to accept my excuses--not only for jack, but for myself. i found him so well behaved, and so capable of restraining himself in london, that i thought i was running no risk in bringing him with me to frankfort." "pray say no more, dear madam--you really confuse me. i am the innocent cause of his little outbreak. i most unfortunately reminded him of the time when he lived with us at wurzburg--and in that way i revived one of his old delusions, which even your admirable treatment has failed to remove from his mind." "may i ask what the delusion is, madame fontaine?" "one of the commonest delusions among insane persons, mrs. wagner--the delusion that he has been poisoned. has he ever betrayed it in your presence?" "i heard something of it," mrs. wagner answered, "from the superintendent at the madhouse in london." "ah, indeed? the superintendent merely repeated, i suppose, what jack had told him?" "exactly. i was careful not to excite him, by referring to it myself, when i took him under my charge. at the same time, it is impossible to look at his hair and his complexion, without seeing that some serious accident must have befallen him." "most unquestionably! he is the victim, poor creature--not of poison--but of his own foolish curiosity, in my husband's surgery, and you see the result. alas! i cannot give you the scientific reasons for it." "i shouldn't understand them, madame fontaine, if you could." "ah, dear lady, you kindly say so, because you are unwilling to humiliate me. is there anything jack may have said to you about me, which seems to require an explanation--if i can give it?" she slipped in this question, concealing perfectly the anxiety that suggested it, so far as her voice and her eyes were concerned. but the inner agitation rose to the surface in a momentary trembling of her lips. slight as it was, that sign of self-betrayal did not escape mrs. wagner's keen observation. she made a cautious reply. "on the contrary," she said, "from what jack has told me, the conclusion is plain that you have really done him a service. you have succeeded in curing that delusion you spoke of--and i applaud your good sense in refusing to trust him with the medicine." madame fontaine made a low curtsey. "i shall remember those kind words, among the happy events of my life," she said, with her best grace. "permit me to take your hand." she pressed mrs. wagner's hand gratefully--and made an exit which was a triumph of art. even a french actress might have envied the manner in which she left the room. but, when she ascended the stairs, with no further necessity for keeping up appearances, her step was as slow and as weary as the step of an old woman. "oh, my child," she thought sadly, with her mind dwelling again on minna, "shall i see the end of all these sacrifices, when your wedding-day comes with the end of the year?" she sat down by the fire in her room, and for the first time in her life, the harmless existence of one of those domestic drudges whom she despised began to seem enviable to her. there were merits visible now, in the narrow social horizon that is bounded by gossip, knitting, and tea. left by herself in the dining-room, mrs. wagner took a turn up and down, with her mind bent on penetrating madame fontaine's motives. there were difficulties in her way. it was easy to arrive at the conclusion that there was something under the surface; but the obstacles to advancing beyond this point of discovery seemed to defy removal. to distrust the graceful widow more resolutely than ever, and to lament that she had not got wise david glenney to consult with, were the principal results of mrs. wagner's reflections when she returned to the office. there was jack--in the nursery phrase, as good as gold--still in his place on the window seat, devoted to his keys. his first words related entirely to himself. "if this isn't good conduct," he said, "i should like to know what is. give me my other mark." mrs. wagner took out her pocket-book and made the new mark. "thank you," said jack. "now i want something else. i want to know what mrs. housekeeper has been saying. i have been seriously alarmed about you." "why, jack?" "she hasn't bitten you, has she? oh, they do it sometimes! what lies has she been telling you of me? oh, they lie in the most abominable manner! what? she has been talking of me in the kindest terms? then why did she want to get out of my hearing? ah, they're so infernally deceitful! i do hate mad people." mrs. wagner produced her pocket-book again. "i shall scratch out your mark," she said sternly, "if i hear any more talk of that sort." jack gathered his keys together with a strong sense of injury, and put them back in his leather bag. "you're a little hard on me," he said, "when i'm only warning you for your own good. i don't know why it is, you're not as kind to me here, as you used to be in london. and i feel it, i do!" he laid himself down on the window seat, and began to cry. mrs. wagner was not the woman to resist this expression of the poor little man's feeling. in a moment she was at the window comforting him and drying his eyes, as if he had been a child. and, like a child, jack took advantage of the impression that he had made. "look at your desk," he said piteously; "there's another proof how hard you are on me. i used to keep the key of your desk in london. you won't trust it to me here." mrs. wagner went to the desk, locked it, and returned to jack. few people know how immensely an act of kindness gains in effect, by being performed in silence. mrs. wagner was one of the few. without a word, she opened the leather bag and dropped the key into it. jack's gratitude rushed innocently to an extreme which it had never reached yet. "oh!" he cried, "would you mind letting me kiss you?" mrs. wagner drew back, and held up a warning hand. before she could express herself in words, jack's quick ear caught the sound of footsteps approaching the door. "is she coming back?" he cried, still suspicious of madame fontaine. mrs. wagner instantly opened the door, and found herself face to face with joseph the footman. "do you know, ma'am, when mr. keller will be back?" he asked. "i didn't even know that he was out, joseph. who wants him?" "a gentleman, ma'am, who says he comes from munich." chapter vii on further inquiry, it turned out that "the gentleman from munich" had no time to spare. in the absence of mr. keller, he had asked if he could see "one of the other partners." this seemed to imply that commercial interests were in some way connected with the stranger's visit--in which case, mrs. wagner was perfectly competent to hear what he had to say. "where is the gentleman?" she asked. "in the drawing-room," joseph answered. mrs. wagner at once left the office. she found herself in the presence of a dignified elderly gentleman, dressed entirely in black, and having the ribbon of some order of merit attached to the buttonhole of his long frock-coat. his eyes opened wide in surprise, behind his gold spectacles, when he found himself face to face with a lady. "i fear there is some mistake," he said, in the smoothest of voices, and with the politest of bows; "i asked to see one of the partners." mrs. wagner added largely to his amazement, by informing him of the position that she held in the firm. "if you come on a matter of business," she proceeded, "you may trust me to understand you, sir, though i am only a woman. if your visit relates to private affairs, i beg to suggest that you should write to mr. keller--i will take care that he receives your letter the moment he returns." "there is not the least necessity for my troubling you," the stranger replied. "i am a physician; and i have been summoned to frankfort to consult with my colleagues here, on a serious case of illness. mr. keller's sister is one of my patients in munich. i thought i would take the present opportunity of speaking to him about the state of her health." he had just introduced himself in those words, when mr. keller entered the room. the merchant and the physician shook hands like old friends. "no alarming news of my sister, i hope?" said mr. keller. "only the old trouble, my good friend. another attack of asthma." mrs. wagner rose to leave the room. mr. keller stopped her. "there is not the least necessity for you to leave us," he said. "unless my presentiments deceive me, we may even have occasion to ask your advice.--is there any hope, doctor, of her being well enough to leave munich, towards the end of the month?" "i am sorry to say it," answered the physician--"having heard of the interesting occasion on which she had engaged to be one of your guests--but, at her age, i must ask for a little more time." "in other words, it is impossible for my sister to be with us, on the day of my son's marriage?" "quite impossible. she has so few pleasures, poor soul, and she is so bitterly disappointed, that i volunteered to take advantage of my professional errand here, to make a very bold request. let me first do your excellent sister justice. she will not hear of the young people being disappointed by any postponement of the wedding, on her account. and here is the famous necklace, committed to my care, to prove that she is sincere." he took his little traveling-bag from the chair on which he had placed it, and produced the case containing the necklace. no woman--not even a head-partner in a great house of business--could have looked at those pearls, and preserved her composure. mrs. wagner burst out with a cry of admiration. mr. keller passed the necklace over without notice; his sister was the one object of interest to him. "would she be fit to travel," he asked, "if we put off the marriage for a month?" "she shall be fit to travel, barring accidents," said the physician, "if you can put off the marriage for a fortnight. i start this evening on my return to munich, and not a day shall pass without my seeing her." mr. keller appealed to mrs. wagner. "surely, we might make this trifling sacrifice?" he said. "the pleasure of seeing her nephew married is likely to be the last pleasure of my sister's life." "in your place," said mrs. wagner, "i should not hesitate for an instant to grant the fortnight's delay. but the bride and bridegroom must be consulted, of course." "and the bride's parents," suggested the discreet physician, "if they are still living." "there is only her mother living," said mr. keller. "she is too high-minded a person to raise any objection, i am sure." he paused, and reflected for awhile. "fritz counts for nothing," he went on. "i think we ought to put the question, in the first instance, to the bride?" he rang the bell, and then took the necklace out of mrs. wagner's hands. "i have a very high opinion of little minna," he resumed. "we will see what the child's own kind heart says--undisturbed by the influence of the pearls, and without any prompting on the part of her mother." he closed the jewel case, and put it into a cabinet that stood near him. joseph was sent upstairs, with the necessary message. "don't make any mistake," said his master; "i wish to see miss minna, alone." the physician took a pinch of snuff while they were waiting. "the test is hardly conclusive," he remarked slily; "women are always capable of sacrificing themselves. what will the bridegroom say?" "my good sir," mr. keller rejoined a little impatiently, "i have mentioned already that fritz counts for nothing." minna came in. her color rose when she found herself unexpectedly in the presence of a dignified and decorated stranger. the physician tapped his snuff-box, with the air of a man who thoroughly understood young women. "charming indeed!" he said confidentially to mrs. wagner; "i am young enough (at heart, madam) to wish i was fritz." mr. keller advanced to meet minna, and took her hand. "my dear," he said, "what would you think of me, if i requested you to put off your marriage for two whole weeks--and all on account of an old woman?" "i should think you had surely some reason, sir, for asking me to do that," minna replied; "and i confess i should be curious to know who the old woman was." in the fewest and plainest words, mr. keller repeated what the physician had told him. "take your own time to think of it," he added; "and consult your mother first, if you like." minna's sweet face looked lovelier than ever, glowing with the heavenly light of true and generous feeling. "oh, mr. keller!" she exclaimed, "do you really suppose i am cold-hearted enough to want time to think of it? i am sure i may speak for my mother, as well as for myself. fraulein keller's time shall be our time. please tell her so, with my duty--or, may i be bold enough to say already, with my love?" mr. keller kissed her forehead with a fervor of feeling that was rare with him. "you are well worthy of my sister's bridal gift," he said--and took the necklace out of the cabinet, and gave it to her. for some moments minna stood looking at the magnificent pearls, in a state of speechless enchantment. when she did speak, her first delightful ardor of admiration had cooled under the chilling perception of a want of proper harmony between her pearls and herself. "they are too grand for me," she said sadly; "i ought to be a great lady, with a wardrobe full of magnificent dresses, to wear such pearls as these!" she looked at them again, with the natural longing of her sex and age. "may i take the necklace upstairs," she asked, with the most charming inconsistency, "and see how it looks when i put it on?" mr. keller smiled and waved his hand. "you can do what you like with your own necklace, my dear," he said. "when i have written a line to my sister, perhaps i may follow you, and admire my daughter-in-law in all her grandeur." the physician looked at his watch. "if you can write your letter in five minutes," he suggested, "i can take it with me to munich." mrs. wagner and minna left the room together. "come and see how it looks," said minna; "i should so like to have your opinion." "i will follow you directly, my dear. there is something i have forgotten in the office." the events of the day had ended in making jack drowsy; he was half-asleep on the window-seat. mrs. wagner effectually roused him. "mr. keeper of the keys," she said; "i want my desk opened." jack was on his legs in an instant. "ha, mistress, it's jolly to hear you say that--it's like being in london again." the desk was of the spacious commercial sort, with a heavy mahogany lid. everything inside was in the most perfect order. a row of "pigeon-holes" at the back had their contents specified by printed tickets. "abstracts of correspondence, a to z;" "terms for commission agency;" "key of the iron safe." "key of the private ledger"--and so on. the ledger--a stout volume with a brass lock, like a private diary--was placed near the pigeon-holes. on the top of it rested a smaller book, of the pocket--size, entitled "private accounts." mrs. wagner laid both books open before her, at the pages containing the most recent entries, and compared them. "i felt sure i had forgotten it!" she said to herself--and transferred an entry in the ledger to the private account-book. after replacing the ledger, she locked the desk, and returned the key to jack. "remember," she said, "the rule in london is the rule here. my desk is never to be opened, except when i ask you to do it. and if you allow the key to pass out of your own possession, you cease to be keeper." "did i ever do either of those two things in london?" jack asked. "never." "then don't be afraid of my doing them here. i say! you haven't put back the little book." he produced the key again, and put it into the lock--while mrs. wagner was occupied in placing her account-book in her pocket. "its proper place is not in the desk," she explained; "i usually keep it about me." jack's ready suspicion was excited. "ah," he cried, with an outburst of indignation, "you won't trust it to me!" "take care i don't set a bad-conduct mark against you!" said mrs. wagner. "you foolish fellow, the little book is a copy of what is in the big book--and i trust you with the big book." she knew jack thoroughly well. his irritable dignity was at once appeased when he heard that the biggest of the duplicate books was in his keeping. he took the key out of the lock again. at the same moment, mr. keller entered the office. jack possessed the dog's enviable faculty of distinguishing correctly between the people who are, and the people who are not, their true friends. mr. keller privately disliked the idea of having a person about him who had come out of a madhouse. jack's instincts warned him to leave a room when mr. keller entered it. he left the office now. "is it possible that you trust that crazy creature with the key of your desk?" said mr. keller. "even your bitterest enemy, mrs. wagner, would not believe you could be guilty of such an act of rashness." "pardon me, sir, it is you who are guilty of an act of rashness in forming your judgment. 'fancy a woman in her senses trusting her keys to a man who was once in bedlam!' everybody said that of me, when i put jack to the proof in my own house." "aha! there are other people then who agree with me?" said mr. keller. "there are other people, sir (i say it with all needful respect), who know no more of the subject than you do. the most certain curative influence that can be exercised over the poor martyrs of the madhouse, is to appeal to their self-respect. from first to last, jack has never been unworthy of the trust that i have placed in him. do you think my friends owned they had been mistaken? no more than you will own it! make your mind easy. i will be personally answerable for anything that is lost, while i am rash enough to trust my crazy creature with my key." mr. keller's opinion was not in the least shaken; he merely checked any further expression of it, in deference to an angry lady. "i dare say you know best," he remarked politely. "let me mention the little matter that has brought me here. david glenney is, no doubt, closely occupied in london. he ought to know at once that the wedding-day is deferred. will you write to him, or shall i?" mrs. wagner began to recover her temper. "i will write with pleasure, mr. keller. we have half an hour yet before post-time. i have promised minna to see how the wonderful necklace looks on her. will you excuse me for a few minutes? or will you go upstairs with me?--i think you said something about it in the drawing-room." "certainly," said mr. keller, "if the ladies will let me in." they ascended the stairs together. on the landing outside the drawing-room, they encountered fritz and minna--one out of temper, and the other in tears. "what's wrong now?" mr. keller asked sharply. "fritz! what does that sulky face mean?" "i consider myself very badly used," fritz answered. "i say there's a great want of proper consideration for me, in putting off our marriage. and madame fontaine agrees with me." "madame fontaine?" he looked at minna, as he repeated the name. "is this really true?" minna trembled at the bare recollection of what had passed. "oh, don't ask me!" she pleaded piteously; "i can't tell what has come to my mother--she is so changed, she frightens me. and as for fritz," she said, rousing herself, "if he is to be a selfish tyrant, i can tell him this--i won't marry him at all!" mr. keller turned to fritz, and pointed contemptuously down the stairs. "leave us!" he said. fritz opened his lips to protest. mr. keller interposed, with a protest of his own. "one of these days," he went on, "you may possibly have a son. you will not find his society agreeable to you, when he happens to have made a fool of himself." he pointed down the stairs for the second time. fritz retired, frowning portentously. his father addressed minna with marked gentleness of manner. "rest and recover yourself, my child. i will see your mother, and set things right." "don't go away by yourself, my dear," mrs. wagner added kindly; "come with me to my room." mr. keller entered the drawing-room, and sent joseph with another message. "go up to madame fontaine, and say i wish to see her here immediately." chapter viii the widow presented herself, with a dogged resignation singularly unlike her customary manner. her eyes had a set look of hardness; her lips were fast closed; her usually colorless complexion had faded to a strange grayish pallor. if her dead husband could have risen from the grave, and warned mr. keller, he would have said, "once or twice in my life, i have seen her like that--mind what you are about!" she puzzled mr. keller. he tried to gain time--he bowed and pointed to a chair. madame fontaine took the chair in silence. her hard eyes looked straight at the master of the house, overhung more heavily than usual by their drooping lids. her thin lips never opened. the whole expression of the woman said plainly, "you speak first!" mr. keller spoke. his kindly instinct warned him not to refer to minna, in alluding to the persons from whom he had derived his information. "i hear from my son," he said, "that you do not approve of our putting off the wedding-day, though it is only for a fortnight. are you aware of the circumstances?" "i am aware of the circumstances." "your daughter informed you of my sister's illness, i suppose?" at that first reference to minna, some inner agitation faintly stirred the still surface of madame fontaine's face. "yes," she said. "my thoughtless daughter informed me." the epithet applied to minna, aggravated by the deliberate emphasis laid on it, jarred on mr. keller's sense of justice. "it appears to me," he said, "that your daughter acted in this matter, not only with the truest kindness, but with the utmost good sense. mrs. wagner and my sister's physician were both present at the time, and both agreed with me in admiring her conduct. what has she done to deserve that you should call her thoughtless?" "she ought to have remembered her duty to her mother. she ought to have consulted me, before she presumed to decide for herself." "in that case, madame fontaine, would you have objected to change the day of the marriage?" "i am well aware, sir, that your sister has honored my daughter by making her a magnificent present----" mr. keller's face began to harden. "may i beg you to be so good as answer my question plainly?" he said, in tones which were peremptory for the first time. "would you have objected to grant the fortnight's delay?" she answered him, on the bare chance that a strong expression of her opinion, as the bride's mother, might, even now, induce him to revert to the date originally chosen for the wedding. "i should certainly have objected," she said firmly. "what difference could it possibly make to _you?"