produced from images generously made available by the internet archive.) china and pottery marks gilman collamore & co. inc. 15 east 56th street new york _traditions and old china_ _copyright, 1920, gilman collamore & company, inc._ _traditions and old china_ from early days when the ancients showed their appreciation of fine pottery and old glassware by burying "these most esteemed possessions" with the dead, fine china has been synonymous with culture and breeding. with our ancestors for generations we share the tradition that, just as first editions give prestige to one's book shelves, old china or the finest work of the modern kilns express readily that good taste and discrimination that is characteristic of our old families. a wealth of association and historic data is to be acquired from the study of the "fabrique marks" and periods of the master craftsmen. if in america there was a general tendency toward acquiring, even a smattering, of this knowledge, there would be less of these drawing-room atrocities which arthur hayden in his "chats on english earthenware" points out, "to have a modern set of vases adorning a georgian cabinet is like putting new wine in old bottles." for the convenience of the seasoned collector, as well as the beginner, in this book is a representative list of better known marks by which china can be identified. while it is not possible to include a complete list, particularly those of extremely rare specimens, those compiled have particular reference to the marks of english china which is greatly in demand by collectors. these will suffice to enable the reader to identify pieces whenever encountered. the signatures or mark which the master craftsmen in earth or clay signed their products, just as a painter signs his work, were often specially designed devices of various kinds, often a combination of initials and dates. each "fabrique mark" stands for a certain potter's art just as the modern trade-mark. beginning more than a half century ago in the old la farge house in lower broadway (where john la farge was born) the house of gilman collamore and company has done much to develop an appreciation of fine china in america. it was one of the first houses to bring over from england and france china, both modern and old, for its american clients. at this time many fine specimens of old china are on view as well as complete stocks from the modern english and continental manufacture. gilman collamore & company, inc. 15 east 56th street new york germany and austria [illustration] dresden meissen. established in 1709. mark used to 1712, in blue. hard paste. [illustration] dresden mark used from 1712 to 1720, in blue. hard paste. [illustration] dresden about 1720, mark in blue. hard paste. [illustration] dresden 1730, mark in blue. hard paste. [illustration] dresden 1796. marcolini (director) period. mark in blue. hard paste. [illustration] dresden royal pieces only. mark in blue. hard paste. [illustration] dresden present mark. this mark with two scratches across it shows imperfect pieces which may or may not have been decorated in the factory. hard paste. [illustration] vienna established in 1718. this mark first used in 1744. hard paste. royal factory discontinued in 1864. [illustration] berlin established in 1751. wegeleys' mark. hard paste. [illustration] berlin in 1763 became a royal establishment. mark in blue. sometimes an eagle added. [illustration] berlin different kind of sceptre. in blue. hard paste. [illustration] berlin an extra mark used in 1830 with the sceptre, which is the present mark. this mark complete is never used except with perfect pieces decorated in the factory. decorated pieces bearing the blue sceptre mark only are decorated outside of the factory. [illustration] hochst, near mayence founded in 1720. this mark, used about 1740, in gold, red, or blue. hard paste. [illustration] hochst, near mayence hard paste. [illustration] frankenthal 1755 to 1761. first period. hard paste. [illustration] frankenthal 1799, second period. carl theodore. hard paste. [illustration] frankenthal phillipp hanong (director). hard paste. [illustration] frankenthal joseph adam hanong (director). hard paste. [illustration] frankenthal john hanong (director). hard paste. [illustration] frankenthal 1800. franz bartolo (director). hard paste. [illustration] nymphenburg established in 1747. hard paste. [illustration] nymphenburg hard paste. [illustration] nymphenburg an early mark in blue. hard paste. [illustration] furstenburg established in 1750. hard paste. [illustration] furstenburg 1758. hard paste. [illustration] ludwigsburg or kronenburg established in 1758 to 1806. hard paste. [illustration] ludwigsburg first period. hard paste. [illustration] ludwigsburg second period. hard paste. [illustration] ludwigsburg hard paste. mark in blue. [illustration] fulda established in 1763 to 1780. hard paste. [illustration] fulda hard paste. the arms of fulda. [illustration] rudolstadt established in 1758. mark in blue. hard paste. [illustration] rauenstein established in 1760. hard paste. [illustration] limbach established about 1761. hard paste. [illustration] limbach another mark. hard paste. [illustration] limbach another mark. hard paste. [illustration] grosbreitenbach established about 1770. hard paste. [illustration] grosbreitenbach hard paste. [illustration] volkstedt established 1762. c. v. sometimes added with the arms. hard paste. [illustration] volkstedt another mark. hard paste. [illustration] volkstedt another mark. hard paste. [illustration] anspach established about 1718. hard paste. [illustration] anspach generally accompanied by letter a. hard paste. [illustration] anspach hard paste. [illustration] anspach hard paste. [illustration] gotha founded in 1780. hard paste. various marks. [illustration] gera established about 1780. marks in blue. hard paste. [illustration] alt haldensteben the factory of m. nathusins. hard paste. [illustration] charlottenburg established in 1790. hard paste. [illustration] baden-baden established in 1753 to 1788. the edge of the ax in gold. hard paste. [illustration] cologne factory of m. l. cremer. enameled fayence. [illustration] popplesdorf, near bonn fayence and porcelain. [illustration] strasbourg established about 1752. hard paste. [illustration] niderviller established in 1768. hard paste. [illustration] elbogen in bohemia established in 1815. hard paste. [illustration] schlakenwald established about 1800. hard paste. [illustration] lehammer or pirkenhammer, near carlsbad founded in 1802. hard paste. [illustration] herend established 1839. [illustration] herend another mark. russia and poland [illustration] korzec established about 1803. hard paste. [illustration] moscow established in 1787. hard paste. [illustration] st. petersburg mark in blue. hard paste. [illustration] st. petersburg mark of empress catherine ii. 1762 to 1796. mark in blue. hard paste. [illustration] st. petersburg monogram of nicholas i. 1825 to 1855. [illustration] st. petersburg established 1744. mark in blue. denmark [illustration] copenhagen established in 1772. mark in blue. hard paste. holland and belgium [illustration] amsterdam established in 1782. mark in blue. hard paste. [illustration] amsterdam mark in blue. hard paste. [illustration] amsterdam mark in blue. hard paste. [illustration] tourney mark in gold represents a potter's kiln. established in 1750. soft paste. [illustration] tourney mark in gold used after 1755. soft paste. [illustration] tourney used about 1755. soft paste. [illustration] hague factory established about 1775; ceased in 1785. mark in gray. hard paste. [illustration] delft joost thooft and labouchere. present mark fayence. switzerland [illustration] nyon established in 1790. hard paste. [illustration] zurich established about 1759. mark in blue. hard paste. italy and spain [illustration] nove 1752. mark in blue or red. soft paste. [illustration] venice mark in red. majolica. [illustration] venice soft paste. [illustration] venice 1720 to 1740. soft paste. mark in red. [illustration] venice soft paste. mark in red. [illustration] turin vineuf. established about 1770. dr. gioanetti (director). soft paste. [illustration] turin vineuf. another mark. soft paste. [illustration] doccia founded in 1735. hard and soft paste. [illustration] doccia hard and soft paste. another mark. [illustration] doccia hard and soft paste. another mark. [illustration] capo di monte founded in 1736. this mark used from 1759. factory abandoned in 1821. soft paste. [illustration] capo di monte mark used from 1759. soft paste. [illustration] capo di monte soft paste. other marks. [illustration] milan mark in blue. fayence. [illustration] madrid buen retiro. monogram of charles iii. established in 1759 to 1812. soft paste. [illustration] madrid soft paste. another mark. [illustration] madrid mark in blue. first quality. soft paste. [illustration] madrid mark in blue. soft paste. [illustration] madrid mark in blue. mark under crown is another form of the monogram of charles iii., the founder. [illustration] oporto established about 1790. hard paste. mark in gold or colors. england [illustration] staffordshire established in 1769. this mark both stamped and printed. [illustration] staffordshire wedgwood, present mark on decorated china. [illustration] staffordshire established about 1756. [illustration] staffordshire established about 1780. [illustration] staffordshire imitations of wedgwood. [illustration] staffordshire established in 1730. [illustration] staffordshire established 1790. [illustration] staffordshire established in 1793 by mr. john davenport. [illustration] staffordshire [illustration] staffordshire [illustration] staffordshire [illustration] staffordshire established about 1770, by josiah spode. [illustration] staffordshire copeland successor of spode in 1833. [illustration] liverpool established in 1750. [illustration] liverpool established in 1756. [illustration] liverpool established in 1790. [illustration] liverpool this mark was used from 1822 to 1833. [illustration] plymouth established 1760. william cookworthy. [illustration] yarmouth absolon, only a decorator. [illustration] swansea established 1790. this mark used about 1815. [illustration] swansea mark in red. [illustration] wales established about 1813. mark in red. [illustration] leeds hartley greens & co. established about 1770. [illustration] bristol established about 1770, by richard champion. [illustration] bristol [illustration] bristol ceased in 1777. [illustration] bow established about 1730. ceased in 1775. [illustration] bow [illustration] bow [illustration] chelsea the oldest mark. about 1747. [illustration] chelsea mark in red. [illustration] chelsea first quality mark in gold. [illustration] derby established 1751. this mark used before 1769. [illustration] derby-chelsea this mark in gold 1773. [illustration] crown derby mark in blue used about 1780. [illustration] derby mark used in 1830. bloor (director). [illustration] derby mark used in 1830. bloor (director). [illustration] derby mark used in 1860. [illustration] royal crown derby present mark. [illustration] worcester established 1751. oldest mark. [illustration] worcester mark imitation of dresden. [illustration] worcester generally on chinese patterns. [illustration] worcester about 1751. [illustration] worcester used 1783 to 1788. [illustration] worcester used 1807 to 1813. [illustration] worcester used 1857 to 1862. [illustration] worcester present mark. [illustration] caughley. shropshire established about 1751. [illustration] caughley. shropshire an early mark in blue. [illustration] coalport established between 1780 and 1790. [illustration] coalport [illustration] coalport present mark. [illustration] staffordshire established in 1791 by mr. thomas minton. [illustration] staffordshire present mark. [illustration] lambeth and burslem doulton & co. [illustration] staffordshire brown-westhead, moore & co. france [illustration] st. cloud established about 1695. factory destroyed by fire in 1773; not rebuilt. soft paste. [illustration] st. cloud this mark used from 1730 to 1762. either in blue or graved in ware. the letter t stands for tron, the name of the director. soft paste. [illustration] chantilly established in 1735. mark in blue or red. soft paste. [illustration] arras established in 1782. mark in blue. factory ceased in 1786. soft paste. [illustration] menecy established in 1735. this mark is usually impressed; sometimes traced in blue. soft paste. [illustration] etiolles, near corbeil established in 1768. monnier, manufacturer. soft paste. [illustration] bourg la reine established in 1773. jacques & jullien. soft paste. [illustration] sceaux-penthievre, near paris established in 1750 by jacques capelle. these letters are engraved on the soft clay. [illustration] sceaux-penthievre, near paris the latter mark in blue. this mark occurs more frequently on fayence. [illustration] clingnancourt established in 1775 by pierre deruelle. mark in blue. soft and hard paste. [illustration] clingnancourt used on pieces of chinese style. mark in red. hard paste. [illustration] clingnancourt mark of monsieur comte de provence. [illustration] orleans established in 1753 by m. gerré. hard and soft paste. [illustration] orleans this mark used from 1808 to 1871, in blue or gold. [illustration] sarreguemines soft paste. [illustration] sarreguemines soft paste and fayence. [illustration] vincennes soft paste. established in 1786. [illustration] vincennes soft paste. another mark. [illustration] paris. rue fontaine au roy established in 1773 by jean baptiste locré. mark in blue. hard paste. [illustration] paris. faubourg st. lazare founded in 1773. hard paste. [illustration] paris. faubourg st. antoine established in 1773. morelle, manufacturer. hard paste. [illustration] paris. rue de la roquette established in 1773. souroux, manufacturer. hard paste. [illustration] paris. gros caillon established in 1773 by advenir lamarre. hard paste. [illustration] paris. rue de clichy mark in blue. hard paste. [illustration] france a mark found on biscuit groups. factory unknown. [illustration] paris. rue thiroux established in 1778. andré marie lebeuf, manufacturer. under the protection of marie antoinette. mark in red. hard paste. [illustration] paris. rue de bondy established in 1780. dihl and guerhard, manufacturers. under the patronage of duc d'angoulême. hard paste. [illustration] paris. rue de bondy another mark. hard paste. [illustration] paris. rue du faubourg st. denis established in 1769. under the protection of charles philippe comte d'artois, afterward charles x. factory discontinued in 1810. [illustration] belleville established in 1790 by jacob petit. mark in blue. hard paste. [illustration] paris. rue de bondy hard paste. mark in blue. [illustration] rouen under the reign of louis xv. fayence. [illustration] lille established in 1784 by leperre durot. mark in red. hard paste. [illustration] paris m. nast, manufacturer. mark in red. hard paste. [illustration] paris halley, manufacturer. first empire mark in gold. hard paste. [illustration] nancy emile gallé, manufacturer. fayence and glass. sevres established at vincennes in 1740. removed from there to sevres in 1756. king louis xv. became sole proprietor in 1760. soft paste was made until 1805. since then only hard paste. the sevres marks first royal epoch 1745 to 1792 [illustration] [illustration] [illustration: vincennes. the letter a denotes the year 1753, continued to 1777. (louis xv.)] [illustration: sevres. ornamented ll's. date 1764.] [illustration: sevres. date 1778. (louis xvi). double letters continued to 1793.] first republican epoch 1792 to 1804 [illustration] [illustration] [illustration] [illustration] [illustration: 1792 to 1799.] [illustration: 1801 to 1804.] first imperial epoch. 1804 to 1814. [illustration: napoleon. 1804 to 1809.] [illustration: napoleon. 1809 to 1814.] second royal epoch. 1814 to 1848. [illustration: louis xviii 1814 to 1823.] [illustration: charles x. 1824 to 1829.] [illustration: charles x. 1829 and 1830.] [illustration: charles x. 1830.] [illustration] [illustration: louis philippe. 1831 to 1834.] [illustration: louis philippe. 1834-1835.] [illustration: on services for the palaces.] [illustration: louis philippe. 1845-1848.] [illustration: after 1848, this mark in green was used for white porcelain.] second republican epoch 1848 to 1851. [illustration: the s stands for sèvres, and 51 for 1851.] second imperial epoch. 1852 to 1872. [illustration] [illustration: napoleon iii. from 1852.] [illustration: this mark used for white pieces; when scratched it denotes issue undecorated.] [illustration: the marks used at the present time.] unknown marks [illustration] chronological table used in the manufactory of sevres a (vincennes) 1753 b (ditto) 1754 c (ditto) 1755 d 1756 e 1757 f 1758 g 1759 h 1760 i 1761 j 1762 k 1763 l 1764 m 1765 n 1766 o 1767 p 1768 q [1]1769 r 1770 s 1771 t 1772 u 1773 v 1774 x 1775 y 1776 z 1777 aa 1778 bb 1779 cc 1780 dd 1781 ee 1782 ff 1783 gg 1784 hh 1785 ii 1786 jj 1787 kk 1788 ll 1789 mm 1790 nn 1791 oo 1792 pp 1793 qq 1794 rr 1795 [1] this comet was sometimes substituted for the ordinary mark of the letter q. [illustration] year ix 1801 t9 " x 1802 x " xi 1803 11 " xii 1804 [illustration] " xiii 1805 [illustration] " xiv 1806 [illustration] 1807 7 1808 8 1809 9 1810 10 1811 (onze) o.z. 1812 (douze) d.z. 1813 (treize) t.z. 1814 (quatorze) q.z. 1815 (quinze) q.n. 1816 (seize) s.z. 1817 (dix sept) d.s. from this date the year is expressed by the last two figures only.--thus, 18 for 1818, etc.,--up to the present time. smithsonian institution--bureau of ethnology. origin and development of form and ornament in ceramic art. by william h. holmes. contents. page. introductory 443 origin of form 445 by adventition 445 by imitation 445 by invention 450 modification of form 450 by adventition 450 by intention 452 origin of ornament 453 from natural objects 454 from artificial objects 455 functional features 455 constructional features 456 from accidents attending construction 457 from ideographic and pictorial subjects 457 modification of ornament 457 through material 458 through form 458 through methods of realization 459 illustrations. fig. 464.--form derived from a gourd 446 465.--form derived from a conch, shell 447 466.--form derived from a stone pot 448 467.--form derived from a wooden tray 448 468.--form derived from a horn spoon 448 469.--form derived from a bark vessel 446 470.--form derived from basketry 449 471.--form derived from basketry 449 472.--form derived from a wooden vessel 449 473.--coincident forms 451 474.--form produced by accident 451 475.--scroll derived from the spire of a conch shell 454 476.--theoretical development of current scroll 455 477.--ornament derived through modification of handles 455 478.--scroll derived from coil of clay 456 479.--ornamental use of fillets of clay 456 480.--variation through, the influence of form 459 481.--theoretical development of the current scroll 460 482.--forms of the same motive expressed in different arts 461 483.--forms of the same motive expressed in different arts 461 484.--forms of the same motive expressed in different arts 461 485.--geometric form of textile ornament 462 486.--loss of geometric accuracy in painting 462 487.--design painted upon pottery 463 488.--theoretical development of fret work 464 489.--theoretical development of scroll work 465 origin and development of form and ornament in ceramic art. by william h. holmes. introductory. for the investigation of art in its early stages and in its widest sense--there is probably no fairer field than that afforded by aboriginal america, ancient and modern. at the period of discovery, art at a number of places on the american continent seems to have been developing surely and steadily, through the force of the innate genius of the race, and the more advanced nations were already approaching the threshold of civilization; at the same time their methods were characterized by great simplicity, and their art products are, as a consequence, exceptionally homogeneous. the advent of european civilization checked the current of growth, and new and conflicting elements were introduced necessarily disastrous to the native development. there is much, however, in the art of living tribes, especially of those least influenced by the whites, capable of throwing light upon the obscure passages of precolumbian art. by supplementing the study of the prehistoric by that of historic art, which is still in many cases in its incipient stages, we may hope to penetrate deeply into the secrets of the past. the advantages of this field, as compared with greece, egypt, and the orient, will be apparent when we remember that the dawn of art in these countries lies hidden in the shadow of unnumbered ages, while ours stands out in the light of the very present. this is well illustrated by a remark of birch, who, in dwelling upon the antiquity of the fictile art, says that "the existence of earthen vessels in egypt was at least coeval with the formation of a written language."[1] beyond this there is acknowledged chaos. in strong contrast with this, is the fact that all precolumbian american pottery _precedes_ the acquisition of written language, and this contrast is emphasized by the additional fact that it also antedates the use of the wheel, that great perverter of the plastic tendencies of clay. [footnote 1: birch: history of ancient pottery, 1873, p. 8.] the material presented in the following notes is derived chiefly from the native ceramic art of the united states, but the principles involved are applicable to all times and to all art, as they are based upon the laws of nature. ceramic art presents two classes of phenomena of importance in the study of the evolution of æsthetic culture. these relate, first, to _form_, and second, to _ornament_. _form_, as embodied in clay vessels, embraces, 1st, _useful shapes_, which may or may not be ornamental, and, 2d, _æsthetic shapes_, which are ornamental and may be useful. there are also _grotesque_ and _fanciful shapes_, which may or may not be either useful or ornamental. no form or class of forms can be said to characterize a particular age or stage of culture. in a general way, of course, the vessels of primitive peoples will be simple in form, while those of more advanced races will be more varied and highly specialized. the shapes first assumed by vessels in clay depend upon the shape of the vessels employed at the time of the introduction of the art, and these depend, to a great extent, upon the kind and grade of culture of the people acquiring the art and upon the resources of the country in which they live. to illustrate: if, for instance, some of the highly advanced alaskan tribes which do not make pottery should migrate to another habitat, less suitable to the practice of their old arts and well adapted to art in clay, and should there acquire the art of pottery, they would doubtless, to a great extent, copy their highly developed utensils of wood, bone, ivory, and basketry, and thus reach a high grade of ceramic achievement in the first century of the practice of the art; but, on the other hand, if certain tribes, very low in intelligence and having no vessel-making arts, should undergo a corresponding change of habitat and acquire the art of pottery, they might not reach in a thousand years, if left to themselves, a grade in the art equal to that of the hypothetical alaskan potters in the first decade. it is, therefore, not the age of the art itself that determines its forms, but the grade and kind of art with which it originates and coexists. _ornament_ is subject to similar laws. where pottery is employed by peoples in very low stages of culture, its ornamentation will be of the simple archaic kind. being a conservative art and much hampered by the restraints of convention, the elementary forms of ornament are carried a long way into the succeeding periods and have a very decided effect upon the higher stages. pottery brought into use for the first time by more advanced races will never pass through the elementary stage of decoration, but will take its ornament greatly from existing art and carry this up in its own peculiar way through succeeding generations. the character of the ornamentation does not therefore depend upon the age of the art so much as upon the acquirements of the potter and his people in other arts. origin of form in order to convey a clear idea of the bearing of the preceding statements upon the history of form and ornament, it will be necessary to present a number of points in greater detail. the following synopsis will give a connected view of various possible origins of form. / by adventition. origin of form--| by imitation--------/ of natural models. \ by invention. \ of artificial models +forms suggested by adventition.+ the suggestions of accident, especially in the early stages of art, are often adopted, and become fruitful sources of improvement and progress. by such means the use of clay was discovered and the ceramic art came into existence. the accidental indentation of a mass of clay by the foot, or hand, or by a fruit-shell, or stone, while serving as an auxiliary in some simple art, may have suggested the making of a cup, the simplest form of vessel. the use of clay as a cement in repairing utensils, in protecting combustible vessels from injury by fire, or in building up the walls of shallow vessels, may also have led to the formation of disks or cups, afterwards independently constructed. in any case the objects or utensils with which the clay was associated in its earliest use would impress their forms upon it. thus, if clay were used in deepening or mending vessels of stone by a given people, it would, when used independently by that people, tend to assume shapes suggested by stone vessels. the same may be said of its use in connection with wood and wicker, or with vessels of other materials. forms of vessels so derived may be said to have an adventitious origin, yet they are essentially copies, although not so by design, and may as readily be placed under the succeeding head. +forms derived by imitation.+ clay has no inherent qualities of a nature to impose a given form or class of forms upon its products, as have wood, bark, bone, or stone. it is so mobile as to be quite free to take form from surroundings, and where extensively used will record or echo a vast deal of nature and of coexistent art. in this observation we have a key that will unlock many of the mysteries of form. in the investigation of this point it will be necessary to consider the processes by which an art inherits or acquires the forms of another art or of nature, and how one material imposes its peculiarities upon another material. in early stages of culture the processes of art are closely akin to those of nature, the human agent hardly ranking as more than a part of the environment. the primitive artist does not proceed by methods identical with our own. he does not deliberately and freely examine all departments of nature or art and select for models those things most convenient or most agreeable to fancy; neither does he experiment with the view of inventing new forms. what he attempts depends almost absolutely upon what happens to be suggested by preceding forms, and so narrow and so direct are the processes of his mind that, knowing his resources, we could closely predict his results. the range of models in the ceramic art is at first very limited, and includes only those utensils devoted to the particular use to which the clay vessels are to be applied; later, closely-associated objects and utensils are copied. in the first stages of art, when the savage makes a weapon, he modifies or copies a weapon; when he makes a vessel, he modifies or copies a vessel. this law holds good in an inverse ratio to culture, varying to a certain extent with the character of the material used. _natural originals_.--natural originals, both animal and vegetable, necessarily differ with the country and the climate, thus giving rise to individual characters in art forms often extremely persistent and surviving decided changes of environment. the gourd is probably the most varied and suggestive natural vessel. we find that the primitive potter has often copied it in the most literal manner. one example only, out of the many available ones, is necessary. this is from a mound in southeastern missouri. in fig. 464, _a_ illustrates a common form of the gourd, while _b_ represents the imitation in clay. [illustration: _a_, gourd. _b_, clay vessel. fig. 464.--form derived from a gourd.] all nations situated upon the sea or upon large rivers use shells of mollusks, which, without modification, make excellent receptacles for water and food. imitations of these are often found among the products of the potter's art. a good example from the mississippi valley is shown in fig. 465, _a_ being the original and _b_ the copy in clay. in africa, and in other countries, such natural objects as cocoanut shells, and ostrich eggs are used in like manner. another class of vessels, those made from the skins, bladders, and stomachs of animals, should also be mentioned in this connection, as it is certain that their influence has frequently been felt in the conformation of earthen utensils. in searching nature, therefore, for originals of primitive ceramic forms we have little need of going outside of objects that in their natural or slightly altered state are available for vessels. [illustration: _a_, shell. _b_, clay. fig. 465.--form derived from a conch shell.] true, other objects have been copied. we find a multitude of the higher natural forms, both animal and vegetable, embodied in vessels of clay, but their presence is indicative of a somewhat advanced stage of art, when the copying of vessels that were functionally proper antecedents had given rise to a familiarity with the use of clay and a capacity in handling it that, with advancing culture, brought all nature within the reach of the potter and made it assist in the processes of variation and development. _artificial originals_.--there is no doubt that among most peoples art had produced vessels in other materials antecedent to the utilization of clay. these would be legitimate models for the potter and we may therefore expect to find them repeated in earthenware. in this way the art has acquired a multitude of new forms, some of which may be natural forms at second hand, that is to say, with modifications imposed upon them by the material in which they were first shaped. but all materials other than clay are exceedingly intractable, and impress their own characters so decidedly upon forms produced in them that ultimate originals, where there are such, cannot often be traced through them. it will be most interesting to note the influence of these peculiarities of originals upon the ceramic art. a nation having stone vessels, like those of california, on acquiring the art of pottery would use the stone vessels as models, and such forms as that given in fig. 466 would arise, _a_ being in stone and _b_ in clay, the former from california and the latter from arizona. similar forms would just as readily come from gourds, baskets, or other globular utensils. nations having wooden vessels would copy them in clay on acquiring the art of pottery. this would give rise to a distinct group of forms, the result primarily of the peculiarities of the woody structure. thus in fig. 467, _a_, we have a form of wooden vessel, a sort of winged trough that i have frequently found copied in clay. the earthen vessel given in fig. 467, _b_, was obtained from an ancient grave in arkansas. [illustration: _a_, stone. _b_, clay. fig. 466.--form derived from a stone pot.] [illustration: _a_, wood. _b_, clay. fig. 467.--form derived from a wooden tray.] [illustration: _a_, horn. _b_, clay. fig. 468.--form derived from a horn spoon.] [illustration: _a_, bark. _b_, clay. fig. 469.--form derived from a bark vessel.] the carapace of some species of turtles, and perhaps even the hard case of the armadillo, could be utilized in a similar way. the shaping of a knot of wood often gives rise to a dipper-shaped vessel, such as may be found in use by many tribes, and is as likely an original for the dipper form in clay as is the gourd or the conch shell; the familiar horn vessel of the western tribes, fig. 468, _a_, would have served equally well. the specimen given in _b_ is from arkansas. as a rule, however, such vessels cannot be traced to their originals, since by copying and recopying they have varied from the parent form, tending always toward uniform conventional shapes. a vessel of rectangular outline might originate in wood or bark. in fig. 469, _a_, we have a usual form of bark tray, which is possibly the prototype of the square-rimmed earthen vessel given in _b_. [illustration: _a_, wicker. _b_, clay. fig. 470.--form originating in basketry.] [illustration: _a_, wicker. _b_, clay. fig. 471.--form originating in basketry.] [illustration: _a_, net. _b_, clay. fig. 472.--form originating in basketry.] basketry and other classes of woven vessels take a great variety of forms and, being generally antecedent to the potter's art and constantly present with it, have left an indelible impression upon ceramic forms. this is traceable in the earthenware of nearly all nations. the clay vessel is an intruder, and usurps the place and appropriates the dress of its predecessor in wicker. the form illustrated in fig. 470, _a_, is a common one with the pueblo peoples, and their earthen vessels often resemble it very closely, as shown in _b_. another variety is given in fig. 471, _a_ and _b_. these specimens are from southwestern utah. fig. 472, _b_, illustrates a form quite common in the southern states, a section in which pouch-like nets and baskets, _a_, were formerly in use and in which the pots were often modeled. +invention of form.+ in the early stages of art, forms are rarely invented outright and i shall not stop to consider the subject here. +modification of form.+ the acquisition of new materials, the development of new uses, the employment of new processes of manufacture, and many other agencies lead to the multiplication of forms through modification. the processes by which highly differentiated forms are reached are interesting throughout and repay the closest study. a preliminary classification of the various causes that lead to modification is given in the following synopsis: / / /to assume form. | |incapacity of material--\to retain form. | |incapacity of the artisan. | |changes in method of manufacture. |by adventition--|changes in environment. |changes of use. modification of form--| |lack of use. | \influence of new or exotic forms, etc. | | /to enhance usefulness. |by intention--| | \to please fancy.--/for the beautiful. \ \for the grotesque. +modification by adventition.+ _incapacity of material._--it is evident at a glance that clay lacks the capacity to assume and to retain many of the details of form found in antecedent vessels. this necessarily results in the alteration or omission of these features, and hence arise many modifications of original forms. the simple lack of capacity on the part of the potter who undertook to reproduce a model would lead to the modification of all but the most simple shapes. the acquisition of the art by a superior or an inferior race, or one of different habits would lead to decided changes. a people accustomed to carrying objects upon the head, on acquiring earthen vessels would shape the bases and the handles to facilitate this use. improvements in the methods of manufacture are of the greatest importance in the progress of an art. the introduction of the lathe, for example, might almost revolutionize form in clay. as arts multiply, clay is applied to new uses. its employment in the manufacture of lamps, whistles, or toys would lead to a multitude of distinct and unique forms. the acquisition of a new vessel-making material by a nation of potters and the association of the forms developed through its inherent qualities or structure would often lead ceramic shapes into new channels. [illustration: _a_, wood. _b_, clay. fig. 473.--coincident forms.] the contact of a nation of potters with a nation of carvers in wood would tend very decidedly to modify the utensils of the former. one example may be given which will illustrate the possibilities of such exotic influences upon form. in fig. 473, _a_, we have an alaskan vessel carved in wood. it represents a beaver grasping a stick in its hands and teeth. the conception is so unusual and the style of vessel so characteristic of the people that we should not expect to find it repeated in other regions; but the ancient graves of the middle mississippi valley have furnished a number of very similar vessels in clay, one of which is outlined in _b_. while this remarkable coincidence is suggestive of ethnic relationships which do not call for attention here, it serves to illustrate the possibilities of modification by simple contact. [illustration: _a_ _b_ fig. 471.--form resulting from accident.] a curious example illustrative of possible transformation by adventitious circumstances is found in the collection from the province of ancient tusayan. a small vessel of sphynx-like appearance, possibly derived more or less remotely from a skin vessel, has a noticeable resemblance to some life form, fig. 474, _a_. the fore-legs are represented by two large bosses, the wide-open mouth takes the place of the severed neck, and a handle connects the top of the rim with the back of the vessel. the handle being broken off and the vessel inverted, _b_, there is a decided change; we are struck by the resemblance to a frog or toad. the original legs, having dark concentric lines painted around them, look like large protruding eyes, and the mouth gapes in the most realistic manner, while the two short broken ends of the handle resemble legs and serve to support the vessel in an upright position, completing the illusion. the fetich-hunting pueblo indian, picking up this little vessel in its mutilated condition, would probably at once give to it the sacred character of the water animal which it resembles, and it might readily transmit its peculiarities of form to other generations of vessels. it is not necessary in this study to refer at length to the influence of metallic vessels upon ceramic forms. they do not usually appear until the ceramic art is far advanced and often receive a heritage of shape from earthen forms. afterwards, when the inherent qualities of the metal have stamped their individuality upon utensils, the debt is paid back to clay with interest, as will be seen by reference to later forms in many parts of the world. +modification by intention.+ _to enhance usefulness._--there can be no doubt that the desire upon the part of the archaic potter to increase the usefulness and convenience of his utensils has been an important agent in the modification of form. the earliest vessels employed were often clumsy and difficult to handle. the favorite conch shell would hold water for him who wished to drink, but the breaking away of spines and the extraction of the interior whorl improved it immeasurably. the clumsy mortar of stone, with its thick walls and great weight, served a useful purpose, but it needed a very little intelligent thought to show that thin walls and neatly-trimmed margins were much preferable. vessels of clay, aside from the forms imposed upon, them by their antecedents and associates, would necessarily be subject to changes suggested by the growing needs of man. these would be worked out with ever-increasing ease by his unfolding genius for invention. further investigation of this phase of development would carry me beyond the limits set for this paper. _to please fancy._--the skill acquired by the handling of clay in constructing vessels and in efforts to increase their usefulness would open an expansive field for the play of fancy. the potter would no sooner succeed in copying vessels having life form than he would be placed in a position to realize his capacity to imitate forms not peculiar to vessels. his ambition would in time lead him even beyond the limits of nature and he would invade the realm of imagination, embodying the conceptions of superstition in the plastic clay. this tendency would be encouraged and perpetuated by the relegation of vessels of particular forms to particular ceremonies. +origin of ornament.+ the birth of the embellishing art must be sought in that stage of animal development when instinct began to discover that certain attributes or adornments increased attractiveness. when art in its human sense came into existence ideas of embellishment soon extended from the _person_, with, which they had been associated, to all things with which man had to deal. the processes of the growth of the æsthetic idea are long and obscure and cannot be taken up in this place. the various elements of embellishment in which the ceramic art is interested may be assigned to two great classes, based upon the character of the conceptions associated with them. these are _ideographic_ and _non-ideographic_. in the present paper i shall treat chiefly of the non ideographic, reserving the ideographic for a second paper. elements, non-ideographic from the start, are derived mainly from two sources: 1st, from objects, natural or artificial, associated with the arts; and, 2d, from the suggestions of accidents attending construction. natural objects abound in features highly suggestive of embellishment and these are constantly employed in art. artificial objects have two classes of features capable of giving rise to ornament: these are _constructional_ and _functional_. in a late stage of development all things in nature and in art, however complex or foreign to the art in its practice, are subject to decorative treatment. this latter is the realistic pictorial stage, one of which the student of native american culture needs to take little cognizance. elements of design are not invented outright: man modifies, combines, and recombines elements or ideas already in existence, but does not create. a classification of the sources of decorative motives employed in the ceramic art is given in the following diagram: /suggestions of features of natural utensils or objects. | / | | /handles. | | |legs | | functional|bands | | \perforations, etc. | | |suggestions of features of | |artificial utensils or objects.| /the coil. | | |the seam. origin of ornament| |constructional|the stitch. | | |the plait. | \ \the twist, etc. |suggestions from accidents /marks of fingers. | attending construction. |marks of implements. | \marks of molds, etc. | | \suggestions of ideographic features or pictorial delineations. +suggestions of natural features of objects.+ the first articles used by men in their simple arts have in many cases possessed features suggestive of decoration. shells of mollusks are exquisitely embellished with ribs, spines, nodes, and colors. the same is true to a somewhat limited extent of the shells of the turtle and the armadillo and of the hard cases of fruits. these decorative features, though not essential to the utensil, are nevertheless inseparable parts of it, and are cast or unconsciously copied by a very primitive people when similar articles are artificially produced in plastic material. in this way a utensil may acquire ornamental characters long before the workman has learned to take pleasure in such details or has conceived an idea beyond that of simple utility. this may be called unconscious embellishment. in this fortuitous fashion a ribbed variety of fruit shell would give rise to a ribbed vessel in clay; one covered with spines would suggest a noded vessel, etc. when taste came to be exercised upon such objects these features would be retained and copied for the pleasure they afforded. [illustration: _a._--shell vessel. _b._--copy in clay. fig. 475.--scroll derived from the spire of a conch shell.] passing by the many simple elements of decoration that by this unconscious process could be derived from such sources, let me give a single example by which it will be seen that not only elementary forms but even so highly constituted an ornament as the scroll may have been brought thus naturally into the realm of decorative art. the sea-shell has always been intimately associated with the arts that utilize clay and abounds in suggestions of embellishment. the _busycon_ was almost universally employed as a vessel by the tribes of the atlantic drainage of north america. usually it was trimmed down and excavated until only about three-fourths of the outer wall of the shell remained. at one end was the long spike-like base which served as a handle, and at the other the flat conical apex, with its very pronounced spiral line or ridge expanding from the center to the circumference, as seen in fig. 475 _a_. this vessel was often copied in clay, as many good examples now in our museums testify. the notable feature is that the shell has been copied literally, the spiral appearing in its proper place. a specimen is illustrated in fig. 475 _b_ which, although simple and highly conventionalized, still retains the spiral figure. [illustration: _a_ _b_ _c_ fig. 476.--possible derivation of the current scroll.] in another example we have four of the noded apexes placed about the rim of the vessel, as shown in fig. 476_a_, the conception being that of four conch shells united in one vessel, the bases being turned inward and the apexes outward. now it is only necessary to suppose the addition of the spiral lines, always associated with the nodes, to have the result shown in _b_, and by a still higher degree of convention we have the classic scroll ornament given in _c_. of course, no such result as this could come about adventitiously, as successful combination calls for the exercise of judgment and taste; but the initiatory steps could be taken--the motive could enter art--without the conscious supervision of the human agent. +suggestions by features of artificial objects.+ [illustration: fig. 477.--ornament derived through the modification of handles.] _functional features_.--functional features of art products liable to influence ornament comprise handles, legs, feet, rims, bands, and other peculiarities of shape originating in utility. handles, for instance, may have been indigenous to a number of arts; they are coeval and coextensive with culture. the first load, weapon, or vessel transported by man may have been suspended by a vine or filament. such arts as have fallen heir to handles have used them according to the capacities of the material employed. of all the materials stone is probably the least suited to their successful use, while clay utilizes them in its own peculiar way, giving to them a great variety of expression. they are copied in clay from various models, but owing to the inadequate capacities of the material, often lose their function and degenerate into mere ornaments, which are modified as such to please the potter's fancy. thus, for example, the series of handles placed about the neck of the vessel become, by modification in frequent copying, a mere band of ornamental figures in relief, or even finally in engraved, punctured, or painted lines, in the manner suggested in fig. 477. legs, pedestals, spouts, and other features may in a like manner give rise to decoration. [illustration: _a._--coiled fillet of clay. _b._--double coil. fig. 478.--scroll derived from coil of clay.] _constructional features._-features of vessels resulting from construction are infinitely varied and often highly suggestive of decoration. constructional peculiarities of the clay utensils themselves are especially worthy of notice, and on account of their actual presence in the art itself are more likely to be utilized or copied for ceramic ornament than those of other materials. the coil, so universally employed in construction, has had a decided influence upon the ceramic decoration of certain peoples, as i have shown in a paper on ancient pueblo art. from it we have not only a great variety of surface ornamentation produced by simple treatment of the coil in place, but probably many forms suggested by the use of the coil in vessel building, as, for instance, the spiral formed in beginning the base of a coiled vessel, fig. 478 _a_, from which the double scroll _b_, as a separate feature, could readily be derived, and finally the chain of scrolls so often seen in border and zone decoration. this familiarity with the use of fillets or ropes of clay would also lead to a great variety of applied ornament, examples of which, from pueblo art, are given in fig. 479. the sinuous forms assumed by a rope of clay so employed would readily suggest to the indian the form of the serpent and the means of representing it, and might thus lead to the introduction of this much revered creature into art. [illustration: fig. 479.--ornamental use of fillets.] of the various classes of utensils associated closely with the ceramic art, there are none so characteristically marked by constructional features as nets and wicker baskets. the twisting, interlacing, knotting, and stitching of filaments give relieved figures that by contact in manufacture impress themselves upon the plastic clay. such impressions come in time to be regarded as pleasing features, and when free-hand methods of reproducing are finally acquired they and their derivatives become essentials of decoration. at a later stage these characters of basketry influence ceramic decoration in a somewhat different way. by the use of variously-colored fillets the woven surface displays figures in color corresponding to those in relief and varying with every new combination. many striking patterns are thus produced, and the potter who has learned to decorate his wares by the stylus or brush reproduces these patterns by free-hand methods. we find pottery in all countries ornamented with patterns, painted, incised, stamped, and relieved, certainly derived from this source. so well is this fact known that i need hardly go into details. in the higher stages of art the constructional characters of architecture give rise to many notions of decoration which afterwards descend to other arts, taking greatly divergent forms. aboriginal architecture in some parts of america had reached a development capable of wielding a strong influence. this is not true, however, of any part of the united states. +suggestions of accidents.+ besides the suggestions of surface features impressed in manufacture or intentionally copied as indicated above, we have also those of accidental imprints of implements or of the fingers in manufacture. from this source there are necessarily many suggestions of ornament, at first of indented figures, but later, after long employment, extending to the other modes of representation. +ideographic and pictorial subjects.+ non-ideographic forms of ornament may originate in ideographic features, mnemonic, demonstrative, or symbolic. such significant figures are borrowed by decorators from other branches of art. as time goes on they lose their significance and are subsequently treated as purely decorative elements. subjects wholly pictorial in character, when such come to be made, may also be used as simple decoration, and by long processes of convention become geometric. the exact amount of significance still attached to significant figures after adoption into decoration cannot be determined except in cases of actual identification by living peoples, and even when the signification is known by the more learned individuals the decorator may be wholly without knowledge of it. modification of ornament. there are comparatively few elementary ideas prominently and generally employed in primitive decorative art. new ideas are acquired, as already shown, all along the pathway of progress. none of these ideas retain a uniform expression, however, as they are subject to modification by environment just as are the forms of living organisms. a brief classification of the causes of modification is given in the following synopsis: /through material. modification of ornament------|through form. \through, methods of realization. _through material._--it is evident at a glance that _material_ must have a strong influence upon the forms assumed by the various decorative motives, however derived. thus stone, clay, wood, bone, and copper, although they readily borrow from nature and from each other, necessarily show different decorative results. stone is massive and takes form slowly and by peculiar processes. clay is more versatile and decoration may be scratched, incised, painted, or modeled in relief with equal facility, while wood and metal engender details having characters peculiar to themselves, producing different results from the same motives or elements. much of the diversity displayed by the art products of different countries and climates is due to this cause. peoples dwelling in arctic climates are limited, by their materials, to particular modes of expression. bone and ivory as shaped for use in the arts of subsistence afford facilities for the employment of a very restricted class of linear decoration, such chiefly as could be scratched with a hard point upon small irregular, often cylindrical, implements. skins and other animal tissues are not favorable to the development of ornament, and the textile arts--the greatest agents of convention--do not readily find suitable materials in which to work. decorative art carried to a high stage under arctic environment would be more likely to achieve unconventional and realistic forms than if developed in more highly favored countries. the accurate geometric and linear patterns would hardly arise. _through form._--forms of decorated objects exercise a strong influence upon the decorative designs employed. it would be more difficult to tattoo the human face or body with straight lines or rectilinear patterns than with curved ones. an ornament applied originally to a vessel of a given form would accommodate itself to that form pretty much as costume becomes adjusted to the individual. when it came to be required for another form of vessel, very decided changes might be necessary. with the ancient pueblo peoples rectilinear forms of meander patterns were very much in favor and many earthen vessels are found in which bands of beautiful angular geometric figures occupy the peripheral zone, fig. 480 _a_, but when the artist takes up a mug having a row of hemispherical nodes about the body, _b_, he finds it very difficult to apply his favorite forms and is almost compelled to run spiral curves about the nodes in order to secure a neat adjustment. [illustration: fig. 480.--variations in a motive through the influence of form.] _through methods of realisation_.--it will readily be seen that the forms assumed by a motive depend greatly upon the character of the mechanical devices employed. in the potter's art devices for holding and turning the vessel under manipulation produce peculiar results. in applying a given idea to clay much depends upon the method of executing it. it will take widely differing forms when executed by incising, by modeling, by painting, and by stamping. intimately associated with methods of execution are peculiarities of construction, the two agencies working together in the processes of modification and development of ornament. i have previously shown how our favorite ornament, the scroll, in its disconnected form may have originated in the copying of natural forms or through the manipulation of coils of clay. i present here an example of its possible origin through the modification of forms derived from constructional features of basketry. an ornament known as the guilloche is found in many countries. the combination of lines resembles that of twisted or platted fillets of wood, cane, or rushes, as may be seen at a glance, fig. 481 _a_. an incised ornament of this character, possibly derived from basketry by copying the twisted fillets or their impressions in the clay, is very common on the pottery of the mounds of the mississippi valley, and its variants form a most interesting study. in applying this to a vessel the careless artist does not properly connect the ends of the lines which pass beneath the intersecting fillets, and the parts become disconnected, _b_. in many cases the ends are turned in abruptly as seen in _c_, and only a slight further change is necessary to lead to the result, _d_, the running scroll with well-developed links. all of these steps may be observed in a single group of vessels. it may be thought by some that the processes of development indicated above are insufficient and unsatisfactory. there are those who, seeing these forms already endowed with symbolism, begin at what i conceive to be the wrong end of the process. they derive the form of symbol directly from the thing symbolized. thus the current scroll is, with many races, found to be a symbol of water, and its origin is attributed to a literal rendition of the sweep and curl of the waves. it is more probable that the scroll became the symbol of the sea long after its development through agencies similar to those described above, and that the association resulted from the observation of incidental resemblances. this same figure, in use by the indians of the interior of the continent, is regarded as symbolic of the whirlwind, and it is probable that any symbol-using people will find in the features and phenomena of their environment, whatever it may be, sufficient resemblance to any of their decorative devices to lead to a symbolic association. [illustration: fig. 481.--theoretical development of the current scroll.] one secret of modification is found in the use of a radical in more than one art, owing to differences in constructional characters. for example, the tendency of nearly all woven fabrics is to encourage, even to compel, the use of straight lines in the decorative designs applied. thus the attempt to employ curved lines would lead to stepped or broken lines. the curvilinear scroll coming from some other art would be forced by the constructional character of the fabric into square forms, and the rectilinear meander or fret would result, as shown in. fig. 482, _a_ being the plain form, painted, engraved, or in relief, and _b_ the same idea developed in a woven fabric. stone or brick-work would lead to like results, fig. 483; but the modification could as readily move in the other direction. if an ornament originating in the constructional character of a woven fabric, or remodeled by it, and hence rectilinear, should be desired for a smooth structureless or featureless surface, the difficulties of drawing the angular forms would lead to the delineation of curved forms, and we would have exactly the reverse of the order shown in figs. 482 and 483. the two forms given in fig. 484 actually occur in one and the same design painted upon an ancient pueblo vase. the curved form is apparently the result of careless or hurried work, the original angular form, having come from, a textile source. [illustration: _a_, free-hand form. _b_, form imposed, by fabric. fig. 482.--forms of the same motive expressed in different arts.] [illustration: _a_, free-hand form. _b_, form imposed by masonry. fig. 483.--forms of the same motive expressed in different arts.] [illustration: _a_ _b_ fig. 484.--variations resulting from change of method.] many excellent examples illustrative of this tendency to modification are found in pueblo art. much of the ornament applied to pottery is derived from the sister art, basketry. in the latter art the forms of decorative figures are geometric and symmetrical to the highest degree, as i have frequently pointed out. the rays of a radiating ornament, worked with the texture of a shallow basket, spring from the center and take uniform directions toward the margin, as shown in fig. 485. but when a similar idea derived from basketry (as it could have no other origin) is executed in color upon an earthen vessel, we observe a tendency to depart from symmetry as well as from consistency. i call attention here to the arrangement of the parts merely, not to the motives employed, as i happen to have no examples of identical figures from the two arts. [illustration: fig. 485.--geometric form, of textile ornament.] [illustration: fig. 486.--loss of geometric accuracy in painting.] it will be seen by reference to the design given in fig. 486, taken from the upper surface of an ancient vase, that although the spirit of the decoration is wonderfully well preserved the idea of the origin of all the rays in the center of the vessel is not kept in view, and that by carelessness in the drawing two of the rays are crowded out and terminate against the side of a neighboring ray. in copying and recopying by free-hand methods, many curious modifications take place in these designs, as, for example, the unconformity which occurs in one place in the example given may occur at a number of places, and there will be a series of independent sections, a small number only of the bands of devices remaining true rays. [illustration: fig. 487.--design painted upon pottery.] a characteristic painted design from the interior of an ancient bowl is shown in fig. 487, in which merely a suggestion of the radiation is preserved, although the figure is still decorative and tasteful. this process of modification goes on without end, and as the true geometric textile forms recede from view innovation robs the design of all traces of its original character, producing much that is incongruous and unsatisfactory. the growth of decorative devices from the elementary to the highly constituted and elegant is owing to a tendency of the human mind to elaborate because it is pleasant to do so or because pleasure is taken in the result, but there is still a directing and shaping agency to be accounted for. i have already shown that such figures as the scroll and the guilloche are not _necessarily_ developed by processes of selection and combination of simple elements, as many have thought, since they may have come into art at a very early stage almost full-fledged; but there is nothing in these facts to throw light upon the processes by which ornament followed particular lines of development throughout endless elaboration. in treating of this point, prof. c.f. hartt[2] maintained that the development of ornamental designs took particular and uniform directions owing to the structure of the eye, certain forms being chosen and perpetuated because of the pleasure afforded by movements of the eye in following them. in connection with this hypothesis, for it is nothing more, mr. hartt advanced the additional idea, that in unison with the general course of nature decorative forms began with simple elements and developed by systematic methods to complex forms. take for example the series of designs shown in fig. 488. the meander _a_ made up of simple parts would, according to mr. hartt, by further elaboration under the supervision of the muscles of the eye, develop into _b_. this, in time, into _c_, and so on until the elegant anthemium was achieved. the series shown in fig. 489 would develop in a similar way, or otherwise would be produced by modification in free-hand copying of the rectilinear series. the processes here suggested, although to all appearances reasonable enough, should not be passed over without careful scrutiny. [illustration: fig. 488.--theoretical development of fret-work.] [footnote 2: hartt: popular science monthly, vol. vi, p. 266.] taking the first series, we observe that the ornaments are projected in straight continuous lines or zones, which are filled in with more or less complex parts, rectilinear and geometrically accurate. still higher forms are marvelously intricate and graceful, yet not less geometric and symmetrical. [illustration: fig. 489.--theoretical development of scroll work.] let us turn to the primitive artisan, and observe him at work with rude brush and stylus upon the rounded and irregular forms of his utensils and weapons, or upon skins, bark, and rock surfaces. is it probable that with his free hand directed by the eye alone he will be able to achieve these rythmic geometric forms. it seems to me that the whole tendency is in the opposite direction. i venture to surmise that if there had been no other resources than those named above the typical rectilinear fret would never have been known, at least to the primitive world; for, notwithstanding the contrary statement by professor hartt, the fret is in its more highly-developed forms extremely difficult to follow with the eye and to delineate with the hand. until arts, geometric in their construction, arose to create and to combine mechanically the necessary elements and motives, and lead the way by a long series of object-lessons to ideas of geometric combination, our typical border ornament would not be possible. such arts are the textile arts and architecture. these brought into existence forms and ideas not met with in nature and not primarily thought of by man, and combined them in defiance of human, conceptions of grace. geometric ornament is the offspring of technique. index. acquisition of new material modifies form in pottery 451 adventition, a source of form 445, 450 america as a field for study of art 443 basketry copied in pottery 449 busycon shell copied as a vessel, the 454 california, pottery from 447 ceramic art, origin and development of form and ornament in, w.h. holmes 437-465 form discussed 444 ornament discussed 444 coils suggesting spiral ornament 456 decorative motive in pottery, sources of 453 european civilization checked aboriginal american art 443 fancy modifying form in pottery 452 fictile art related to written language 443 form modifies ornament in pottery 458 of pottery modified by certain influences 450-452 hartt, prof. c.f., on form of designs as influenced by structure of the eye 463-464 ideographic elements of decoration 453 imitation, a source of form 445 improvements in modes of manufacture modify forms in pottery 450 intention a modifier of form in pottery 452 modification of ornaments in pottery 458 non-ideographic elements of decoration 453 origin and development of form and ornament in ceramic art (w.h. holmes) 437-465 origin of ornament in pottery 453 ornament in pottery, origin of 453-457 ornamental elements modified by invention 453 pottery from california 447 tusayan 451 utah 449 scroll, possible origin of the 459 shells copied in pottery 447 skin vessels copied in pottery 447 sources of decorative motive in ceramic art 453 spiral ornament from coils 456 stone vessels copied in pottery 447 symbols adopted rather than invented 460 utility modifies form in pottery 452 wooden vessels copied in pottery 447, 451 written language as related to fictile art 443 north devon pottery and its export to america in the 17th century _by c. malcolm watkins_ paper 13, pages 17-59, from contributions from the museum of history and technology united states national museum bulletin 225 smithsonian institution · washington, d.c., 1960 contributions from the museum of history and technology: paper 13 north devon pottery and its export to america in the 17th century _c. malcolm watkins_ [illustration: figure 1.--north devon sgraffito cup, deep dish, and jug restored from fragments excavated from fill under brick drain at may-hartwell site, jamestown, virginia. the drain was laid between 1689 and 1695. colonial national historical park.] by c. malcolm watkins north devon pottery and its export to america in the 17th century _recent excavations of ceramics at historic sites such as jamestown and plymouth indicate that the seaboard colonists of the 17th century enjoyed a higher degree of comfort and more esthetic furnishings than heretofore believed. in addition, these findings have given us much new information about the interplay of trade and culture between the colonists and their mother country._ _this article represents the first work in the author's long-range study of ceramics used by the english colonists in america._ the author: _c. malcolm watkins is curator of cultural history, united states national museum, smithsonian institution._ pottery sherds found archeologically in colonial sites serve a multiple purpose. they help to date the sites; they reflect cultural and economic levels in the areas of their use; and they throw light on manufacture, trade, and distribution. satisfying instances of these uses were revealed with the discovery in 1935 of two distinct but unidentified pottery types in the excavations conducted by the national park service at jamestown, virginia, and later elsewhere along the eastern seaboard. one type was an elaborate and striking yellow sgraffito ware, the other a coarse utilitarian kitchen ware whose red paste was heavily tempered with a gross water-worn gravel or "grit." included in the latter class were the components of large earthen baking ovens. among the literally hundreds of thousands of sherds uncovered at jamestown between 1935 and 1956, these types occurred with relatively high incidence. for a long time no relationship between them was noted, yet their histories have proved to be of one fabric, reflecting the activities of a 17th-century english potterymaking center of unsuspected magnitude. the sgraffito pottery is a red earthenware, coated with a white slip through which designs have been incised. an amber lead glaze imparts a golden yellow to the slip-covered portions and a brownish amber to the exposed red paste. the gravel-tempered ware is made of a similar red-burning clay and is remarkable for its lack of refinement, for the pebbly texture caused by protruding bits of gravel, and for the crude and careless manner in which the heavy amber glaze was applied to interior surfaces. once seen, it is instantly recognizable and entirely distinct from other known types of english or continental pottery. a complete oven (fig. 10), now restored at jamestown, is of similar paste and quality of temper. it has a roughly oval beehive shape with a trapezoidal framed opening in which a pottery door fits snugly. [illustration: figure 2.--sketch of sherd of sgraffito-ware dish, dating about 1670, that was found during excavations of c. h. brannam's pottery in barnstaple. (_sketch by mrs. constance christian, from photo._)] following the initial discoveries at jamestown there was considerable speculation about these two types. worth bailey, then museum technician at jamestown, was the first to recognize the source of the sgraffito ware as "devonshire."[1] henry chandlee forman, asserting that such ware was "undoubtedly made in england," felt that it "derives its inspiration from majolica ware ... especially that of the early renaissance period from faenza."[2] bailey also noted that the oven and the gravel-tempered utensils were made of identical clay and temper. however, in an attempt to prove that earthenware was produced locally, he assumed, perhaps because of their crudeness, that the utensils were made at jamestown. this led him to conjecture that the oven, having similar ceramic qualities, was also a local product. he felt in support of this that it was doubtful "so fragile an object could have survived a perilous sea voyage."[3] since these opinions were expressed, much further archeological work in colonial sites has revealed widespread distribution of the two types. bailey himself noted that a pottery oven is intact and in place in the john bowne house in flushing, long island. a fragment of another pottery oven recently has been identified among the artifacts excavated by sidney strickland from the site of the john howland house, near plymouth, massachusetts; and gravel-tempered utensil sherds have occurred in many sites. the sgraffito ware has been unearthed in virginia, maryland, and massachusetts. such a wide distribution of either type implies a productive european source for each, rather than a local american kiln in a struggling colonial settlement like jamestown. bailey's attribution of the sgraffito ware to devonshire was confirmed in 1950 when j. c. harrington, archeologist of the national park service, came upon certain evidence at barnstaple in north devon, england. this evidence was found in the form of sherds exhibited in a display window of c. h. brannam's barnstaple pottery that were uncovered during excavation work on the premises. these are unmistakably related in technique and design to the american examples. a label under a fragment of a large deep dish (fig. 2) in the display is inscribed: "piece of dish found in site of pottery. in sgraffiato. about 1670." this clue opened the way to the investigation pursued here, the results of which relate the sgraffito ware, the gravel-tempered ware, and the ovens to the north devon towns and to a busy commerce in earthenware between barnstaple, bideford, and the new world. this study, conducted at first hand only on the american side of the atlantic, is admittedly incomplete. later, it is planned to consider sherd collections in england, comparative types of sgraffito wares, and possible influences and sources of techniques and designs. for the present, it is felt the immediate evidence is sufficient to warrant the conclusions drawn here. [illustration: figure 3.--map of the area around bideford and barnstaple. reproduced from j. b. gribble, _memorials of barnstaple_, 1830.] the author is under special obligation to j. c. harrington, chief of interpretation, region i, national park service, who discovered the north devon wares and whose warm encouragement led to this paper. also, the author is greatly indebted to the following for their help and cooperation: e. stanley abbott, superintendent, j. paul hudson, curator, and charles hatch, chief of interpretation, colonial national historical park; worth bailey, historic american buildings survey; robert a. elder, jr., assistant curator, division of ethnology, u.s. national museum; miss margaret franklin of london; henry hornblower ii and charles strickland of plimoth plantation, inc.; ivor noel hume, chief archeologist, colonial williamsburg, inc.; miss mildred e. jenkinson, librarian and curator, borough of bideford library and museum; frederick h. norton, professor of ceramics, massachusetts institute of technology; and mrs. edwin m. snell of washington. historical background barnstaple and its neighbor bideford are today quiet market centers and summer resorts. in the 17th and early 18th centuries, by contrast, they were deeply involved in trade with america and with the whole west of england interest in colonial settlement. bideford was the home of sir richard grenville, who, with sir walter raleigh, was one of the first explorers of virginia. as the leading citizen of bideford, grenville obtained from queen elizabeth a modern charter of incorporation for the town. consequently, according to the town's 18th-century chronicler, "bideford rose so rapidly as to become a port of importance at the latter end of queen elizabeth's reign ... when the trade began to open between england and america in the reign of king james the first, bideford early took a part in it."[4] its orientation for a lengthy period was towards america, and the welfare of its inhabitants was therefore largely dependent upon commerce with the colonies. in common with other west of england ports, barnstaple and bideford engaged heavily in the newfoundland fishing trade. however, "the principal part of foreign commerce that bideford was ever engaged in, was to maryland and virginia for tobacco.... its connections with new england were also very considerable."[5] during the first half of the 18th century bideford's imports of tobacco were second only to london's, but the wars with france caused a decline about the year 1760.[6] barnstaple, situated farther up the river taw, followed the pattern of bideford in the rise and decline as well as the nature of its trade. although rivals, both towns functioned in effect as a single port; barnstaple and bideford ships sailed from each other's wharves and occasionally the two ports were listed together in the port books. as early as 1620 seven ships, some of bideford and some of barnstaple registry, sailed from barnstaple for america,[7] but the height of trade between north devon and the colonies occurred after the restoration and lasted until the early part of the 18th century. in 1666, for example, the _samuel_ of bideford and the _philip_ of barnstaple sailed for virginia, despite the dangers of dutch warfare.[8] the following year, on august 13, 1667, it was reported that 20 ships of the virginia fleet, "bound to bideford, barnstaple, and bristol have passed into the severn in order to escape dutch men-of-war."[9] later, in 1705, we find that the _susanna_ of barnstaple, as well as the _victory_, _zunt_, _devonshire_, _laurell_, _blackstone_, and _mary and hannah_, all of bideford, were anchored in hampton roads off kecoughtan. they comprised one-ninth of a fleet of 63 ships from various english ports.[10] [illustration: figure 4.--old pottery in torrington lane (formerly potter's lane), east-the-water section of bideford. the photo was taken in 1920, just before the buildings were razed. (_courtesy of miss m. e. jenkinson._)] aside from such indications of a well-established mercantile trade, the entrenchment of north devon interests in the colonies is repeatedly shown in other ways. before 1645, thomas fowle, a boston merchant, was doing business with his brother-in-law, vincent potter, who lived in barnstaple.[11] in 1669, john selden, a barnstaple merchant, died after consigning a shipment of goods to william burke, a merchant of chuckatuck, virginia. john's widow and administratrix, sisely selden, brought suit to recover these goods, which were "left to the sd. w{m} burke, &c, for the use of my late husband."[12] burke was evidently an agent, or factor, who acted in virginia on selden's behalf. in northampton county, alone, there resided six bideford factors, remarkable when one considers the isolated location of this virginia eastern shore county and the sparseness of its population in the 17th century.[13] john watkins, the bideford historian, adds further evidence of mercantile involvement with the colonies, stating of bideford that "some of its chief merchants had very extensive possessions in virginia and maryland."[14] both in new england and the southern colonies, local merchants acted as resident agents for merchants based in the mother country. often tied to the latter by bonds of family relationship, the factors arranged the exchange of american raw materials for the manufactured goods in which their english counterparts specialized. that there was a large and important commerce in north devon earthenware to account for many of the relationships between bideford, barnstaple, and the colonies seems to have remained unnoticed. indeed, the fact that the two towns comprised an important center of earthenware manufacture and export in the 17th century has hitherto received little attention from ceramic historians, and then merely as sources of picturesque folk pottery. yet in the excavations of colonial sites and in the british public records office are indications that the north devon potters, for a time at least, rivaled those of staffordshire. the earliest record of north devon pottery reaching america occurs in the port book entry for barnstaple in 1635, when the _truelove_, vivian limbry, master, sailed on march 4 for new england with "40 doz. earthenware," consigned to john boole, merchant.[15] the following year the same ship sailed for new england with a similar amount. after the stuart restoration larger shipments of earthenware are recorded, as illustrated by sample listings (below) chosen from port books in the british public records office. typical shipments of earthenware from north devon (sample entries from port books, verbatim) barnstaple 1665[16] -------------------------------------------------------------------- date ship master for in cargo subsidy -------------------------------------------------------------------- s d 26 aug exchange of w{m} titherly new england 150 doz. of 7-6 1665 biddeford earthenware 4 sept philipp of edmond virginia 30 doz. of 1-6 1665 biddeford prickard earthenware 28 nov providence nicholas virginia 20 doz. of 1-0 1665 of taylor earthenware barnstaple --------------------------------------------------------------------barnstaple and bideford, 1680[17] -------------------------------------------------------------------- date ship master shipment -------------------------------------------------------------------- aug 6{th} forester of christopher browning twenty dozen of 1680 barnstaple, earthenware for maryland subsidy 1/ sept 6 loyalty of philip greenslade 30 dozen earthenware barnstaple andrew hopkins, merchant subsidy 1/6 --------------------------------------------------------------------barnstaple, 1681[18] ---------------------------------------------------------------------- date ship master to goods & merchants ---------------------------------------------------------------------- may 30 seafare of bartholomew new forty-two hundred [weight] 1681 bideford shapton england parcells of earthenware subsidy 7/ 28 june hopewell of peter prust virginia 30 cwt. parcells of bideford earthenware peter luxeron merchant subsidy 5/ aug. 12 beginning john limbry virginia 15 cwt. parcells of of bideford earthenware subsidy 2/6 richard corkhill merchant[19] ----------------------------------------------------------------------bideford, 1681[20] ----------------------------------------------------------------------- date ship master to goods ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 21 june beginning thomas virginia thirty hundred of bideford phillips pclls of earthenware joseph conor merchant subsidy 5/ 19 july john & mary thomas maryland 750 parcells of of bideford courtis earthenware john barnes, merchant subsidy 1/3 14 aug exchange of george maryland 40 dozen earthenware bideford ewings william titherly merchant subsidy 2/ aug. 22 merchants william virginia 1500 parcells delight of britten earthenware bideford henry guiness merchant subsidy 2/6 aug. 23 hart of henry virginia 1500 parcells of bideford penryn earthenware john lord merch{t} subsidy 2/6 -----------------------------------------------------------------------1682--barnstaple[21] ---------------------------------------------------------------------- date ship master to cargo, etc. ---------------------------------------------------------------------- michaelmas robert & john esh maryland 30 dozen earthenware quarter william of subsidy 1/6 north{am} william bishop merchant ----------------------------------------------------------------------bideford 1682--outwards[22] ----------------------------------------------------------------------- date ship master to cargo, etc. ----------------------------------------------------------------------- may 15 seafare of john titherley new 42 cwt. parcells of bideford england earthenware barth. shapton merchant subsidy 7/ july 9 john & mary thomas courtis maryland 9 cwt parcells of of bideford earthenware john barnes merchant subsidy 1/6 july 20 merchant's william maryland 6 cwt parcells of delight of bruston earthenware bideford samuel donnerd merchant sept. 11 exchange of mark chappell maryland 30 cwt. parcells of bideford earthenware subsidy 5/ william titherly merchant -----------------------------------------------------------------------barnstaple/bideford outwards 1690[23] ----------------------------------------------------------------------- date ship master to cargo, etc. ----------------------------------------------------------------------- aug. 23 yarmouth roger jones maryland 300 parcells of of bideford earthenware subsidy 6{d} sept. 11 expedition humphrey maryland 1,200 parcells of of bideford bryant earthenware subsidy 2/ sept. 23 integrity john tucker maryland 300 parcells of of bideford earthenware subsidy 6{d} sept. 23 happy return john rock maryland 750 parcells of of bideford earthenware subsidy 1/3 sept. 23 sea faire tym. brutton maryland 1800 parcells of of bideford earthenware subsidy 3/ -----------------------------------------------------------------------barnstaple & bideford 1694[24] ----------------------------------------------------------------------- date ship master to cargo, etc. subsidy ----------------------------------------------------------------------- dec. 6 happy returne john hartwell maryland 450 parcels of 9d earthen ware -----------------------------------------------------------------------another source shows that the _eagle_ of bideford arrived at boston from her home port on october 11, 1688, with a cargo consisting entirely of 9,000 parcels of earthenware, while on july 28, 1689, the _freindship_ (sic) of bideford landed 7,200 parcels of earthenware and one hogshead of malt. on august 24 of the same year the _delight_ brought a cargo of "9,000 parcels of earthenware and 2 fardells of dry goods" from bideford.[25] it will be noted that there was a close relationship between vessel, shipmaster, and factor, suggesting that there may have been an equally close connection between all of them and the owners of the potteries. the _exchange_, for instance, seems to have been regularly employed in the transport of earthenware. in 1665, according to the listings, she sailed to new england under command of william titherly. by 1681 titherly had become a maryland factor to whom the exchange's earthenware was consigned then and in 1682. in the same way bartholomew shapton in 1681 sailed as master on the _sea faire_ with earthenware to new england, becoming in the following year the factor for earthenware sent on the same ship under command of john titherly. the proportion of earthenware cargo to the carrying capacity of the usual 17th-century ocean-going ship, which ranged from about 30 to 50 tons, is difficult to estimate. a ton and a half of milk pans nested in stacks would be compact and would occupy only a small amount of space. a similar weight of ovens might require a much larger space. when earthenware shipments are recorded in terms of parcels, we are again left in doubt, since the sizes of the parcels are not indicated. we know, however, that the _eagle_, which was a 50-ton ship, carried 9,000 parcels of earthenware as her sole cargo in 1688, in contrast to the much smaller amounts shown in the sample listings where the parcel standard is used. yet even a typical shipment of 1,500 parcels, with each parcel containing an indeterminate number of pots, must have filled the needs of many kitchens when delivered in virginia in 1681. certainly a shipment such as this suggests a vigorous rate of production and an active trade. the export of earthenware from north devon was not solely to america. as early as 1601 there were shipped from barnstaple to "dublyn--100 dozen earthen pottes of all sorts." in later years, selected at random, we find the following shipments to ireland from barnstaple listed in the public record office port books: 1617, 290 dozen; 1618, 320 dozen; 1619, 322 dozen; 1620, 508 dozen; 1632, 260 dozen; 1635, 300 dozen; 1636, 480 dozen; 1639, 660 dozen. typical of the destinations were kinsale, youghal, limerick, cork, galway, coleraine, and waterford. as the century advanced, this trade increased enormously. in 1694, 17 separate earthenware shipments totaling 50,400 parcels were made from barnstaple and bideford to dublin, wexford, and waterford.[26] it is possible that some of these cargoes were shipped to america, since it was necessary to list only the first port of entry. however, the rapid turnaround of many of the ships shows this was not usually the case. besides ireland, bristol and exeter were destinations in a busy coastwise trade. in 1681, for example, large quantities of earthenware, tobacco pipes, and pipe clay were sent to these places.[27] bristol merchants probably re-exported some of the earthenware to america. [illustration: figure 5.--map of barnstaple. reproduced from j. b. gribble, _memorials of barnstaple_, 1830.] the coastwise trade appears to have diminished very little as time passed. in 1755, _the gentlemen's magazine_ carried an account of bideford, stating:[28] great quantities of potters ware are made, and exported to wales, ireland, and bristol.... in the parish of fremington are great quantities of reddish potters' clay, which are brought and manufactured at biddeford, whence the ware is sent to different places by sea. john watkins, in 1792, wrote:[29] the potters here, for making coarse brown earthenware, are pretty considerable, and the demand for the articles of their manufacture in various parts of the kingdom, is constantly great ... the profits to the manufacturers of this article are very great, which is evidenced by several persons having risen within a few years, from a state of the greatest obscurity and poverty, to wealth and consequence of no small extent. [illustration: figure 6.--gravel-tempered oven of the 17th or early 18th century, acquired in bideford. (_usnm 394505._)] [illustration: figure 7.--gravel-tempered oven from 17th-century house on bideford quay. borough of bideford public library and museum. (_photo by a. c. littlejohns._)] not only was coastwise trade in earthenware maintained throughout the 18th century but it was continued, in fact, until the final decline of the potteries at the turn of the present century. although great antiquity attaches to the origins of north devon pottery manufacture--barnstaple has had its crock street for 450 years[30]--the principal evidence of early manufacture falls into the second half of the 17th century. we have seen that a growing america provided an increasing market for north devon's ceramic wares. in 1668 crocker's pottery was established at bideford, and it is in the period following that bideford's importance as a pottery center becomes noticeable. crocker's was operated until 1896, its dated 17th-century kilns then still intact after producing wares that varied little during all of the pottery's 228 years of existence.[31] in barnstaple the oldest pottery to survive until modern times was situated in the north walk. when it was dismantled in 1900, sherds dating from the second half of the 17th century were found in the surroundings, as was a potter's guild sign, dated 1675, which now hangs in brannam's pottery in litchdon street, barnstaple. a pair of fire dogs, dated 1655 and shaped by molds similar to one from the north walk site, was excavated near the north walk pottery. both bideford and barnstaple had numerous potteries in addition to crocker's and brannam's. one, in potter's lane in the east-the-water section of bideford, was still making "coarse plain ware" in 1906;[32] its buildings were still standing in 1920. we have already observed that the litchdon street works of c. h. brannam, ltd., remains in operation in a modern building on the site of its 17th-century forerunner. outside the limits of the two large towns there were "a number of small pot works in remote districts," including the parish of fremington, where fishley's pottery, established in the 18th century, flourished until 1912.[33] jewitt states that the remains of five old potteries were found in the location of fishley's.[34] [illustration: figure 8.--views of opening of oven in figure 7, photographed before its removal from house. this illustrates how oven was built into corner of fireplace and concealed from view. at right, the oven door is in place. (_photos by a. c. littlejohns._)] the clay with which all the potters worked came from three similar deep clay deposits in a valley running parallel with the river taw in the parishes of tawstock and fremington between bideford and barnstaple. a geologist in 1864 wrote that the clay is "perfectly homogeneous ... exceedingly tough, free from slightest grit and soft as butter."[35] when fired at too high a temperature, he wrote, the clay would become so vesicular that it would float on water. the kilns were bottle-shaped and, according to tradition, originally were open at the top, like lime kilns; the contents were roofed over with old crocks.[36] apparently all the potteries made the same types of wares, "coarse" or common earthenware having comprised the bulk of their product. the utilitarian red-ware was indeed coarse, since it was liberally tempered with bideford gravel in order to insure hardness and to offset the purity and softness of the fremington clay. an anonymous historian wrote in 1755:[37] just above the bridge [over the river torridge] is a little ridge of gravel of a peculiar quality, without which the potters could not make their ware. there are many other ridges of gravel within the bar, but this only is proper for their use. john watkins wrote that bideford earthenware "is generally supposed to be superiour to any other of the kind, and this is accounted for, from the peculiar excellence of the gravel which this river affords, in binding the clay." his claim that "this is the true reason, seems clear, from the fact that though the potteries at barnstaple make use of the same sort of clay, yet their earthenware is not held in such esteem at bristol, &c. as that of bideford"[38] is scarcely supportable, since the barnstaple potters also used the same bideford gravel. the fire dogs found in barnstaple with the date 1655, referred to above, were tempered with this gravel, as were "ovens, tiles, pipkins, etc.," in order "to harden the ware," according to charbonnier, who also observed that "the ware generally was very badly fired.... from the fragments it can be seen that the firing was most unequal, parts of the body being grey in colour instead of a rich red, as the well-fired portions are." he noted that the potters applied "the galena native sulphide of lead for the glaze, no doubt originally dusted on to the ware, as with the older potters elsewhere."[39] a sherd of gravel-tempered ware is displayed in the window of brannam's barnstaple pottery, while a small pan from bideford, probably of 19th-century origin, is in the smithsonian collections (usnm 394440). [illustration: figure 9.--gravel-tempered oven made at crocker pottery, bideford, in the 19th century. borough of bideford public library and museum. (_photo by a. c. littlejohns._)] [illustration: figure 10.--restored gravel-tempered oven from jamestown. colonial national historical park. (_national park service photo._)] the most remarkable form utilizing gravel-tempered clay is found in the baking ovens which remained a north devon specialty for over two centuries. these ovens vary somewhat in shape, and were made in graduated sizes. most commonly they are rectangular with domed superstructures, having been molded or "draped" in sections, with their parts joined together, leaving seams with either tooled or thumb-impressed reenforcements. an oven obtained in bideford has a flat top, without visible seams (usnm 394505; fig. 6). an early example occurs in barnstaple, where, in a recently restored inn, an oven was found installed at the side of a fireplace which is "late sixteenth century in character." pipes and a pair of woman's shoes, all dating from the first half of the 18th century, were found in the fireplace after it had been exposed, thus indicating the period of its most recent use.[40] an oven discovered intact behind a wall during alteration of a bideford house is believed to date from between 1650 and 1675.[41] that oven (figs. 7, 8) is now exhibited in the bideford museum. at the other extreme, c. h. brannam of barnstaple in 1890 was still making ovens in the ancient north walk pottery.[42] the following year h. w. strong wrote of fishley's fremington pottery that "shiploads of the big clay ovens in which the cornishman bakes his bread ... meet with a ready sale in the fishing towns on the rugged coast of north cornwall."[43] fremington ovens also were shipped to wales,[44] and, according to jewitt, those made in the crocker pottery in bideford "are, and for generations have been, in much repute in devonshire and cornwall, and in the welsh districts, and the bread baked in them is said to have a sweeter and more wholesome flavour than when baked in ordinary ovens."[45] [illustration: figure 11.--sgraffito-ware platters from jamestown. the platter shown above has a diameter of 15 inches; the others, 12 inches. colonial national historical park.] of ovens made at barnstaple there is much the same kind of evidence. in 1851, thomas brannam exhibited an oven at the crystal palace, where it was described as "generally used in devonshire for baking bread and meat."[46] in 1786, "barnstaple ovens" were advertised for sale in bristol at m. ewers' "staffordshire, broseley, and glass warehouse."[47] thirty-six years earlier, in 1750, dr. pococke, who indefatigably entered every sort of observation in his journal, noted that in devonshire and cornwall "they make great use here of cloume ovens,[48] which are of earthen ware of several sizes, like an oven, and being heated they stop 'em up and cover 'em over with embers to keep in the heat."[49] pococke visited calstock, "where they have a manufacture of coarse earthenware, and particularly of earthenware ovens."[50] we have encountered only one other instance of ovens having been made at any place other than the north devon communities around the fremington clay beds. calstock lies some 35 miles below bideford in the southeast corner of cornwall, just over the devonshire boundary. as for evidence concerning the manner in which these ovens were used in england, we have already seen that they were built into houses. jewitt wrote that they "are simply enclosed in raised brickwork, leaving the mouth open to the front." they were heated until red hot by sticks or logs, which were then raked out with long iron tongs.[51] a bundle of gorse, or wood, according to jewitt,[52] was sufficient to "thoroughly bake three pecks of dough." pococke's remarks to the effect that the ovens were covered over with embers to keep in the heat suggests that they were sometimes freestanding. however, this could also have been the practice when ovens were built into fireplaces. from an esthetic point of view, the crowning achievement of the north devon potters was their sgraffito ware, examples of which in brannam's window display have already been noted. further evidence in the form of 17th-century sherds was found by charbonnier around the site of the north walk pottery in barnstaple. these consisted of "plates and dishes of various size and section.... extensive as the demand for these dishes must have been, judging from the heap of fragments, not a single piece has to my knowledge been found above ground."[53] the apparently complete disappearance of the sgraffito table wares suggests that they ceased to be made about 1700. they were apparently forced from the market by the refinement of taste that developed in the 18th century and by the delftware of bristol and london and liverpool that was so much more in keeping with that taste. however, certain kinds of sgraffito ware continued to be made without apparent interruption until early in the present century. instead of useful tableware, decorated with symbols and motifs characteristic of 17th-century english folk ornament, we find after 1700 only presentation pieces, particularly in the form of large harvest jugs. the harvest jugs were made for annual harvest celebrations, when they were passed around by the farmers among their field hands in a folk ritual observed at the end of harvest.[54] unlike the sgraffito tablewares, where style and taste were deciding factors in their survival, these special jugs were intended to be used only in annual ceremonies. thus they were carefully preserved and passed on from generation to generation, with a higher chance for survival than that which the sgraffito tablewares enjoyed. the style of the harvest jugs is in sharp contrast to that of the tablewares, the jugs having been decorated in a pagan profusion of fertility and prosperity symbols, mixed sometimes with pictorial and inscriptive allusions to the sea, particularly on jugs ascribed to bideford. the oldest dated examples embody characteristics of design and techniques that relate them unmistakably to the tablewares, while later specimens made throughout the 18th and 19th centuries show an increasing divergence from the 17th-century style. an especially elaborate piece was made for display at the great exhibition of 1851 in the crystal palace.[55] less complicated pieces, with a minimum of incising, were made for ordinary use, as were plain pieces whose surfaces were covered with slip without decoration. the trailing and splashing of slip designs on the body of the ware, practiced in staffordshire and many of our colonial potteries, apparently was not followed in north devon.[56] sites yielding north devon types excepting the bowne house oven and a 1698 jug (see p. 45), no example of north devon pottery used in america is known to have survived above ground. archeological evidence, however, provides a sufficient record of north devon wares and the tastes and customs they reflected. following are descriptions of the principal sites in which these wares were found. jamestown, virginia: may-hartwell site. the site of jamestown, first permanent english settlement in north america, has been excavated at intervals by the national park service. the early excavations were under the supervision of several archeological technicians directing civilian conservation corps crews. in september 1936, j. c. harrington became supervising archeologist of the project, and until world war ii he continued the work as funds permitted. except for the privately sponsored excavation of the jamestown glasshouse site by harrington in 1947, no extensive archeological work was thereafter undertaken until 1954, when john l. cotter was appointed chief archeologist. thorough exploration of jamestown was his responsibility until 1956.[57] one of the most interesting subsites in the jamestown complex was the two and one-half acres of lots which belonged successively to william may, nicholas merriweather, william white, and henry hartwell. the site was first explored in 1935. on this occasion there was disclosed a meandering brick drain that had been built on top of a fill of artifactual refuse, mostly pottery sherds. the richness of this yield was unparalleled elsewhere at jamestown; from it comes our principal evidence about the north devon types sent to america. [illustration: figure 12.--sgraffito-ware cup and plate from jamestown. the cup is 4 inches high; the plate is 7 inches in diameter. colonial national historical park.] the may-hartwell site was explored further and in far greater detail in 1938 and 1939 by harrington, whose unpublished typescript report is on file with the national park service.[58] harrington's excavation, in the light of historical documentation, led to the conclusion that the brick drain had been laid during henry hartwell's occupancy of the site between 1689 and 1695. this was supported by the inclusion in the fill of many bottle seals bearing hartwell's initials, "h. h." hartwell married the widow of william white, who had purchased the property from nicholas merriweather in 1677. that was the year following bacon's rebellion, when merriweather's house presumably was destroyed. [illustration: figure 13.--sgraffito-ware jugs, about 8 inches high, from jamestown. colonial national historical park.] there were many hundreds of sherds in the fill under and around the brick drain, as well as in other ditches in the site. the north devon types were found here in association with numerous classes of pottery. the most readily identifiable were sherds of english delftware of many forms and styles of decoration related to the second half of the 17th century. there were occasional earlier 17th-century examples, also, as might be expected. no 18th-century intrusions were noted in the brick drain area, and only a scattering in other portions; none was found in association with the north devon sherds. jamestown, virginia: other sites. north devon wares occur in the majority of sites at jamestown, but it is not always possible to date them from contextual evidence because precise archeological records were not always kept in the early phases of the excavations. nevertheless, narrow dating is easily possible in enough sites to suggest date horizons for the wares. the earliest evidence occurs in material from a well (w-21)--excavated in 1956[59]--that contained an atypical sgraffito sherd described below (p. 43). the sherd lay beneath a foot-deep deposit that included dutch majolica, italian sgraffito ware, and tobacco pipes, all dating in form or decoration prior to 1650. this sherd is unique among all those found at jamestown, but it is essentially characteristic of north devon work. presumably it is a forerunner of the typical varieties found in the may-hartwell site and elsewhere. no gravel-tempered sherds occur in contexts that can positively be dated prior to 1675. a sizable deposit of gravel-tempered sherds was found between the depth of one foot and the level of the cellar floor of the mansion house site (structure 112) located near the pitch-and-tar swamp. this house was built before 1650, but burned, probably during bacon's rebellion in 1676.[60] the sherds were doubtless part of the household equipment of the time. all other ceramic fragments, with one exception, were associated with objects dating earlier than 1660. [illustration: figure 14.--sgraffito-ware jug and cups from jamestown. colonial national historical park.] in sites dating from before about 1670, no north devon wares are found, excepting the early sgraffito sherd mentioned above. such was the case with a brick kiln (structure 127) of early 17th-century date and two sites (structure 110 and kiln c) in the vicinity of the pottery kiln. in structure 110 all the ceramics date from before 1650.[61] the latest occurrence of gravel-tempered wares is in contexts of the early and middle 18th century. a pit near the ambler property (refuse pit 2)[62] yielded a typical early 18th-century deposit with flat-rimmed gravel-tempered pans of characteristic type. associated with these were pieces of blue delft (before 1725), staffordshire "combed" ware (made throughout the 18th century, but mostly about 1730-1760), nottingham stoneware (throughout the 18th century), gray-white höhr stoneware (last quarter, 17th century), buckley black-glazed ware (mostly 1720-1770), and staffordshire white salt-glazed ware (1740-1770). hampton, virginia: kecoughtan site. in 1941, joseph b. and alvin w. brittingham, amateur archeologists of hampton, virginia, excavated several refuse pits on the site of what they believed to be an early 17th-century trading post located at the original site of kecoughtan, an indian village and colonial outpost settlement which later became elizabeth city, virginia. rich artifactual evidence, reflecting on a small scale what was found at jamestown, indicates a continuous occupancy from the beginning of settlement in 1610 to about 1760.[63] the collection was given to the smithsonian institution in 1950. [illustration: figure 15.--this sgraffito-ware chamber pot, from jamestown, has incised on the rim _wr 16 .._, probably in reference to the king. height, 5-1/2 inches. colonial national historical park.] [illustration: figure 16.--sgraffito-ware harvest jug made in bideford, with the date "1795" inscribed. borough of bideford public library and museum. (_photo by a. c. littlejohns._)] james city county, virginia: green spring plantation. in 1642 sir william berkeley arrived in virginia to be its governor. seven years later he built green spring, about five miles north of jamestown. the house remained standing until after 1800. its site was excavated in 1954 by the national park service under supervision of louis r. caywood, park service archeologist.[64] the project, supported jointly by the jamestown-williamsburg-yorktown celebration commission and the virginia 350th anniversary commission, was executed under supervision of colonial national historical park at yorktown, virginia. williamsburg, virginia: early 18th-century deposits. a small amount of north devon gravel-tempered ware was found in sites excavated in williamsburg by colonial williamsburg, inc. these excavations have been carried out as adjuncts to the williamsburg restoration program over a 30-year period. few of the north devon sherds found can be closely dated, having occurred primarily in undocumented ditches, pits, and similar deposits. however, it is unlikely that any of the material dates earlier than the beginning of the 18th century, since williamsburg was not authorized as a town until 1699. it is significant, in the light of this, that north devon pan sherds in the williamsburg collection have characteristics like those of specimens from other 18th-century sites. also significant is the fact that no sgraffito ware occurs here. a gravel-tempered pan (fig. 23) from the coke-garrett house site was found in a context that can be dated about 1740-1760. [illustration: figure 17.--views of north devon harvest jug used in sussex county, delaware. this jug, 11 inches high and dated 1698, is in the collection of charles g. dorman. the inscription reads: "kind s{r}: i com to gratifiey youre kindness love and courtisy and sarve youre table with strong beare for this intent i was sent heare: or if you pleas i will supply youre workmen when in harvist dry when they doe labour hard and swear{e} good drinke is better far then meat"] westmoreland county, virginia: site of john washington house. in 1930 the national park service became custodians for "wakefield," the george washington birthplace site on pope's creek in westmoreland county. about a mile to the west of "wakefield" itself, but within the park area, is the site of bridges creek plantation, purchased in 1664 by john washington, the earliest member of the family in america. it was occupied by john at least until his death in 1677, and probably by lawrence washington until a few years later. much artifactual material was dug from the plantation house site, including the largest deposits of north devon types found outside of jamestown.[65] stafford county, virginia: marlborough site. a short-lived town was built in 1691 at the confluence of potomac creek and the potomac river on potomac neck. the town was abandoned by 1720, but six years later became the abode of john mercer, who developed a plantation there. the site of his house was excavated by the smithsonian institution in 1956. two small sherds of north devon gravel-tempered ware were found there in a predominantly mid-18th-century deposit. [illustration: figure 18.--gravel-tempered pan (top) and cooking pot with cover, all from jamestown. the pan has a height of 4-1/2 inches and a diameter of 15 inches. the pot is 6 inches high and 9-1/2 inches in diameter; the diameter of its cover is 10 inches. colonial national historical park.] calvert county, maryland: angelica knoll site. since 1954 robert a. elder, jr., assistant curator of ethnology at the united states national museum, has been investigating the site on the chesapeake bay of a plantation or small settlement known as angelica knoll. this investigation has revealed a generous variety of gravel-tempered utensil forms, including both 17th and 18th century styles. the range of associated artifacts points to a site dating from the late 17th century to about 1765. kent island, queen anne county, maryland. a small collection of late 17th-century and early 18th-century material--gathered by richard h. stearns near the shore of kent island, a quarter-mile south of kent island landing--includes both north devon types. the collection was given to the united states national museum. lewes, sussex county, delaware: townsend site. the townsend site was excavated by members of the sussex county archeological society in 1947. this was primarily an indian site, but a pit or well contained european artifacts, including a north devon gravel-tempered jar (fig. 25). the village of lewes, originally the dutch settlement of zwaanandael, was destroyed by the british, who occupied the area in 1664.[66] the european materials from the townsend site were given to the united states national museum. plymouth, plymouth county, massachusetts: "r.m." site. a site of a house believed to have been robert morton's, located south of the town of plymouth, was excavated by henry hornblower ii. it contained north devon gravel-tempered sherds. the collection is now in the archeological laboratory of plimoth plantation, inc., in plymouth. rocky nook, kingston, plymouth county, massachusetts: sites of john howland house and joseph howland house. the john howland house was built between 1628 and 1630; it burned about 1675. the site was excavated between september 1937 and july 1938 under supervision of the late sidney t. strickland.[67] several gravel-tempered utensil sherds were found here, as well as a piece of an oven (see fig. 26). artifacts from this and the following site are at the plimoth plantation laboratory. the foundations of the joseph howland house, adjacent to the john howland house site, were excavated in 1959 by james deetz, archeologist at plimoth plantation. this is the only new england site of which we are aware that has yielded north devon sgraffito ware. two successive houses apparently stood on the site. statistical evidence of pipe-stem-bore measurements points to 1680-1710 as the first principal period of occupancy.[68] marshfield, plymouth county, massachusetts: winslow site. this site, excavated by henry hornblower ii and tentatively dated 1635-1699, yielded considerable quantities of gravel-tempered ware. cultural material is predominantly from about 1675. flushing, long island, new york: the john bowne house. the john bowne house is a historic house museum at bowne street and fox lane, flushing, long island, maintained by the bowne house historical society. bowne was a quaker from derbyshire, who built his house in 1661. a north devon oven is still in place, with its opening at the back of the fireplace. yorktown, virginia. the national park service has excavated at various locations in yorktown, both in the neighboring battlefield sites and the town itself. yorktown, like marlborough, was established by the act for ports in 1691. in several of the areas excavated, occasional sherds of north devon gravel-tempered ware were found. in refuse behind the site of the swan tavern, opened as an inn in 1722 but probably occupied earlier, a single large fragment of a 15-inch sgraffito platter was discovered. no other pieces of this type were found, associated artifacts having been predominantly from the 18th century. [illustration: figure 19.--gravel-tempered bowl (top) and pipkins from jamestown. colonial national historical park.] descriptions of types north devon sgraffito ware sites: jamestown, kecoughtan, green spring, john washington house, kent island, yorktown, joseph howland house. paste manufacture: wheel-turned, with templates used to shape collars of jugs and to shape edges and sometimes ridges where plate rims join bezels. temper: fine, almost microscopic, water-worn sand particles. texture: fine, smooth, well-mixed, sharp, regular cleavage. color: dull pinkish red, with gray core usual. firing: two firings, one before glazing and one after. usually incomplete oxidation, shown by gray core. a few specimens have surface breaks or flakings incurred in the firing and most show warping (suggesting that "rejects," unsalable in england, were sent to the colonists, who had no recourse but to accept them). surfaces treatment: inner surfaces of plates and bowls and outer surfaces of jugs, cups, mugs, chamber pots, and other utensils viewed on the exteriors are coated with white kaolin slip. designs are scratched through the slip while wet and into the surface of the paste, exposing the latter. undersides of plates and chargers are often scraped to make irregular flat areas of surface. slip-covered portions are coated with amber glaze by sifting on powdered galena (lead sulphide). containers which are slipped externally are glazed externally and internally. slip and glaze do not cover lower portions of jugs, but run down unevenly. [illustration: figure 20.--gravel-tempered chafing dish from jamestown. colonial national historical park. (_smithsonian photo 43104._)] color: slipped surfaces are white where exposed without glaze. unglazed surfaces are a dull terra cotta. the glaze varies in tone from honey color to a dark greenish amber. when applied over the slip, the glaze ranges from lemon to a toneless brown-yellow, or, at best, a sparkling butter color. when applied directly over the paste and over the incised and abraided designs, the glaze appears as a rich mahogany brown or dark amber. forms plates, platters, and chargers: (a) diameter 7"-7-1/2". upper surface slipped, decorated, and glazed. (fig. 12.) (b) diameter 12"; depth 2"-3". upper surface slipped, decorated, and glazed. (fig. 11.) (c) diameter 14-1/2"-15"; depth 2"-3". upper surface slipped, decorated, and glazed. (fig. 11.) all have wide rims, but of varying widths, raised bezels, and heavy, raised, curved edges. baluster wine cups: height 3-3/4"-4". slipped and decorated externally; glazed internally and externally. (figs. 12, 14.) concave-sided mugs: height about 4". slipped and decorated externally; glazed internally and externally. (only complete specimen, at jamestown, had incised band around rim.) (fig. 14.) jugs: height 6-1/2" and 8"-8-1/2". globose bodies, vertical or slightly everted collars tooled in a series of ridged bands, with tooled rims at top. some have pitcher lips, some do not. slipped, decorated, and glazed externally above an incised line encircling the waist; glazed internally. (figs. 13, 14.) eating bowls: diameter, including handle, 9"-10"; depth 3-1/4"-4". straight, everted sides, flat rims, with slightly raised edges, one small flat loop handle secured to rim. slipped, decorated, and glazed internally and on rim. [illustration: figure 21.--gravel-tempered baking pan from jamestown. length, 15 inches; width, about 12 inches. colonial national historical park.] chamber pots: height 5-1/2". curving sides, terminating at heavy, raised, rounded band surmounted by concave, everted rim. rim 1" wide and flat. slipped, decorated, and glazed externally and internally. (fig. 15.) candlestick: unique specimen. height 6". bell-shaped base with flange and shaft above with socket at top. handle from bottom of socket to bottom of shaft. upper portion slipped, decorated, and glazed. ripple-edged, shallow dish: unique specimen. diameter 9-1/4". concave, rimless dish or plate with edge crimped as for a pie or tart plate. upper surface slipped, decorated, and glazed. decoration technique: (1) incising through wet slip into paste with pointed tool for linear effects. (2) excising of small areas to reveal paste and to strengthen tonal qualities of designs. (3) incising with multiple-pointed tools having three to five points, to draw multiple-lined stripes. (4) stippling with same tools. motifs: the motifs are varied and never occur in any one combination more than once. there are two general categories of design, geometric and floral, although in some cases these are joined in the same specimen. in the geometric category, the majority of plate rims are decorated with hastily drawn spirals and _guilloches_. the centers may have circles within squares, circles enclosing compass-drawn petals, circles within a series of swags embellished with lines. triple-lined chevrons decorate the border of one plate. a chamber pot is decorated with diagonal stripes of multiple lines, between which wavy lines are punctuated by small excised rectangles. some cups, jugs, and the candlestick are simply decorated with vertical stripes, between which are wavy lines, stippling, and excised blocks. the floral category includes elaborate and intricate stylized floral and vine motifs: tulips, sunflowers, leaves, tendrils, hearts, four-petaled flowers. one plate (fig. 11) combines the geometric feeling of the first category with the floral qualities of the second in its swag-and-tassel rim and swagged band, which encloses a sunflower springing from a stalk between two leaves. the design motifs are unique in comparison with those found on other english pottery of the 17th century. the geometrical patterns and spiral ornaments, which also occur in hispanic majolica, have a moorish flavor. christian symbols--especially tulips, sunflowers, and hearts--are recurrent, as they are on contemporary west-of-england furniture, pewter, and embroidery and on the carved chests, and crewel work of puritan new england. there is considerable reason to believe that there was a connection between north devon sgraffito-ware manufacture and design on the one hand and the influx of huguenot and netherlands protestant artisans into southern and southwestern england on the other. low country immigrant potters were responsible for two other ceramic innovations elsewhere in england--stoneware and majolica. [illustration: figure 22.--slip-coated porringers and drinking bowl (center). colonial national historical park.] [illustration: figure 23.--north devon gravel-tempered pan with typical terra cotta paste and characteristic 18th-century flattened rim, slightly undercut on the interior. this pan, measuring 13-1/4 inches in diameter and 4-3/8 inches high, was found at the coke-garrett house site in williamsburg, virginia, in a context attributed to the period about 1740-1760. colonial williamsburg, inc. (_colonial williamsburg photo 59-dw-703-44._)] atypical specimen already mentioned is a large fragment of a dish found in a context not later than 1640 and cruder and simpler in treatment than the remainder of north devon sgraffito ware thus far seen. it nevertheless belongs to the same class. its paste has the same characteristics of color and fracture, while the firing has left the same tell-tale gray core found in a large proportion of north devon sherds. surface treatment techniques match those reflected in the typical dish sherds--glazed slip over the red paste on the interior; unglazed, scraped, and abraided surfaces on the underside. the yellow color is paler and the glazed surface is duller. the rim has a smaller edge and omits the heavy raised bezel usually occurring on the typical plates and chargers. the design motifs--crude and primitive in comparison with those described above--consist of a series of stripes on the rim, drawn at right angles to the edge with a four-pointed tool, and crude hook-like ornaments traced with the same tool in the bowl of the plate. this may be regarded as a forerunner of the developed sgraffito ware made in the second half of the 17th century. [illustration: figure 24.--gravel-tempered pan sherds from kecoughtan site, hampton, virginia. united states national museum.] unique feature the flat rim of a chamber pot from jamestown (fig. 15) has "wr 16 .." scratched through the slip. it is probable that the initials indicate "william rex," for william iii, who became king in 1688. why the king should be memorialized in such an undignified fashion could be explained by the fact that barnstaple and bideford were strongly puritan and also huguenot centers. although william was a popular monarch, he was, nevertheless, head of the church of england, and an anti-royalist, calvinist potter might well have expressed an earthy contempt in this way. later, in the 18th century, george iii appears to have been treated with similar disrespect by staffordshire potters, who made saltglazed chamber pots in the style of rhenish westerwald drinking jugs, flaunting "gr" emblems on the sides. owners' initials or names do not occur on any of the north devon wares found in american sites, nor do the initials of the potters. otherwise, it would seem unlikely that the only exception would appear on the rim of a chamber pot. comparative evidence sherds owned by c. h. brannam, ltd., and excavated at the site of the litchdon street pottery in barnstaple.--the largest of these is part of a deep dish (fig. 2). its border design seems to be a degenerate form of a beetle-like device found on portuguese majolica of the period. from a crude oval with a stippled line running the length of it, extends a spiral scroll, terminating in a heavy dot, reminiscent of the tendrils found on the portuguese examples. from incised lines near the rim and on the edge of the bezel are small linear "hooks." the interior has sunflower petals flanking a short, stylized palmette, with another stalk and pair of leaves above, reaching up to what may have been an elaborate floral center, now missing. this decoration resembles closely the interiors of the floral-type plates and chargers found at jamestown. a section of plate rim is similar to typical rims found in american sites. the surface color is the butter yellow found on the best jamestown pieces. paste color also matches. sherds from the north walk pottery in barnstaple, described by charbonnier.--these were found near the site, on the banks of the yeo and in a pasture. they include plates and dishes, some finished and others thrown out in the biscuit state. charbonnier illustrates a plate with a zig-zag or chevron border and an incised bird in the center. the chevron appears on jamestown specimens but the bird does not. harvest jugs.--18th-century north devon harvest jugs examined by the writer display the same characteristics of paste, slip, and glaze as the jamestown sherds. however, the jugs differ stylistically to a marked degree, suggesting that later potters were not affected by the influences that appear in the earlier work (fig. 16). the earliest harvest jug of which we are aware is a hitherto unrecorded example, dated 1698, that is in the collection of charles g. dorman. this is the only harvest jug yet encountered with a history of use in america and the only north devon sgraffito piece known to have survived above ground on this continent. it is a remarkably vigorous pot, having a great rotund body, a high flaring collar, and a lengthy inscription (see fig. 17). a female figure under a wreath of pomegranates forms the central motif. the head is turned in left profile, with hair cascading to the shoulders. the bust is highly stylized in an oval shape, within which are intersecting curved lines forming areas decorated with diagonal incising or with rows of short dashes. the design here is strongly reminiscent of the geometrical decoration on jamestown plates and deep dishes. a pair of unicorns flanks the central figure, and behind each unicorn are a dove and swan, at left and right respectively. under these are sunflowers and tulips, while a tulip stands above rows of leaves on a stem below the handle. feather-like leaves flank the lower attachment of the handle. at the junction of the shoulder and collar is a narrow band of incised tulips. above this is a heavy ridge from which springs the flaring collar. under the spout is a male head, wearing a wig which is depicted in the same manner as the pomegranates on the wreath, and a stylized hat and stock-like collar. one suspects that the man is a clergyman, although his eyes are cast down in a most worldly manner upon the lady below. he is flanked by a pair of doves; behind each dove is a vertical tulip with stem and leaves. [illustration: figure 25.--gravel-tempered food-storage jar from townsend site, lewes, delaware. height, 12 inches; diameter at base, 9 inches. (_usnm 60.1188; smithsonian photo 38821._)] [illustration: figure 26.--gravel-tempered sherds from plymouth, massachusetts: fragment of oven (left) and rim sherd (upper right), from john howland house site; and pan-rim sherd from "r. m." site. plimoth plantation, inc., plymouth. (_smithsonian photo 45008-b._)] some of the shading is applied with a four-pointed tool, as in many of the jamestown pieces, although the tool was smaller. the handle bears the same characteristics as those on jugs found at jamestown--the same carelessly formed ridge, the same spreading, up-thrust reinforcement at the base of the handle. unlike the jamestown jugs, this one is covered completely on the exterior with slip and glaze. however, since this was a presentation piece, we could expect more careful treatment than was usual on pots made for commercial sale. the jug descended in a sussex county, delaware, family--on the distaff side, curiously. family recollection traces its ownership back to the early 19th century, with an unsubstantiated legend that it was used by british soldiers during the revolutionary war. we may conclude at least that the jug is not a recent import and surmise that it was probably brought to america as an heirloom by an emigrating devon family, perhaps before the revolution. sussex county has a stable population, mostly of old-stock english descent. it was settled during the second half of the 17th and first half of the 18th centuries. there is a strong possibility, therefore, that the jug was introduced into delaware at a comparatively early date. many other harvest jugs have been similarly cherished in england. an almost exact counterpart of the delaware jug, and obviously by the same potter, is in the glaisher collection in cambridge. this jug, dated "1703/4,"[69] displays such variations as absence of the male head and a different inscription. another jug, with a hunting scene but with a similar neck and collar treatment, seems again to be by the same hand; it is dated "1703."[70] [illustration: figure 27.--gravel-tempered sherds from angelica knoll site, calvert county, maryland. united states national museum. (_smithsonian photo 45008-a._)] from the standpoint of identifying and dating the archeologically recovered sgraffito ware, these jugs are important in showing certain traits similar to those found in the sherds, while displaying other characteristics that are distinctly different. they support the archeological evidence that the jamestown pieces are earlier than the jugs and that new design concepts were appearing by the turn of the century in a novel type of presentation piece. north devon plain slip-coated ware this is a plain variant of the sgraffito ware, differing only in the absence of decoration and in some of the forms. site: jamestown. forms plates: diameter 7"-11-1/2". profiles as in sgraffito plates. upper surface slipped and glazed. eating bowls: diameter 9"; height 3-1/2". profile and handle same as in sgraffito bowls. slipped and glazed on interior and over rim. porringers: diameter 5-1/2"; height 2-3/4". ogee profiles. horizontal loop handle applied 3/4" below rim on each. slipped and glazed on interiors. (fig. 22.) drinking bowls: diameter of rim, including handle, 5"; height 2-3/4"-3"; diameter of base 2". in shape of mazer bowl, these have narrow bases and straight sides terminating in raised tooled bands at the junctions with vertical or slightly inverted rims 1" in height. each has a horizontal looped handle attached at bottom of rim. slipped and glazed on interiors. (fig. 22.) wavy-edge pans: diameter 9"-10"; height 2". flat round pans with vertical rims distorted in wide scallops or waves. purpose not known. slipped and glazed on interiors. north devon gravel-tempered ware sites: jamestown, kecoughtan, green spring, williamsburg, marlborough, john washington house, kent island, angelica knoll, townsend, john bowne house, "r. m.," winslow, john howland house. paste manufacture: wheel-turned, except ovens and rectangular pans, which are "draped" over molds. (see "forms," below.) temper: very coarse water-worn quartz and feldsparthic gravel up to one-half inch in length; also occasional sherds. proportion of temper 15-25 percent, except in ovens, which were about 30 percent. texture: poorly kneaded, bubbly, and porous, with temper poorly mixed. temper particles easily rubbed out of matrix. very irregular and angular cleavage because of coarse temper. hard and resistant to blows, but crumbles at fracture when broken. color: dull pinkish red to deep orange-red. almost invariably gray at core, except in ovens. firing: carelessly fired, with incomplete oxidation of paste. surface treatment: glazed with powdered galena on interiors of containers, never externally. glaze very carelessly applied, with much evidence of dripping, running, and unintentional spilling. texture: very coarse and irregular, with gravel temper protruding. color: unglazed surfaces range from bright terra cotta to reddish buff. glazed surfaces on well-fired pieces are transparent yellow-green with frequent orange splotches. overtired pieces become dark olive-amber, sometimes approaching black. rare specimens have slipped interiors subsequently glazed, with similar butter-yellow color effect as in sgraffito and plain slip-coated types. forms all forms are not completely indicated, there being many rims not represented by complete or reconstructed pieces. the following are established forms. round, flat-bottomed pans: diameter 16", height 4"; diameter 16", height 5"; diameter 18", height 4"; diameter 15", height 4-1/2"; diameter 13-1/4", height 4-3/8". heavy rounded rims. glazed internally below rims. these were probably milk pans, but may also have served for cooking and washing. those lined with slip may have functioned as wash basins. (figs. 18, 23.) round, flat-bottomed pans: diameter approximately 19", height unknown. (no complete specimen.) heavy rims, reinforced with applied strips of clay beneath external projection of rim. reinforcement strips are secured with thumb impressions or square impressions made by end of flat tool. (figs. 28, 29.) cooking pots: diameter 12", height 6"; diameter 8", height 5". curving sides, terminating at tooled concave band with flattened, slightly curving rim above. glazed inside. bowls: diameter 8", height 5". sides curved, with flattened-curve rims, tooled bands below rims. glazed internally. (fig. 19.) [illustration: figure 28.--exteriors (left) and interiors of gravel-tempered sherds. top to bottom: bowl; pan; heavy pan with reinforced rim; and pan with 18th-century-type rim. colonial national historical park. (_from smithsonian photos 43039-a, 43041-a._)] cooking pots: diameter (including handles) 9-1/2", height 6". profile a segmented curve, with rim the same diameter as base. exterior flange to receive cover. small horizontal loop handles. band of three incised lines around waist. (fig. 18.) cooking pot covers: diameters 7", 10", 10-1/2", 11". flat covers, with downward-turned rims. off-center loop handles, probably designed to facilitate examination of contents of pot by permitting one to lift up one edge of cover. covers are sometimes numbered with incised numerals. unglazed. (fig. 18.) [illustration: figure 29.--exteriors (left) and interiors of gravel-tempered sherds. pan (top) with 18th-century-type rim, and handle of heavy pan with reinforced rim. colonial national historical park. (_from smithsonian photos 43039-c, 43039-d._)] pipkins: diameter 7", height 3"; diameter 8-1/2", height 3-1/2"; diameter 8-1/4", height 4"; diameter 8", height 5". curving sides, terminating at tooled concave band with flattened, slightly curved rim above. three stubby legs. stub handle crudely shaped and casually applied at an upward angle. glazed inside. used as a saucepan to stand in the coals. (fig. 19.) rectangular basting or baking pans: length 15", width 11-3/4" (dimensions of single restored specimen at jamestown; many fragments in addition at jamestown and plymouth). drape-molded. reinforced scalloped rim. heavy horizontal loop handles are sometimes on sides, sometimes on ends. glazed inside. (fig. 21.) storage jars: various sizes. the one wholly restored specimen (lewes, delaware) has a rim diameter of 8" and a height of 12-1/2". rims of largest examples (diameters 7", 10", 12") have reinforcement strips applied below external projection. heavy vertical loop handles, with tops attached to rims. most have interior flanges to receive covers. glazed inside. such jars were essential for preserving and pickling foods and for brewing beer. (fig. 25.) plate warmer or chafing dish: unique specimen. diameter (including handle) 11", height 7". heavy, flaring pedestal foot supports wide bowl, glazed inside. flat rim with slight elevation on outer edge. protruding vertically from rim are three lugs or supports for holding plates. vertical loop handles extend from rim to lower sides of bowl. "spirits of wine" were probably burned in the bowl to heat the plate above. (fig. 20.) fragmentary pedestals, similar in profile to the one here (but smaller, having step turnings around base) may have been parts of smaller chafing dishes. (fig. 31.) [illustration: figure 30.--exteriors (left) and interiors of gravel-tempered sherds. top to bottom: rim of small bowl; rim of small jar with internal flange to receive cover; and pipkin handle. colonial national historical park. (_from smithsonian photos 43039-c, 43039-d._)] ovens: (1) one wholly reconstructed oven at jamestown. made in sections on drape molds: base, two sides, two halves of top, opening frame, and door. side and top sections are joined with seams, reinforced by finger impressions, meeting at top of trapezoidal opening. the opening was molded separately and joined with thumb-impressed reinforcements. a flat door with heavy vertical handle, round in section, fits snugly into opening. thickness varies from 3/4" to 1-1/2". unglazed, although smears of glaze dripped during the firing indicate that the oven was fired with glazed utensils stacked above it. (fig. 10.) (2) oven in place in bowne house, flushing, long island. similar in shape to jamestown oven. opening is arched. (3) body sherd and handle sherds at jamestown, from additional oven or ovens. (4) body sherd from dome-top oven similar to those at jamestown and flushing. john howland house site, rocky nook, kingston, plymouth county, massachusetts. (fig. 26.) comparative evidence paste color, temper, and texture are consistent when examined microscopically. resemblance is very close between oven sherds from the jamestown and howland house sites, and between these and a large chip obtained from the smithsonian's oven purchased in bideford. except for a somewhat lower proportion of temper, utensil sherds from various sites are consistent with the oven fragments. the smithsonian's 19th-century bideford pan also closely resembles these, except for the proportion of temper, which is somewhat less. further close resemblance of form exists between the jamestown and flushing ovens and those in the bideford museum. (figs. 7, 9.) in 1954 comparative tests were made by frederick h. norton, professor of ceramics at massachusetts institute of technology. jamestown clay was used for a control. thin sections, made of sherds found at jamestown, were fired at several temperatures and the results recorded in photomicrographs. of the gravel-tempered sherd submitted in these tests, professor norton commented, "the clay mass looks quite dissimilar from the jamestown clay." no other identifiable english ware of this period compares with the gravel-tempered pottery, the use of gravel for temper apparently being restricted to north devon. gravel is found in red earthenware sherds from spanish colonial sites and in olive oil jars of hispanic origin, but both the quality and proportion of temper differs, as do the paste characteristics, so that no possibility exists for confusion between them and the north devon ware. the north devon potteries produced gravel-tempered ovens that probably were unique in england. ceramic ovens were made elsewhere, to be sure; jewitt describes and illustrates an oven made in yearsley by the yorkshire wedgwoods in 1712, but it is in no way related to the north devon form. we have mentioned dr. pococke's allusion to "earthenware ovens" made in the mid-18th century at calstock on the cornish side of the devonshire border, about 35 miles from bideford; however, one may suppose that these were the products of diffusion from the north devon center, if, indeed, they even resembled the north devon ovens. the closest comparisons with the north devon ovens are to be found in continental sources. a woodcut in ulrich von richental's _concilium zu constancz_ (fig. 35), printed at augsburg in 1483, shows an oven whose shape is similar to that of the jamestown specimen. the oven in the woodcut is mounted on a two-wheeled cart drawn by two men. a woman is removing a tart from the flame-licked opening while a couple sits nearby at a table in front of a shop. le moyne, a century later, depicted the huguenot fort caroline in florida.[71] just outside the stockade, on a raised platform under a thatched lean-to appears an oven whose form is similar to that of typical north devon examples (fig. 36). it is a safe assumption that the ovens in both richental's and le moyne's scenes were ceramic ovens, for both were used outdoors in a portable or temporary manner. no other material would have been suitable for such use. this portable usage gives support to bailey's conjecture that the jamestown oven may have been used indoors in the winter and outdoors in the summer. he noted that carbon had been ground into the base, as though the oven had lain on a fireplace hearth.[72] sidney strickland, writing about his excavation of the john howland house site, noted that the stone fireplace foundation there had no provision for a built-in brick oven of conventional type.[73] not having recognized the earthen oven sherd, he assumed that bread was baked on the stone hearth. the pottery oven may well have been placed on the hearth or have been set up in an outbuilding. that ovens of some sort, whether ceramic or brick, were used away from houses is borne out by occasional documentary evidence. in 1662 john andrews of ipswich, massachusetts, bequeathed a "bake house" worth 2 pounds, 10 shillings. in 1673, henry short of newbury provided in his will that his widow should have "free egress and regress into the bakehouse for bakeing & washing." in 1679 the inventory of lt. george gardner's estate in salem listed his "dwelling house, bake house & out housing."[74] bailey quotes the records of henrico county, virginia, to show a similar usage in the south.[75] [illustration: figure 31.--pedestal bases of small chafing dishes or standing salts. top, exterior and interior of one sherd; bottom, exterior and top view of another sherd. colonial national historical park. (_from smithsonian photos 43039-c, 43030-d._)] the only unquestionable evidence of how these ovens were used remains in the bowne house, where the oven is built into the fireplace back. originally, the oven protruded outdoors from the back of the chimney.[76] conclusions archeological, documentary, and literary evidences indicate that yellow sgraffito ware, gravel-tempered earthenware utensils, and gravel-tempered pottery ovens were made in several potteries in and around barnstaple and bideford in north devon. clay from the fremington clay beds was used. the north devon potteries manufactured for export, sending their wares to ireland as early as 1600 and to america by 1635. the trade was particularly heavy in the years following the stuart restoration and was tied to the influential 17th-century west-of-england commerce with america. new england, maryland, and virginia received many shipments of north devon pottery, an entire cargo of it having been delivered in boston in 1688. sgraffito ware found in colonial sites in virginia and maryland is from a common source. the style of decoration is unique to english pottery and reflects continental elements of design. it is reminiscent of decoration found on english and colonial new england furniture and embroideries. the only counterparts of this ware--matching it in style, paste color, and technique--are found among 17th-century sherds excavated from the sites of two potteries in barnstaple. the 18th-century and 19th-century north devon sgraffito ware surviving above ground differs considerably in style and form but in other respects it is the same as the ware found archeologically in virginia and maryland. the stylistic differences, noticeable on a piece in the glaisher collection dated as early as 1704 (in which traces of the earlier style remain), were introduced by the turn of the century, thus strengthening the conclusion that the sgraffito tablewares found archeologically in this country must date from before 1700. [illustration: figure 32.--photomicrographs of gravel-tempered sherds enlarged twice natural size, showing cross-sectional fractures. top left, pan sherd from jamestown (colonial national historical park); top right, pan sherd from angelica knoll site, calvert county, maryland (united states national museum); and oven sherd from bideford (united states national museum).] [illustration: figure 33.--photomicrographs of gravel-tempered sherds enlarged three times natural size, showing cross-sectional fractures. top, pan sherd from "r. m." site, plymouth, massachusetts (plimoth plantation, inc.); lower left, oven sherd from jamestown (colonial national historical park); and oven sherd from john howland house site, rocky nook, plymouth, massachusetts (plimoth plantation, inc.).] [illustration: figure 34.--rim profiles of north devon gravel-tempered earthenware pans. all are from the fill around and beneath the may-hartwell site drain at jamestown (constructed between 1689 and 1695) except those marked, as follows: _a_, from angelica knoll site, calvert county, maryland, late 17th century to about 1765; _b_, from john washington house site, westmoreland county, virginia, the period from about 1664 to about 1680; _c_, from "r. m." site, plymouth, massachusetts, about 1670; _d_, from site of george washington's birthplace, near the john washington house site; _e_, from winslow site, marshfield, massachusetts, which was occupied from about 1635 to about 1699.] for kitchen utensils, tiles, and other objects subject to heat or breakage, the same fremington clay received an admixture of fine pebbles, or gravel, secured at a special place in the bed of the river torridge in bideford. the use of gravel was described by 18th-century writers as well as by later historians. as found in america, the gravel-tempered ware apparently is unique among the products of either english or colonial american potters. a specialty of the north devon potteries was the manufacture of ovens made of the same gravel-tempered clay as the kitchen utensils. the appearance of these ovens and the method of making them remained virtually the same from the 17th through the 19th centuries. at jamestown, a wholly reconstructed oven reveals typical north devon traits throughout, while a fragment of an oven from the john howland house site near plymouth displays, under a microscope, the same qualities of paste and temper as in a fragment of an oven obtained in bideford by the smithsonian institution. sherds of gravel-tempered utensils from several american sites also match the oven fragments. paste characteristics, exclusive of the temper, are the same in the sgraffito ware, the gravel-tempered ware, and the ovens. furthermore, the gravel-tempered ware occasionally is found with a plain coating of slip, which, under the glaze, has the same yellow color as the sgraffito ware, while an undecorated variant of the sgraffito ware also occurs with a similar plain slip. [illustration: figure 35.--baker's portable oven in a woodcut from ulrich von richenthal's _concilium zu constancz_, printed at augsburg, germany, in 1483. lessing j. rosenwald collection, library of congress.] [illustration: figure 36.--detail from de bry's engraving of le moyne's painting of fort caroline, depicting an oven on a raised platform under a crude shed. fort caroline was a french hugenot settlement established in florida in 1564. rare book room, library of congress.] all these wares, including the ovens, are interrelated--the specimens found in america having been shipped in a busy north devon-north american trade. the north devon towns, moreover, were an important pottery-making center for export markets in the west of england, ireland, and north america. thousands of parcels of earthenware were shipped to the american colonies from bideford and barnstaple during the 17th century. any doubts that ovens were among these overseas shipments are dispelled by the knowledge that they continually were being shipped in the english coastwise trade, and also by intrinsic and comparative evidence that oven sherds found on american sites are of north devon origin. the only known counterparts of the north devon ovens are continental. a 15th-century example appears in an augsburg woodcut, and a 16th-century specimen is depicted in de bry's engraving after le moyne's painting of fort caroline, the huguenot settlement in florida. there are many suggestions of huguenot and low country influences on north devon pottery. bideford and barnstaple both were puritan strongholds in the 17th century, and both became french huguenot centers, especially after the revocation of the edict of nantes in 1685. the style of sgraffito decoration changed radically after about 1700. after that date, decoration was confined mainly to harvest jugs and presentation pieces. gravel-tempered utensils and ovens continued to be made, but the north devon trade with america ceased by 1760. archeological evidence indicates that gravel-tempered ware was used in america between about 1675 and about 1760. an isolated example of sgraffito pottery, distinguished by crude design and glaze, dates from before 1640. the typical sgraffito ware is illustrated by specimens found in the fill under and around the brick drain in the may-hartwell site at jamestown. this ware dates between 1677 and 1695. no other sites provide a more certain dating than this. sgraffito ware found at bridge's creek, virginia (john washington house site), may date as early as 1664, but may be as late as 1677 or a few years thereafter. the may-hartwell oven was also found in the drain fill, so presumably it also was used before 1695. the oven fragment from the site of the john howland house dates between about 1630 and about 1675, the lifetime of the house. the oven in the bowne house is no earlier than 1664, the date of construction. typical sgraffito ware, therefore, dates from 1664 to 1695, plus or minus a few years. gravel-tempered ware predominates in the same period, but extends well into the 18th century, probably to about 1760. ovens date from between 1664 and 1695. the concentrations of wares within the limits of the may-hartwell drain site correspond roughly with records of heavy shipments of the wares between 1681 and 1690. the earliest shipment recorded was to new england in 1635. the sgraffito ware probably served as much for decoration as for practical use. each piece was decorated differently, with elaborate designs, and in such a manner that it could provide a colorful effect on a court cupboard or a dresser, matching in style the carved woodwork or crewel embroidery of late 17th-century furnishings. although sgraffito ware represented a degree of richness and dramatic color, it did not match the elegance of contemporary majolica, decorated after the manner of chinese porcelain. heavy and coarse, the sgraffito ware essentially was a variant of english folk pottery, reflecting the less sophisticated tastes of rural west of england. it did not occur in the colonies after 1700, by which time it was supplanted in public taste by the more refined majolica. gravel-tempered ware apparently was esteemed as a kitchen ware, much as is the modern "ovenware" or pyrex in the contemporary home. since gravel-tempered ovens were widely used in the west of england, they were accepted by settlers in america, especially where built-in brick ovens were lacking. unlike those of staffordshire or bristol, the north devon potteries failed to develop new techniques or to change with shifts in taste. the delftware of london and bristol and the yellow wares of bristol and staffordshire became preferable to the soft and imperfect sgraffito ware. in the same way, the kitchen ware of staffordshire and the adequate red-wares of american potters made obsolete the heavy, ugly, and incomparably crude gravel-tempered ware, while american bricklayers, having adopted the custom of building brick ovens into fireplaces, outmoded the portable ovens from north devon after 1700. any chance of a renaissance of north devon's potteries was killed by the blockading of its ports in the mid-18th century. from then on the potteries continued traditionally, their markets gradually shrinking at home in the face of modern production elsewhere. today, only brannan's litchdon street pottery in barnstaple has survived. other references consulted bemrose, geoffrey, _nineteenth-century english pottery and porcelain_, new york, n.d. (about 1952). blacker, j. f., _nineteenth-century english ceramic art_, london, 1911. chaffers, william, _marks and monograms on pottery and porcelain_, 14th issue, london, 1932. gribble, joseph b., _memorials of barnstaple_, barnstaple, 1830. haggar, reginald, _english country pottery_, london, 1950. honey, w. b., _european ceramic art from the end of the middle ages to about 1815_, london, n.d. (about 1952). mankowitz, wolf, and haggar, reginald g., _the concise encyclopedia of english pottery and porcelain_, london, 1957. meteyard, eliza, _the life of josiah wedgwood_, london, 1865. u.s. government printing office: 1960 for sale by the superintendent of documents, u.s. government printing office, washington 25, d.c. price 35 cents. footnotes: [1] worth bailey, "concerning jamestown pottery--its past and present," _ceramic age_, october 1939, pp. 101-104. [2] h. c. forman, _jamestown and saint mary's_, baltimore, 1938, p. 133. [3] worth bailey, "a jamestown baking oven of the seventeenth century," _william and mary college quarterly historical magazine_, 1937, ser. 2, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 496-500. [4] john watkins, _an essay towards a history of bideford in the county of devon_, exeter, 1792, p. 56. [5] _ibid._, pp. 65, 67-68. [6] _ibid._, p. 70. [7] port book, barnstaple, 1620, public record office, london (hereinafter referred to as _port book_), e 190/947. [8] _virginia magazine of history and biography_, 1911, vol. 19, p. 31. [9] _ibid._, quoting sainsbury abstracts, p. 184. [10] _virginia magazine of history and biography_, 1901, vol. 9, pp. 257-258. [11] bernard bailyn, _the new england merchants in the seventeenth century_, cambridge, massachusetts, 1955, p. 87. [12] isle of wight county (virginia) records, quoted in _william and mary college quarterly historical magazine_, 1899, ser. 1, vol. 7, p. 228. [13] p. a. bruce, _economic history of virginia in the seventeenth century_, new york, 1895, vol. 2, p. 334. [14] watkins, _op. cit._ (footnote 4), p. 65. [15] _port book_, e 190/959/6. [16] _ibid._, e 190/954/6. [17] _ibid._, e 190/959/6. [18] _ibid._, e 190/960/10. [19] richard corkhill was one of the six bideford factors residing in northampton county. bruce, _op. cit._ (see footnote 13). [20] _port book_, e 190/959/6. [21] _ibid._, e 190/960/8. [22] _ibid._, e 190/960/3. [23] _ibid._, e 190/966/10. [24] _ibid._, e 190/968/10. [25] colonial office shipping records relating to massachusetts ports, typescript in essex institute, salem, massachusetts, 1931, vol. 1, p. 78. [26] _port book_, e 190/939/14; 942/13; 944/8; 951. [27] _ibid._, e 190/959/5. [28] "some account of biddeford, in answer to the queries relative to a natural history of england," _the gentlemen's magazine_, 1755, vol. 25, p. 445. [29] watkins, _op. cit._ (footnote 4), pp. 74-75. [30] t. m. hall, "on barum tobacco-pipes and north devon clays," _report and transactions of the devonshire association for the advancement of science, literature, and art_, devon, 1890, vol. 22, pp. 317-323. [31] t. charbonnier, "notes on north devon pottery of the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries," _report and transactions of the devonshire association for the advancement of science, literature, and art_, devon, 1906, vol. 38, p. 255. [32] _ibid._, p. 256. [33] bernard rackham, _catalogue of the glaisher collection of pottery and porcelain in the fitzwilliam museum_, cambridge, 1950, ed. 2, vol. 1, pp. 10-11. [34] llewellyn jewitt, _the ceramic art of great britain_, london, 1883, ed. 2, pp. 206-207. [35] george maw, "on a supposed deposit of boulder-clay in north devon," _quarterly journal of the geological society of london_, 1864, vol. 20, pp. 445-451. [36] charbonnier, _op. cit._ (footnote 31), pp. 255, 259. [37] "supplement to the account of biddeford," _the gentlemen's magazine_, 1755, vol. 25, p. 564. [38] watkins, _op. cit._ (footnote 4), p. 74. however, the "byelaws" of barnstaple for 1689 indicate that tempering materials were also obtained locally: "every one that fetcheth sand from the sand ridge, shall pay for each horse yearly 1{d}, and for every boat of crock sand 1{d}., according to the antient custome." (joseph b. gribble, _memorials of barnstaple_, barnstaple, 1830, p. 360.) [39] charbonnier, _op. cit._ (footnote 31), p. 258. [40] b. w. oliver, "the three tuns, barnstaple," _report and transactions of the devonshire association for the advancement of science, literature, and art_, torquay, devon, 1948, vol. 80, pp. 151-152. [41] mildred e. jenkinson in personal correspondence from bideford, april 20, 1955. [42] hall, _op. cit._ (footnote 30), p. 319. [43] h. w. strong, "the potteries of north devon," _report and transactions of the devonshire association for the advancement of science, literature, and art_, devon, 1891, vol. 23, p. 393. [44] charbonnier, _op. cit._ (footnote 31), p. 257. [45] jewitt, _op. cit._ (footnote 34), vol. 1, pp. 205-206. [46] _great exhibition 1851. official, descriptive, and illustrated catalogue_, london, 1851, p. 776, no. 131. [47] w. j. pountney, _old bristol potteries_, bristol, n.d., pp. 153-154. [48] cloume = cloam: "in o. e. mud, clay. hence, in mod. dial. use: earthenware, clay ... b. _attr._ or _adj._" (j. a. h. murray, ed., _a new english dictionary on historic principles_, oxford, 1893, vol. 2, p. 509.) [49] j. j. cartwright, ed., _the travels through england of dr. richard pococke_, camden society publications, 1888, new ser., no. 42, vol. 1, p. 135. [50] _ibid._, vol. 1, p. 131. [51] jenkinson correspondence (see footnote 41). [52] jewitt, _op. cit._ (footnote 34), pp. 206-207. [53] charbonnier, _op. cit._ (footnote 31), p. 258. [54] jenkinson correspondence (footnote 41). [55] _made in devon. an exhibition of beautiful objects past and present_, dartington hall, 1950, p. 9. [56] charbonnier, _op. cit._ (footnote 31), p. 258. [57] john l. cotter, _archeological excavations at jamestown, virginia_. archeological research series, no. 4, national park service, u.s. department of the interior, washington, 1958. [58] j. c. harrington, _archeological report, may-hartwell site, jamestown: excavations at the may-hartwell site in 1935, 1938, and 1939 and ditch explorations east of the may-hartwell site in 1935 and 1938_. [59] cotter, _op. cit._ (footnote 57), p. 158. [60] _ibid._, pp. 112-119. [61] _ibid._, pp. 102-112. [62] _ibid._, pp. 151-152. [63] joseph b. brittingham and alvin w. brittingham, sr., _the first trading post at kicotan (kecoughtan), hampton, virginia_, hampton, 1947. [64] louis r. caywood, _excavations at green spring plantation_, yorktown, 1955. [65] j. paul hudson, "george washington birthplace national monument, virginia," national park service historical handbook series, no. 26, washington, 1956. [66] virginia cullen, _history of lewes, delaware_, lewes, 1956; c. a. bonine, "archeological investigation of the dutch 'swanendael' settlement under de vries, 1631-1632," _the archeolog. news letter of the sussex archeological association_, lewes, december 1956, vol. 8, no. 3. [67] s. t. strickland, _excavation of ancient pilgrim home discloses nature of pottery and other details of everyday life_, typescript, n.d. [68] james deetz, _excavations at the joseph howland site (c5), rocky nook, kingston, massachusetts, 1959: a preliminary report_. supplement, _the howland quarterly, 1960_, vol. 24, nos. 2, 3. the pilgrim john howland society, inc. [69] rackham, _op. cit._ (footnote 33), vol. 2, p. 11, fig. 8 d, no. 58. [70] john eliot hodgkin and edith hodgkin, _examples of early english pottery, named, dated, and inscribed_. london, 1891, p. 59. [71] j. le moyne, _brevis narratio corum quae in florida ..._, frankfort, 1591, pl. 10. [72] bailey, _op. cit._ (footnote 3), pp. 497-498. [73] strickland, _op. cit._ (footnote 67). [74] the probate records of essex county, massachusetts, salem, massachusetts, 1916, vol. 1, p. 378; vol. 2, p. 346; vol. 3, p. 328. [75] bailey, _op. cit._ (footnote 3), p. 498. [76] _bowne house; a shrine to religious freedom_, flushing, new york. pamphlet of the bowne house historical society, flushing, n.y., n.d. transcriber's notes: passages in italics are indicated by _italics_. superscripted characters are indicated by {superscript}. transcriber's note in the numerous chemical formulae a subscripted number is shown as _{2}, so the familiar formula for water would be h_{2}o: h, subscript 2, o. this notation is needed to distinguish digits that are subscripts from digits that are multipliers, as for example in the formula pb(oh)_{2}2pbco_{3}, where the subscript 2 must be distinguished from the quantity multiplier 2 that follows it. [illustration: _frontispiece_ stoneware made by the author.] the potter's craft a practical guide for the studio and workshop _by_ charles f. binns _director of the new york state school of clay-working and ceramics_ ¶ _some time a superintendent in the royal porcelain works, worcester, england_ _second edition_ _second printing_ _26 plates and 20 text illustrations_ [colophon] new york d. van nostrand company, inc. eight warren street copyright, 1910, 1922 by d. van nostrand company _all rights reserved, including that of translation into the scandinavian and other foreign languages._ printed in the united states of america lancaster press, inc. lancaster, pa. "a book is written, not to multiply the voice merely, not to carry it merely, but to perpetuate it. the author has something to say which he perceives to be true and useful, or helpfully beautiful. so far as he knows, no one has yet said it; so far as he knows, no one else can say it. he is bound to say it clearly and melodiously if he may; clearly, at all events." --_ruskin._ preface to second edition since the publication of the first edition of this book eleven years have elapsed, years packed full of varied and interesting experiences. during that time it has been the pleasant fortune of the author to conduct classes, especially summer classes, in the science and art of pottery production. these have been occasions of meeting many fine and noble personalities whom to know is a liberal education. as one of the consequences of these experiences the book has been revised and some new chapters have been written. especial acknowledgments are due and are gratefully made to elsie binns for the chapter on clay-working for children and to maude robinson for that on alkaline glazes. the photographs are by the taylor studios, hornell, n. y. c. f. b. alfred, new york. march, 1922. preface to first edition this book is the outcome of an experience extending over a period of thirty-six years. twenty years ago it would have been impossible, for the science of ceramics was not then born. ten years ago it would have been wasted for the artist-potter in america had not arrived, but now the individual workers are many and the science is well established. written teaching must be imperfect, but i have endeavored to set down the exact methods by which my students are taught, in the hope that those who cannot secure personal instruction may read and understand. as far as possible didactic statements have been avoided and the attempt has been made to lead every student to experiment and to think for himself. in other words, i have tried to erect sign-posts and occasional warnings rather than to remove all obstacles from the road. c. f. b. alfred, n. y. january, 1910. contents introduction.--the present need xiii chapter i. applied art 1 ii. pottery 9 iii. porcelain 23 iv. the nature and properties of clay 29 v. the preparation of clay 37 vi. mold-making and plaster 43 vii. cases and working molds 58 viii. building by hand 68 ix. the potter's wheel 74 x. turning 99 xi. making large pieces 107 xii. cups and saucers and plates 124 xiii. casting 129 xiv. tiles 133 xv. glazes and glazing part i 140 part ii--matt glazes 152 part iii--fritted glazes 157 part iv--recipes 160 part v--the defects of glazes 164 part vi--alkaline glazes 167 xvi. decoration 173 xvii. the fire 179 xviii. high temperature wares 188 xix. clay-working for children 194 index 201 list of plates frontispiece.--stoneware made by the author. plate. page i. throwing.--lesson ii, 1 80 ii. throwing.--lesson ii, 2 81 iii. throwing.--lesson ii, 3 82 iv. throwing.--lesson iii, 1 83 v. throwing.--lesson iii, 2 86 vi. throwing.--lesson iv, 1 87 vii. throwing.--lesson iv, 2 89 viii. throwing.--lesson v 90 ix. throwing.--lesson vi, 1 92 x. throwing.--lesson vi, 2 93 xi. throwing.--lesson vii 95 xii. throwing.--lesson viii, 1 96 xiii. throwing.