_ there was suspicion in his manner, as well as surprise, when he put that question. "for what reason would you have objected?" "is my objection, as minna's mother, not worthy of some consideration, sir, without any needless inquiry into motives?" "your daughter's objection--as the bride--would have been a final objection, to my mind," mr. keller answered. "but _your_ objection is simply unaccountable; and i press you for your motives, having this good reason for doing so on my side. if i am to disappoint my sister--cruelly to disappoint her--it must be for some better cause than a mere caprice." it was strongly put, and not easily answered. madame fontaine made a last effort--she invented the likeliest motives she could think of. "i object, sir, in the first place, to putting off the most important event in my daughter's life, and in my life, as if it was some trifling engagement. besides, how do i know that some other unlucky circumstance may not cause more delays; and perhaps prevent the marriage from taking place at all?" mr. keller rose from his chair. whatever her true motives might be, it was now perfectly plain that she was concealing them from him. "if you have any more serious reasons to give me than these," he said quietly and coldly, "let me hear them between this and post-time tomorrow. in the meanwhile, i need not detain you any longer." madame fontaine rose also--but she was not quite defeated yet. "as things are, then," she resumed, "i am to understand, sir, that the marriage is put off to the thirteenth of january next?" "yes, with your daughter's consent." "suppose my daughter changes her mind, in the interval?" "under your influence?" "mr. keller! you insult me." "i should insult your daughter, madame fontaine--after what she said in this room before me and before other witnesses--if i supposed her to be capable of changing her mind, except under your influence. "good evening, sir." "good evening, madam." she went back to her room. the vacant spaces on the walls were prettily filled up with prints and water-color drawings. among these last was a little portrait of mr. keller, in a glazed frame. she approached it--looked at it--and, suddenly tearing it from the wall, threw it on the floor. it happened to fall with the glass uppermost. she stamped on it, in a perfect frenzy of rage; not only crushing the glass, but even breaking the frame, and completely destroying the portrait as a work of art. "there! that has done me good," she said to herself--and kicked the fragments into a corner of the room. she was now able to take a chair at the fireside, and shape out for herself the course which it was safest to follow. minna was first in her thoughts. she could bend the girl to her will, and send her to mr. keller. but he would certainly ask, under what influence she was acting, in terms which would place the alternative between a downright falsehood, or a truthful answer. minna was truth itself; in her youngest days, she had been one of those rare children who never take their easy refuge in a lie. what influence would be most likely to persuade her to deceive fritz's father? the widow gave up the idea, in the moment when it occurred to her. once again, "jezebel's daughter" unconsciously touched jezebel's heart with the light of her purity and her goodness. the mother shrank from deliberately degrading the nature of her own child. the horrid question of the money followed. on the thirty-first of the month, the promissory note would be presented for payment. where was the money to be found? some little time since, having the prospect of minna's marriage on the thirtieth of december before her, she had boldly resolved on referring the holder of the note to mr. keller. did it matter to her what the sordid old merchant said or thought, after minna had become his son's wife? she would coolly say to him, "the general body of the creditors harassed me. i preferred having one creditor to deal with, who had no objection to grant me time. his debt has fallen due; and i have no money to pay it. choose between paying it yourself, and the disgrace of letting your son's mother-in-law be publicly arrested in frankfort for debt." so she might have spoken, if her daughter had been a member of mr. keller's family. with floods of tears, with eloquent protestations, with threats even of self-destruction, could she venture on making the confession now? she remembered how solemnly she had assured mr. keller that her debts were really and truly paid. she remembered the inhuman scorn with which he had spoken of persons who failed to meet their pecuniary engagements honestly. even if he forgave her for deceiving him--which was in the last degree improbable--he was the sort of man who would suspect her of other deceptions. he would inquire if she had been quite disinterested in attending at his bedside, and saving his life. he might take counsel privately with his only surviving partner, mrs. wagner. mrs. wagner might recall the interview in the drawing-room, and the conversation about jack; and might see her way to consulting jack's recollections of his illness at wurzburg. the risk to herself of encountering these dangers was trifling. but the risk to minna involved nothing less than the breaking off of the marriage. she decided on keeping up appearances, at any sacrifice, until the marriage released her from the necessities of disguise. so it came back again to the question of how the money was to be found. had she any reasonable hope of success, if she asked for a few days' leave of absence, and went to wurzburg? would the holder of the bill allow her to renew it for a fortnight? she got up, and consulted her glass--and turned away from it again, with a sigh. "if i was only ten years younger!" she thought. the letter which she received from wurzburg had informed her that the present holder of the bill was "a middle-aged man." if he had been very young, or very old, she would have trusted in the autumn of her beauty, backed by her ready wit. but experience had taught her that the fascinations of a middle-aged woman are, in the vast majority of cases, fascinations thrown away on a middle-aged man. even if she could hope to be one of the exceptions that prove the rule, the middle-aged man was an especially inaccessible person, in this case. he had lost money by her already--money either paid, or owing, to the spy whom he had set to watch her. was this the sort of man who would postpone the payment of his just dues? she opened one of the drawers in the toilette table, and took out the pearl necklace. "i thought it would come to this," she said quietly. "instead of paying the promissory note, mr. keller will have to take the necklace out of pledge." the early evening darkness of winter had set in. she dressed herself for going out, and left her room, with the necklace in its case, concealed under her shawl. poor puzzled minna was waiting timidly to speak to her in the corridor. "oh mamma, do forgive me! i meant it for the best." the widow put one arm (the other was not at liberty) round her daughter's waist. "you foolish child," she said, "will you never understand that your poor mother is getting old and irritable? i may think you have made a great mistake, in sacrificing yourself to the infirmities of an asthmatic stranger at munich; but as to being ever really angry with you----! kiss me, my love; i never was fonder of you than i am now. lift my veil. oh, my darling, i don't like giving you to anybody, even to fritz." minna changed the subject--a sure sign that she and fritz were friends again. "how thick and heavy your veil is!" she said. "it is cold out of doors, my child, to-night." "but why are you going out?" "i don't feel very well, minna. a brisk walk in the frosty air will do me good." "mamma, do let me go with you!" "no, my dear. you are not a hard old woman like me--and you shall not run the risk of catching cold. go into my room, and keep the fire up. i shall be back in half an hour. "where is my necklace, mamma?" "my dear, the bride's mother keeps the bride's necklace--and, when we do try it on, we will see how it looks by daylight." in a minute more, madame fontaine was out in the street, on her way to the nearest jeweler. chapter ix the widow stopped at a jeweler's window in the famous street called the zeil. the only person in the shop was a simple-looking old man, sitting behind the counter, reading a newspaper. she went in. "i have something to show you, sir," she said, in her softest and sweetest tones. the simple old man first looked at her thick veil, and then at the necklace. he lifted his hands in amazement and admiration. "may i examine these glorious pearls?" he asked--and looked at them through a magnifying glass, and weighed them in his hand. "i wonder you are not afraid to walk out alone in the dark, with such a necklace as this," he said. "may i send to my foreman, and let him see it?" madame fontaine granted his request. he rang the bell which communicated with the work-rooms. being now satisfied that she was speaking to the proprietor of the shop, she risked her first inquiry. "have you any necklace of imitation pearls which resembles my necklace?" she asked. the old gentleman started, and looked harder than ever at the impenetrable veil. "good heavens--no!" he exclaimed. "there is no such thing in all frankfort. "could an imitation be made, sir?" the foreman entered the shop--a sullen, self-concentrated man. "fit for a queen," he remarked, with calm appreciation of the splendid pearls. his master repeated to him madame fontaine's last question. "they might do it in paris," he answered briefly. "what time could you give them, madam?" "i should want the imitation sent here before the thirteenth of next month." the master, humanely pitying the lady's ignorance, smiled and said nothing. the foreman's decision was rough and ready. "nothing like time enough; quite out of the question." madame fontaine had no choice but to resign herself to circumstances. she had entered the shop with the idea of exhibiting the false necklace on the wedding-day, whilst the genuine pearls were pledged for the money of which she stood in need. with the necklace in pawn, and with no substitute to present in its place, what would minna say, what would mr. keller think? it was useless to pursue those questions--some plausible excuse must be found. no matter what suspicions might be excited, the marriage would still take place. the necklace was no essential part of the ceremony which made fritz and minna man and wife--and the money must be had. "i suppose, sir, you grant loans on valuable security--such as this necklace?" she said. "certainly, madam." "provided you have the lady's name and address," the disagreeable foreman suggested, turning to his master. the old man cordially agreed. "quite true! quite true! and a reference besides--some substantial person, madam, well known in this city. the responsibility is serious with such pearls as these." "is the reference absolutely necessary?" madame fontaine asked. the foreman privately touched his master behind the counter. understanding the signal, the simple old gentleman closed the jewel-case, and handed it back. "absolutely necessary," he answered. madame fontaine went out again into the street. "a substantial reference" meant a person of some wealth and position in frankfort--a person like mr. keller, for example. where was she to find such a reference? her relatives in the city had deliberately turned their backs on her. out of mr. keller's house, they were literally the only "substantial" people whom she knew. the one chance left seemed to be to try a pawnbroker. at this second attempt, she was encountered by a smart young man. the moment _he_ saw the necklace, he uttered a devout ejaculation of surprise and blew a whistle. the pawnbroker himself appeared--looked at the pearls--looked at the veiled lady--and answered as the jeweler had answered, but less civilly. "i'm not going to get myself into a scrape," said the pawnbroker; "i must have a good reference." madame fontaine was not a woman easily discouraged. she turned her steps towards the noble medieval street called the judengasse--then thickly inhabited; now a spectacle of decrepit architectural old age, to be soon succeeded by a new street. by twos and threes at a time, the jews in this quaint quarter of the town clamorously offered their services to the lady who had come among them. when the individual israelite to whom she applied saw the pearls, he appeared to take leave of his senses. he screamed; he clapped his hands; he called upon his wife, his children, his sisters, his lodgers, to come and feast their eyes on such a necklace as had never been seen since solomon received the queen of sheba. the first excitement having worn itself out, a perfect volley of questions followed. what was the lady's name? where did she live? how had she got the necklace? had it been given to her? and, if so, who had given it? where had it been made? why had she brought it to the judengasse? did she want to sell it? or to borrow money on it? aha! to borrow money on it. very good, very good indeed; but--and then the detestable invitation to produce the reference made itself heard once more. madame fontaine's answer was well conceived. "i will pay you good interest, in place of a reference," she said. upon this, the jewish excitability, vibrating between the desire of gain and the terror of consequences, assumed a new form. some of them groaned; some of them twisted their fingers frantically in their hair; some of them called on the deity worshipped by their fathers to bear witness how they had suffered, by dispensing with references in other cases of precious deposits; one supremely aged and dirty jew actually suggested placing an embargo on the lady and her necklace, and sending information to the city authorities at the town hall. in the case of a timid woman, this sage's advice might actually have been followed. madame fontaine preserved her presence of mind, and left the judengasse as freely as she had entered it. "i can borrow the money elsewhere," she said haughtily at parting. "yes," cried a chorus of voices, answering, "you can borrow of a receiver of stolen goods." it was only too true! the extraordinary value of the pearls demanded, on that account, extraordinary precautions on the part of moneylenders of every degree. madame fontaine put back the necklace in the drawer of her toilette-table. the very splendor of minna's bridal gift made it useless as a means of privately raising money among strangers. and yet, the money must be found--at any risk, under any circumstances, no matter how degrading or how dangerous they might be. with that desperate resolution, she went to her bed. hour after hour she heard the clock strike. the faint cold light of the new day found her still waking and thinking, and still unprepared with a safe plan for meeting the demand on her, when the note became due. as to resources of her own, the value of the few jewels and dresses that she possessed did not represent half the amount of her debt. it was a busy day at the office. the work went on until far into the evening. even when the household assembled at the supper-table, there was an interruption. a messenger called with a pressing letter, which made it immediately necessary to refer to the past correspondence of the firm. mr. keller rose from the table. "the abstracts will rake up less time to examine," he said to mrs. wagner; "you have them in your desk, i think?" she at once turned to jack, and ordered him to produce the key. he took it from his bag, under the watchful eyes of madame fontaine, observing him from the opposite side of the table. "i should have preferred opening the desk myself," jack remarked when mr. keller had left the room; "but i suppose i must give way to the master. besides, he hates me." the widow was quite startled by this strong assertion. "how can you say so?" she exclaimed. "we all like you, jack. come and have a little wine, out of my glass." jack refused this proposal. "i don't want wine," he said; "i am sleepy and cold--i want to go to bed." madame fontaine was too hospitably inclined to take no for an answer. "only a little drop," she pleaded. "you look so cold." "surely you forget what i told you?" mrs. wagner interposed. "wine first excites, and then stupefies him. the last time i tried it, he was as dull and heavy as if i had given him laudanum. i thought i mentioned it to you." she turned to jack. "you look sadly tired, my poor little man. go to bed at once." "without the key?" cried jack indignantly. "i hope i know my duty better than that." mr. keller returned, perfectly satisfied with the result of his investigation. "i knew it!" he said. "the mistake is on the side of our clients; i have sent them the proof of it." he handed back the key to mrs. wagner. she at once transferred it to jack. mr. keller shook his head in obstinate disapproval. "would you run such a risk as that?" he said to madame fontaine, speaking in french. "i should be afraid," she replied in the same language. jack secured the key in his bag, kissed his mistress's hand, and approached the door on his way to bed. "won't you wish me good-night?" said the amiable widow. "i didn't know whether german or english would do for you," jack answered; "and i can't speak your unknown tongue." he made one of his fantastic bows, and left the room. "does he understand french?" madame fontaine asked. "no," said mrs. wagner; "he only understood that you and mr. keller had something to conceal from him." in due course of time the little party at the supper-table rose, and retired to their rooms. the first part of the night passed as tranquilly as usual. but, between one and two in the morning, mrs. wagner was alarmed by a violent beating against her door, and a shrill screaming in jack's voice. "let me in! i want a light--i've lost the keys!" she called out to him to be quiet, while she put on her dressing-gown, and struck a light. they were fortunately on the side of the house occupied by the offices, the other inhabited bedchambers being far enough off to be approached by a different staircase. still, in the silence of the night, jack's reiterated cries of terror and beatings at the door might possibly reach the ears of a light sleeper. she pulled him into the room and closed the door again, with an impetuosity that utterly confounded him. "sit down there, and compose yourself!" she said sternly. "i won't give you the light until you are perfectly quiet. you disgrace _me_ if you disturb the house." between cold and terror, jack shuddered from head to foot. "may i whisper?" he asked, with a look of piteous submission. mrs. wagner pointed to the last living embers in the fireplace. she knew by experience the tranquilizing influence of giving him something to do. "rake the fire together," she said; "and warm yourself first." he obeyed, and then laid himself down in his dog-like way on the rug. a quarter of an hour, at least, passed before his mistress considered him to be in a fit state to tell his story. there was little or nothing to relate. he had put his bag under his pillow as usual; and (after a long sleep) he had woke with a horrid fear that something had happened to the keys. he had felt in vain for them under the pillow, and all over the bed, and all over the floor. "after that," he said, "the horrors got hold of me; and i am afraid i went actually mad, for a little while. i'm all right now, if you please. see! i'm as quiet as a bird with its head under its wing." mrs. wagner took the light, and led the way to his little room, close by her own bedchamber. she lifted the pillow--and there lay the leather bag, exactly where he had placed it when he went to bed. jack's face, when this discovery revealed itself, would have pleaded for mercy with a far less generous woman than mrs. wagner. she took his hand. "get into bed again," she said kindly; "and the next time you dream, try not to make a noise about it." no! jack refused to get into bed again, until he had been heard in his own defense. he dropped on his knees, and held up his clasped hands, as if he was praying. "when you first taught me to say my prayers," he answered, "you said god would hear me. as god hears me now mistress, i was wide awake when i put my hand under the pillow--and the bag was not there. do you believe me?" mrs. wagner was strongly impressed by the simple fervor of this declaration. it was no mere pretense, when she answered that she did believe him. at her suggestion, the bag was unstrapped and examined. not only the unimportant keys (with another one added to their number) but the smaller key which opened her desk were found safe inside. "we will talk about it to-morrow," she said. having wished him good-night, she paused in the act of opening the door, and looked at the lock. there was no key in it, but there was another protection in the shape of a bolt underneath. "did you bolt your door when you went to bed?" she asked. "no." the obvious suspicion, suggested by this negative answer, crossed her mind. "what has become of the key of your door?" she inquired next. jack hung his head. "i put it along with the other keys," he confessed, "to make the bag look bigger." alone again in her own room, mrs. wagner stood by the reanimated fire, thinking. while jack was asleep, any person, with a soft step and a delicate hand, might have approached his bedside, when the house was quiet for the night, and have taken his bag. and, again, any person within hearing of the alarm that he had raised, some hours afterwards, might have put the bag back, while he was recovering himself in mrs. wagner's room. who could have been near enough to hear the alarm? somebody in the empty bedrooms above? or somebody in the solitary offices below? if a theft had really been committed, the one likely object of it would be the key of the desk. this pointed to the probability that the alarm had reached the ears of the thief in the offices. was there any person in the house, from the honest servants upwards, whom it would be reasonably possible to suspect of theft? mrs. wagner returned to her bed. she was not a woman to be daunted by trifles--but on this occasion her courage failed her when she was confronted by her own question. chapter x the office hours, in the winter-time, began at nine o'clock. from the head-clerk to the messenger, not one of the persons employed slept in the house: it was mr. keller's wish that they should all be absolutely free to do what they liked with their leisure time in the evening: "i know that i can trust them, from the oldest to the youngest man in my service," he used to say; "and i like to show it." under these circumstances, mrs. wagner had only to rise earlier than usual, to be sure of having the whole range of the offices entirely to herself. at eight o'clock, with jack in attendance, she was seated at her desk, carefully examining the different objects that it contained. nothing was missing; nothing had been moved out of its customary place. no money was kept in the desk. but her valuable watch, which had stopped on the previous day, had been put there, to remind her that it must be sent to be cleaned. the watch, like everything else, was found in its place. if some person had really opened her desk in the night, no common thief had been concerned, and no common object had been in view. she took the key of the iron safe from its pigeon-hole, and opened the door. her knowledge of the contents of this repository was far from being accurate. the partners each possessed a key, but mr. keller had many more occasions than mrs. wagner for visiting the safe. and to make a trustworthy examination more difficult still, the mist of the early morning was fast turning into a dense white fog. of one thing, however, mrs. wagner was well aware--a certain sum of money, in notes and securities, was always kept in this safe as a reserve fund. she took the tin box in which the paper money was placed close to the light, and counted its contents. then, replacing it in the safe, she opened the private ledger next, to compare the result of her counting with the entry relating to the fund. being unwilling to cause surprise, perhaps to excite suspicion, by calling for a candle before the office hours had begun, she carried the ledger also to the window. there was just light enough to see the sum total in figures. to her infinite relief, it exactly corresponded with the result of her counting. she secured everything again in its proper place; and, after finally locking the desk, handed the key to jack. he shook his head, and refused to take it. more extraordinary still, he placed his bag, with all the other keys in it, on the desk, and said, "please keep it for me; i'm afraid to keep it myself." mrs. wagner looked at him with a first feeling of alarm, which changed instantly to compassion. the tears were in his eyes; his sensitive vanity was cruelly wounded. "my poor boy," she said gently, "what is it that troubles you?" the tears rolled down jack's face. "i'm a wretched creature," he said; "i'm not fit to keep the keys, after letting a thief steal them last night. take them back, mistress--i'm quite broken-hearted. please try me again, in london." "a thief?" mrs. wagner repeated. "haven't you seen me examine everything? and mind, if there _had_ been any dishonest person about the house last night, the key of my desk is the only key that a thief would have thought worth stealing. i happen to be sure of that. come! come! don't be down-hearted. you know i never deceive you--and i say you are quite wrong in suspecting that your bag was stolen last night." jack solemnly lifted his hand, as his custom was in the great emergencies of his life. "and _i_ say," he reiterated, "there is a thief in the house. and you will find it out before long. when we are back in london again, i will be keeper of the keys. never, never, never more, here!" it was useless to contend with him; the one wise course was to wait until his humor changed. mrs. wagner locked up his bag, and put the key of the desk back in her pocket. she was not very willing to own it even to herself--jack's intense earnestness had a little shaken her. after breakfast that morning, minna lingered at the table, instead of following her mother upstairs as usual. when mr. keller also had left the room, she addressed a little request of her own to mrs. wagner. "i have got a very difficult letter to write," she said, "and fritz thought you might be kind enough to help me." "with the greatest pleasure, my dear. does your mother know of this letter?" "yes; it was mamma who said i ought to write it. but she is going out this morning; and, when i asked for a word of advice, she shook her head. 