--lesson viii, 2 97 xiv. making large pieces. the first section 109 xv. making large pieces. measuring the foundation of the 110 second section xvi. making large pieces. drawing up the second section 111 xvii. making large pieces. shaping the third section 112 xviii. making large pieces. the three sections completed 113 xix. making large pieces. turning the edge of the first 114 section xx. making large pieces. finishing the bottom of the first 116 section xxi. making large pieces. checking the size of the second 117 section xxii. making large pieces. fitting together dry 119 xxiii. making large pieces. setting the third section in place 120 xxiv. making large pieces. the three sections set together in 121 the rough xxv. making large pieces. the finished vase 122 introduction: the present need many times it has been proven, in the history of the world, that it is not possible to force a reform or a novelty upon an unwilling people. such things are organic. in order to live they must grow and in order to grow must live. no attempt will be made, therefore, in these pages to foster an idea or propound a thought which may exist only in the predilection of the author. the trend of the present demand, a persistent growth of several years, is towards a personal and individual expression in the crafts or industrial arts. this tendency is the natural swing of the pendulum from the machine-made product of the manufactory which in its turn was the inevitable result of mechanical invention. when the artisan was an artist and the designer a craftsman, there was but a limited production of industrial art. the articles made were expensive and for the wealthy alone. the common utensils necessary to the household were made on the farm and were of the rudest possible character. but with the gradual development of machinery there came an abandonment of rural activities, a flocking to the city, manufacturing on a large scale, lower prices, and a huge output. this has, of course, taken many years to develop, but the utmost limit of the swing has been reached and the question is "what next?" will the factory cease its labors? will output decrease in bulk and improve in quality? will there ever, in a word, be a return to medieval conditions? not only may all these questions be answered in the negative but it may be stated with all sincerity that there is no need for any other answer. what then, are not manufactured products as now put forth a menace to the art life of the nation? are not the people being educated in the use of and belief in machine-made ornament and meretricious display? perhaps so, but no good purpose will be served by a ruthless condemnation of these things. art appreciation is a most subtle thing and no one may dictate to his neighbor as to what he should or should not admire. it took time for the public to understand and patronize the product of the machine even though the price was favorable. it will take time for an appreciation of craftsmanship to influence the land but this consummation will most assuredly come. on the one hand there is the manufactory, teeming with "hands," riotous with wheels, turning out its wares by the thousand and supplying the demand of the many; on the other, there is the artist-artisan. he labors at his bench in sincere devotion to his chosen vocation. his work is laborious and exacting, he can make but a few things and for them he must ask a price relatively high. both these conditions are necessary. the craftsman cannot supply the need of the people and the manufacturer has no time or thought for disinterested production. herein lies the need and here is the mission of the individual worker. in every age it is given to some to discern more than the multitude and it is theirs to teach. the people are anxious to learn, are eager to be led. what they demand will be manufactured and so by the irresistible lever of public opinion the man at the bench, if he be true to himself and to his craft, may move the millionaire manufacturer to make wares which, if not truly artistic, shall at least be inoffensive. such a mission is not to be accomplished without suffering. the man who essays to attack a giant must be sure both of his ground and of his personal condition. he who would establish his craft in the knowledge and affection of men must possess enthusiasm, skill, discrimination and infinite patience. it is not enough to discern the good, the hand must follow the brain with diligent care. furthermore, it is not enough to be able to make things well, one must also make them good and know it. the artist-artisan must have courage to destroy that which is below standard, and self-denial to resist the temptation to sell an unworthy product. the country needs craftsmen of this type and for them there is an important work. for such, if they elect to join the ranks of the potters, these words are written and in the hope that some may be stimulated, encouraged, guided and helped the counsel of a fellow craftsman is offered. chapter i: applied art it is not intended, in these lines, to consider what are generally termed the fine arts, painting and sculpture. these are perfectly competent to take care of themselves and, indeed, the author can make no claim to an ability to discuss them. in the field of applied art, however, there are certain principles to be observed, principles, moreover, which are frequently lost sight of because of the lamentable separation of the functions of the artist and artificer. it is extremely difficult to draw the line between art and manufacture. for example, a wall paper, designed with skill and executed by machinery in actual reproduction of the work of the designer; is it a work of art or is it a product of the factory? it is both. primarily a work of art is the product of the artist's own hand. it reveals his individuality. it is the language in which he expresses himself to his audience. it is the note of his voice. such a work may or may not appeal to a large section of the public. this will always be so. an artist, be he poet, musician, painter or craftsman, is one who can see more than others. what he sees he endeavors to express but it is inevitable that he be sometimes misunderstood. hence it the more necessary that his message be delivered at first hand. to look upon a replica of the work of an artist is like reading a sermon or an oration from a printed page. one may gather much of the teaching but the personal note, the tone and gesture, must be lost. but there are many who can gather the words of great men only from books. there are, moreover, books which have never been spoken and wherein alone the message is to be found. in like manner there are works, emanating from the hand of great designers which can only be made available for the many in a form of reproduction. the wall paper cited as an illustration is of this class. were it not for the printing press this beautiful design could not have passed beyond the studio, and while it is a great thing if a wealthy man can commission a whistler to decorate a peacock room, it is an advantage by no means to be ignored that a well designed wall paper can be purchased by the piece. but while this is true of such of the household goods as cannot be procured except by the medium of the machine, there are other examples. in the case of the wall paper the function of the machine is simply to transfer the proper design to the paper itself. this has no identity except as a surface. it is no more to be considered than is a canvas upon which a picture is painted. but when a chair or a table is formed out of pieces of lumber uniformly shaped by one machine, the seat or top put together by another and the legs or back carved or stamped by a third, art or individuality is lost because mechanical construction is involved. still more is this the case in the product of the manufactory of pottery. in commercial practice not only is a shape designed without regard to decoration but the same decoration is placed upon several forms, or a single form is made to suffer as the vehicle for many decorations. some of the results may be pleasing, even beautiful, but it is more by luck than guidance and no piece produced in this way has any claim to be classed as a work of art. on the other hand it may happen that a work of art, in the sense of individual expression, may not even be beautiful and one is tempted to ask the reason. if a work which is a genuine expression of a man's personality fail to please the senses of those who are trained in the finer perceptions there must be something wrong. if the adverse opinion be at all general amongst the critics it may be assumed that they are right and that the worker is wrong. for example, the form of a flower is not a fit receptacle for a candle. it often happens that a designer, struck with the beauty of, say, a tulip, has modeled the flower in clay and made it into a candlestick. now it is obvious that the more closely the model simulates the flower the less appropriate it is for such a purpose. if the model be heavy enough to be of use it must be far removed from its prototype. if a conventional design for a candlestick be adopted the petals of a flower may be shown in relief upon it but there must always be a solid foundation to account for the possibility of use. a favorite form with some designers is a bird's nest made into a flower holder. in this the same criticism applies. a bird's nest is always built to let water escape. even a mud-lined nest is not impervious and the idea is obviously inappropriate. it is important that imitation be avoided and especially the imitation of material. one often hears the remark "how beautiful, it looks just like bronze." this, of course, comes from the casual observer to whom the skill of the imitation appeals but it cannot be too strongly insisted upon that to imitate one material in another is false from every point of view. nor is it necessary. clay is sufficient in itself. there are so many effects possible in pottery which are not possible in any other medium that it is entirely superfluous to seek outlandish texture and color. to be sure, such things are popular but that does not make them sound in principle or true in taste. it should not be a purpose of any craft to make pieces merely as an exhibition of skill. this is done sometimes by such versatile workers as the japanese, but it may be laid down as a law that a production of the nature of a _tour-de-force_, an object which simply excites wonder at the skill of the worker, is undignified and meretricious. it is akin to the work of certain painters who delight in painting marble or velvet so as to exhibit a perfect texture only and is but one degree removed from the skill of the pavement artist who with colored chalk draws a lamb chop or a banana in such a manner that the real article seems to be lying on the ground at his feet. the true artist, be he potter or painter, works primarily for his own satisfaction. it sometimes happens that a defect, not large enough to be obvious, is a temptation to concealment. the public will never know. but the consciousness of the existence of such a blemish will destroy the pride of achievement which should accompany every finished piece. if the worker aims to draw any expression of opinion from the untrained observer it should be in the nature of a remark on how easy the work looks. art will always conceal effort. just as the poet or orator is at his best when he clothes sublime thought in simple words so the artist or craftsman glorifies his vocation when he makes use of means which appear to be within the reach of every observer. in addition to the work of the producer there must be considered the function of the critic. artists are commonly impatient of criticism. tennyson voiced this sentiment when he wrote of "irresponsible indolent reviewers," but the power of the critic is rarer than the skill of the craftsman. true, there are critics and critics. there is the man who knows what he likes and who cannot be persuaded that he likes what is false, and there is the trained critic who sees with an educated eye and dissects with an unerring word. it is not common to find critic and craftsman in one and the same person and it not infrequently happens that the persons exercising these functions are at variance with each other. but if the critic be correct why is the craftsman wrong? in this let it be presumed that there is nothing wrong with his craft as such; that he handles his tools skilfully and has perfect control over his material. more than this, however, is necessary. the first requirement is a sense of form, a term which includes outline, proportion and structure. often and often it is found that a designer depends upon novelty alone for acceptance. he is not altogether to blame in this for the great american public will, more often than not, ask, "is it new?" novelty in itself is no claim to consideration; in fact, on being shown some product of which it is said "nothing like it has ever been seen before," the temptation is great to respond, "may its like never be seen again." novelty apart, form must possess proportion, balance and grace. a chair must invite the sitter, a vase must stand securely, a carpet must lie flat. the absence of these things may evidence an individuality on the part of the designer but it is art at the expense of truth. the second necessary condition is fitness which again is expressed in several ways. a porcelain vase is required to be light, graceful and refined. a piece of ruder pottery may be no less satisfactory if it exhibit vigor, strength and solidity. a large pot for a growing tree is, for these reasons, more appropriate in grès than in porcelain. porcelain is translucent but such a quality is of no advantage in the case of a flower pot; the strength of a massive body is, however, demanded by the circumstances of use and hence the unfitness of the one and the fitness of the other. another point of fitness is concerned in the correspondence between size, form and weight. it often happens that one takes hold of a piece of pottery and experiences a shock. the mind unconsciously forms an estimate of what the weight will be but the piece does not respond. the effort put forth in accordance with the appearance of the object either lifts it suddenly into the air or fails to raise it from the table. the artist critic takes note of these things. to handle his wares is a constant pleasure, for one is not continually disappointed by unexpected violences. this correspondence or equilibrium is apart from the use of a piece of pottery. it is quite as legitimate to express one's ideas in clay in the presentation of simple beauty as it is to express them with paint upon canvas. at the same time there is always a satisfaction in a vase or flower pot that it can be used if required. thus a vase which will not hold water is technically imperfect and the _bête noire_ of the conscientious potter. it is in the harmony of these things that the rôle of the critic is seen to advantage. if the artist be capable of criticizing his own work he is in a position to command attention but he must either discipline himself or be disciplined by others, which, after all, is the way of the world at large. chapter ii: potter it must always be an open question how much credit for artistic feeling can be given to primitive races. the production of pottery was, at first, the supplying of a need. clay offered a medium for the making of household utensils which were at once fireproof and impervious. the work does not belong strictly to the earliest stages of civilization but is a development of advancing refinement.[a] [a] those who wish to study indian pottery in detail are referred to dr. w. h. holmes' work on the aboriginal pottery of the eastern united states, published by the smithsonian institution, washington, d. c. crude and unprepared clays were used for the most part but the makers could scarcely have been conscious of the charming color-play produced by the burning of a red clay in a smoky fire. the pottery of the indians is artistic in the sense of being an expression of an indigenous art and much of it is beautiful, though whether the makers possessed any real appreciation of beauty is open to doubt. the pottery was exclusively the work of the women. no wheel was employed but the ware was mainly constructed by coiling. long strips of clay were rolled under the hands and made of uniform size and these were then coiled in spiral form, the rolls being welded together with water. after proceeding a certain height the walls of the growing jar would become weak under their own weight. the piece would then be set aside to undergo a partial hardening upon which the work would be carried forward another stage. the shape being completed and partially dried, the maker would work over the whole surface with stones or simple tools until the marks of the coils had disappeared and the walls had reached a sufficient thinness. a great deal of skill was exercised in accomplishing this. many of the indian forms are transitional. the basket, the gourd and the bark-made jar suggested their shapes to the potter; indeed it is sometimes evident that clay vessels were constructed as linings to wicker forms, the outer layer of twigs being afterwards burned off. the firing was performed in the open flame without any protection, a fact which accounts for the great irregularity found in quality and color. the decorations used by the indian women were of the type common to unglazed wares. the clay was incised or embossed and natural earths were used as pigments. this accounts in great measure for the fitness which may be observed in aboriginal decoration. there is an absence of artificial coloring, nor is there any straining after effect, but instead there is shown a sober strength and a sane expression of values which would do credit to a modern designer. america is fortunate in possessing abundant relics of primitive times but it cannot be doubted that in other lands similar work was done, making allowance, of course, for the characteristic variations in national traits. the potter's craft is of such a nature, using an omnipresent material and requiring the minimum of tools, that almost every nation on the globe has practiced it. in some it has never been developed beyond the narrow limits of the stone age, in others it has reached the utmost perfection of cultured skill. for perfection of quality in crude pottery, no ware has ever surpassed that of greece. it is not practicable here to deal with the numerous branches and sub-branches of greek pottery; let it suffice for the present purpose to speak of only two main groups. in the first, the background of the decoration was supplied by the tint of the bare clay; in the second, this tint afforded the color of the decoration itself, the background being covered with a black pigment. to speak briefly these groups are known as black-figured and red-figured wares. the wheel was early adopted by the grecian potters as a means of producing form and although molds were sometimes used, the wheel was, to all intents and purposes, the sole method of manufacture. greek pottery is once fired. birch classes it as glazed terra cotta, but the glaze is nothing more than the black pigment with which the decoration is carried out. the uncolored part of the clay is not glazed but polished with a hard tool. probably some famous potters employed assistants either to make the pieces or to decorate but it does not appear that there was any reproduction, at least, during the best period. at first primitive ideas prevailed. geometric designs were succeeded by rhythmic friezes of beasts and birds done in black. when the human figure made its appearance the faces were all in profile with full-fronting eye while the prominent details of feature and drapery were scratched with a sharp point before burning. the change of method to red on black gave much wider scope for the treatment of the human figure, rendered a fuller expression possible and enlarged the power of pictorial action. great skill in drawing was manifested and details of both drapery and features were expressed with great care by means of the brush. such was the state of the art when the decadence set in and the work fell into the hands of plagiarists and charlatans. meretricious coloring and gaudy ornament succeeded the refinement and restraint of the earlier days and so the art perished. to the inventive power of the romans the ceramic art owes more than one novelty. it would appear that the desideratum of the early days was a black ware. homer in his hymn wrote: "pay me my price, potters, and i will sing. attend, o pallas, and with lifted arm protect their ovens, let all their cups and sacred vessels blacken well and baked with good success yield them both fair renown and profit." the greeks accomplished this blackening by means of a pigment, the romans secured a similar result by a manipulation of the fire. it is well known that the oxide of iron which imparts to the clay a red color will, if burned in what is known as a "reducing" fire, turn black. this is accomplished by keeping the air supply at the lowest possible point and the effect is heightened by the smoke which is partly absorbed by the clay. this black ware is known as upchurch pottery from the name of a locality in england where large quantities have been found, but numerous examples occur in germany and, indeed, wherever the roman hosts encamped. a second type of pottery is called castor ware and consists of a dark clay upon which the decoration is traced in clay of a lighter color. the decoration was applied as a slip or cream and hence was the forerunner of the modern slip painting or _pâte-sur-pâte_. this ware is well worth a study. the decorations consisted largely of conventional borders and panels but it is specially notable on account of the free use of motives drawn from daily life. one of the commonest scenes depicted is the hunt of hare or stag, the animals and trees being often woven into an almost conventional frieze. the most valued type of roman pottery seems to have been the aretine or samian ware. this is a bright red color and possesses an extremely thin glaze. a particular clay was evidently used, but all knowledge of its source has been lost. with the importation of chinese porcelain by the dutch the whole trend of pottery manufacture was changed. no longer was black a desirable color, white was seen to be much more delicate and beautiful and henceforth the endeavor of the potter was to produce a ware which should be as nearly like porcelain as possible. the crudeness of the clay kept this ideal from being realized, but various expedients were adopted and gradually better results were obtained. throughout the east a type of white pottery was made which, though stimulated by the chinese example, may have been a relic of the knowledge of the egyptians. a crude clay was coated with a white preparation, possibly ground quartz, and upon this there were painted conventional designs in sombre colors. a clear glaze covered the whole and imparted to the colors a beautiful quality as of pebbles under water. the nature of the glaze is made evident by the hues assumed by the metallic oxides employed as colorants. copper oxide affords a turquoise blue, manganese, a wine purple, and iron, a brick red. if the glaze had contained any considerable amount of lead oxide, these colors would have been quite different; copper would have produced green, manganese, dark brown, and iron, yellowish brown. the iron pigment was evidently a clay, sometimes spoken of as armenian bole. the red color is always in raised masses because if a thin wash had been used the color would have yielded to the action of the glaze. this ware, commonly called oriental _engobe_ ware, affords a fruitful study. effects similar in character were produced by the late theodore deck of paris, but no considerable use of the ancient methods has ever been attempted. the use of tin and lead in glazing was known to the arabian and moorish potters but these ingredients were not abundant in the east. when, however, the moorish hosts conquered a part of spain in the twelfth century it was found that both lead and tin were available. the result was the development of the enameled ware known by the generic name maiolica. some have maintained that this was first made in italy but the name is derived from the island of maiorca from which much of the pottery was exported. the famous alhambra vase remains as a monument to the skill of the hispano-moresque craftsmen, but it was the italian artists of the renaissance who brought the enameled wares to perfection. the interest here is artistic and technical rather than historical, but no one can study the work of the period without learning something of luca della robbia and giorgio andreoli, of gubbio and pesaro and castel durante. the use of lead in the glaze proved seductive. it simplified the technical problems and provided a brilliant surface but alas! the colors suffered and one by one they succumbed. the blue of cobalt, however, proved indestructible and so, when the technical knowledge of the south met the traditions borrowed from the chinese, there was born, in the little town of delft in holland, the blue enameled ware which has ever since been known by the name of its native place. as to the technical details of the production of delft ware a great deal of information is available. the clay used contained a goodly proportion of lime and this served to hold the enamel in perfect union with the body. the decoration was painted in cobalt blue upon the unburned surface of the enamel. this was, in a measure, courting a difficulty but it is the glory of the craft that a difficulty is cheerfully accepted if in the overcoming there is found success. if the delft potters had burned their enamel in order to make the painting easy, the world would never have enjoyed the tender tone of blue for which this pottery is famous. by painting the blue color over the powdery enamel, a more perfect union of enamel and color was accomplished than would have been possible by any other means. this fact alone is sufficient to account for the unsatisfactory nature of the modern, so-called, delft. difficulties have been avoided rather than met and the success of the early masters has eluded their recent followers. much of the pottery made in france in the seventeenth century was inspired by the italian renaissance. in fact the word faience is due to the avowed intention of the manufacturers of nevers to copy the enameled pottery of faenza. almost the only novelty of the time was the inversion, by the nevers potters, of the delft idea. instead of a white enamel with a blue decoration they used, in part, a blue ground with a decoration in white. it is not known that this variation found acceptance in any other place but in many localities, notably at rouen, the manufacture of enameled wares was pursued with great success. the only real difference between the wares of spain, italy and france, lies in the decorative treatment. sometimes the emphasis was laid upon lustres, sometimes on blue and white and again upon polychrome painting. in one place there was an extensive use made of pictorial treatment, in another all was conventional. the differences are interesting to a student or a collector but to the craftsman enameled pottery affords but one, though by no means an unimportant, means of expression. france, however, gave birth to two important and interesting departures from the beaten track; the so-called henri deux ware, and the faience of bernard palissy. important as these are to the ceramist, it is a remarkable fact that neither of them had any appreciable influence upon the art as a whole nor did they leave any descendants. a good deal of controversy has raged around the pottery commonly known as henri ii, some authorities claiming that it should be called faience d'oiron, and others assigning to it the name saint porchaire. it was, quite evidently, the production of an individual or group of individuals who had no connection with ordinary pottery manufacture, and the small quantity produced is evidence that it was made for personal pleasure. the name henri ii is undoubtedly satisfactory, for it was made in the reign of the second henry and some pieces bear the monogram of the king. on the other hand h may be the initial of helene d'hengest, who occupied the chateau d'oiron and who had in her employ one bernard who filled the position of librarian. the style of the work seems to indicate a devotion to books, for the patterns are suggestive of book-binding tool work but were not produced in the same way. the ware was made of a natural cream-colored clay and the shapes were modeled with great skill. upon the plain surface patterns were tooled or incised and the hollows thus formed were filled in with dark-colored clays. the whole was then covered with a clear lead glaze which afforded a finish very much like modern earthenware. the origin of this work is a matter of little more than academic interest but the technical details are of such importance as to be well worth a study. the ware is original and unique. no pottery either before or since has approached it in method, and the quality of most of the pieces is all that could be desired. such was the elaboration of detail that no price could have been set upon the ware and it was evidently not made for sale. a distinct growth in style can be traced. the first pieces were somewhat archaic and even crude but as skill was acquired greater perfection was attained. as is too often the case, however, the skillful hand overreached itself and the later pieces are loaded with meretricious detail in many colors. there are only about fifty pieces known and these are equally divided between the museums of france and england. bernard palissy was a versatile genius but is here only considered as a potter. he states in his records that he was inspired by seeing an enameled cup. it was at one time supposed that this cup was of italian maiolica but later authorities incline to the belief that it was a piece of chinese porcelain which palissy supposed to have been enameled. no white clay was known to him but enameled wares were quite accessible. it can scarcely be believed that maiolica was a novelty but it can easily be understood that a piece of white porcelain, viewed in the light of the contemporary knowledge of enamels, would appear of marvellous quality. palissy essayed to imitate this wonder but attacked the problem from the standpoint of an opaque glaze. he spent fifteen years in experimenting but never realized his ideal. he did, however, produce a palette of marvellous colored enamels. he was a close student of nature and modeled all kinds of natural objects, glazing them in the proper hues. he also designed and made vases and service pieces, some with figure embossments. the story of his struggles is readily accessible to any who are interested. palissy left little or no impression upon the ceramic art of his time but in recent years some work has been done in colored glazes fusible at a low temperature. this ware is sometimes sold under the name of maiolica but it is more nearly an imitation of palissy. the main difference between the two types is that while the maiolica or tin-glazed pottery of spain, italy and france consisted for the most part of a white enameled surface upon which painting was applied, palissy used little or no white enamel but decorated his wares with tinted glazes which themselves supplied the colors. in the low countries and the german states there was made the striking and original pottery known as _grès de flandres_. the clay was of the type commonly used for the manufacture of stone-ware and appears in three colors, brown, gray and cream. the ware was made on the wheel and embossments more or less elaborate were subsequently added. the unique feature consisted in the method of applying the glaze. this was simply common salt, thrown into the heated kiln and volatilized. the salt vapor bathed the glowing pottery and combined with its substance, thus producing the delightful orange-skin texture known as salt glaze. the knowledge of this method was conveyed to england in the seventeenth century and gained wide acceptance there. the english potters preferred to use clays which were almost white, and after glazing a decoration in brilliant colors was sometimes added. naturalistic treatment was not attempted but conventionalized subjects were used with almost the effect of jewelry. the temperature at which this work can be produced varies with the clay. many fusible clays will take a salt glaze but the beauty of the product depends to a large extent upon the purity of the body. this necessitates a hard fire, for white-burning clays always need a high temperature for vitrification. the early potteries of england were dependent largely upon clay effects. some little enameled ware was made and is known as english delft; but the bulk of the work was slip painted, incised, marbled or embossed. each of these methods is capable of an intelligent application and all are within the reach of the artist potter. chapter iii: porcelain the production of porcelain is the goal of the potter. the pure white of the clay and the possibility of unlimited fire treatment exert a profound influence upon the imagination while the difficulties of manipulation only serve to stimulate the energy of the enthusiast. for present purposes not much is to be learned from the soft porcelains of france nor from the bone china of england. german and french hard porcelain are but developments of the chinese idea and therefore need not be studied apart from their prototype. the earliest date of chinese porcelain is unknown. the records of the nation are very ancient but their meaning is often obscured by the fact that in the chinese language the same word was used of old to denote both porcelain and earthenware. specimens dating from only the tenth century a. d. look almost incredibly old. they are coarse and heavy in structure but are aglow with vibrant color. the finest porcelains date from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and these are the ideals towards which every modern potter looks. broadly it may be stated that two methods prevailed. in the former the glaze itself was charged with color or the coloring matter was applied to the clay beneath the glaze. in the latter the porcelain was finished as to body and glaze and the decoration was applied at a subsequent and much lighter burn. the first named class is called single-colored porcelain; the second has several names such as the famille rose and famille verte as defined by jacquemart. in the single-color class it is evident that the potters were not at all sure of their results. in many museums there are to be found examples of ox-blood red, more or less fine, and, with them, other pieces which were intended to be red but which failed in the fire. the wonder is, in these cases, that the pieces, even though failures, are beautiful. the knowledge required for the production of these wares is largely scientific; at the same time it is not to be believed that the chinese had any special scientific training. they evidently traveled a long and tortuous path before the goal was reached, in fact, they often fell short of it altogether, but they had plenty of time and unlimited patience. the modern potter is, if less patient, more fortunate in that the course has been marked out with more or less accuracy and, if the landmarks of science be heeded, a certain degree of success may be attained. this single-color work is the true field of the ceramist. anyone possessing the power of using a pencil, and with a large stock of patience, may produce over-glaze decoration, but to prepare glazes of many hues and to consign them unprotected to the fury of the furnace, requires skill, patience, courage and enthusiasm. during the last twenty years a new school has arisen which combines in a measure the advantages of the two chinese methods. colors are prepared from refractory materials and upon clay or soft burned biscuit ware, scenes, in more or less conventional form, are painted, or else a design purely conventional in character is applied by the artist. the ware is then glazed and subjected to the severe fire which all porcelain undergoes. the result is that the porcelain and the painting are united in a sense that can never be the case with over-glaze treatment. the colors become part of a purely ceramic unit; the spirit of the artist is fixed by the fire. to this class belong the porcelain of copenhagen and the recent product of sevres. these, of course, represent the result of much arduous training and many tedious experiments. both the training and the experiments are necessary to some extent for every worker, not only because pottery clays vary much in composition, but because individuality can only be obtained by the preparation, in the laboratory, of the desired compounds. the chinese, doubtless, stumbled upon many of their successes by accident, helped by the fact that the character of the fire employed influenced many of their colors. this will be explained in a later chapter. they were, however, quick to seize upon that which was good. many fanciful names were given to the rarest colors, such as "the violet of wild apples," "liquid dawn" and "the red of the bean blossom." this idea has been carried further in france by the invention of such names as "_sang-de-boeuf_," "_sang-de-poulet_," "_clair-de-lune_," etc., and pursued in this country in "peach blow." in the over-glaze treatment, the type named "famille verte" is characterized by a clear green glaze or enamel over a design in black. the whole is painted over the porcelain glaze and the green enamel is so soft that it is often decomposed on the surface. when a broad black mass is covered with green the decomposition gives rise to prismatic colors and occasions the term "raven's wing black." some of this ware has also been gilt but the gold lines have disappeared and can only be located by the slight dullness of the enamel where they once were. well known to collectors also are the rose-back plates. these belong to the "famille rose" in which the characteristic note is a delicate rose pink. this color is prepared from gold and when it is placed upon the back of an egg-shell plate a tender rosy transparency is imparted to the piece. one of the best known of the single colors is the pale sea green named celadon by the french. this color in china was called "the sky after rain" and was considered both rare and valuable. the porcelain of copenhagen is the product of scientific skill and artistic taste. in the studios attached to the royal manufactory there has grown up a tradition of work and criticism which is fostered by ladies of birth and position. many of these paint upon the porcelain themselves and so constitute a school which has become world famous. natural objects are, for the most part, chosen and, as the palette of colors is, owing to the intense fire, quite limited and low in key, a tone of quiet atmosphere pervades the painting. this is accentuated by the use of the air-brush to distribute a ground color upon the ware in graduated strength. at the national manufactory of sevres there has been some attempt to follow the copenhagen method but to a greater extent the work is along the lines of conventionalized form. in this treatment the french artists excel, being wonderfully accurate--almost too accurate--in their lines and spacing. several individual workers in france have also pursued this plan, designing and executing the pieces which have made the french artist-potters famous. in the porcelains of berlin the quality lies largely in the complete mastery of technical details. the work is, as would be expected, german in style, but the paste is pure and the colors are well prepared. from this brief review it will be seen that the interest in the manufacture of porcelain lies not so much in variety as in the value of individual results. in the pottery described in the previous chapter a great many different clays were used and each one proved suggestive to the potter. in porcelain, on the other hand, the body clay is almost identical wherever prepared, the requirement of a white translucent paste being paramount. chapter iv: the nature and properties of clay clay differs from earth or soil in that it possesses certain characteristics which these do not possess. its distribution is very wide but for the most part it lies concealed from view. in certain parts of the country it is so abundant that it breaks through the surface or is exposed as an outcrop but usually it is covered by the soil which supports vegetation. unless the subsoil consists of sand it is easy to expose a clay by plowing or digging with a spade. it usually appears as a greenish or bluish substance of close and uniform structure. the texture is sometimes smooth but more often numerous small stones are found imbedded in the mass. such clays as are commonly found can be used for the manufacture of some kind of pottery but in the great majority of cases the ware will be red when fired because the clay contains a proportion of oxide of iron. a pure clay does not contain this and therefore becomes white or nearly white in the kiln. pure clay, known as clay base or clay substance forms a part of all natural clays though sometimes only a small part. it consists of silica, alumina and water in a state of combination and is thus known as a hydrous aluminium silicate. while this substance is very common as an ingredient of ordinary clay, it is rarely found alone or uncontaminated. commercial or workable clays may be said to consist of clay base and sand, with or without other impurities such as lime and oxide of iron. for working purposes it may be granted that the potter has to deal with a mixture of clay and sand. but sand is not a definite expression. it may vary both physically and chemically within wide limits. the physical nature has to do with condition, the chemical with composition. thus a sand may be almost as coarse as gravel or as fine as the clay itself. it may be a pure quartz sand or it may be a crushed rock of almost any composition. the former is known as quartz, the latter as feldspar or feldspathic sand because it approaches in composition the group of minerals known as feldspars. each of these ingredients, clay, quartz and feldspar, has an important part to play in the transformation of clay into pottery. few of the clays used in making white pottery possess these ingredients in the correct proportions so that it becomes necessary to make a mixture in which the necessary proportions will be found. for successful pottery making three properties are demanded in a clay. first, plasticity. without this, clay could not be shaped at all. it constitutes the obedience of a clay to the forming influence whether hand or mold. the necessity for this quality may be illustrated by the proverb "making ropes of sand" as an example of the impossible. sand, possessing no plasticity, cannot be shaped or made to hold together. the second property is porosity. a clay which exhibits a high degree of plasticity can be easily shaped but it cannot be safely dried. the water of plasticity cannot escape and therefore the clay warps and cracks. the function of porosity is to prevent this. a porous clay permits the water to escape freely and the clay can be dried without damage. this condition is produced by the admixture of sand or by the presence of sand in a natural clay. a coarse sand is more effective than a fine sand but a sand that is too coarse will interfere with delicate working while a sand that is too fine approximates the action of the clay itself and produces a substance which is dense rather than porous. porosity is therefore the reverse of plasticity and these two properties must be adjusted so as to balance each other. the third necessary property is commonly known as vitrification but could be better named "densification" because complete vitrification is not attained in ordinary clay wares. this property may be defined as that which causes a clay to yield to the action of a high temperature so that the result is a ware, more or less dense, which is hard, durable and sonorous. with this there must be coupled a certain amount of resistance to heat treatment so that the pottery does not fuse or collapse during the firing. here also is found the need for adjustment. the clay must yield to the fire but not completely. it must resist but not entirely. plasticity is due to the clay base. not only to its quantity but to its quality also. some forms of clay in which clay base predominates are not plastic because the clay base itself is coarse grained. other forms with less clay base present are plastic because this ingredient is fine grained and tough. pure clay base is also highly resistant to fire and therefore contributes to the refractoriness of the mass. porosity is caused by the sand in the clay. any kind of sand will produce porosity but the effect differs with the condition of the sand. coarse sand is more effective than fine sand. more sand will, of course, cause greater porosity. vitrification or densification is due to the feldspar or fusible sand. this also varies with the condition. a fine-grained feldspar will produce vitrification more easily than the same amount of coarse feldspar. certain substances are available for use in pottery mixtures, which possess one or other of the necessary properties in high degree so that they will impart these properties to a mass to which they are added. kaolin or china clay is usually fine, white, and refractory. some kaolins are rather plastic but most of them are "short" in working and rather tender. for the production of a white ware kaolin is indispensable. no other ingredient will afford the pure white color which is sought after in porcelain and china. ball clay is very plastic, easily vitrified, but is not white. the color varies from a cream to a gray. the use of a ball clay is therefore limited in white wares because it will spoil the color. for wares in which a light cream color is not objectionable ball clays are valuable and almost indispensable. stoneware clay is usually a rather plastic clay which contains a good deal of sand, hence stoneware clays can be used for certain classes of ware without admixture. a rather high temperature is required for most of these clays, though occasionally one can be found which will become dense at the fire of a studio kiln. the clays sold by the enfield pottery company and by the western stoneware company are of this type. ground flint is a necessary ingredient in almost all pottery. it aids in the porosity of the clay and enables the mixture to be adjusted to fit a special glaze. ground feldspar is also necessary. like flint it aids in the porosity of the unburned clay but unlike flint it produces density in the firing. by a proper adjustment of these ingredients a clay can be composed which will meet the special requirements of the worker. in order to ascertain the properties of any given clay certain simple tests may be made and every clay-worker should know how to do this because one cannot be too well informed as to the materials to be used. first, water of plasticity. a certain portion of the clay, dried and powdered, is weighed out. it is convenient to weigh in grams and to measure in cubic centimeters because in this way calculation is easy. the scales and weights are described in the chapter on glazes. for measuring the water a glass vessel called a graduate is used. one holding a hundred cubic centimeters and graduated in centimeters and tenths can be obtained from a dealer in chemical supplies. one hundred grams of clay is weighed out and transferred to a glass slab. the graduate is filled with water to the one hundred mark. some of this water is then poured on to the clay, adding little by little as needed until the whole can be worked into a stiff mass of the proper plasticity. the quantity of water used is then carefully noted by observing how much is left in the graduate. suppose, for instance, 70 cubic centimeters are found remaining, the hundred grams of clay has absorbed thirty c.c. of water and as one c.c. of water weighs one gram the clay has taken just 30 per cent. this amount is important because it is one of the best indications of plasticity. a very plastic clay may need 40 per cent, a non-plastic clay may be satisfied with 25 per cent. second, shrinkage. the mass of plastic clay is now transferred to a plaster bat and rolled or pressed out into a smooth slab about 12 centimeters long. here again the centimeter is used in preference to the inch as being more easily calculated. a faint line is ruled on the clay slab and two fine scratches are marked exactly ten centimeters apart. the edges are trimmed and the excess clay made up into three or four small pieces which are to be fired in different parts of the kiln as tests for density. when the clay slab is dry the distance between the marks is measured and noted. the ten centimeters being divided into one hundred millimeters, each millimeter of shrinkage means one per cent. after firing, a second measurement is made and the differences are noted as dry shrinkage and fire shrinkage respectively. third, firing. the slab with the measurement upon it is set in the kiln in the place where the clay wares are to receive the first or biscuit fire and the small pieces are arranged in different places so as to secure as many different conditions as possible. the position of each should be carefully recorded. after firing, the marks on the slab are measured as already described and note is taken of any warping of the piece. the color is also recorded. the small pieces should be tested for porosity or absorption of water but this is rather a delicate operation and needs a particularly sensitive balance. generally it will suffice to use a wet sponge or to dip each piece into water, removing it quickly and noting carefully the rate of speed at which the water is absorbed. if the water should be scarcely absorbed at all a line of ink may be drawn upon the pottery with a pen, the piece being perfectly dry. in a fully vitrified ware the ink can be washed off, leaving scarcely a mark but the test is quite sensitive and with a little practice will afford an excellent means of comparing the density of different clays or of the same clay at different temperatures. fourth, glazing. it is well to have ready a small supply of a standard clear glaze. each of the test pieces should be covered with this in a rather thin coat and then they should all be fired again, this time close together so that they will receive the same heat treatment. this will enable one to determine what degree of fire for the clay will best suit the glaze. chapter v: the preparation of the clay a clay having been selected in accordance with the tests described, it becomes necessary to prepare it for use. a fairly large supply should be obtained and stored in a dry place. most natural clays need some kind of cleansing for there are almost always foreign substances present. this cleansing is accomplished by reducing the clay to the fluid known as slip. the necessary appliances for making slip are as follows: a large sieve of quarter-inch mesh. a small wire sieve of about 14 meshes to the inch. a large barrel. two galvanized pails. the clay is, after drying, powdered and sifted through the large sieve. one of the pails is half filled with clean water and the clay, handful by handful, is sprinkled into it. the clay rapidly absorbs the water and sinks to the bottom. the addition of clay is continued until a small mound rises through the water, when the whole is left to soak for an hour. the bared arm is then plunged into the pail and the mass stirred vigorously. a stick or paddle will serve, of course, but the potter learns a great deal by the feel of the clay and therefore the hand is best. it is said that he is a poor sailor who will not dip his hands in the tar bucket and in like manner, he is a poor potter who fears the slip tub. this stirring will tell a good deal about the probable working of the clay. it may be stony or sandy or greasy. the large stones and roots will have been removed by the sieve but now, after thorough mixing, the slip is poured through the small sieve into the barrel. both pails may be kept going at once, one being filled while the other is soaking and so on until the barrel is full or, at least, a good quantity of slip has been prepared. if the clay prove very sandy it should be washed. the mixture in the pail having been well stirred is allowed to stand for a definite time, say one minute. the slip is then poured into the second pail and it will be found that a quantity of sand has settled. this is thrown away and the slip in the second pail is examined. if enough sand has been removed, the slip may be poured into the barrel, using the fine sieve as already described. if still sandy the process should be repeated, the settling being for two minutes. experience is the best guide in this operation but all the sand should not be removed. when the barrel is full of slip it is allowed to stand over night when some inches of clear water will be found at the top. this is removed with a siphon which may be made of a piece of lead or rubber pipe. the removal of the water results in the thickening of the slip and the contents of the barrel should be thoroughly stirred with a long wooden paddle to insure a uniform consistency. if the slip is found to be still thin another settling and removal of the water will thicken it. the slip thus prepared will keep indefinitely, provided that it is not allowed to become dry by evaporation. it improves greatly with age. this is the material which is used for casting as will be described later but for plastic work it must be still further thickened. a shallow box may be procured and made water-tight and the slip, when poured into it, will thicken much more rapidly than in the barrel, but it is better to have some shallow plaster dishes as the plaster itself absorbs the water and thickens the clay. instructions for making these dishes appear in the chapter on plaster. these directions will suffice for the preparation of a natural clay but it is sometimes desired to prepare a white body either of earthenware or porcelain. these bodies do not exist in nature and therefore a mixture must be made. the ingredients are kaolin or white porcelain clay, ball clay or plastic potters' clay, ground quartz or flint, and ground feldspar.[b] [b] georgia kaolin and tennessee ball clay may be procured from the john h. sant and sons company, east liverpool, ohio, and flint and feldspar from the golding sons' company, trenton, n. j., or the eureka flint and spar company, trenton, n. j., in quantities of not less than one barrel or sack. a suitable mixture for earthenware is- georgia clay[c] 20 parts by weight tennessee ball clay 30 " " " flint 35 " " " feldspar 15 " " " -- 100 and for porcelain- georgia clay 45 parts by weight flint 35 " " " feldspar 20 " " " -- 100 [c] if english china clay can be procured it will make a whiter ware than georgia clay. the earthenware will be creamy in color and porous at an ordinary fire. the porcelain will need a hard fire and will be white and translucent. it is, however, non-plastic and hard to work. the preparation of these mixtures of course necessitates a pair of scales but otherwise the treatment of the mix is the same as that of natural clay. washing is not necessary but the clay must be powdered, mixed with the flint and spar, and sprinkled into water as already described. in place of the wire sieve, however, a silk lawn of 120 meshes to the inch should be used. the lawn is simply a fine sieve and is named because of the material (also called bolting cloth), with which it is covered. have a carpenter make a box without a bottom. cypress or oak should be used and this should be a full half inch thick. four strips of the same thickness are also to be provided. the box may be of any convenient size; eight inches square and four inches deep is about right. the sides should be fastened together with brass screws to avoid rust and a piece of lawn is strained tightly across the bottom and secured with copper or brass tacks. a strip of coarse muslin folded and laid along the edges will help to prevent the lawn from tearing, the tacks being, of course, driven through both muslin and lawn. then the four wooden strips are set upon the muslin and secured with brass screws. the completed lawn is then a tray of which the bottom is formed of lawn. the strips of wood beneath serve to protect the lawn when placed on a table as well as to assist in holding it firmly.[d] [d] silk lawn of any desired mesh may be purchased by the yard from a. sartorius & company, 57 murray street, new york city; or brass sieves ready for use from the w. s. tyler company, cleveland, o. for storing clay in the plastic state there is nothing better than stoneware jars. these may be had of any size and a tinman should make close-fitting covers. earthenware covers do not fit tight and are always getting broken. a little water is poured into each jar and a support provided for the clay so that it does not rest in contact with the water. under any conditions clay will slowly harden so that not too large a stock should be kept. slip, on the other hand, keeps well so long as some water is always on the top and it is not a long process to stiffen it into clay. chapter vi: mold-making and plaster plaster is almost a necessity to the potter and therefore something should be learned about it. even if one does not use molds there are numberless purposes for which plaster is convenient. for stiffening slip into clay, and for absorbing water from glazes, shallow dishes of plaster are used, and for holding work either in making or drying, plaster bats or round slabs are always in demand. it is best to purchase the finest quality of potters' plaster by the barrel.[e] it will keep indefinitely if stored in a dry place. the necessary appliances are: one or two large jugs for mixing, or a metal can with a spout. a metal spider or frying pan. six feet of rubber machine belting, six inches wide, or similar strips cut from linoleum or enameled cloth. two or three thin pieces of steel of various degrees of flexibility (scrapers). handy knives, called vegetable knives. a small painter's brush. two or three fine sponges. [e] calvin tomkins, 30 church street, new york city. to begin with, a size of soft soap and water is prepared. put a quart of water into a kettle and add a piece of soap the size of an egg.[f] simmer for an hour or until the soap is entirely dissolved and then set aside to cool. when cold the size should be of the consistency of maple syrup. this size is used whenever plaster is to be kept from sticking to a form or surface, and it has also the merit of causing clay to stick to plaster. for example, if a mold is to be taken from a clay model no size should be used, but if a plaster form is used as a foundation for clay ornament it should be well sized first. the size is laid on with a brush and wiped off with a sponge. another sponge is then used with clean water and the sized surface is washed, all superfluous water being removed. size is then applied a second time and washed off as before. a third application is sometimes necessary, or until the sized surface rejects water like grease does. on the last sizing, water is not applied, but the surface is polished with the sponge containing size. if the surface to be prepared be of wood or metal a single coat of size will often suffice, but if it be of plaster three or four applications are often necessary. [f] any good laundry soap will serve, but it should be sliced thin. the first lesson may well be the manufacture of a plaster bat. the frying pan is first sized and set upon a level table. let us suppose that a quart of water will fill it to about an inch in depth. this amount of water is put into a jug and two pounds and three-quarters of dry plaster is weighed out and allowed to trickle through the fingers into the water. this proportion has been found to be best for ordinary mixings. a smaller quantity of plaster to the quart of water will result in a very soft bat; a larger quantity will be proportionately harder. after the plaster has soaked up all the water it will take, that is in about two minutes' time, the hand is plunged in and the whole stirred to a smooth cream. all lumps must be broken up and the air bubbles removed as far as possible. continue stirring gently and presently the mixture will be felt to grow thicker. the psychological moment arrives when the plaster forms upon the hand a white coating which cannot be shaken off. the creamy liquid is then poured into the frying pan which is gently shaken to level the surface. if the plaster has been poured at the right moment it will set smoothly with a mat surface like sugar icing. if poured too late it will be stiff and difficult to level, and if poured too soon it will curdle on the surface and water will be seen above the plaster. a little practice will show the right moment. the jug should be washed out immediately while the plaster is soft. in the place used for plaster work a tub should be provided in which all vessels and tools can be washed, for, if allowed to flow down the waste pipe of a sink, the plaster will speedily choke the outflow. after standing for some ten minutes, more or less, the bat in the frying pan will grow warm. this is the sign of a combination between the plaster and the water and shows the completion of the setting. the pan is now taken by the handle and, holding it upside down, the edge is rapped smartly on a brick or stone. this will cause the contents to fall out and there is a smooth disc which is one of the most useful of appliances. the edge will need to be scraped and the bat can be set aside until needed. it will be good practice to make a half dozen of these. this process of mixing and pouring plaster is the same for all operations and the instructions will not be repeated, but when the student is told to "pour plaster" it will be presumed that this experiment has already been made. [illustration: fig. 1. _a_, table. _b_, clay mound. _c_, plaster. _d_, rubber belt.] the next step is the making of a plaster bowl or dish for the purpose of drying out slip or glaze. a convenient size should be determined upon as it is best to have all the dishes the same. upon any flat, smooth surface a mound of clay is reared which shall be the size and depth of the inside of the proposed dish. about twelve inches in diameter and three inches deep is a good size, though fourteen inches is not too large for the former dimension. this mound should be made as nearly circular as possible and the clay finished as smoothly as may be. the rubber belt is then set around the mound in the form of a hoop leaving a space of two inches between the clay mound and the rubber hoop. the rubber is fastened either by tying with string or by binding the overlapping ends with clothes pins. a roll of soft clay is laid down where the belt joins the table and pressed down outside to prevent leakage. enough plaster to fill the space within the belt is now mixed and poured, covering the clay mound to a depth of at least one inch. when the plaster has set the rubber is detached, the whole turned over and the clay dug out. we have now a circular plaster dish three inches deep but we have only one. the trouble of rebuilding the clay is unnecessary a second time because a "case" or reverse can be made from which as many dishes as may be necessary can be formed. [illustration: fig. 2. _c_, plaster dish. _d_, rubber belt. _e_, plaster case or reverse.] [illustration: fig. 3. plaster case, with rubber belt, arranged for pouring.] the dish is carefully smoothed and trimmed. the sharp edge is removed and the inside is dressed with fine sandpaper to a perfectly smooth surface. size is now applied to the inside and upper edge until a bright slippery surface is obtained. the rubber belt is now bound closely around the dish and plaster is poured to a depth of about one and one-half inches on the edge. this, of course, makes a depth of four and one-half inches in the center. when this new plaster has set in turn the rubber is removed and the two castings can be easily separated by inserting a knife at the junction. the knife should be gently driven in with a hammer. obviously it is now possible to make a number of dishes from the reverse thus obtained, by simply binding the rubber belt around each time and pouring plaster as at first. the original mold having been sized is no longer absorbent but must be kept in case additional reverses are needed. the molds or dishes must be thoroughly dried out before being used. the molding of a vase form is more elaborate but not really difficult. even if one does not intend to produce pottery by molding there is always an advantage in having a number of simple forms upon which to make experiments. the vase to be molded is first drawn to exact size upon paper and a plaster model is turned on a lathe. this can be done equally well on the potters' wheel and the method is as follows: a plaster bat is saturated with water and set upon the wheel so as to run true when the wheel is revolved, and is cemented to the wheel head by a little slip. a few deep scratches are made on the face of the bat and a cylinder, either of the rubber belt or of stiff paper, is rolled up and set on end in the center of the bat. the size of the cylinder should be a little larger every way than the proposed vase. plaster is now mixed and poured to fill the cylinder. it will adhere to the bat below by reason of the scratches. when the plaster has set, the cylinder is unfastened and removed and the turning may begin. to turn plaster well involves a good deal of practice but it is better to spoil three or four plaster cores in the learning than to spend a long time on one for fear of damaging it. [illustration: fig. 4. turning tools for plaster.] [illustration: fig. 5. position of tool in turning. _a_, correct. _b_ and _c_, incorrect.] the board support and turning stick described on page 100 are used in turning plaster as well as clay. the turning stick is held in the left hand and the point is pressed into the board. all this is, of course, made ready before the plaster is poured. the turning tools are here illustrated. they are not sold in the stores but can be made by any machinist. the head or cutting blade consists of a flat piece of steel through the center of which is a shaft or pin which is driven into a handle. the head may be of any shape but the triangle and the circle will meet every need. the tool is held in right hand and braced against the turning stick, the stick and tool being moved together by raising or lowering the left hand which holds the butt of the stick. while the plaster is still soft the round tool is used and the rough form is rapidly turned. then as the setting of the plaster proceeds and it is found to grow harder, the triangle tool should be used and the shape gradually wrought out with the point. finally by using the circle tool for concave lines and an edge of the triangle tool for convex lines the form is perfected. the surface is to be finished and the tool marks removed by using, free hand, a flexible scraper which is bent by the fingers and thumb to fit the lines of the form, and a final smoothing is given by fine sandpaper, the wheel being revolved all the time. at the top of the form a small cylindrical piece is left, called the "spare" which represents the thickness of the mold substance, and for the bottom a small piece is turned in the shape of a truncated cone. the small end of this should be the same diameter as the base of the vase. these are shown in the illustration (fig. 6). [illustration: fig. 6. vase with foot piece and template. _a_, vase. _b_, spare. _c_, foot piece. _d d_, templates. _n n n n_, natches.] it will be obvious that in the directions given above the base of the vase is not finished off and therefore the form must be cut off from the bat, either by a knife or saw, and the base is then finished by hand, or by setting the form upside down in a clay cradle--called a "chum"--and turning the base true. the form is now ready for molding. [illustration: fig. 7. end plates for mold. _e_, upper plate. _e'_, lower plate. _n n_, natches.] the plaster vase is laid upon its side on a piece of soft clay and a thin bat or plaster slab is cut to fit the outline. this template should fit with reasonable accuracy but need not be absolutely exact. a pair of these will be required, one to fit each side of the form. these slabs or sheets of plaster are always useful and if a sheet of glass is kept handy any excess of plaster left from a mixing may be poured on to it. this upon setting is easily detached and will present a smooth face where it has rested on the glass. the pair of templates must include, in their outline, both the spare and the foot piece but should not extend beyond either of these. the outside diameter of the mold is now to be determined and the templates cut to this dimension so that the two together, with the vase between them, constitute a longitudinal section of the mold. the vase must now be divided accurately into two halves by a line running from top to bottom. there are several ways of doing this. while the form is still on the bat a diameter of the bat may be drawn and a perpendicular erected from each end of this diameter. these perpendicular lines will, of course, mark the center of the vase on each side; or after the vase has been cut off another method is possible. with a pair of dividers find the center of both the top and the bottom of the vase. mark each with a small hole or the point of a pencil. now lay the vase on its side on the clay cradle upon a glass sheet or other level surface and raise or depress one end until the two centers are exactly the same height from the glass. take this height in the dividers and, sliding one of the compass legs along the glass, gently scratch the plaster vase with the other or upper point. if the two centers have been accurately adjusted this scratch line will be the exact center of the form. some soft clay is now built up on each side of the vase and the templates are pressed down upon it, one on each side until the upper face of each corresponds with the scratched line. the vase is now seen to be buried as to one half in a plaster surface, and plaster poured on this will give a half mold. there is yet, however, nothing to confine the plaster and it would flow away as fast as poured. two end plates are necessary and these must rise in a half circle above the bed formed by the templates. the part below may be of any shape but must be high enough to cause the diameter of the half circle to coincide with the plane of the templates. two pieces of cardboard, wood, or rubber belt are now bound to the sides, the apertures at the top and bottom, caused by the curve of the end plates, are stopped with clay and the whole presents the appearance of a vase, only half of which is visible, lying in a shallow trough. all the fitting should be carefully done but the tying up is not yet. the whole is now taken apart and well sized. vase, foot piece, templates and end pieces are all to be sized thoroughly in the manner described. they are then put together again and bound around with twine. it is necessary now to make provision for the proper fitting of the halves of the mold. this is done by providing knobs and hollows which fit together. these are technically known as "natches" and will be referred to as such. take two pieces of moderately stiff clay each about the size of a cherry. roll them into neat balls and cut them in two with a thin knife. lay each of the halves, flat side down, upon the templates, two on each, placing them in pairs opposite to each other. affix two or more of these on the inner face of the bottom end plate. now mix and pour the plaster. this should be poured to the height of the top of the end plates and, after pouring, shake this well down by dipping the fingers into it, so that no bubbles may cling to the surfaces below. as soon as the plaster has become firm but while it is still soft remove the string and the side boards, pull off the pieces of clay and with a straight, thin piece of wood scrape off the surplus of plaster by following the line of the end plates and thus making a half cylinder. as soon as the plaster has become warm the whole may be turned over and the templates and end plates removed. the four half spheres of clay will be found embedded in the face of the plaster and these, being removed, will leave four hemispherical depressions. the vase can now be gently detached from its bed and the first half of the mold is completed. a little dressing will be necessary. all overhanging edges and rough places should be finished off and the hollow natches smoothed with a piece of muslin on the end of a finger. the second half is simple. replace the vase in the half mold, set the foot piece in its place, replace the end plates with the diameter on the line as before but with the semi-circular edges upward, and set two or three clay natches on the bottom one. size, bind up, pour and scrape off as before, thus completing the two halves of the mold in cylindrical form. it only now remains to make the bottom for, at present, the mold is open at both ends. the two halves with the vase inside are bound very tightly together with twine and set on the table bottom upwards. the clay natches in the bottom are taken out and the hollows smoothed. the foot piece is taken out and the rough places dressed. the bottom end of the vase is now visible and this, together with the end of the mold, is sized. a strip of stout paper is bound around the mold, projecting about an inch above the end and plaster is poured to fill it. when this is set the paper is peeled off and the edges of the mold are dressed smooth. the bottom may now be detached by inserting a thin knife at the junction, the mold opened and the form taken out. the mold is now in three parts which may be put together at will and used for casting the vase in clay. chapter vii: cases and working molds the mold described in the previous chapter is called, technically, a "block mold" and is not, as a rule, used for making the clay ware. the reason for this is that molds will wear out more or less rapidly and to repeat the process of making new ones from the original form would be tedious and expensive. from the block mold a reverse is made, called a "case," and from this, in turn, working molds are made in any required number. while it is possible to use the block mold as a working mold, and, if only a few pieces are required this is quite sufficient, yet, as it is often necessary to have a number of molds, the student should understand how to make a case. a case may be defined as a mold from which a mold is made. if one can imagine the visible half of the vase form as it appears in making the mold, with the templates and ends cemented into one piece, one has a conception of one half of a case. the problem is to make this with permanent but movable ends so as to have a convenient form from which half molds may be easily made. [illustration: fig. 8. offset plates. _f_, top plate, front view. _f'_, side view. _g g'_, bottom plate.] [illustration: fig. 9. sectional view of mold ready for casing. _a_, mold. _b b_, offset plates. _c c_, end plates. _n n_, natches.] the ends are joined to the body by means of offsets and the first step is the construction of these. one half of the block is taken and laid upon its back, being supported by clay so that the face is level and steady. an offset plate is now cut to fit each end. to make these a piece of plaster is selected or made which is true and smooth on both sides. the plates are cut of the same width as the mold and are beveled at the upper edge so as to rise slightly from the mold face. the curve at the end of the mold is cut out to fit and beveled in like manner. then two end plates are fitted. these should be about two inches higher than the offset plates and are square at the top. upon each of these two or three clay natches are set, being placed low down near the face of the mold. the mold and plates are well sized and bound together with side walls just as in the making of the mold. plaster is poured to a height sufficient to well cover the natches and left to set hard. no shaping is necessary. when well set the end plates and offset plates are removed but the vase mold and the case are left attached together. the other half of the mold is prepared and run in the same way, the same offset plates and end plates being used with such slight refitting as may be necessary. the work is now examined and all rough places and scraps of adhering plaster are removed. the two halves of the case, the half molds being still attached, are set up on end, back to back, being separated by a thin piece of plaster or a strip of cardboard which should extend two inches above the top. the top ends are now sized, the natch holes having been smoothed off, a band of paper is tied around and plaster poured on top to a depth of about one inch. when set the whole is turned over and the operation is repeated on the other end. after the final setting the ends are easily removed and by the insertion of a thin knife driven by a light blow, the molds and case are separated. each half case is now laid on its back and the proper ends are fitted in place. it only now needs the usual side walls to be tied on and molds can be made with ease just as the original block mold was made. [illustration: fig. 10. mold and case in position. the top ends are lifted to show fitting. the bottom ends are not shown.] it now remains to make a case of the bottom mold. the bottom piece of the block mold is taken and sized and with a strip of paper bound around it, plaster is poured. the two are detached when set and the case is finished. it consists of seven pieces; three are used in each half and one for the bottom. [illustration: fig. 11. block of plaster with face of plate turned. _b_, height of plaster to be poured. _c_, rubber belt.] thus equipped it is possible to make any number of working molds and if the case should wear out or be damaged, a new one can always be made from the block mold. the block mold itself, having been sized, is no longer absorbent and cannot be used for making vases. the working molds should be thoroughly dried before using and they will last longer. flat ware, such as plates and saucers, is made on, not in, a mold. the diameter of the plate having been decided upon, a block of plaster three inches wider is run. this is placed on the center of the wheel or jigger and in it the face of the plate is turned. this must be sunk below the level of the block and when finished, must appear as though the plate itself were embedded in the plaster. one half of the thickness of the edge is shown in such a way that there is no under cutting. just outside of this edge the plaster is turned so as to slope gently up to the level of the block. without removing the block from the wheel the face of the plate is well sized, a band of belting is arranged, of the same diameter as the edge of the slope and plaster is poured to a depth of three inches. out of this the back of the mold is turned as shown in the illustration (fig. 12). [illustration: fig. 12. _a_, block of plaster. _b_, mold poured on face of plate and turned.] the top of this as it lies upside down is shaped with a straight, almost upright slope which enables the mold to be set securely in the wheel head. around the exposed edge of the original block, three or four natches are now bored or cut. they should be placed at irregular distances so that there will be no doubt as to the putting together of the sides of the case. if two circular pieces of plaster have to be set together and held by natches there should always be either this irregular spacing or some distinctive mark, because if this be not provided for, two or three trials will always be made before the correct fitting is found and these trials wear out the natches very quickly. [illustration: fig. 13. _a_, bottom of case. _b_, cavity for pouring molds. _c_, top of case.] the back of the plate mold and the edges of the block are now sized and plaster is run to the level of the highest part of the mold but no higher (fig. 13). when this is set, the two halves of the case can be separated and the mold taken out. now when the halves of the case are fitted together there will be a cavity the exact size of the mold. this can be filled again and again with plaster, a new mold being formed each time. [illustration: fig. 14. iron prong to fit wheel head.] [illustration: fig. 15. _a_, plaster, with prong inserted. _b_, rubber belt.] in order to use these molds a special head must be provided for the wheel. the regular head of the wheel should be detachable and in its place an iron frame called a prong is fitted. this consists of a collar either with a hollow cone or a screw to fit the shaft of the wheel, and from this radiate four short arms. in order to use this a circular block of plaster some two or three inches thick is poured on a table or slab and just as this is setting, the prong, upside down, is pressed into it just below the surface and held there until the plaster is hard enough to support the weight of the iron. when hard, the whole is lifted and the prong with the plaster attached is set in position on the wheel. this now forms a rough plaster head and it must be turned true. in this head a circular depression is to be turned which will exactly fit the back of the plate molds. if the recess should wear larger as it will if much used, a new head can easily be run. the same principle can be applied to the making of molds for saucers. [illustration: fig. 16. wheel head with plate mold. the tool used is shown in dotted outline.] cups and bowls are molded from the outside. a block of plaster about one inch thicker than the height of the proposed cup is taken and centered upon the wheel. out of this the piece is to be turned, upside down, leaving a ledge or platform, the outside diameter of which is the size of the mold. the rubber belt is tied around this and the mold poured. if for casting this will suffice, but if it is intended to make the cups upon the wheel the outside of the mold must be turned to fit a wheel-head which is hollowed to receive it. the making of the cups is described in chapter xi. a bowl is simply an enlarged cup. chapter viii: building by hand the production of pottery by hand is a form of modeling but with the important difference that while pieces modeled by art-school methods are not intended to be preserved in the clay itself, built pieces are destined for the fire. it is therefore necessary not only that a special clay be used but that the work be such as will hold under the strain of the burn. the composition of the clay has been dealt with in another chapter and it is presumed that the worker has decided upon the proper mix or has procured a suitable clay. there are two possible treatments of built pottery; the work may be finished by fingers and tools only or it may be placed upon the wheel and turned to a true surface. in the latter case the result is much the same as if the piece were thrown on the wheel as will be described. the principal point of difference is that while building needs less practice than throwing, turning a built piece is much more difficult and tedious than turning a thrown one. it is almost impossible to build with sufficient accuracy for the work to run true, and a great deal of time is consumed in filling hollows and removing lumps. these do not appear obtrusive when the work is held in the hand, but if it be revolved upon a fixed center every slight irregularity appears to be accentuated. on the other hand the charm of built ware lies in the subtle plastic quality which belongs to no other material or method. for very large pieces such as tree pots the combination method is useful but these should be built on the wheel itself and kept true as the work proceeds. then a slight turning at the finish, when the clay is leather hard, will produce a satisfactory result. the clay for building should be rather soft as it is apt to dry quickly on handling. the work may be done either with coils or pieces. a plaster bat should be made with a low dome in the center. this bat may either fit the wheel or not, depending upon the plan adopted. the dome is to raise up the bottom of the vase and form a foot. the table may be covered with a piece of oil cloth or may be kept slightly damp. the first attempt should be to build a cylinder as this form is easy to construct and to keep true, so that the attention may be devoted to the manipulation of the clay. it is first necessary to roll out the clay into cords which should be a little thicker than the proposed walls are to be. these cords should be as uniform as possible and should be rolled quickly to avoid undue hardening. it is best to roll them as required. the domed bat is made quite damp and upon it should be marked the diameter of the cylinder to be built. a roll of clay is taken, one end laid in the center of the bat and the rest is coiled around it in a spiral line. when the disc so formed has reached the proper size, the coils are gently rubbed over with the fingers until they have thoroughly united and the lines of the spiral have disappeared. the clay disc may now be turned over and the rubbing continued on the other side. the circle is cut true and a new coil is laid on the outer edge thus making a shallow circular tray. in raising the walls it is best to pinch off the roll of clay when one circle has been completed and the new roll should be begun at another point so that all the joints will not be at the same place. this plan is better than coiling a long roll in a spiral for in this case one side of the piece will be higher than the other. after three rolls have been laid in position the wall, both inside and out, should be worked like the bottom so that the rolls will disappear and the clay be welded uniformly together. this should be done without water or with as little as possible. the use of water is very tempting. it makes the clay so smooth and seems to help but it will inevitably make the work sloppy and will tend to soften the walls. after three or four rolls have been worked in, the piece should be laid aside for some hours to stiffen. if this be not done the weight of the second building will cause the work to sag and fall out of shape. for this reason it is well to have two or three pieces in hand at once so that there need be no waiting. when the cylinder is of sufficient height it should be allowed to become quite stiff and then the irregularities should be corrected with a little soft clay which is worked into the joints. the whole surface may now be gone over with tools and brought to the required finish. as soon as the clay is hard enough it should be removed from the damp bat and placed upon a dry one to become dry. in the method of building by pieces no rolls are prepared but the clay is taken, pinch by pinch, each morsel being pressed into place as the work goes on. this plan is somewhat more plastic in effect and is well adapted to free-hand work; the resulting pottery, however, is generally thicker and heavier. the craft of building is not mastered until the lines of a drawing can be successfully followed. the clay is apt to choose its own way and the result will be very different from what the potter intended. the design should be carefully worked out on paper, full size if possible, and the clay form should be compared with the drawing as the building goes on. a profile may be cut in cardboard and this, applied to the clay from time to time, will verify the line, but all such mechanical aids should be used sparingly as the value of this work depends largely upon the sense of freedom and self-expression which belongs to it. the thickness of the clay walls is a matter of great importance. a small piece should not be so thick as to feel clumsy and heavy, nor should a large piece be so thin as to lose the sense of strength and solidity. it may be found on drying the ware, that cracks, especially in the bottom, are developed. the cause of this may be in the clay. a clay which is too plastic or too fine in the grain will surely crack. such a clay may be opened or meagered by the addition of ground flint or fine grog. the cause may, on the other hand, be in the building. if the welding of the coils or pieces be imperfectly done, cracks are sure to result. if the bottom be too thick it will crack. a great strain is put upon the bottom in drying. the clay must be able to shrink and while the side walls are able to settle down on themselves, the bottom is pulled in every direction by the sides. the bottom should be made quite thin in the center and thicker toward the edges. this will help to avoid cracks. a bad crack cannot be successfully mended. it is best to break the piece and begin again. to burn it means the loss of the clay but the clay will be saved if the damaged work be withheld from the kiln. a small crack on the edge is also hopeless. a crack showing on the edge of a piece is a bad fault. a small crack in the bottom may be mended by dampening the place carefully and pressing in a little stiff clay. chapter ix: the potter's wheel much of the glamour of the potter's art is associated with the wheel. poets have sung its praise and artists have delighted in its rhythmic motion, but alas! the wheel as a commercial method of manufacture is doomed to extinction. it cannot compete with the precision and speed of machinery. it devolves, therefore, upon the artist potter to maintain the wheel in its rightful place as, _par excellence_, the potter's tool. no clay worker's studio should be without a wheel, but the particular form of wheel depends upon the nature of the circumstances under which it is to be employed. the simplest wheel is that used by the chinese. a circular plate with a heavy rim is set upon a spindle so that it will revolve freely and run steadily. as the workman sits or kneels upon the floor the surface of the wheel is about at the floor level. around the periphery and upon the upper surface four holes are sunk and the workman, inserting a short stick into one of these, gives the wheel a rapid motion. then while it is revolving by its own momentum the clay is centered and shaped. as the motion is lost the stick is again inserted and the wheel spun. this method, of course, involves much skill on the part of the workman. in the next form, one which is only adapted, however, for crude experimental work, the wheel is set upon the frame of a sewing machine and operated by the treadle. a beginning may be made upon such a wheel but the operator will soon wish for something better. a common factory form and one which is well adapted for studio work is the kick wheel. the wheel head is set at the top of a spindle and in the upright shaft there is a crank to which is attached a horizontal moving treadle. this is worked continuously by the left foot, the weight of the body being supported by the right. the action is strenuous and scarcely fitted for persons of other than robust physique but it can be used successfully after practice. this wheel is made by the manufacturers of potter's machinery. another form of the kick wheel is used in europe and is, in fact, the original wheel used by the french and german potters in the seventeenth century. the head is set on a spindle as usual but instead of the crank there is a large heavy disc on the bottom of the shaft and revolving in a horizontal plane. this is within reach of the foot and the operator, being seated, imparts a rapid motion by pushing, usually with the ball of the right toe. the momentum is kept up by the weight of the disc and there is a great advantage in that the foot need not be in continuous motion. on the other hand it is difficult to acquire sufficient speed and power for the work. there are several forms of machine wheels which are entirely satisfactory but which need the application of power. if a gas engine or a water motor or electric current be available, every effort should be made to obtain a wheel of this description. the prime motion is imparted to a short horizontal shaft which moves at a constant speed. then the operator, seated in comfort, regulates the speed of the wheel itself by pressure upon a treadle. no action is required but a simple pressure, light for a slow speed and heavy for rapidity. where the electric current is available, nothing could be better. self-contained motor-driven wheels are available but are rather expensive. one more plan may be mentioned in which the wheel is simply a vertical lathe with a belt and handle to be turned by an assistant. this may be convenient for some but it is not always possible to secure help at the moment when the wheel is to be used. moreover the cost of labor would soon pay for a mechanical wheel.