'they will think it comes from me,' she said, 'and the whole effect of it will be spoilt.' it's a letter, mrs. wagner, announcing my marriage to mamma's relations here, who have behaved so badly to her--and she says they may do something for me, if i write to them as if i had done it all out of my own head. i don't know whether i make myself understood?" "perfectly, minna. come to my writing-room, and we will see what we can do together." mrs. wagner led the way out. as she opened the door, madame fontaine passed her in the hall, in walking costume, with a small paper-packet in her hand. "there is a pen, minna. sit down by me, and write what i tell you." the ink-bottle had been replenished by the person charged with that duty; and he had filled it a little too full. in a hurry to write the first words dictated, minna dipped her pen too deeply in the bottle. on withdrawing it she not only blotted the paper but scattered some of the superfluous ink over the sleeve of mrs. wagner's dress. "oh, how awkward i am!" she exclaimed. "excuse me for one minute. mamma has got something in her dressing-case which will take out the marks directly." she ran upstairs, and returned with the powder which her mother had used, in erasing the first sentences on the label attached to the blue-glass bottle. mrs. wagner looked at the printed instructions on the little paper box, when the stains had been removed from her dress, with some curiosity. "macula exstinctor," she read, "or destroyer of stains. partially dissolve the powder in a teaspoonful of water; rub it well over the place, and the stain will disappear, without taking out the color of the dress. this extraordinary specific may also be used for erasing written characters without in any way injuring the paper, otherwise than by leaving a slight shine on the surface." "is this to be got in frankfort?" asked mrs. wagner. "i only know lemon-juice as a remedy against ink-marks, when i get them on my dress or my fingers." "keep it, dear mrs. wagner. i can easily buy another box for mamma where we got this one, at a chemist's in the zeil. see how easily i can take off the blot that i dropped on the paper! unless you look very close, you can hardly see the shine--and the ink has completely disappeared." "thank you, my dear. but your mother might meet with some little accident, and might want your wonderful powder when i am out of the way. take it back when we have done our letter. and we will go to the chemist together and buy another box in a day or two." on the thirtieth of december, after dinner, mr. keller proposed a toast--"success to the adjourned wedding-day!" there was a general effort to be cheerful, which was not rewarded by success. nobody knew why; but the fact remained that nobody was really merry. on the thirty-first, there was more hard work at the office. the last day of the old year was the day on which the balance was struck. towards noon, mr. keller appeared in mrs. wagner's office, and opened the safe. "we must see about the reserve fund," he said; "i will count the money, if you will open the ledger and see that the entry is right. i don't know what you think, but my idea is that we keep too much money lying idle in these prosperous times. what do you say to using half of the customary fund for investment? by the by, our day for dividing the profits is not your day in london. when my father founded this business, the sixth of january was the chosen date--being one way, among others, of celebrating his birthday. we have kept to the old custom, out of regard for his memory; and your worthy husband entirely approved of our conduct. i am sure you agree with him?" "with all my heart," said mrs. wagner. "whatever my good husband thought, i think." mr. keller proceeded to count the fund. "fifteen thousand florins," he announced. "i thought it had been more than that. if poor dear engelman had been here--never mind! what does the ledger say?" "fifteen thousand florins," mrs. wagner answered. "ah, very well, my memory must have deceived me. this used to be engelman's business; and you are as careful as he was--i can say no more." mr. keller replaced the money in the safe, and hastened back to his own office. mrs. wagner raised one side of the ledger off the desk to close the book--stopped to think--and laid it back again. the extraordinary accuracy of mr. keller's memory was proverbial in the office. remembering the compliment which he had paid to her sense of responsibility as mr. engelman's successor, mrs. wagner was not quite satisfied to take it for granted that he had made a mistake--even on the plain evidence of the ledger. a reference to the duplicate entry, in her private account-book, would at once remove even the shadow of a doubt. the last day of the old year was bright and frosty; the clear midday light fell on the open page before her. she looked again at the entry, thus recorded in figures--"15,000 florins"--and observed a trifling circumstance which had previously escaped her. the strokes which represented the figures "15" were unquestionably a little, a very little, thicker than the strokes which represented the three zeros or "noughts" that followed. had a hair got into the pen of the head-clerk, who had made the entry? or was there some trifling defect in the paper, at that particular part of the page? she once more raised one side of the ledger so that the light fell at an angle on the writing. there was a difference between that part of the paper on which the figures "15" were written, and the rest of the page--and the difference consisted in a slight shine on the surface. the side of the ledger dropped from her hand on the desk. she left the office, and ran upstairs to her own room. her private account-book had not been wanted lately--it was locked up in her dressing-case. she took it out, and referred to it. there was the entry as she had copied it, and compared it with the ledger--"20,000 florins." "madame fontaine!" she said to herself in a whisper. chapter xi the new year had come. on the morning of the second of january, mrs. wagner (on her way to the office at the customary hour) was stopped at the lower flight of stairs by madame fontaine--evidently waiting with a purpose. "pardon me," said the widow, "i must speak to you." "these are business hours, madam; i have no time to spare." without paying the slightest heed to this reply--impenetrable, in the petrifying despair that possessed her, to all that looks, tones, and words could say--madame fontaine stood her ground, and obstinately repeated, "i must speak to you." mrs. wagner once more refused. "all that need be said between us has been said," she answered. "have you replaced the money?" "that is what i want to speak about?" "have you replaced the money?" "don't drive me mad, mrs. wagner! as you hope for mercy yourself, at the hour of your death, show mercy to the miserable woman who implores you to listen to her! return with me as far as the drawing-room. at this time of day, nobody will disturb us there. give me five minutes!" mrs. wagner looked at her watch. "i will give you five minutes. and mind, i mean five minutes. even in trifles, i speak the truth." they returned up the stairs, mrs. wagner leading the way. there were two doors of entrance to the drawing-room--one, which opened from the landing, and a smaller door, situated at the farther end of the corridor. this second entrance communicated with a sort of alcove, in which a piano was placed, and which was only separated by curtains from the spacious room beyond. mrs. wagner entered by the main door, and paused, standing near the fire-place. madame fontaine, following her, turned aside to the curtains, and looked through. having assured herself that no person was in the recess, she approached the fire-place, and said her first words. "you told me just now, madam, that _you_ spoke the truth. does that imply a doubt of the voluntary confession----?" "you made no voluntary confession," mrs. wagner interposed. "i had positive proof of the theft that you have committed, when i entered your room. i showed you my private account-book, and when you attempted to defend yourself, i pointed to the means of falsifying the figures in the ledger which lay before me in your own dressing-case. what do you mean by talking of a voluntary confession, after that?" "you mistake me, madam. i was speaking of the confession of my motives--the motives which, in my dreadful position, forced me to take the money, or to sacrifice the future of my daughter's life. i declare that i have concealed nothing from you. as you are a christian woman, don't be hard on me!" mrs. wagner drew back, and eyed her with an expression of contemptuous surprise. "hard on you?" she repeated. "do you know what you are saying? have you forgotten already how i have consented to degrade myself? must i once more remind you of _my_ position? i am bound to tell mr. keller that his money and mine has been stolen; i am bound to tell him that he has taken into his house, and has respected and trusted, a thief. there is my plain duty--and i have consented to trifle with it. are you lost to all sense of decency? have you no idea of the shame that an honest woman must feel, when she knows that her unworthy silence makes her--for the time at least--the accomplice of your crime? do you think it was for your sake--not to be hard on you--that i have consented to this intolerable sacrifice? in the instant when i discovered you i would have sent for mr. keller, but for the sweet girl whose misfortune it is to be your child. once for all, have you anything to say which it is absolutely necessary that i should hear? have you, or have you not, complied with the conditions on which i consented--god help me!--to be what i am?" her voice faltered. she turned away proudly to compose herself. the look that flashed out at her from the widow's eyes, the suppressed fury struggling to force its way in words through the widow's lips, escaped her notice. it was the first, and last, warning of what was to come--and she missed it. "i wished to speak to you of your conditions," madame fontaine resumed, after a pause. "your conditions are impossibilities. i entreat you, in minna's interests--oh! not in mine!--to modify them." the tone in which those words fell from her lips was so unnaturally quiet, that mrs. wagner suddenly turned again with a start, and faced her. "what do you mean by impossibilities? explain yourself." "you are an honest woman, and i am a thief," madame fontaine answered, with the same ominous composure. "how can explanations pass between you and me? have i not spoken plainly enough already? in my position, i say again, your conditions are impossibilities--especially the first of them." there was something in the bitterly ironical manner which accompanied this reply that was almost insolent. mrs. wagner's color began to rise for the first time. "honest conditions are always possible conditions to honest people," she said. perfectly unmoved by the reproof implied in those words, madame fontaine persisted in pressing her request. "i only ask you to modify your terms," she explained. "let us understand each other. do you still insist on my replacing what i have taken, by the morning of the sixth of this month?" "i still insist." "do you still expect me to resign my position here as director of the household, on the day when fritz and minna have become man and wife?" "i still expect that." "permit me to set the second condition aside for awhile. suppose i fail to replace the five thousand florins in your reserve fund?" "if you fail, i shall do my duty to mr. keller, when we divide profits on the sixth of the month." "and you will expose me in this way, knowing that you make the marriage impossible--knowing that you doom my daughter to shame and misery for the rest of her life?" "i shall expose you, knowing that i have kept your guilty secret to the last moment--and knowing what i owe to my partner and to myself. you have still four days to spare. make the most of your time." "i can do absolutely nothing in the time." "have you tried?" the suppressed fury in madame fontaine began to get beyond her control. "do you think i should have exposed myself to the insults that you have heaped upon me if i had _not_ tried?" she asked. "can i get the money back from the man to whom it was paid at wurzburg, when my note fell due on the last day of the old year? do i know anybody who will lend me five thousand florins? will my father do it? his house has been closed to me for twenty years--and my mother, who might have interceded for me, is dead. can i appeal to the sympathy and compassion (once already refused in the hardest terms) of my merciless relatives in this city? i have appealed! i forced my way to them yesterday--i owned that i owed a sum of money which was more, far more, than i could pay. i drank the bitter cup of humiliation to the dregs--i even offered my daughter's necklace as security for a loan. do you want to know what reply i received? the master of the house turned his back on me; the mistress told me to my face that she believed i had stolen the necklace. was the punishment of my offense severe enough, when i heard those words? surely i have asserted some claim to your pity, at last? i only want more time. with a few months before me--with my salary as housekeeper, and the sale of my little valuables, and the proceeds of my work for the picture-dealers--i can, and will, replace the money. you are rich. what is a loan of five thousand florins to you? help me to pass through the terrible ordeal of your day of reckoning on the sixth of the month! help me to see minna married and happy! and if you still doubt my word, take the pearl necklace as security that you will suffer no loss." struck speechless by the outrageous audacity of this proposal, mrs. wagner answered by a look, and advanced to the door. madame fontaine instantly stopped her. "wait!" cried the desperate creature. "think--before you refuse me!" mrs. wagner's indignation found its way at last into words. "i deserved this," she said, "when i allowed you to speak to me. let me pass, if you please." madame fontaine made a last effort--she fell on her knees. "your hard words have roused my pride," she said; "i have forgotten that i am a disgraced woman; i have not spoken humbly enough. see! i am humbled now--i implore your mercy on my knees. this is not only _my_ last chance; it is minna's last chance. don't blight my poor girl's life, for my fault!" "for the second time, madame fontaine, i request you to let me pass. "without an answer to my entreaties? am i not even worthy of an answer?" "your entreaties are an insult. i forgive you the insult." madame fontaine rose to her feet. every trace of agitation disappeared from her face and her manner. "yes," she said, with the unnatural composure that was so strangely out of harmony with the terrible position in which she stood--"yes, from your point of view, i can't deny that it may seem like an insult. when a thief, who has already robbed a person of money, asks that same person to lend her more money, by way of atoning for the theft, there is something very audacious (on the surface) in such a request. i can't fairly expect you to understand the despair which wears such an insolent look. accept my apologies, madam; i didn't see it at first in that light. i must do what i can, while your merciful silence still protects me from discovery--i must do what i can between this and the sixth of the month. permit me to open the door for you." she opened the drawing-room door, and waited. mrs. wagner's heart suddenly quickened its beat. under what influence? could it be fear? she was indignant with herself at the bare suspicion of it. her face flushed deeply, under the momentary apprehension that some outward change might betray her. she left the room, without even trusting herself to look at the woman who stood by the open door, and bowed to her with an impenetrable assumption of respect as she passed out. madame fontaine remained in the drawing-room. she violently closed the door with a stroke of her hand--staggered across the room to a sofa--and dropped on it. a hoarse cry of rage and despair burst from her, now that she was alone. in the fear that someone might hear her, she forced her handkerchief into her mouth, and fastened her teeth into it. the paroxysm passed, she sat up on the sofa, and wiped the perspiration from her face, and smiled to herself. "it was well i stopped here," she thought; "i might have met someone on the stairs." as she rose to leave the drawing-room, fritz's voice reached her from the far end of the corridor. "you are out of spirits, minna. come in, and let us try what a little music will do for you." the door leading into the recess was opened. minna's voice became audible next, on the inner side of the curtains. "i am afraid i can't sing to-day, fritz. i am very unhappy about mamma. she looks so anxious and so ill; and when i ask what is troubling her, she puts me off with an excuse." the melody of those fresh young tones, the faithful love and sympathy which the few simple words expressed, seemed to wring with an unendurable pain the whole being of the mother who heard them. she lifted her hands above her head, and clenched them in the agony which could only venture to seek that silent means of relief. with swift steps, as if the sound of her daughter's voice was unendurable to her, she made for the door. but her movements, on ordinary occasions the perfection of easy grace, felt the disturbing influence of the agitation that possessed her. in avoiding a table on one side, as she passed it, she struck against a chair on the other. fritz instantly opened the curtains, and looked through. "why, here is mamma!" he exclaimed, in his hearty boyish way. minna instantly closed the piano, and hastened to her mother. when madame fontaine looked at her, she paused, with an expression of alarm. "oh, how dreadfully pale and ill you look!" she advanced again, and tried to throw her arms round her mother, and kiss her. gently, very gently, madame fontaine signed to her to draw back. "mamma! what have i done to offend you?" "nothing, my dear." "then why won't you let me come to you?" "no time now, minna. i have something to do. wait till i have done it." "not even one little kiss, mamma?" madame fontaine hurried out of the room without answering and ran up the stairs without looking back. minna's eyes filled with tears. fritz stood at the open door, bewildered. "i wouldn't have believed it, if anybody had told me," he said; "your mother seems to be afraid to let you touch her." fritz had made many mistaken guesses in his time--but, for once, he had guessed right. she _was_ afraid. chapter xii as the presiding genius of the household, madame fontaine was always first in the room when the table was laid for the early german dinner. a knife with a speck on the blade, a plate with a suspicion of dirt on it, never once succeeded in escaping her observation. if joseph folded a napkin carelessly, joseph not only heard of it, but suffered the indignity of seeing his work performed for him to perfection by the housekeeper's dexterous hands. on the second day of the new year, she was at her post as usual, and joseph stood convicted of being wasteful in the matter of wine. he had put one bottle of ohligsberger on the table, at the place occupied by madame fontaine. the wine had already been used at the dinner and the supper of the previous day. at least two-thirds of it had been drunk. joseph set down a second bottle on the opposite side of the table, and produced his corkscrew. madame fontaine took it out of his hand. "why do you open that bottle, before you are sure it will be wanted?" she asked sharply. "you know that mr. keller and his son prefer beer." "there is so little left in the other bottle," joseph pleaded; "not a full tumbler altogether." "it may be enough, little as it is, for mrs. wagner and for me." with that reply she pointed to the door. joseph retired, leaving her alone at the table, until the dinner was ready to be brought into the room. in five minutes more, the family assembled at their meal. joseph performed his customary duties sulkily, resenting the housekeeper's reproof. when the time came for filling the glasses, he had the satisfaction of hearing madame fontaine herself give him orders to draw the cork of a new bottle, after all. mrs. wagner turned to jack, standing behind her chair as usual, and asked for some wine. madame fontaine instantly took up the nearly empty bottle by her side, and, half-filling a glass, handed it with grave politeness across the table. "if you have no objection," she said, "we will finish one bottle, before we open another." mrs. wagner drank her small portion of wine at a draught. "it doesn't seem to keep well, after it has once been opened," she remarked, as she set down her glass. "the wine has quite lost the good flavor it had yesterday." "it ought to keep well," said mr. keller, speaking from his place at the top of the table. "it's old wine, and good wine. let me taste what is left." joseph advanced to carry the remains of the wine to his master. but madame fontaine was beforehand with him. "open the other bottle directly," she said--and rose so hurriedly to take the wine herself to mr. keller, that she caught her foot in her dress. in saving herself from falling, she lost her hold of the bottle. it broke in two pieces, and the little wine left in it ran out on the floor. "pray forgive me," she said, smiling faintly. "it is the first thing i have broken since i have been in the house." the wine from the new bottle was offered to mrs. wagner. she declined to take any: and she left her dinner unfinished on her plate. "my appetite is very easily spoilt," she said. "i dare say there might have been something i didn't notice in the glass--or perhaps my taste may be out of order." "very likely," said mr. keller. "you didn't find anything wrong with the wine yesterday. and there is certainly nothing to complain of in the new bottle," he added, after tasting it. "let us have your opinion, madame fontaine." he filled the housekeeper's glass. "i am a poor judge of wine," she remarked humbly. "it seems to me to be delicious." she put her glass down, and noticed that jack's eyes were fixed on her, with a solemn and scrutinizing attention. "do you see anything remarkable in me?" she asked lightly. "i was thinking," jack answered. "thinking of what?" "this is the first time i ever saw you in danger of tumbling down. it used to be a remark of mine, at wurzburg, that you were as sure-footed as a cat. that's all." "don't you know that there are exceptions to all rules?" said madame fontaine, as amiably as ever. "i notice an exception in you," she continued, suddenly changing the subject. "what has become of your leather bag? may i ask if you have taken away his keys, mrs. wagner?" she had noticed jack's pride in his character as "keeper of the keys." there would be no fear of his returning to the subject of what he had remarked at wurzburg, if she stung him in _that_ tender place. the result did not fail to justify her anticipations. in fierce excitement, jack jumped up on the hind rail of his mistress's chair, eager for the most commanding position that he could obtain, and opened his lips to tell the story of the night alarm. before he could utter a word, mrs. wagner stopped him, with a very