[g] [g] information as to the usual types of wheel may be obtained from the crossley manufacturing company, trenton, n. j.; the patterson foundry and machine company, east liverpool, ohio; a wheel operated like a sewing machine is sold by the lewis institute, chicago. whatever type of wheel is selected it should be arranged with a head which can be removed. there are two methods of constructing this; the head may be screwed on to the spindle, or the latter may terminate in a cone-shaped plug upon which the wheel head is made to fit as in the illustration (fig. 14). the latter plan is to be preferred as the head can be removed more quickly and is not so likely to work loose. several heads for the wheel can then be provided, one for regular work, one for making plates, one for finishing and so forth. the regular operation performed upon the wheel is termed either throwing or turning according to the industry in which it is employed, but in this description the word "throwing" will be used because the subsequent operation in which tools are employed is best described as turning. the best head for the wheel to be used in throwing is made of hard wood or brass because the ball of clay can be easily centered upon a smooth surface. this, however, involves that the work shall be cut off with a wire and removed while soft. this is commonly done by professionals but is beyond the skill of the beginner. it is best, therefore, to use a head like that illustrated for plate making and to have a number of specially shaped plaster bats to fit the recess (fig. 17). then when the piece is formed, the bat with its burden can be set aside for the work to harden. [illustration: fig. 17. wheel head with detached bat.] throwing is not an easy operation to describe but the following instructions in the form of lessons will, with a large amount of practice, enable the student to become fairly expert. every opportunity should be taken to watch a good potter at work. there are a thousand and one little tricks in the position of the arms, hands, thumbs and fingers which are impossible to describe but which can easily be copied. if a kick wheel be used some time must be given to practicing the motion without using clay. the action of the foot must become subconscious or automatic like the pedaling of a bicycle so that simply to will a change of speed is to accomplish it. [illustration: fig. 18. the progress of a clay ball on the wheel.] _lesson i._ take the bat about to be used, plunge it in clean water and soak it nearly, but not quite, to saturation. if the bat remain wet one minute after being taken from the water, it has soaked too long and must be dried off a little. the effect of a wet bat is that the clay slips and cannot be held in one place. the proper dampness is secured when the clay ball can be pushed along the surface of the bat but does not slip easily. this condition is important and should be secured by experiment, because if not right, good work will be impossible. [illustration: plate i. throwing.--lesson ii, 1.] [illustration: plate ii. throwing.--lesson ii, 2.] _lesson ii._ place a small basin of water close at hand. take a ball of clay about three inches in diameter. set it on the center of the wheel as nearly as can be judged. now spin the wheel at a fairly rapid rate. brace the left elbow against the side and, wetting the hand, press the ball of the thumb and the lower part of the palm against the clay. the left forearm being kept rigid, the clay as it revolves will be forced into the center of the wheel. use the right hand to sprinkle water on the clay that proper lubrication may be maintained. with the fingers of the right hand pull the clay towards you, at the same time pressing inward with left hand and so squeezing the clay. as the hands come together the clay will rise in a cone. do not pull it upwards but let it rise as it is squeezed. now bring the hands over the top and with the thumbs together press down again. lumps and irregularities will be felt in the clay and the operations of spinning up and pressing down must be continued until these disappear. repeat the exercise of centering with a fresh ball of clay until it can be accomplished with ease and rapidity. the clay so used is not wasted. the superfluous water may be dried off upon a plaster bat and the clay wedged up for use again. [illustration: plate iii. throwing.--lesson ii, 3.] this wedging or waging of clay--the word has descended from the old english potters--is important. a strong table should be built of which the top, measuring about 30 by 20 inches, is made of two-inch plank. a raised edge two inches high is fastened firmly by being nailed to the sides; the trough thus formed is then filled with plaster and allowed to harden. an upright post is fastened in the center of one side and from the top of this a fine brass wire is stretched to the other side of the table, thus making a diagonal. the worker stands at the side of the table opposite the post. the ball of clay is taken in both hands and cut in two against the wire, then the pieces are slapped smartly upon the plaster, one on top of the other. the whole lump is then lifted, cut in two and slapped down as before. the lump of clay is thus formed into layers, the irregularities in hardness are corrected and the clay made smooth. a little practice will make the work quite easy but it will often be found necessary to cut and beat the clay fifteen or twenty times before a good texture is secured. if the plaster table be dry the clay will be stiffened rapidly but the plaster may be made wet to prevent this if it should not be necessary. a clay may also be softened in this way by sprinkling it with water as the wedging goes on. [illustration: plate iv. throwing.--lesson iii, 1.] [illustration: plate v. throwing.--lesson iii, 2.] _lesson iii._ center the ball as in lesson ii and moisten both hands and the clay. grasping the clay lightly but with sufficient force, press the right thumb downwards and towards the palm and a cup-shaped hollow is formed in the clay. raise the right hand slowly, still keeping a light pressure upon the clay with the thumb. the clay wall will rise with the hand. now insert the two first fingers of the left hand into the hollow and hold them against the right-hand wall. slacken the speed of the wheel a little. bend the forefinger of the right hand and press the second joint and the knuckle against the outer wall so as to oppose the fingers which are inside. press the thumbs together to steady the hands and raise both hands upwards together. the fingers inside and outside the clay should be kept at a definite distance apart so that as the hands rise, the clay is brought to a uniform thickness. the hands are brought steadily to the full height to which the clay will go and thus a cylinder is formed. repeat this lesson three or four times with fresh clay. [illustration: plate vi. throwing.--lesson iv, 1.] [illustration: plate vii. throwing.--lesson iv, 2.] _lesson iv._ keep the hands wet. shape the clay cylinder as directed in the previous exercise. now repeat the action of the fingers inside and outside and, beginning at the bottom, take a closer grip of the clay and draw up the walls as before. the cylinder is now taller and the walls thinner. do this again and again taking a little closer grip each time until the cylinder is as tall and as thin as the clay will bear. the walls will probably spread as the work proceeds and the hands must then be used outside. grasp the clay with both hands and squeeze it slightly; at the same time raise the hands upwards. this will reduce the diameter of the cylinder and thicken the walls. the operation of the fingers can then be repeated until the full height is reached. there is, of course, a limit to the height of the cylinder which can be made from a given lump of clay and it is best to begin on a small scale. a ball of clay which can be easily grasped with the hands is the proper size with which to learn. a very small ball is nearly as hard to work as a large one. repeat this lesson until a tall cylinder can be made with ease and certainty. [illustration: plate viii. throwing.--lesson v.] _lesson v._ keep the hands wet. spin up a cylinder with thick walls as in lesson iii. with the fingers of the one hand inside and those of the other hand outside, open the cylinder gradually. keep the wheel at a slow speed. if the edge runs unevenly, use both hands outside to steady it, then work outwards again until a shallow bowl is formed. [illustration: plate ix. throwing.--lesson vi, 1.] _lesson vi._ keep the hands wet. spin up a cylinder of medium height as in lesson iv. with the fingers of the right hand outside press inwards at the base of the cylinder close to the bat and with the fingers of the left hand inside, press outwards at a slightly higher level. this will reduce the diameter at the bottom and increase it in the middle, making a cup shape. now raise the right hand and gently draw the top inwards. with the left hand inside press the upper edge outward and with the fingers of the right hand shape the upper part into the form of a jar or flower pot. [illustration: plate x. throwing.--lesson vi, 2.] [illustration: plate xi. throwing.--lesson vii.] _lesson vii._ keep the hands wet; proceed as in lesson vi. instead of making the top flange outwards, draw it gradually inwards into a globe form. work the clay carefully upwards and inwards until the opening at the top is almost closed. several attempts will probably have to be made before this result can be secured. [illustration: plate xii. throwing.--lesson viii, 1.] _lesson viii._ keep the hands wet. spin up a globe shape with a narrow base as in lesson vi but carry a good share of the clay to the top so that the upper edge of the globe is quite thick. insert two fingers of the left hand and with the fingers of the right hand outside work the upper edge of the globe into a tall neck. the action is the same as in the shaping of a cylinder except that the diameter is smaller. a good deal of practice will be necessary in order to keep the neck thin and to raise it to any appreciable height, but perseverance will accomplish it. [illustration: plate xiii. throwing.--lesson viii, 2.] these lessons if carried out conscientiously will enable the operator to produce almost any form in so far as the manipulation of the clay is concerned but the work up to this point is drill only. it is not intended that the pieces should be preserved. the next point is to insist that the clay obey the potter in the shaping of a form. a simple drawing of a jar should be made exact to the size proposed. two or three pairs of calipers are provided and with them the diameter of each part of the drawing is taken. of course a single pair could be made to serve, but it is very inconvenient to change measurements while working. a piece of wood also is cut to the height of the proposed piece. the throwing is begun as usual by making a cylinder. this should be higher than the drawing for the clay sinks in the shaping. first the bottom is pressed into the proper size (lesson vi). then the body is enlarged to the required measure and, lastly the diameter of the top is taken and the height brought to the determined point. if too high the superfluous clay may be cut off with a pointed knife, the edge being carefully rounded afterwards. it is only by checking up one's work in some such way as this that real power can be acquired. the skilled worker can think in the clay and create forms at will upon the moving wheel, but for the beginner to attempt this is like an endeavor to paint pictures before one has learned to draw. shape after shape should be designed, drawn to scale and thrown to measure; in fact, for elaborate pieces no other course is possible. chapter x: turning it is not possible to finish work to perfection in the operation of throwing. the clay is too soft to handle and for proper finishing the piece must be turned over to get at the bottom. an experienced thrower reduces the final work to a minimum and this, of course, is the ideal plan but even in factory practice every thrown piece is passed on to the turner so that the phrase "thrown and turned" is used as of a single operation, though it, in fact, expresses not only two processes but the work of two men. the artist-potter must needs, therefore, learn to turn, though this process should not be worked to death as it is liable to be. many persons in the pride of having produced some sort of a form on the wheel will leave it in the crudest possible condition and trust to the turning tool to remove defects. if the lessons on throwing have been conscientiously carried out, this error will not be committed. a half dozen cylinders of convenient size should be thrown on separate bats and set aside in a cool place to harden. they must not be dried but should be in the condition known as "leather hard." if thrown one day they will be ready for turning the next morning. pieces thus hardened are no longer flexible. they can be handled freely and the clay can be easily cut with a knife. [illustration: fig. 19. turning tools bent and sharpened.] the equipment for turning consists of a board support, a turning stick and a set of tools. the board is of soft pine, eight or ten inches wide and two feet high and is set upright at the back of the wheel frame opposite the workman. it may be screwed in position if it does not interfere with the throwing, or it may be set in a socket so as to be removed when not in use. its purpose is to support the end of the turning stick. the stick is an ordinary broomstick in the end of which is a sharpened nail. in use the end of the stick is held in the left hand and the point is pressed into the board at any required height. the right hand, holding the tool, is rested on the stick just as the hand of a painter rests on the mahl-stick. the turning tools are of soft steel.[h] they are purchased unshaped and the potter must learn to bend and file them to suit himself. a section of bench should be set apart for filing and care must be taken that the steel dust does not get into the clay. [h] the milligan hardware company, east liverpool, o. one of the cylinders, with the bat upon which it was thrown, is now taken in hand. many beginners try to turn their pieces without detaching them from the bat, trusting to the original adhesion to hold the piece in position. this is a very unsatisfactory plan. a fundamental principle in craft work is that the mechanical difficulties in manipulation should be met and overcome at the first. if one trusts to some method which is apparently easy one walks with crutches and there will come a time, if progress is to be made, when such helps must of necessity be abandoned and then the learning must be begun again. therefore the student is advised to face the mechanical technique at the very beginning. the cylinder may be turned on the throwing bat, but there is a better way. the piece should not become so hard that it will release its hold on the bat but with a long bladed knife it should be cut away. if the knife be held close to the bat a separation is easily effected. set the leather-hard cylinder upon a new bat which is slightly damp and which runs true, on the wheel. the first problem is to center the work. a pencil line may be run upon the bat making a circle just the size of the cylinder. then as the wheel is revolved it will be seen if the piece runs true. it is quite unlikely that this will be the case. perhaps the bottom is true but the top circle is untrue. in other words, the axis of the cylinder is not upright. turn the cylinder upside down and try if it will run any better. if it does the work may be begun in this position. if it does not, turn it back again. now take a pencil and hold it with a steady hand so that it just touches the near side as the wheel goes round. lift up the edge of the cylinder on the side marked by the pencil and slip a morsel of clay under it. revolve the wheel and try with the pencil again. in this way raise or press down one side, keeping the bottom circle in the center until both top and bottom are running as nearly true as they can be made. this, so far, refers only to the horizontal planes. if one side is higher than the other it does not matter at present. now take three small pieces of soft clay, and, holding the cylinder firmly with one hand, press them down at equidistant points in the angle where the piece joins the bat. this serves to hold the work in position. a square turning tool of small size is the best to begin with. it is held in the fingers as a pen is held but more firmly. the right hand rests on the turning stick and, the connection between hand and stick being as rigid as possible, both are moved together. this is better at first than moving the right hand freely for to do so will surely result in irregular work. the tool should be held so as to cut with one corner at first and it is well to take one cut, remove the tool, take another cut and so on. the object should be to feel the clay and to test its resistance. no one can be a successful potter who does not cultivate a sympathy for the clay. the tool is to cut, not to scrape. that is, the cutting edge is to be opposed to the revolving clay. the point at which the tool touches the clay is opposite the center or at the same distance from the operator as the center of the wheel is. if nearer to the workman the tool will not cut; if further away, it will scrape and pull (fig. 5, page 50). the first efforts should be directed towards acquiring skill. the student should endeavor to make a cut at any desired point without regarding the effect upon the shape of the cylinder. in other words the clay is used merely as a practice piece. it is not to be preserved. it is a good plan to keep on turning the first piece until it is all turned away. too many students fail because they wish to have a piece to keep. he will make the best ultimate success who cares nothing for the preservation of a dozen or two cylinders or other shapes, but uses them merely as exercises in manipulation. if the student is over anxious to avoid spoiling his work, he grows nervous and so loses control of his tools and material. to set no value on the practice pieces themselves begets confidence and this is the surest aid to success. after two or three cylinders have been centered to the pencil line the attempt to center one free-hand may be made. place a cylinder on the wheel but not quite in the center. spin the wheel at a medium rate. fix the attention upon the eccentric motion, trying to forget the circular motion. as the cylinder appears to move from side to side tap it lightly with the hand so as to drive it towards the center. in all probability this will result in driving the cylinder off the wheel altogether. some little practice is needed, but if persevered in the result will be a power of convenient and rapid centering which is never forgotten and which is the greatest possible help to successful work. one may practice with a wooden cylinder or even a tin can if the weight approximates that of the clay pieces. [illustration: fig. 20. turned feet. _a b c_, feet for small pieces. _d e f_, feet for large pieces. _g h i_, common faults in foot finish.] accompanying the practice in turning there should be some exercise in the shaping and filing of tools. broad tools filed to the proper curve are indispensable in finishing concave surfaces. a curved edge may also be put upon one or two narrow tools. these will cut more rapidly than the broader ones but will not leave as smooth a finish. whatever tool be used the final surface must be worked over with a soft sponge and water so as to eliminate the tool marks and leave a plastic surface. one of the principal troubles with which the beginner will meet is the vibration of the tool known as "chattering." this is sometimes so slight as not to be felt by the hand but when the motion of the wheel is stopped the work will be found covered with fine ridges like gathering on muslin. the way to prevent this is to avoid using the broad edge of the tool until some experience has been gained. the way to cure it is to go over the work again with a fine pointed tool and then to use the sponge liberally. the point of the tool cuts through the small ribs or wrinkles whereas a broad tool would ride over them and make the trouble worse. while the whole surface of the work will probably need more or less turning, the chief part of the operation is concerned with the under part or foot. the formation of a good foot marks a good potter and vice versa. before beginning to turn it should be decided what kind of a foot is desired. each shape has its own style. some sketches are given here with an idea of the form to which each is adapted. they are shown upside down because the work is done in this position. the small bevel at the outer angle is used for facility in glazing. a foot finished thus always has a neat appearance when the glaze has been removed from the beveled face. chapter xi: making large pieces there is a limit in size beyond which the non-professional will not be able to go. men of life-long experience can throw very large jars but this involves not only more practice than the artist-potter can hope to secure but also great physical strength. on the other hand it is perfectly possible to form vases two or three feet in height by doing the work in parts or sections. no one need fear to put such a plan in operation on account of sentiment. it is, of course, worth while to make large wares in a single piece but section work involves great skill and, as a rule, the result attained is better. work made in one piece is apt to be badly finished, especially inside, and unduly heavy. work made in sections can be thrown with thin walls and finished with proper care. if tradition be of any help, be it known that the chinese have used the piece method for hundreds of years, and that the greeks used it three thousand years ago. the first requisite is a drawing either actual size or properly scaled. the measurements should be those of the soft clay and if a particular size be desired in the burned piece, the shrinkage, probably about one-eighth, must be added. the drawing must show the size of each section with the points of junction, and should indicate the upper and lower edges in each case. some divisions are best made right side up; some are more easily thrown upside down. care should be taken that the faces which are to be joined are thrown under similar conditions. in every piece of work one face rests on the bat, the other is in the air or free. a bat face should always be joined to a bat face and a free face to a free. suppose, for instance, a vase is to be sixteen inches high and is to be thrown in four divisions of four inches each. the bottom division is made first. this will stand in its normal position, right side up. the second section must now be thrown upside down, because, if it were not, its bat face would be joined to the free face of the first piece. so the sections are thrown alternately, every other one being inverted. [illustration: plate xiv. making large pieces. the first section.] as the pieces are thrown they must be carefully measured to see that the faces which are to be united are the same size. the height of each piece also must be gauged and adjusted. the bats with their contents are now set aside to harden. as soon as they can be handled with safety the clay pieces should be removed from the bats upon which the throwing was done and set upon dry bats which will absorb the moisture and help to stiffen the clay. it is a good plan to pile the sections up as they are to stand in the finished piece, one upon another and to leave them so in a cool place for ten or twelve hours. the faces which are to be joined will thus acquire a uniform hardness and unequal shrinkage will be avoided. when all is ready for the turning, the sections being of the proper hardness are taken in hand. this work should not be hurried. it will take a whole morning to put together a large piece. first, the bottom section is placed on the wheel, centered and made to run true as regards the top edge. it is then inverted and the foot is properly finished, signed and dated. then the second joint is likewise turned true on both faces, the inside turned smooth; and so on, each piece in turn is prepared for the fitting, the measurement of each face being accurately adjusted. at this stage it is possible to correct the diameter of the faces to some extent either by pressure as the wheel revolves or by building up with soft clay. in either case, however, the new work must be hardened before proceeding. the whole piece is now put together carefully but with dry joints. it should be slowly revolved on the wheel and the proportions carefully criticised. if satisfactory it is taken apart again and the actual fitting up may proceed. the bottom section is again centered most carefully on the wheel and steadied with three pieces of clay. a thick slip is now prepared, the same clay as that used for the work being of course, used. this slip must be quite free from lumps and should be as thick as molasses. the upper edge of the work is carefully sponged with clean water and a good coating of slip is applied at the junction. care must be taken that every part of the face is covered with slip. the second joint is now moistened at the junction and set in position upon the bed of slip. it is placed very lightly and the wheel is gently revolved to see if the running is true. if so it is pressed home and the superfluous slip is removed. the joint should be quite close like a glued joint in carpentry. in the same way the third section is placed upon the second and the fourth upon the third. it is now possible to work over the face of the vase with a little soft clay. there is almost always some irregularity in the line, especially at the joints, and this must be adjusted while the work is moist. then the whole face is gone over with turning tools and sponge and the vase is set aside to dry. it must not be expected that large pieces, made by any method, will be produced with as much ease as small vases and bowls. the risks are much greater and, owing to the size of the work, the faults are much more apparent. when the vase is perfectly dry it should be set on the wheel, centered and slowly revolved. if it is very untrue in its motion there is no remedy. it should be broken down and the clay used again. a very slight irregularity may be corrected by rubbing off a little clay on one side of the foot but this cannot be done to any considerable extent. the courage to break unsatisfactory work is never more valuable than at this juncture. it will pay in the end, for no imperfect piece can be a source of satisfaction to the conscientious craftsman. [illustration: plate xv. making large pieces. measuring the foundation of the second section.] [illustration: plate xvi. making large pieces. drawing up the second section.] [illustration: plate xvii. making large pieces. shaping the third section.] [illustration: plate xviii. making large pieces. the three sections completed.] [illustration: plate xix. making large pieces. turning the edge of the first section. (note the other sections on the table.)] [illustration: plate xx. making large pieces. finishing the bottom of the first section. (note the second section in the foreground ready for turning.)] [illustration: plate xxi. making large pieces. checking the size of the second section.] [illustration: plate xxii. making large pieces. fitting together dry.] [illustration: plate xxiii. making large pieces. setting the third section in place.] [illustration: plate xxiv. making large pieces. the three sections set together in the rough.] [illustration: plate xxv. making large pieces. the finished vase.] chapter xii: cups and saucers and plates it is not likely that many craftsmen will care to produce table wares or even that they will be able to acquire the necessary skill. simple as these wares seem, they are, in fact, the most difficult of all to make well. in factory working, one man makes nothing but cups, another saucers and another plates, so that each attains the skill of constant practice, but this is out of the question for the studio worker. at the same time it is well to know how it is done and it may be that some one will undertake to produce a few pieces for the sake of the enjoyment arising therefrom. it is possible to finish a cup upon the wheel just as a vase is made. the handle is modeled in clay and fastened in place with slip when in the leather hard condition. saucers and plates cannot be made in this manner; first, because the broad thin bottom will surely crack and, second, because it is impracticable to turn a plate or saucer over in order to finish the bottom. the risk of breakage is so great that there is nothing to be gained. if cups be needed of uniform size they must be molded. the making of the molds has already been described. a small cylinder of the proper size is thrown in clay and removed from the wheel while soft. a number of these should be made at one time so as to avoid changing the wheel head often. when all are ready a hollow head shaped to receive the cup mold is set on the wheel and a mold inserted. one of the soft cylinders is now lowered gently into the mold and as the wheel is revolved the soft clay is pressed firmly against the walls with the fingers. a piece of wood, called a rib, cut to the exact shape of the inside of the cup, is used to smooth off the interior. the top edge is cut off and rounded and the mold is set aside for the cup to harden. as soon as the cup can be turned out it is set upside down upon the wheel and the bottom turned. another method dispenses with the formation of the cylinder or "lining." a ball of clay of the proper size is dropped into the mold and pressed into shape with the fingers, the wheel, of course, being spun. the finishing is accomplished with the rib as before. this method will answer for wares which are to receive a low fire but for high temperatures the clay must be handled by the first-named plan. the cup is not complete without a handle. this may be modeled as already stated but to make each one of half a dozen in this way is unduly tedious. the better plan is to model a handle in wax and make a mold as already directed. a roll of soft clay is then laid in the mold, the two halves pressed together and the handle taken out and finished. care must be taken that cup and handle are of the same degree of moisture, leather hard, for choice, or they will part company as they dry. the fastening is done with thick slip. the method for saucers is the same as that for plates, so that one description will suffice. the first step is to make a tool or profile. a large handful of soft clay is rolled out into a thick cylinder and laid down upon the plate mold. it should extend from the center to the circumference, forming a radius of the circle. the clay is pressed closely to the surface of the mold and part of it is squeezed into a knob which will form the hand-hold of the tool (fig. 16, page 66). the clay is left in this position until it becomes nearly but not quite dry. it is then taken off and whittled into shape. the front edge must be straight and must lie along a radius of the plate. the foot is cut in at the proper point and a broad wedge-shaped hollow is made so as to gather the clay and pile it up into the foot. the hand-hold is shaped so as to fit comfortably between the first and second fingers of the right hand. when properly shaped the tool is thoroughly dried and then burned in the kiln. the fire must not be severe as it is important not to shrink the tool to any great extent. after burning slight corrections can be made with a file or a hard stone. the heel of the profile must be exactly at the center of the plate and the toe or curve must rest on the outer edge of the plate mold. in making plates a "batting block" and "batter" are used. the former is a heavy block of plaster which is fixed to a strong table. it must be saturated with water when in use. the wedging table already described will serve for this. the batter is a disc of plaster to which a handle is attached. it may be made of a thick plaster block, the handle being cut out of the substance itself. this is also kept saturated with water so that the clay will not stick. a ball of clay is laid on the block and gently beaten out with the batter into a disc of the proper size and thickness. the face of this is then polished with a steel blade and the disc is then lifted, turned over and laid, polished side downward, upon the mold. the wheel is then revolved and the clay pressed firmly to the mold with wet hands. the tool is now dipped in water and pressed steadily upon the revolving clay. the heel must be adjusted accurately to the center and the foot will be seen to rise up in its proper place. the operation is not easy and many failures must be expected but practice will accomplish the desired result. when leather hard the plate is gone over with a thin piece of rubber and when quite hard it may be removed from the mold. the edge is now trimmed and the face sponged over and the plate is ready for the kiln. chapter xiii: casting in commercial production the casting method is constantly used. it is a means of making light and delicate pieces with ease and, of course, all the pieces cast in the same mold are alike. this very fact, however, has led to the method being disregarded by the studio worker who does not wish to duplicate anything that he makes. if a single piece only is to be made the work involved in molding is a waste of time and it is better to strive for skill at the wheel, and yet there are occasions when a knowledge of casting is of great value. in the preparation of trial pieces there is no method better. to make these in sufficient number on the wheel would be tedious except for the benefit of the practice involved. directions for making molds have already been given and the slip which will have been prepared in the process of clay making is ready for the casting process. this slip should be thick, about the thickness of buckwheat batter. to be accurate, a pint should weigh 26 ounces. for small pieces or for vases with narrow necks it is advisable to use the slip rather thinner. for large wares, on the other hand, or for open bowls it may be slightly thicker. a few experiments will show the reason for this. two quart jugs are needed. they should be large of neck and should deliver their contents freely and completely. jugs with a deep shoulder are not good as the slip hangs in the pouring. one of these jugs is filled with slip which is to be poured carefully from one to the other, allowing it to flow gently down the side. this is to break the air bubbles which are nearly always found to be present and the pouring should be repeated until the slip flows smooth and even. the mold, being thoroughly dry, is tied around with twine, if in parts, and wedged firmly so that it cannot leak. the slip is then carefully poured so as not to touch the sides and the mold is filled until a small mound of slip rises over the edge. this mound will at once begin to sink as the water is drawn into the walls of the mold and slip must be added, little by little, to make good the loss. a small quantity of clay will now be found to have stiffened at the rim of the mold and if this be carefully removed with a steel tool the thickness of the wall of the vase will be seen. if not thick enough the mold must be continually filled up until the necessary thickness is attained. the mold is then carefully lifted, making sure that the bottom is held firmly, and the slip is poured out. it should not be poured back into the casting-jug but into another vessel. the mold is now set upside down to drain. it should not be placed upon the table but upon two sticks laid parallel so that the drip may hang clear. several molds may be filled in this way at one time and after about twenty minutes the one first filled may be opened. the bottom is gently detached and the upper part of the mold, consisting of two halves, is laid upon the table on its side. a little gentle manipulation will now suffice to lift the one half and the vase will be seen lying in the other half as in a cradle. the clay is still very soft and must be treated carefully. the half mold, with the contained vase, is taken in the left hand and held nearly upright, the fingers below, the thumb on the top. now set the fingers of the right hand under the bottom of the vase, rest the thumb lightly against the side and tilt the half mold gently forward. if mold and clay are in good condition the vase will fall forward to be supported on the fingers of the right hand and steadied by the thumb. the half mold is now laid down and the vase taken in both hands, set gently on a plaster bat and put aside to dry. it often happens that the vase leaves the mold with reluctance. if the slip be very new, or the mold either damp or hard or worn out there will be some difficulty in effecting a separation. by allowing the work to stand a while, however, and by slightly jarring the mold from time to time with the ball of the thumb the piece can generally be removed without damage. in using a new mold it is customary to make what is called a "waste filling." the mold is filled with slip and at once emptied. after standing a few minutes it is forcibly opened and the thin layer of clay inside is picked out with a ball of plastic clay pressed against it. a tool should never be used as this will damage the face of the mold. if the clay should stick obstinately a soft cloth used over the finger will remove it. the reason for this waste filling is that it removes the scum which occurs on all new molds. cast ware should not be touched until quite dry and then the spare at the neck is carefully cut off, the seams scraped down and the whole surface smoothed with fine sand paper and a soft cloth. worn out linen serves excellently for this purpose. cups and bowls, if molded, are made without spare at the top. in this case great care must be taken to see that the edge is left clean and smooth in the casting. the spare neck on a vase acts as a margin of safety, as it is completely cut away in the finishing. if a piece has no spare the edge must be left without blemish at the first. chapter xiv: tiles there are two methods of making tiles, the dust-pressed method and the plastic. the former is the more usual commercial plan but the appliances for preparing the dust and the heavy presses necessary are not adapted to studio work. the dust-pressed tile is, moreover, somewhat mechanical in surface. it is not suitable for modeling or for any treatment but those of glaze and color. the plastic tile, on the other hand, may be treated by plastic methods and the surface offers a texture which appeals strongly to the artist. for the successful production of tile a special body is necessary. ordinary pottery clay is too close in grain and straight tile cannot be made from it. small square pieces, however, such as tesseræ, can be made from any clay. it is presumed that a pure white tile body is not required. for studio work the most pleasing white surface is found in an opaque enamel, but for the most part the craftsman will wish to work for colored tile. a cream or buff body is all that is necessary, therefore, and the foundation of this is a clay known as sagger clay. in order to secure the necessary porosity a fine "grog" must be used. grog is burned clay. after working awhile there will be an abundance of this in broken unglazed pottery but at first some soft fire-bricks must be pounded. this is laborious work, but a boy can usually be hired to do it. the brick or broken pottery is crushed in an iron mortar but should not be broken too fine. two sieves are necessary, one of 20 and one of 40 meshes to the linear inch. the coarse powder which passes through the 20 mesh and lies upon the 40 mesh is used. this is called 20-40 grog. the dust which passes through the 40 mesh may be saved for kiln work. it is useful for setting biscuit pieces one upon another as it will effectually prevent sticking. this powdered grog is also useful in the case of flowing glazes. a thick layer on the bottom of the kiln will catch any drops of glaze and save the kiln from damage. a quantity of the 20-40 grog having been prepared, a mixture should be made of:- sagger clay 550 parts 20-40 grog 300 parts ground flint 150 parts the clay should be finely pulverized and the whole mixed in the dry state. water is then added, little by little, until a rather soft mass is obtained. it is not practicable to mix clay of this description by the slip method because the grog would settle out and fall to the bottom of the vessel. it sometimes happens, however, that the stoneware clay contains grains of iron which cause black spots to appear in the tile. if these cause trouble the clay must be made into slip first and lawned through 120 mesh. it is then allowed to become very thick and the grog is stirred in. this is a good deal more trouble than the first named plan and is not often necessary. tile are sometimes made in plaster molds. a tile of the proper size is cut from a plaster block and a mold is made from it. if a modeled surface be desired clay may be modeled upon the face of the plaster tile before the mold is made. the mold will then receive the embossment in reverse and all the tiles made from this mold will be alike. the clay is pressed into the mold while quite soft and is scraped off level at the back. thus it is the face of the tile that is shaped by the plaster. if this plan be adopted the tile must be removed from the mold as soon as possible. if left to dry in the mold they will warp because of the unequal absorption. a better method has been devised by the author and has been put into practice with considerable success. when the size of the proposed tile has been determined a board is made which is large enough to hold a square of the tile, say twelve or sixteen. thus if a tile five inches square is to be made the board would be fifteen by twenty inches for twelve tile or twenty inches square for sixteen. on each side of the board a wooden rim is fastened and this must stand higher than the board to the exact thickness of the tile. about five-eighths of an inch is enough. the board must be perfectly rectangular and marked off at even distance of five inches and a shallow groove is cut at each point. to make the tile the board is wetted and an even coating of grog dust is sprinkled upon it. a ball of clay is laid in the center of the board and rolled out with a rolling pin to fill every part of the frame. with a straight edge the clay is struck off smooth and clean, working always from the center outwards. reversing the plaster mold method the tile are now face upward and any kind of surface may be given at will. the clay may be lubricated with water and made smooth or it may be sprinkled with grog dust which will give a sandy or toothed finish. the square is now to be cut into tile and this is done with a slender knife and ruler. the ruler should not rest upon the clay but upon thin strips of wood or cardboard which may be laid along the edges for the purpose. the cutting should not go quite through the clay as, if a slight connection be allowed to remain at the bottom, the tile will keep each other straight. when the cutting is finished the board should be set at an angle of forty-five degrees for the clay to harden. when leather-hard the whole may be turned gently over and the tile allowed to fall on to a board placed in readiness. they are now broken apart, trimmed if necessary and set aside to dry. tile made in this way can be kept straight without difficulty and the method is much more expeditious than pressing in plaster molds. if a modeled surface be intended it is quite easy to work on the tile in the tray while the clay is soft. forms may be cut in wood and pressed into the clay in any variety and the charm of individual treatment is preserved. the body given above will prove quite porous when fired but it will take matt glazes well. a little crazing is no detriment to tile because they are not like vessels which are meant to hold water. if a denser body be wished for some of the flint may be replaced by spar. one of the most attractive methods of decorating tile is by means of a white or delicately tinted enamel and color. the opaque tin enamel given on page 134 will answer well and if the whiteness prove too intense it may be modified by a very small addition of under-glaze color according to the tint desired. the tile should be glazed rather thick. not as thick as a matt glaze but thicker than bright glazes. the glaze or enamel should be poured into a flat tray which is large enough to receive one tile. the tile is taken by the edges between fingers and thumb and held face downwards. do not let either fingers or thumb project beyond the face. the glaze having been well stirred the face of the tile is allowed to rest upon it for about two seconds. the hand is then lifted quickly and reversed so that the tile is face upwards. every effort should be made to avoid streaks or tears and a little practice will accomplish this. if the glaze shows a bad surface it should be scraped off. it can be mixed up and used again. sometimes a slight wetting of the tile before glazing will help the surface to flow evenly. the decoration is carried out with ordinary under-glaze colors. these may be mixed together to produce any hue which is sought and a little of the glaze itself, about ten per cent., should be mixed with the color. this will assist in uniting the color with the glaze so that they melt together. to produce enamel decorations at their true value the color should be painted upon the dry glaze before it is burned. the best relation between surface and color is thus secured. the color must be worked quite thin with water and a little glycerine. a quick, sure stroke is needed as no change or erasure is possible. the design may be made on paper and traced or pounced on to the glaze with lamp-black. for burning the tile there is nothing better than little fire-clay boxes. these can be made in a mold without difficulty and the inside of each should be washed with glaze. if some such protection be not provided dirt is almost sure to fall on the flat surface and the tile will be spoiled. it is not possible to rear them on edge in the kiln for burning as then the glaze would flow to the lower side and cause an unsightly ridge. chapter xv: glazes and glazing part i much of the fascination of pottery making centers in the glaze. at one time a great deal of mystery appeared to surround the composition and use of glazes, but if one will take the trouble to learn, much of this may be dispelled. some knowledge of chemistry is desirable if an understanding of the theory of glaze-making is to be acquired, but a good deal may be learned even without this knowledge. only such simple instruction as can be assimilated by ordinary intelligence will be attempted here, as an exhaustive treatment of the subject would be long and tedious. it is possible to purchase glazes ready for use[j] but the true craftsman will not be satisfied until he can prepare his own. [j] the roessler & hasslacher chemical company, 709 6th avenue, new york city, manufacture glazes according to the recipes of the author, and also chemicals for use in the laboratory. glazes[k] belong to a class of chemical compounds known as silicates; that is, they have silica as the characteristic ingredient. clear glazes are compound silicates of lead, zinc, lime, potassium, sodium, aluminum and boron. matt glazes are characterized by certain of these ingredients being present in excess; and stanniferous or tin glazes are, as the name implies, rendered opaque by the use of oxide of tin. [k] it is admitted that glazes are not chemical combinations but solid solutions, but the principle is more easily understood when the analogy of chemical action is adopted. the commonest type of glaze is that which is made from ready prepared, commercial substances. these are called raw glazes as being made from raw materials or materials which need no preparation. it is possible to mix a glaze in a druggist's mortar by hand, using fine sieves, but if the best results are to be secured, a small mill must be used for grinding. the best form of mill is the ball mill or jar mill. this consists of a porcelain jar which is set in a frame and made to revolve upon its axis in a horizontal position. it is about half filled with porcelain balls and these as they roll against each other perform the grinding. these mills may be purchased ready for use, either as a single jar to be worked by hand or a battery of two or more revolved by power.[l] [l] paul o. abbé, 30 broad street, new york city. a good pair of scales is a necessity and it will be found convenient to use metric weights which need no calculation into pounds and ounces. suspended scales are not as easy to use as the form known as counter scales or balances. they should have movable pans which are usually nickel plated. upon these the materials can be placed direct without the use of pieces of paper, which are always troublesome and inaccurate. there should be a graduated bar on the front for the adjustment of weights of five grams and under. this avoids the use of small weights which are always being mislaid and lost. dealers in chemical supplies keep these scales in stock and the cost is about eight dollars. a set of weights must also be procured from one hundred grams to five grams inclusive. these need not be of the accurate adjustment which are used in analysis. a good inexpensive grade is sufficient. the ingredients for glazes are given in the following list: commercial chemical symbol or equivalent name name formula weight white lead lead carbonate pb(oh)_{2}2pbco_{3} 258 zinc oxide zinc oxide zno 81 soda ash sodium carbonate na_{2}co_{3} 106 niter potassium nitrate kno_{3} 202 whiting calcium carbonate caco_{3} 100 (carbonate of lime) feldspar orthoclase k_{2}o,al_{2}o_{3},6sio_{2} 557 kaolin aluminum silicate al_{2}o_{3},2sio_{2},2h_{2}o 258 or china clay flint silica sio_{2} 60 borax sodium di borate na_{2}b_{4}o_{7}10h_{2}o 382 boric acid boric acid b_{2}o_{3}3h_{2}o 124 for coloring, the following metallic oxides are used: color chemical symbol or equivalent name formula weight blue cobalt oxide coo 80 blue and green copper oxide cuo 79 gray and brown nickel oxide nio 75 brown and yellow iron oxide fe_{2}o_{3} 160 brown manganese carbonate mnco_{3} 115 under-glaze colors may also be used for coloring glazes, the color being ground with the glaze batch. it is not absolutely necessary to commit the formula and equivalent weight to memory. they will soon be remembered as use becomes second nature. a glaze is usually expressed as the chemical formula. in this there are three divisions given, each of which expresses a distinct function. on the left hand are the bases, the foundation of the glaze. these indicate the type, such as lead glaze, a lime glaze, an alkaline glaze, etc. all glazes being silicates, this is the usual way of distinguishing them. in the center are the alumina and boron oxide. these regulate the behavior of the glaze in the fire. they make it viscous or sluggish as it melts and prevent a too rapid flow. the alumina is infusible, the boron is fusible, but boron cannot be used in a raw glaze for reasons to be presently explained. at the right stands the silica, the dominating factor with which all the other ingredients combine, and which controls the behavior of the whole as regards the fitting of the glaze to the body. the very simplest form of glaze is a bisilicate of lead, represented by the formula pbo, sio_{2}, or one equivalent of lead oxide and one of silica. the term "equivalent" means that the mixture is calculated, not upon the actual weight of a substance but upon its equivalent or unit weight. thus the equivalent weight of lead oxide, pbo, being 222, in order to produce the formula in actual weight 222 grams or pounds must be weighed out. it does not matter what weights are used so long as they are the same for all. in like manner the equivalent weight of silica is 60 and as flint is pure silica, the formula pbo, sio_{2} would be produced by weighing- litharge or lead oxide 222 parts flint or silica 60 parts litharge is not, however, a convenient substance to use. it is very heavy and does not mix well in water. the most usual substance for the introduction of lead oxide is white lead. this is not lead oxide but it changes to lead oxide when burned. white lead bears the formula pb(oh)_{2}, 2pbco_{3}, which, being dissected is found to be 3pbo, h_{2}o, 2co_{2}. h_{2}o is water and co_{2} carbonic acid, both of which pass off in burning. both, however, are weighed when the white lead is put on the scales and therefore the equivalent weight of white lead is 258 and not 222. the mixture for practical purposes then would be- white lead 258 parts flint 60 parts which, when ground and spread upon the ware would be a very fusible glaze of a yellowish tone. this was spoken of as a bisilicate of lead because the measure of the silica, also called the acidity of a glaze, is calculated upon the oxygen contained in the base and the silica respectively. pbo contains one molecule of oxygen, sio_{2} contains two. hence the relationship of the oxygen in the base to the oxygen in the silica is as one to two. this is called simply the "oxygen ratio" and is of great importance in determining the behavior of a glaze. while this simple bisilicate of lead will be a glaze under certain conditions it is found to possess two faults. 1. it is too fluid under fire. the glaze will run down a vertical surface and leave the upper edge of the piece bare. 2. if subjected to a long slow fire it will lose its gloss and become devitrified. this devitrification is often seen in commercial work and appears as a dull scum in patches and around the edges of the ware. it is, in fact, a crystallization of the silica which separates out, as salt does from an evaporated brine. both these faults may be corrected by the addition of a little alumina to the glaze. a whole equivalent of alumina would be too much, in fact it is found in practice that .2 equivalent is sufficient for most lowfire glazes. in order to maintain the oxygen ratio and to keep the glaze as a bisilicate the silica content must be raised. alumina contains three molecules of oxygen so that the total amount of alumina is multiplied by three and the silica brought to the equal point thus: pbo, .2al_{2}o_{3}, 1.6sio_{2} the amount of silica required in any bisilicate glaze may be found by the following equation: sio_{2} = 2(3al_{2}o_{3} + 1)/2 thus if the alumina content were .25 equivalent this would be expressed: sio_{2} = 2(.75 + 1)/2 or- sio_{2} = 3.50/2 = 1.75 equivalent now in order to produce this as a mixture it would be possible to introduce the alumina in the pure state, but pure alumina is expensive and clay which contains alumina is cheap so that clay is generally used to supply the alumina. clay, however, contains silica as well, and therefore allowance must be made for this. on referring to the formula for kaolin, the purest form of clay, al_{2}o_{3}, 2sio_{2}, 2h_{2}o, it will be seen that there is twice as much silica present in equivalence as there is alumina and therefore .2 kaolin will contain .2al_{2}o_{3} and 4sio_{2}. subtracting, then, the 4sio_{2} from the 1.6sio_{2} needed there will be 1.2 left to be supplied in the form of flint. the mixture therefore is- white lead 1.0 × 258 = 258 kaolin .2 × 258 = 51.6 flint 1.2 × 60 = 72 this is a glaze of the same character as that first given except that it no longer flows unduly from the higher places nor will it devitrify in a long-continued fire. the alumina will have counteracted both these evils. a glaze with only lead oxide as the base is not, however, desirable for general use. the color is yellowish and the lead oxide is apt to destroy the hue of any colors which are used with it. the available bases may be classified under three heads. 1. the metallic oxides, lead and zinc oxides. 2. the alkaline earths, the oxides of calcium and barium. 3. the alkalies, potash and soda. barium oxide is not often used and soda cannot be used in raw glazes because there is no convenient substance which contains it. as glazes are always ground in water only insoluble ingredients can be employed without preparation. potash is found in feldspar which is insoluble and while there is a so-called soda feldspar it can rarely be obtained of sufficient purity. in arranging the bases with which to compose a glaze it is desirable to use one at least from each class, but it must be borne in mind that however many bases are introduced the total must always be unity. this unit is, for the sake of brevity, described as ro. for example the following groups may be set forth: 1. pbo lead oxide .7 cao calcium oxide .3 -- ro 1.0 2. pbo .6 cao .4 -- ro 1.0 3. pbo lead oxide .5 zno zinc oxide .2 cao calcium oxide .3 -- ro 1.0 4. pbo .6 zno .1 cao .3 -- ro 1.0 5. pbo lead oxide .6 cao calcium oxide .3 k_{2}o potassium oxide .1 -- ro 1.0 6. pbo .50 cao .35 k_{2}o .15 --- ro 1.00 7. pbo lead oxide .45 zno zinc oxide .10 cao calcium oxide .30 k_{2}o potassium oxide .15 --- ro 1.00 8. pbo .35 zno .15 cao .35 k_{2}o .15 --- ro 1.00 the reason for the unit rule is that if one formula is to be compared with another there must be a uniform basis upon which to work and, furthermore, it makes no difference whether the silica combines with one, two, three, or four bases, the chemical action is the same and, so long as the sum of the bases is kept at unity, the same amount of silica will be required. if two glazes be taken as an illustration this will be made clear: pbo .6 } cao .4 } --} al_{2}o_{3} .2 sio_{2} 1.6 1.0 } pbo .46 } zno .12 } cao .28 } k_{2}o .14 } ---} al_{2}o_{3} .2 sio_{2} 1.6 1.00 } both of these formulae are bisilicates and each being properly fired, will stand, without crazing, on the same body. the use of the formula is to give an insight into the composition of the melted glaze. it takes no account of volatile ingredients or losses in the fire but for this very reason it must be translated into the substances to be weighed before use can be made of it. of the ingredients given on pages 142, 143, some contain but one item of the formula, others contain several, as in the case of kaolin already cited. feldspar, of the variety known as potash feldspar and named by mineralogists, "orthoclase," is a very useful ingredient in raw glazes, being, in fact, almost the only source of potash. the formula, page 142, shows that a molecule or equivalent of feldspar contains one molecule of potash k_{2}o, one of alumina al_{2}o_{3}, and six of silica sio_{2}. this fact is taken into account in calculating the mixture or batch weight. base no. 5 (page 148), is as follows: pbo .6 cao .3 k_{2}o .1 --- 1.0 and this made up into a bisilicate glaze would be: pbo .6 } cao .3 } k_{2}o .1 } ---} al_{2}o_{3} .2 sio_{2} 1.6 1.0 } these items are extended in a horizontal line, a space being left on one side for the list of ingredients. pbo cao k_{2}o al_{2}o_{3} sio_{2} .6 .3 .1 .2 1.6 addition .6 white lead .6 --------------------------------------- subtraction .0 .3 .1 .2 1.6 addition .3 whiting .3 --------------------------------------- subtraction .0 .1 .2 1.6 addition .1 .1 .6 feldspar .1 --------------------------------------- subtraction .0 .1 1.0 addition .1 .2 kaolin .1 --------------------------------------- subtraction .0 .8 addition .8 flint .8 --------------------------------------- subtraction .0 each item is thus disposed of until the list is complete. these figures are, however, given in equivalents and each must be multiplied by the equivalent weight of the substance used. white lead .6 × 258 = 154.8 parts by weight whiting (calcium carbonate) .3 × 100 = 30.0 " " " feldspar .1 × 557 = 55.7 " " " kaolin .1 × 258 = 25.8 " " " flint .8 × 60 = 48.0 " " " ---- 314.3 batch of glaze these amounts are weighed out in grams, put upon the mill with half a pint of water, and ground for about an hour. when taken off, the jar and porcelain balls are washed with plenty of water and the washings saved. the glaze, thus diluted, is strained through a lawn of 120 mesh and laid aside to settle. the clear water is then siphoned or poured off and the glaze is ready for use. for glazing the glaze should be as thick as cream. a finger dipped into it should show a white coating which cannot be shaken off. the pottery to be glazed should be first soaked in clean water until all absorption has ceased. it is then wiped dry and plunged into the glaze bath, or, if the piece be large, the glaze may be poured over it. the piece is gently shaken to distribute the glaze evenly and it is then set aside to dry. before glazing a piece everything should be prepared. a stilt or support upon which to set the wet glazed pottery, and a bowl of water in which to wash the fingers so as to save all the glaze. it will be found best to glaze the inside of the piece first. it should then be well shaken to remove as much glaze as possible before beginning the outside. a thick glaze inside is almost sure to run down to the bottom where it will form a pool and perhaps burst the piece. before firing, the bottom of the pottery should be carefully trimmed. any excess of glaze is removed and the point of contact with the table is sponged clean. then, when the piece is set in the kiln the bottom will not be inclined to stick. part ii: matt glazes the texture of the matt glaze is always pleasing and the artist is not content unless at least some of his work can be finished in this way. matt glazes are not underfired glazes nor are they deadened by acid or sand blast. they are produced in two ways. first, by an excess of alumina which is believed to cause the formation of certain compounds in the glaze, and, second, by an excess of silica which produces a devitrified surface. it was mentioned in the last chapter that a glaze free from alumina will devitrify or become dull. this is undesirable when a glaze is intended to be brilliant but it may be controlled and turned to advantage in the production of a certain type of matt. the successful preparation of this silica matt is extremely difficult. in fact, in the studio kiln it is almost impossible. these small kilns are apt to cool with great rapidity whereas, in order to produce the silica matt the kiln must be cooled very slowly, hours and even days of cooling being sometimes necessary. the alumina matt is more simple and its texture is quite satisfactory, being, in the opinion of some, the more pleasing of the two. it was mentioned in the last chapter that the best bright glazes for low temperature work are bisilicates, having an oxygen ratio of 1:2. the alumina matt has an oxygen ratio of about 3:4. this is secured in the following manner. the ro content may consist of any of the bases used in bright glazes, the proportion of each being adjusted in accordance with the desired point of fusion. the alumina content is rather higher than in a bright glaze and should not fall much below .3 equivalent, .35 equivalent is even better. the silica is adjusted in accordance with the following equation: sio_{2} = 3(3al_{2}o_{3} + 1)/4 now if the alumina content be placed at .35 equivalent this would work out: sio_{2} = 3(1.05 + 1)/4 or: sio_{2} = 6.15/4 = 1.5375 but as such a complete fraction is not necessary it may be stated as 1.54 equivalent. the formula would therefore be: ro, al_{2}o_{3} .35, sio_{2} 1.54 the ro content should not be too fusible. lead oxide is desirable up to about .5 equivalent and it is an advantage to use feldspar so that k_{2}o may be introduced. calcium oxide is also good but zinc oxide must be used sparingly as it is apt to suffer if overfired. the high content of alumina necessitates a good deal of clay and as this, if used raw, would make the glaze too plastic and cause it to crack, it is best to calcine a part of it, thus removing the combined water and changing the equivalent weight from 258 to 222. the calculation will then proceed as in the case of a bright glaze. pbo .50 } cao .35 } k_{2}o .15 } ---} al_{2}o_{3} .35 sio_{2} 1.54 ro 1.00 } pbo cao k_{2}o al_{2}o_{3} sio_{2} .50 .35 .15 .35 1.54 addition .50 white lead .50 × 258 = 129 --------------------------------------- subtraction .0 .35 .15 .35 1.54 addition .35 whiting .35 × 100 = 35 --------------------------------------- subtraction .0 .15 .35 1.54 addition .15 .15 .90 feldspar .15 × 557 = 83 --------------------------------------- subtraction .0 .20 .64 addition .15 .30 calcined kaolin .15 × 222 = 33 --------------------------------------- subtraction .05 .34 addition .05 .10 kaolin .05 × 258 = 13 --------------------------------------- subtraction .0 .24 addition .24 flint .24 × 60 = 14 --------------------------------------- subtraction .0 the mix, therefore, is: white lead 129 grams whiting 35 " feldspar 83 " calcined kaolin 33 " kaolin 13 " flint 14 " this will give a silky matt glaze, nearly white, maturing at about cone 1. if a lower fusing point is desired the white lead may be increased at the expense of the whiting or if the glaze prove too fusible the reverse will correct it. the flint may be omitted without damage. the grinding of a matt glaze is of great importance. it is better to have it too coarse than too fine. grinding for one hour on the ball mill should be ample and if the glaze be then strained through 120 mesh lawn all coarse particles will be arrested. a glaze that is too fine will crack and peel off or will curl up in the kiln. more than half the success of matt glazes lies in the using. it is necessary that the coating of glaze be very thick or the true texture will not be developed. when the glaze is taken from the mill plenty of water may be used in order to wash the apparatus clean and to save all the glaze. this is set aside in a deep bowl to settle. after some hours the clear water is carefully drawn off with a siphon. half an ounce of gum tragacanth is put to soak in a quart of clean water. after twelve hours the gum will have swollen to a jelly-like mass. this is now worked vigorously with a dover egg-beater or in a christy mixer and again set aside. after another twelve hours the operation is repeated and the solution is a clear syrup of the consistency of thin molasses. a drop or two of carbolic acid or other germicide should be added to prevent decomposition. this mucilage should be prepared in advance. to the glaze batch from which the water has been removed a tablespoonful of the mucilage is added. if more of the glaze than the single batch has been weighed out then more mucilage will be necessary. the mixture is to be stirred very thoroughly and it will be found to thicken under the hand. it must be very much thicker than the bright glaze. in fact, the thicker it is the better, only that it must flow sufficiently so that the pottery may be covered with a smooth coating, avoiding lumps. matt glazes do not correct their own faults in the kiln as bright glazes do. every finger mark will show and, consequently, the glazing must be done with the greatest care. the process is the same as that described for bright glazes, except that as much glaze as possible is left on the ware. no more shaking should be done than will suffice to secure a smooth coating. it is well to place the pieces upside down to dry. for the inside of the pieces a matt glaze may be used or a thin coat of clear glaze at the pleasure of the worker. if the latter, care must be taken that none of the inside glaze is allowed to run over the edge. in firing, the pottery is sometimes placed on a stilt but this is not absolutely necessary. for a support a flat piece of burned clay may be used and this should be covered with an infusible wash to prevent any possibility of sticking. equal parts of kaolin and flint make a good wash. the wash is worked up with water into a slip and applied with an ordinary brush. part iii: fritted glazes fritted glazes, like raw glazes, are clear and brilliant and for most purposes the latter will suffice. since, however, the aim of this work is to give as complete information as may be the fritted glaze will not be omitted. a fritt is a melt or compounded glass and the purpose of it is to permit the use of certain ingredients which are not available in the raw state. as glazes are ground in water it is essential that the substances used be insoluble. this condition would prohibit advantage being taken of borax, boric acid, and soda ash, if it were not for the possibility of rendering these insoluble by the operation of fritting. the following is an example of a fritted glaze: pbo lead oxide .30 } zno zinc oxide .15 } } al_{2}o_{2} alumina .15 } cao lime .25 } } sio_{2} silica 2.65 } b_{2}o_{3} boric acid .40 } na_{2}o soda .20 } k_{2}o potash .10 } this will be produced in accordance with the usual calculation by the mix: white lead .3 × 258 = 77 zinc oxide .15 × 81 = 12 whiting .25 × 100 = 25 borax .20 × 382 = 76 feldspar .10 × 557 = 56 kaolin .05 × 258 = 13 flint 1.95 × 60 = 117 the borax contains the required amount of both soda and boric acid and the potash is supplied by the feldspar. borax, being soluble, must be melted with certain other ingredients into an insoluble glass, thus: fritt: borax 76 x 2 = 152 whiting 25 x 2 = 50 feldspar 30 x 2 = 60 flint 50 x 2 = 100 -- 362 these ingredients are weighed out in double quantity to guard against loss in melting and are fused either in the kiln or in a special furnace. a good fritting furnace is the no. 15, made by the buffalo dental manufacturing company. the charge is put into a plumbago crucible and when melted is poured out into water. this breaks up the fritt and renders it easy to grind. a similar crucible may be used in the kiln but as the fritt becomes very hard when cold and a crucible must be broken each time, the furnace method is better. if the fritt as given prove too sluggish to pour freely, the feldspar may be omitted, being added, of course, to the glaze mix. the melted weight of the fritt must now be calculated. borax contains in each equivalent 180 parts water. whiting contains in each equivalent 44 parts carbonic acid. both water and carbonic acid pass off in the melting, thus the 76 parts of borax will be reduced in weight to 40 parts, and the 25 parts of whiting will be reduced to 14 parts. spar and flint undergo no loss. the fritt after melting will therefore be: borax 40 whiting 14 spar 30 flint 50 -- 134 and the final mix for the glaze will be: fritt 134 parts white lead 77 " zinc oxide 12 " feldspar 26 " kaolin 13 " flint 67 " this is ground on the mill as already directed and is ready for use. fritted glazes are better than raw glazes for certain classes of ware. they are usually whiter and less easily scratched. they are, moreover, better for use with underglaze colors and are, as a rule, more easily melted. it is never necessary to make a fritt for the preparation of matt glazes. part iv: recipes while the purpose of this work is not so much to put ready-made materials into the hands of the craftsman as to enable him to work out his own plans, it is recognized that there are some workers who lack the training and even the patience to do this. for these, the following recipes are given, but with the proviso that no recipe can be regarded as perfect for all conditions. just as an untrained cook can spoil a dinner even when surrounded by cookery books, so the best of recipes will fail when unskillfully treated. one must be prepared to recognize the faults which are sure to develop and to correct them in an intelligent manner. the previous chapters should therefore be carefully studied, not alone for the information but because "the joy of the working" depends greatly upon the knowledge one has of the operations involved and a modest confidence in one's own powers. 1. bright raw glaze. cone .06 formula pbo .60 } cao .25 } al_{2}o_{3} .15 sio_{2} 1.45 k_{2}o .15 } mix: white lead 155 whiting 25 feldspar 55.7 kaolin 13 flint 45 grind, with one-half pint of water, for one hour. 2. bright raw glaze. cone 1 formula pbo .45 } zno .15 } al_{2}o_{3} .20 sio_{2} 1.60 cao .25 } k_{2}o .15 } mix: white lead 116 whiting 25 zinc oxide 12 feldspar 83 kaolin 13 flint 36 3. bright fritted glaze. cone .02 formula pbo .25 } zno .15 } al_{2}o_{3} .15 } cao .30 } } sio_{2} 2.35 na_{2}o .20 } b_{2}o_{3} .30 } k_{2}o .10 } mix: fritt glaze borax 114 fritt 117 whiting 60 white lead 64 soda ash 10 zinc oxide 12 spar 56 spar 28 flint 78 kaolin 13 flint 60 grind as before. 4. matt glaze. cone .02 formula pbo .50 } cao .30 } al_{2}o_{3} .34 sio_{2} 1.48 k_{2}o .20 } mix: white lead 129 whiting 30 spar 111 calcined kaolin 22 kaolin 11 5. matt glaze. cone 7 formula cao .75 } al_{2}o_{3} .55 sio_{2} 2.10 k_{2}o .25 } mix: feldspar 139 whiting 75 calcined kaolin 55 kaolin 13 for colored glazes add to any of the above: blue: cobalt oxide 3 parts slate blue: cobalt oxide 3 parts nickel oxide 1 part warm blue: cobalt oxide 2 parts iron oxide 1 part green: copper oxide 8 parts blue green: copper oxide 8 parts cobalt oxide 1 part cool green: copper oxide 8 parts cobalt oxide 1 part nickel oxide 2 parts olive green: copper oxide 6 parts iron oxide 4 parts orange brown: iron oxide 8 parts red brown: iron oxide 8 parts chrome oxide 1 part zinc oxide 3 parts yellow: uranium oxide 3 parts the coloring oxides should be weighed out and ground with the glaze. any of the colors may be mixed together in order to modify the hue obtained or the amount of each coloring oxide may be varied to give a stronger or weaker value. opaque tin enamel. cone .02 formula pbo .40 } cao .25 } { sio_{2} 1.75 k_{2}o .20 } al_{2}o_{3} .25 { sno_{2} .30 zno .15 } mixture: white lead 103 whiting 25 feldspar 111 zinc oxide 12 kaolin 13 flint 27 tin oxide 45 grind, with one-half pint of water, for 45 minutes. part v: the defects of glazes while it may chance that body and glaze and fire are so adjusted that faults do not develop, this state of things is rare. besides, it is always possible that an occasional trouble may arise, hence it will be well to recount a few of the commonest defects with the method of cure. a cure is not necessarily specific. there may be a complication of causes but the remedy indicates the line along which relief will be found. 1. crazing. fine cracks appear in the glaze but do not penetrate the body. there are many causes. the body may be underfired or overfired. in the former case the crazing does not always appear at once and it grows worse upon standing. in the latter case the glaze is found to be crazed when taken from the kiln and it does not extend even after long standing. the glaze may be underfired. in this case the lines of the crack are broken and irregular, one often changing its direction without meeting another crack. in all these cases the remedy is obvious. crazing also occurs when both body and glaze are correctly fired but there is an inherent disagreement in expansion. in such a case a little flint added either to the body or to the glaze will tend to cure the trouble but it must be remembered that the addition of flint to the glaze is apt to render it less fusible and therefore while one craze may be cured another may be caused. the addition of flint to the body is the simplest remedy. 2. shivering or peeling. this is the reverse of crazing and is caused by the glaze being too large for the body. it almost always appears immediately the ware is cooled. the symptoms are that edges or convex surfaces are pushed off and even the ware itself is shattered. the remedy is to decrease the flint in either body or glaze. 3. blistering. glazes, both bright and matt, are apt to develop blisters at times. these may be yet unbroken when the kiln is opened or they may have melted down to a small crater, a ring with a depression in the center. the cause of this fault is usually to be found in the body. all clays contain sulphur and when a clay is aged this develops an acid which rises to the surface of the ware when dried and causes a scum. the glaze attacks this sulphate scum and a gas is generated which boils out and causes the blisters. if old clay blisters and new clay does not it may be regarded as certain that this is the cause. a little barium carbonate added to the clay will help to effect a cure. about one per cent. is usually enough. clay so treated, however, must not be used in plaster molds as the barium attacks the plaster. if the cause be not found in the clay it may exist in the glaze itself. some glaze ingredients contain impurities in the form of sulphates and these will cause blisters. 4. the glaze flows, leaving bare places. it is too fluid, add a little clay and flint. 5. a matt glaze burns to a bright surface. matt glazes must be used in a very thick coat. if too thin they will inevitably brighten. the fire may be too high. the fire may be "reducing," that is, with insufficient air. 6. the glaze crawls or rolls up in lumps. notice whether the glaze is cracked before burning. if so it will surely crawl. too fine grinding is usually the cause of this trouble. too much clay in the glaze may cause it, or a too porous body. a body which is underfired will almost certainly cause the glaze to crawl. 7. pinholes appear in the glaze when cool. too rapid cooling is the cause. part vi: alkaline glazes the glory of the persian and egyptian blue is too alluring for potters to withstand. though the pursuit of this glory leads one into all kinds of disasters and failures, the avenues of research that it opens add unending fascination to the study. even one beautiful glowing pot out of twenty or more efforts is a stimulating achievement though it should not be thought that this is the usual proportion. it is a continual source of astonishment that with a slight variation of glaze formula a positive green will swim into a vibrating blue. the addition or substitution of one substance or another in the glaze mix may be the key to an unexpected transformation and may give the potter a new palette of color. the clay body has a very positive effect on alkaline glaze both in its composition and its color. this is especially true under a transparent glaze where the effect is considerable since the color of the glaze would be modified by the red or buff clay showing through. if, therefore, the object of the potter is to obtain a brilliant "persian" blue, a white clay body must be composed or a white _engobe_ applied over the buff or red clay to hide the color. the persians and egyptians used a coarse, sandy body high in silica and covered the roughness of the clay with a fine white _engobe_ on which they painted their decorations in various colors. the whole was finally covered with the transparent alkaline glaze. while the effect of colored clay under opaque glaze is less pronounced, it still makes sufficient difference to be considered. the word _engobe_ is french and refers to a thin coating of clay, also called a slip, laid over a colored body to change the color or over a coarse body to give a finer texture. the _engobe_ is usually composed of china clay, flint, and feldspar much as a white earthenware body is constituted but with a larger content of flint. ball clay may also be used but the color is not so white. the mixture of porcelain given on page forty will make an _engobe_ suitable for many clay bodies. if it should crack on drying more flint should be added. an _engobe_ must, of course, be put upon the unburned or green clay ware and this should be leather hard, not dry. the body with the _engobe_ may be burned before glazing or the glaze may be put upon the unburned ware and the whole subjected to one fire only. the ingredients in alkaline glazes are soda-ash, whiting, feldspar, flint and oxide of tin. the following is an example of a fritted glaze: na_{2}o .60 } k_{2}o .10 } al_{2}o_{3} .10 sio_{2} 1.30 cao .30 } soda ash 64 whiting 30 feldspar 56 flint 42 the entire batch is fritted and ground in a ball mill with the usual amount of water for fritt grinding, adding a tablespoonful of gum tragacanth mucilage to the batch after it is sieved. the glaze should be the consistency of heavy cream when used. it is also possible to use an alkaline glaze in the raw or unfritted state. this necessitates grinding by hand in a mortar, but great care must be taken to mix the dry ingredients thoroughly before adding water and to stir the glaze constantly while pouring in the water, otherwise the soda-ash will cake and harden and be very difficult to break up. a batch of glaze can be ground by hand in fifteen or twenty minutes if done vigorously. it is then put through a 120-mesh sieve. the consistency is of importance. if too much water has been added and the glaze has become thin, it cannot be used successfully and should be discarded. unfritted alkaline glaze does not keep well when moist but the ingredients can be ground dry and kept ready to be moistened as needed. the following is an example of an unfritted alkaline glaze: na_{2}o .59 } cao .21 } al_{2}o_{3} .20 sio_{2} 1.6 k_{2}o .20 } soda ash 62 whiting 21 feldspar 111 flint 24 for color add the following oxides to a batch. 1. egyptian blue, opaque--from 5 to 8 grams of black oxide of copper--16 grams of oxide of tin. 2. persian blue, opaque--from 8 to 10 grams of black oxide of copper--16 grams of oxide of tin. 3. sapphire blue--1 gram black oxide of cobalt. 4. aubergine--9 grams black oxide of manganese. the clear glaze without any coloring oxide can be used over any of the colored glazes. this is sometimes necessary when the colored glaze contains such a large proportion of coloring oxide as to show black on the surface. the application of alkaline glaze is very important. any of the three methods of pouring, dipping, and brushing can be employed. brushing seems to give the best results but the glaze must be put on thick, in two or three coats, to give quality. the firing is interesting and important because of the varied effects it develops from the same formula. the range of temperature is great, varying from cone .05 to 1, developing the alkaline glaze according to the result desired. if the biscuit is soft fired the color will be more intense; if hard fired, the color will be much lighter in value with a high sheen on the surface. an unfritted alkaline glaze burned to .05 develops a soft matt finish. where the color of a transparent persian blue comes out olive green, too little glaze has been used on the piece or the buff of the clay has modified the color. bubbles mean undeveloped glaze or sulphur in the clay or fuel. black scum shows an excess of copper in the batch, or reduction in the fire. sand paper surface proves too low firing or too thin a glaze. if one desires to reproduce the underglaze persian decoration the black outlines may be drawn with a black underglaze color mixed with clay. a little mucilage must be added to secure smooth working. the turquoise blue is copper oxide, the dark blue cobalt, and the purple manganese. the oxides must be diluted with white clay and used rather thin. the rhodian red is a finely ground red burning clay mixed with a little flint. this red must be laid on quite thickly. it will probably be found necessary to fire the painted decoration to about cone .03 before glazing. the glaze may be either quite clear or slightly tinted. another effect may be produced by using the black outline alone under a peacock blue or turquoise glaze. a great many modifications and additions to this subject will suggest themselves to the potter as he works, and a continual study of the masterpieces of the persians in the museums will prove the greatest inspiration. chapter xvi: decoration the necessity for some kind of decoration upon the clay will always be a point of difference amongst artists. some prefer the simple form with a glaze treatment only, others consider that the surface should be broken up by design. the question will not be debated here. the aim of this hand-book is instruction and the individuality of the worker is to be encouraged. directions for executing the different treatments do not imply that these elaborations are advocated. that must be left to the inspiration of the worker. decorations may be applied upon the soft clay by incising, inlaying and embossing; upon the dry clay or upon the burned pottery in color under the glaze or with no glaze at all; in the glaze by the use of colors or colored glazes; or over the glaze with colors and enamels. each of these methods possesses special features. each has its own possibilities and limitations and these should be mastered by the craftsman. as in the production of form a well-planned design should be prepared. the first sketch should be made on paper or on a slab of clay but the fitting and final arrangement are best made on the piece itself. incising consists in the excavation of a shallow trench or trough on the surface of the clay. the vase or jar having been finished should be kept in a damp place so that the clay does not dry out completely. the design may be made in india ink with a brush. a steel tool with a narrow chisel end is used for cutting and care must be taken that the clay is in such a condition of moisture as will admit of a clean trench being dug without any rough or broken edges. the bottom of the trench need not be very smooth but the edges should be sharp and the lines well defined. at the same time a mechanical hardness of finish is to be avoided. the plastic nature of the clay should be kept in mind and every surface, though decided in character, should be soft and expressive. this result can be secured by working over the cutting with a moist camel-hair brush. the work must not be mopped so as to leave a woolly effect, but a little sympathetic penciling will remove the hard lines of the tool. there are two possible developments of incised work. the details of the design may be excavated or the background may be cut out leaving the drawing in relief. in modeling embossments the piece should be a little softer than for incising. it is important that in any clay work attached to a clay body the same amount of moisture should be present in both parts. this is not entirely possible in modeling upon forms which have already been shaped, for if the form be as soft as modeling clay it will not bear to be handled, while if the clay were as hard as the form it could not be worked. a compromise is therefore necessary. the vase must be kept as soft as possible consistent with holding its shape and the clay must be as stiff as the working will allow. as little water as possible should be used and the modeling should not be brought to its full height at once. if the clay be laid on little by little there is much less chance of cracking. low relief is sometimes produced by painting in slip but here even more care is necessary. the slip should be laid on with a brush in thin coats, each coat being allowed to stiffen before another is applied and the whole work being kept moist. an atomizer with clean water is useful in this regard. the work, being kept on a whirler or turntable, is sprayed now and then with water and thus prevented from becoming too hard. when the slip work has been raised to the desired height the surface is tooled over so as to remove the brush marks. this is the method which has been brought to such perfection by the french artists and by them named _pâte-sur-pâte_. modeled work is generally carried out in the same clay as that of which the form is made and depends upon high relief for its effect. slip painting is usually done in a different color and if a light-colored slip be used upon a dark clay, the latter is partially seen through the coating in the thinnest places. this fact is made use of to accentuate the shadow effects. in using one clay over another great care must be taken to insure that the fire shrinkage is the same. the white body already given, or indeed, any light colored clay, may be tinted by the addition of under-glaze colors. the dry color, if sifted very fine, may be added to the plastic clay by thorough kneading and wedging but it is better to work up the clay into a slip and to stir in the color. the tinted slip is then lawned two or three times and dried out on plaster or used in the slip state as the case may be. a trial should be made before any important work is undertaken, both to see that the color is right and to discover any discrepancy in shrinkage. if a clay shrinks too much, a little ground flint may be added. if it shrinks too little, a little ball clay will correct it. the tint produced by the color is apt to darken in the kiln but the general hue will be similar to that of the color used. for some classes of work a native red clay gives admirable results. it may be lightened by the use of kaolin and flint and darkened by adding burnt umber. these colors are more satisfactory than greens and blues in clay because the brown and red tones are natural, the others are artificial. if a good buff-burning clay be available, it forms the best possible foundation for color work. burnt umber will darken it and red clay may be mixed with it, always having regard to the matter of shrinkage already mentioned. very pleasing effects may be produced by inlaying one clay with another. the pattern or design is first cut out as described under incising and then the second clay is pressed, morsel by morsel, into the excavation. the surface is cleaned off level with the body of the piece and the whole may be either polished or glazed. a plastic clay can be polished when leather hard and the finish will remain after firing. any tool of steel, boxwood or ivory will do the work but a good supply of patience is needed so that the whole surface may be uniformly treated. for color decoration upon the pottery, ordinary underglaze colors are used, either upon the unburned clay or upon the burned ware commonly called biscuit. for use upon the clay, the colors should be mixed in water, using a little molasses, sugar, glycerine or gum arabic to make the color flow easily from the brush. before burning, a little glaze should be sprayed over the work with an atomizer. any ordinary fusible glaze will do. it is diluted with a good deal of water as only the very thinnest coat is necessary. the spray should not be held long in one place or the water will flow and smear the color. if the piece be turned slowly around the clay will absorb the water as it is applied. if this spraying be not done the colors will be apt to rub off after burning. under-glaze colors are not fusible and hence they come from the fire as dry powders. the work on the biscuit is much the same except that turpentine and fat oil constitute a better working medium. when dry the spray should be applied as before. chapter xvii: the fire kilns and burning form the pivot upon which the art of the potter turns. m. doat has said, "a potter can no more express himself without his kiln than can a violinist without his violin," and yet there are some who try to make out by sending their work to some nearby pottery to be burned. let it be at once understood that he who finds it impossible to procure and manage a kiln had best take to some other craft. kilns are of two types, open and muffle. in the open kiln the flames pass through the firing chamber and the ware may be exposed to their action, as in stoneware and brick; or it may be enclosed in the fire-clay cases, called saggers, as in the many forms of pottery, dishes or faience. the muffle kiln is a closed chamber which is surrounded by flames but which is not entered by them. these kilns are used in the manufacture of terra cotta and heavy enamel wares, and the portable kilns made for studio use are of this type. there are certain advantages to be gained in the use of either type of kiln but inasmuch as the open kiln involves the use of saggers and as, moreover, it must be properly constructed of fire-brick by a skilled mason, it will be best to consider only the portable studio kiln.[m] [m] these kilns are made in several sizes by the h. j. caulkins company, detroit, mich. it must not be expected that any kiln will give perfect satisfaction. neither built kiln nor portable kiln will do this, but either may be relied upon to do excellent work in the hands of those who will take trouble. a kiln of the proper size having been purchased, it must be carefully installed. a good chimney is an absolute necessity and if one can be built on purpose it will be best. it should be at least twenty-five feet high with the bottom lined with fire-brick to a height of six or eight feet. the portable kiln is set on iron legs which raise it about one foot from the floor. this is not enough for easy work and a platform of brick or stone, ten inches high, should be prepared. this will greatly simplify the observation and management of the burners which are beneath the kiln, and if it should make the inside of the muffle hard to reach, it is easier to stand on a box to attend to the kiln than it is to go on one's knees to the burner. the kiln room should have a cement floor and should be both well drained and well ventilated. at the window there should be a stout bench where the work of preparation may be done and at a convenient spot there should be shelves for stilts, cones, wash, stopping and all the minor accessories of burning. if there is room for a barrel of oil it will be a convenience, and if the room be fire-proof the insurance company will not object. the kiln having arrived it is mounted on the platform and the asbestos-lined pipe is securely connected with the chimney. the inside of the muffle is examined with care to see that no part has been jarred in transit. the reservoir cans are filled with oil and a slow fire is started. this should be allowed to burn very gently for an hour or two in order to thoroughly dry out and season the kiln. it is a good plan to make up a wash of equal parts of kaolin and flint and to brush this all over the inside of the kiln. it should not be put on so thick as to shell off from the walls but at the bottom a good coating may be laid. this protects the walls of the kiln from the attacks of glaze and will make them last longer. in order to fill the kiln economically a number of props and bats must be provided. some of these are sent out with the kiln but one is always needing odd sizes and extra pieces. the props are simply legs of burned clay; they are of any height desired and should be thick enough to stand alone. the bats are slabs of burned clay and they rest on the props to form shelves. the bats must be thick enough to bear the weight of any pieces which they may be called upon to support, but they need not be very large as two or more may be used to bridge the width and length of the kiln. bats and props are best made of sagger clay to which has been added about one-third of crushed fire-brick. broken bats serve well for this after the first supply has been secured. this crushed burned clay, called grog, has a very important influence upon wares which have to be heated again and again. the size used should be about what will pass through a 16-mesh sieve, and if the dust be sifted out through a 48-mesh sieve, the resulting ware will be stronger. that is, only the grog which passes a 16 sieve but lies upon a 48 sieve should be used. the relative proportions of clay and grog in the mix will depend somewhat upon the nature of the clay. three parts of clay to two of grog by measure will be about right. the first charging of the kiln should be with pieces of no great importance. the temperature in different parts must be carefully ascertained. in order to do this a number of pyrometric cones[n] are prepared in groups of three. [n] the pyrometric cones are fusible pyramids for testing heat. they are made by prof. edward orton, jr., columbus, ohio. let us suppose that the work is intended to be carried out at a temperature of cone no. 01. the numbers run both ways from this. the higher or less fusible cones are, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., up to 36, and the more fusible numbers are 02, 03, etc., down to 022. if the firing is to be to cone 01, numbers 02, 01 and 1 are selected and set upright in a small strip of soft clay. eight or ten of these groups of three cones are to be prepared for the first firing, so as to test the kiln, one group is placed in each corner, at the bottom, and another in each corner on a shelf, which is arranged opposite the spy-hole in the door. in the middle of this, where it can be well seen through the hole, one of the groups of cones is placed. they must be set so that all three cones are visible as the kiln is being fired. the kiln is now filled up on both levels with pieces of pottery. to burn an empty kiln is not a reliable test. on the first occasion the fire should be started in the morning because no one can tell just how long the burn will take. when this time is ascertained it is best to start the fire so that the kiln will be finished by early evening. the cooling then takes place at night and there is no temptation to open the door too soon. the fire is started slowly and the flow of oil is gradually increased as the muffle begins to glow. the work here needs practice, nerve and judgment. a good deal of smoke will be seen at the chimney at first but this should disappear as the kiln grows red. if the fire be urged too strongly at the beginning fuel will be consumed to no purpose, the only result being the choking of the flues with carbon. as the red becomes visible through the spy-hole, more oil may be supplied, but notice must be taken that the smoke at the chimney does not increase. the ideal firing is where there is no smoke but this cannot be reached until the kiln is hot enough to cause the smoke to burn. persons who have burned kilns for overglaze work will find the method of burning pottery very different. instead of a fire brought as rapidly as possible to the finishing point, there must now be a slow soaking burn in which the heat shall have time to saturate the ware. the cones in front of the spy-hole must be observed from time to time and presently as the kiln reaches a bright cherry red, number 02 will begin to bend at the tip and will gradually arch over until the point touches the shelf upon which the cones stand. by this time number 01 will have begun to bend and when the point of this has touched the shelf, the firing is over and the oil is shut off. it requires some resolution to leave a kiln until morning but it is conducive to early rising anyway. the kiln need not be quite cold but it will help the kiln itself to wear better and the pottery will be better if nothing is done until everything can be handled without gloves. the cones are now taken out and a diagram is made of each level with the bend of each cone accurately drawn. this diagram should be mounted and hung on the wall for reference. it is not well to trust to memory. it will probably be found, in the type of kiln we are discussing, that the cones on the bottom have bent further than those on the shelf. that is, the bottom is somewhat the hotter. the variation in the kiln is not necessarily a disadvantage. it may be utilized in burning wares of different kinds. for example, if the bottom prove much the hotter, the biscuit ware may be placed below and the glazed pieces on the shelf. in such case the shelf itself should be washed with a good coating of clay and flint in order to protect it from casual drops of glaze. if a number of small pieces are being made, more than one shelf should be set up. the legs may be just a little taller than the tallest of the small pieces, but the art of placing or filling a kiln economically consists in making selection of pieces which fit well together both as regards height and shape. thus, pieces which are large at the base may be dovetailed in with others of which the base is smaller than the upper part. in the case of clay ware the pieces may be set close together or even piled one upon another. there is no danger of sticking unless the ware is burned to complete vitrification. the glazed pieces must not, of course, touch each other. it will be seen, from these instructions, that there should be a good assortment of wares from which to select. economical firing cannot be managed if a burn be attempted whenever a piece is ready, and patience must be exercised so as to fill the kiln to advantage. it is important that anyone attempting to burn a kiln should have some understanding of the phenomena of combustion. many things occur in the firing which, without such an understanding, are not easily explained but which become perfectly clear when considered in the light of simple chemical science. combustion means oxidation or a combination between the elements of the fuel, principally carbon and hydrogen, and the oxygen of the air. this combination is a chemical action and as it proceeds heat is liberated. with a given amount of a specific fuel and a given amount of air there is always the same amount of heat, but the rate at which this heat is given off varies with the time occupied in the operation. heat may be generated slowly which means a low temperature, or the same volume of heat may be generated rapidly, occupying a much shorter time and developing a higher temperature. from these statements it will be seen that there is a difference between heat and temperature; heat means volume, temperature means intensity. thus the temperature derivable from a given amount of fuel depends upon the rapidity with which it is burned. combustion may be either complete or incomplete. in the former case enough air is supplied to oxidize all the fuel with, usually, some excess. the contents of the kiln are then bathed in the heated oxygen and the condition of the burning is called oxidizing. when the combustion is incomplete, on the other hand, there is a deficiency of oxygen. the kiln is charged with hot carbonaceous gases and smoke, and these, being hungry for oxygen, will abstract it from any substance which may be present. this condition is called reducing because the compounds which exist in clay or glaze are deprived of oxygen and thus reduced to a lower state of oxidation. in burning a kiln one should be able to produce either of these conditions at will because there are certain wares which require one or the other in order to secure the best results. to put the matter in a nutshell, oxidizing conditions are induced by a strong draft and open flues, reducing conditions are obtained by closing the air inlets and using a liberal amount of fuel. chapter xviii: high-temperature wares the subject of "grand feu ceramics" has been so ably developed by m. taxile doat in his admirable treatise[p] that it will be unnecessary to go deeply into the matter, but in order that the reader may be aware of what is involved, some description of the technique will be given. [p] keramic studio publishing co., syracuse, n. y. hard-fired wares are divided into two classes, porcelain and stoneware. the latter is called by the french, "grès," an abbreviation of the name "grès de flandres," the stoneware made in the low countries in the sixteenth century. both these wares are, technically, once fired, that is, the body and glaze come to maturity at one and the same burning. the biscuit ware is often given a low burn at first in order to facilitate handling, but this leaves the body very porous and is in no sense a maturing fire. the glaze is laid upon this porous ware, or upon the unburned clay if preferred, and then comes the high fire or "grand feu" of the french. a mix for a porcelain body has already been given but if the ceramist means seriously to attack the porcelain problem he will have to do some experimental work for himself. the georgia kaolin mentioned in the recipe on page 40 is a good, plastic clay but it is slightly off color. it may be necessary to improve the color by the use, in part, of another kaolin such as the harris clay from north carolina.[q] [q] the harris kaolin company, dillsboro, n. c. furthermore, in the preparation of a fine porcelain it is necessary to grind the whole mix upon a mill. the mill used for glaze grinding will answer every purpose and care must be taken that the grinding, while carried far enough, be not too long continued. a certain amount of fine grit in the body mass is necessary but only by constant practice can the right point be reached. in making these experiments each step should be faithfully noted in a handy book. the amount of water to a given weight of clay and the duration of the grinding should be accurately observed and written down. it is most unwise to trust to memory. the process of casting may be used for porcelain as already described, but the very best of workmanship is necessary. the hard fire to which the porcelain is subjected reveals every error which has occurred in the making. the same thing applies to wheel work. not only is great skill required in order to shape the tender porcelain clay on the wheel but the very essence of the porcelain is its lightness, to produce which by craftsmanship a long and arduous course of training must be endured. stoneware is free from many of these difficulties and, consequently one who attempts the conquest of high-temperature wares is advised to begin with this. stoneware clay need not be a mixture. there are many clays which can be used for the manufacture of grès with no more preparation than that laid down for common clays.[r] it sometimes happens that a clay will need the addition of a small quantity of flint or spar but this does not amount to a difficulty. [r] stoneware clays may be procured from the western stoneware company, monmouth, ill.; h. c. perrine and sons, south amboy, n. j. stoneware does not present the same manufacturing difficulties as are found in porcelain. the clay is quite plastic and can be easily shaped on the wheel; casting is scarcely a suitable process for this ware. the essence of stoneware is strength and virility, just as that of porcelain is lightness and grace. each ware has forms suited to itself and it is a mistake to depart from these essential characteristics. after shaping and drying the technical manipulation of both wares proceeds along the usual lines. the first fire is at a very low temperature. the melting point of silver (cone 010) is enough in nearly every case. this leaves the ware in a soft and porous condition but hard enough to resist the action of water. the process of glazing has already been described but the composition of the proper glazes differs from that of low temperature glazes. porcelain is always burned in a reducing fire; stoneware may be burned either reducing or oxidizing. the temperature at which the glaze is burned is very high, it must be, in fact, the maturing point of the body itself. the simplest form of porcelain glaze is that represented by the formula- k_{2}o .3 } cao .7 } al_{2}o_{3} .5 sio_{2} 4.0 which is carried out in the following mixture: feldspar 167 whiting 70 kaolin 52 flint 108 ---the glaze is ground for use. the same glaze will also serve for stoneware but it will burn to a brilliant surface whereas stoneware is better when finished with a matt texture. the following is a stoneware matt glaze: k_{2}o .3 } cao .7 } al_{2}o_{3} .7 sio_{2} 2.6 of which formula the mixture is- feldspar 167 whiting 70 calcined kaolin 66 raw kaolin 26 ---the porcelain glaze is at its best when uncolored. the matt glaze will be more interesting when used as a colored coating. the following are a few suggestions for colored matt stoneware glazes. to the glaze batch, 329 parts, add: for blue: cobalt oxide 2 parts nickel oxide 1 part ground rutile 10 parts for brown: iron oxide 6 parts nickel oxide 3 parts ground rutile 10 parts for green: chrome oxide 2 parts cobalt oxide 1 part iron oxide 4 parts for dark red: iron oxide 10 parts chrome oxide 2 parts zinc oxide 6 parts rutile has not before been mentioned. it is a crude oxide of titanium and is exceedingly useful in high temperature work for producing odd, mossy and crystalline effects. these mixtures make no pretense to be complete, they are given as suggestions only because if the artist-potter is to be successful he must be prepared to compound glazes which are the expression of his own individuality. for burning high-temperature wares the kilns already described may be used but upon purchasing it should be stipulated that the kiln is to stand burning up to cone 11 or 12. successful porcelain can be made at cone 10 but better results are secured at cone 12, though, of course, the wear upon the kiln is proportionately greater. stoneware requires a burn of about cone 9, higher or lower according to the clay used but fine results must not be expected below cone 7 nor is it necessary to go higher than cone 10. chapter xix: clay-working for children one of the modern developments of clay-working is the use of it in elementary and high schools as a branch of manual training. in this, clay meets the most exacting needs of the work for it affords a perfect means of self-expression. other arts interpose between the pupil and his material a series of tools or appliances, more or less elaborate, which constitute a barrier to the personal touch. clay presents no such obstacles. the ten fingers are all the tools that are necessary at the beginning and, consequently, the personal equation in clay-working is remarkably high. in the kindergarten the children take to clay work as little ducks to water and the interest is never lost. in this way, clay, instead of adding to the labors of a teacher already overburdened by a plethora of subjects, constitutes a real relief. the work is so interesting that it moves along of itself and all that is needed is intelligent direction. it is, of course, necessary that anyone attempting to teach clay-working to children should have a knowledge of methods and principles. the essence of power, especially in teaching, is reserve, but there is great danger in expecting too much from small heads and hands. in the early exercises the skill of the teacher should even be employed to conceal her art. it is a mistake to place before elementary pupils work which is far beyond their reach. let the teacher make before the class something which they themselves can do if they try and they will be encouraged to greater effort. a small cylinder is a suitable beginning exercise for several reasons. the form is definite and the result may therefore be easily criticized by the children themselves, the size of the piece may be readily adapted to the small fingers and the simplicity of line enables the attention to be concentrated upon the manipulation of the clay. this cylindrical form may be made more interesting by the addition of little feet or handles; by a simple line border incised along the upper edge; or by dividing the surface into well-spaced panels. the planning of the cylinder itself is a good exercise in rectangle proportion. in order to enable the pupils to turn their work from side to side each one should be provided with a piece of paper or cardboard the size of the base of the pottery. the building is started upon this and, managed in such a way, the clay does not stick to the table. when the idea of pottery building, either by coils or by pieces welded together, has been grasped, the children should be taught to think in the solid. there is almost always a difficulty in making children see that an outline drawing and a solid form may be alike in meaning. the teacher should draw upon the blackboard a simple jar in elevation, the plan, of course, will be a circle. the same thing is then made in clay by both teacher and children and the results are compared with the drawing. this will lead to the designing of the forms in outline by the children themselves. these designs should be made the exact size of the proposed pottery and if the outline be carefully cut out the line of the paper may be applied to the work as a template. by such means the children are led to produce accurate lines in the clay and control over the material is secured. there is always a temptation, when the clay sags or loses shape, to diverge from the original idea and to allow the material to shape itself. this inevitably leads to slovenly work and should be resisted from the first. the paper template helps to correct such an impulse and the pupil presently finds that the clay can be successfully controlled if enough trouble be taken. there is much interest too in the cutting of pottery forms from folded paper. a number of these forms may be pinned on a screen and the children led to select the best in line and proportion. too much emphasis cannot be laid on the necessity for showing the children fine examples of pottery, both ancient and modern. the more primitive types, where the form and the decoration are so perfectly adapted to each other and to the material, are full of inspiration for the child potter as well as for the adult. when one is fortunate enough to be near a museum, many illustrations will be found, but good photographs or drawings are available for almost everyone. constant comparison and the exercise of choice will lead to a development of taste, which must affect the child whether he later becomes a producer or a consumer. a flower holder is a good problem. it is a solid piece of clay two or three inches in diameter and an inch thick. this may be round or square in form and may have simple modeled decoration added to it. quarter inch holes are pierced at regular intervals, in fact, they themselves should form part of the design. for the older children a shallow bowl of good line with a flower holder to fit is an interesting problem. other good problems, which may be made more or less difficult according to the grade in which they are given, are rose jars, bread and milk bowls, incense burners, cylindrical jars, square fern dishes, candlesticks and small lamp bases. when working out decoration for pottery forms, it is well to have the children make their designs with the modeling tool upon the clay itself. if a piece of soft clay be rolled out flat upon the table it affords the best possible medium for making clay designs. the pupil is at once put in touch with the possibilities and limitations of the material. a drawing made upon paper may have to be entirely changed before it is suitable for use on clay. the soft surface can be smoothed over as often as necessary and a new sketch made until a design is approved for application to the pottery itself. in the chapter on decoration will be found suggestions for clay treatment. the making of tiles affords an interesting application of the principles of design, but the instructions in the chapter on tile should be followed in order to insure a workman-like product. if it is possible to use plaster, the making of a decorated tile from which a mold can be made and other tiles pressed is a good problem. animal forms lend themselves to the decoration of such tiles and are always interesting to children. while these chapters are especially devoted to ceramics in the sense of burned and glazed pottery a few words upon modeling as related to school work may be added here. imitative modeling from cast or copy with its development of animal and figure modeling, both from life and from memory, is valuable in the acquirement of the power of manipulation and control as well as in the cultivation of observation, imagination and memory. in the best regulated schools the work of the grades is often correlated in the study of some phase of human life. facts are grouped around some epoch or event in history or some country or clime in geography. the children take up the clay while their minds are full of the current subject and nothing more natural than that they should illustrate the story by models. such work is to be thoroughly commended as truly educational, though it does not fall strictly within the field of pottery and a few suggestions may therefore be in order. the modeling of animals or people for the sand table is full of interest for the younger children. such stories as "the three bears," "chicken little" and "the little red hen" immediately suggest themselves. for children of about the fourth grade "alice in wonderland" offers a most fascinating array of models. "the white rabbit," "the duchess," "the mock turtle," "the mad hatter," grotesques of all sorts, seem a natural outcome of this illustration work and the wise teacher will see the possibility for developing the imagination in the modeling of mythical creatures, such as dragons and gnomes, and in the personification of the elements. there is also an unlimited fund of material in the tales of knighthood and of fairyland. with the older children, simple principles of design and composition should be suggested. a paper weight is an interesting problem demanding the adaptation of form to space. many of these things may be modeled in clay, dried and painted with water color or one of the patent modeling clays which set like cement may be used. if no supports have been left in the model it may be fired when thoroughly dry. some of the best projects for sand table work involving modeling are eskimo life, indian life, farm life, the circus, and fairy tales. generally a suggestion is all that is necessary to call forth the most original conceptions and once started the children will soon far outstrip the teacher. index a alhambra vase, 16 armenian bole, 15 b ball-clay, tennessee, 40 bases for glaze, 143 berlin porcelain, 28 bisilicate glaze, 145, 146 black surfaced ware, 13 blistering of glazes, 166 building, clay for, 69 building, faults in, 72 building, methods of, 70, 71 built pottery, 10, 68 burning tiles, 139 c case for mold-making, 58 casting, 129 casting, slip for, 129 castor ware, 13 children, pottery for, 194 chinese porcelain, 23 clay, colored, 36 clay, crude, 9, 37 clay, decoration in, 173 clay, for building, 69 clay, for tiles, 134 clay, preparation of, 37 colored glazes, 24, 143, 163 colors, underglaze, 25, 143, 177 combustion, 186, 187 cones, pyrometric, 182 copenhagen porcelain, 27 crawling of glazes, 166 crazing of glazes, 165 cups and saucers, 124 d decoration, 173 decoration of tiles, 137 defects of glazes, 164 devitrification, 152 e earthenware, mixture for, 40 engobe ware, oriental, 15 f famille rose, 24, 26 famille verte, 24, 26 feet for vases, 105 firing the kiln, 179 fitness in design, 3, 4, 7 flowing of glazes, 145, 166 form and weight, 7 fritt for glaze, 158 fritting furnace, 159 g glaze, bases for, 148 glaze, bisilicate, 144, 145 glaze, calculation of, 150 glaze, fritt for, 158 glaze, pinholes in, 167 glaze, porcelain, 191 glaze, recipes, 160 glaze, stoneware, 191, 192 glazes, blistering of, 166 glazes, clear, 141, 161 glazes, colored, 143, 163, 192 glazes, crawling of, 166 glazes, crazing of, 165 glazes, defects of, 164 glazes, flowing of, 145, 166 glazes, grinding, 151, 155 glazes, ingredients for, 142, 143 glazes, matt, 152, 191 glazes, nature of, 141 glazing, 140 glazing tiles, 137, 138 grès de flandres, 21 gum tragacanth, 156 h hard porcelain, 23, 189 high-temperature wares, 188 i ingredients for glazes, 142, 143 j jars for storing clay, 41 k kiln, firing the, 179 kiln, portable, 180 kilns, 179 l lawns, silk, 41 large pieces, 107 m matt glazes, 152 methods of making tiles, 135, 136 molds for plates, 62, 63 molds for vases, 52 o oriental engobe ware, 15 ox-blood red, 24, 26 oxidizing fire, 187 oxygen ratio, 145 p pâte-sur-pâte, 14, 175 pieces, large, 107 pinholes in glaze, 167 plaster-of-paris, 45 plaster dishes, 46, 47 plaster head for wheel, 65, 78 plaster, setting of, 45 porcelain, berlin, 28 porcelain, copenhagen, 27 porcelain glaze, 191 porcelain, hard, 23, 189 porcelain, mixture for, 40 porcelain, sevres, 25 potter's wheel, 74 pottery, built, 9, 68 pottery, for children, 194 pottery, white-coated, 14, 168 props and bats for kiln, 182 pyrometric cones, 182 r recipes for glazes, 160 reducing fire, 187 s salt-glazing, 21 saucers, cups and, 124 shivering of glazes, 165 size, mold-makers', 44 slip, 38, 39, 129 slip for casting, 129 slip-painting, 175 stoneware, 21, 188, 190 stoneware glaze, 191 t tennessee ball-clay, 40 tiles, 133 tiles, burning of, 139 tiles, clay for, 134 tiles, decoration of, 137 tiles, glazing, 137, 138 throwing, 77 tin enamel, 164 tragacanth, gum, 156 turning tools, 100 u underglaze colors, 143, 177 v vase forms, turning, 49-52 vases, feet for, 105 vases, molds for, 52 w weight and form, 7 white-coated pottery, 14, 168 [advertisement] books for the craftsman ¶ we can always supply any book on the manual arts--whether it is issued by us or by any other publisher. ¶ our stock of these books is complete and our facilities for filling your orders promptly and carefully are unsurpassed. send your inquiries to us. ¶ a request will bring our various catalogs. d. van nostrand co., inc. 8 warren street new york city note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see 19423-h.htm or 19423-h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/9/4/2/19423/19423-h/19423-h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/9/4/2/19423/19423-h.zip) the story of porcelain by sara ware bassett author of "the story of lumber" "the story of wool" "the story of leather" "the story of glass" "the story of sugar" "the story of silk" etc. illustrated by isabel w. caley [illustration: "it was no ordinary dog"] [illustration] the penn publishing company philadelphia 1919 copyright 1919 by the penn publishing company [illustration] the story of porcelain _to_ _margaret huxley_ _this book is affectionately inscribed_ the bowl some master-craftsman, maker of porcelains, to the emperor, the son of heaven, having attained the paradise of artists, who mould in life and fire, fashioned this day: a bowl blue as the iris within the sacred gardens, based with a low design of brown bare hills, a pine or two new-tipped with tender needles, with oak buds, pink and saffron, and birds red, brown, and blue. into this bowl, exquisite and perishable, the patron of all artists heaps light and more light; then holding high the brimming chalice, quaffs, and folds it in his altar-cloth of stars. carl h. grabo. (_from the nation_.) contents i. into the woods ii. mr. croyden keeps his promise iii. theo meets with a calamity iv. mr. croyden's story v. the potter who burned his chairs vi. from vases to drain-pipes vii. porcelain at last viii. the third famous potter ix. the romance of french china-making x. how the italians made china xi. our english cousins xii. theo makes a present xiii. the trenton visit xiv. the beginning of the porcelain pilgrimage xv. how porcelain is made xvi. dishes, dishes everywhere xvii. the decoration of china xviii. theo's great choice illustrations "it was no ordinary dog" _frontispiece_ "i had forgotten all about bed" "he used every splinter of wood" "his servants dug some of the clay" "this is a present" "it is a costly process, and rather slow" [illustration] the story of porcelain chapter i into the woods theo swift dropped into a chair before the blazing fire in the log cabin, and drew a long breath of delight. at last his dream had come true; he was in the heart of the maine woods! it was a wonderful experience for a boy of his age to be his father's companion on a fishing trip. each spring when dr. swift had packed his tackle for his annual vacation into the wilderness, and theo had looked on with hungry eyes as the rods, flies, and tramping boots had been stowed away in the canvas grips, his father had said: "wait until you are a bit older, son, and you shall go with me." and now that day had come, and here he was! it seemed too good to be true. he glanced up to find his father smiling down at him. "well?" questioned the older man. "what do you think of the camp? does it come up to your expectations?" "i should say it did!" theo managed to gasp. "it is great, father!" "think you can be contented here for a month?" "contented!" laughed theo. "you won't be getting lonesome and wishing you were back in new york?" "not much." "well, i hope you'll have a good time. certainly with plenty of fishing and tramping you should. you will find manuel, our indian guide, a never-ending source of entertainment; he can do everything from dressing a moose to building a canoe. there isn't a trail through these woods that he couldn't travel blindfolded. you will be perfectly safe with him; only you must do exactly as he says, no matter how silly his orders may seem. he knows the woods better than you do--or than i do, for that matter. remember you are no longer on fifth avenue, where you can call a policeman or a taxicab if you get lost. this vast forest is an entirely different proposition." theo nodded. "how still it is," he said softly. "yes," rejoined his father; "that is why it means to me something that no other place can. after the rush of the city, the jangle of telephones, the constant sight of sick people, there is nothing to compare with the restfulness of these woods." the doctor, who had been standing with his back to the fire, his hands clasped behind him, drew out his pipe, lighted it, and puffed a ring of smoke into the air. "you have had a very busy year, father." "yes, and i fancy there will be a still busier one ahead. before i attack it i feel that it is my duty to get a good rest. in these war days a doctor never knows where he may be needed to serve. thus far my place seems to have been at a home hospital. with eight of our operating staff in france it has meant much extra work, too. not that i am complaining of that. i am only too glad to do my bit wherever it is. but i had got to the point where i felt that the man who can give the best service is the man who does not allow himself to become too fagged. so i determined to take my usual vacation even though on the face of it it seemed a crime to devote myself to nothing but fishing for a whole month." theo glanced into the face of the big, earnest man before him; he felt suddenly very grown up. his father had seldom talked to him like this. "this war," went on dr. swift thoughtfully, "is going to make demands on all of us--demands for money, work, and time. we should be proud to give these, for it is the first time our country has ever asked anything of our generation. we have taken unthinkingly all the benefits america has to offer--libraries; schools; well ordered cities to live in; the blessings of constant peace and prosperity. for it we have returned to the government only the slight taxes demanded for the up-keep of these things; and most of us, i blush to say, have grumbled a great deal about it, at that. as a nation we were becoming too comfortable, too rich, too selfish, too complacent. now a crisis has arisen when the united states is asking more of us, as it has every right to do; and we should be eager to prove our gratitude for all we have so freely received. only those who have traveled much can fully realize what a home and an education in a place like america mean. never forget, son, that all we can do, even to the sacrifice of our lives, is none too high a price to pay for our beloved country." "i wish i might have gone to france, father," said theo earnestly. "a boy of fifteen is too young to go," returned dr. swift. "if you were older i should be the first to bid you godspeed, for it is a great opportunity for service. those who are not sharing it are missing one of life's richest experiences. it means danger, privation, perhaps death; but it means also the exercise of all that is finest in our natures--patriotism, heroism, the dedication of ourselves to a great cause. i should have been proud to have you in france, theo. however, there is much a boy can do here and now. he can begin being a loyal unselfish citizen, and training himself to bear his part when he shall be older. get your education first. prepare yourself to be of value to humanity so that when your time to help comes it may find you useful and ready." there was a moment of silence. the great logs in the rough stone chimney crackled and snapped, and up the flue roared the blaze. outside all was still save when the breeze stirred the giant pines causing them to give out a mighty whisper like the murmur of the sea. it was a cozy interior over which the firelight flashed. the log cabin had been sheathed to keep it warm and tight, and to conceal its barrenness on the walls had been tacked a few gaily colored prints. on one side of the room were several well-filled bookshelves, while on the opposite wall were racks for pipes and guns. from over the fireplace an elk's head peered forth, catching the scarlet glow from the fire on its mammoth antlers. two small bedrooms which led out of this living-room completed the cabin. outside stood four others built exactly like this one, and in addition a dining-cabin, cook-house, and two cabins for the guides. aside from this tiny settlement on the lake's edge there was not a house for twenty miles. it was a wilderness indeed! "are there any other people staying here at the camp beside ourselves?" inquired theo at last. dr. swift, who had seated himself before the fire, nodded. "yes, there is a mr. croyden, from trenton, new jersey, whom i have met here before--a splendid man, whom you will like. he is a great fisherman--comes back every season just about this time. at present there is no one else, so you will not find the woods overcrowded." theo laughed at the bare suggestion, then yawned drowsily. "nor will you be troubled by not sleeping to-night, eh, son? you look about ready to hit the pillow this minute." "i am," replied theo. "i never was so sleepy in my life." "that is the maine air." "some of it is the effect of the corduroy road," the boy observed with a grin. "it is a beastly road, that carry," agreed dr. swift. "it shakes every bone in your body. when you do manage to get here, however, it certainly is worth the trip. do you feel as if you could worry down a little dinner?" "well, rather!" the doctor chuckled. "so do i. it ought to be ready soon now, for it is nearly six." just at this moment the sound of a horn was heard. dr. swift rose promptly. "that is dinner," he said. "i expected a bell," theo answered, springing up. "waiting for a japanese gong, are you? well, you won't hear it here." clapping a hand affectionately on his son's shoulder the elder man led the way to the dining-cabin and pushed open the door. upon the hearth inside another bright fire glowed, and before it stood a long roughly made table covered with immaculate enamel cloth, on which was spread a smoking meal. a man with a pair of merry brown eyes rose from his chair as the two travelers entered. "i am glad to see you, dr. swift," he exclaimed heartily, putting out his hand. "so you are back to the fishing grounds once more!" "i certainly am, mr. croyden, and thankful enough to be here. i've brought my boy, theodore, with me this time; theo, we call him." mr. croyden took the lad's hand cordially. "i'm glad to see you, youngster," he said. "if you prove half as good a fisherman as your father the two of you won't leave a trout or salmon in these waters." "but i'm not a fisherman at all," theo confessed. "i never cast a fly in my life." "you certainly have come to the right place to learn, then. your father has been neglecting your education, i fear. i see there is something we can teach you." "i'm afraid there are a good many things," replied theo modestly. mr. croyden regarded him approvingly. "that's right, boy," he said kindly. "never be afraid to learn. we all are still learning, at least i am; and i will wager your father is, too." "a doctor is always learning," assented theo's father. "and a business man as well," put in mr. croyden. "when we no longer need to learn we can be pretty sure we are near the end of our usefulness in this world. now suppose we begin your education, theo, by teaching you the proper way to eat a brook trout. how would that lesson please you?" there was a twinkle in the stranger's eye. "very much indeed." "i rather thought so," was the laughing answer. "here, franz, help dr. swift and his son to some of the fish i caught to-day. they are the first of the season, doctor, with my compliments." he made a courtly gesture with his hand. "remember, theo," he added, "always to open a fish up the back. in that way you can take the backbone out whole and save yourself a deal of trouble." theo nodded his thanks for the suggestion. what a dinner it was! the trout were fried to a rich bronze, and the crisp potatoes were discs of golden brown; in addition there were baked beans, smoking brown-bread, slices of creamy cheese, and a pyramid of doughnuts. at the conclusion of the meal franz came running from the cook-house with a covered dish heaped high with pancakes. it was only when the three campers were unable to crowd down another mouthful that they rose from the table. "don't you and theo want to come into my cabin and enjoy my fire for a while?" asked mr. croyden. "why, thank you, croyden," answered dr. swift; "we might make you a short call. we are off to bed early, however, so we must not stay long." mr. croyden's cabin proved to be a replica of the swifts' own cozy one, except that it was more sumptuously furnished; for mr. croyden, who was a hunter as well as a fisherman, had adorned both couch and floors with great bearskins, trophies of his luck. as his guests entered he hurried forward to put another four-foot log on the fire, after which he dragged out three steamer-chairs and placed them before the blaze. "all the comforts of home, you see," he said gaily. "more comforts than some of us get at home," smiled dr. swift. "there is nothing to equal this in new york." for a moment none of them spoke; they were watching the scarlet rise and fall of the flame. "what a lot of company a fire is!" mused dr. swift. "i know it," came from mr. croyden. "and did you ever think how easily we can produce it? within the space of a second we can start a blaze. a fire was quite another problem for our forefathers who lived long before matches were invented. think back to the time when people rubbed dried sticks together to make a spark; or later when they were forced to use flint and matchlock. it meant no end of work to capture that first light, and even then it frequently went out. how housewives struggled to keep the embers on the hearth always glowing that a new fire might be built without so much trouble; and how men carried from place to place coals enough to kindle other fires! when we strike a match and so quickly get our response of flame we do not half appreciate how fortunate we are." "i never thought what it would mean to have no matches," reflected theo. "man's discovery of the use of fire was one of the first steps in his civilization," dr. swift put in. "it meant that henceforth instead of eating raw food as did the other animals he could have it cooked. for man, you must remember, is the only animal who cooks his food." "and hand in hand with the cooking came the need of dishes in which to prepare it," rejoined mr. croyden. "meats could, of course, be broiled over the fire on a forked stick; but no stews or soups could be had until man invented some utensil which would contain liquid and at the same time withstand the heat of the blaze. that problem was the one that confronted all primitive races, and set them to fashioning pottery. the history of their first attempts is most interesting. probably chance led people to the discovery that they could mix clay with water, and that it would harden in the sun. they may have seen a print of their own feet immortalized in the sun-baked mud, and caught at the idea of taking the clay for more useful purposes. nobody knows where they got their first inspiration. but every race that has existed has had its crude receptacles for food and water." theo was not sleepy now; he was far too interested to think of sleep. "even in the stone age, when men lived in caves and great creatures now extinct roamed the earth, men made bowls, pots, and vases, some of which are in existence in our museums of to-day," continued mr. croyden. "we have, too, a few specimens of clumsy vessels made from grayish black clay which are relics of the lake dwellers, who fashioned their houses on piles, and set them in the middle of small lakes as a protection against wild animals and rival races of savages. then followed what is known as the bronze age, and we find that the people of this era also worked with clay. their designs showed a decided advance, too, even some simple decoration being attempted." "all that was in europe, i suppose," theo ventured shyly. "by no means," replied mr. croyden. "on the contrary, we have found in our own hemisphere specimens of this prehistoric pottery. in some cases baskets of twigs were woven and lined with clay, after which they were baked in the fire and the twigs burned off. other pieces were built up from coils of clay wound round and round, and when partly hardened these were worked together with a tool in order that the cracks might be filled. all through the western part of our country have been found clay relics of various early tribes of indians; and in some places are giant mounds in which have been buried all sorts of crude clay jugs and bowls. since these primal peoples used for materials the natural clays and earths they succeeded in producing some excellent colors, too." mr. croyden paused. "was the potter's wheel in use then?" questioned dr. swift. "probably not. there is no trace of it in this early work. it is not until the historic age that we have the potter's wheel, the oldest and first mechanical device mentioned in history. mexicans, peruvians, egyptians, greeks, assyrians, romans, gauls, teutons all used it." "i have seen some of the old mexican or aztec pottery," declared dr. swift, "and it was very interesting. it was of reddish clay, and i was told it was much like the variety made in peru. not only were there roughly modeled dishes and jars in the collection, but also all sorts of strange clay idols. you see, instead of worshipping the gods of goodness, theo, these early peoples thought they could propitiate the gods of evil if they worshipped them instead; accordingly they made all sorts of grotesque images, some of them very hideous. none of this clay work was glazed, of course, for at that time men had not yet discovered that they could put a glaze over the surface of objects and thus protect them and render them water-tight. it was a great pity that cortez and his followers destroyed this early mexican civilization, which was surprisingly advanced. "i suppose the peruvians had also gone quite as far if not further than the aztecs when in 1531 pizarro invaded south america," rejoined mr. croyden. "they were making some very good pottery decorated in red, black, and brown; and they must have known how to bake it, or the colors in the design would not have lasted until now." mr. croyden rose to stamp out a spark that had snapped from the fireplace onto the fur rug at his feet. "strange, isn't it, how much of our knowledge of the ancient races has come down to us through their clay work?" he reflected. "what should we have known of these western civilizations save through their handiwork? and when we travel across seas it is the same. much of our acquaintance with egyptian, greek, and roman life has been handed down to posterity through tiles and pottery which have served to record nations' customs and advancement. the march of the invading roman armies, for example, can be traced by the fragments of pottery left behind them. these relics have been found in england, france, germany, italy, and spain, and prove that very early the romans made use of clay utensils for cooking their food. even beneath the city of london old roman furnaces for firing dishes have been discovered; and moreover, some of the very dishes themselves." theo seemed astonished. "later the romans made much beautiful pottery; but it was never as beautiful as that of the greeks. sometime, however, theo, you should go to one of our museums and see some samian ware, the finest of roman clay work. the red in it is almost as vivid as sealing-wax, and it has a wonderful polish not unlike that on modern egyptian ware. no one has ever been able to discover from what clay this marvelous pottery was made. some historians think the ware was first made by wandering greek artisans. the romans also made a very beautiful black ware now known as upchurch pottery because of the location in england in which it was found. this black color, scientists have decided, was not produced by mixing a pigment with the clay as did the greeks, but resulted from an ingenious use of oxide of iron which, when burned by a reducing fire, turned black; the romans also gave us castor ware, a pottery moulded from a dark clay and having on it figures traced in a lighter color." "did anybody else in europe make as beautiful pottery as the greeks and romans?" inquired theo. "perhaps not so beautiful," answered mr. croyden. "yet before we hear either of greek or roman we find the egyptians and assyrians, nations famous for their skill in the arts as well as their prowess in war, making pottery and tiles. these have been preserved to us in tombs and pyramids, for these races, you know, were accustomed to pay great honor to their dead. it was a fortunate custom, too, since by means of it much history has come down to us which would otherwise have been destroyed. unquestionably the saxons, scandinavians, gauls, and teutons also made pottery, but their attempts were of a cruder sort. dishes, vases, toys have been exhumed in their countries, all displaying characteristic clay designs. but no country in the world has ever equaled the pottery of the greeks." "did the greeks----" began theo; but his father cut him short. "see here, young man," he declared, drawing out his watch, "this is no time of night for you to be setting forth on a history of greek pottery. you are going to bed." [illustration: "i had forgotten all about bed"] theo rose with a laugh. "i had forgotten all about bed," he said. "that speaks pretty well for your charm as an historian, croyden," observed dr. swift. "the boy could scarcely keep his eyes open at dinner." "can't you tell me about greek pottery some other time, sir?" asked theo. "i'd be glad to, sonny," mr. croyden returned. "i never dreamed a boy would be interested in such a dull subject." "it isn't dull when you tell it," came naively from theo. "that is the biggest compliment i ever had in my life," exclaimed the fisherman with pleasure. "you shall hear more of greek pottery to-morrow if by that time you still want to. good-night. the most beautiful thing i can wish you is that you dream of greek vases all night long." [illustration] chapter ii mr. croyden keeps his promise when theo awoke the next day the novelty of his surroundings drove every thought of greek pottery from his mind. as he peeped out of his window he could see slanting rifts of early sunlight flecking with gold the trunks of the great pines. from the chimney of the cookhouse a spiral of blue smoke was ascending and as it rose it carried into the air with it a pleasant odor of burning wood and frying bacon. theo did not dally with his dressing, you may be sure; he was far too hungry, and too eager to attack the program for the day. "put on thick boots, son," called dr. swift from his room. "the weather is fine. it is an ideal morning to tramp across owl's nest carry and fish in the lake beyond there." "what time is it, father?" inquired theo. "i forgot to wind my watch last night." "six o'clock. we shall have a three mile walk, and plenty of time to get in some fishing before the sun is high. then we can paddle up-stream to the camp at the farther end of owl lake and cook our lunch. how does that plan please you?" "hurrah!" cried theo. "is there a camp like this over there?" "oh, no. just a lean-to which serves as a shelter, if people want to spend the night and be on hand for early morning fishing. sometimes, too, i have gone over in the late afternoon and fished until dark, afterward turning in on the pine boughs for the night. it is only a crude little camp, but it is perfectly comfortable. you will like owl lake. it is smaller than this one, but it has a very pretty shore bordered with a stretch of white sandy beach." "it must be a great place for swimming." "it is. just now, however, the water is too cold. later in the season when things get warmed up it is the finest bathing place imaginable. are you ready for breakfast now?" "yes, sir." "then you'd better run along. i will join you in a few moments. i must go first and see manuel about the lunch." "all right, sir." through the crisp morning air theo bounded across to the dining-cabin, where he found mr. croyden. a bright fire burned on the hearth and the table with its heaping plates of hot johnny-cake looked most inviting. "hello, youngster!" called the older man, glancing up with a smile. "how do you find yourself to-day? all lamed up after your jolt over the carry?" "not a bit, mr. croyden," laughed theo. "i'm not lame at all. i'm just hungry." "a perfectly normal condition. so long as you can eat i guess there is not much the matter with you." "oh, i can always eat," grinned theo. "mother says my appetite never goes back on me." "well, fall to. it looks as if franz had prepared for the worst," chuckled mr. croyden. "what are you and your dad up to to-day?" "we are going to owl lake to fish." "that isn't a bad beginning. it is not a long tramp, and the fish are biting well over there. i have tried it several times and had excellent luck. you are wise to start in gradually and not attempt too long a jaunt at first. there is everything in getting into training, as your father well knows." there was a bang of the door, and dr. swift entered. "good-morning, doctor," said mr. croyden. "so you and your son are to try your skill at owl to-day?" "yes. that seemed to be a good starter." "an excellent one." "why don't you come along with us?" "i?" "yes; that is, unless you have other plans. we should be glad to have you. the more the merrier." "i wish you would come, mr. croyden," urged theo. "that is very kind of you," returned mr. croyden, hesitating a little. "i had not planned my day. are you sure you want so many?" "three is not many. come along, by all means," declared dr. swift. "manuel says the lake has not yet been fished much and that the trout are biting well. get tony, your guide, to pack up your tackle and bring some lunch. i am afraid we have not enough for all hands." mr. croyden sprang to his feet. "i'll do that," he replied. "what time are you starting?" "just as soon as i have succeeded in getting theo to take a little nourishment," returned the doctor. this task dr. swift evidently did not find difficult, for within a half hour the party were setting forth through the woods. the luncheon, tackle, and sweaters had been put into a canoe, which tony and manuel raised to their shoulders as if it were a feather. "there is a punt over at owl that we can use, so we shall need only one canoe," explained manuel as he strode along. the carry was not a rough one, but to theo, accustomed to the smoothness of city pavements, it seemed very rough indeed. he was continually stepping into holes or climbing over fallen tree-trunks, and although a good walker, the pace the guides set made him pant. even dr. swift was forced to confess that he was out of breath and was obliged now and then to stop and rest. mr. croyden, on the contrary, swung along the narrow trail with the ease of an indian. "you will get into trim in a few days," he observed encouragingly to theo. "i myself am always stiff and slow until i get limbered up." when, however, owl lake finally came into sight both theo and his father instantly forgot their fatigue. there stretched the tiny sheet of water, a gem of flashing blue whose calm surface mirrored the pines and delicate birches bordering its margin. the punt and canoe were launched, the tackle unpacked, and amid a silence broken only by the dip of oar and paddle the fishermen drifted out into the stillness. ah, it was a day never to be forgotten! certainly theo would never forget it, for it was during the first half-hour of this arabian night's dream that he proudly landed a beautiful lake trout, the first one he had ever caught. from the moment he felt the tug at his line until his catch was safely in the bottom of the boat his excitement was tremendous. how the little creature pulled! how it swept away with the bait into deep water! with manuel, dr. swift, tony, and mr. croyden all coaching him, and almost as frenzied as he, poor theo hardly knew where he was. but he obeyed the insistent command of: "_play him! play him!_" and play him he did. even with the captive's final leap into the air the trout did not succeed in freeing itself from the hook. keeping his prize well away from the boat that the line might not slacken theo at last reeled in his victim. he gasped when the feat was accomplished. the second time he knew better what to do; and before the sun was high and the fish had ceased to bite he landed five beauties. in the meantime both his father and mr. croyden had been so absorbed in watching his pleasure that they had almost forgotten their own lines, and it was not until a big land-loch struck that the doctor remembered he, too, was fishing. when finally a lull in the sport came and the party pulled up-stream toward the lean-to, there were a dozen good-sized trout in mr. croyden's basket and as many more in the doctor's. then came the disembarking at the upper end of the lake, and the building of the fire. dry wood was taken from the shelter of the house, and in the clearing before the camp, on a foundation of large flat stones, the fire was kindled. it was a marvel to theo to see how quickly manuel and tony made things ready. they produced a small frying-pan, greased it, and had the fish sizzling in it before you could say jack robinson. then they unpacked the hampers and brought forth tin plates, knives, and forks. how good the meal tasted! the great slices of bread-and-butter, with layers of creamy cheese between them, seemed a royal feast to the ravenous sportsmen; and the steaming coffee and thin slices of crisp bacon food for the gods. as for the trout--particularly the big one theo himself had caught--well, there never was such eating! after lunch was done the fishermen were loth to leave the sunny shelter of the cabin. dr. swift and mr. croyden lounged on the door-sill, while theo skipped stones in the water until his arm was tired. then exhausted by his exertions he sank wearily down on a stump near the lean-to and remarked: "why wouldn't this be a good time, mr. croyden, to tell us some more about greek pottery?" "greek pottery? bless my heart! i thought you had forgotten all about that." "so i had when i was fishing," confessed theo honestly. "but i have remembered it again now." "you are a frank youngster," laughed mr. croyden. "well, let me see. you know the making of pottery was a fine art among the greeks. they made two kinds--neither of them glazed, of course, because at that time nobody knew how to glaze pottery. the first kind was a pottery of red clay on which were placed decorations of black pigment; the other was a pottery on which they painted figures in red, afterward filling in the background around them with black. these two varieties of ware are briefly known as black on red, and red on black. the black portion of this pottery possessed a wonderful polish which came from the black pigment mixed with the clay; the red part, on the contrary, had no lustre, evidently being smoothed and polished with some hard tool after the vase was finished. these vases were very beautiful in form and design, no two of them being alike. each was made by an individual artist who pleased himself as to the arrangement of the birds, animals, and gracefully draped figures with which he decorated it. the famous franã§ois vase at florence is a marvelous example of this sixth century workmanship; every inch of its closely adorned surface is covered with carefully drawn figures in black, white, and purple. this particular piece was probably made by two athenian artists, as it shows two distinct types of work. think how fortunate we are to have had it come down to us unbroken through the tumult of the years!" mr. croyden gazed thoughtfully into the fire. "you know that at the time these exquisite vases were made the entire greek nation was devoting itself to the fashioning of beautiful things. sculptors were carving wonderful statues, toiling eagerly to make each piece more perfect in form; architects were rearing such buildings as the world has never since seen; and in the centre of athens a district was reserved which was entirely occupied by the shops of potters and painters and known as the _ceramicus_. it is from this ancient word that our present day term ceramics is derived. within this area devoted to the making of pottery the artists worked, each one reverently bending his energy to give to the world a thing which should be as nearly perfect in form and decoration as he could make it. thousands of vases went out, many of them into the homes of rich, beauty-loving greeks; many into the temples; and many into athenian tombs; for the people of this nation always loyally honored their dead. in addition to these vases there were smaller articles--perfume bottles, jars for wine or water, utensils used at ceremonials in the temples; and the beautiful amphora, a vase given as a prize at the great greek festivals, and the progenitor of the silver cups we now give the winners in athletic games. this latter type of vase had two handles and frequently its base was tapered to a point in order that it might rest in a tripod, or be thrust into the earth. at the louvre in paris there is a very famous greek amphora which i hope you will see some day." "i should like to see it," declared theo eagerly. "i intend you shall, son," put in dr. swift. "i mean to give you the chance to see all the finest things in the world, if i have my way." theo smiled gratefully into his father's face. "when we marvel at the grace and perfection of greek decoration we must bear in mind that as a spur to their artistic sense the people had beauty constantly before them. theirs was a country of smiling skies, of blue heaven and golden sunshine; their buildings breathed the very essence of all that is highest in art; even the throngs that filled the streets were picturesque and classic in appearance. for in those days fashions of dress did not change as capriciously as they do now. a beautiful style of costume was adopted and retained, and in consequence artists had ever before them men and women who were excellent models for chaste decoration. in our time such a procedure would be impossible, as the national dress of both our men and women has become utilitarian rather than beautiful, and now has little artistic to recommend it. if we wish classic draperies and faultless styles of hair-dressing we must revert to the past for our models." there was a silence broken only by the snapping of the fire. "to give you some idea how much of this pottery the greeks turned out i must tell you that at naples there is a collection of two thousand greek cups and vases. the vatican at rome has one thousand more; florence has seven hundred; turin five hundred; vienna three hundred; berlin about seventeen hundred; the louvre at paris fifteen hundred; and the british museum nearly twenty-six hundred. besides these there are some twenty thousand more scattered all over the world in private collections." a whistle of surprise escaped theo. "not all of these are equally good, however," went on mr. croyden. "the etruscan work done by wandering greek potters and by some persons rated as identical with the roman samian ware, is one of the finest varieties remaining to us; probably because it escaped being buried with the dead and therefore was not injured or discolored by the soil as were so many of the greek vases found at athens. moreover, we must remember that not every artist who made and decorated an object excelled. naturally some did more perfect work than others, even in the days of the best grecian art. how sad it is that at a later period in history the work of the greeks became less fine because the ideals of the race degenerated. pottery makers, sculptors, and builders began to produce cheap, gaudy things which were lavishly decorated, and reflected the luxury and extravagance that had crept into the nation. from that moment the glory of greece decayed. for it is the ideals of a country and its people that serve as guide-posts to the greatest and finest deeds. unless each individual in a land aims at the purest and best his country will never reach holiness. it is the struggle for perfection in every field of life that results in fine art, fine men, and fine nations." mr. croyden had become very grave. then he rose abruptly, took out his pipe, and knocked the bowl of it upon a stump. "well, well," he exclaimed with a swift return to his accustomed gaiety, "i think i have lectured long enough. see! manuel has everything packed up and is waiting for us. suppose we start back home." but theo was very quiet on the trip back to the camp. he was thinking about the greeks. [illustration] chapter iii theo meets with a calamity it was when theo had been three days in camp that the accident happened. outside the cook-house stood a ladder to be used in case of fire, and as one morning the boy passed it, it suddenly came to him what fun it would be to mount to the ridge-pole of the cabin and toss a handful of tiny pebbles down on the heads of the guides as they passed through the door beneath. what a surprise it would be to tony and franz to have the stones come clattering down upon them; and what sport it would be to watch them as they tried to solve the riddle as to where the missiles came from! it was a foolish scheme, and probably had theo thought it over a second time he would have abandoned it; but he was an impulsive boy who often acted before he carefully considered what he was doing. therefore without a moment's hesitation he cautiously dragged the ladder to the end of the cabin and, making sure that no one was looking, began climbing it. he was on the top rung and was just stepping softly to the roof when there was a snapping of rotten wood and the bar beneath his foot gave way, sending him crashing headlong to the ground. fortunately for theo the cabin was a low one, and he had not far to fall; but in trying to save himself he twisted one leg beneath him, and the result was most disastrous. he felt a sudden sharp pain as he struck the earth, and when a second later he attempted to rise he discovered to his chagrin that it was impossible for him to do so. every movement he made hurt him excruciatingly, and presently feeling both faint and dizzy he abandoned further effort. for an interval he lay very still, ashamed to call for help; then pocketing his pride he began to yell lustily. his cries brought franz and manuel from the kitchen, mr. croyden from his cabin, and dr. swift from his room. luckily it was just noontime and every one was indoors awaiting lunch. of what followed theo had only a vague idea. he remembered that his father and mr. croyden raised him in their arms, and that in spite of their gentleness he had cried with pain at their touch. then he had been put on his bed where his father proceeded to examine the injured leg. every motion the doctor made caused the boy intense agony. afterward he had been allowed to rest, and then his father bent over him very gravely and with trembling lips said: "son, i've got to hurt you; i've got to hurt you a great deal. your leg is broken, and we are miles from a hospital. i have no ether to give you, and the bone must be set. i want you to be as brave as you can and bear the pain that i must cause you. i need not tell you that i will work as gently as possible. now pull yourself together and show me the sort of son i have. the more steady your nerve is the more it will help me, and the sooner i can finish what i must do." "all right, father." "that's the stuff!" ejaculated mr. croyden, who was standing at the bedside. "you are a genuine spartan, theo." the lad smiled feebly. "i'll try to be." "of course you will! you are your father's own boy." dr. swift stooped and touched the drawn forehead with his cool hand. "i am going to leave you with mr. croyden for a few moments while i get some of the things i need," he said in a low tone. "keep perfectly still and rest a little if you can. there is no need for you to worry. we will have you all fixed up within an hour. it is a clean break--a merciful thing, for we couldn't take an x-ray of it if we wanted to." with these words he left the room. it was some little time before he returned, and in the meanwhile mr. croyden sat beside theo's bed and talked cheerily. "nothing like traveling with your own doctor," he remarked jocosely. "now if my leg was broken i should have to hire some one in to see it, and it would cost me a pretty penny. but here you are miles from a settlement with your own private physician in attendance. were you a young prince you could not be more royally cared for. think of having one of the best new york surgeons at your beck and call here in this wilderness. you are a lucky beggar!" theo laughed faintly. "as for splints--here is a forest of the finest, straightest, and strongest timber. what more can you ask? you couldn't do things on a grander scale if you were in new york city." again theo smiled. "your father will have you comfortable as a cricket before long," went on mr. croyden, "and you will be all ready to start back----" "start back!" interrupted theo in distress. "oh, surely, mr. croyden, father is not going to take me home!" the older man hesitated. "oh, of course i have no way of knowing what your father means to do," he protested hastily. "i only imagined that you would be more comfortable at home, and would rather go. there really would not be much point in staying out the month here, would there? you see, you won't be able to get about, and your father would not like to go off every day and leave you here alone in camp." "but father has spent all this money to come into the woods, and he has looked forward to the trip so much!" groaned theo. "besides, he is very tired and needs the rest; he told me so. if he takes me back home he will miss it all! he doesn't want the vacation just for his own fun, but so he can serve our country better if he is needed. i don't see why we couldn't stay on here just as we planned, even if i have a broken leg," was theo's concluding plea. "think how stupid it would be for you to be left in the house alone." "i shouldn't care. i could find some way to amuse myself." "but your father----" "he could go fishing just as he always does!" exclaimed theo promptly. "you surely don't suppose