unusual irritability of look and manner. "the question was put to _me,"_ she said. "i am taking care of the keys, madame fontaine, at jack's own request. he can have them back again, whenever he chooses to ask for them." "tell her about the thief," jack whispered. "be quiet!" jack was silenced at last. he retired to a corner. when he followed mrs. wagner as usual, on her return to her duties in the office he struck his favorite place on the window seat with his clenched fist. "the devil take frankfort!" he said. "what do you mean?" "i hate frankfort. you were always kind to me in london. you do nothing but lose your temper with me here. it's really too cruel. why shouldn't i have told mrs. housekeeper how i lost my keys in the night? now i come to think of it, i believe she was the thief." "hush! hush! you must not say that. come and shake hands, jack, and make it up. i do feel irritable--i don't know what's the matter with me. remember, mr. keller doesn't like your joining in the talk at dinner-time--he thinks it is taking a liberty. that was one reason why i stopped you. and you might have said something to offend madame fontaine--that was another. it will not be long before we go back to our dear old london. now, be a good boy, and leave me to my work." jack was not quite satisfied; but he was quiet again. for awhile he sat watching mrs. wagner at her work. his thoughts went back to the subject of the keys. other people--the younger clerks and the servants, for example--might have observed that he was without his bag, and might have injuriously supposed that the keys had been taken away from him. little by little, he reached the conclusion that he had been in too great a hurry perhaps to give up the bag. why not prove himself to be worthier of it than ever, by asking to have it back again, and taking care always to lock the door of his bedroom at night? he looked at mrs. wagner, to see if she paused over her work, so as to give him an opportunity of speaking to her. she was not at work; she was not pausing over it. her head hung down over her breast; her hands and arms lay helpless on the desk. he got up and crossed the room on tiptoe, to look at her. she was not asleep. slowly and silently, she turned her head. her eyes stared at him awfully. her mouth was a little crooked. there was a horrid gray paleness all over her face. he dropped terrified on his knees, and clasped her dress in both hands. "oh, mistress, mistress, you are ill! what can i do for you?" she tried to reassure him by a smile. her mouth became more crooked still. "i'm not well," she said, speaking thickly and slowly, with an effort. "help me down. bed. bed." he held out his hands. with another effort, she lifted her arms from the desk, and turned to him on the high office-stool. "take hold of me," she said. "i have got hold of you, mistress! i have got your hands in my hands. don't you feel it?" "press me harder." he closed his hands on hers with all his strength. did she feel it now? yes; she could just feel it now. leaning heavily upon him, she set her feet on the floor. she felt with them as if she was feeling the floor, without quite understanding that she stood on it. the next moment, she reeled against the desk. "giddy," she said, faintly and thickly. "my head." her eyes looked at him, cold and big and staring. they maddened the poor affectionate creature with terror. the frightful shrillness of the past days in bedlam was in his voice, as he screamed for help. mr. keller rushed into the room from his office, followed by the clerks. "fetch the doctor, one of you," he cried. "stop." he mastered himself directly, and called to mind what he had heard of the two physicians who had attended him, during his own illness. "not the old man," he said. "fetch doctor dormann. joseph will show you where he lives." he turned to another of the clerks, supporting mrs. wagner in his arms while he spoke. "ring the bell in the hall--the upstairs bell for madame fontaine!" chapter xiii madame fontaine instantly left her room. alarmed by the violent ringing of the bell, minna followed her mother downstairs. the door of the office was open; they both saw what had happened as soon as they reached the hall. in sending for madame fontaine, mr. keller had placed a natural reliance on the experience and presence of mind of a woman of her age and character. to his surprise, she seemed to be as little able to control herself as her daughter. he was obliged to summon the assistance of the elder of the female servants, in carrying mrs. wagner to her room. jack went with them, holding one of his mistress's helpless hands. his first paroxysm of terror had passed away with the appearance of mr. keller and the clerk, and had left his weak mind stunned by the shock that had fallen on it. he looked about him vacantly. once or twice, on the slow sad progress up the stairs, they heard him whispering to himself, "she won't die--no, no, no; she won't die." his only consolation seemed to be in that helpless confession of faith. when they laid her on the bed, he was close at the side of the pillow. with an effort, her eyes turned on him. with an effort she whispered, "the key!" he understood her--the desk downstairs had been left unlocked. "i'll take care of the key, mistress; i'll take care of them all," he said. as he left the room, he repeated his comforting words, "she won't die--no, no, no; she won't die." he locked the desk and placed the key with the rest in his bag. leaving the office with the bag slung over his shoulder, he stopped at the door of the dining-room, on the opposite side of the hall. his head felt strangely dull. a sudden suspicion that the feeling might show itself in his face, made him change his mind and pause before he ascended the stairs. there was a looking-glass in the dining-room. he went straight to the glass, and stood before it, studying the reflection of his face with breathless anxiety. "do i look stupid-mad?" he asked himself. "they won't let me be with her; they'll send me away, if i look stupid-mad." he turned from the glass, and dropped on his knees before the nearest chair. "perhaps god will keep me quiet," he thought, "if i say my prayers." repeating his few simple words, the poor creature's memory vaguely recalled to him the happy time when his good mistress had first taught him his prayers. the one best relief that could come to him, came--the relief of tears. mr. keller, descending to the hall in his impatience for the arrival of the doctor, found himself unexpectedly confronted by mrs. wagner's crazy attendant. "may i go upstairs to mistress?" jack asked humbly. "i've said my prayers, sir, and i've had a good cry--and my head's easier now." mr. keller spoke to him more gently than usual. "you had better not disturb your mistress before the doctor comes." "may i wait outside her door, sir? i promise to be very quiet." mr. keller consented by a sign. jack took off his shoes, and noiselessly ascended the stairs. before he reached the first landing, he turned and looked back into the hall. "mind this!" he announced very earnestly; "i say she won't die--_i_ say that!" he went on up the stairs. for the first time mr. keller began to pity the harmless little man whom he had hitherto disliked. "poor wretch!" he said to himself, as he paced up and down the hall, "what will become of him, if she does die?" in ten minutes more, doctor dormann arrived at the house. his face showed that he thought badly of the case, as soon as he looked at mrs. wagner. he examined her, and made all the necessary inquiries, with the unremitting attention to details which was part of his professional character. one of his questions could only be answered generally. having declared his opinion that the malady was paralysis, and that some of the symptoms were far from being common in his medical experience, he inquired if mrs. wagner had suffered from any previous attack of the disease. mr. keller could only reply that he had known her from the time of her marriage, and that he had never (in the course of a long and intimate correspondence with her husband) heard of her having suffered from serious illness of any kind. doctor dormann looked at his patient narrowly, and looked back again at mr. keller with unconcealed surprise. "at her age," he said, "i have never seen any first attack of paralysis so complicated and so serious as this." "is there danger?" mr. keller asked in a whisper. "she is not an old woman," the doctor answered; "there is always hope. the practice in these cases generally is to bleed. in this case, the surface of the body is cold; the heart's action is feeble--i don't like to try bleeding, if i can possibly avoid it." after some further consideration, he directed a system of treatment which, in some respects, anticipated the practice of a later and wiser time. having looked at the women assembled round the bed--and especially at madame fontaine--he said he would provide a competent nurse, and would return to see the effect of the remedies in two hours. looking at madame fontaine, after the doctor had gone away, mr. keller felt more perplexed than ever. she presented the appearance of a woman who was completely unnerved. "i am afraid you are far from well yourself," he said. "i have not felt well, sir, for some time past," she answered, without looking at him. "you had better try what rest and quiet will do for you," he suggested. "yes, i think so." with that reply--not even offering, for the sake of appearances, to attend on mrs. wagner until the nurse arrived--she took her daughter's arm, and went out. the woman-servant was fortunately a discreet person. she remembered the medical instructions, and she undertook all needful duties, until the nurse relieved her. jack (who had followed the doctor into the room, and had watched him attentively) was sent away again for the time. he would go no farther than the outer side of the door. mr. keller passed him, crouched up on the mat, biting his nails. he was apparently thinking of the doctor. he said to himself, "that man looked puzzled; that man knows nothing about it." in the meantime, madame fontaine reached her room. "where is fritz?" she asked, dropping her daughter's arm. "he has gone out, mamma. don't send me away! you seem to be almost as ill as poor mrs. wagner--i want to be with you." madame fontaine hesitated. "do you love me with all your heart and soul?" she asked suddenly. "are you worthy of any sacrifice that a mother can make for her child?" before the girl could answer, she spoke more strangely still. "are you just as fond of fritz as ever? would it break your heart if you lost him?" minna placed her mother's hand on her bosom. "feel it, mamma," she said quietly. madame fontaine took her chair by the fire-side--seating herself with her back to the light. she beckoned to her daughter to sit by her. after an interval, minna ventured to break the silence. "i am very sorry for mrs. wagner, mamma; she has always been so kind to me. do you think she will die?" resting her elbows on her knees, staring into the fire, the widow lifted her head--looked round--and looked back again at the fire. "ask the doctor," she said. "don't ask me." there was another long interval of silence. minna's eyes were fixed anxiously on her mother. madame fontaine remained immovable, still looking into the fire. afraid to speak again, minna sought refuge from the oppressive stillness in a little act of attention. she took a fire-screen from the chimney-piece, and tried to place it gently in her mother's hand. at that light touch, madame fontaine sprang to her feet as if she had felt the point of a knife. had she seen some frightful thing? had she heard some dreadful sound? "i can't bear it!" she cried--"i can't bear it any longer!" "are you in pain, mamma? will you lie down on the bed?" her mother only looked at her. she drew back trembling, and said no more. madame fontaine crossed the room to the wardrobe. when she spoke next, she was outwardly quite calm again. "i am going out for a walk," she said. "a walk, mamma? it's getting dark already." "dark or light, my nerves are all on edge--i must have air and exercise." "let me go with you?" she paced backwards and forwards restlessly, before she answered. "the room isn't half large enough!" she burst out. "i feel suffocated in these four walls. space! space! i must have space to breathe in! did you say you wished to go out with me? i want a companion, minna. don't you mind the cold?" "i don't even feel it, in my fur cloak." "get ready, then, directly." in ten minutes more, the mother and daughter were out of the house. chapter xiv doctor dormann was punctual to his appointment. he was accompanied by a stranger, whom he introduced as a surgeon. as before, jack slipped into the room, and waited in a corner, listening and watching attentively. instead of improving under the administration of the remedies, the state of the patient had sensibly deteriorated. on the rare occasions when she attempted to speak, it was almost impossible to understand her. the sense of touch seemed to be completely lost--the poor woman could no longer feel the pressure of a friendly hand. and more ominous still, a new symptom had appeared; it was with evident difficulty that she performed the act of swallowing. doctor dormann turned resignedly to the surgeon. "there is no other alternative," he said; "you must bleed her." at the sight of the lancet and the bandage, jack started out of his corner. his teeth were fast set; his eyes glared with rage. before he could approach the surgeon mr. keller took him sternly by the arm and pointed to the door. he shook himself free--he saw the point of the lancet touch the vein. as the blood followed the incision, a cry of horror burst from him: he ran out of the room. "wretches! tigers! how dare they take her blood from her! oh, why am i only a little man? why am i not strong enough to fling the brutes out of the window? mistress! mistress! is there nothing i can do to help you?" these wild words poured from his lips in the solitude of his little bedchamber. in the agony that he suffered, as the sense of mrs. wagner's danger now forced itself on him, he rolled on the floor, and struck himself with his clenched fists. and, again and again, he cried out to her, "mistress! mistress! is there nothing i can do to help you?" the strap that secured his keys became loosened, as his frantic movements beat the leather bag, now on one side, and now on the other, upon the floor. the jingling of the keys rang in his ears. for a moment, he lay quite still. then, he sat up on the floor. he tried to think calmly. there was no candle in the room. the nearest light came from a lamp on the landing below. he got up, and went softly down the stairs. alone on the landing, he held up the bag and looked at it. "there's something in my mind, trying to speak to me," he said to himself. "perhaps, i shall find it in here?" he knelt down under the light, and shook out the keys on the landing. one by one he ranged them in a row, with a single exception. the key of the desk happened to be the first that he took up. he kissed it--it was _her_ key--and put it back in the bag. placing the others before him, the duplicate key was the last in the line. the inscription caught his eye. he held it to the light and read "pink-room cupboard." the lost recollection now came back to him in intelligible form. the "remedy" that madame fontaine had locked up--the precious "remedy" made by the wonderful master who knew everything--was at his disposal. he had only to open the cupboard, and to have it in his own possession. he threw the other keys back into the bag. they rattled as he ran down the lower flight of stairs. opposite to the offices, he stopped and buckled them tight with the strap. no noise! nothing to alarm mrs. housekeeper! he ascended the stairs in the other wing of the house, and paused again when he approached madame fontaine's room. by this time, he was in the perilous fever of excitement, which was still well remembered among the authorities of bedlam. suppose the widow happened to be in her room? suppose she refused to let him have the "remedy"? he looked at the outstretched fingers of his right hand. "i am strong enough to throttle a woman," he said, "and i'll do it." he opened the door without knocking, without stopping to listen outside. not a creature was in the room. in another moment the fatal dose of "alexander's wine," which he innocently believed to be a beneficent remedy, was in his possession. as he put it into the breast-pocket of his coat, the wooden chest caught his eye. he reached it down and tried the lid. the lid opened in his hand, and disclosed the compartments and the bottles placed in them. one of the bottles rose higher by an inch or two than any of the others. he drew that one out first to look at it, and discovered--the "blue-glass bottle." from that moment all idea of trying the effect on mrs. wagner of the treacherous "remedy" in his pocket vanished from his mind. he had secured the inestimable treasure, known to him by his own experience. here was the heavenly bottle that had poured life down his throat, when he lay dying at wurzburg! this was the true and only doctor who had saved mr. keller's life, when the poor helpless fools about his bed had given him up for lost! the mistress, the dear mistress, was as good as cured already. not a drop more of her precious blood should be shed by the miscreant, who had opened his knife and wounded her. oh, of all the colors in the world, there's no color like blue! of all the friends in the world, there never was such a good friend as this! he kissed and hugged the bottle as if it had been a living thing. he jumped up and danced about the room with it in his arms. ha! what music there was in the inner gurgling and splashing of the shaken liquid, which told him that there was still some left for the mistress! the striking of the clock on the mantelpiece sobered him at the height of his ecstasy. it told him that time was passing. minute by minute, death might be getting nearer and nearer to her; and there he was, with life in his possession, wasting the time, far from her bedside. on his way to the door, he stopped. his eyes turned slowly towards the inner part of the room. they rested on the open cupboard--and then they looked at the wooden chest, left on the floor. suppose the housekeeper should return, and see the key in the cupboard, and the chest with one of the bottles missing? his only counselor at that critical moment was his cunning; stimulated into action by the closely related motive powers of his inbred vanity, and his devotion to the benefactress whom he loved. the chance of being discovered by madame fontaine never entered into his calculations. he cared nothing whether she discovered him or not--he had got the bottle, and woe to her if she tried to take it away from him! what he really dreaded was, that the housekeeper might deprive him of the glory of saving mrs. wagner's life, if she found out what had happened. she might follow him to the bedside; she might claim the blue-glass bottle as her property; she might say, "i saved mr. keller; and now i have saved mrs. wagner. this little man is only the servant who gave the dose, which any other hand might have poured out in his place." until these considerations occurred to him, his purpose had been to announce his wonderful discovery publicly at mrs. wagner's bedside. this intention he now abandoned, without hesitation. he saw a far more inviting prospect before him. what a glorious position for him it would be, if he watched his opportunity of administering the life-giving liquid privately--if he waited till everybody was astonished at the speedy recovery of the suffering woman--and then stood up before them all, and proclaimed himself as the man who had restored her to health! he replaced the chest, and locked the cupboard; taking the key away with him. returning to the door, he listened intently to make sure that nobody was outside, and kept the blue-glass bottle hidden under his coat when he ventured at last to leave the room. he reached the other wing of the house, and ascended the second flight of stairs, without interruption of any kind. safe again in his own room, he watched through the half-opened door. before long, doctor dormann and the surgeon appeared, followed by mr. keller. the three went downstairs together. on the way, the doctor mentioned that he had secured a nurse for the night. still keeping the bottle concealed, jack knocked softly at the door, and entered mrs. wagner's room. he first looked at the bed. she lay still and helpless, noticing nothing; to all appearance, poor soul, a dying woman. the servant was engaged in warming something over the fire. she shook her head gloomily, when jack inquired if any favorable change had place in his absence. he sat down, vainly trying to discover how he might find the safe opportunity of which he was in search. the slow minutes followed each other. after a little while the woman-servant looked at the clock. "it's time mrs. wagner had her medicine," she remarked, still occupied with her employment at the fire. jack saw his opportunity in those words. "please let me give the medicine," he said. "bring it here," she answered; "i mustn't trust anybody to measure it out. "surely i can give it to her, now it's ready?" jack persisted. the woman handed the glass to him. "i can't very well leave what i am about," she said. "mind you are careful not to spill any of it. she's as patient as a lamb, poor creature. if she can only swallow it, she won't give you any trouble." jack carried the glass round to the farther side of the bed, so as to keep the curtains as a screen between himself and the fire-place. he softly dropped out the contents of the glass on the carpet, and filled it again from the bottle concealed under his coat. waiting a moment after that, he looked towards the door. what if the housekeeper came in, and saw the blue-glass bottle? he snatched it up--an empty bottle now--and put it in the side-pocket of his coat, and arranged his handkerchief so as to hide that part of it which the pocket was not deep enough to conceal. "now!" he thought to himself, "now i may venture!" he gently put his arm round mrs. wagner, and raised her on the pillow. "your medicine, dear mistress," he whispered. "you will take it from poor jack, won't you?" the sense of hearing still remained. her vacant eyes turned towards him by slow degrees. no outward expression answered to her thought; she could show him that she submitted, and she could do no more. he dashed away the tears that blinded him. supported by the firm belief that he was saving her life, he took the glass from the bedside-table and put it to her lips. with painful efforts, with many intervals of struggling breath, she swallowed the contents of the glass, by a few drops at a time. he held it up under the shadowed lamplight, and saw that it was empty. as he laid her head back on the pillows, he ventured to touch her cold cheek with his lips. "has she taken it?" the woman asked. he was just able to answer "yes"--just able to look once more at the dear face on the pillow. the tumult of contending emotions, against which he had struggled thus far, overpowered his utmost resistance. he ran to hide the hysterical passion in him, forcing its way to relief in sobs and cries, on the landing outside. in the calmer moments that followed, the fear still haunted him that madame fontaine might discover the empty compartment in the medicine-chest--might search every room in the house for the lost bottle--and might find it empty. even if he broke it, and threw the fragments into the dusthole, the fragments might be remarked for their beautiful blue color, and the discovery might follow. where could he hide it? while he was still trying to answer that question, the hours of business came to an end, and the clerks were leaving the offices below. he heard them talking about the hard frost as they went out. one of them said there were blocks of ice floating down the river already. the river! it was within a few minutes' walk of the house. why not throw the bottle into the river? he waited until there was perfect silence below, and then stole downstairs. as he opened the door, a strange man met him, ascending the house-steps, with a little traveling bag in his hand. "is this mr. keller's?" asked the strange man. he was a jolly-looking old fellow with twinkling black eyes and a big red nose. his breath was redolent of the smell of wine, and his thick lips expanded into a broad grin, when he looked at jack. "my name's schwartz," he said; "and here in this bag are my sister's things for the night." "who is your sister?" jack inquired. schwartz laughed. "quite right, little man, how should you know who she is? my sister's the nurse. she's hired by doctor dormann, and she'll be here in an hour's time. i say! that's a pretty bottle you're hiding there under your coat. is there any wine in it?" jack began to tremble. he had been discovered by a stranger. even the river might not be deep enough to keep his secret now! "the cold has got into my inside," proceeded the jolly old man. "be a good little fellow--and give us a drop!" "i haven't got any wine in it," jack answered. schwartz laid his forefinger confidentially along the side of his big red nose. "i understand," he said, "you were just going out to get some." he put his sister's bag on one of the chairs in the hall, and took jack's arm in the friendliest manner. "suppose you come along with me?" he suggested. "i am the man to help you to the best tap of wine in frankfort. bless your heart! you needn't feel ashamed of being in my company. my sister's a most respectable woman. and what do you think i am? i'm one of the city officers. ho! ho! just think of that! i'm not joking, mind. the regular night watchman at the deadhouse is ill in bed, and they're obliged to find somebody to take his place till he gets well again. i'm the somebody. they tried two other men--but the deadhouse gave them the horrors. my respectable sister spoke for me, you know. "the regular watchman will be well in a week," she says; "try him for a week." and they tried me. i'm not proud, though i am a city officer. come along--and let me carry the bottle." "the bottle" again! and, just as this intrusive person spoke of it, joseph's voice was audible below, and joseph's footsteps gave notice that he was ascending the kitchen stairs. in the utter bewilderment of the moment, jack ran out, with the one idea of escaping the terrible possibilities of discovery in the hall. he heard the door closed behind him--then heavy boots thumping the pavement at a quick trot. before he had got twenty yards from the house, the vinous breath of schwartz puffed over his shoulder, and the arm of the deputy-night-watchman took possession of him again. "not too fast--i'm nimble on my legs for a man of my age--but not too fast," said his new friend. "you're just the sort of little man i like. my sister will tell you i take sudden fancies to people of your complexion. my sister's a most respectable woman. what's your name?