i'd be so selfish as to make him stay in the house just because i had to, do you? you see"--theo colored and then went on bravely--"this accident was my own fault. father told me the other day to let that ladder alone--and i didn't. it serves me right to break my leg. if i had been in dad's place i'd have said: _i told you so_. but he didn't even whisper it. he was just patient and kind as he always is. can't you understand now, mr. croyden, that i am the one to be punished--not dad? if we go back home it will be punishing him too, and that wouldn't be fair, would it?" "no, not fair at all," admitted mr. croyden slowly. "that is what i think," nodded theo. "you see, i am the one to suffer." "if you disobeyed, i guess you are." "i did disobey." "humph! it was a pity." "i'm sorry; but it is done now," said theo soberly. "you know how you feel when you've done wrong. it's bad enough anyhow; and it makes you feel a hundred times worse if somebody else gets the blame for what you've done--somebody who doesn't deserve it." "yes." "so, you see, that is why i want you to urge father to stay on here," begged theo. "tell him the maine air will do me good; tell him i'll get a fine rest keeping still; tell him--oh, tell him _anything_; only don't let him pack up and go home, and have his whole vacation spoiled. if you'll just get him to stay, mr. croyden, i will promise not to bother, and he can go off every day and fish just as if i weren't here." "you are a trump, theo." "it--it is only that i think it's square, sir," faltered theo. there was not time for further discussion, for at this juncture the door opened and dr. swift, followed by manuel, entered. theo knew the moment for his boasted heroism had come. he shut his lips tightly, and although the interval of anguish which followed forced the tears from his eyes he made no outcry. but never in his life had he experienced such pain. he did not know there was such pain in all the world. when it was over and, faint from suffering, he lay languidly back among the pillows, dr. swift's stern face relaxed, and it was then theo realized for the first time that his father, too, had been bracing himself to meet the ordeal and had also been suffering. "my poor boy!" was all the doctor said. "you have borne it like a man! i am proud of you, theo." the words were few, but the praise was at that moment very precious. his father sat with him the remainder of the day, as well as a good part of the night, and during the wakeful hours when the boy tossed to and fro he would have ventured to speak about staying in camp had not dr. swift bidden him to be quiet every time he attempted to talk. the next morning, however, after the invalid had been bathed and had his breakfast the doctor said of his own accord: "so you think you would be happier to remain here in the woods, theo, instead of going home." the lad glanced up in surprise. "did mr. croyden tell you that?" dr. swift nodded. "he said you'd like to stay," he returned quickly. "i should, very much." "suppose we call it settled then, and say no more about it. i am sure i have no wish to jolt you over those miles of rough corduroy road if it can be avoided. you seem better this morning. your fever has gone down, and i see no reason why you should not get on all right from now on." theo smiled; then he whispered timidly: "i just want to tell you i'm sorry i disobeyed you, father." his father put out his hand gently and covered the boy's two with his own. "you have the worst of it, son. experience is a great teacher, they say. let it help you not to do such a foolish thing again." theo met his father's eyes gratefully. he still felt weak and shaken and he was thankful not to have his fault rubbed in. during the long hours of the long days that followed the lad had many an opportunity to put his unselfish resolutions into practise. he insisted that his father and mr. croyden go off on the long tramps they had each season been accustomed to take together, and during their absence he remained with franz, who was very kind to him. the indian had a great many devices for entertaining him. now he fashioned for the boy's amusement a miniature birch-bark canoe; now he showed him how to weave baskets from lithe twigs of alder. sometimes he whittled wonderful whistles and toys from bits of wood; sometimes made tiny bows and arrows or snowshoes. his resources seemed never ending. then when night came and dr. swift and mr. croyden returned from fishing theo was always carried into the living-room of the cabin, and while he lay on the couch before the fire he would listen to the tale of the day's adventures. this bedtime hour was the best in the whole day. at last there came a morning when theo awoke to hear a storm beating noisily down upon the roof. the wind was blowing hard and sheets of rain drenched the windows. "there'll be no fishing to-day," announced dr. swift after breakfast. "instead manuel is going out over the carry for provisions, and before he goes i must write some letters for him to take. in the meantime mr. croyden wants to know if you would like to have him come in and talk with you for a while?" "like it!" was the delighted exclamation. "i believe i hear him now. yes, here he is. come in, croyden!" called the doctor heartily. "our patient says he will be glad to see you." "glad? i should say i should!" mr. croyden chuckled. "i don't know that any audience ever gave me such a royal welcome before," he declared with amusement. "how do you find yourself this morning, sonny? able to talk greek pottery?" "able to hear you talk it," theo answered instantly. "i am thinking of shifting my subject to-day and telling you about chinese and japanese pottery instead." "that will be fine." "very well, we'll begin our lecture right away, since the audience seems to be assembled," observed mr. croyden merrily. "not only have you a private physician but a private lecturer, you see. my, but you are a royal personage! one thing will be very satisfactory about this audience. no matter whether it likes my talk or not it can't run away." there was a peal of laughter from theo. in the meantime mr. croyden poked the fire into a blaze and sitting down in a comfortable chair began his story. [illustration] chapter iv mr. croyden's story "hundreds and hundreds of years ago," said mr. croyden, "while the egyptians, assyrians, greeks, and romans were experimenting at pottery-making, the chinese, inside their great walled country, were busy with the same task. in fact as far back as two thousand years before christ the chinese were famous potters, making earthenware of such fine quality that it was difficult to tell whether it was pottery or porcelain. for the two are quite different, you must remember, theo. it is not enough to say that pottery is thick and porcelain thin, for much of the chinese and japanese pottery is very thin indeed. the difference lies in the clay itself, of which the ware is made. do not forget that. pottery is an opaque ware composed of various combinations of clay which afterward may or may not have a coating of glaze put over it. but genuine porcelain is made from a mixture of quite different materials--a mixture of decomposed feldspar known as kaolin, and petuntse." mr. croyden paused a moment. "there are of course so-called porcelains made from other ingredients; but we call them soft paste chinas, and do not rate them as true porcelains. only a hard paste, or kaolin ware, is acknowledged by experts to be genuine porcelain. now all this sounds very simple. by putting the kaolin and the petuntse together in the right proportions, moulding the clay, and afterward applying to it a glaze of some sort the chinese made their porcelain, and very beautiful porcelain it was. some day i will tell you more about it. this porcelain was not only very hard but was semi-translucent; by that i mean that if it was held to the light one could see the glow through it. it was not, of course, transparent like glass. these two qualities of hardness and translucence help us to distinguish porcelain from pottery." again mr. croyden stopped. "for example, canton ware, commonly known as canton china, is not really china at all, but is instead a fine quality of stone, or earthenware, coated over with a slip or glaze containing porcelain. nor is the exquisite satsuma ware china; that too is a pottery." theo listened intently. "now all this time the chinese kept the secret of how they made their wares to themselves, not sharing their knowledge with any outside peoples. many a nation would have given almost anything to know from what materials the beautiful bowls, vases, and dishes were made. it would have saved years and years of the toil of patient men. but the chinese had no mind to tell any one. instead, they went on making more and more pottery and porcelain, improving their work with each successive generation. it is amusing to recall that while our ancestors in england were barbarians, and were eating out of the crudest clay vessels or from trenchers of wood, the chinese were enjoying the luxury of the finest pottery and porcelain." theo's eyes opened very wide. "undoubtedly the chinese deserved the good results they obtained, for they selected their clays with extreme care; ground and mixed them most skilfully; modeled each piece with the keenest feeling for its beauty and perfection; and decorated it in a truly artistic spirit. "in the meantime they constantly became more and more expert. they began to learn the use of colors, and to perfect them. some of the blues or cobalts they employed have never been surpassed. one for instance is the blue used on their nankin china, and known as nankin blue." "did the japanese make pottery too?" questioned theo. "yes, but we do not know exactly how early they began to make it. probably some of the japanese crossed to china and there learned the art. some think pottery-making came into japan through korea. however that may be, long before other countries had to any extent perfected the manufacture of glazed pottery and porcelain china, japan, persia, and india had turned their attention to it. as far back as 1000 b. c. the japanese were making porcelains similar to those of china. then followed a long stretch of years when, because of various wars between china and japan, the art of producing glazed pottery and porcelain was lost. all those workmen who possessed any knowledge of their manufacture perished. this was the period when the greeks and romans were making their red and black ware which, you recall, they did not know how to glaze, and therefore had no means of preventing liquids from leaking through it." "i wish they had had the secrets of the chinese and japanese!" theo said. "i wish so too," echoed mr. croyden. "as it was, they struggled along with their beautiful pottery vases through which the water percolated just as it does through a flower-pot. and so it was for a time in china and japan. it was not until centuries afterward that the chinese and japanese again rediscovered the art they had lost, and by that time the greeks and romans were no more, newer races having taken their places. some of the wonderful old enamel work of the chinese, however, was never reclaimed, and rare pieces of porcelain of a kind no one has yet been able to reproduce remain to tell us of the skill of those ancient chinese workmen." "if the chinese kept everything so secret how did the art of glazed pottery-making ever get into europe?" asked theo. mr. croyden smiled. "it was a marvel that it ever did," he answered slowly. "of course as people traveled little in those days one country did not know much about what another was doing. but there were wars when much booty was carried from one land to another; the pilgrimages of the crusaders, too, helped to spread a knowledge of widely separated sections. gradually bits of chinese pottery and porcelain found their way into different parts of the east; and as a consequence men began to be highly dissatisfied with their red and black ware, and with the crude clay dishes they had previously thought so fine. they wanted to make white ware like that of the chinese. but because they did not know what clays to use, or how to glaze their products, all their experiments failed. there did nevertheless appear throughout the orient a ware of common clay over which a simple covering of white had been painted, and this slip or engobe of white gave to the variety the name of oriental engobe. this type of ware decorated with a conventional dull-hued design was many years later revived and imitated by theodore deck of paris, one of the great french porcelain makers. but even this was not like the white chinese ware everybody wanted so much to make." "did they never find out the secret?" "of that i will tell you some other time. it is a most interesting story," returned mr. croyden. "in the meantime the moors and arabs who had lived in the orient had in some way learned that tin or lead could be used for enameling clay surfaces. the discovery apparently did not particularly interest them because, you see, in the east minerals were not plentiful. when, however, in the twelfth century they conquered spain they found in that country quantities of lead and tin, and they then recalled that these could be used as a glaze for pottery. in consequence they promptly set to work making an enameled ware called majolica or maiolica from the island of maiorca. these moors were a highly cultured race who built in spain beautiful temples and palaces, among them the alhambra, of which perhaps you have read." theo's eyes shone. "we read about it at school!" he cried. "i am glad to hear that," exclaimed mr. croyden. "then you will remember what a wonderful structure it was. in its interior have been found many highly glazed tiles beautifully designed and decorated in colors and in gold. within this palace, too, was found the famous alhambra vase, three feet four inches in height, and made in 1320. it is a piece of work quite different from anything the greeks made, but in its way is quite as perfect. it is of earthenware, with a white ground, and is enameled in two shades of blue with a further decoration of gold or copper lustre. i speak particularly of this use of glaze because it is very important. until people knew how to glaze their wares many of the comforts and conveniences of living were impossible. men carried water or wine in leather gourds, or in clay vessels coated on the inside with a layer of gum to prevent the contents from leaking or evaporating." "i should think the gum would have made the liquid taste," said theo. "it did. that was precisely the trouble. beside that think of the waste. suppose you lost half the water you needed for your journey by having it evaporate. think in addition what it meant if a large part of your food dried up in the cooking." theo looked grave. "i should not like that at all." "nor did your ancestors," laughed mr. croyden. "well, it was to these mohammedan arabs, or saracens, as they are termed, that europe fundamentally owed its knowledge of the use of glaze, and its consequent beginning in the art of pottery-making. the saracens did not, however, remain in spain. there was an uprising of the christians and they were either driven out or slaughtered, almost every relic of their civilization being destroyed. a stray temple or palace alone remains as a monument to them and this was more the result of chance, probably, than of intention. for two centuries following came an interval known as the dark ages, when none of the arts flourished. but before the moors had fled from spain the italians who lived near at hand and whose territory the invaders often plundered had tired of their pillaging and in return had made an expedition into the saracens' country bringing back with them to italy some of the majolica ware of the arabs. when the nations began to awaken out of their two hundred years of warfare and strife, and genoa, venice, and leghorn became great commercial centres, then the renaissance came and the italians, who were ever an ingenious people, began among other things to attempt to copy the glaze on this majolica ware. as a result in the fifteenth century luca della robbia, who was both a sculptor and a potter, contrived to perfect his wonderful glazed terra cotta." "not the delia robbia who did the singing boys we have on the wall at school!" "the very same. he made great blue and white enameled tiles for wall decoration too; figures of babies and children, as well as whole altars fashioned entirely from this beautiful enamel. whether he used a plumbiferous, or lead glaze; or a stanniferous, or tin glaze, we do not know. probably it was of tin. but the important fact is that he got a fine durable surface, very shiny and very hard, which wrought a revolution in pottery-making. if you visit florence some time you can still see set in the walls of some of the public buildings the identical enameled terra cottas made by luca della robbia." "i'd like to see them." "then tell your dad to take you to italy after this war is over. we will pray that germany may spare these art works of the world." mr. croyden did not speak for a moment; then he said: "and while you are remembering so many things remember in addition that the word _glaze_ comes from the term _glassing_ or _glazing_, which means putting a coating of glass over the surface. of course the covering is not really glass, but it is hard and shiny, and so people used to think it was. some day i will tell you more about the different kinds of glazes." "so it was the italians who gave europe its glazed pottery and porcelain," remarked theo. "not alone the italians," protested mr. croyden, "although they helped. somebody else had a share in the discovery--somebody very far away from italy. it was the knowledge of the italians combined with the skill of this other distant nation that gave to europe the perfect product." "what nation was that?" demanded theo. "the dutch." "the dutch!" "yes. you see at this time the dutch were great traders, and it was while the nation was at the height of its commercial glory that the dutch began bringing from china shipments of chinese porcelain. portuguese traders had also brought some of it into europe, so in these two ways the beautiful blue and white ware we know so well was introduced to the continent. "the portuguese were content to import it; they never attempted to copy either the pottery or the porcelain. but the dutch were more ambitious. as early as 1300 they began experimenting with glazed pottery. to the knowledge of glaze which they got from italy they added all they could find out about the making of chinese wares. they learned that the blue color the chinese got came from oxide of cobalt, which would melt and mingle with the glaze when exposed to a high temperature; they also learned a little--a very little, of the clay. as a result they began to turn out a blue and white pottery known as delft, which they soon made in great quantities and sold to european nations at a much lower price than imported chinese potteries and porcelains could be bought." mr. croyden bent forward and tossed a small log upon the fire. "this fact revolutionized daily living throughout europe. up to this time you must remember the common people everywhere were using square pieces of tile or wood for plates, and were eating from wooden bowls or hollowed out slabs of wood called trenchers. the more well-to-do used pewter, and kings and queens dined from dishes of silver. there was, it is true, some earthenware made in saxony and france, but as it was of a finer and more expensive quality than delft ordinary persons could not afford to buy it. "at the time the dutch began importing their delft ware into england henry iv was on the throne; so you see how long ago all this happened." mr. croyden smiled mischievously. "i suppose you have that date at your tongue's end," he added. "i think it was about 1400," ventured theo thoughtfully. "bravo! i had no idea you would remember it. henry iv reigned from 1399 to 1413, so you see you are nearly right. as delft ware began to be manufactured in 1310 the art was pretty well developed by this time, and much beautiful pottery was being made. some of the best dutch painters were trying their hand at its decoration, and in the museums of the hague there are old delft pieces painted by many of these famous artists. most of the scenes upon them were copied from the landscapes the dutch saw every day--windmills, ships, dutch women in their quaint costumes, fishermen, and children in wooden shoes,--the ordinary sights, such as were common in holland, but novel and interesting to those who lived in other places. there were, too, many imitations of chinese ware adorned with copies of chinese designs. bear in mind, theo, that all of this was pottery, not porcelain; for the secret of porcelain-making had not yet been fathomed," said mr. croyden impressively. "it was glazed pottery," responded theo. "exactly," nodded mr. croyden. "as time went on the dutch increased and perfected their output until they became ambitious to make larger pieces. potters began turning out small foot-stoves, vases, candlesticks, and dinner sets. one of the most amusing relics of this old delft is now in one of the foreign museums. it is a violin perfectly modeled and exquisitely decorated. the story goes that it was one of four such instruments which were made as wedding gifts for the four daughters of a rich dutch pottery manufacturer. it is even asserted that the instruments before being presented to the four brides were used by the musicians at the wedding festivities. i'm afraid they did not make very good music." theo smiled. "besides these fantastic things the dutch also made tea sets, and when i say that you must realize that this was a very important fact; for up to about 1660 tea was a great novelty in england. it had but recently been introduced there by oriental traders, and was very expensive, selling for about eight dollars a pound--at that time a great deal of money, and even quite a price when rated by our own standards. people were very ignorant still as to its use. you have probably heard the story of the servant who, knowing nothing about preparing the new delicacy, boiled the tea leaves, sprinkled them with salt and pepper and, throwing away the liquid, served the dainty to his master in a covered dish." there was a hearty laugh from theo. "as late as 1661 an englishman named samuel pepys, whose diary is an interesting record of the time, writes: '_i had to-day some tea--a china drink of which i had never drank before._' isn't it a pity that while he was writing the little man did not also put down how he liked this new beverage?" mr. croyden drew out his watch and rose. "so you can see, theo," he added as he stood with his back to the fire, "what it meant to have tea sets introduced into england. of course the cups had no handles as do our teacups of to-day. the chinese cups were in reality small bowls without either saucer or handle. therefore the delft teacups copied from them were made in the same way. the chinese did not drink their tea very hot, you see, and therefore could take hold of the cup without burning their fingers; moreover, they used in their houses tables of teak-wood to which hot cups did no injury. since, however, teak-wood was unknown in england and oak was in general use the english found that the hot cups marred their tables and later they invented saucers to go under them. nevertheless it was a long time before it dawned on potters that they could make handles for their cups. one of the ear-marks of tea sets of early manufacture is these handleless cups. with this advent of dishes, of delft plaques to be hung on the wall in place of pictures, and of delft tiles, many of the common people for the first time awakened to the discovery that the interiors of their houses might be made attractive, and something more than mere shelters from cold and storm. they began buying vases and crude pottery ornaments, images of flower-girls, fishermen, and of the saints. in holland people even hung delft plaques on the walls of their stables. it was a new thought to have anything about which was not for actual use." "i should think that with all this chinese and delft ware to copy from the english would have tried making earthenware of their own," speculated theo. "they did," was mr. croyden's prompt reply, "and of that i will tell you some other day. but there is one interesting fact in connection with these early tea sets. remember that if ever you see in a museum or private house a tea set which you are told came over in the _mayflower_ nothing of the sort could have happened. the pilgrims landed on plymouth rock in 1620, and it was not until from 1660 to 1770 that tea and tea sets became general in england. by that time the pilgrim fathers, and more especially the pilgrim mothers, were far across the ocean." mr. croyden moved toward the door. "some one may have brought tea sets to them but they never carried them in the _mayflower_," he concluded. "now i have talked too much for one morning, and it is lunch time. listen, there is the horn! and see, theo, the rain has ceased and the sun come out." "i hadn't thought of the weather," smiled theo. "i had not thought of anything, i guess, but what you were telling me. you will come again, sir?" "surely!" "and you won't forget your promise to tell me about english pottery?" "no indeed, son," was the cordial reply. "you are too good a listener for me to forget." [illustration] chapter v the potter who burned his chairs it was not for some time that mr. croyden again had leisure for a long talk with theo, because with the return of pleasant weather he and dr. swift went for a three days' canoe trip up elk river, a small stream emptying into the lake on which the camp stood. dr. swift had thought of giving up this excursion, because it necessitated leaving theo for such a long time; but the boy was insistent that his father should go. "i won't be lonesome, father," he protested. "franz is here, and he is as good as a vaudeville show; besides i can read, and whittle, and write to mother. the days will pass so quickly i shall not have time to miss you. it would be too bad to have you stay in camp just for me. i have made trouble enough already." perhaps it was because of theo's genuine regret for what he had done that dr. swift consented to carry out his original plan. the boy was intensely sensitive, and any allusion to his accident, or any interference with his father's pleasure because of it, immediately brought a shadow of distress to his face. the doctor was quick to notice this fact; and eager, if possible, to avoid every reminder of the disaster. accordingly on hearing theo's plea he packed his tackle, and with a gentle word of caution to the invalid to be careful during his absence, set forth with mr. croyden to fish elk river. it was no easy thing for theo to play an unselfish part and see them start off. how he wished that he, too, were going! but for his own folly he might have gone. well, he had no one to blame but himself, that was certain. therefore he put as brave a front on the matter as he could, resolving to make the best of it and be cheerful. it was not, however, much fun to be lying there in bed during those fine spring days. from his window he could see the blue waters of the lake between the aisles of straight pines. it was a glorious world if one could only be abroad in it. even the glimpse he had of it from his bed was beautiful. but to lie still and look out upon this alluring scene was not a satisfying rã´le for an active boy. in spite of the wood-carving, the books, the writing; even despite the time franz could spare to entertain him the hours dragged pitifully. furthermore, now that the severed bone had begun to knit he felt restless and uncomfortable. hence when on the afternoon of the third day he awoke from an uneasy doze to find his father standing beside him it was a joyful surprise. "father!" he cried. "right here," came gruffly from the doctor. "glad to have your old dad home again?" "glad? well, i guess!" "i am glad to see you again too, son. i've thought of you a hundred times. how did you get on?" "all right, sir. franz took fine care of me, and i found lots of things to do," answered theo bravely. "but it is much nicer when you are here than when you're not." his father smiled. "you are a plucky youngster," he said huskily. "no matter how silly and childish your accident was you certainly have shown yourself a man since. look! here comes mr. croyden to see you. he has brought you a fine four-pounder, the record trout of the catch." theo beamed. during the time the fishermen had been gone he had sadly missed the delicacy of fresh fish. "eating this trout will be the next best thing to pulling it in, theo," said mr. croyden. "i only wish you might have had that pleasure, too." "i shall be pretty glad to eat the trout, sir," theo declared promptly. "we shall let franz get to work cooking it then, right away, so to have it ready for your dinner," dr. swift said, passing out with the fish in his hand. after the doctor had gone theo looked up into mr. croyden's face. "i suppose you are dreadfully tired after your tramp," he remarked. "i? oh, no," was the instant answer. "why?" "i--i--don't know," faltered theo. "i just wondered." "wondered what?" "whether after dinner you would be too tired to come in and talk to me a little while?" "no, indeed. i'd be glad to come," responded mr. croyden. "i'll come and tell you all about our trip." "if you don't mind i'd rather you'd leave that to dad, and instead tell me some more about china-making," theo said naively. mr. croyden seemed vastly amused at the remark. "bless my soul! what a boy you are," he said. "of course i am perfectly willing to talk to you on anything you like. would you rather hear about china than anything else?" "yes, sir, just now i should," came vigorously from theo. "all righty, china it shall be, then! but i am surprised that you should be so much interested in it. how came you to be so eager to learn about pottery and porcelain?" "i guess because you make it all so much like a story book," answered theo frankly. "how did you happen to know so much about it, mr. croyden?" "why, it chances to be my business, son," mr. croyden replied. "in trenton, new jersey, where i live, we make quantities of earthenware and porcelain; more of it than anywhere else in the united states. that is the way i earn my money to come on fishing trips." "oh, i see! then of course it is no wonder that you know all about it!" cried theo. "i know some things, but not all," was mr. croyden's answer. "however, since you like to hear about it i am ready and glad to tell you what i can. we will have a session on french pottery to-night, if you say so; there are some things i want you to know before we take up the making of the english wares." "whatever you say!" exclaimed theo. "very well. i'll be back after dinner, and unless your father wants you for something else we'll have a nice evening together before your bedtime." mr. croyden was as good as his word. theo had just finished his share of the big trout when into his room came the china merchant. "your father and manuel are busy icing some fish to ship home, so here i am," he affirmed. after dragging a steamer chair up to theo's bedside and stretching himself comfortably in it the elder man began: "most of the pottery of the seventeenth century was an outgrowth of the italian renaissance when all the arts such as painting, wood-carving, sculpture, literature, glass and pottery-making were revived. in france the attempt to imitate italian faenza ware gave rise to the word _faience_, a term applied to french porcelains made both from hard and soft paste. french potters at nevers, spurred on by dutch and chinese products, began to turn out a type of pottery not unlike delft, except that the method of coloring it was reversed, and instead of having blue figures on a white ground it had white figures on a background of blue. this innovation, however, was not an entirely new variety of pottery. it still remained for france to invent its own peculiar kind of ware, and this it soon did. nevertheless you must not make the mistake of thinking that these first attempts were very far reaching, for on the contrary they were very limited. they are significant only because they are the beginnings of that wonderful art of porcelain-making which later the french carried to an amazing degree of perfection." there was a moment's delay in the story while mr. croyden rearranged more comfortably the pillows behind theo's head. "is that better?" he asked of the boy. "lots better, thank you," said theo gratefully. "all right, son. then we'll go on. two of the most important of these beginnings are the henri deux ware, as it is called; and the enamel work of bernard palissy." "we read about palissy in school," put in theo. "i am glad to hear that, for he was one of the three men whose names have come down to us as being most vitally connected with pottery and porcelain-making. but before we talk of him i am going to tell you just a little about the henri deux ware, sometimes known as faience d'orion. very few pieces of it now remain; but for perfection of workmanship and beauty of quality it has never been approached. just who made it we do not know; nor do we know anything of the conditions under which it was manufactured. only about fifty pieces of it are in existence--half of them in england and half in france; and it is from these, and from vague historic hints, that we have welded together the rather uncertain tale that i am now to tell you." a smile of anticipation passed over theo's face. "long ago there lived in france a wealthy woman named helene d'hengest, who was deeply interested in all the arts, and who owned a beautiful home known as chã¢teau d'orion. here she had a library, a rather rare possession in those days, and a librarian called bernard. now many persons think that it was this bernard who was the maker of the now famous henri deux ware, or faience d'orion." "why should they think that?" questioned theo. "well, there are several excellent reasons," mr. croyden replied. "one is that the ware shows traces of a book-binding tool. book-binders, you know, use many small instruments to decorate or tool their leather. this faience was a ware of natural cream-colored clay, and upon it was tooled a flat design the hollows of which were filled in with darker clays that were afterward covered with a lead glaze. infinite care and pains had evidently been expended upon each piece of the ware, such pains that it must have taken much time to complete even a single article. no manufacturer could have afforded to do this, and therefore the inference had been drawn that the pottery was made purely for pleasure by some one who had an abundance of leisure. perhaps this very bernard, the librarian, who may have become interested in the art as a recreation, and done the work in his idle hours." "what a funny thing to do as a pastime!" exclaimed theo. "no stranger than that now many persons take up metal work, wood-carving, or other of the so-called arts and crafts for diversion." "i suppose not," admitted theo thoughtfully. "it certainly is possible such a thing might have happened even so long ago as the time when the henri deux ware was made. history offers us no aid in solving the puzzle, so we can only find an answer as best we may. the ware, however, is unique, and there is no mistaking it. some of it bears the monogram of king henry ii, and that accounts for the name by which the product passes. there are authorities that assert the h does not stand for the king's name, but for helene, mistress of the chã¢teau d'orion; others declare the king's monogram was used merely to fix the date when the pottery was made. hence you will find some china collectors calling it henri deux ware, and others speaking of it as faience d'orion; while still others refer to it as saint porchaire. when examining it it is interesting to notice how much finer the later pieces are than the earlier ones. evidently bernard, if bernard it was, improved a great deal with practice." it was obvious that mr. croyden had no more to say about the elusive bernard, for he came to an abrupt stop. theo waited a second, and then remarked suggestively: "and palissy?" "palissy? oh, he was another matter altogether. what did you learn about him when you were at school?" "not much, i'm afraid," responded theo with a shrug. "at least i do not remember much of it now. the teacher told us that one day palissy saw an enameled cup of saracen workmanship and that he was so anxious to discover how the glaze on it was made that he worked years experimenting; he even chopped up all his furniture as fuel for his furnaces." "this is quite correct," smiled mr. croyden. "i see you recall a good deal. what you have told me are the main facts of the story. palissy did work fifteen years. he used every splinter of wood he could lay hands on as fuel, and indeed burned up every particle of his household furniture, until he had not a chair to sit upon. he spent every cent he had, too, until he was so poor that he could scarcely feed his family, and owed money to all his neighbors." "in the end did he find out how to make the enamel?" came breathlessly from theo. "no, not that particular kind of enamel the moors made in spain. that is the sad part of the story," replied mr. croyden. "he did, however, find out by his experimenting how to get marvelous colored enamels of another kind, and this was a very important discovery. he colored his glazes before putting them over the clay, instead of using a white enamel and then painting it as had previously been done everywhere. so you see after all palissy did a great deal for pottery-making, since up to this time no one had ever thought of coloring the glaze itself. he made many vases, platters, and covered dishes adorned with designs in this colored enamel, often putting on the cover of a dish a fruit or vegetable in relief, tinted in its natural colors. much of this work now can be seen in the museums of france; but it never became a distinctive type of art. what we chiefly remember of palissy is his introduction into china-making of these hitherto unknown colored enamels." [illustration: burned his chairs "he used every splinter of wood"] "what became of him?" inquired theo at last. "did he ever get any more money?" "he had a strange life," mused mr. croyden. "he was a huguenot, and at that time the catholic party was in power, and an edict went forth that all huguenots should be killed. many of them fled into other countries and thus escaped death. but palissy refused to flee, and because he was a man skilled in pottery-making, one of the things france was eager to perfect, the king wanted to retain him in his kingdom. therefore he took palissy under his protection, and for a long time allowed him to work unmolested in a little building in the grounds of the tuileries. but by and by the catholic adherents of the king became too strong even for their royal master's control, and so insistently did they clamor for palissy's death that the king was forced to send for the potter and beg him to renounce his protestant faith. now by this time palissy was a white-haired man of eighty. nevertheless when the king told him he must either recant or lose his life he did not flinch. fearlessly he clung to his religion." "did they kill him?" "no. perhaps it was because the people did not dare displease the king," answered mr. croyden. "they did, however, imprison the old man in the bastille and there, after years of confinement, he wasted away and died. it was probably only the influence of his royal patron that prevented him from being murdered in the first place. both the henri deux ware and palissy's colored enamels brought fame to france. in 1800 at nevers, where the blue and white ware similar to delft was made, there were twelve factories. then there was a quaint pottery made at beauvais with the coats of arms of france and brittany upon it. at rouen, too, an extensive pottery industry sprang up, and it was to these factories that in 1713 louis xiv, when forced to pay his war debts, sent his silver service to be melted up and replaced by a less expensive earthenware dinner set. some pieces marked with the fleur-de-lis, and probably remnants of this set, are to be found in french museums. there were various other small potteries in different parts of france: some at marseilles, others at moustiers and nancy. there were a number in paris itself. all of these were making a more or less fine variety of earthenware. but the time was not ripe for france's greatest contribution to china-making. of that you shall hear some other day. now have i not told you quite a long story?" "a long one and a very good one," said theo. "i hope you'll tell me another very soon." "will you never have enough of all this chinaware?" laughingly theo shook his head. "i'd like you to keep right on until----" "until you are on your feet again," interrupted mr. croyden teasingly. "then i suppose you will promptly run off and forget all about it." "not at all, sir!" contradicted theo. "i was going to say i wished you would keep on telling me about it until i got well and could go to see some of these potteries and porcelains made." "oh-ho! so you want to come to trenton and steal my business away from me, do you, you young rascal? we'll see about that." with a broad smile mr. croyden rose and shaking his fist playfully at theo sauntered out the door. [illustration] chapter vi from vases to drain-pipes during the week that followed neither dr. swift nor mr. croyden took any more long trips away from the camp. they went, to be sure, on short fishing excursions, often being absent an entire morning or afternoon; but they passed no nights away from theo. the boy suspected that his father's reason for this decision was because for the last few days try as he would he had been unable to conceal how miserable and uncomfortable he felt. dr. swift, however, would not own that this was the cause of his loitering at home. he merely declared that when the near-at-hand sport was so good it was foolish to tramp ten miles to waylay some unwary and distant trout. and indeed this logic appeared to be sound, for not once did the anglers return from one of their brief tours that they did not bring with them baskets well lined with yellow perch, trout, or land-loch salmon. as a consequence the doctor managed to keep very close watch of his son, and theo saw a great deal both of his father and mr. croyden. the friendship of the latter for the sick lad was no empty pose. he sincerely liked theo--liked his manliness and his intelligence; his brave attempt at unselfishness; his boyish love of fun. mr. croyden was very fond of boys and, in fact, often betrayed the circumstance that in reality he himself had never really grown up. accordingly he sought theo out whenever he had leisure, and many a happy hour did the two spend together. one day when he chanced to be sitting beside the invalid's couch theo said: "you told me once that there were three famous potters in history, and that palissy was one of them; who were the others?" "if i should tell you their names and nothing more about them it would be only so much dry sawdust," was mr. croyden's reply. "the only reason they were great was because of what they did; and that is a long story." "too long to tell?" "too long to put in a nutshell." "wouldn't you have time to tell me some of it now?" "i might have time to tell you about one of the men, but not both; and even were i to tell you about one of them, in order to make you understand how truly great he was i should have to tell you much that happened before he began his pottery-making," answered mr. croyden slowly. "i shouldn't mind that at all," laughed theo. "the longer your stories are the better i like them." mr. croyden smiled. "suppose, then, we begin," he said, "and i will try before luncheon to introduce you to our second great potter. but before i do this we must go back a little that you may recall exactly where we left off. while holland was turning out its delft ware; italy its glazed terra-cotta; and france its henri deux and other enameled earthenwares, in the low countries and the german states a new variety of pottery with a coarse surface not unlike the porous skin of an orange was being made. this was known as gres de flandres, _gres_ meaning earthenware. the unique feature it possessed was not so much its orange-skin surface as the surprising method by which it was glazed. the ware itself was made on a potter's wheel often from the commonplace kinds of clay, such as are employed in making stone china; sometimes this was brown, sometimes gray, sometimes cream-colored. there was nothing original about the material employed. but afterward--then came the amazing thing! when the clay articles were put into the kiln to be fired a quantity of common salt was thrown in with them and this salt created a vapor which when it settled upon the ware fused with it, giving to the clay a coarse, porous-appearing surface." "how do you suppose anybody ever thought of using salt?" inquired theo. "i do not know. probably the discovery, like so many others, was a mere happen-so. at any rate it was a fortunate happening, for immediately this method of glazing earthenware was carried to england, where doulton of lambeth began manufacturing some very beautiful gres. for gres can be of exquisite beauty as well as of most ordinary type. do not forget that. the term serves to cover those opaque earthenwares which are fired until vitrification or an external glassing results. at first all styles of gres were called gres de flandres, but later the single term gres was given them. you will hardly be surprised when i tell you that those past masters in the art of every kind of pottery-making, the chinese and japanese, have given us our finest specimens of gres, some of them having designs of imitation jewels upon them; and others decorations of beautifully colored enamels. next to these oriental varieties germany has always excelled in the making of gres. there is a great scope for artistic expression in this ware, a far broader range for merit than in many others." "so it was this salt glaze that england took up, was it?" ruminated theo. "yes. you see, up to this time very little glazed ware had been made in england, for until the dutch traders came with their chinese and delft wares the english had been cheerfully using, as i told you, unglazed clay, wood, pewter, and on rare occasions silver dishes. even the ladies of queen elizabeth's household felt no shame to eat from wooden dishes. as for knives and forks--nobody used those! every one ate with his fingers. think how primitive it must have been to go to a banquet of the lord-mayor of london arrayed in your silk or velvet costume, and eat roasted ox with your fingers from a trencher, or square slab of wood! yet such a procedure was considered entirely proper in those days." theo was much amused. "afterward for quite a long time dishes of brown stoneware were in vogue; and then as an improvement on those came a coarse greenish-yellow type of ware. it was about 1645 that into england strayed a few dutch potters who began to make a reproduction of delft pottery. in the meantime in quite another part of the country a salt-glazed stoneware of far better quality than any previously manufactured made its appearance. to this the name _porcellane_ was given, and although the product was in reality simply a gres the fact is interesting because it is the first time that we have the word applied to china. it probably came from the italian noun _porcellana_, meaning a shell, which the thinness of the new ware may have suggested; or the term may have been derived from the french word _pourcelaine_, a word used for any material from which a sculptor models his statues. we are not certain which of these theories is correct. nevertheless we have the name, although at this particular date it was incorrectly applied." "but the english had nothing at that time but pottery to give the name to," objected theo. mr. croyden chuckled. "exactly! so they shouldn't have used the term at all," he said, "because they have confused a lot of good people since then. from this period on england went steadily forward with its china-making. earthenware of various kinds covered with salt glaze were made at fulham, stoke-on-trent, and staffordshire. it was about 1750 that the second of the great potters made his advent." "ah!" cried theo, "now we are going to hear who he was!" mr. croyden paused a moment as if thinking just how he should best tell the story. then he began: "the name of this second pottery-maker to whom the world owes a mighty debt was josiah wedgwood. he was a man who came naturally by his skill at pottery-making, for, not only was he himself a potter, but he also had several ancestors who had followed the trade. he was a conscientious workman of limited education, but a person to whom a thorough, careful piece of work, done as well as it was possible to do it, was a satisfaction and delight. remember that fact, for it had much to do with wedgwood's subsequent success. he also loved beauty of form, and probably had he been able to choose he would have turned his entire attention to making a classic type of pottery. but being one of thirteen children he was poor, and his common sense told him that there were far more necessary things to be done in the world than to give all one's time to articles that were not useful. so he put his dream behind him, like the practical fellow he was, and looked about to see what his contemporaries needed, and what he could do to aid his generation." "i should think that if he could have made some dishes it would have helped as much as anything," asserted theo emphatically. "that was precisely what he decided," answered mr. croyden. "accordingly he went to work to apply his knowledge of pottery to the improvement of english earthenware. first he made a kind of cream-white pottery which he dubbed queen's ware in honor of queen charlotte; and which in spite of the fact that it boasted no decoration, became very popular in england because of its moderate price. from this simple beginning wedgwood got money to experiment further, and work out other varieties of china. in 1773 he began his famous dinner-set for empress catherine ii of russia, which had upon it over twelve hundred enameled views of english estates, and for which she paid three thousand pounds. for two months before this set was packed and sent away it was on exhibition in london, where it was the marvel of every one who saw it." "i'd like to have seen it!" interjected theo. "and i too," echoed mr. croyden. "by this time wedgwood had money enough to carry out some of his dreams. he was fortunate in having the friendship of several englishmen of wealth and through one of them, sir william hamilton, he obtained a chance to take impressions of rare cameos from italy and pompeii; later the duke of portland, who you may recall outbid him at the sale of the world-famed portland vase, allowed him to copy it. it was a very generous thing for an art-lover to do, and i think it must have cost the duke a wrench. it took wedgwood a whole year to copy this vase, and when he had succeeded in doing so he made fifty more copies. the venture cost him not only his time but a small fortune as well; but it proved far from a waste of hours or money, since the feat brought to the manufacturer a familiarity with grecian art which had its outcome in his well-known jasper ware." theo glanced up questioningly. "surely you have seen this ware, theo," asserted mr. croyden. "it comes in blue sage-green, or purple, and has upon it grecian figures in white." instantly a flash of recognition came into theo's face. "oh, i know it now!" he ejaculated. "mother has a teapot of it at home." "that is more than likely," came cordially from mr. croyden. "at first, however, wedgwood did not put the white figures on this ware; he merely mixed the coloring matter with the clay and got as a result a dull, opaque ware of green. afterward he conceived the idea of making the pottery in other colors and decorating it with the grecian, italian, or roman figures of which he had long before taken impressions. as this venture took form sculptors became interested in the project and lent their aid, so that by and by an entirely original ware was developed which has come down through history as one of the significant art contributions of the age. in addition to his queen's ware, and jasper ware, wedgwood also made a black egyptian-like ware called basalt; another variety of cream-colored ware known as bamboo; and a kind of terra-cotta that imitated granite." "well, i should certainly think wedgwood did his bit!" declared theo. "ah, but this was not all he did," retorted mr. croyden quickly. "his most important work i have not yet mentioned." "what was that?" "he invented two things of widely different nature which have been of the greatest practical value to our civilization ever since. one was a hard biscuit porcelain such as is used in laboratories, and for chemist's and pharmacist's utensils. this meant far greater convenience in the mixing and preparation of drugs and medicines." "and the other?" "the other was the glazing of common earthenware or terra-cotta drain-pipes. this non-ã¦sthetic product was perhaps wedgwood's greatest contribution to his time, for it revolutionized sanitation, and was a mighty step toward better living conditions. surely no one can say that josiah wedgwood did not let his art serve his generation both from an artistic and a practical standpoint." [illustration] chapter vii porcelain at last progress toward health now became quite rapid, for theo, being a normal boy, the injured bone knit quickly, and before long dr. swift said: "i have sent for some crutches for you, son, and as soon as they come i see no reason why you should not be up and about. of course you cannot expect to go hiking off over these rough trails; but you can certainly get out of bed and move about the camp." theo's eyes sparkled. "my, but won't it seem good!" he sighed. "i am sure it will," answered the doctor. "you have been very patient, theo." "going to get the invalid up, doctor?" questioned mr. croyden, who had just poked his head in at the door. "yes, just as soon as the crutches i have ordered from new york arrive." mr. croyden looked rueful. "that means i shall be losing my lecture audience," he mourned playfully. "you will no longer be a spoiled child, theo, after those crutches come. we shan't serve all your meals in your room, nor give you the biggest fish in the catch. you will have to come down to common fare like the rest of us." "you won't find me doing any fussing on that score," laughed theo. "as for the lectures--why, i have a season ticket, and shall expect a lecture every day." "mercy on us!" gasped mr. croyden. "do you realize, young man, that i came into these woods to rest? if i am to make pottery and porcelain with you every day i might just as well be at home." nevertheless it was plain that the elder man was pleased. "well, so long as you have secured a season ticket in advance i suppose there is no help for it," he added with a comic expression of resignation. "when, by the by, does the next lecture come?" theo pretended to produce an imaginary ticket from his pocket and consult it. "the next lecture seems to be listed for this evening just after dinner," he replied gravely. "it does, does it!" exclaimed mr. croyden. "very well; the lecturer will be ready at seven sharp. i make it a point never to disappoint an audience." with a good-natured laugh he was gone. "i hope i don't bother mr. croyden too much, father," observed theo reflectively, after the older man was out of hearing. "i guess you don't," answered the doctor. "at first i was afraid you might be taking too much of his time, so i asked him; but i soon found he enjoyed these talks quite as much as you. he is a good talker, and like the rest of us finds it pleasant to discuss his hobby. i begged him to be frank and tell you whenever he was too tired or busy to talk, and he promised he would." "he has been mighty good to me." "he certainly has," agreed dr. swift. "he likes boys very much. it is a pity he has no son of his own." "it is a shame!" exclaimed theo. "he would make such a splendid father for some boy." dr. swift nodded. "boys are of course a great nuisance, and they make us lots of trouble," he remarked dryly, "but they are good things to have in the house in spite of that." as he rose to go he cast a whimsical glance at his son. "i'll leave you this book to read," he said. "mother sent it. and here are some letters. here, too, is a picture puzzle which looks as if it might keep you busy for some time. i guess you won't be idle before i get back." theo met his eye with a bright smile. "i guess i won't have a chance to be," he replied. the book proved to be an aeroplane story of just the kind theo liked; and the puzzle was so hard that he worked on it at intervals most of the day. then came twilight and with it a game of cribbage with his father, after which he had a deliciously cooked dinner of fried perch, browned potatoes, and a marvelous three-story chocolate pie, a masterpiece of franz's cookery. "i think this has been about the best day yet," theo remarked when promptly at seven mr. croyden drew his chair up into the firelight. "father does plan such jolly things for me to do! and you, and manuel, and franz are so kind!" "those of us who have our legs ought to be, that's sure," was mr. croyden's grim response. "it is the least we can do. in my opinion you have been a real hero, theo. if my leg had been broken i should never have been so patient. you would have seen me storming round like a caged tiger. in fact i doubt even if lectures delivered by such a brilliant speaker as myself would have kept me still." theo chuckled. "what is the subject of the lecture you are to give this evening?" he inquired with mock seriousness. "wasn't it printed on your ticket?" "no, sir." "no?" exclaimed mr. croyden in surprise. "a great oversight! the man who printed these tickets is a stupid fellow. i believe i shall have to discharge him and try somebody else. the subject of this evening's lecture is, of course, _porcelain_." "porcelain! have we really come to porcelain at last!" cried theo, much delighted. "yes, we have now finished with the potteries and earthenwares--at least for the present, and we shall begin on porcelain, the great art-work of the chinese." mr. croyden stopped to cram tobacco into his pipe. "already i have told you that the chinese made beautiful porcelains from kaolin and petuntse, two clays which produced a hard, semi-transparent china," he began. "and i have also told you how for a long time they were the only nation to have a knowledge of the necessary ingredients for such a ware. i only wish i had here at this moment some specimens of the exquisite porcelains they have made that you might see them and get some idea of their richness and beauty. it is difficult to describe them in words." "maybe when we go home father will take me to the metropolitan museum to see some chinese porcelains," suggested theo. "i am sure he will," mr. croyden said. "and if he is too busy to do it, i will take you myself. maybe some day we could go china-hunting together." "that would be corking!" "i'd enjoy it as much as you," affirmed mr. croyden. "we would prowl around among the different collections and look for the celebrated nankin blue which, although not strictly speaking a porcelain, would give you a glimpse of some of the finest work ever done in a blue and white ware. of the very early chinese porcelains we should, alas, find no specimens, because most of these were destroyed during the wars that raged against the various ancient dynasties; but we should see some examples of what is called the chrysanthemo-pã¦onienne period." "jove, what a name!" "not such a terrible one when you think about it," returned mr. croyden. "get to work with your brain and you can soon tell me what it means." "chrysanthe----" ruminated theo, thinking aloud. "has it anything to do with chrysanthemum?" "it surely has. go on," urged the elder man encouragingly. "pã¦onienne--i'll bet it is another flower! peony?" "there you have it!" came triumphantly from the china manufacturer. "it was not half as bad as it sounded, you see. chrysanthemums and peonies--the two flowers almost exclusively used as decoration on the porcelain of that particular period. so universally was one or the other of these flowers employed, and so individual was their treatment, that the name serves to cover one of the oldest types of chinese porcelain remaining to us. this porcelain was not so beautiful, however, as some of that which follows it; the clay or body of the ware being less fine. one can easily see that at that time the chinese had not perfected their art. nevertheless it is remarkable, and the flower designs on it most artistic." "and what came next?" inquired theo. "next we come to some other varieties of porcelains which connoisseurs have grouped together because of their color and called _famille-vert_. think out what that name means as you did the other. you have studied french at school, haven't you?" "a little," replied theo modestly. "_famille_ is family; and i think _vert_ is green. but of course it could not mean green family." "that is precisely what it does mean," mr. croyden returned heartily. "the name refers to the delicate color of the ware. 'sky after a summer rain' was what the chinese sometimes poetically called it. it is a porcelain of wonderful rarity and beauty. some of it even ranges to as deep hue as apple-green. one does not find much of it now, for it is a very choice and expensive variety; nor was it widely made. the ware for which the chinese were most celebrated was the _famille-rose_." "rose family!" exclaimed theo, instantly. "yes. broadly speaking the red family. i am glad to see you have your french so at your tongue's end. this porcelain of the rose family was the masterpiece of the chinese. the word rose did not in this case refer to the flower but to the rich red tone of the porcelain. some of it is as deep and almost as brilliant as a ruby; and neither its decoration nor its coloring can be surpassed. for the chinese, you must not forget, were the most original and unhampered of artists. they were never content to copy flowers, faces, or figures as we do to-day. instead they aimed to catch the spirit of the object from which they were working, and then with freedom and boldness to execute a design that should have something more than mere reproduction in it. it did not matter in the least to them if a flower in one of their pictures was sometimes larger than a man; or a boat many sizes bigger than the bridge beneath which it sailed. they were making a sort of fairyland decoration where anything they pleased was possible; it was not a world of fact. as a result they got an imaginative quality in their decoration which none of our more prosaic and literal western nations have ever equaled." mr. croyden took a pull at his pipe. "much of their design was symbolic, and much of the coloring they used had a national significance. for example, the dragon was a symbol of empire and power; the dog, a sacred animal, was often used; but it was no ordinary dog. instead it had great teeth, a curling mane, and claws like a lion. a chinese artist would have scorned to copy a real dog, for that would not have been considered art; nor would a picture of any living type of dog be half as imposing as was this imaginary creature with its fierce teeth, mane, and claws. sometimes the _kylin_, a sort of stag with a dragon's head, and a symbol of good-fortune, was used. there were many other of these symbolic designs employed to enhance the beauty of chinese porcelains, and of course to the chinese each one had its meaning." "it is an interesting idea, isn't it?" theo said slowly. "very; and makes much of our own art seem pitifully thin. and when you consider that the colors the chinese used also had their meaning, as did various geometric forms introduced, you can readily see how much one must study to understand chinese--and for that matter, japanese art; for the japanese used much the same methods in decorating their potteries and porcelains, although of course their symbolism varied. with the chinese green and vermilion were colors sacred to the wall decorations of emperors' houses; red typified fire; black, water; green, wood; white, metal. fire was also sometimes represented by a circle, and the earth by a square. all this i tell you that you may see how much thought went into everything they did. in addition certain objects were made for especial purposes, and decorated in accordance with their use. there were drinking cups for poets, authors, and government officials, each cup having an appropriate picture in the bottom. then there were incense-burners, vases, bowls, and vessels for libations at ceremonials; there were, too, statues of the various gods. besides these many types of workmanship the chinese made a very thin egg-shell porcelain, the most fragile and transparent of which we now get from japan; and a porcelain decorated with a fine, open-work design cut through the ware, and styled 'grains-of-rice pattern.' moreover they manufactured a variety which in firing took on a crackled effect and has for that reason been christened chinese crackle. you see how many kinds of thing they worked out." "i should say so!" exclaimed theo. "most of the painting of chinese porcelain was done directly on the glaze instead of underneath it, although some of the brush work was done on the clay itself before the glaze was put over it. in either case the ware required several firings, and before even such a simple article as a cup was completed it frequently passed through as many as seventy pairs of hands. add to this the dangers risked in packing and importing, and the tumult of the many wars that racked china, and is it anything short of a marvel that so many perfect pieces of ancient make have come down to us?" "i think it is wonderful that all of them were not broken," gasped theo. "it is not until 1171 that there is any mention of porcelain being seen outside of china. then the mohammedan saladin sent as a present to another ruler forty pieces of chinese porcelain. in 1487 the sultan of turkey gave to lorenzo de medici, a great art lover, a porcelain vase. after that porcelain began, as i have already told you, to find its way into europe--first through the portuguese traders, and later through the dutch. what we know of chinese porcelain applies largely to that of japan, because for many years japan was merely an imitator of china so far as porcelain-making was concerned. by and by, however, the japanese government encouraged the industry by giving money toward its manufacture, and as a result about the year 1200 the porcelains of the japanese rivaled those of china. the chrysanthemo-pã¦onienne was worked out to a degree of perfection hitherto unknown; and the famille-rose was also made, but not as perfectly as in china. the famille-vert, on the contrary, was not attempted to any extent in japan, probably because the japanese lacked the necessary clays to make it." mr. croyden paused as if reflecting, then added: "as i explained to you, the japanese had their symbolism of color and design as well as the chinese; and not only did they make similar sorts of porcelain, but they subsequently invented styles of decoration of their own. they did much medallion-painting, a form of design unknown in china. they also gave to the world their wonderful japanese lacquer, a varnish of gums that could be applied not only to wood but in some cases to porcelain. they also were the race to invent cloisonnã© ware, a very difficult type of thing when made as they made it. to the surface of the porcelain they fastened a tiny metal outline of the design and afterward filled in the spaces between it with colored enamels. you can easily see what careful workmanship such a process required." "we have a cloisonnã© vase at home," said theo soberly, "but i never knew it was made that way." "if it is the genuine old japanese cloisonnã© it was," answered mr. croyden. "the japanese also gave us the mandarin china so highly prized by collectors. this is an interesting ware because on it we find the tiny mandarins pictured in the decoration, wearing their little toques or caps topped with the button denoting their rank. you see when the thsing victors conquered the ming dynasty of china they decreed that many of the old chinese customs and modes of dress should give place to those of japan. among other things they ordered that officials wear the toque or mandarin-cap. the chinese were, as you can well imagine, very angry; and although they wore the cap you see no little mandarins thus arrayed adorning their porcelain. but the japanese not only immortalized these reminders of their supremacy on their chinaware, but they even took some of their mandarin-decorated porcelain to china and forced the chinese to buy it. in most collections you will find some of this mandarin china; but remember, although it may have come from china, it probably was not made there." theo smiled. "the japanese came in time to be great traders," continued mr. croyden, "and they are going to be still greater ones some day. they invented many other kinds of pottery and porcelain which they sold to the merchants of holland. satsuma is a pottery in which they excelled. it has a body of cream-colored earthenware not unlike wedgwood's queen's ware, and this is richly decorated in dull colors and gold. in order to please the dutch traders the japanese even painted angels, saints, and other christian figures both on their pottery and porcelain, which proves they must have been pretty eager for european customers. at the present moment they are equally willing to cater to american and european demands, and to gratify our inartistic public by sending into our markets all sorts of cheap, gaudily decorated goods which they themselves would not tolerate. it is a deplorable fact, too, that we buy them. now you surely have got your money's worth of lecture for to-night. if you are not tired, i am. good-night, sonny!" "good-night," called theo as mr. croyden passed out, "and thank you. i'm sorry you're tired. i am _not_. i could listen all over again." [illustration] chapter viii the third famous potter theo's crutches did not arrive as soon as he expected, both because of the remoteness of the camp and a confusion in transportation. poor theo! after getting his hopes up it was hard to be cheerful over this disappointment, and the courage that until now had buoyed him up suddenly began to fail. "i just wish one of those miserable expressmen could have a broken leg and then he'd see how good it is to be laid up like this," fretted the boy indignantly. "oh, come, don't wish that!" mr. croyden protested laughing, "for if you decree that the expressmen be disabled you will never get your crutches." "i suppose not," admitted theo grudgingly. "but it is so irritating." "i know that; still, it might be worse, theo. you really are pretty comfortable, you know." "yes." "you are not suffering." "no," murmured the lad, hanging his head. "you have plenty to eat." "yes." "and the food is good." theo flushed, but said nothing. "there is many a boy worse off than you are." "probably." "i guess your father could show you a score of them were you to accompany him on one of his hospital rounds. suppose, for example, you were in pain every moment, and were never to walk again. that would be a real calamity, and something to fuss about." theo raised his eyes. "i know it, sir," he said instantly. "i'm afraid i have been pretty grumpy and cross." "no. until now you have been most patient--phenomenally patient for a lad who loves to be doing something every minute. it is precisely because you have done so well that i'd like you to hold out a little longer." theo's lip quivered; then suddenly his scowl melted into a mischievous smile. "i believe, mr. croyden, that you are as good at preaching as you are at lecturing," he observed gaily. mr. croyden nodded his head. "you are one of the few persons, theo, who appreciate me at my full value. i am really a very gifted person if only other people suspected it. in return for your recognition of my talents i have half a mind to favor you with another of my celebrated lectures this very instant." "i wish you would," came eagerly from theo. "but aren't you going off fishing this morning?" "no. your father and manuel are going to fish some secret trout hole, and they did not invite me. you see, your father's guide and mine are the best of friends until it comes to trout holes; then they are sworn enemies. manuel won't tell tony where he finds his five and six pounders; and tony won't tell manuel. yesterday tony actually led me nearly half a mile out of my way so manuel should not see where we were going. he wanted to throw him off the scent, and i guess he did it, too. this rivalry between fishing guides is very common and sometimes, i am sorry to say, it is less good-natured than here." "it seems very silly," theo remarked. "it is the same old question of protecting the source of one's income. governments as well as individuals have to confront the problem. you remember how the chinese tried to shut every one out from knowing how they made their porcelain?" "yes, indeed. and you never have told me yet how the european nations found out the secret." "until now we had not come to that story," replied mr. croyden. "but to-day it chances that that is the very tale i have in mind to tell you." theo rubbed his hands, and with a contented smile settled back against the pillows prepared to listen. "as i told you," began mr. croyden, "about 1518 portuguese traders brought chinese porcelains into europe; and following their lead the dutch imported the same goods in even greater quantities. everywhere people marveled at the beauty of these wares just as you would have done if up to that time you had never seen anything but crude clay dishes. the whiteness of the porcelain seemed a miracle, and on every hand people were eager to make such china themselves. especially eager were the rulers of the different european countries, who were clever enough to see that such production would greatly increase their national fame and prosperity. now there chanced to be a prussian by the name of bã¶ttger, an alchemist, who because of the wars had fled for safety to meissen. he was a man well-versed in the composition of minerals and chemicals, and in consequence augustus ii, who was at that time elector of saxony, sent for him, and asked him to join his other skilled chemists, who for a long time had been busy experimenting with clays in the hope of discovering how the chinese made their porcelain. this was no unusual thing, for chemists of most of the other countries were working feverishly in their laboratories at the same enigma." "doesn't it seem funny?" "as you look back on it, yes," answered mr. croyden. "it is almost tragic when you consider the time, patience, and money that went into these experiments--most of them failures, at that." "did bã¶ttger fail too?" "i am coming to that," replied the story-teller. "while mixing various combinations of clays bã¶ttger and his associates came upon a hard pottery clay which was neither white nor translucent like the chinese, but which nevertheless was nearer that ware than anything they had previously succeeded in making. in 1708 some dishes were made from this material, but they were not very satisfactory. after that bã¶ttger tried again. you see he was not a person who was easily discouraged. the next time he got a white ware, but it was not thin; instead it was thick and ugly. he now had the hardness and the whiteness, but not the semi-transparency and fine texture of the chinese porcelain; and although he tried repeatedly he was unable to fathom the secret of these qualities." theo waited while mr. croyden stopped to rest. "the one thing bã¶ttger needed he did not know where to find and that was----" "kaolin!" cried theo. "exactly," assented mr. croyden. "what a pity it is that you could not have shouted the magic word in his ear as lustily as you have in mine. it would have saved poor bã¶ttger no end of worry and hard work. however, even if he had heard the name it probably would have conveyed nothing to him, for no one in europe had ever heard of kaolin." "i suppose it is a chinese word." "yes. the name was taken from the chinese mountain of kailing, where the first kaolin, or decomposed feldspar, was found." "now please go on with the story," urged theo. "well, one day it happened that a rich saxon iron-master was taking a ride, and as he went along his horse's foot stuck in the soft clay at the roadside. as the rider glanced down to see what the trouble was he was amazed to discover that the clay was white, and being a business man the thought instantly came into his mind that here was a way to make some money. at that time all the nobles of the court wore powdered wigs, and the quick-witted iron-master said to himself: 'i will get some of this clay, sift it very fine, do it up in packages, and sell it for powdering the hair; thus i will make my fortune.' accordingly his servants dug some of the clay, and after it had been carefully sifted through cloth, he put it upon the market as a new wig-powder. now in those days the more well-to-do persons had several wigs or at least two, in order that while the one was being worn the other might be sent away to the hair-dresser's to be curled and powdered. therefore, in the course of time it chanced that bã¶ttger's servant, like others, sent away his master's wig to have it freshened up. when it came back it was beautifully dressed and was powdered with some of the iron-master's new powder. it looked very fine indeed, and bã¶ttger had no fault to find with it until he took it up to put it on his head; then he observed that it was strangely heavy. 'what's this!' he cried to his servant. 'what have you been doing to my wig, rascal?' terror-stricken the servant protested that he had done nothing. bã¶ttger carried the wig into his laboratory that he might examine it more carefully, and he soon came to the conclusion that the weight of the article lay in the powder. he therefore shook it off and set to work to analyze it. what was his surprise to find the powder a white mineral substance of which he knew nothing. you may be sure he was not long in tracking down the hair-dresser and learning from him where he got his new powder. next he went to the saxon iron-master and bought from him a great quantity of the stuff, after which the chemist shut himself up in his laboratory to try out the new material. think how excited he must have been! and think how much more excited he was when he found that this mysterious white clay was the substance for which he had so long been searching!" [illustration: "his servants dug some of the clay"] "kaolin?" gasped theo. "kaolin!" the room was very still; then theo stammered hurriedly: "and what happened next?" "well, you can imagine the joy the discovery brought; but it was a carefully stifled joy, for with all his delight bã¶ttger was far too discreet to allow his wonderful discovery to travel outside the confines of his laboratory. when the elector augustus was told the news at his dresden palace near by he was wild with delight, and immediately began building a great porcelain factory at meissen. by 1715 there was enough of the new ware ready to be put on sale at leipsic; and thus our beautiful porcelain, dubbed dresden ware in honor of the saxon capitol, came into being. the first that was made was plain white with a decoration of vines and leaves in low relief. later some of the dishes were made with a perforated border in imitation of the chinese and japanese 'grains-of-rice' pattern. afterward the potters attempted the use of blue in a vain attempt to reproduce nankin blue ware." "i guess the other countries were pretty sore when they found saxony had learned how to make porcelain," put in theo. "they were greatly agitated, my son," laughed mr. croyden. "they begged, bribed, and schemed to find out what the new clay was; but all to no purpose. the works at meissen were guarded day and night, and every person employed in the factory was compelled to swear to keep the great secret. men were cautioned they would be shot should they divulge the process. _be secret to death_ was the motto of the manufactory, and that meant not only that they never should tell anybody all their life-long; but if threatened with harm they should prefer death to betraying their trust. they must even endure torture itself rather than open their mouths. some histories go so far as to say that in order to secure absolute secrecy only the deaf and dumb were allowed to transport the clay." "i don't see but they were just as selfish as the chinese." "quite as selfish, alas!" "what became of bã¶ttger?" "i am sorry to say he never did much of anything else that was praiseworthy. sometimes too much success spoils people. but he had done his work, and a great work, too, in launching this vast industry. when he died he left behind him a group of thriving factories. after his death the artists at the meissen works gradually abandoned copying chinese and japanese designs and began inventing decorations of their own, using both gold and an increasing variety of colors. they also began to secure the aid of sculptors, among them the famed sculptor kã¤ndler who modeled statuettes of saints, animals, birds, and persons in much the way the dutch had done. these figures or groups, however, were more finely executed, and were beautifully colored. as the makers of them became more expert larger figures were attempted until some of them were life-sized." "goodness!" "it does seem absurd, doesn't it?" agreed mr. croyden. "it is a childish impulse to want to make everything as big as one can make it. nevertheless in a land where much of the population was catholic you can readily understand how these gigantic figures readily found places upon altars in the churches of europe. all might have gone well with this great porcelain plant had not the seven years' war arisen just at this time, lasting from 1756 to 1763. during this period frederick the great, the grandfather of the present emperor of germany, went into saxony, stopped the royal factories at meissen, and took the workmen as captives to berlin." "but----" began theo indignantly. "such things are the issues of war," said mr. croyden gravely. "we cannot uphold them, nor cease to deplore their injustice. we can only pray that a day may come when the envy between nations will cease, and when each country shall respect its neighbor's rights in a truly christian spirit. then we shall have a world for which we shall not need to blush, and which will really be civilized." "did the saxon workmen have to make dresden china in germany?" "yes. works under the patronage of the emperor were opened at berlin, and here porcelain was made, the profits of which went to the royal treasury, the workmen being paid very little indeed. much of the ware manufactured the monarch kept for his own use; and much of it he gave away whenever he wished to make a fine present to his friends. but so lavishly did the saxon potters use the deposits of native clay that later the supply became poorer in quality, and as a consequence the body of the later dresden was not so perfect as that made at meissen. for this reason collectors set great value on the early dresden work, that made between 1731 and 1756; also on the figures modeled by the sculptor, kã¤ndler." "did the works at berlin continue?" inquired theo, who had become absorbed in the story. "yes," replied mr. croyden. "you see, even before the capital at dresden was captured by the germans and the meissen workmen carried off, attempts had been made in prussia to manufacture porcelain from ordinary stone. several private business concerns as well as various individuals had put their money into the enterprise and had even met with some success. but this ware was manufactured on no very extended scale. now, however, the emperor was determined that his venture should succeed. not only did he bring to berlin the workmen and the clay, but he even sent forth the edict that no jew in his kingdom should marry until he had purchased an entire supply of porcelain from the royal factories. as most of the jews were rich this law assured their master a wide sale for his product. that they did not wish to spend all this money for china and resented the order troubled him not at all. most of these unlucky jews bought their expensive porcelain sets only to sell them afterward to other customers, and thus get them off their hands. in this way much of the early berlin dresden ware found its way into russia, where rich russian jews were glad to buy it. after repeated improvements the berlin porcelain came in time to be as fine as that made originally at meissen; and not only were the meissen works reopened under german patronage, but the state also established another factory at charlottenberg. "now, do not forget, theo, that all this early meissen or dresden porcelain, as well as that eventually manufactured at berlin, was made from hard paste, or a combination of clays resulting in what we call true porcelain. later on i shall tell you much about soft paste wares, and about bone china. none of those varieties, however, ranks as real porcelain. remember that only the hard paste products are genuine." mr. croyden paused a moment, then added: "and while we are speaking of this period in history you may perhaps be interested to know that it was a workman who escaped from meissen into austria who started in vienna the art of making porcelain from hard paste." "true porcelain," remarked theo, who had profited by his lesson. "just so, son. work in porcelain-making had been going on in austria since about 1717; but it had been done in a small way by private individuals, who had only small capital to put into it, and who had met with little success because the ware they had turned out had been thick and muddy in appearance. in 1744 the empress maria theresa purchased these works, and from that time on they began to prosper. you see, the monarchs of those days could make almost any industry a success if they once set out to do so. not only had they the capital to back their undertaking but they could compel their subjects to patronize the venture." theo laughed. "i see." "therefore by 1785 the empress's china factory was a very busy place which was supplying with porcelain not only austria, but also turkey. in 1796 lamprecht, one of the leading animal painters of the monarchy, was decorating this ware with wonderful pictures of stags, hounds, horses, in which work he excelled. but because of the mohammedan law that no copies of living creatures could be used for designs the turks refused to purchase these dishes. hence vienna, eager to retain the oriental trade, was forced to change its artistic trend and make instead porcelains adorned with arabesques and geometrical figures. at the present time," concluded mr. croyden, "there are extensive pottery and porcelain factories throughout germany and austria-hungary, and much of our finest ware comes from these countries. were you to study history you would find that many of these factories sprang up from small beginnings, and that amid the turmoil of european strife they had a stiff fight for existence." "i think i never considered before the effect of war upon anything but persons," remarked theo musingly. "alas, the destruction war wages against human life is bad enough," answered mr. croyden. "but see, too, how it retards the arts and industries of the world. may the day be not far distant when nations shall find a more christian and intelligent method of settling their differences, and when wars shall cease forevermore!" [illustration] chapter ix the romance of french china-making the next day when mr. croyden put his head in at theo's door to say good-morning he found the boy sitting up in bed eating his breakfast and his first remark was: "how long did it take france to find out how to make porcelain, mr. croyden?" the manufacturer laughed. "i declare if you are not beginning this morning just where you left off last night!" he exclaimed. "what kind of porcelain do you mean, hard or soft paste?" "oh, any kind." "you have not forgotten the vast difference between the hard and soft ware, have you? i should be discouraged if you had." theo shook his head. "i don't believe you would let me forget even if i wanted to," he replied with an impish chuckle. "i certainly shouldn't," smiled mr. croyden. then he added more seriously: "soft paste china, or pã¢te tendre, as it is called, was made at st. cloud as early as 1695, and some of it was very beautiful. such ware looks more creamy and is not so cold and harsh to the touch. it is, however, much more fragile and for that reason, although a great deal of it was manufactured, the industry never became a wide-spread success. later soft paste was also made at chantilly, vincennes, limoges, paris, and a number of french cities. even the celebrated sã¨vres ware, the finest thing in china-making that france ever produced, was at first made from soft paste. this is easily understood when you recall that at the beginning the only clays the french knew anything about were pã¢te tendre clays. it was not until kaolin was discovered in 1765 and taken from the section about st. yrieix that hard paste, or pã¢te dure, was made in france." "i see." "nevertheless the french people got wonderful results from their pã¢te tendre, and became wildly enthusiastic over the pieces the china-designers turned out. and well they might for the french were an inventive, art-loving people who certainly got fine results from their early china-making. to understand the place art occupied at that time you must remember that the court was a centre for all those who were interested in beautiful things. the king was ever on the lookout for what was novel or artistic, and ready to give it his patronage; and whatever the king patronized became the fad among the rich, idle courtiers. so when the king turned his attention to the new art of china-making its success was assured; as a matter of course all the rest of the fashionable world did the same." "it was a good fashion." "a very good fashion. often a monarch's patronage of arts and letters called public attention to a praiseworthy production that might otherwise live unrecognized for years. i sometimes think that in our day it would be a fortunate custom if more persons of influence would give thought and money to elevating the arts to their rightful position of dignity. the old custom of placing artists and scientists beyond the stress of financial worry is not a bad one. such persons are benefactors of the race and should be endowed that they may work more freely. that is practically what the kings and emperors of the past did for some of our great writers, artists, and inventors. that is in reality what king louis did for the newly-born china-industry. when between 1740 and 1750 a company was formed at vincennes to make pã¢te tendre, the king himself contributed to the venture 100,000 livres for its encouragment." "how splendid!" "it meant prosperity for france if the undertaking succeeded, so the act was not perhaps as unselfish as it seems; however, such a donation was of course a great spur to the workmen, who immediately began making not only dinner-sets and ordinary dishes but all sorts of fantastic and beautiful things. they fashioned colored statuettes, vases of fanciful pattern, and an abundance of most exquisitely modeled flowers. how such fragile products as these latter could be fired without injury was a marvel. among other presents which the china-makers gave to the queen was a vase three feet in height containing a bouquet of four hundred and eighty of these flowers, each one carefully copied from nature. these china flowers promptly became the rage. two bouquets of them, each costing 3,000 livres, were made for the king and the dauphin; and these remain to this day in one of the french museums. the work of this period all reflects the nation-wide enthusiasm for these china flowers. statuettes were made with a central figure surrounded by them; there were shepherds and shepherdesses seated beneath arbors or trellises covered with the daintiest of vines and blossoms; figures of court ladies at whose feet masses of lovely flowers seemed growing. you can see some of this work in our own museums, and i am sure you will agree with me that it is little short of miraculous. the art museum at boston has three very fine specimens of these early french ornaments, and there are others to be found elsewhere." "i am going to hunt some of them up when i go home to the city," affirmed theo. "that's right! see all you can of the beautiful things the past has given us; you never will be sorry," declared mr. croyden. "now you can imagine with a background of such progress at china-making, what a furore and transformation followed when kaolin was discovered. pã¢te dure was far more desirable than pã¢te tendre, for it was much less breakable. the works at vincennes where sã¨vres china really had its birth were now moved to sã¨vres itself, where the art of porcelain-making was gradually perfected. the plant was not far from versailles, where the royal palace was, and the industry immediately came under the control of the king. "then there was excitement indeed! money was poured in lavishly that the infant venture might have every chance to grow. the king ordered beautiful gardens to be made about the factories, and not a week passed that he and madame de pompadour did not visit the works accompanied by a train of nobles and ladies of the court. madame de pompadour, herself something of an artist, often touched up the decoration on a bit of china that pleased her fancy. professional artists also lent their aid, their designs ranging from the shepherdesses of watteau to copies of chinese and japanese scenes. flowers, cupids, garlands, landscapes--never was such a diversity of decoration attempted as during the reigns of louis xiv and xv. as a result the output became very overdone and ornate. fortunately for art, louis xvi had better taste. instead of continuing this garish type of design he procured a collection of greek vases to serve as models for his workmen, and as a result the product came back to a more classic and less florid style." mr. croyden paused. "with all this beauty in the body of the porcelain itself, and all the wonder of the modeling and painting, you must remember that throughout the period the chemists employed were making great strides in the use of pigments. no little science was necessary to find colors that would stand the intense heat necessary for firing this hard paste. you know of course that most of the mineral pigments used to decorate china do not look at all the same after they have been subjected to a high temperature as they look before. many colors which fire out to exquisite tones look quite ugly when applied to the biscuit clay. both chemists and artists have to be skilled in the knowledge of how these paints will react under heat. so when i say the sã¨vres workers reached a richness and harmony of color never before known in china-making you can imagine how much patient experimental labor probably preceded this triumph of art." theo's eyes had not left the story-teller's face for an instant. "it was not as if the painters used only a touch of color here and there," continued mr. croyden. "much of the ware was designed with a solid color that covered the body, small spaces being reserved for medallions in which there were heads or landscapes. the gilding, too, was very heavy, and sometimes in combination with it imitation gems were used. at the present time a color known as rose du barry brings the highest price in old sã¨vres. other famous colors in which the french china-makers excelled were bleu roi, which was made from cobalt----" "king's blue," murmured theo. "bleu celeste, a turquoise blue made from copper----" "sky blue!" put in theo. "there was also a rare canary yellow; an apple green; a fine tone of violet; and a bright red that had not been seen before in the china world. so intense was the interest in the sã¨vres factory that even when the french revolution came and every relic of royalty was destroyed by the hooting mobs, the sã¨vres works were not touched. you see in what a magic realm the old sã¨vres ware had its being. we call everything dating up to 1800 _old sã¨vres_, and you will probably find it so marked in both public and private collections." "is sã¨vres ware still manufactured?" questioned theo, stumbling timidly over the french word. "yes," answered mr. croyden, "there is a modern sã¨vres, much of the success of which is due to alexandre brongniart who was both a geologist and chemist, and who was the director of the sã¨vres factories from 1800 to 1850. he did much to perpetuate the industry and keep up its standard. during his time no piece with an imperfection in it was allowed to go out from the factory." "was sã¨vres the only famous ware the french people made?" "it is undoubtedly the most celebrated," replied mr. croyden, "but there are now many other fine porcelains made in france. for example at limoges, where in 1775 pã¢te tendre was made, there is a very extensive porcelain plant founded in 1840 by david haviland, an american, from which quantities of pã¢te dure or genuine porcelain for the american market are annually turned out. much of the other french china, however--dainty, exquisite, and artistic as it is, is pã¢te tendre. it is of course sold in quantities, but it is very perishable. there is also a so-called porcelain made from a mixture of clays and phosphates--a ware known to the trade as _bone china_. but of course this variety is not real porcelain. you see that much of what we call porcelain is not porcelain at all when you judge it by this strict standard. it is nevertheless very useful, and a hungry boy like you can manage nicely to eat his breakfast off it and be quite as happy. now give me your tray and i'm off. there will be no more china-making to-day, you young scoundrel! see how long you have cajoled me into lingering already. you almost made me forget that i was going fishing." with a friendly pat on the boy's shoulder mr. croyden disappeared. [illustration] chapter x how the italians made china for the next few days theo was in no frame of mind to talk porcelain or any other serious subject, for his new crutches came, and after dr. swift had adjusted them the boy was like a bird freed from its cage. he could not, to be sure, go far from the house; but even to clump up and down the veranda and the plank walks that connected the cabins was a joy. how good it was to get about once more! but, alas, the pace at which the convalescent moved was a constant source of alarm to all who beheld it. before the expiration of the first day theo had acquired such skill and speed that he hopped about like a sparrow. there was no such thing as stopping him. he felt bound, however, on his father's account to use some caution, and the realization that he had already caused trouble enough was a potent factor in restraining his fearlessness. each day saw a gain in his condition, and it was evident that before long the injured leg would be as good as new. yet the exasperating hardship of having still to remain a captive in the camp had to be endured. in the meantime the date for the return home drew nearer and as the hours of the vacation shortened theo's determination that his father should enjoy every possible moment of the time increased. so he was plucky enough to be as careful as he could, and while the doctor and mr. croyden fished he invented for himself such amusements as were practical within his own more limited confines. perhaps, although he did not appear to notice this, mr. croyden fathomed the lad's unselfish intention more completely than did any one else. however this may be, certain it was that in spite of his sorties from the camp the merchant contrived to devote a part of every evening to theo, whose father was occupied in writing a medical paper to be read before some convention on his return to the city. to these evenings with mr. croyden the lad looked forward eagerly. they were the bright spot in the day. the talks the two had together usually took place in mr. croyden's cabin before the open fire where the china-makers could converse freely and not disturb dr. swift. such a genuine friendship between the boy and the elder man had sprung up that it would have been difficult to tell which of them anticipated this bedtime hour the more. "do you realize, theo, that we shall not be having many more of these talks?" observed mr. croyden one evening as they sat cozily ensconced before a roaring blaze. "the last of the week we shall be starting back to civilization--to starched collars and cuffs, and the rush and hubbub of city life. for you i suppose it will mean school again; and for me it will be a matter of wading through a mountain of business correspondence that has been accumulating while i have been away. we shall miss these cozy evenings together, shan't we?" "i certainly shall, mr. croyden," answered theo earnestly. "well, i do not mean they shall die out altogether," mr. croyden affirmed cheerfully. "my plan is to have you come over to trenton and make us a little visit when you get stronger. would you like to? we'd go all over the china factories, and you could see porcelain made at first hand. what do you think of the scheme?" "i'd like it better than anything else," cried theo instantly. "it's settled, then," replied mr. croyden. "i fancy your father and mother will be willing to lend you to me for a little while. you see, mrs. croyden and i both enjoy young people very much and we have none at home. we are particularly fond of boys, and like nothing better than to borrow one now and then. if you come you run the risk of our forgetting to return you; but i guess your parents will see to that," he concluded with a merry laugh. "i rather think they will," replied theo with a smile. "trust them for that," said mr. croyden. "you'd make no mistake to go back, either, for you have a mighty fine father, sonny." "father's--well, he's _all right_!" declared theo tersely but emphatically. "so is mother! you must meet mother some time. she's a peach!" "the vacation has done your father a world of good, theo," reflected mr. croyden, looking into the embers. "do you realize how much better he looks? he is much less nervous and tired." "i hope so, sir," came heartily from theo. "i have wanted so much not to spoil his vacation, for he needed it badly." "i am sure you have not spoiled it," put in mr. croyden quickly. "you can consider that in sending a doctor back to his job in a1 condition you have done your bit to help the war. doctors are among our most useful and necessary men." "i know it," theo returned. "mother and i are tremendously proud of father. we feel he is doing a lot of good in the world. i guess now i'll feel that way more than ever for i never knew what it was to be sick before." there was a long pause, broken only by the velvety rustle of the logs burning in the chimney; then theo remarked abruptly: "aren't you going to tell me anything about china to-night?" "do you wish me to?" "of course i do; that is, unless you are too tired." "i'm not tired at all," responded mr. croyden. "i thought you might be the tired one." "i!" "not bored?" "not so you'd notice it." "all right, then; only you'll have to let me think a minute," said mr. croyden. "where did we leave off?" "you had been telling me about sã¨vres ware and other french porcelains." "oh, yes! now i remember. well, as you can imagine, after kaolin was discovered the secret gradually leaked out, and everybody went to work at making china. kings, emperors, and princes; nobles of high birth, all took up the art with zest, spending great sums of money on fabriques, as the porcelain factories came to be called. in florence francis, one of the dukes of the medici, built a tiny laboratory in the garden of the boboli palace and there made a rude ware, some of it hard paste and some of it soft. this was even before the st. cloud works were opened, and certain historians say that this was the first true porcelain made in europe. at a much later period (about 1735, to be exact) the ginori family, another titled italian household of wealth and position, owning estates just outside florence, took up porcelain-making, even sending ships to china for the necessary clay. fancy it! and to show you how highly this industry was esteemed i will add that the marquise himself superintended his workmen and helped in manufacturing this doccia ware, as they styled their output." "did this happen during the renaissance?" inquired theo timidly. "it sounds as if it might have." mr. croyden nodded, cordially, much gratified by the lad's understanding. "that was just when it happened," he said. "in the meantime, at about the same period, a beautiful soft paste called capo di monte was being made down in naples under the patronage of charles iv--the charles who afterward became charles iii of spain. like the rest of royalty this king became absorbed in china-making--so absorbed that he went frequently to work in his factories himself, and each year held a sale of his products at the gates of his palace; whenever a piece was sold a record of it was made and later the name of the purchaser was reported to the king." "i suppose he, too, made the nobles buy his china," laughed theo. "i am afraid he did," agreed mr. croyden. "at least it was a fact that he showed especial favor to those who did buy it, which was practically the same thing. i think i forgot to tell you that the french kings also forced, or perhaps i should say expected, their courtiers and ladies to purchase sã¨vres ware. it was a custom of the time." "i think it was a rotten custom!" ejaculated theo wrathfully. "certainly it was not a desirable thing. in our day we should call it graft. still at that time there were plenty of people who were only too anxious to keep their heads on their shoulders, and who would have been glad to buy almost anything in order to do so. doubtless they considered a little porcelain a small price for their lives, and were glad to win the favor of a capricious monarch by purchasing it. king charles was no worse than all the rest. later, when he became ruler of spain, he took many of his italian workmen there with him, and as a consequence in 1821 the naples fabrique was closed; many of the moulds, as well as much of the outfitting, was sold to the doccia works. as a result capo di monte was afterward imitated in doccia hard and soft paste; but the original ware which is of value to collectors was that made at naples. it is very difficult to distinguish this variety, for the doccia people even copied the king's trade-mark." "i suppose people could do that then," ventured theo. "oh, yes. there was nothing to protect an invention as there is now," replied mr. croyden. "did king charles continue to make porcelain in spain?" "yes, he had a palace called buen retiro and here he established fabriques that continued to thrive even up to the time of king ferdinand in 1780, and would probably have prospered much longer had not the napoleonic wars come and the french destroyed the factories." "and what became of the doccia works in the meantime?" queried theo. "i am glad you asked that question," answered mr. croyden, "for i had not finished speaking about the doccia fabrique. it was unique in its management. you know in our day how much we hear of proper factory conditions? doubtless you have seen mills where there are neatly graded lawns, flower-beds, and perhaps a recreation ground. we consider such mill-owners very progressive and speak of them with keenest approval. yet in our enlightened times such things are none too common. now it is interesting to know that this ginori family who founded the doccia porcelain works were far in advance of anything we yet have done for our employees. not only did they have lawns and gardens for their workmen, but they also had a park; a farm where vegetables were raised for the common good; a school for the workmen's children; an academy of music where all could go to concerts; and a savings-bank in which earnings could be deposited. what do you think of that for progressiveness?" the boy's eyes opened wide. "i guess we're not so civilized as we think we are," he remarked soberly. "we are not the only people who ever lived--that's sure!" retorted the trenton man grimly. "as you can well imagine, the men under the ginori were very appreciative, and as a mark of their gratitude for all this kindness they set to work and made for the ginori chapel beautiful porcelain monuments as a tribute to the dead and gone ginori nobles. they also made a marvelous high altar all of porcelain, with magnificent candlesticks, fonts, and statues--a wonderful embodiment of their skill as well as their devotion." "it must have taken some clay!" exclaimed theo. "i guess it did," mr. croyden assented. "aside from this work the output of the doccia fabrique was largely imitative. they made so many copies of sã¨vres, capo di monte, and majolica that it soon became a great problem to tell the real from the imitation, and this has caused collectors no end of trouble." "was no other porcelain made in italy?" "yes, as far back as 1515 pottery, as i told you, was made in venice; and with the discovery of kaolin venetian merchants imported the true clay which did not exist in italy, and manufactured both hard and soft paste. but the industry was never a success because the expense of getting the material was so great. in 1753 the germans, because of the cheapness of italian labor, tried making porcelain there, thinking that they could furnish their own clays at slight cost. but the scheme was a failure. there was, however, some imitative work done later by a potter named cozzi which was very good. but italy has never excelled in china-making as she did in the making of glass because she had not the material to do any very extensive work. there has, to be sure, been a scattering of porcelains turned out--some from turin; some from treviso; and some from other cities. but aside from the majolica pottery, and delia robbia's terra-cottas, italy has not made any distinctive contribution to the china-making art. still she has done so much in almost every other art that she should rest content. one cannot excel in everything." "some of us never excel in anything," laughed theo. "some of us excel in falling off roofs and breaking our legs," chuckled mr. croyden teasingly. "and some of us excel in being very patient about it afterward," he added, patting the boy's shoulder affectionately. [illustration] chapter xi our english cousins all too soon the time came when grips had to be packed, tackle stowed away, and the campers start out over the carry to meet the train that was to take them to new york. the trip was a long and tedious one of two days' duration. nevertheless our travelers did not find it wearisome. on the train were papers and magazines in plenty, and whenever dr. swift went into the smoking car theo always found mr. croyden near at hand and willing to talk. "and when mr. croyden is around no place could be dull or stupid," affirmed theo to his father. "i believe i shall begin to be jealous of mr. croyden, theo," laughed dr. swift good-naturedly. "i am coming to fear that if you go to visit him as he wants you to, you never will come back home." theo smiled. "you can't lose me so easily, dad," he answered. "just the same, i know if i do go and visit the croydens i'll have a bully time. but i'd like to wait until i get rid of these crutches so i won't be a bother to anybody." "that is wise. i should not feel easy if you started out on a visit before you were quite well," replied dr. swift. "however, it won't be long now before you can cast your crutches into the rubbish heap. in the meantime your own family can have a visit with you. i rather fancy your mother will be thankful to have you home again; she has been pretty anxious about you. no mother likes having her boy where she cannot get to him when he is ill." "but you were there, dad." dr. swift smiled into the eyes that met his. "yes, i was there, to be sure," he assented. "but a doctor is not necessarily a good nurse." "i don't see how anybody could be a better nurse than you, father." the doctor shook his head. "i'm afraid i did not fuss much over you," he answered. "at least i did not smother you with attention the way your mother would have done. you got no spoiling from me. i expect, though, that when your mother gets hold of you she won't be able to do enough for you. i can see her to-day flying round the house ordering all the things you like to eat, and getting everything ready for your coming. i shall have no attention at all." theo beamed. "you will have all the attention you want, and more too, dad, i guess," he remarked drily. "probably a string of patients as long as this car will be waiting to pounce on you the minute you set foot in new york." "i expect so, son. however, i shall not begrudge that sort of a welcome now, for i feel like a fighting cock." "you really are rested, aren't you, father?" "i am like another man," was the vehement reply. "i was about all in when we went into camp. thanks to you and mr. croyden i have had a fine chance to pull myself together and prepare for whatever comes next. you have been very thoughtful and unselfish, theo, in leaving me free to get all i could out of my vacation. it has meant everything." "i wanted to help you, dad." "you've certainly proved that, my boy. i've appreciated every bit of it." a quick glance passed between the two. they understood each other very well, theo and his father. "here is mr. croyden," observed theo. "he has been getting off some mail and telegrams." "that is precisely what i must do," declared the doctor rising. "i'll leave you to have one of your china-making talks while i am gone." as the doctor passed through into the next car mr. croyden sauntered down the aisle and dropped into the seat he had just vacated. "there," announced the merchant with a satisfied sigh, "i have done my duty. i have sent off three telegrams and a lot of letters. how funny it seems to get busy after being so idle! next week will see us all back at the grind, i suppose, and rushing about as if we had never been away." "are you sorry?" "no," was the hearty response. "i like to play when i play; but i like also to work. i enjoy my business very much. it is an interesting and useful one, and i like to think that in my small way i am helping to furnish the world with things that are necessary, and tend toward comfort and convenience as well as toward beauty. people cannot get on without dishes--you and i have proved that." "not unless we all go back to being savages," said theo humorously. "we shall not do that, i hope," returned mr. croyden gravely. "each century should see the race farther ahead--a more honest, kindlier, christian nation. that is the motto we must bring with us out of this war. not more territory, more money, more power; but truer manhood and purer souls. if the conflict does this for our people all the sacrifice and loss of life it has meant will not have been in vain. out of the wreck a better america should arise, and we each must help it to arise--you as well as i, for we need not only good men and women but good boys and girls, if we are to have a fine country." "a boy can't do much toward it, i'm afraid," theo said. "on the contrary, a boy can do a great deal," replied mr. croyden. "it is the boys of to-day who are going to be the men of to-morrow; and there is no such thing as suddenly becoming a good man, any more than there is such a thing as a seed suddenly becoming a full-blown plant. everything has to grow, and grow slowly, too. so if you wish to be a wise, honest citizen who will help forward this glorious country we all love so much, you want to be setting about it right now, you and every other boy. and you want to go at the work earnestly, too, for you will be a man before you know it." "it looks a long way off to me now," mused theo. "such things always do; but time flies pretty fast. you will find yourself in college the next thing you know; and after that you will be beginning to plan your career. what are you going to be, theo?" "i don't know, sir," was the uncertain answer. "i'd just like to do something that really needs to be done; something that people cannot get on without." "that is a splendid ambition," came heartily from mr. croyden. "i thought perhaps you'd be thinking of taking up your father's job." "i be a surgeon!" gasped theo. "why not?" "oh, because i'd be no good at it," the boy said. "i should never know what to do with sick people. i'd be scared to death. it seems to me now that i would rather go into making something; but i do not just know what." "you want to be a business man, eh?" "that is what i'd rather do." "humph!" there was an interval of silence; then mr. croyden said: "well, if when you are through your education, theo, we are out of this war and you are still of the same mind, you come to me. who knows but you might end your days in my factories?" the boy's eyes sparkled. "croyden and swift--how would that sound?" "it would sound all right," chuckled theo, "but i am afraid the sound would be the best part of it. why, i'd never be able to learn all you know about china if i lived to be a hundred years old." "aren't you learning things about china right now? haven't you already learned about the pottery and porcelain of almost every nation under the sun?" "i have liked to have you tell me about it," replied theo modestly. "well, isn't that making a beginning?" queried the pottery merchant. "we have discussed the china output of almost every country, haven't we?" theo reflected. "all the big countries except england." "how did we happen to leave england out?" "i guess you did not have time to get round to england," answered theo. "still all the time isn't gone yet, you know; you might tell me about england now." they both laughed. "i believe you are something of a diplomat, theo," observed mr. croyden. "you are either a diplomat or you are a schemer. sometimes it is very hard to tell the one from the other. in either case you seem determined to give me no peace, so i fancy i may as well tell you about english porcelain and have done with it. if i do not do it now i shall have to do it some other time, i suppose." "i suppose you will," came delightedly from theo. "well, here goes, then!" the elder man settled back into a comfortable position and theo wriggled contentedly into the opposite corner of the seat. "as you can well understand," began mr. croyden, "the discovery of kaolin set england as eagerly to experimenting at porcelain-making as it had the other nations. contrary, however, to other countries the english government lent no helping hand to the industry, offering neither money nor inducements to those who would take it up. therefore only those persons who were sufficiently interested in the new venture, and could afford to make the attempt with their own capital, dared go into it. fortunately there were at hand some of these ambitious manufacturers. their early experiences are interesting not so much because of the quality of their work though much of it was good, as because they were the forerunners of later workers. the paste they used was not as fine as that of the chinese or japanese; or in fact, that of the early dresden or sã¨vres ware. gradually, however, it became better, until now--although england turns out almost no true porcelain, that is, the scientifically blended kaolin and petuntse clays--she makes some of the most beautiful and durable china manufactured anywhere." "what is it made of?" inquired theo, much puzzled. "different combinations of kaolin clays and phosphates; a ware which in the porcelain trade is known as bone china," replied mr. croyden. "the phosphate of lime that is mixed with the kaolin renders the body of the ware more porous and elastic. on such china the glaze does not blend with the body and become an actual part of it as is the case with a true porcelain, but on the contrary is an outer coating which can be scratched through. but bone china is very strong, and does not chip as does a more brittle variety. for that reason where wear and durability are desired it is often preferred." mr. croyden stopped a second. "when i tell you these facts you must not think i am crying down the english wares," he said. "i could show you beautiful varieties of english porcelain. i merely wish you to understand that it has not the qualities of the chinese, japanese, sã¨vres, dresden, or even the more modern limoges ware. but what it loses in delicacy and translucence it makes up in strength, and perhaps after all strength is as desirable as any other quality." "didn't the english ever make any real hard paste china?" asked theo. "it is said that between 1730 and 1744 they did make some; and this product is supposed to be the only true porcelain ever made in england. it was manufactured at stratford-le-bow, and where do you think the clay for it came from? strangely enough from our own state of virginia. you can imagine the expense of bringing the clay across the atlantic. this ware known for convenience as bow became very popular. the first of it was hand-painted, but later the designs were transferred, and the product became cheaper. not only were tea sets made, but also a great number of china figures of birds, animals, and shepherdesses; there were even some statuettes of celebrities of the time, which remain as an interesting record of the costumes of the period. owing to the fact that much of the bow china was unmarked it is frequently confused with the soft ware made at chelsea, which was also of early english manufacture." "did the bow factories continue?" asked theo. "about 1775 the bow works were merged with those of derby; and in 1784, the chelsea fabrique was also absorbed by the derby company. derby china, especially crown derby, you must remember, is one of the finest of present day english wares. about 1777 these factories came under the patronage of king george iii, at which time the term crown derby was bestowed on the product." "then an english king did help in english porcelain-making after all!" exclaimed theo. "to a certain extent, yes," answered mr. croyden. "the english nobility, too, patronized the royal factories. the ware was so beautiful perhaps people were only too glad to do so. there were plates with deep borders of solid rich color, frequently adorned with heavy gold work; and there were vases, pitchers, and bowls of magnificent hue. in fact, the use of blue and gold was brought to a greater perfection in this ware than ever before, and it established for the makers a wide-reaching reputation. possibly this reputation might have remained preã«minent had not the short-sighted manufacturers begun to sell at a lower rate their imperfect pieces, or seconds. great quantities of these flooded the market and immediately the fame of the ware decreased." "what a pity!" "since then this erroneous policy has been corrected in so far as has been possible; but the blot on the history of the derby porcelain remains, proving that a firm that values its standing should never allow imperfect products to go beyond its doors. william cookworthy, who, by the way, made the bow china and who lived at plymouth, england, in 1760, finally discovered deposits of true kaolin at cornwall, and of this material made some more true porcelain; but unfortunately much of it was injured in the firing. his workmen did not understand the difficulties and dangers of exposing the ware to the extreme heat. but this plymouth ware held an interesting place in the development of english china-making." "did the plymouth works grow and become larger?" asked theo. "alas, much beautiful porcelain, copied to a great extent from chinese and continental wares, was made there, but the expense of turning it out was so great that poor cookworthy sunk a fortune in the enterprise. however, the venture was not without its fruits, for out of the plymouth fabrique developed that of bristol, and later that of shelton, or new hall. all of these plants manufactured hard paste chinas. at bristol in 1774 a wonderfully fine tea and coffee set was made for edmund burke, the renowned english orator. in the meantime all over england small fabriques were springing up. at pinxton, swansea, coalport, liverpool and rockingham; most of these factories made soft paste chinas. then came an innovation. one of the most perfect of english porcelains, known as spode, was produced by combining with this type of paste pulverized bones." "bones!" "yes. it seems a strange idea, doesn't it? but it was a great discovery, and one that has been generally adopted and used ever since by the principal china-making firms of england. the bone element, or phosphate of lime, as it is more properly termed, imparts both strength and elasticity to the china. minton ware, first made in 1791 and now extensively manufactured in england and sold throughout the china-buying world, is one of these bone chinas. it is a great favorite because of its durability as well as its beauty. there were in addition many other very fine chinas made in england--far too many of them for me to enumerate. one was the lowestoft, made from about 1756 in soft paste, and in 1775 in hard. much of it is in imitation of the chinese, although some was decorated with roses, and some with landscapes or coats of arms. as it had no mark upon it it is now difficult to be sure of the genuine ware. moreover, a large amount of the white porcelain, it is said, was sent from china to lowestoft to be decorated, and therefore the body of it is of oriental and not english make. worcester is another of the celebrated soft paste chinas, which at first copied oriental designs, and later branched off into imitations of dresden or sã¨vres wares. it is still made and widely sold." "it seems as if a great many of the english wares were copies of somebody else's work," remarked theo. "i am afraid they were," owned mr. croyden. "england was not rich in originality of design. the work of wedgwood is the only distinctively inventive contribution made to the china-making art. however, the english bone porcelains are very beautiful, and though they are not genuine feldspathic products they are highly esteemed and in demand everywhere. now you must own, theo, that i have given you a pretty complete outline of the pottery and porcelain-making of the european countries. holland and belgium, as i have told you, lack both clay and fuel and therefore had not a fair chance to compete with the other nations; but they did make some little porcelain. sweden also turned out a little. denmark gave a real contribution to the world in its copenhagen ware, a type of white porcelain decorated beneath the glaze in cobalt. the fabrique for making this china was opened as early as 1760 but it never paid, and in 1775 the government took over the works and it became a royal factory where women of rank and position joined the artists in designing and decorating the porcelain. the undertaking, however, proved so expensive that in 1876 the factories went back into private hands. but the porcelain has become world-famous and holds its place in the list of the distinctive chinas of the art universe. look up royal copenhagen some time, and see how beautiful it is." "i will," nodded theo. "but in all this china-making did russia do nothing?" "russia made her try," mr. croyden said. "peter the great was an ambitious ruler who traveled the continent over to see what other countries were doing in the way of commerce and manufacture. when he returned from one of his pilgrimages he made the people build a new commercial and industrial centre--st. petersburg, now petrograd. here he set his subjects to making all sorts of artistic things such as he had seen in europe, especially brass, copper, and silver articles. from 1744 to 1765 under the empresses elizabeth and catherine ii a little really fine hard paste was produced. it was a porcelain in imitation of dresden; but there never was very much of it manufactured. a little russian porcelain was also made at moscow and poland. the russians never excelled in pottery and porcelain-making, however, as they did in metal work." mr. croyden rose. "see," he said, "here comes your father! that means that we must bid good-bye to china-making for to-day. i fear we shall have to say good-bye to it altogether, too, for by to-morrow morning we shall be getting into new york and separating for home. but you are not to forget, theo, that i want you to come to trenton the first minute you are rid of these crutches. then i shall tramp you through my factories and you shall see how all this porcelain we have talked of is made." "i shall be mighty glad to come," responded theo. "i must leave it to your father's discretion, then, to notify me when he thinks you are able to make the visit," added the merchant, turning to dr. swift who had just joined them. "you just telephone me, doctor, when you think you can spare this boy of yours; will you?" "you are very kind, croyden." "not a bit! not a bit!" protested mr. croyden. "i shall want to see theo, and i am anxious to have mrs. croyden meet him too. i only wish we had a boy just like him; then i'd have somebody to leave my business to." he drummed on the window moodily. "who knows but i may be coming to help you make china one of these days, sir," suggested theo half jokingly. the man wheeled sharply. "i wish i thought you would," was his quick response. "if at the end of your college career you find yourself with any such notion, sonny, you'll be very welcome." with an affectionate glance at the boy mr. croyden strode off into the smoking-car. [illustration] chapter xii theo makes a present there was great rejoicing when theo and his father reached home. it seemed as if mrs. swift could never do enough for her boy. the whole house was turned upside down to make him comfortable, and on the dinner table were all his favorite dishes. "to see your mother, theo, anybody would think you were a fragile invalid just out of the hospital rather than a husky young camper returned from the woods," growled the doctor. "my dear," he continued, addressing his wife, "theo hasn't had as much attention as this in all the time he has been ill. croyden and i have not pranced round after him, i assure you. he has had to brace up and bear his troubles like a soldier; and he has done it, too." "i suppose soldiers do have to be pretty patient," remarked theo meditatively. "i never thought before how hard it must be for them when they are hurt." "it is one of the great tests of courage," said dr. swift. "we all are liable to think of soldiers only when the drums are beating and the flags flying. then it seems a very easy and pleasant thing to be a soldier. but there is much more to it than that. a great deal of drudgery is attached to a soldier's life, and frequently a great deal of suffering. one of the tests of a hero is to be patient when there is nothing to do but await orders, or perform some menial and uninteresting task, or lie tossing on a sick-bed. then you find out very quickly the sort of stuff your man is made of. those who fight are not the biggest heroes. often the noblest and most helpful men are those who themselves are not only cheerful under monotony and dullness, but aid their comrades to be so. therefore, theo, when you took it upon yourself to bear your troubles in the maine woods bravely you proved you had the first essential of a good soldier." theo flushed with pleasure. "that is why we cannot have your mother undoing your virtuous deeds," continued the doctor whimsically. "we must make her realize she has a man and not a baby to deal with. theo is no invalid, louisa. on the contrary, he is going right to school to-morrow." "not with those crutches!" protested mrs. swift. "why not? he has the term to finish, and certainly you would not have him flat out on his job when the end is in sight. it is only a few weeks to the last of june. the fishing trip was a vacation; and if he got more vacation out of it than he calculated," went on dr. swift with a twinkle in his eye, "why, so much the better. he is that much to the good." "i'd rather finish my school year, mother," rejoined theo. "well, apparently it is two against one," smiled mrs. swift. "your father is, of course, a far better judge of your condition than i. broken bones are in his line. but do be careful, son, and not go skipping on and off cars when they are moving, or doing things that are going to worry me." "rest easy, mother. i'll promise not to take any chances," theo replied promptly. "i am far too eager to get well. it is no fun to be hobbling about. besides, i want to be in trim to go to the croydens as soon as school is over." "your father says mr. croyden was very kind to you while you were in camp." "he was bully!" "it would be nice if you could do something to show that you appreciated it," observed mrs. swift vaguely. instantly theo caught at the suggestion. "i wish i could!" he declared. "can't you think of something, mother?" mrs. swift paused a moment. "it would be of no use to do anything unless it was something you did yourself," she said at last. "of course your father and i could give you the money to buy a present; but after all that would be our present and not yours." "oh, a gift we bought would not be of the slightest use," cut in dr. swift. "it would spoil the whole idea. either theo would have to purchase something with his own money----" "i have only saved a dollar out of my allowance," interrupted theo dubiously. "or he would have to do something, or make something, for mr. croyden," concluded the doctor. "i don't see what i could do," mused theo. "you couldn't make anything, son?" asked his mother. "nothing good enough," responded theo, shaking his head. "don't they teach you how to make anything at school?" "no, sir." "all head and no hands, i suppose," retorted dr. swift scornfully. "that is the way with our modern educational system. it is a poor plan on which to bring up a boy. i wish i had realized it before. louisa, why didn't you see to this?" blustered the doctor. "you picked out theo's studies yourself, my dear." "i?" "certainly. you took the outline and checked off the things you wished theo to take this year." "you did, father," put in theo. "when did i do it?" "oh, one day when you were on your way to a hospital meeting," answered the boy. "you were in a hurry, and you stood out in the hall and marked the list with your fountain-pen." "then i am heartily ashamed of myself," confessed dr. swift candidly. "i had no right to do anything of the sort. i should have sat down and put some thought into the matter. do you suppose it would be too late, son, for you to change your course of study this term?" "i shouldn't want to change it much, dad," replied theo. "i'd be sorry to give up any of the things i am taking, for i have worked hard at them and it would be discouraging to have my time all thrown away. but perhaps now that i am knocked out of athletics i might put those extra hours into something else. some of the boys take sloyd." "the very thing!" exclaimed the doctor. "manual training is just what we're after. you would enjoy it, too." "i don't know whether i would or not, dad," returned theo frankly. "i never was much good with tools. i like athletics better." "that is because you have never learned to use tools properly," said his father. "where do you suppose i'd be now if i hadn't started out when i was a boy to tinker round a farm? that's where i got my manual training, and there isn't a course in the country that can equal it. i had to use my brains, too, as well as my hands, for very often the things i needed were not to be had and i was forced to make something else do. it was a great education, i can tell you! what skill i have at surgery i attribute largely to that early training. now we'll set right to work to remedy this lack in you, son. i'll see your principal to-day and arrange for you to begin sloyd when you go back to school." theo made a grimace at which his father laughed. "if you don't like it you can at least take it as a medicine," remarked the doctor with a grin. dr. swift was as good as his word, for when theo returned to school the following day he found that in addition to his other work he was expected to spend an hour each morning in the carpenter's shop, a realm toward which he had always maintained the keenest scorn. it seemed such a foolish thing to learn to saw and drive nails! what was the use of taking lessons? when a board was to be cut what was there to do but take the saw and cut it? it was easy enough. as for driving nails--that feat required no teaching. but to theo's amazement it needed only the first lesson to demonstrate to him that these superficial conclusions were quite wrong. it was one thing to cut a board haphazard; but quite another matter to cut it evenly, and on a ruled line. nor was the driving of nails as simple as he had supposed. at the end of the first hour theo, feeling very awkward and clumsy, and rubbing a finger that had been too slow to get out of the path of the hammer, left the workshop. "i never dreamed it would be so hard!" he muttered, viewing his bleeding knuckle with chagrin. the lesson of the following day did not prove much easier, and its difficulties aroused the lad's fighting spirit. "i am going to learn to saw and drive nails properly if it takes me the rest of my life!" he declared resolutely. "the very idea! why, some of those little chaps in the sloyd room can chisel and plane like carpenters. i'll bet i can do it, too, if i stick at it." therefore it came about that instead of missing tennis and basket-ball as he had expected, theo became completely absorbed in his new interest--so absorbed that his father soon began to fear that his studies would suffer. early and late theo was at his bench with his tools. he tried faithfully not to slight his books, but there was no use pretending he did not enjoy his carpentry. he was making a footstool now, a little wooden piece with turned legs which he was to stain with orange shellac and give to his mother. already he had finished a square tray and a handkerchief box. when the stool was completed he was preparing for a more ambitious enterprise, a thing he longed yet hesitated to venture upon--a wooden bookrack for mr. croyden. it was to be made from oak, not from the ordinary pine wood on which, up to this time, he had been working; and it was to be a much more elaborately finished article than anything he had undertaken. he had delayed beginning it until the closing part of the term in order that he might have the benefit of every atom of training he could get before he made the first cuts in the wood. as he now framed his plans for the making of the gift he smiled to think how impossible such a project would have been a few months ago. "dad was right!" he affirmed. "training your hands is just like training any other part of your body. the longer and more regularly you keep at it the more expert you get. sloyd is no different from rowing, or football, or tennis." with the help of his instructor he drew his design, measured his pattern, and sent for the wood. then, impatient to begin work, he waited. mr. croyden's birthday he had learned came the last part of june, and as on that date school ended he had only a short time to make his present. not only must the pieces be cut and nailed together but there was all the finishing, glueing, and varnishing. in addition an interval was also necessary for drying. therefore it was imperative that he set about his task as soon as possible. yet day after day went by and the wood did not come. theo was almost beside himself. first he was merely impatient, then angry, then discouraged. it was not until he had about given up hope of being able to complete the rack that the wood arrived. the pieces were beautifully grained, and when theo beheld them he could in his mind's eye see the bookshelves shaped, smoothed, and rubbed down. he must finish the gift if he toiled nights as well as days! it is doubtful if ever a boy worked as hard or as anxiously as did theo during the next two weeks. and as his creation took form how happy he was! he cut the three shelves, shaped the ends of the rack, and under his teacher's direction carved on a jig-saw the simple ornament which was to decorate the top. never in his whole life had he enjoyed making anything so much. then came the day when the final coat of oil was applied and there was nothing more to do but wait until it dried. but the work had required more time than theo had anticipated, and therefore it was not until the very afternoon before mr. croyden's birthday that the shelves were dry enough to be packed. dr. swift's motor came to the school that day to get theo, and the boy himself proudly carried his masterpiece out to the car and put it inside; then springing in he called to the chauffeur to drive home. arriving at his own abode theo leaped up the brown stone steps with quick stride and rang the bell; then as he stood waiting for the door to be opened a sudden recollection overwhelmed him. in his eagerness to display his handiwork to his parents he had entirely forgotten his crutches! they were at school, and he now remembered he had not used them since morning. his father laughed heartily when theo told him this. "i guess that means you can do without crutches from now on, son," the doctor said. "does it mean that i may go to the croydens', dad?" "i should say so," was the ready response. "i will call mr. croyden up on the telephone and find out when he wants you to come. what a joke it would be if you should go to trenton and carry your bookrack with you!" it subsequently proved that there was more truth than fiction in this jest, for in answer to dr. swift's inquiry mr. croyden announced that he happened to be coming into new york that very day in his car, and if the swifts were willing he would carry theo back with him. "that will be the very thing!" exclaimed the boy in delight. "we can do the shelves all up so he won't guess what they are, and i can take them right along. then they will be safe at mr. croyden's house and i shall not run the risk of the expressman being late. you know expressmen always are late. think how long they were getting my crutches to maine." accordingly the shelves were packed with greatest care in many soft papers so they would not be scratched, and afterward they were wrapped in a stouter outside covering. when the parcel was tied up no one would have suspected what was inside, and theo viewed the mysterious bundle with satisfaction. "mr. croyden will think that for a small boy you travel with a good deal of luggage," chuckled the doctor. "maybe he won't have room to take it," mrs. swift rejoined. theo's face fell. "he must take it," he said, "even if i walk to trenton myself." but there was room, plenty of it, in the big touring car. mr. croyden did, to be sure, comment teasingly about the lad's extended wardrobe, and ask how many dozen suits of clothes he had brought with him; but he made no objection to taking either the bundle or the suit-case. and when that night just before dinner theo slipped into the dining-room and placed the shelves beside mr. croyden's chair no boy could have been happier. the only person happier than theo himself was the man who received them. "my, but this is a present!" exclaimed the merchant. "and you made them all yourself? i can hardly believe it. why, they are beautifully finished! and isn't it a queer thing that only yesterday i told mrs. croyden i must buy some bookshelves for my office? you remember, don't you, madeline?" mrs. croyden nodded. "those were his very words," affirmed mrs. croyden, turning to theo. "he said it only at breakfast. i believe it was mental telepathy, theo." [illustration: "this is a present"] theo beamed. he had really succeeded then in giving mr. croyden something he wanted! that was pleasure enough. [illustration] chapter xiii the trenton visit [illustration: a] although originally planned to be of only a week's duration, theo's visit to the croydens stretched on into the second week before any one seemed to realize it. ten days passed and still the lad had not been to the porcelain works--one of his chief aims in coming to trenton. each morning at breakfast mrs. croyden presented so many delightful plans for the day, and was so eager to have theo accompany her to the golf club, the tennis club, or for a motor ride, that the hours sped by and night came only too soon. for mrs. croyden was a marvelous comrade for a boy, a strange mixture of youthfulness and maturity; of feminine charm and masculine freedom from conventionality. she loved boys and understood how to be one with them, and in consequence the friendship that at first had extended only to mr. croyden theo now stretched to include her. nor did the stretching demand effort. who could have resisted the sweet wholesome interest of this fascinating woman with her soft brown eyes, her quick sympathy, and her girlish love of sport? as the days fled by a tie of real affection strengthened between them, and theo found himself talking with an amazing freedom of his dreams and ambitions; of his chums; and of his life at home. to all these things mrs. croyden listened earnestly, now and then putting in a word of interest or encouragement. sometimes in the evening mr. croyden joined in these talks; and sometimes all three of them abandoned life and its problems and went to the theatre, or to a moving picture show. "i declare, theo, i don't know how we are to do without you when you go back home," exclaimed mr. croyden one night at dinner. "it will leave a big hole in the house, won't it, madeline?" mrs. croyden nodded and a shadow passed across her face. "i wish we might borrow theo for a long, long time," she sighed wistfully. "but i suppose your family would not listen to that, laddie." "i'm afraid not," theo answered. "mother seems to be getting a little impatient as it is. she thinks i've been gone a pretty long time." "long? nonsense! why, you've only just come," mr. croyden said emphatically. "up to now you have been visiting mrs. croyden. you haven't been my guest at all. haven't we got the porcelain works ahead of us? that will take the best part of another week." "then i am afraid i'd better be getting at it," laughed theo, "for mother writes we're to leave for lake george the middle of july." "mercy on us!" blustered mr. croyden. "i don't see how you can. the middle of july? that settles it. there must be no more kidnapping theo for golf or tennis, madeline. from now on he is to be my guest. understand that." mrs. croyden bowed her head with amusing meekness. "it shall be as you say, my lord," she answered. "but are you expecting to take theo to the factory every moment of every day?" "i don't know," was the grim reply. "that will all depend on how rapidly he learns the business." there was a general laugh. "how long has it taken you to learn it, mr. croyden?" questioned theo mischievously. "me? oh, about thirty years." "then at that rate i see i shall not get to lake george this season," returned the boy with a smile. "oh, i'll be easy with you this first time," mr. croyden answered. "i cannot afford to kill you or get you frightened, or you never will come again." "i guess you needn't worry about my not coming again," theo retorted. "i have had far too good a time." "i am glad of that," the elder man asserted heartily. "and i, too, theo," murmured mrs. croyden. "do not forget that you have given us far more pleasure than you could possibly have received. mr. croyden and i are often very lonely for a son like you. it has been a boon to have you here. that is why you must not let this ambitious husband of mine tire you all out by setting you too strenuously at porcelain-making," she added playfully. "is it to-morrow that you plan to drag theo forth on this crusade to the factory, my dear?" mr. croyden glanced up at the words. "yes, to-morrow morning. i shall take theo down to the works with me directly after breakfast," he answered. "you better get to bed early to-night, son, so to be prepared for the worst." "i shan't waste any worry about the trip," grinned theo as they rose from the dinner table. it was a warm night, and the three strolled out on the veranda, which overlooked the green of the country club. "i suppose," theo remarked, "nobody has any idea when pottery and porcelain were first made in america." "barring out the pottery of the mound builders, the american indians, and the early clay work done in west virginia i imagine our modern china was first introduced into america at philadelphia," mr. croyden said. "at least records would indicate that to be the case. between 1760 and 1770 potteries sprung up there and thrived so lustily that wedgwood noted their success and urged the english government to check them lest they injure english trade. at these philadelphia factories hard porcelain with a good quality of glaze was turned out; also much blue and white stone-china in the form of jars, butter-pots, bowls, and plates. some mortars and pestles such as wedgwood himself made were also manufactured, so what wonder that he was disturbed at the thought of losing the monopoly? in a letter to a friend he speaks of pottery being made in the carolinas as well, and declares it would be a great calamity were the colonies to begin making their own dishes." "the idea!" burst out theo. "it was business," replied mr. croyden. "of course england would far rather ship her wares to america and collect the revenue than to have the colonists learn to do without her. for a long time, as the early papers assure us, crates of queen's ware and the coarser brown earthenwares, as well as quantities of stone-china continued to be shipped to america, and advertised for sale. in the meantime, however, the new settlers were contriving to make earthenware jars, jugs, flasks, mugs, and teapots of their own, and supplemented by the pewter dishes they had brought with them from england, they were managing to get on very well without outside aid. not only was salt glaze pottery manufactured in philadelphia along with a small amount of real porcelain, but in such connecticut towns as norwalk, hartford, and stonington experiments with earthenware were also being made. by 1810 the secretary of the treasury reported great progress in the manufacture of queen's ware, and it is evident from what he says that by this time the coarser varieties of earthenware were being very generally manufactured; he also mentions four factories for the finer types of porcelain-making." "i think we did pretty well to get to making so much chinaware in such a short time," theo observed. "we did do well for a new country," agreed mr. croyden, "but you must remember we had the whip-lash of necessity at our backs. the wares imported from england were very expensive, and dishes we were forced to have; especially the simpler utensils for household use. people made their own butter, and needed crocks to keep it in; they needed jugs for milk or water; bowls for cooking. of course no growing country could continue to import such every-day articles from across the sea. therefore, although england tried very hard to cater to american tastes and demands by sending over blue and white stone-china decorated with american views, and even pitchers adorned with portraits of washington, the american eagle, and the names of the thirteen original states, we did not allow ourselves to be tempted away from our undertakings, but went right on increasing our own manufactures." "bully for us!" cried theo. "so i say!" rejoined mrs. croyden with spirit. "it was the only thing to do," admitted mr. croyden. "we kept at it, too. in 1829 a factory was opened in jersey city which although not a success was the forerunner of new jersey china-making. the industry was also taken up in bennington, vermont, where the first parian marble statues ever made in america were produced. baltimore was the next city to adopt the china trade, and afterward trenton. most of this output was thick white graniteware, rockingham, and stoneware; some of it was decorated, but most of it was plain white. it was useful and durable, but very clumsy and heavy. subsequently the china industry localized itself until now, while there are many factories scattered through the country, new jersey supplies about twenty-four per cent. of our china, and ohio forty-two." "how did those states happen to elect themselves to make so much china?" inquired theo. "deposits of clay originally governed the matter," replied mr. croyden. "then there was convenient transportation for goods, a sufficient fuel supply, and an abundance of labor in the vicinity--all elements in deciding where factories are to be established. many of our potteries, however, are not located with these ends in view. instead, chance has dropped them down in the most remote spots. some are the outgrowth of tiny plants founded long ago before manufacture developed into the science it has since become." "i see." "it would be interesting to trace, too, the varieties of ware that come from specific districts, for usually there is a reason behind each type of product. for example in ohio and west virginia they have an abundance of red clay which is used not only to make red earthenware, but also to coat the outside of casserole serving dishes, bowls, and tea and coffee pots. you must be familiar with the kind of thing i mean." "like our hot-water jug at home," cried theo instantly. "red and shiny outside, and white inside." "exactly," nodded mr. croyden. "on the other hand many factories make only the heavy, indestructible china used in hotels and restaurants. this variety is a business in itself. the ware is non-absorbent and is considered very hygienic. toilet sets as well as dishes are made from this especial sort of clay. so you see each plant has its own particular specialty which has been decided largely by the native clays at hand. here at trenton we turn out some of the finest porcelain manufactured in america. in quality it equals the english if not the french wares, and it needs only the foreign trade-mark to give it its deserved prestige. but our people, alas, have not arrived at the pitch of patriotism where _made in america_ has become the popular slogan. i hope this war may elevate the motto to its rightful place." "perhaps by the time theo gets to making china things will be different," ventured mrs. croyden. "if i thought so i should be very glad," came earnestly from her husband. "we have all the necessary clays here in our own soil; the only one we need to import is black clay. what is now most necessary in all our industries is intelligent, trained, ambitious, and appreciative workers. it is a great reproach to us that here in the united states we have so few schools to educate workmen for their craft. before the war austria had eight schools to teach pottery-making and germany twenty-two. even england had several. and in the meantime what are we doing here in america? aside from a few arts-and-crafts potters who of necessity must work on a very limited scale we are training no pottery-makers. we should establish schools for such things if we wish to keep abreast of the time, and compete with other nations." "theo can attend to that, too," laughed mrs. croyden. "we have cut out quite a program for you to work out in the future, haven't we, lad?" said mr. croyden, relapsing into jest. "on the strength of it i suggest that you trot along to bed to get rested up so to be ready to undertake it." theo rose and with a merry good-night they parted. [illustration] chapter xiv the beginning of the porcelain pilgrimage [illustration: i] in accordance with mr. croyden's plan theo and his host stepped, the next morning, into the waiting motor-car and were whirled to the porcelain factory. as they rode along the boy remained silent until he saw mr. croyden lay down his paper; then he asked: "how many persons in the united states do you suppose are employed at pottery-making, mr. croyden?" "a great many," was the reply. "before the war there were about thirty-three thousand." theo gasped. "why, i had no idea of it!" he exclaimed. "it takes a vast number of workmen to manufacture all the clay products turned out in america. remember dishes and ornaments are not the only things made. the industry is classified, and covers white earthenware, or the better qualities of imitation porcelain used by those who cannot afford the real; this branch of the work alone takes up about forty per cent. of the entire output. then there is the genuine porcelain for table and decorative use; the porcelain necessary for electrical purposes; stoneware, or the commoner household articles found in the kitchen comprising yellow ware, rockingham ware, and red earthenware; and in addition the great quantities of sanitary ware for plumbing, drain-pipes, and tiling. of all these varieties of porcelain the hardest in quality, and the only one absolutely non-absorbent, is true porcelain. therefore it is the cleanest to use. kaolin being simply decomposed feldspar, and the glaze applied to it being practically pure feldspar, the product is merely a mass of feldspar melted in the fire until all the metals it contains except platinum are eliminated. such a composition is of course far too brittle and delicate for ordinary use even did not its expense prohibit our introducing it into the kitchen; but could we substitute it for the cheaper wares it would be much more hygienic--a factor persons are liable to forget when purchasing china." "i never thought of that," said theo. "the general public does not," replied mr. croyden. "still, now that i have explained it, you can readily understand it. another thing that is not ordinarily considered is that porcelain-making is not as healthful an occupation as we wish it were. those who work in the glazing department, where powdered flint and lead are used, inhale the dust and in consequence are sometimes subject to tuberculosis or lead poisoning just as painters are." "can't something be done about it? that seems a dreadful thing." "it is a dreadful thing, and we are constantly trying to better working conditions and lessen the danger. yet if you were to examine the details of other industries you would find that few of them are entirely free from undesirable results. almost every line of manufacture has its peculiar risks," returned mr. croyden. "i do not mean for a moment that for that reason we are justified in closing our eyes to the dangers. i merely mean it is a fact. what we are trying earnestly to do is to find a substitute for lead glaze. could we succeed we should eliminate a great proportion of the trouble." "i suppose that would mean finding a different kind of enamel," mused theo. "precisely. and you recollect how long it took to discover those enamels we are now using," answered mr. croyden. "it is a good problem for some clever man, so bear it in mind. it is just such puzzles as these that have raised up our inventors, and those who in one way or another have perfected modern industry. few who have contributed to this cause stumbled upon their devices for the labor-saving or convenience of mankind. almost all such discoveries were called forth by a great need, and were the result of hours and hours of patient experiments in laboratories or workshops. therefore when we pass through a factory and see a process advancing easily from stage to stage we should never forget those who toiled with brain and hand to perfect each of its tiny details. often some very insignificant but vital part of a machine may represent the lifetime of an unknown fellow-being who did his part in giving us a more perfect whole." theo glanced up quickly. "i thought usually a machine was invented by one person," he said. "occasionally it is," admitted mr. croyden. "but more frequently our modern machinery is a growth--the product of many minds. year after year defects have been eliminated, and improvements introduced. machines every part of which represent the thought of a single individual are rare. most machines are composite photographs of the ingenuity and thought of many inventors." the elder man paused, then added whimsically: "sometimes i feel like taking off my hat to a delicately adjusted and intricate piece of machinery; it is so human and such a monument to the men who conceived it." the boy looked grave. "if more people felt about machinery and about work as you do, mr. croyden, they would have more respect for our industries as well as for the men who run the machines." "it should be so," was mr. croyden's instant reply. "a factory that turns out a completed product is like a watch. you know that unless every wheel of the watch turns; unless every minute rivet and screw is in its place and doing its part we get no perfect result. it is just as important a service to be a wee screw in that organism as to be something larger and more conspicuous. so it is with each workman in a factory. he performs his part--often, alas, a small and dull one too, i am afraid; but viewed from the standpoint of the completed product that man with his humdrum task is as worthy our respect as is any other member of the working staff. without somebody to do precisely what he is doing we should get no satisfactory result." "it is just team-work!" put in theo. "that's it--team-work; team-work and nothing else. and just as in athletics some men better adapted for batting, catching, running, and kicking are singled out for the posts of fielder, shortstop, or tackle but contribute equally to the game, so it is with the men in a factory. some day the world is going to accept that creed and pay to every human being a living wage; not, perhaps, because what he is doing is skilled or difficult; but because it is indispensable and we cannot do without that particular rung in the labor ladder. some one must fill that post, and he who does it should be respected and compensated because he is necessary to civilization and to our national prosperity." mr. croyden caught his breath and then laughed in confusion. "the idea of my giving you a lecture on the labor question, theo," he said flushing. "i always get hot on the matter, for it is one of my hobbies. next time when you hear me getting started just slow me down and let me cool off. you see it is pretty close to my heart, because i have been attempting to work out some of its difficult phases here in my own mills. i am trying to pay to each of my men enough so he can live decently and contentedly. it does not seem fair to pay them all alike, since some are skilful enough to do more work, and work that is more difficult than others. but each should be able to live comfortably on what he earns. that is my idea of fairness toward the working man; and that is the scheme that i am trying to carry out here." the car stopped abruptly before a great doorway and mr. croyden got out. "having heard my views you are now to have a chance to see how imperfectly my dreams have been realized," he said smiling. "i am far from satisfied with present conditions in my factory. but every day we are conscientiously trying to make things better, and some day i hope we shall reach our goal." theo followed him into the hall. it was interesting to notice that as the man passed along he exchanged a word or two with every employee he met, calling many of them by name, and in some cases adding a question concerning the wife or baby at home. that the men liked their employer there could be no question. his manner toward them was one of unaffected interest and friendliness, and was entirely free from patronage or condescension. his private office, too, was of the simplest type, being neatly but not lavishly furnished. evidently what was good enough for his men was good enough for him. there were, however, in the two great windows several boxes of blossoming plants which made the room fragrant. "i am very fond of flowers, theo," explained the mill-owner after he had greeted his office force and introduced his guest. "it is my weak spot--my one big extravagance. this room has just the exposure for plants and we keep the boxes filled the year round. the boys have nicknamed the place _the conservatory_ and the jest has stuck until nobody thinks of calling the place anything else. if you were to ask a man to come to the office he would have to scratch his head and think; but if you told him he was wanted in the conservatory he would land here double quick. isn't that so?" concluded mr. croyden, turning to the others. every one smiled and nodded. mr. croyden hung up his hat and motioning theo to do the same turned to encounter a pile of mail that lay on his desk. "bless my soul, this is too bad!" he exclaimed. "don't tell me that to-day when i had planned to make a tour through the factory uncle sam has come down on me with all this stuff!" he glanced ruefully at the letter lying topmost on the heap; then at the second one. "i am afraid these will have to be attended to, theo," he said with regret. "should you be dreadfully disappointed if i were to turn you over to some one else for a part of your factory pilgrimage?" "no, indeed, sir." "i am sorry, but i guess that is what i shall have to do," declared mr. croyden. "you can make a start, and later in the morning i will try to join you myself." he touched a bell. "send marwood to me," he said to the boy. "mr. marwood is a splendidly informed man, theo; and more than that, he is a delightful one. you will enjoy him, and i have a notion he will enjoy you. he likes boys--has three of his own, lucky fellow! ah, here he comes now. mr. marwood, this is my young friend, theo swift of new york." the boy put out his hand shyly. the eyes that met his were of the kindliest blue; and the face they illumined was ruddy, wholesome, and alert. instantly theo decided that since mr. croyden himself could not be his guide he had at least provided a very pleasant substitute. "theo wants to see everything there is to be seen, jack," continued mr. croyden. "tote him all about and answer all his questions; and above all be thorough, even if you do not cover very much ground during the morning. i want the processes carefully explained, for this boy may be a china-maker himself some day. if i do not join you before noontime bring all that is left of him back to the conservatory so i can take him to lunch." mr. marwood laughed, and so did theo. then they passed out. "good luck!" called mr. croyden after them as he turned to take up his mail. [illustration] chapter xv how porcelain is made "we'll go to the slip-house first where the clay bins are," mr. marwood said to theo, "that you may start at the very beginning of things. that is where the cars run in and unload the raw material." they walked down a long corridor and rang for the elevator. as the car shot to the basement theo noticed a change in the appearance of the factory. on every floor they passed there was a hum of machinery and a glimpse of endless rows of china dishes; they stood on shelves; they covered tables; they were stacked one within another upon long counters. "some dishes, eh?" mr. marwood laughed, reading the boy's thought. "i never saw so many in my life!" "you will see many more before you are through," remarked his companion. the elevator brought up with a jerk. "here we are!" exclaimed mr. marwood. "at least this is our way into the slip-house." he led theo through a passage and across a court into the adjoining building. here a white powder covered everything. men who hurried by in overalls and caps were dusty as millers, their hands being coated to the finger tips with dried clay. mr. marwood stepped forward into the long, cement-floored basement