--jack? a capital name! short, with a smack in it like the crack of a whip. _do_ give me the bottle!" he took it this time, without waiting to have it given to him. "there! might drop it, you know," he said. "it's safe in my friendly hands. where are you going to? you don't deal, i hope, at the public-house up that way? a word in your ear--the infernal scoundrel waters his wine. here's the turning where the honest publican lives. i have the truest affection for him. i have the truest affection for you. would you like to see the deadhouse, some night? it's against the rules; but that don't matter. the cemetery overseer is a deal too fond of his bed to turn out these cold nights and look after the watchman. it's just the right place for me. there's nothing to do but to drink, when you have got the liquor; and to sleep, when you haven't. the dead who come our way, my little friend, have one great merit. we are supposed to help them, if they're perverse enough to come to life again before they're buried. there they lie in our house, with one end of the line tied to their fingers, and the other end at the spring of the alarm-bell. and they have never rung the bell yet--never once, bless their hearts, since the deadhouse was built! come and see me in the course of the week, and we'll drink a health to our quiet neighbors." they arrived at the door of the public-house. "you've got some money about you, i suppose?" said schwartz. madame fontaine's generosity, when she gave jack the money to buy a pair of gloves, had left a small surplus in his pocket. he made a last effort to escape from the deputy-watchman. "there's the money," he said. "give me back the bottle, and go and drink by yourself." schwartz took him by the shoulder, and surveyed him from head to foot by the light of the public-house lamp. "drink by myself?" he repeated. "am i a jolly fellow, or am i not? yes, or no?" "yes," said jack, trying hard to release himself. schwartz tightened his hold. "did you ever hear of a jolly fellow, who left his friend at the public-house door?" he asked. "if you please, sir, i don't drink," jack pleaded. schwartz burst into a great roar of laughter, and kicked open the door of the public-house. "that's the best joke i ever heard in my life," he said. "we've got money enough to fill the bottle, and to have a glass a-piece besides. come along!" he dragged jack into the house. the bottle was filled; the glasses were filled. "my sister's health! long life and prosperity to my respectable sister! you can't refuse to drink the toast." with those words, he put the fatal glass into his companion's hand. jack tasted the wine. it was cool; it was good. perhaps it was not so strong as mr. keller's wine? he tried it again--and emptied the glass. an hour later, there was a ring at the door of mr. keller's house. joseph opened the door, and discovered a red-nosed old man, holding up another man who seemed to be three parts asleep, and who was quite unable to stand on his legs without assistance. the light of the hall lamp fell on this helpless creature's face, and revealed--jack. "put him to bed," said the red-nosed stranger. "and, look here, take charge of the bottle for him, or he'll break it. somehow, the wine has all leaked out. where's my sister's bag?" "do you mean the nurse?" "of course i do! i defy the world to produce the nurse's equal. has she come?" joseph held up his hand with a gesture of grave reproof. "not so loud," he said. "the nurse has come too late." "has the lady got well again?" "the lady is dead." chapter xv doctor dormann had behaved very strangely. he was the first person who made the terrible discovery of the death. when he came to the house, on his evening visit to his patient, mr. keller was in the room. half an hour before, mrs. wagner had spoken to him. seeing a slight movement of her lips, he had bent over her, and had just succeeded in hearing her few last words, "be kind to jack." her eyelids dropped wearily, after the struggle to speak. mr. keller and the servant in attendance both supposed that she had fallen asleep. the doctor's examination was not only prolonged beyond all customary limits of time in such cases--it was the examination (judging by certain expressions which escaped him) of a man who seemed to be unwilling to trust his own experience. the new nurse arrived, before he had definitely expressed his opinion; and the servant was instructed to keep her waiting downstairs. in expectation of the doctor's report, mr. keller remained in the bedroom. doctor dormann might not have noticed this circumstance, or might not have cared to conceal what was passing in his mind. in either case, when he spoke at last, he expressed himself in these extraordinary terms:-"the second suspicious illness in this house! and the second incomprehensible end to it!" mr. keller at once stepped forward, and showed himself. "did you mean me to hear what you have just said?" he asked. the doctor looked at him gravely and sadly. "i must speak to you privately, mr. keller. before we leave the room, permit me to send for the nurse. you may safely trust her to perform the last sad duties." mr. keller started. "good god!" he exclaimed, "is mrs. wagner dead?" "to my astonishment, she is dead." he laid a strong emphasis on the first part of his reply. the nurse having received her instructions, mr. keller led the way to his private room. "in my responsible position," he said, "i may not unreasonably expect that you will explain yourself without reserve." "on such a serious matter as this," doctor dormann answered, "it is my duty to speak without reserve. the person whom you employ to direct the funeral will ask you for the customary certificate. i refuse to give it." this startling declaration roused a feeling of anger, rather than of alarm, in a man of mr. keller's resolute character. "for what reason do you refuse?" he asked sternly. "i am not satisfied, sir, that mrs. wagner has died a natural death. my experience entirely fails to account for the suddenly fatal termination of the disease, in the case of a patient of her healthy constitution, and at her comparatively early age." "doctor dormann, do you suspect there is a poisoner in my house?" "in plain words, i do." "in plain words on my side, i ask why?" "i have already given you my reason." "is your experience infallible? have you never made a mistake?" "i made a mistake, mr. keller (as it appeared at the time), in regard to your own illness." "what! you suspected foul play in my case too?" "yes; and, by way of giving you another reason, i will own that the suspicion is still in my mind. after what i have seen this evening--and only after that, observe--i say the circumstances of your recovery are suspicious circumstances in themselves. remember, if you please, that neither i nor my colleague really understood what was the matter with you; and that you were cured by a remedy, not prescribed by either of us. you were rapidly sinking; and your regular physician had left you. i had to choose between the certainty of your death, and the risk of letting you try a remedy, with the nature of which (though i did my best to analyze it) i was imperfectly acquainted. i ran the risk. the result has justified me--and up to this day, i have kept my misgivings to myself. i now find them renewed by mrs. wagner's death--and i speak." mr. keller's manner began to change. his tone was sensibly subdued. he understood the respect which was due to the doctor's motives at last. "may i ask if the symptoms of my illness resembled the symptoms of mrs. wagner's illness?" he said. "far from it. excepting the nervous derangement, in both cases, there was no other resemblance in the symptoms. the conclusion, to my mind, is not altered by this circumstance. it simply leads me to the inference that more than one poison may have been used. i don't attempt to solve the mystery. i have no idea why your life has been saved, and mrs. wagner's life sacrificed--or what motives have been at work in the dark. ask yourself--don't ask me--in what direction suspicion points. i refuse to sign the certificate of death; and i have told you why." "give me a moment," said mr. keller, "i don't shrink from my responsibility; i only ask for time to compose myself." it was the pride of his life to lean on nobody for help. he walked to the window; hiding all outward betrayal of the consternation that shook him to the soul. when he returned to his chair, he scrupulously avoided even the appearance of asking doctor dormann for advice. "my course is plain," he said quietly. "i must communicate your decision to the authorities; and i must afford every assistance in my power to the investigation that will follow. it shall be done, when the magistrates meet to-morrow morning." "we will go together to the town-hall, mr. keller. it is my duty to inform the burgomaster that this is a case for the special safeguards, sanctioned by the city regulations. i must also guarantee that there is no danger to the public health, in the removal of the body from your house." "the immediate removal?" mr. keller asked. "no! the removal twenty-four hours after death." "to what place?" "to the deadhouse." chapter xvi acting on the doctor's information, the burgomaster issued his order. at eight o'clock in the evening, on the third of january, the remains of mrs. wagner were to be removed to the cemetery-building, outside the friedberg gate of frankfort. long before the present century, the dread of premature interment--excited by traditions of persons accidentally buried alive--was a widely-spread feeling among the people of germany. in other cities besides frankfort, the municipal authorities devised laws, the object of which was to make this frightful catastrophe impossible. in the early part of the present century, these laws were re-enacted and revised by the city of frankfort. the deadhouse was attached to the cemetery, with a double purpose. first, to afford a decent resting-place for the corpse, when death occurred among the crowded residences of the poorer class of the population. secondly, to provide as perfect a safeguard as possible against the chances of premature burial. the use of the deadhouse (strictly confined to the christian portion of the inhabitants) was left to the free choice of surviving relatives or representatives--excepting only those cases in which a doctor's certificate justified the magistrate in pronouncing an absolute decision. even in the event of valid objections to the deadhouse as a last resting-place on the way to the grave, the doctor in attendance on the deceased person was subjected to certain restrictions in issuing his certificate. he was allowed to certify the death informally, for the purpose of facilitating the funeral arrangements. but he was absolutely forbidden to give his written authority for the burial, before the expiration of three nights from the time of the death; and he was further bound to certify that the signs of decomposition had actually begun to show themselves. have these multiplied precautions, patiently applied in many german cities, through a long lapse of years, ever yet detected a case in which death has failed to complete its unintelligible work? let the answer be found in the cells of the dead. pass, with the mourners, through the iron gates--hear and see! on the evening of the third, as the time approached for the arrival of the hearse, the melancholy stillness in the house was only broken by mr. keller's servants, below-stairs. collecting together in one room, they talked confidentially, in low voices. an instinctive horror of silence, in moments of domestic distress, is, in all civilized nations, one of the marked characteristics of their class. "in ten minutes," said joseph, "the men from the cemetery will be here to take her away. it will be no easy matter to carry her downstairs on the couch." "why is she not put in her coffin, like other dead people?" the housemaid asked. "because the crazy creature she brought with her from london is allowed to have his own way in the house," joseph answered irritably. "if i had been brought to the door drunk last night, i should have been sent away this morning. if i had been mad enough to screech out, 'she isn't dead; not one of you shall put her in a coffin!'--i should have richly deserved a place in the town asylum, and i should have got my deserts. nothing of the sort for master jack. mr. keller only tells him to be quiet, and looks distressed. the doctor takes him away, and speaks to him in another room--and actually comes back converted to jack's opinion!" "you don't mean to tell us," exclaimed the cook, "that the doctor said she wasn't dead?" "of course not. it was he who first found out that she _was_ dead--i only mean that he let jack have his own way. he asked me for a foot rule, and he measured the little couch in the bedroom. 'it's no longer than the coffin' (he says); 'and i see no objection to the body being laid on it, till the time comes for the burial.' those were his own words; and when the nurse objected to it, what do you think he said?--'hold your tongue! a couch is a pleasanter thing all the world over than a coffin.'" "blasphemous!" said the cook--"that's what i call it." "ah, well, well!" the housemaid remarked, "couch or coffin, she looks beautiful, poor soul, in her black velvet robe, with the winter flowers in her pretty white hands. who got the flowers? madame fontaine, do you think?" "bah! madame fontaine, indeed! little crazybrains went out (instead of eating the good dinner i cooked for him), and got the flowers. he wouldn't let anybody put them into her hands but himself--at least, so the nurse said. has anybody seen madame housekeeper? was she downstairs at dinner to-day, joseph?" "not she! you mark my words," said joseph, "there's some very serious reason for her keeping her room, on pretense of being ill." "can you give any guess what it is?" "you shall judge for yourself," joseph answered. "did i tell you what happened yesterday evening, before jack was brought home by the nurse's brother? i answered a ring at the door-bell--and there was mr. fritz in a towering passion, with miss minna on his arm looking ready to drop with fatigue. they rang for some wine; and i heard what he said to his father. it seems that madame fontaine had gone out walking in the dark and the cold (and her daughter with her), without rhyme or reason. mr. fritz met them, and insisted on taking miss minna home. her mother didn't seem to care what he said or did. she went on walking by herself, as hard as she could lay her feet to the ground. and what do you suppose her excuse was? her nerves were out of order! mr. fritz's notion is that there is something weighing on her mind. an hour afterwards she came back to the house--and i found reason to agree with mr. fritz." "tell us all about it, joseph! what did she do?" "you shall hear. it happened, just after i had seen crazy jack safe in his bed. when i heard the bell, i was on my way downstairs, with a certain bottle in my hand. one of you saw the nurse's brother give it to me, i think? how he and crazybrains came into possession of it, mind you, is more than i know." "it looked just like the big medicine-bottle that cured mr. keller," said the cook. "it _was_ the bottle; and, what is more, it smelt of wine, instead of medicine, and it was empty. well, i opened the door to madame housekeeper, with the bottle in my hand. the instant she set eyes on it, she snatched it away from me. she looked--i give you my word of honor, she looked as if she could have cut my throat. "you wretch!"--nice language to use to a respectable servant, eh?--"you wretch" (she says), "how did you come by this?" i made her a low bow. i said, "civility costs nothing, ma'am; and sometimes buys a great deal" (severe, eh?). i told her exactly what had happened, and exactly what schwartz had said. and then i ended with another hard hit. "the next time anything of yours is put into my hands," i said, "i shall leave it to take care of itself." i don't know whether she heard me; she was holding the bottle up to the light. when she saw it was empty--well! i can't tell you, of course, what was passing in her mind. but this i can swear; she shivered and shuddered as if she had got a fit of the ague; and pale as she was when i let her into the house, i do assure you she turned paler still. i thought i should have to take _her_ upstairs next. my good creatures, she's made of iron! upstairs she went. i followed her as far as the first landing, and saw mr. keller waiting--to tell her the news of mrs. wagner's death, i suppose. what passed between them i can't say. mr. fritz tells me she has never left her room since; and his father has not even sent a message to know how she is. what do you think of that?" "i think mr. fritz was mistaken, when he told you she had never left her room," said the housemaid. "i am next to certain i heard her whispering, early this morning, with crazy jack. do you think she will follow the hearse to the deadhouse, with mr. keller and the doctor?" "hush!" said joseph. as he spoke, the heavy wheels of the hearse were heard in the street. he led the way to the top of the kitchen stairs. "wait here," he whispered, "while i answer the door--and you will see." upstairs, in the drawing-room, fritz and minna were alone. madame fontaine's door, closed to everyone, was a closed door even to her daughter. fritz had refused to let minna ask a second time to be let in. "it will soon be your husband's privilege, my darling, to take care of you and comfort you," he said. "at this dreadful time, there must be no separation between you and me." his arm was round her; her head rested on his shoulder. she looked up at him timidly. "are you not going with them to the cemetery?" she asked. "i am going to stay with you, minna." "you were angry yesterday, fritz, when you met me with my mother. don't think the worse of her, because she is ill and troubled in her mind. you will make allowances for her as i do--won't you?" "my sweet girl, there is nothing i won't do to please you! kiss me, minna. again! again!" on the higher floor of the house, mr. keller and the doctor were waiting in the chamber of death. jack kept his silent watch by the side of the couch, on which the one human creature who had befriended him lay hushed in the last earthly repose. still, from time to time, he whispered to himself the sad senseless words, "no, no, no--not dead, mistress! not dead yet!" there was a soft knock at the door. the doctor opened it. madame fontaine stood before him. she spoke in dull monotonous tones--standing in the doorway; refusing, when she was invited by a gesture, to enter the room. "the hearse has stopped at the door," she said. "the men wish to ask you if they can come in." it was joseph's duty to make this announcement. her motive for forestalling him showed itself dimly in her eyes. they were not on mr. keller; not on the doctor; not on the couch. from the moment when the door had been opened to her, she fixed her steady look on jack. it never moved until the bearers of the dead hid him from her when they entered the room. the procession passed out. jack, at mr. keller's command, followed last. standing back at the doorway, madame fontaine caught him by the arm as he came out. "you were half asleep this morning," she whispered. "you are not half asleep now. how did you get the blue-glass bottle? i insist on knowing." "i won't tell you!" madame fontaine altered her tone. "will you tell me who emptied the bottle? i have always been kind to you--it isn't much to ask. who emptied it?" his variable temper changed; he lifted his head proudly. absolutely sure of his mistress's recovery, he now claimed the merit that was his due. _"i_ emptied it!" "how did you empty it?" she asked faintly. "did you throw away what was in it? did you give it to anybody?" he seized her in his turn--and dragged her to the railing of the corridor. "look there!" he cried, pointing to the bearers, slowly carrying their burden down the stairs. "do you see her, resting on her little sofa till she recovers? i gave it to her!" he left her, and descended the stairs. she staggered back against the wall of the corridor. her sight seemed to be affected. she groped for the stair-rail, and held by it. the air was wafted up through the open street-door. it helped her to rally her energies. she went down steadily, step by step, to the first landing--paused, and went down again. arrived in the hall, she advanced to mr. keller, and spoke to him. "are you going to see the body laid in the deadhouse?" "yes." "is there any objection to my seeing it too?" "the authorities have no objection to admitting friends of the deceased person," mr. keller answered. he looked at her searchingly, and added, "do _you_ go as a friend?" it was rashly said; and he knew it. the magistrates had decided that the first inquiries should be conducted with the greatest secrecy. for that day, at least, the inmates of the house were to enjoy their usual liberty of action (under private superintendence), so that no suspicion might be excited in the mind of the guilty person. conscious of having trifled with the serious necessity of keeping a guard over his tongue, mr. keller waited anxiously for madame fontaine's reply. not a word fell from her lips. there was a slight hardening of her face, and no more. in ominous silence, she turned about and ascended the stairs again. chapter xvii the departure from the house was interrupted by an unforeseen cause of delay. jack refused to follow the hearse with doctor dormann and mr. keller. "i won't lose sight of her!" he cried--"no! not for a moment! of all living creatures, i must be the first to see her when she wakes." mr. keller turned to the doctor. "what does he mean?" the doctor, standing back in the shadow of the house, seemed to have some reason for not answering otherwise than by gesture. he touched his forehead significantly; and, stepping out into the road, took jack by the hand. the canopy of the hearse, closed at the sides, was open at either end. from the driver's seat, the couch became easily visible on looking round. with inexhaustible patience the doctor quieted the rising excitement in jack, and gained him permission to take his place by the driver's side. always grateful for kindness, he thanked doctor dormann, with the tears falling fast over his cheeks. "i'm not crying for _her,"_ said the poor little man; "she will soon be herself again. but it's so dreadful, sir, to go out driving with her in such a carriage as this!" the hearse moved away. doctor dormann, walking with mr. keller, felt his arm touched, and, looking round, saw the dimly-outlined figure of a woman beckoning to him. he drew back, after a word of apology to his companion, who continued to follow the hearse. the woman met him half way. he recognized madame fontaine. "you are a learned man," she began abruptly. "do you understand writing in cipher?" "sometimes." "if you have half an hour to spare this evening, look at that--and do me the favor of telling me what it means." she offered something to him, which appeared in the dim light to be only a sheet of paper. he hesitated to take it from her. she tried to press it on him. "i found it among my husband's papers," she said. "he was a great chemist, as you know. it might be interesting to you." he still hesitated. "are _you_ acquainted with chemical science?" he asked. "i am perfectly ignorant of chemical science." "then what interest can you have in interpreting the cipher?" "i have a very serious interest. there may be something dangerous in it, if it fell into unscrupulous hands. i want to know if i ought to destroy it." he suddenly took the paper from her. it felt stiff, like a sheet of cartridge-paper. "you shall hear," he said. "in case of necessity, i will destroy it myself. anything more?" "one thing more. does jack go to the cemetery with you and mr. keller?" "yes." walking away rapidly to overtake mr. keller, he looked behind him once or twice. the street was dimly lit, in those days, by a few oil lamps. he might be mistaken--but he thought that madame fontaine was following him. on leaving the city, the lanterns were lit to guide the hearse along the road that led to the cemetery. the overseer met the bearers at the gates. they passed, under a doric portico, into a central hall. at its right-hand extremity, an open door revealed a room for the accommodation of mourners. beyond this there was a courtyard; and, farther still, the range of apartments devoted to the residence of the cemetery-overseer. turning from the right-hand division of the building, the bearers led the way to the opposite extremity of the hall; passed through a second room for mourners; crossed a second courtyard beyond it; and, turning into a narrow passage, knocked at a closed door. the door was opened by a watchman. he admitted them into a long room, situated between the courtyard at one end, and the cemetery at the other, and having ten side recesses which opened out of it. the long room was the watchman's chamber. the recesses were the cells which held the dead. the couch was set down in the watchman's chamber. it was a novelty in the deadhouse; and the overseer asked for an explanation. doctor dormann informed him that the change had been made, with his full approval, to satisfy a surviving friend, and that the coffin would be provided before the certificate was granted for the burial. while the persons present were all gathered round the doctor and the overseer, madame fontaine softly pushed open the door from the courtyard. after a look at the recesses--situated, five on either side of the length of the room, and closed by black curtains--she parted the curtains of the nearest recess to her, on her left hand; and stepped in without being noticed by anyone. "you take the responsibility of the couch, doctor, if the authorities raise any objection?" said the overseer. this condition being complied with, he addressed himself to the watchman. "the cells are all empty to-night, duntzer, are they not?" "yes, sir." "are you off duty, early or late this evening?" "i am off duty in half an hour, sir." the overseer pointed to the couch. "you can attend to this," he said. "take the cell that is the nearest to you, where the watchman's chair is placed--number five." he referred to the fifth recess, at the upper end of the room on the right, counting from the courtyard door. the watchman looped up the black curtains, while the bearers placed the couch in the cell. this done, the bearers were dismissed. doctor dormann pointed through the parted curtains to the lofty cell, ventilated from the top, and warmed (like the watchman's chamber) by an apparatus under the flooring. in the middle of the cell was a stand, placed there to support the coffin. above the stand a horizontal bar projected, which was fixed over the doorway. it was furnished with a pulley, through which passed a long thin string hanging loosely downward at one end, and attached at the other to a small alarm-bell, placed over the door on the outer side--that is to say, on the side of the watchman's chamber. "all the cells are equal in size," said the doctor to mr. keller, "and are equally clean, and well warmed. the hot bath, in another room, is always ready; and a cabinet, filled with restorative applications, is close by. now look at the watchman, and mark the care that is taken--in the event, for instance, of a cataleptic trance, and of a revival following it." duntzer led the way into the cell. he took the loose end of the string, hanging from above, and attached to it two shorter and lighter strings, each of which terminated in five loose ends. from these ten ends hung ten little thimble-shaped objects, made of brass. first slightly altering the position of the couch on the stand, duntzer lifted the dead hands--fitted the ten brass thimbles to the fingers and the thumbs--and gently laid the hands back on the breast of the corpse. when he had looked up, and had satisfied himself of the exact connection between the hands and the line communicating with the alarm-bell outside, his duty was done. he left the cell; and, seating himself in his chair, waited the arrival of the night-watchman who was to relieve him. mr. keller came out into the chamber, and spoke to the overseer. "is all done now?" "all is done." "i should like, while i am here, to speak to you about the grave." the overseer bowed. "you can see the plan of the cemetery," he said, "in my office on the other side of the building." mr. keller looked back into the cell. jack had taken his place in it, when the couch had been carried in; and doctor dormann was quietly observing him. mr. keller beckoned to jack. "i am waiting for you," he said. "come!" "and leave mistress?" jack answered. "never!" mr. keller was on the point of stepping into the cell, when doctor dormann took his arm, and led him away out of hearing. "i want to ask you a question," said the doctor. "was that poor creature's madness violent madness, when mrs. wagner took him out of the london asylum?" "i have heard her say so." "be careful what you do with him. mrs. wagner's death has tried his weak brain seriously. i am afraid of a relapse into that violent madness--leave him to me." mr. keller left the room with the overseer. doctor dormann returned to the cell. "listen to me, jack," he said. "if your mistress revives (as you think), i want you to see for yourself how she will tell it to the man who is on the watch." he turned, and spoke to duntzer. "is the alarm-bell set?" "yes, sir." the doctor addressed himself once more to jack. "now look, and listen!" he said. he delicately touched one of the brass thimbles, fitted to the fingers of the corpse. the bell rang instantly in the watchman's chamber. "the moment the man hears that," he resumed, "he will make the signal, which calls the overseer and the nurses to help your mistress back to life. at the same time, a messenger will be sent to mr. keller's house to tell you what has happened. you see how well she is taken care of--and you will behave sensibly, i am sure? i am going away. come with me." jack answered as he had answered mr. keller. "never!" he said. he flung himself on the floor, and clasped his arms round one of the pillars supporting the stand on which the couch was placed. "tear my arms out of their sockets," he cried--"you won't get me away till you've done that!" before the doctor could answer, footsteps were heard in the watchman's chamber. a jolly voice asked a question. "any report for the night, duntzer?" jack seemed to recognize the voice. he looked round eagerly. "a corpse in number five," duntzer answered. "and strangers in the cell. contrary to the order for the night, as you know. i have reported them; it's your duty to send them away. good night." a red-nosed old man looked in at the doorway of the cell. jack started to his feet. "here's schwartz!" he cried--"leave me with schwartz!" chapter xviii the discovery of jack agreeably surprised schwartz, without in the least perplexing him. his little friend (as he reasoned) had, no doubt, remembered the invitation to the deadhouse, and had obtained admission through the interference of the strange gentleman who was with him. but who was the gentleman? the deputy night-watchman (though he might carry messages for his relative the nurse) was not personally acquainted with his sister's medical patrons in frankfort. he looked at the doctor with an expression of considerable doubt. "i beg your pardon, sir," he ventured to say, "you're not a member of the city council, are you?" "i have nothing to do with the city council." "and nothing to do with managing the deadhouse?" "nothing. i am doctor dormann." schwartz snapped his clumsy fingers, as an appropriate expression of relief. "all right, sir! leave the little man with me--i'll take care of him." "do you know this person?" asked the doctor, turning to jack. "yes! yes! leave me here with him," jack answered eagerly. "good-night, sir--good-night!" doctor dormann looked again at jack's friend. "i thought strangers were not allowed here at night," he said. "it's against the rules," schwartz admitted. "but, lord love you, sir, think of the dullness of this place! besides, i'm only a deputy. in three nights more, the regular man will come on duty again. it's an awful job, doctor, watching alone here, all night. one of the men actually went mad, and hanged himself. to be sure he was a poet in his way, which makes it less remarkable. i'm not a poet myself--i'm only a sociable creature. leave little jack with me! i'll send him home safe and sound--i feel like a father to him." the doctor hesitated. what was he to do? jack had already returned to the cell in which his mistress lay. to remove him by the brutal exercise of main force was a proceeding from which doctor dormann's delicacy of feeling naturally recoiled--to say nothing of the danger of provoking that outbreak of madness against which the doctor had himself warned mr. keller. persuasion he had already tried in vain. delegated authority to control jack had not been conferred on him. there seemed to be no other course than to yield. "if you persist in your obstinacy," he said to jack, "i must return alone to mr. keller's house, and tell him that i have left you here with your friend." jack was already absorbed in his own thoughts. he only repeated vacantly, "good-night." doctor dormann left the room. schwartz looked in at his guest. "wait there for the present," he said. "the porter will be here directly: i don't want him to see you." the porter came in after an interval. "all right for the night?" he asked. "all right," schwartz answered. the porter withdrew in silence. the night-watchman's reply was his authority for closing the gates of the deadhouse until the next morning. schwartz returned to jack--still watching patiently by the side of the couch. "was she a relation of yours?" he asked. "all the relations in the world to me!" jack burst out passionately. "father and mother--and brother and sister and wife." "aye, aye? five relations in one is what i call an economical family," said schwartz. "come out here, to the table. you stood treat last time--my turn now. i've got the wine handy. yes, yes--she was a fine woman in her time, i dare say. why haven't you put her into a coffin like other people?" "why?" jack repeated indignantly. "i couldn't prevent them from bringing her here; but i could have burnt the house down over their heads, if they had dared to put her into a coffin! are you stupid enough to suppose that mistress is dead? don't you know that i'm watching and waiting here till she wakes? ah! i beg your pardon--you don't know. the rest of them would have let her die. i saved her life. come here, and i'll tell you how." he dragged schwartz into the cell. as the watchman disappeared from view, the wild white face of madame fontaine appeared between the curtains of her hiding-place, listening to jack's narrative of the opening of the cupboard, and the discovery that had followed. schwartz humored his little friend (evidently, as he now concluded, his crazy little friend), by listening in respectful silence. instead of making any remark at the end, he mentioned once more that the wine was handy. "come!" he reiterated; "come to the table!" madame fontaine drew back again behind the curtains. jack remained obstinately in the cell. "i mean to see it," he said, "the moment she moves." "do you think your eyes will tell you?" schwartz remonstrated. "you look dead-beat already; your eyes will get tired. trust the bell here, over the door. brass and steel don't get tired; brass and steel don't fall asleep; brass and steel will ring, and call you to her. take a rest and a drink." these words reminded jack of the doctor's experiment with the alarm-bell. he could not disguise from himself the stealthily-growing sense of fatigue in his head and his limbs. "i'm afraid you're right," he said sadly. "i wish i was a stronger man." he joined schwartz at the table, and dropped wearily into the watchman's chair. his head sank on his breast, his eyes closed. he started up again. "she may want help when she wakes!" he cried, with a look of terror. "what must we do? can we carry her home between us? oh! schwartz, i was so confident in myself a little while since--and it seems all to have left me now!" "don't worry that weary little head of yours about nothing," schwartz answered, with rough good-nature. "come along with me, and i'll show you where help's to be got when help's wanted. no! no! you won't be out of hearing of the bell--if it rings. we'll leave the door open. it's only on the other side of the passage here." he lighted a lantern, and led jack out. leaving the courtyard and the waiting-room on their left hand, he advanced along the right-hand side of the passage, and opened the door of a bed-chamber, always kept ready for use. a second door in the bed-chamber led to a bath-room. here, opposite the bath, stood the cabinet in which the restorative applications were kept, under the care of the overseer. when the two men had gone out, madame fontaine ventured into the watchman's chamber. her eyes turned towards the one terrible cell, at the farther end of the row of black curtains. she advanced towards it; and stopped, lifting her hands to her head in the desperate effort to compose herself. the terror of impending discovery had never left her, since jack had owned the use to which he had put the contents of the blue-glass bottle. animated by that all-mastering dread, she had thrown away every poison in the medicine-chest--had broken the bottles into fragments--and had taken those fragments out with her, when she left the house to follow doctor dormann. on the way to the cemetery, she had scattered the morsels of broken glass and torn paper on the dark road outside the city gate. nothing now remained but the empty medicine-chest, and the writing in cipher, once rolled round the poison called the "looking-glass drops." under these altered circumstances, she had risked asking doctor dormann to interpret the mysterious characters, on the bare chance of their containing some warning by which she might profit, in her present ignorance of the results which jack's ignorant interference might produce. acting under the same vague terror of that possible revival, to which jack looked forward with such certain hope, she had followed him to the deadhouse, and had waited, hidden in the cells, to hear what dangerous confidences he might repose in the doctor or in mr. keller, and to combat on the spot the suspicion which he might ignorantly rouse in their minds. still in the same agony of doubt, she now stood, with her eyes on the cell, trying to summon the resolution to judge for herself. one look at the dead woman, while the solitude in the room gave her the chance--one look might assure her of the livid pallor of death, or warn her of the terrible possibilities of awakening life. she hurried headlong over the intervening space, and looked in. there, grand and still, lay her murderous work! there, ghostly white on the ground of the black robe, were the rigid hands, topped by the hideous machinery which was to betray them, if they trembled under the mysterious return of life! in the instant when she saw it, the sight overwhelmed her with horror. she turned distractedly, and fled through the open door. she crossed the courtyard, like a deeper shadow creeping swiftly through the darkness of the winter night. on the threshold of the solitary waiting-room, exhausted nature claimed its rest. she wavered--groped with her hands at the empty air--and sank insensible on the floor. in the meantime, schwartz revealed the purpose of his visit to the bath-room. the glass doors which protected the upper division of the cabinet were locked; the key being in the possession of the overseer. the cupboard in the lower division, containing towels and flannel wrappers, was left unsecured. opening the door, the watchman drew out a bottle and an old traveling flask, concealed behind the bath-linen. "i call this my cellar," he explained. "cheer up, jacky; we'll have a jolly night of it yet." "i don't want to see your cellar!" said jack impatiently. "i want to be of use to mistress--show me the place where we call for help." "call?" repeated schwartz, with a roar of laughter. "do you think they can hear us at the overseer's, through a courtyard, and a waiting-room, and a grand hall, and another courtyard, and another waiting-room beyond? not if we were twenty men all bawling together till we were hoarse! i'll show you how we can make the master hear us--if that miraculous revival of yours happens," he added facetiously in a whisper to himself. he led the way back into the passage, and held up his lantern so as to show the cornice. a row of fire-buckets was suspended there by books. midway between them, a stout rope hung through a metal-lined hole in the roof. "do you see that?" said schwartz. "you have only to pull, and there's an iron tongue in the belfry above that will speak loud enough to be heard at the city gate. the overseer will come tumbling in, with his bunch of keys, as if the devil was at his heels, and the two women-servants after him--old and ugly, jack!--they attend to the bath, you know, when a woman wants it. wait a bit! take the light into the bedroom, and get a chair for yourself--we haven't much accommodation for evening visitors. got it? that's right. would you like to see where the mad watchman hung himself? on the last hook at the end of the row there. we've got a song he made about the deadhouse. i think it's in the drawer of the table. a gentleman had it printed and sold, for the benefit of the widow and children. wait till we are well warmed with our liquor, and i'll tell you what i'll do--i'll sing you the mad watchman's song; and jacky, my man, you shall sing the chorus! tow-row-rub-a-dub-boom--that's the tune. pretty, isn't it? come along back to our snuggery." he led the way to the watchman's chamber. chapter xix jack looked eagerly into the cell again. there was no change--not a sign of that happy waking in which he so firmly believed. schwartz opened the drawer of the table. tobacco and pipes; two or three small drinking-glasses; a dirty pack of playing-cards; the mad watchman's song, with a woodcut illustration of the suicide--all lay huddled together. he took from the drawer the song, and two of the drinking-glasses, and called to his little guest to come out of the cell. "there;" he said, filling the glasses, "you never tasted such wine as that in all your life. off with it!" jack turned away with a look of disgust. "what did you say of wine, when i drank with you the other night?" he asked reproachfully. "you said it would warm my heart, and make a man of me. and what did it do? i couldn't stand on my legs. i couldn't hold up my head--i was so sleepy and stupid that joseph had to take me upstairs to bed. i hate your wine! your wine's a liar, who promises and doesn't perform! i'm weary enough, and wretched enough in my mind, as it is. no more wine for me!" "wrong!" remarked schwartz, emptying his glass, and smacking his lips after it. "you made a serious mistake the other night--you didn't drink half enough. give the good liquor a fair chance, my son. no, you won't? must i try a little gentle persuasion before you will come back to your chair?" suiting the action to the word, he put his arm round jack. "what's this i feel under my hand?" he asked. "a bottle?" he took it out of jack's breast-pocket. "lord help us!" he exclaimed; "it looks like physic!" jack snatched it away from him, with a cry of delight. "the very thing for me--and i never thought of it!" it was the phial which madame fontaine had repentantly kept to herself, after having expressly filled it for him with the fatal dose of "alexander's wine"--the phial which he had found, when he first opened the "pink-room cupboard." in the astonishment and delight of finding the blue-glass bottle immediately afterwards, he had entirely forgotten it. nothing had since happened to remind him that it was in his pocket, until schwartz had stumbled on the discovery. "it cures you when you are tired or troubled in your mind," jack announced in his grandest manner, repeating madame fontaine's own words. "is there any water here?" "not a drop, thank heaven!" said schwartz, devoutly. "give me my glass, then. i once tried the remedy by itself, and it stung me as it went down. the wine won't hurt me, with this splendid stuff in it. i'll take it in the wine." "who told you to take it?" schwartz asked, holding back the glass. "mrs. housekeeper told me." "a woman!" growled schwartz, in a tone of sovereign contempt. "how dare you let a woman physic you, when you've got me for a doctor? jack! i'm ashamed of you." jack defended his manhood. "oh, i don't care what she says! i despise her--she's mad. you don't suppose she made this? i wouldn't touch it, if she had. no, no; her husband made it--a wonderful man! the greatest man in germany!" he reached across the table and secured his glass of wine. before it was possible to interfere, he had emptied the contents of the phial into it, and had raised it to his lips. at that moment, schwartz's restraining hand found its way to his wrist. the deputy watchman had far too sincere a regard for good wine to permit it to be drunk, in combination with physic, at his own table. "put it down!" he said gruffly. "you're my visitor, ain't you? do you think i'm going to let housekeeper's cat-lap be drunk at my table? look here!" he held up his traveling-flask, with the metal drinking-cup taken off, so as to show the liquor through the glass. the rich amber color of it fascinated jack. he put his wine-glass back on the table. "what is it?" he asked eagerly. "drinkable gold, jack! _my_ physic. brandy!" he poured out a dram into the metal cup. "try that," he said, "and don't let me hear any more about the housekeeper's physic." jack tasted it. the water came into his eyes--he put his hands on his throat. "fire!" he gasped faintly. "wait!" said schwartz. jack waited. the fiery grip of the brandy relaxed; the genial warmth of it was wafted through him persuasively from head to foot. he took another sip. his eyes began to glitter. "what divine being made this?" he asked. without waiting to be answered, he tried it again, and emptied the cup. "more!" he cried. "i never felt so big, i never felt so strong, i never felt so clever, as i feel now!" schwartz, drinking freely from his own bottle, recovered, and more than recovered, his bacchanalian good humor. he clapped jack on the shoulder. "who's the right doctor now?" he asked cheerfully. "a drab of a housekeeper? or father schwartz? your health, my jolly boy! when the bottle's empty, i'll help you to finish the flask. drink away! and the devil take all heel-taps!" the next dose of brandy fired jack's excitable brain with a new idea. he fell on his knees at the table, and clasped his hands in a sudden fervor of devotion. "silence!" he commanded sternly. "your wine's only a poor devil. your drinkable gold is a god. take your cap off, schwartz--i'm worshipping drinkable gold!" schwartz, highly diverted, threw his cap up to the ceiling. "drinkable gold, ora pro nobis!" he shouted, profanely adapting himself to jack's humor. "you shall be pope, my boy--and i'll be the pope's butler. allow me to help your sacred majesty back to your chair." jack's answer betrayed another change in him. his tones were lofty; his manner was distant. "i prefer the floor," he said; "hand me down my mug." as he reached up to take it, the alarm-bell over the door caught his eye. debased as he was by the fiery strength of the drink, his ineradicable love for his mistress made its noble influence felt through the coarse fumes that were mounting to his brain. "stop!" he cried. "i must be where i can see the bell--i must be ready for her, the instant it rings." he crawled across the floor, and seated himself with his back against the wall of one of the empty cells, on the left-hand side of the room. schwartz, shaking his fat sides with laughter, handed down the cup to his guest. jack took no notice of it. his eyes, reddened already by the brandy, were fixed on the bell opposite to him. "i want to know about it," he said. "what's that steel thing there, under the brass cover?" "what's the use of asking?" schwartz replied, returning to his bottle. "i want to know!" "patience, jack--patience. follow my fore-finger. my hand seems to shake a little; but it's as honest a hand as ever was. that steel thing there, is the bell hammer, you know. and, bless your heart, the hammer's everything. cost, lord knows how much. another toast, my son. good luck to the bell!" jack changed again; he began to cry. "she's sleeping too long on that sofa, in there," he said sadly. "i want her to speak to me; i want to hear her scold me for drinking in this horrid place. my heart's all cold again. where's the mug?" he found it, as he spoke; the fire of the brandy went down his throat once more, and lashed him into frantic high spirits. "i'm up in the clouds!" he shouted; "i'm riding on a whirlwind. sing, schwartz! ha! there are the stars twinkling through the skylight! sing the stars down from heaven!" schwartz emptied his bottle, without the ceremony of using the glass. "now we are primed!" he said--"now for the mad watchman's song!" he snatched up the paper from the table, and roared out hoarsely the first verse: the moon was shining, cold and bright, in the frankfort deadhouse, on new year's night and i was the watchman, left alone, while the rest to feast and dance were gone; i envied their lot, and cursed my own- poor me! "chorus, jack! 'i envied their lot and cursed my own'----" the last words of the verse were lost in a yell of drunken terror. schwartz started out of his chair, and pointed, panic-stricken, to the lower end of the room. "a ghost!" he screamed. "a ghost in black, at the door!" jack looked round, and burst out laughing. "sit down again, you old fool," he said. "it's only mrs. housekeeper. we are singing, mrs. housekeeper! you haven't heard my voice yet--i'm the finest singer in germany." madame fontaine approached him humbly. "you have a kind heart, jack--i am sure you will help me," she said. "show me how to get out of this frightful place." "the devil take you!" growled schwartz, recovering himself. "how did you get in?" "she's a witch!" shouted jack. "she rode in on a broomstick--she crept in through the keyhole. where's the fire? let's take her downstairs, and burn her!" schwartz applied himself to the brandy-flask, and began to laugh again. "there never was such good company as jack," he said, in his oiliest tones. "you can't get out to-night, mrs. witch. the gates are locked--and they don't trust me with the key. walk in, ma'am. plenty of accommodation for you, on that side of the room where jack sits. we are slack of guests for the grave, to-night. walk in." she renewed her entreaties. "i'll give you all the money i have about me! who can i go to for the key? jack! jack! speak for me!" "go on with the song!" cried jack. she appealed again in her despair to schwartz. "oh, sir, have mercy on me! i fainted, out there--and, when i came to myself, i tried to open the gates--and i called, and called, and nobody heard me." schwartz's sense of humor was tickled by this. "if you could bellow like a bull," he said, "nobody would hear you. take a seat, ma'am." "go on with the song!" jack reiterated. "i'm tired of waiting." madame fontaine looked wildly from one to the other of them. "oh, god, i'm locked in with an idiot and a drunkard!" the thought of it maddened her as it crossed her mind. once more, she fled from the room. again, and again, in the outer darkness, she shrieked for help. schwartz advanced staggering towards the door, with jack's empty chair in his hand. "perhaps you'll be able to pipe a little higher, ma'am, if you come back, and sit down? now for the song, jack!" he burst out with the second verse: backwards and forwards, with silent tread, i walked on my watch by the doors of the dead. and i said, it's hard, on this new year, while the rest are dancing to leave me here, alone with death and cold and fear- poor me! "chorus, jack! chorus, mrs. housekeeper! ho! ho! look at her! she can't resist the music--she has come back to us already. what can we do for you, ma'am? the flask's not quite drained yet. come and have a drink." she had returned, recoiling from the outer darkness and silence, giddy with the sickening sense of faintness which was creeping over her again. when schwartz spoke she advanced with tottering steps. "water!" she exclaimed, gasping for breath. "i'm faint--water! water!" "not a drop in the place, ma'am! brandy, if you like?" "i forbid it!" cried jack, with a peremptory sign of the hand. "drinkable gold is for us--not for her!" the glass of wine which schwartz had prevented him from drinking caught his notice. to give madame fontaine her own "remedy," stolen from her own room, was just the sort of trick to please jack in his present humor. he pointed to the glass, and winked at the watchman. after a momentary hesitation, schwartz's muddled brain absorbed the new idea. "here's a drop of wine left, ma'am," he said. "suppose you try it?" she leaned one hand on the table to support herself. her heart sank lower and lower; a cold perspiration bedewed her face. "quick! quick!" she murmured faintly. she seized the glass, and emptied it eagerly to the last drop. schwartz and jack eyed her with malicious curiosity. the idea of getting away was still in her mind. "i think i can walk now," she said. "for god's sake, let me out!" "haven't i told you already? i can't get out myself." at that brutal answer, she shrank back. slowly and feebly she made her way to the chair, and dropped on it. "cheer up, ma'am!" said schwartz. "you shall have more music to help you--you shall hear how the mad watchman lost his wits. another drop of the drinkable gold, jack. a dram for you and a dram for me--and here goes!" he roared out the last verses of the song:- any company's better than none, i said: if i can't have the living, i'd like the dead. in one terrific moment more, the corpse-bell rang at each cell door, the moonlight shivered on the floor- poor me! the curtains gaped; there stood a ghost, on every threshold, as white as frost, you called us, they shrieked, and we gathered soon; dance with your guests by the new year's moon! i danced till i dropped in a deadly swoon- poor me! and since that night i've lost my wits, and i shake with ceaseless ague-fits: for the ghosts they turned me cold as stone, on that new year's night when the white moon shone, and i walked on my watch, all, all alone- poor me! and, oh, when i lie in my coffin-bed, heap thick the earth above my head! or i shall come back, and dance once more, with frantic feet on the deadhouse floor, and a ghost for a partner at every door- poor me! the night had cleared. while schwartz was singing, the moon shone in at the skylight. at the last verse of the song, a ray of the cold yellow light streamed across jack's face. the fire of the brandy leapt into flame--the madness broke out in him, with a burst of its by-gone fury. he sprang, screaming, to his feet. "the moon!" he shouted--"the mad watchman's moon! the mad watchman himself is coming back. there he is, sliding down on the slanting light! do you see the brown earth of the grave dropping from him, and the rope round his neck? ha! how he skips, and twists, and twirls! he's dancing again with the dead ones. make way there! i mean to dance with them too. come on, mad watchman--come on! i'm as mad as you are!" he whirled round and round with the fancied ghost for a partner in the dance. the coarse laughter of schwartz burst out again at the terrible sight. he called, with drunken triumph, to madame fontaine. "look at jacky, ma'am. there's a dancer for you! there's good company for a dull winter night!" she neither looked nor moved--she sat crouched on the chair, spellbound with terror. jack threw up his arms, turned giddily once or twice, and sank exhausted on the floor. "the cold of him creeps up my hands," he said, still possessed by the vision of the watchman. "he cools my eyes, he calms my heart, he stuns my head. i'm dying, dying, dying--going back with him to the grave. poor me! poor me!" he lay hushed in a strange repose; his eyes wide open, staring up at the moon. schwartz drained the last drop of brandy out of the flask. "jack's name ought to be solomon," he pronounced with drowsy solemnity; "solomon was wise; and jack's wise. jack goes to sleep, when the liquor's done. take away the bottle, before the overseer comes in. if any man says i am not sober, that man lies. the rhine wine has a way of humming in one's head. that's all, mr. overseer--that's all. do i see the sun rising, up there in the skylight? i wish you good-night; i wish--you--good--night." he laid his heavy arms on the table; his head dropped on them--he slept. the time passed. no sound broke the silence but the lumpish snoring of schwartz. no change appeared in jack; there he lay, staring up at the moon. somewhere in the building (unheard thus far in the uproar) a clock struck the first hour of the morning. madame fontaine started. the sound shook her with a new fear--a fear that expressed itself in a furtive look at the cell in which the dead woman lay. if the corpse-bell rang, would the stroke of it be like the single stroke of the clock? "jack!" she whispered. "do you hear the clock? oh, jack, the stillness is dreadful--speak to me." he slowly raised himself. perhaps the striking of the clock--perhaps some inner prompting--had roused him. he neither answered madame fontaine, nor looked at her. with his arms clasped round his knees, he sat on the floor in the attitude of a savage. his eyes, which had stared at the moon, now stared with the same rigid, glassy look at the alarm-bell over the cell-door. the time went on. again the oppression of silence became more than madame fontaine could endure. again she tried to make jack speak to her. "what are you looking at?" she asked. "what are you waiting for? is it----?" the rest of the sentence died away on her lips: the words that would finish it were words too terrible to be spoken. the sound of her voice produced no visible impression on jack. had it influenced him, in some unseen way? something did certainly disturb the strange torpor that held him. he spoke. the tones were slow and mechanical--the tones of a man searching his memory with pain and difficulty; repeating his recollections, one by one, as he recovered them, to himself. "when she moves," he muttered, "her hands pull the string. her hands send a message up: up and up to the bell." he paused, and pointed to the cell-door. the action had a horrible suggestiveness to the guilty wretch who was watching him. "don't do that!" she cried. "don't point _there!"_ his hand never moved; he pursued his newly-found recollections of what the doctor had shown to him. "up and up to the bell," he repeated. "and the bell feels it. the steel thing moves. the bell speaks. good bell! faithful bell!" the clock struck the half-hour past one. madame fontaine shrieked at the sound--her senses knew no distinction between the clock and the bell. she saw his pointing hand drop back, and clasp itself with the other hand, round his knees. he spoke--softly and tenderly now--he was speaking to the dead. "rise mistress, rise! dear soul, the time is long; and poor jack is waiting for you!" she thought the closed curtains moved: the delusion was reality to her. she tried to rouse schwartz. "watchman! watchman! wake up!" he slept on as heavily as ever. she half rose from her chair. she was almost on her feet--when she sank back again. jack had moved. he got up on his knees. "mistress hears me!" he said. the light of vivid expression showed itself in his eyes. their vacancy was gone: they looked longingly at the door of the cell. he got on his feet--he pressed both hands over his bosom. "come!" he said. "oh, mistress, come!" there was a sound--a faint premonitory rustling sound--over the door. the steel hammer moved--rose--struck the metal globe. the bell rang. he stood rooted to the floor, sobbing hysterically. the iron grasp of suspense held him. not a cry, not a movement escaped madame fontaine. the life seemed to have been struck out of her by the stroke of the bell. it woke schwartz. except that he looked up, he too never moved: he too was like a living creature turned to stone. a minute passed. the curtains swayed gently. tremulous fingers crept out, parting them. slowly, over the black surface of the curtain, a fair naked arm showed itself, widening the gap. the figure appeared, in its velvet pall. on the pale face the stillness of repose was barely ruffled yet. the eyes alone were conscious of returning life. they looked out on the room, softly surprised and perplexed--no more. they looked downwards: the lips trembled sweetly into a smile. she saw jack, kneeling in ecstasy at her feet. and now again, there was stillness in the room. unutterable happiness rejoiced, unutterable dread suffered, in the same silence. the first sound heard came suddenly from the lonely outer hall. hurrying footsteps swept over the courtyard. the flash of lights flew along the dark passage. voices of men and women, mingled together, poured into the watchman's chamber. postscript mr. david glenney returns to frankfort, and closes the story i on the twelfth of december, i received a letter from mrs. wagner, informing me that the marriage of fritz and minna had been deferred until the thirteenth of january. shortly afterwards i left london, on my way to frankfort. my departure was hurried, to afford me time to transact business with some of our correspondents in france and in northern germany. our head-clerk, mr. hartrey (directing the london house in mrs. wagner's absence), had his own old-fashioned notions of doing nothing in a hurry. he insisted on allowing me a far larger margin of time, for treating with our correspondents, than i was likely to require. the good man little suspected to what motive my ready submission to him was due. i was eager to see my aunt and the charming minna once more. without neglecting any of my duties (and with the occasional sacrifice of traveling by night), i contrived to reach frankfort a week before i was expected--that is to say, in the forenoon of the fourth of january. ii joseph's face, when he opened the door, at once informed me that something extraordinary was going on in the house. "anything wrong?" i asked. joseph looked at me in a state of bewilderment. "you had better speak to the doctor," he said. "the doctor! who is ill? my aunt? mr. keller? who is it?" in my impatience, i took him by the collar of his coat, and shook him. i shook out nothing but the former answer, a little abridged:-"speak to the doctor." the office-door was close by me. i asked one of the clerks if mr. keller was in his room. the clerk informed me that mr. keller was upstairs with the doctor. in the extremity of my suspense, i inquired again if my aunt was ill. the man opened his eyes. "is it possible you haven't heard?" he said. "is she dead or alive?" i burst out, losing all patience. "both," answered the clerk. i began--not unnaturally, i think--to wonder whether i was in mr. keller's house, or in an asylum for idiots. returning to the hall, i collared joseph for the second time. "take me up to the doctor instantly!" i said. joseph led the way upstairs--not on my aunt's side of the house, to my infinite relief. on the first landing, he made a mysterious communication. "mr. david, i have given notice to leave," he said. "there are some things that no servant can put up with. while a person lives, i expect a person to live. when a person dies, i expect a person to die. there must be no confusion on such a serious subject as life and death. i blame nobody--i understand nothing--i merely go. follow me, if you please, sir." had he been drinking? he led the way up the next flight of stairs, steadily and quietly. he knocked discreetly at madame fontaine's door. "mr. david glenney," he announced, "to see doctor dormann." mr. keller came out first, closing the door behind him. he embraced me, with a demonstrative affection far from characteristic of him at other times. his face was disturbed; his voice faltered, as he spoke his first words to me. "welcome back, david--more welcome than ever!" "my aunt is well, i hope?" he clasped his hands fervently. "god is merciful," he said. "thank god!" "is madame fontaine ill?" before he could answer, the door was opened again. doctor dormann came out. "the very man i want!" he exclaimed. "you could not possibly have arrived at a better time." he turned to mr. keller. "where can i find writing-materials? in the drawing-room? come down, mr. glenney. come down, mr. keller." in the drawing-room, he wrote a few lines rapidly. "see us sign our names," he said. he handed the pen to mr. keller after he had signed himself--and then gave me the paper to read. to my unspeakable amazement, the writing certified that, "the suspended vital forces in mrs. wagner had recovered their action, in the deadhouse of frankfort, at half-past one o'clock on the morning of the fourth of january; that he had professionally superintended the restoration to life; and that he thereby relieved the magistrates from any further necessity for pursuing a private inquiry, the motive for which no longer existed." to this statement there was a line added, declaring that mr. keller withdrew his application to the magistrates; authenticated by mr. keller's signature. i stood with the paper in my hand, looking from one to the other of them, as completely bewildered as joseph himself. "i can't leave madame fontaine," said the doctor; "i am professionally interested in watching the case. otherwise, i would have made my statement in person. mr. keller has been terribly shaken, and stands in urgent need of rest and quiet. you will do us both a service if you will take that paper to the town-hall, and declare before the magistrates that you know us personally, and have seen us sign our names. on your return, you shall have every explanation that i can give; and you shall see for yourself that you need feel no uneasiness on the subject of your aunt." having arrived at the town-hall, i made the personal statement to which the doctor had referred. among the questions put to me, i was asked if i had any direct interest in the matter--either as regarded mrs. wagner or any other person. having answered that i was mrs. wagner's nephew, i was instructed to declare in writing, that i approved (as mrs. wagner's representative) of the doctor's statement and of mr. keller's withdrawal of his application. with this, the formal proceedings terminated, and i was free to return to the house. iii joseph had his orders, this time. he spoke like a reasonable being--he said the doctor was waiting for me, in madame fontaine's room. the place of the appointment rather surprised me. the doctor opened the door--but paused before he admitted me. "i think you were the first person," he said, "who saw mr. keller, on the morning when he was taken ill?" "after the late mr. engelman," i answered, "i was the first person. "come in, then. i want you to look at madame fontaine." he led me to the bedside. the instant i looked at her, i saw mr. keller's illness reproduced, in every symptom. there she lay, in the same apathy; with the same wan look on her face, and the same intermittent trembling of her hands. when i recovered the first shock of the discovery, i was able to notice poor minna, kneeling at the opposite side of the bed, weeping bitterly. "oh, my dear one!" she cried, in a passion of grief, "look at me! speak to me!" the mother opened her eyes for a moment--looked at minna--and closed them again wearily. "leave me quiet," she said, in tones of fretful entreaty. minna rose and bent over the pillow tenderly. "your poor lips look so parched," she said; "let me give you some lemonade?" madame fontaine only repeated the words, "leave me quiet." the same reluctance to raise her heavy eyelids, the same entreaty to be left undisturbed, which had alarmed me on the memorable morning when i had entered mr. keller's room! doctor dormann signed to me to follow him out. as he opened the door, the nurse inquired if he had any further instructions for her. "send for me, the moment you see a change," he answered; "i shall be in the drawing-room, with mr. glenney." i silently pressed poor minna's hand, before i left her. who could have presumed, at that moment, to express sympathy in words? the doctor and i descended the stairs together. "does her illness remind you of anything?" he asked. "of mr. keller's illness," i answered, "exactly as i remember it." he made no further remark. we entered the drawing-room. i inquired if i could see my aunt. "you must wait a little," he said. "mrs. wagner is asleep. the longer she sleeps the more complete her recovery will be. my main anxiety is about jack. he is quiet enough now, keeping watch outside her door; but he has given me some trouble. i wish i knew more of his early history. from all i can learn, he was only what is called "half-witted," when they received him at the asylum in london. the cruel repressive treatment in that place aggravated his imbecility into violent madness--and such madness has a tendency to recur. mrs. wagner's influence, which has already done so much, is my main hope for the future. sit down, and let me explain the strange position in which you find us here, as well as i can." iv "do you remember how mr. keller's illness was cured?" the doctor began. those words instantly reminded me, not only of doctor dormann's mysterious suspicions at the time of the illness, but of jack's extraordinary question to me, on the morning when i left frankfort. the doctor saw that i answered him with some little embarrassment. "let us open our minds to each other, without reserve," he said. "i have set you thinking of something. what is it?" i replied, concealing nothing. doctor dormann was equally candid on his side. he spoke to me, exactly as he is reported to have spoken to mr. keller, in the second part of this narrative. "you now know," he proceeded, "what i thought of mr. keller's extraordinary recovery, and what i feared when i found mrs. wagner (as i then firmly believed) dead. my suspicions of poisoning pointed to the poisoner. madame fontaine's wonderful cure of mr. keller, by means of her own mysterious remedy, made me suspect madame fontaine. my motive, in refusing to give the burial certificate, was to provoke the legal inquiry, which i knew that mr. keller would institute, on the mere expression of a doubt, on my part, whether your aunt had died a natural death. at that time, i had not the slightest anticipation of the event that has actually occurred. before, however, we had removed the remains to the deadhouse, i must own i was a little startled--prepare yourself for a surprise--by a private communication, addressed to me by jack." he repeated jack's narrative of the opening of the pink-room cupboard, and the administration of the antidote to mrs. wagner. "you will understand," he went on, "that i was too well aware of the marked difference between mr. keller's illness and mrs. wagner's illness to suppose for a moment that the same poison had been given to both of them. i was, therefore, far from sharing jack's blind confidence in the efficacy of the blue-glass bottle, in the case of his mistress. but i tell you, honestly, my mind was disturbed about it. towards night, my thoughts were again directed to the subject, under mysterious circumstances. mr. keller and i accompanied the hearse to the deadhouse. on our way through the streets, i was followed and stopped by madame fontaine. she had something to give me. here it is." he laid on the table a sheet of thick paper, closely covered with writing in cipher. v "whose writing is this?" i asked. "the writing of madame fontaine's late husband." "and she put it into your hands!" "yes--and asked me to interpret the cipher for her." "it's simply incomprehensible." "not in the least. she knew the use to which jack had put her antidote, and (in her ignorance of chemistry) she was eager to be prepared for any consequences which might follow. can you guess on what chance i calculated, when i consented to interpret the cipher?" "on the chance that it might tell you what poison she had given to mrs. wagner?" "well guessed, mr. glenney!" "and you have actually discovered the meaning of these hieroglyphics?" he laid a second sheet of paper on the table. "there is but one cipher that defies interpretation," he said. "if you and your correspondent privately arrange to consult the same edition of the same book, and if your cipher, or his, refers to a given page and to certain lines on that page, no ingenuity can discover you, unaided by a previous discovery of the book. all other ciphers, so far as i know, are at the mercy of skill and patience. in this case i began (to save time and trouble) by trying the rule for interpreting the most simple, and most elementary, of all ciphers--that is to say, the use of the ordinary language of correspondence, concealed under arbitrary signs. the right way to read these signs can be described in two words. on examination of the cipher, you will find that some signs will be more often repeated than others. count the separate signs, and ascertain, by simple addition, which especial sign occurs oftenest--which follows next in point of number--and so on. these comparisons established, ask yourself what vowel occurs oftenest, and what consonant occurs oftenest, in the language in which you suppose the cipher to be written. the result is merely a question of time and patience." "and this is the result?" i said, pointing to the second sheet of paper. "read it," he answered; "and judge for yourself." the opening sentence of the interpreted cipher appeared to be intended by doctor fontaine to serve the purpose of a memorandum; repeating privately the instructions already attached by labels to the poison called "alexander's wine," and to its antidote. the paragraphs that followed were of a far more interesting kind. they alluded to the second poison, called "the looking-glass drops;" and they related the result of one of the professor's most remarkable experiments in the following words:-vi "the looking-glass drops. fatal dose, as discovered by experiments on animals, the same as in the case of alexander's wine. but the effect, in producing death, more rapid, and more indistinguishable, in respect of presenting traces on post-mortem examination. "after many patient trials, i can discover no trustworthy antidote to this infernal poison. under these circumstances, i dare not attempt to modify it for medical use. i would throw it away--but i don't like to be beaten. if i live a little longer, i will try once more, with my mind refreshed by other studies. "a month after writing these lines (which i have repeated in plain characters, on the bottle, for fear of accidents), i tried again--and failed again. annoyed by this new disappointment, i did something unworthy of me as a scientific man. "after first poisoning an animal with the looking-glass drops, i administered a dose from the blue bottle, containing the antidote to alexander's wine--knowing perfectly well the different nature of the two poisons; expecting nothing of any scientific importance to follow; and yet trusting stupidly to chance to help me. "the result was startling in the last degree. it was nothing less than the complete suspension of all the signs of life (as we know them) for a day, and a night, and part of another day. i only knew that the animal was not really dead, by observing, on the morning of the second day, that no signs of decomposition had set in--the season being summer, and the laboratory badly ventilated. "an hour after the first symptoms of revival had astonished me, the creature was as lively again as usual, and ate with a good appetite. after a lapse of ten days, it is still in perfect health. this extraordinary example of the action and reaction of the ingredients of the poison and the ingredients of the antidote on each other, and on the sources of life, deserves, and shall have, the most careful investigation. may i live to carry the inquiry through to some good use, and to record it on another page!" there was no other page, and no further record. the professor's last scientific aspiration had not been fulfilled. vii "it was past midnight," said the doctor, "when i made the discovery, with which you are now acquainted. i went at once to mr. keller. he had fortunately not gone to bed; and he accompanied me to the deadhouse. knowing the overseer's private door, at the side of the building, i was able to rouse him with very little delay. in the excitement that possessed me, i spoke of the revival as a possible thing in the hearing of the servants. the whole household accompanied us to the deadhouse, at the opposite extremity of the building. what we saw there, i am utterly incapable of describing to you. i was in time to take the necessary measures for keeping mrs. wagner composed, and for removing her without injury to mr. keller's house. having successfully accomplished this, i presumed that my anxieties were at an end. i was completely mistaken." "you refer to madame fontaine, i suppose?" "no; i refer to jack. the poor wretch's ignorant faith had unquestionably saved his mistress's life. i should never have ventured (even if i had been acquainted with the result of the professor's experiment, at an earlier hour) to run the desperate risk, which jack confronted without hesitation. the events of the night (aggravated by the brandy that schwartz had given to him) had completely overthrown the balance of his feeble brain. he was as mad, for the time being, as ever he could have been in bedlam. with some difficulty, i prevailed on him to take a composing mixture. he objected irritably to trust me; and, even when the mixture had begun to quiet him, he was ungrateful enough to speak contemptuously of what i had done for him. 'i had a much better remedy than yours,' he said, 'made by a man who was worth a hundred of you. schwartz and i were fools enough to give it to mrs. housekeeper, last night.' i thought nothing of this--it was one of the eccentricities which were to be expected from him, in his condition. i left him quietly asleep; and i was about to go home, and get a little rest myself--when mr. keller's son stopped me in the hall. 'do go and see madame fontaine,' he said; 'minna is alarmed about her mother.' i went upstairs again directly." "had you noticed anything remarkable in madame fontaine," i asked, "before fritz spoke to you?" "i noticed, at the deadhouse, that she looked frightened out of her senses; and i was a little surprised--holding the opinion i did of her--that such a woman should show so much sensibility. mr. keller took charge of her, on our way back to the house. i was quite unprepared for what i saw afterwards, when i went to her room at fritz's request. "did you discover the resemblance to mr. keller's illness?" "no--not till afterwards. she sent her daughter out of the room; and i thought she looked at me strangely, when we were alone. 'i want the paper that i gave you in the street, last night,' she said. i asked her why she wanted it. she seemed not to know how to reply; she became excited and confused. 'to destroy it, to be sure!' she burst out suddenly. 'every bottle my husband left is destroyed--strewed here, there, and everywhere, from the gate to the deadhouse. oh, i know what you think of me--i defy you!' she seemed to forget what she had said, the moment she had said it--she turned away, and opened a drawer, and took out a book closed by metal clasps. my presence in the room appeared to be a lost perception in her mind. the clasps of the book, as well as i could make it out, opened by touching some spring. i noticed that her hands trembled as they tried to find the spring. i attributed the trembling to the terrors of the night, and offered to help her. 'let my secrets alone,' she said--and pushed the book under the pillow of her bed. it was my professional duty to assist her, if i could. though i attached no sort of importance to what jack had said, i thought it desirable, before i prescribed for her, to discover whether she had really taken some medicine of her own or not. she staggered back from me, on my repeating what i had heard from jack, as if i had terrified her. 'what remedy does he mean? i drank nothing but a glass of wine. send for him directly--i must, and will speak to him!' i told her this was impossible; i could not permit his sleep to be disturbed. 'the watchman!' she cried; 'the drunken brute! send for him.' by this time i began to conclude that there was really something wrong. i called in her daughter to look after her while i was away, and then left the room to consult with fritz. the only hope of finding schwartz (the night-watch at the deadhouse being over by that time) was to apply to his sister the nurse. i knew where she lived; and fritz most kindly offered to go to her. by the time schwartz was found, and brought to the house, madame fontaine was just able to understand what he said, and no more. i began to recognize the symptoms of mr. keller's illness. the apathy which you remember was showing itself already. 'leave me to die,' she said quietly; 'i deserve it.' the last effort of the distracted mind, rousing for a moment the sinking body, was made almost immediately afterwards. she raised herself on the pillow, and seized my arm. 'mind!' she said, 'minna is to be married on the thirteenth!' her eyes rested steadily on me, while she spoke. at the last word, she sank back, and relapsed into the condition in which you have just seen her." "can you do nothing for her?" "nothing. our modern science is absolutely ignorant of the poisons which professor fontaine's fatal ingenuity revived. slow poisoning by reiterated doses, in small quantities, we understand. but slow poisoning by one dose is so entirely beyond our experience, that medical men in general refuse to believe in it." "are you sure that she is poisoned?" i asked. "after what jack told me this morning when he woke, i have no doubt she is poisoned by 'alexander's wine.' she appears to have treacherously offered it to him as a remedy--and to have hesitated, at the last moment, to let him have it. as a remedy, jack's ignorant faith gave it to her by the hands of schwartz. when we have more time before us, you shall hear the details. in the meanwhile, i can only tell you that the retribution is complete. madame fontaine might even now be saved, if jack had not given all that remained of the antidote to mrs. wagner. "is there any objection to my asking jack for the particulars?" "the strongest possible objection. it is of the utmost importance to discourage him from touching on the subject, in the future. he has already told mrs. wagner that he has saved her life; and, just before you came in, i found him comforting minna. 'your mamma has taken her own good medicine, missy; she will soon get well.' i have been obliged--god forgive me!--to tell your aunt and minna that he is misled by insane delusions, and that they are not to believe one word of what he has said to them." "no doubt your motive justifies you," i said--not penetrating his motive at the moment. "you will understand me directly," he answered. "i trust to your honor under any circumstances. why have i taken you into my confidence, under _these_ circumstances? for a very serious reason, mr. david. you are likely to be closely associated, in the time to come, with your aunt and minna--and i look to you to help the good work which i have begun. mrs. wagner's future life must not be darkened by a horrible recollection. that sweet girl must enjoy the happy years that are in store for her, unembittered by the knowledge of her mother's guilt. do you understand, now, why i am compelled to speak unjustly of poor jack?" as a proof that i understood him, i promised the secrecy which he had every right to expect from me. the entrance of the nurse closed our conference. she reported madame fontaine's malady to be already altering for the worse. the doctor watched the case. at intervals, i too saw her again. although it happened long ago, i cannot prevail upon myself to dwell on the deliberate progress of the hellish borgia poison, in undermining the forces of life. the nervous shudderings reached their climax, and then declined as gradually as they had arisen. for hours afterwards, she lay in a state of complete prostration. not a last word, not a last look, rewarded the devoted girl, watching faithfully at the bedside. no more of it--no more! late in the afternoon of the next day, doctor dormann, gently, most gently, removed minna from the room. mr. keller and i looked at each other in silence. we knew that madame fontaine was dead. viii i had not forgotten the clasped book that she had tried vainly to open, in doctor dormann's presence. taking it myself from under the pillow, i left mr. keller and the doctor to say if i should give it, unopened, to minna. "certainly not!" said the doctor. "why not?" "because it will tell her what she must never know. i believe that book to be a diary. open it, and see." i found the spring and opened the clasps. it _was_ a diary. "you judged, i suppose, from the appearance of the book?" i said. "not at all. i judged from my own experience, at the time when i was medical officer at the prison here. an educated criminal is almost invariably an inveterate egotist. we are all interesting to ourselves--but the more vile we are, the more intensely we are absorbed in ourselves. the very people who have, logically speaking, the most indisputable interest in concealing their crimes, are also the very people who, almost without exception, yield to the temptation of looking at themselves in the pages of a diary." "i don't doubt your experience, doctor. but your results puzzle me." "think a little, mr. david, and you will not find the riddle so very hard to read. the better we are, the more unselfishly we are interested in others. the worse we are, the more inveterately our interest is concentrated on ourselves. look at your aunt as an example of what i say. this morning there were some letters waiting for her, on the subject of those reforms in the treatment of mad people, which she is as resolute as ever to promote--in this country as well as in england. it was with the greatest difficulty that i prevailed on her not to answer those letters just yet: in other words, not to excite her brain and nervous system, after such an ordeal as she has just passed through. do you think a wicked woman--with letters relating merely to the interests of other people waiting for her--would have stood in any need of my interference? not she! the wicked woman would have thought only of herself, and would have been far too much interested in her own recovery to run the risk of a relapse. open that book of madame fontaine's at any of the later entries. you will find the miserable woman self-betrayed in every page." it was true! every record of madame fontaine's most secret moments, presented in this narrative, was first found in her diary. as an example:--her diary records, in the fullest detail, the infernal ingenuity of the stratagem by which she usurped her title to mr. keller's confidence, as the preserver of his life. "i have only to give him the alexander's wine," she writes, "to make sure, by means of the antidote, of curing the illness which i have myself produced. after that, minna's mother becomes mr. keller's guardian angel, and minna's marriage is a certainty." on a later page, she is similarly self described--in mrs. wagner's case--as acting from an exactly opposite motive, in choosing the looking-glass drops. "they not only kill soonest, and most surely defy detection," she proceeds, "but i have it on the authority of the label, that my husband has tried to find the antidote to these drops, and has tried in vain. if my heart fails me, when the deed is done, there can be no reprieve for the woman whose tongue i must silence for ever--or, after all i have sacrificed, my child's future is ruined." there is little doubt that she intended to destroy these compromising pages, on her return to mr. keller's house--and that she would have carried out her intention, but for those first symptoms of the poison, which showed themselves in the wandering of her mind, and the helpless trembling of her hands. the final entry in the diary has an interest of its own, which i think justifies the presentation of it in this place. it shows the purifying influence of the maternal instinct in a wicked nature, surviving to the last. even madame fontaine's nature preserved, in this way, a softer side. on the memorable occasion of her meeting with mr. keller in the hall, she had acted as imprudently as if she had been the most foolish woman living, in her eagerness to plead minna's cause with the man on whom minna's marriage depended. she had shrunk from poisoning harmless jack, even for her own protection. she would not even seduce minna into telling a lie, when a lie would have served them both at the most critical moment of their lives. are such redeeming features unnatural in an otherwise wicked woman? think of your own "inconsistencies." read these last words of a sinner--and thank god that you were not tempted as she was: "... sent minna out of my room, and hurt my sensitive girl cruelly. i am afraid of her! this last crime seems to separate me from that pure creature--all the more, because it has been committed in her dearest interests, and for her sweet sake. every time she looks at me, i am afraid she may see what i have done for her, in my face. oh, how i long to take her in my arms, and devour her with kisses! i daren't do it--i daren't do it." lord, have mercy on her--miserable sinner! ix the night is getting on; and the lamp i am writing by grows dim. my mind wanders away from frankfort, and from all that once happened there. the picture now in my memory presents an english scene. i am at the house of business in london. two friends are waiting for me. one of them is fritz. the other is the most popular person in the neighborhood; a happy, harmless creature, known to everyone by the undignified nickname of jack straw. thanks to my aunt's influence, and to the change of scene, no return of the relapse at frankfort has shown itself. we are easy about the future of our little friend. as to the past, we have made no romantic discoveries, relating to the earlier years of jack's life. who were his parents; whether they died or whether they deserted him; how he lived, and what he suffered, before he drifted into the service of the chemistry-professor at wurzburg--these, and other questions like them, remain unanswered. jack himself feels no sort of interest in our inquiries. he either will not or cannot rouse his feeble memory to help us. "what does it matter now?" he says. "i began to live when mistress first came to see me. i don't remember, and won't remember, anything before that." so the memoirs of jack remain unwritten, for want of materials--like the memoirs of many another foundling, in real life. while i am speaking of jack, i am keeping my two friends waiting in the reception-room. i dress myself in my best clothes and join them. fritz is silent and nervous; unreasonably impatient for the arrival of the carriage at the door. jack promenades the room, with a superb nosegay in the button-hole of a glorious blue coat. he has a watch; he carries a cane; he wears white gloves, and tight nankeen pantaloons. he struts out before us, when the carriage comes at last. "i don't deny that fritz is a figure in the festival," he says, when we drive away; "but i positively assert that the thing is not complete without me. if my dress fails in any respect to do me justice, for heaven's sake mention it, one of you, before we pass the tailor's door!" i answer jack, by telling him that he is in all respects perfect. and jack answers me, "david, you have your faults; but your taste is invariably correct. give me a little more room; i can't face mistress with crumpled coat-tails." we reach a little village in the neighborhood of london, and stop at the gate of the old church. we walk up to the altar-rails, and wait there. all the women in the place are waiting also. they merely glance at fritz and at me--their whole attention is concentrated on jack. they take him for the bridegroom. jack discovers it; and is better pleased with himself than ever. the organist plays a wedding-march. the bride, simply and unpretendingly dressed, just fluttered enough to make her eyes irresistible, and her complexion lovely, enters the church, leaning on mr. keller's arm. our good partner looks younger than usual. at his own earnest request, the business in frankfort has been sold; the head-partner first stipulating for the employment of a given number of reputable young women in the office. removed from associations which are inexpressibly repellent to him, mr. keller is building a house, near mrs. wagner's pretty cottage, on the hill above the village. here he proposes to pass the rest of his days peacefully, with his two married children. on their way to the altar, mr. keller and minna are followed by doctor dormann (taking his annual holiday, this year, in england). the doctor gives his arm to the woman of all women whom jack worships and loves. my kind and dear aunt--with the old bright charm in her face; the firm friend of all friendless creatures--why does my calmness desert me, when i try to draw my little portrait of her; minna's second mother, standing by minna's side, on the greatest day of her life? i can't even see the paper. nearly fifty years have passed, since that wedding-day. oh, my coevals, who have outlived your dearest friends, like me, _you_ know what is the matter with my eyes! i must take out my handkerchief, and put down my pen--and leave some of you younger ones to finish the story of the marriage for yourself. 