and pointed to the tracks embedded in it. "it is on these tracks," he said, "that the cars come in and deposit their contents in the bins. the bins are of a pretty good size, you see. they measure about sixteen by thirty-two feet, and each one will hold eight car-loads of clay. after the different kinds of clay are unloaded and placed in their respective bins, the proper combination for specific varieties of porcelain must be weighed out and mixed in the 'blungers,' as we call the mixing tanks. now this body formula, or clay combination, is not entrusted to the ordinary workman. it is kept secret. therefore we have on the trucks that carry the clay between the bins and the blungers what we call charging-scales, which weigh automatically each ingredient in the compound without betraying it to the loader." "that is pretty clever," replied theo. "yes, it is a very ingenious device," mr. marwood agreed. "the blungers in which the clay is mixed are over there. you can see them--those great machines near the centre of the floor. they are heavy steel tanks lined with vitrified brick, and in the middle of each one is a revolving contrivance, with steel arms and teeth that grind the clay up very fine and blend it thoroughly. while it is being mixed in this way water is added to it, and also a certain amount of powdered oxide of cobalt to whiten it." "just as we put blueing in clothes," theo ventured. mr. marwood assented. "this cobalt has already been pulverized and sifted most carefully, so there will be no particles in it, and so it will readily dissolve. after the clay mixture has had this mauling--for i can call it nothing else--the blunged compound, or slip, flows in liquid form into the sifter machines where it is strained through silk gauze or else a mesh of fine copper wire." "i shouldn't think you could ever strain such stuff," theo declared. "the sifters do get very hard wear," answered mr. marwood, "and are the machines most liable to get out of order. they become clogged. our sifters are self-cleaning. by that i mean they have an attachment which removes the waste obstructing them. nevertheless, even with this improvement they still bother us at times. if you watch this sifting machine carefully you can see that the method is one of sliding the slip back and forth until it is forced through the straining ducts." "and then what becomes of it?" they walked on and stopped before another machine. "this is a rough agitator," explained mr. marwood. "into it is pumped the liquid slip you just saw strained, and afterward this is brought in contact with a series of horseshoe magnets which extract from the mixture every atom of iron." "iron?" repeated theo. "all clay has metals in it," continued mr. marwood. "should you leave any of these in a pottery clay they would cause you much trouble, for when the ware was fired the metals would melt and discolor your porcelain. sometimes this happens with cheap chinas. i dare say you yourself have seen dishes that are specked with yellow, or have stains here and there. sometimes you can also detect bluish particles. that means the cobalt has not been properly ground or sifted. in less expensive wares such defects are frequent. but there is no excuse for them when making fine quality porcelains." theo listened attentively. "after this iron has been extracted," went on mr. marwood, "the slip passes into smooth agitators, where it is simply kept well stirred in order that the heavier ingredients in it may not settle to the bottom. then the liquid is forced by means of a slip-pump into the filter-presses, and it is now that you begin to see an approach to the clay used for shaping dishes. up to this point the slip has been only a thick creamy substance. now the filter-press squeezes this through canvas bags until after having been pressed between iron plates you get your cakes of smoothly mixed clay of about the consistency of putty. each cake is of regulation size, and it is supposed to be an inch-and-a-quarter in thickness, and to weigh forty-two pounds." "the clay is now ready for use?" theo asked. "practically so," was mr. marwood's reply, "although before it can be sent to the jiggermen to be modeled it must pass through the pug-mill to be made more plastic and workable. it is here that it gets its final kneading, all the air bubbles in it being eliminated by a series of steel knives." "i must say it is pretty thoroughly prepared," smiled theo. "it has to be," was mr. marwood's grave reply. "each of these details is an important factor in the making of high grade porcelain, and should any of them be omitted we should get no flawless ware. it was this infinite care in preparing clay that gave to china, japan, france, and germany their perfect results in porcelain-making. if we would equal what has been done in the past we must be just as painstaking, and neglect no detail. as a nation we americans are far too prone to dash ahead and expect results all in a minute. we do not like to mount a stairway step by step; we wish to shoot to the top in an elevator. now you cannot manufacture porcelain, or for that matter anything else, in such a fashion." "i know it," replied theo. "dad says we hurry so much over the little things that we turn out quantities of poorly made goods that are just hustled through instead of being carefully finished." "your father is right," mr. marwood admitted. "it is far too often quantity and not quality with us. just so long as men are paid on the piece-work system we shall not better the condition, either. it stands to reason that a man who is rushing to make as many objects of one kind as he possibly can in an hour is not going to take the pains to finish them very carefully. his daily bread depends on his hurrying. not a second can be lost. it is an unfortunate labor condition, and one that i hope to see remedied some time." the elder man smiled. "but we must not take time now to go into labor problems," he added. "in our day they are absorbingly interesting and one might spend hours discussing them. what we all are eager to do is to see them readjusted until they shall be fair to all parties." "that is what mr. croyden wants," put in theo. "i know it is. he is heart and soul in this mill and his employees. all the time he is working to improve conditions here. now we must go on, or we shall not get anywhere. to return, then, to our clay; it is now ready to be carried to the floor above on elevators and handed over to the potters." "are the ingredients for the glaze prepared in the same way?" theo inquired. "partially so. the formula for the frit and glaze is also a secret one. usually the frit, a material similar to glass, is crushed to powder beneath stone rollers called chasers. water is then added and the compound turned into the grinding-mill where it is ground for an entire day. sometimes, however, a different process is preferred and the material is put into a kiln and melted instead. in either case it must finally be worked into a smooth liquid which can be strained through fine lawn. it is then sent to the agitators and constantly stirred until it can be pumped into the storage tanks in the dipping-room." "that is just what i wanted to know," said theo. "any more questions?" the boy shook his head. "not now, thank you." "then as we have finished here shall we go up to the clay-shop?" "yes, i am ready," theo affirmed. then as if confronted by an afterthought he asked: "is the porcelain made here bone china or ----" "spar?" put in mr. marwood as the lad hesitated. "i don't think i understand." "feldspar." "oh, then i know," cried theo. "i did not realize you classified porcelains as bone or spar." "we do," was the quick reply. "our finest grade of porcelain has little or no phosphate of calcium, or ground bone, in it. but it is in consequence very costly, and therefore to meet the demands of the market we also manufacture a porcelain slightly strengthened with a bone element. nevertheless this is composed of such a wonderfully blended body that it is as exquisite as any of the most beautiful english wares. personally i prefer it to a pure feldspathic china." "my questions are all answered now," laughed theo. "shall we go up to the clay-shop?" they rang for an elevator and stepped in. "next floor, o'keefe," said mr. marwood to the operator. "i am going to teach this lad how to make dishes." [illustration] chapter xvi dishes, dishes everywhere! [illustration] "clay," began mr. marwood as they went along, "can be shaped in any one of several ways, you know: either by throwing; by turning; by pressing it into hollow moulds; by shaping it by hand over another type of mould; by pressing it into flat ware such as platters and plates; by making it by machinery over moulds as is done by hand; by casting it into the desired form; and by compressing it." theo looked puzzled. "the list sounds like a long one," mr. marwood went on smiling into the boy's troubled eyes, "but when you understand the processes you will find that it is all much simpler than it seems. before we begin to investigate any of these methods, however, i want to say just a word about the moulds over which, or inside of which, the ware is sometimes shaped; for moulds are a very important feature both of pottery and porcelain-making." "what are the moulds made of?" was theo's first question. "i am glad you asked, for that is the vital matter," mr. marwood replied. "many materials have been tried with varying degrees of success--plaster-of-paris, alabaster, steel, gun-metal, and brass. of course what is necessary is a strong, firm, absorbent material. clay moulds break too easily, and also become saturated with water and lose their shape; metal moulds, on the other hand, while most useful in making wares decorated with fine, raised designs such as the wedgwood figures, fail to seep up the superfluous water. therefore plaster-of-paris has proved the best medium for the purpose. not only does it retain its form, but it also takes up a certain proportion of the moisture from the clay that is moulded inside or outside it." "i understand," theo nodded. the elevator stopped and they stepped out into a vast, well-lighted room, gray with clay-dust and thronging with powdery workers. at benches, before revolving wheels, and beside turning-lathes toiled busy workmen with white, clay-coated hands. "we will start our program with the potter's wheel, the oldest of pottery modeling devices," said mr. marwood. "it is a very simple contrivance, you see--just a round piece of board set horizontally on top of a revolving spindle. as the disc turns the potter shapes the clay with his fingers, building it up to the desired height and moulding it to conform to the profile, or pattern, he keeps beside him. this profile is of wood or steel, and gives the elevation of the object in actual size. as he works the potter constantly consults and measures it. pieces made in this fashion are known as thrown ware. all the finest potteries, as well as some of the most expensive porcelains, are made in this way. however, it is a costly process and rather slow, for a piece thus shaped must have the entire attention of a single worker. if we were to make all our china by this method i do not know where we should bring up. it would take us a decade, and cost us a great deal of money. but by this means the most artistic results are obtained. it was in this fashion that the greeks modeled their matchless vases, and you can now see why no two of them were alike. each potter put his soul into the thing he was making, and as he had endless time at his command he worked with utmost care to perfect his product. this was all very well in a warm country where life was simple; demands few; and where there was not the tension of present day living. it was a matter of no concern if the artist made only a few such vases in a lifetime. he had the patronage of the rich, and was sure of being taken care of. but to-day, alas, we face a different problem." [illustration: "it is a costly process, and rather slow"] "we surely do," agreed theo. "therefore, here in america only a small proportion of this thrown ware is made. such art potteries as the roferno and sicardo wares, seen chiefly in private collections and museums, are thrown; also some of the grueby, rookwood, and cincinnati varieties--all very beautiful american potteries. in addition to these exquisite home products the dedham and paul revere potteries made near boston should be mentioned, for although of less costly type they are doing much to set a standard of perfection of form, choiceness of coloring, and fitness of design. all these wares are distinct contributions to the art world. of course certain wares are made by a modification of this throwing process. large pieces, for example, frequently have to be thrown in several parts, fastened together, and afterward finished. some pieces the thrower shapes over a plaster-of-paris mould; and some he shapes inside the mould, reversing the process and pressing the clay against its confining surface. the danger in thrown ware comes from an uneven pressure on the clay resulting in a lack of solidity; the pieces are not always equally firm at all points and in consequence sometimes crack." "can pieces of any design be thrown?" inquired theo. "no, only round pieces such as cups, mugs, vases, jars, or bowls. in other words, only circular pieces. frequently, too, these are only started by the throwing process and are finished by some other means such as turning, for example." "what is turning?" asked theo. "surely you have seen a turning-lathe, theo," asserted mr. marwood. "here is a turner just opposite us. you will notice he has a lathe that goes by steam. the vase on which he is working has previously been roughly formed on a jigger--a revolving mould over which a sheet of clay has been pressed and quickly shaped. after such a piece has been dried to a leather hardness the turner takes it in its crude and uncompleted state and by running his lathe over it planes down the surface to a smooth, even thickness. sometimes, too, by means of one of these lathes milling-tools are used to cut designs around the neck or base of the article. the rough edges are then sponged and before the piece is thoroughly dried handles are put on if desired. here in america turning is the process very generally employed for finishing articles begun by the jiggermen." "and now about hollow ware--how do they make that?" "hollow ware is pressed by hand," answered mr. marwood. "the process is used for pieces that cannot successfully be made by any other means--such things, for example, as soup-tureens and large covered dishes. the idea is to press the clay over or into moulds so it will be the exact shape required. of course this necessitates the making of pieces in sections. the two sides of a vase are moulded separately, for instance; also the bottom. then the parts are pressed firmly together and held in place by strings or thongs of leather until securely joined. afterward the base is inserted in its proper place. the inside seams are then leveled and sponged away, and the mould sent to the drying room. later it is returned; the outside seams moistened and smoothed; the moulded handles put on; and the piece is ready to be decorated and fired. it is a difficult ware to make, for unless the workmen are skilled at giving the clay an even pressure it is liable to be thicker in some places than others. sometimes, too, if the seams are not strongly united the article will crack. it demands a strong, even touch. remember that hollow ware is pressed from the outside; and that flat ware is just the opposite, and is pressed from the inside. the top surfaces of such things as plates, platters and trays are thus formed, their outer side being shaped by hand or by a jolly, which we shall see presently." mr. marwood passed on through the crowded room until he suddenly paused beside a workman at another machine. "this," explained theo's conductor, "is a jigger. there are two machines very commonly used in the united states for shaping the cheaper wares: one is a jigger, a device of this type; and the other a jolly, an invention very similar in construction but having a tool attached that forms the outside, or bottom of the piece, the inside of which has previously been shaped by the jigger. you may recall that i spoke of the jigger; and told you how a revolving mould was inserted into it, and how afterward a sheet of clay was laid on the outside of this mould and rapidly shaped. the jolly, on the other hand, is used for making such things as covers, the top surface of which has already been moulded. the profile set in the jolly-lever makes the bottom. that, as i told you, is how we get the base of our plates. for certain articles the jigger is preferred; for certain others the jolly; but the aim of both is the same, and the workers at the machines are all called jiggermen. after an article is taken from the jigger or jolly it is dried and carried to the turning-lathe to have its surface smoothed and finished." "and does it take all these men to run a jigger?" whispered theo, pointing to the moving figures that hurried to and fro. "an organized group of men is employed at each machine," answered mr. marwood. "first there is the _clay-carrier_, who must bring the material to the workmen; then there is a second man called the _batter-out_ who takes from the carrier the piece of clay cut into the proper size, and after laying this on a block gives it a strong blow with a plaster-of-paris bat to flatten it for the jiggerman. when making simple objects such a man can give the article quite a start even with one stroke. you can see that some such beginning must be made before the jiggermen can handle the material." "how much does the bat weigh?" demanded theo, instantly interested. "about fifteen pounds. it is not very heavy, but the batter wields it with considerable force. after the article has thus been approximately shaped, and the jiggerman has completed it, a mould-runner must carry the freshly modeled piece to the stove-room to be dried; and on his backward trip bring with him two other articles that are already dry. these he takes off the moulds, leaving the dry piece to go to the finisher, and the mould to the batter-out. the fourth man in the team, or crew, is the _finisher_. his duty is to smooth the rough edges of each article with a damp sponge, or a tool of flat steel. after this process is completed the jiggerman's crew is through with its part of the work and the goods go to the greenroom to be counted, and if perfect accepted by the foreman. most jiggermen hire their own helpers, as it is simpler for them to do so. formerly only round articles were made by the jiggermen--such things as cups, plates, bowls, etc. but now oval, as well as round dishes, can be made on a jigger, although elliptical wares are not turned out this way to any very great extent, other processes of shaping being preferred for objects of this type." "you spoke, mr. marwood, of casting some wares," remarked theo. the older man smiled. "you have a good memory, my boy," he said. "i did mention casting. it is an independent process, and shapes of great variety can be fashioned as well as ornamented in this way. by the casting method, too, we are certain of getting articles of uniform thickness. we can even make very thin objects by this means. but the process is destructive of moulds, and therefore has its flaws. the success of the plan is entirely dependent on the mould's absorption of the moisture in the clay; otherwise the method of casting could not be applied to potteries or porcelains. as the clay is compressed the water is squeezed out of it, and this the mould must take up, or the clay would never dry and retain its shape. you can understand that, i think." "yes, sir." "the last of the processes of which i wish to tell you is die-pressing. here we take a very finely ground clay dust; moisten it a little; and fill a die, or steel mould, with it. this die we then put into a screw, or hydraulic press, and squeeze it under an intense pressure with the result that the piece is shaped very solidly. we use this process for making small, complicated objects such as those employed for electrical purposes. they are brittle and delicate and have to be manufactured with extreme care." "are plumbing supplies made this way?" "no, indeed! sanitary pieces are too large to be turned out in such a fashion. they are made by hand, being first built up inside enormous moulds. we can employ only the most skilful workmen on this task because the goods are difficult to make. such a thing as a porcelain bath-tub involves a great deal of clay, and therefore were it to be damaged we should lose much expensive material." mr. marwood took out his watch. "now, there you have all the various ways of shaping clay ware! its decoration and firing is another story, and far too long a one for us to attack to-day. we must be back at the conservatory at one o'clock for luncheon. evidently mr. croyden got too deeply snowed under to join us, so we shall have to hunt him up. confess you are hungry." theo's eyes twinkled. "i believe i could eat something if i were urged," he admitted. "so could i," rejoined mr. marwood heartily. "i am starved. we will find mr. croyden right away. it has been a good morning, hasn't it, theo?" "certainly i've enjoyed it," exclaimed theo. "and i too," agreed the older man. [illustration] chapter xvii the decoration of china [illustration] next morning bright and early theo and mr. croyden were off to the factory, and once more the boy found himself consigned to the care of mr. marwood. this was no hardship, however, for the two got on excellently together, and theo was only too glad to coã¶perate in any way he could with mr. croyden, whom he knew to be very busy. therefore with this new friend as pilot the pilgrimage through the china works was resumed at precisely the point where it had been left the preceding day. "this morning," mr. marwood said, "we will turn our attention to the decoration of porcelain, which i think you will find quite as interesting as was its making. there are almost as many different processes to decorate the ware as there were methods of shaping it." "which one are we to begin with?" questioned theo eagerly. "i think we'd better start with printed designs. were you ever in washington, theo?" theo glanced up in surprise at the irrelevance of the inquiry. "yes, sir." "good! what were some of the places you visited?" again the lad regarded his conductor curiously. what had his trip to washington to do with the decoration of china, he wondered. "oh, i went to the capitol, of course," he answered, "and to the white house, and the congressional library; then dad took me to the smithsonian institute and to the bureau of printing and engraving, and ----" "stop!" cried mr. marwood. "i now have found out exactly what i wished to know. so you have seen bank notes engraved?" "yes, sir." "you remember then how the design is cut on a copper or steel plate?" "yes, indeed," came promptly from theo. "i am very glad of that, for it is precisely this method we use when we print designs on china. the difference is that the designs on our money are printed in ink, and those we transfer to our porcelain are done with mineral colors; nor are our plates so finely made. however, the idea underlying the processes is identical. the color is applied to the metal plate, and what is not retained in the engraved depressions of the design is carefully scraped away. then on a kind of paper expressly prepared for the purpose the picture is made, and while it is moist it is placed against the ware and rubbed in with a piece of soft flannel. when it is awkward to handle the design as a whole it is cut into sections and pieced together on the china itself." "does one person do the whole thing?" "no. it is the duty of one worker to arrange the design and see that it is in the right place; and the task of the next one to rub it in with the flannel and soap. then after the china has stood for some time it is put into water and the paper sticking to it is floated off, leaving the colored print on the porcelain." "is it done before the ware is fired?" asked theo. "sometimes it is done on the biscuit ware before it is glazed, and sometimes on the glaze itself. it all depends on the result the decorators wish to obtain. if printed before the porcelain is glazed it is called under-glaze printed ware, and must be put through a kiln, which will take the oils out of the print; if done on the glaze it is fired in order to burn the colors in and blend them with the frit." "it must be hard always to get the designs where you want them," observed theo meditatively. "i used to trace patterns at school sometimes, and often they slipped and made the spacing wrong." "that is one of the difficulties our designers encounter, too," replied mr. marwood. "sometimes you will see pieces where the spacing is not equal, or where a border does not join. that indicates inaccurate placing of the pattern, or an incorrect estimate of the space." "i don't wonder they get it wrong sometimes," declared theo. "it isn't so easy. i remember once decorating a card for mother with some decalcomania pictures. it was mighty hard to get them where i wanted them." "decalcomania?" exclaimed mr. marwood. "we do that kind of work here too. in fact, a great many of our most beautiful gold borders are transferred to the ware by that method. i see you will be quite at home, theo, in our decorating department." "i guess you would find me a pretty poor hand at it," laughed the lad. "my fingers would be all thumbs." "possibly at first. it is very fussy work, i must admit. but the processes are at least easy for you to understand. another type of decoration that will interest you is that employed when we wish to put bands of solid color around the edges of plates or dishes; also when we wish to color their entire surface. we call it ground-laying. now how do you suppose we do that?" theo thought a moment. "i can't imagine," he said at last. "of course you could not get the color even with a brush." "no," answered mr. marwood. "we must first apply to the space we wish to color a peculiar kind of oil, and afterward dust over this moistened surface a finely ground metallic color." "which sticks only to the oiled part!" theo exclaimed, quickly. "you have the idea. then the superfluous powder is blown off, and when fired the dust fuses into a solid liquid color, giving us a smoothly laid band of red, blue, green, or what you will; or perhaps a dish of solid tone if that has been the intent. we do not use this method for every type of flat color work, however, because when the powdered color blows about the workers are apt to inhale it, and it is very bad for their health. therefore when it is possible we tint the china by hand, which can be done if the color is a delicate one and spreads smoothly; or we color the clay itself." all this time theo and mr. marwood had been passing through the factory and going from one building to another; now they entered the decorating department. "first i want you to see our air-brush process," mr. marwood said. he led the way to an ingenious machine which by means of compressed air was spraying a fine jet of color over the surface of a porcelain plate. in some places this color rippled away into a faint tint; in others it settled into an area of a deep rich tone. by the aid of stencils the effect produced was of an exquisitely shaded ware, and theo watched the work with delight. "i think this air-brush process is the most interesting one i have seen," the boy cried. "it certainly is fascinating to watch, isn't it?" agreed mr. marwood. "i could stand here all day; but i fear we must go on, for we still have much to see. let us go over to where those girls are gilding. some of them are putting a fine gold line on the china, and others are doing elaborate designs in gold. the work of the next group is to gild the handles of cups and dishes." they passed on and stood beside the workers. "that does not look like gold!" exclaimed theo, who viewed in astonishment the chocolate brown pigment that the girls were using. mr. marwood laughed. "all gold looks like that," he said, "before it is fired and burnished. in fact, all the mineral colors used to decorate glass, pottery, and porcelain look very different when they are put on from what they do after they have been subjected to the heat. that is the wonderful part of working in oxides and metallic colors. the beautiful hues we see on china or glass are the result of years of experiment. never forget that. all china decorators have constantly to bear in mind the effect of a high temperature upon their colors. what would be attractive on the unfired clay might emerge from the kiln a very ugly product indeed. we must reckon on this fact." theo nodded. "it must make the decoration of china a great problem," he said. "it does. however, decorators have now learned pretty well what to expect. a certain carmine, for example, fires out violet. many other shades fire lighter or darker than when applied, and allowance must be made for them. the girls who paint china become very skilful in estimating the changes in colors. these who are working beside us are doing the finest sort of porcelain decoration--faces, figures, and flowers. those across the aisle are doing a vastly different type of work. they are putting coarse, sketchy flowers on the cheaper ware. some of them, you will observe, are filling in designs that have either first been printed, or transferred by the decalcomania process, and must afterward be finished by hand. the girls supply the dabs of color that are needed to complete the pattern." "it looks easy." "it is not highly skilled work," answered mr. marwood. "some of our methods, however, are far less skilled than this one. what would you say, for instance, to decorating china with a sponge?" "a sponge? painting with a sponge?" "not exactly painting," protested mr. marwood. "it is not quite that. we do, nevertheless, for our cheapest ware use a fine-grained sponge cut in the shape of the desired design. this we dip in color and with it impress a pattern on the clay as we would with a rubber stamp." "i should think you would use a rubber stamp and be done with it," replied theo. "it would not hold the color satisfactorily," explained mr. marwood. "but we do use the stamping method for inexpensive gold ware. we also imprint the firm name or trade-mark on the bottom of our porcelain that way before it is glazed; so we do some stamping, you see. of course stamping is only for the cheap wares. the finest porcelain is hand-decorated--or at least the major part of it is." theo was silent; then he said: "suppose after all the work of preparing the clay, and shaping and decorating it, the piece is broken when the final glaze is put on?" "that tragedy sometimes occurs," responded mr. marwood. "often, too, a piece with many colors and much gold work on it has to be fired several times, and is therefore in jeopardy more than once. in addition to these risks you must remember the number of hands through which an article passes from the time of its moulding to its final arrival from the glost-kiln. a delicate piece of ware is in peril every second. it may be dropped and broken; chipped in handling; its clay body may crack when exposed to the heat; the colors in the decoration may fire out unsatisfactorily; or at the very end there may be a defect in the glaze." "great scott!" gasped theo. "why, i never should expect to get a single perfect piece of porcelain." "on the contrary, we get a great many," smiled mr. marwood. "they are almost all perfect. the imperfect piece is the exception. but each piece represents untold care. we sometimes laugh at the old adage of a bull in the china-shop, but let me assure you that a poor workman can do almost as much damage in a porcelain factory." mr. marwood drew out his watch. "i believe we shall now have just about time before luncheon to go down to the kilns," he observed presently. "should you like to?" "indeed i should." "there is not much that we can see, i am afraid. however, we may be able to catch a glimpse of some of the ware being packed in the saggers." "what is a sagger?" "it is a large clay container in which unfired pottery or porcelain is packed while it is passing through the firing process. these large clay vessels have come into general use as the best thing for the purpose. they stand the heat and at the same time are less liable to break or chip the goods than are containers of any other material. we make them ourselves here in the mills. in fact, there is an entire section in the clay-shop devoted to nothing but sagger making. special machinery grinds and mixes the clay; special men fashion by hand the great containers; while other men do nothing but work in the wad-mills where rolls of clay to cover the top of the saggers and protect the unfired ware from smoke are made." "don't the clay saggers ever break?" questioned theo. "sometimes, alas!" admitted mr. marwood. "when they do the china in them must be rescued from the kilns and put into new saggers. the old saggers are then broken up; the clay in them ground and sifted; and after being moistened again and mixed with fresh clay other saggers are modeled." "is the same sort of clay sagger used for the glazed as well as for the unglazed wares?" "no. for the glazed china we generally use glost saggers that have been covered on the inner side with a coating of enamel." all this time as they talked they had been passing through the mill and they now entered a low hot building where a series of brick ovens with arching tops covered the floor. "here," said mr. marwood, "are the firing kilns. after the ware has been brought here in baskets it is very carefully packed in the saggers, and the saggers in turn packed in these great brick ovens. before they are put in the kilns have to be cooled so the heat to which the ware is subjected may increase gradually." "but it must take forever to pack all the saggers into the kiln," declared theo as he viewed in consternation the interior of one of the waiting ovens. "it takes a long time--about five hours," answered mr. marwood. "porcelain requiring a shorter firing is placed near the front of the kiln, so it can be removed if necessary before the rest is taken out. after the kiln is filled the men brick up the door of the oven and start the fire. there the china bakes from forty to sixty hours. the length of time required depends on the sort of ware being fired and the temperature of the kiln. then the opening is unsealed and the cooling process begins." "do they wait until the saggers and their contents are cold before they take them out?" asked theo. "no, indeed," was mr. marwood's reply. "that would take too long. often we are in a hurry to get the goods out and the ovens cooled for the next lot of porcelain; frequently, too, we want the ware so that we may continue work upon it. therefore we begin the drawing while the oven is still very hot--so hot that the men are stripped to the waist and wear only overalls, shoes, and thick gloves. the kiln drawers are never forced to draw out the saggers, however, when they are intensely hot unless they wish to do so. the law protects such workers and specifies at just what degree of temperature the work is to become optional. not only do these men draw the ware, but they also empty it from the saggers as well as put it into the baskets in which it is carried back to the factory and inspected, further decorated, or packed for shipping." mr. marwood waited a moment, then added: "in some foreign countries a tunnel kiln is used instead of an oven like this. it is supposed to require less fuel. it is a long tunnel with a track through the centre over which little cars laden with ware are propelled by machinery. the heat is graded in such a way that it is most intense in the middle of the kiln. the ware starts at one end of this tunnel where the temperature is quite low, travels toward the centre where the heat is highest, and then comes out at the other end of the tunnel through a diminishing heat. in this way it cools gradually. they say, however, that such a method is more successful for biscuit (the unglazed china) than for the glost. here in america where fuel has always been plenty we have stuck to our old-fashioned brick ovens in spite of their expense. i am afraid we are not a saving nation." "father says that after this war is over we shall have to be more saving," said theo. "i believe that too," confessed mr. marwood. "we never have learned to figure things down to the lowest cent. we shall have to do it; and it won't hurt us, either. on the contrary, it will be a good lesson. if each of us would use the least possible material in the home, the factory, and the office we should save an amazing amount in a year." "i think we ought to do it," affirmed theo soberly. "so do i," rejoined the elder man. "many manufacturers have already come to finding uses for stuff they previously considered waste. they are using up their by-products, thereby not only enriching themselves but giving to the world things that are needed. it is an interesting and ingenious problem. if we were to employ the same principle everywhere we should find it well worthy of our brain power. now shall we go back and hunt up mr. croyden, or have you still questions to ask?" "i have a thousand questions," laughed theo, "but i don't think you'd better stop now to answer them. mother says i always do have questions; she says no sooner am i through with one than i am ready with another." "so long as they are intelligent, thoughtful questions i am sure no one minds answering them," mr. marwood replied. "how else are we to learn? the man who is ashamed to ask questions and confess he does not know is worth little in the world. when i spoke of questions, however, i meant questions about china-making." "oh!" exclaimed theo. "no, i don't think i have any more questions about porcelain except to ask you how the glaze is put on the biscuit ware." "that certainly is an intelligent question, and one i shall be only too happy to answer," mr. marwood said. "we could go down into the dipping sheds if we had more time. but perhaps since there is not i can tell you about them and it will do almost as well. to begin with, these sheds have cement floors because the glaze, or slip, spatters all about and dries upon them. it is therefore practically impossible to keep wooden floors clean, and we do not wish our workmen to inhale any more of the dried flint dust than is absolutely necessary." "i remember hearing about that," theo said. "the glaze material is ground up while dry and very carefully sifted," went on mr. marwood. "afterward it is mixed with water; colored, if a tinted glaze is required; and then pumped into tanks where it is kept well stirred. when ready the ware is dipped into this glaze and again fired. this time, however, it is a more difficult matter to pack it into the saggers since it must neither touch the sides of the sagger nor come in contact with any other piece." "i never thought of that," owned theo. "of course, now that you speak of it, i can see that when the glaze melts and fuses with the clay it would show any mark." "exactly." "it must be an awful job to keep each piece separate." "it demands extreme care," returned mr. marwood. "we use all sorts of little clay devices to support the ware, and keep it in place while it is in the saggers." "does it take about the same length of time to fire the glazed porcelain as for the biscuit?" inquired theo. "no. the glost firing usually takes only from twenty-four to thirty-six hours. afterward any bits of glaze projecting from the china or clinging to it are chipped away with a steel tool and the piece is examined. if free from flaws it goes either to the packing room to be shipped, or back to the factory, in case additional decoration is to be put on over the glaze. you may recall that i told you that there was an over-glaze and an under-glaze method of decoration." "yes, sir." "are your questions answered now?" "i believe they are, thank you." "and you can now make china without trouble--whatever kind you like best?" "i shouldn't want to start doing it to-morrow," chuckled theo. "i think i should rather begin on earthenware." "you would have to go to some other mills, then," smiled mr. marwood. "we make no c. c. ware here." "what is c. c. ware?" "ask mr. croyden," replied mr. marwood. "you see, we have a little joke about it. his name is charles croyden and sometimes in jest we call him c. c. now c. c. ware (an abbreviation for cream-colored) is one of the cheapest of the white earthenwares. when first manufactured it used to be of a pale yellowish tint, but now it is made in white. nevertheless its quality has not been materially improved. as mr. croyden manufactures only the finer grades of chinas it is a favorite quip of ours to call him c. c." theo laughed heartily. "i will ask him about the c. c. ware some time," grinned the boy. [illustration] chapter xviii theo's great choice [illustration] theo was as good as his word. that noon as he and mr. croyden sat at luncheon he remarked mischievously: "you did not tell me, sir, that you made c. c. ware here." mr. croyden raised his eyes quickly and laughed. "so they passed that joke on to you, did they?" he said. "c. c. ware indeed! you young rascal! i have half a mind now not to send to your mother that blue vase you admired so much." "that blue vase! the one with the girl's head on it?" cried theo. "are you really going to send it to mother?" "if you behave yourself i am," came grimly from the older man. "and if she will let you come and visit us again some time." "oh, mother'll be crazy over that vase. it is a corker!" exclaimed theo. "i can tell her how i saw them making it." "you shall carry it back to her then, since you think she will like it," declared mr. croyden. "that is unless you would rather select as a present a piece of c. c. ware," he added humorously. theo smiled and shook his head. "or maybe you would prefer a bit of samian ware, or jet ware, or rockingham ware, or yellow ware, or stoneware, or ironstone china, or white granite, or queen's." "jehoshaphat! are there all those kinds of earthenware?" "yes, and that is not the full list, either," replied mr. croyden. "we have a great many kinds of crockery, and as each variety has its cheaper as well as its more expensive grades, it makes an almost endless number of styles. the better types of white earthenware are made from carefully selected and well mixed clays, and more nearly approach porcelain, of which they are imitations. often their design is quite good and in consequence they fill a large place in many a modest home. indeed, although we ourselves do not go in for such chinas we respect a well-made piece of earthenware, for the making of good earthenware is an art in itself. many a rule attends its successful manufacture. for example, the bottom of a heavy piece must not be too thick, or it will crack, because a tremendous strain comes on the base when the clay begins to dry and shrink. the sides pull from every direction, and therefore the bottom must be sufficiently thin to be elastic, and sufficiently thick to be strong. and that is only one of the problems to be faced by pottery and earthenware makers. so you see they, as well as we, have troubles." "i guess no business is without its troubles," observed theo. "no business that is interesting," answered mr. croyden. "it is getting the better of such difficulties that gives zest to manufacture, making it a constant field for man's fertile brain. i think the old italians were right when during the golden days of venetian history they recognized the intellectual status of glass-makers, silk-makers, and the like; and accorded to such men the same honors they did to those of noble rank. for, after all, the noble was only what chance had made him; while the skilled artisan was what he had made himself--a far more creditable thing, to my way of thinking." "and to mine!" agreed theo. "i am glad you feel that way," mr. croyden said, "because i am anxious to have you view this industry not alone from its technical but from its larger aspect. did i not believe that i was doing something more than just the humdrum task of making dishes i should speedily become discouraged and decide my labor was not worth the strength i am constantly putting into it. but every honorable industry is far more than that. it is a monument to the men who conceived it and to those who little by little developed the wonderful machinery that makes it possible. each perfect product it turns out voices the skill, patience, and faithfulness of scores of workmen. more than that, an industry is the weapon of the wage-earner--the means by which he and his family are protected from want and unhappiness. hence every conscientious manufacturer performs a double service to mankind: he gives to the world something that it needs, and he furnishes his fellow-man with a means of livelihood. regarded in this light it is no unworthy calling to be a manufacturer." "i think both the man at the head of the firm, and the men who share in the work are doing their bit," put in theo. "the one is dependent on the other," affirmed mr. croyden. "it is a matter of equality. in fact, it would be hard to tell which of the two is the more indebted to the other--the employer or the employee. it is in this spirit that i try to run this great plant. i blunder, it is true; i suppose we all do that. but i sincerely believe labor should have an honored place, and so far as i am concerned i give it one. if i had a boy," mr. croyden's voice faltered, "if i had a boy," he repeated more firmly, "he should be brought up to touch his cap to the laborer as well as to the capitalist; and he should be made to feel that the trade school is as praiseworthy a place as is the college. the two simply furnish different types of education." theo acquiesced. "your father and i represent these two types," continued mr. croyden. "when you grow up you will have to choose which of them you will follow. i know you will choose wisely and well. but you must never forget that it is the ideal behind what you do that transforms a calling from a gray, dead, monotonous vocation into a glowing, living, interesting career. you can be a routine doctor, seeing only the dull round of aches and pains; or you can be the great physician who continues god's work of healing on the earth. as for the manufacturer--in this field, too, you can be the mere money-getter who crowds down and ignores those who have helped him to amass his wealth; or you can be the profit-sharer and co-worker. it all rests with yourself. it will not be the fault of the task you choose but the littleness of your vision if you dwarf your life and find your horizon small." * * * * * long afterward theo swift remembered those words, and when on his twenty-second birthday he entered the trenton mills, there to be trained to assume a partnership in the business, it was with the aim that as a captain of industry he would serve his generation. the stories in this series are: the story of cotton the story of gold and silver the story of lumber the story of wool the story of iron the story of leather the story of glass the story of sugar the story of silk the story of porcelain [illustration: vicar & moses. modelled by ralph wood. about 1750. marked r. wood, burslem. _at british museum._] chats on old earthenware by arthur hayden author of "chats on old china," "chats on old prints," etc. with a coloured frontispiece and 150 illustrations, and tables of over 200 illustrated marks new york frederick a. stokes company publishers 1909 (_all rights reserved._) to my old friend walter eassie whose fine enthusiasm has been a stimulant, and whose ever-ready help has added many artistic touches to this volume. preface five years have now elapsed since the publication of my volume, "chats on english china," and in the interval a great number of readers have written to me suggesting that i should write a companion volume dealing with old english earthenware. it is my hope that this complementary volume will prove of equal value to that large class of collectors who desire to know more about their hobby but are fearful to pursue the subject further without special guidance. it is a matter for congratulation in these days, when so many books have only a short life for one season, to know that, owing to the enterprise of my publisher in making the "chats" series for collectors so widely known, the volume dealing with old english china still retains its vitality, and holds its place as a popular guide to collecting with profit. as far as is possible in the limits of this volume, the subject of old english earthenware has been dealt with in order to show how peculiarly national the productions of the potter have been. the collection of old english earthenware, in the main, is still within the reach of those who have slender purses. english china during the last decade has reached prohibitive prices, and there is every likelihood that old english earthenware will in the near future become of unprecedented value. i have carefully refrained from confining my treatment of the subject to rare museum examples which are unlikely to come under the hand of the average collector. it is necessary to have the ideal in view, but it must be borne in mind that such specimens must always be ideal to the larger number of collectors. i have, therefore, without belittling the old potters' art, given considerable attention to the golden mean in the realm of old earthenware to be collected. the two volumes--"chats on english china," which mainly consists of an outline history of english china, with hints as to its collection, and the present volume, "chats on english earthenware," with a faithful _résumé_ of the work of the old english potters--together form a record of what has been done by the potter in england, and are intended to be practical working handbooks for the collector of old english china and english earthenware. the illustrations in this volume have been carefully chosen to illustrate the letterpress, and to enable readers to identify specimens that may come under their observation. _lists of prices_ accompany the various sections whenever it has been thought that they may be of practical value. i am indebted for the accuracy of these prices to that useful and authoritative quarterly publication, "auction sale prices," which is a supplement to the _connoisseur_, and forms the standard record in the collectors' world of the prices realised at auction. a _bibliography_ of works on the subject has been given, in order that those who may wish to delve deeper may consult special volumes dealing in detail with special sub-heads of old earthenware. i must here record my thanks for the generous aid i have received from possessors of fine examples who have willingly placed their treasures at my disposal, and by so doing have enabled me to present them as illustrations in this volume. to colonel and mrs. dickson i am especially indebted for many specimens from their interesting collection. miss feilden has been good enough to select some typical examples from her fine collection of old earthenware of exceptional interest, and they are here reproduced by her courtesy, and to mr. richard wilson i owe my gratitude for kindly allowing illustrations of some examples of leeds cream-ware from his remarkable collection. mr. robert bruce wallis, with fine enthusiasm, has spared no trouble to enable me to present some of his rare examples, and mrs. herman liebstein has kindly supplied some fine pieces from her collection. mr. w. g. honey has also kindly contributed several excellent illustrations of specimens in his collection. the illustrations of specimens in the victoria and albert museum are reproduced by permission of the board of education, and similar permission has been accorded me by the authorities of the british museum to illustrate some of the rare examples in that collection. by a like courtesy i am enabled to give an illustration of an exceptional piece of marked wincanton delft, and some other examples from the collection at the royal scottish museum, edinburgh. messrs. josiah wedgwood and sons, of etruria have afforded me the pleasure of illustrating some fine specimens in their museum, including examples of the celebrated service made for the empress catherine ii. of russia. i am especially indebted to their courtesy in giving me facilities for the reproduction of a fine series of photographs showing the various stages in the manufacture of earthenware, which illustrations should be of practical advantage to the student and of no little interest to the general collector. it should be mentioned that these illustrations have been specially selected to represent the stages through which a piece of old earthenware passed in the hands of the staffordshire potters. in regard to the illustrations of the rare examples of leeds and other pieces decorated at lowestoft, and for the latest details known of this class of ware, i have to acknowledge the particular kindness of mr. merrington smith, fine art expert of lowestoft, who is known in connection with the excavations conducted a few years ago on the site of the old lowestoft china factory, and whose detailed research regarding that factory has dissipated many erroneous theories and thrown so much light on its history and achievements. to mr. rudd, fine art dealer of southampton, i am indebted for a considerable fund of information relating to some of the exceptional examples of old english earthenware which have passed through his hands, and i am under a similar obligation to mr. s. g. fenton, who has contributed some fine pieces as illustrations to this volume. mr. james davies, of chester, has given me access to his collection, and has added some fine examples which are here included as illustrations. mr. f. w. phillips, of hitchin, has from his fine collection made a generous selection of noteworthy specimens. mr. a. duncan, of penarth, has included photographs of some especially fine swansea ware. by the kindness of mr. hubert gould, i am reproducing some typical examples of transfer-printed jugs from his collection of old earthenware. to other friends who have generously forborne with my inquiries, and lent me their practical aid in various directions in assisting me to prosecute my researches in attempting to arrive at definite conclusions in regard to points not hitherto determined, i tender my warm appreciation of their kindness. i may say, in conclusion, that a good photographer is a treasure, and no trouble has been spared by mr. a. e. smith, the well-known art photographer, to render difficult subjects pictorially attractive in conditions exceptionally detrimental to his art. arthur hayden. _march, 1909._ contents page preface 9 list of illustrations 17 bibliography 23 glossary of terms used 27 chapter i. how to collect: a chapter for beginners 33 ii. early ware 83 iii. english delft 101 iv. stoneware 133 v. early staffordshire ware--thomas whieldon; his contemporaries and successors 159 vi. salt-glazed ware, staffordshire 195 vii. josiah wedgwood 221 viii. the school of wedgwood 257 ix. leeds and other factories 287 x. transfer-printed ware 317 xi. staffordshire figures 353 xii. swansea and other factories 395 xiii. lustre ware 423 xiv. late staffordshire ware 443 index 485 list of illustrations frontispiece. staffordshire group, _vicar and moses_. modelled by ralph wood about 1750. marked r. wood, burslem. _at british museum._ page chapter i.--how to collect. exterior of works, etruria 37 a corner of old etruria works 41 mill for grinding raw materials 45 the thrower (showing the potter's wheel) 49 the oven 53 the dipping house 57 the enamel kiln 61 chapter ii.--early ware. mediæval tiles 85 toft dish, dated 1671; posset pot, dated 1685 89 earthenware jug (late 17th century) 93 chapter iii.--english delft. lambeth delft jar (with arms of apothecaries' company) 103 lambeth delft "sack" bottle, dated 1652 107 bristol delft plate, representing balloon ascent 107 lambeth delft candlestick, dated 1648 111 old dutch brass candlestick 111 bristol delft plate and bowl 115 bristol delft dish, dated 1740 119 title-page and illustration, from volume dated 1638 123 wincanton delft dish 127 chapter iv.--stoneware. stoneware jugs, bellarmine and other forms 135 dwight bust of _james ii._, and figures of _children reading_ 139 elers coffee pot, mug, and teapot 143 astbury teapots 149 fulham stoneware mug (dated 1725) and jug 153 chapter v.--early staffordshire ware. whieldon ware cauliflower teapot 161 tortoiseshell ware plate 161 tortoiseshell ware teapot and bowl and cover 167 group of astbury ware 171 agate cat and salt-glazed bear jug 171 whieldon tortoiseshell animals 175 whieldon group. _st. george and the dragon_ 175 whieldon toby jugs 179 groups of early staffordshire jugs 183 early staffordshire jugs 189 chapter vi.--salt-glazed ware, staffordshire. salt-glazed teapots. heart-shaped (lovers') and camel 197 group of salt-glazed ware 201 salt-glazed teapot enamelled in colours 205 salt-glazed vase and punch bowl enamelled in colours 209 salt-glazed jug enamelled in colours 213 chapter vii.--josiah wedgwood. cream ware dessert basket and centre-piece 225 catherine ii. of russia service--cream ware plates 233 busts of _rousseau_ and _voltaire_ 233 black basalt teapot and jasper ware tea set 241 jasper vase--"the apotheosis of virgil" 245 chapter viii.--the school of wedgwood. turner jasper vase--"diana in her chariot" 261 adams blue and white jasper vase 261 turner stoneware teapot and jug 267 black basalt teapots by birch and by e. mayer 271 stoneware jugs by spode and by davenport 277 black basalt teapot (early 19th century) 277 chapter ix.--leeds and other factories. leeds cream ware centre-pieces 291 leeds cream ware group. _basket, candlesticks, &c._ 295 mug and jug. leeds cream ware, decorated at lowestoft 299 leeds cream ware plate and mug 303 staffordshire jug, decorated at lowestoft 303 rockingham teapot 307 castleford jug--black basalt 307 chapter x.--transfer-printed ware. salt-glazed plate--"hercules and the waggoner" 319 transfer-printed jug--"diana in her chariot" 319 transfer-printed jugs--"duke of york" and "success to trade" 323 group of chinese blue and white porcelain plates 327 spode under-glaze blue-printed plate and jug 331 turner dish with blue-printed "willow pattern" 331 spode blue-printed ware, "tower" pattern 335 blue-printed dishes by rogers and adams 341 blue-printed dishes--one with claude landscape 345 chapter xi.--staffordshire figures. salt-glaze figure and figure of _cock_ marked r. wood 351 _diana_ and group, _birth of venus_ 355 group of staffordshire figures (neale & co.) 355 _eloquence_, or _st. paul preaching at athens_ 359 group _bacchus_ and _ariadne_, and figures of _venus_ and _adonis_ 363 busts of _bonaparte_ and _alexander of russia_ 367 figures of _falstaff_ 371 staffordshire figure decorated by absalon, yarmouth 375 staffordshire figures of musicians (various) 379 group of toby jugs 383 _cupid_ and figures of _flower boys_ 387 figures of _fishwife_ and _mother goose_ 391 chapter xii.--swansea and other factories. swansea plates and swansea bulb-pots 397 cambrian vase, painted by pardoe 401 swansea jug, painted by evans 401 swansea transfer-printed ware, group of 405 dillwyn's etruscan ware, _vase_ and _tazza_ 405 portland vase in red ware (isleworth) 409 liverpool plate and finely painted mug 409 brown stoneware jugs (isleworth) 413 chapter xiii.--lustre ware. lustre goblets and gold lustre mugs 425 silver lustre figures by wood and caldwell 431 silver lustre jugs 431 copper lustre mug and group of copper lustre ware 437 chapter xiv.--late staffordshire ware. dessert plates and dessert dish (mason's patent ironstone china) 447 granite china vase, marked c j m & co. 451 transfer-printed plates (c. meigh & son) 455 set of staffordshire earthenware vases, richly decorated 455 group of nelson jugs 459 transfer-printed plate in colours, subject--_steam carriage_ 463 old print, _new steam coach_, dated 1827 463 transfer-printed jug, representing stephenson's _rocket_ 467 cyder mug, transfer-printed, representing railway train 467 doulton stoneware jug, with bacchanalian subject 471 bibliography general. catalogue of british pottery and porcelain. by t. reeks and f. w. rudler. 1876. (out of print.)(formerly in the museum of practical geology, jermyn street.) marks and monograms on pottery and porcelain. by w. chaffers. 12th edition. 1908. ceramic art of great britain. by llewellyn jewitt. 2 vols. 1878. 2nd edition. 1 vol. 1883. english earthenware (made during the 17th and 18th centuries). by professor a. h. church, f. r. s. 1905. history of pottery and porcelain. by j. marryat. 1857. history of english earthenware and stoneware (to the beginning of the 19th century). by william burton, f. c. s. (cassell & co.) 1904. catalogue of british pottery, &c., at the british museum. by r. l. hobson. 1903. art of the old english potter. by m. l. solon. folio. 2nd edition. 1885. old english pottery. by mr. and mrs. frank freeth. (morgan, thompson, & jamison.) £2 12s. 6d. net. catalogue of pottery and porcelain. (willett collection, at brighton museum.) 1905. pottery and porcelain. a guide to collectors. f. litchfield. 1900. english pottery and porcelain. by e. a. downman. 1896. history of the staffordshire potteries. by s. shaw. (hanley.) 1829. reissue by the _pottery gazette_. 1900. the chemistry of pottery. by s. shaw. (london.) 1837. reissue by the _pottery gazette_. 1900. catalogue of english pottery and porcelain. (alexandra palace.) by r. h. soden smith. destroyed by fire. 1873. transfer printing on enamels, porcelain, and pottery. by william turner. 1907. examples of early english pottery. by j. e. hodgkin and e. hodgkin. 1891. staffordshire pots and potters. by g. w. rhead and f. a. rhead. 1906. catalogue of a collection of english pottery figures deposited on loan by messrs. frank falkner and e. j. sidebotham at the royal museum, peel park, salford. (manchester.) 1906. chats on english china. by arthur hayden. (t. fisher unwin.) 4th edition. 1909. (the concluding chapters contain an outline history of english earthenware.) particular. _staffordshire._ pre-wedgwood english pottery. (solon collection.) _connoisseur_, december, 1901; february, 1902. william adams, an old english potter. edited by w. turner. 1904. josiah wedgwood. by miss e. meteyard. 2 vols. 1865-6. wedgwood and his works. by miss e. meteyard. 1873. memorials of wedgwood. by miss e. meteyard. 1874. the wedgwood handbook. by miss e. meteyard. 1875. josiah wedgwood, master potter. by professor a. h. church. 1903. old wedgwood (1760-1795). by f. rathbone. folio; 65 plates in colour. 1896. catalogue of loan collection of wedgwood ware, liverpool art club. (liverpool.) 1879. josiah wedgwood. by llewellyn jewitt. 1865. handbook to the tangye collection of wedgwood ware. (birmingham.) by f. rathbone. 1885. wedgwood, josiah--his catalogue of cameos, intaglios, bas-reliefs, busts, and small statues, with a general account of tablets, vases, escritoires, and other ornamental and useful articles. (london.) 1787. wedgwood, josiah--his "catalogue" (as above). edited by miss e. meteyard. 1873. john wesley busts in staffordshire pottery. by c. s. sargisson. _connoisseur_, september, 1907. catalogue of the museum at the etruria works, messrs. josiah wedgwood & sons, ltd. by frederick rathbone. 1909.(mr. rathbone has arranged the collection of flaxman's designs, wedgwood's original pattern models and experimental "trials.") _bristol._ two centuries of ceramic art in bristol. by h. owen. 1873. _derby._ the pottery and porcelain of derbyshire. by a. wallis and w. bemrose. 1870. _liverpool._ the art of pottery, with a history of its progress in liverpool. by j. mayer. (liverpool.) 1873. the liverpool potteries. by c. t. gatty. (liverpool.) 1882. _leeds._ old leeds pottery. by j. r. and f. kidson. (leeds.) 1892. catalogue of exhibition of works of art in the cartwright memorial hall, bradford. 1904. old leeds ware. by henry b. wilson. _connoisseur_, 1904. _swansea._ the ceramics of swansea and nantgarw. by william turner. glossary =agate ware.=--earthenware made either "solid" or in "surface" decoration to resemble the veinings of agate and other natural stones. the "solid" agate ware is produced by layers of different coloured clays being twisted together and cut transversely. the "surface" agate ware is splashed and grained decoration on an ordinary cream body. =astbury ware.=--a generic term applied to specimens in the manner of the astburys, with raised floral decoration of white on a red unglazed body. =basalt.=--black basalt, or "egyptian" ware, is a solid black stoneware of great hardness, made by wedgwood and by his school of followers. =biscuit.=--this term is applied to earthenware and porcelain when it has been fired once. it is after the biscuit stage that decorations in colour are applied, and the specimen goes to the oven a second time (see chapter i.). =body.=--the body of a piece of earthenware is the clay of which it is composed irrespective of the nature or colour of decoration applied to its surface. =china.=--this term is applied to porcelain of all classes, whether true porcelain of hard paste, _e.g._, chinese, japanese, meissen, plymouth, bristol, &c., or artificial porcelain of soft paste, _e.g._, sèvres (_pâte tendre_), worcester, chelsea, bow, lowestoft, &c. =china clay.=--the whitest clay known. obtained in england from devon and cornwall. used for porcelain, and also for light-coloured earthenware. =china stone.=--known also as cornish stone; used in conjunction with the china clay for porcelain, and employed for stoneware bodies. =cream ware.=--this term applies to all light-coloured english earthenware from about 1750 to the present day. it varied in character from the queen's ware of josiah wedgwood, 1760, to the "chalk body" used by wilson at the end of the eighteenth century. cream ware of later date when broken shows a pure white body--a puzzling fact to beginners in collecting. =delft ware.=--a generic term given to earthenware with tin enamelled surface. true delft ware was made at delft in holland after 1600, but it was successfully imitated at lambeth, bristol, liverpool, &c. =earthenware.=--all ware may be termed earthenware which when in the _biscuit_ state is too porous for domestic use but requires a coating of glaze. as a rule, earthenware is opaque, differing in this respect from porcelain, which is translucent. =enamel colours.=--the colours applied either in painted or printed decoration _over_ the glaze. =elers ware.=--a generic term used in regard to unglazed red stoneware with applied decoration in the style of the elers brothers. =glaze.=--the glassy coating applied to earthenware and porcelain. _lead-glaze._--the earliest form used in england was known as _galena glaze_, when sulphide of lead was in powder form dusted on the ware. later liquid lead glaze was used, into which the vessels were dipped. _salt-glaze._--common salt was thrown into the kiln, and the resultant vapour deposited a fine layer of glaze on the ware. _over-glaze._--this term applies to painted or printed decoration done _after_ the glaze has been applied to the object--_i.e._, over the glaze. _under-glaze._--this applies to decoration, painted or printed, done _before_ the glaze is applied to the object--_i.e._, when completed the decoration is under the glaze. =ironstone china.=--an earthenware for which mason took out a patent in 1813. the body contains a large proportion of flint and slag of ironstone. =jasper ware.=--a fine hard stoneware used by wedgwood, and imitated by his followers. it is unglazed. =lustre ware.=--earthenware decorated by thin layers of copper, gold, or platinum (see chapter xiii.). =marbled ware.=--ware of a similar nature to agate ware, having its surface combed and grained to imitate various natural marbles or granites. =marks.=--in earthenware these makers' names or initials or "trade marks" were usually impressed with a metal stamp. obviously this must have been done when the ware was in plastic state; therefore it is impossible to add such marks after the ware is made, and when present on old ware they are a sign of undoubted genuineness. of course a copy can be made bearing an impressed mark. painted or printed marks sometimes occur on earthenware usually of a later date. such marks may be under-or over-glaze; the former are not likely to have been added after the piece has been made. =modern.=--english earthenware may be termed "modern" when it is of a later date than 1850. though, as is indicated in chapter xiv., the modern renaissance in earthenware should be of especial interest to collectors. =over-glaze.=--see _glaze_. =oven.=--the "oven," as the potter terms it, is a specially-built furnace in which the "saggers" containing the ware are placed during the firing (see chapter i.). =paste.=--this is another term for the "body" of the ware. ="resist" pattern.=--a term in silver lustre ware. for detailed description see chapter xiii. =sagger.=--a fire-clay box in which the earthenware is placed when being fired in the oven (see illustration, chapter i.). =salt-glaze.=--see _glaze_, and see chapter vi. =semi-china. semi-porcelain.=--terms applied to early nineteenth century earthenware having a very white or chalk body, and having the outward appearance of china or porcelain. strongly imitative and false to the true qualities of earthenware. it is always opaque. sometimes it is naïvely termed "opaque china." =slip.=--a thick semi-solid fluid composed of clay and water. =spurs. spur mark.=--during the glazing of earthenware "spurs" or "stilts" of fire-clay are used to support the articles and keep them from touching each other. "spur" or "cockspur" marks are found on the ware where it has rested on these supports (see chapter ix., p. 298). =stoneware.=--a variety of pottery distinct from earthenware, and more nearly approaching porcelain in its characteristics. earthenware, as has been shown, needs a coating of glaze to protect its porous defects. stoneware is a hard body needing no glaze. glazed stoneware is frequently found, and the glaze employed is usually salt. =throwing.=--the art of fashioning shapes on the potter's wheel (see illustration, chapter i.). =transfer printing.=--printing employed as a decoration on ware by means of paper which had received a design from a copper-plate, and was transferred to the surface of the ware (see chapter x.). =under-glaze.=--see _glaze_. ="wedgwood."=--this has become a generic term for one or two classes of ware--_e.g._, jasper and black basalt, which were made by most of the potters succeeding josiah wedgwood. the word has, in common with boule and chippendale become popularly and erroneously used. =whieldon ware.=--a generic term covering all classes of ware of a mottled, cloudy, or splashed character--_e.g._, tortoiseshell plates, vases, figures, &c. i how to collect: a chapter for beginners chats on old earthenware chapter i how to collect: a chapter for beginners reasons for collecting--what is earthenware?--how earthenware is made--what to collect--method of studying old earthenware--forgeries--table for use in identifying old english earthenware. to attempt to advance reasons for collecting old english earthenware is seemingly to commence this volume with an apology on behalf of collectors. but there are so many persons ready to throw a stone at others who betray the possession of hobbies differing from their own, that it is necessary to state that the reasonable collection of old earthenware is based on sound premisses. similar reasons may be given for the collection of old english earthenware to those that may be advanced for the collection of old english china. earthenware may be approached mainly from the æsthetic side and studied with a view to show the development of decorative art in this country and the foreign influences which have contributed to its evolution. the art of the old english potter is of especial interest to students of ceramic art, as many processes were invented in this country, and, in spite of periods of decadence, english earthenware has won for itself a considerable reputation on the continent from a technical point of view. it may be collected as an adjunct to old furniture by lovers of old furniture who are precisians in regard to harmony in schemes of decoration. they prefer to see china and earthenware of the same period as the furniture. a modern set of vases adorning a georgian cabinet is like putting new wine into old bottles. so that concomitant with the love for old furniture, old pictures, and old prints is the accompanying regard for contemporary china and earthenware. the "drum and trumpet history" relating the personal adventures of princes and nobles, and the pomp of courts, or the intrigues of favourites, sets no store on the apparent trivialities which mark the social and intellectual progress of a nation. but the scientific student of history cannot afford to ignore the detailed study of social conditions which are indicated by the china-shelf. the due appreciation of the development of costume, of furniture, and of the domestic arts gives life and colour to the written records of byegone days. a mug or a jug with an inscription may tell a story of popular party feeling as pointedly as a broadsheet or a political lampoon. [illustration: exterior of works, etruria: the marl bank. _by the courtesy of messrs. josiah wedgwood & sons._] the ordinary man sees in the collection of china and earthenware an interesting hobby. he reads of the prices remarkable specimens bring under the hammer, and he begins to think that his education has been partly neglected since he knows little or nothing concerning these art treasures, which seemingly are attractive to other men of culture and means. "collecting for profit" is a phrase that tickles the ears of many others. undoubtedly there have been many who have entered the field of collecting and regarded their purchases solely as investments. it must be borne in mind that this class of collector is not to be despised, inasmuch as when he has mastered his subject (and as there is money in it he very speedily sets to work to do this) he is a very formidable rival. it is absurd to imagine that an amateur, after having given especial study to a subject such as old earthenware, is not in a better position to enter the market as a buyer or a seller than he who comes with little or no training. it is only reasonable that a man should take an intelligent interest in the evolution of the ware in everyday use. but it is to be feared that long rows of cases at the museum with specimens of earthenware behind glass doors must necessarily be a valley of dry bones to the spectator unless he bring the seeing eye and the understanding heart to quicken these dry bones into life. enough, perhaps, has been said as a prelude to this volume to show that various reasons may be advanced to account for the new spirit of collecting which has become so infectious. it is the hope of the writer that the following chapters, as an outline of the subject of collecting old english earthenware, may point the way to a better appreciation of what is really of value in this field, and will enable the collector in his search to sift the wheat from the chaff, and him who already possesses _lares et penates_ of uncertain age to identify them. =what is earthenware?=--to know what is earthenware always puzzles the beginner. a rough-and-ready means of determining the difference between earthenware and porcelain is to apply the light test. porcelain more nearly approaches glass and is translucent--that is, it clearly shows the shadow of the hand holding it when placed up to the light. but there are occasions when this test fails; for instance, a block of porcelain may, as in a heavy figure, be so thick as to render this experiment impossible. on the other hand, fine stoneware may be partly translucent in the thinner parts. in early nineteenth-century days a class of ware, such as that of mason, is stamped "ironstone china" or "stone china." this is earthenware of a peculiar nature, having certain of the properties of porcelain. similarly, at various times earthenware has been made which nearly approaches porcelain in its constituents. dwight with his stoneware busts and wedgwood in his jasper ware produced earthenware of such character as to come close to the border line dividing earthenware from porcelain. the potter's art is divided into two sub-heads--porcelain and earthenware--which latter, for purposes of simplification, includes stoneware. [illustration: a corner of old etruria works. _by the courtesy of messrs. josiah wedgwood & sons._] earthenware is of soft body, is opaque--that is, it cannot be seen through. its thinness or its thickness has nothing to do with its title. stoneware is equally opaque, but it is as hard as porcelain. it may be as thick and heavy as a german beer-mug or a stone ginger-beer bottle, or it may be cream in colour, and thin as a passover cake, as in salt-glazed staffordshire ware, or white and heavy, as in later stone china. porcelain may be hard or soft and possesses properties equally its own, but is outside the scope of this volume. practically earthenware is of such porous clay that when fired in the kiln it is unfit for use, as it is still too porous until it receives a coating of glaze. unglazed stoneware, egyptian black, and wedgwood's jasper ware differ from earthenware in this respect, as they do not receive any glaze, since they are of dense enough body to be used in "biscuit" or unglazed state. _its appearance._ in colour earthenware may be brown or white in exterior, or brown or white in body as shown when broken. at its best its style to the beginner may not be suggestive of great difference between earthenware and porcelain. similar figures were attempted in the one material as in the other. in france at niderviller, at marseilles, and at scieux the potters deliberately set themselves to make objects in earthenware as delicate and fanciful as were produced in hard porcelain at dresden or in soft porcelain at vincennes. clocks, vases, sweetmeat-boxes, and elaborate dinner services lavishly decorated in over-glaze enamels and gilded, emulated the best work of the porcelain factories. in staffordshire the story has been repeated. so that form is no guide as to what kind of ware a piece may be. in weight earthenware is lighter than porcelain as a general rule, though variations in the body make this rule an elastic one. in stoneware, and ware approximating to this in character, the weight is heavier than porcelain. all ironstone ware is exceedingly heavy. _reasons for its appearance._ the earlier earthenware was brown in body. the dutch potters in the seventeenth century covered their ware with an opaque white tin enamel to conceal the dark earthen body and to enable them to paint on its surface in imitation of chinese porcelain. stoneware, such as the jugs of early type known as bellarmines, is of very vitreous earthenware fired so hard as to resist acids or the use of a file when applied to the surface. when glazed this class of ware has salt glaze. dwight, of fulham, introduced white, or nearly white, stoneware into england in his statuettes, which induced him to claim that he had discovered the secret of making porcelain. cream ware followed later, and, perfected by wedgwood, it was adopted as the standard earthenware of staffordshire. it was the last note in earthenware till the beginning of the nineteenth century, when the staffordshire potters invented an earthenware with a white body more nearly approaching porcelain in appearance. for fifty years experiments had been carried on, and this cream ware was whitened by a process called "blueing" by the use of cobalt to whiten the lead glaze. but the final invention was by mason with his patent ironstone china, in which he produced a hard, white body. =how earthenware is made.=--a good deal of theory has found its way into print, but it is not every one, even among collectors, who has actually seen the various stages through which a lump of clay passes before it finally takes its place on the table as a teapot or a breakfast cup. [illustration: mill for grinding raw materials. _by the courtesy of messrs. josiah wedgwood & sons._] it has, therefore, been thought of interest to illustrate a few steps in the process of this transformation of clay into vessels of utility and beauty. by the kindness of messrs. josiah wedgwood and sons, of etruria, this series of illustrations appears, and the subjects have been chosen with a view to showing those processes of the potter which are practically the same as in the days of the great josiah. the first illustration (p. 37) shows an _exterior view of the etruria works_, with the cornish stone and the ball clays from dorset and devon and the flints lying in heaps exposed to the sun and frost in order to "weather." this exposure is considered advantageous, as the longer the clay is in the open the better it will work when required for use. the second illustration (p. 41) shows a _corner of the old etruria works_. the structure is practically the same as in the early days, and the bottom windows on the right have remained unaltered. the farthest at the bottom corner on the right was the room of old josiah. the third illustration shows the _mill for grinding raw materials_. the clays are put into this vat and crushed between two stones. there is nothing different now from the early days. the old oak beams tell their story. it is true that steam is now used, but that is all to make this process differ from that employed a century and a half ago--first when wind-power was used, as in flour mills, and later when a horse was substituted. this grinding is done with water, and the mixture comes out a thick liquid. the mixing-tank is the next stage. these liquid constituents, such as ball clay, china clay, flint, &c., according to the formula of the pottery, are carefully admitted into the tank in correct proportions and thoroughly "blended" together. the body is now in its "slip" state, and is pressed and dried to make it more malleable when not required for casting. in its later stage, in more solid form, it is ready to be thrown on the potter's wheel. =the potter's wheel.=--we illustrate (p. 40) the ingenious potter who is known as "the thrower." it is he who, on a little revolving table between his knees pressed with his hands, magically transforms the lump of clay into beautiful shapes. unfortunately, modern methods are eliminating the work of "the thrower," whose art dates back to the remotest past in the east when man first made clay into objects of beauty. we find the prophet jeremiah saying, "then i went down to the potter's house, and behold he wrought a work on the wheel. and the vessel that he made of clay was marred in the hands of the potter, so he made again another vessel as seemed good to the potter to make it." old omar khayyam brings a moral to bear on the potter and his wheel: "surely not in vain my substance from the common earth was ta'en that he who subtly wrought me into shape should stamp me back to common earth again." and shakespeare, not to miss a good simile, makes one of his characters say, "my thoughts are whirled like a potter's wheel." [illustration: the thrower. showing the potter's wheel. _by the courtesy of messrs. josiah wedgwood & sons._] =the pottery kilns.=--the next stage is to convert the vessel thrown in soft clay, and put aside to dry, into being as a piece of pottery. there are three ovens, termed the "biscuit," the "glost," and the "enamel." in the illustration (p. 53) it is seen how the vessels are put into "saggers," which are boxes of fire-clay piled upon one another. the doorway is bricked up and plastered, and gradually the furnace is heated. practically this "oven" illustrated is typical of the "biscuit" or the "glost" oven, the difference being in the temperature applied, the latter being at a much lower temperature. it may be interesting to mention that a quick oven is three days in firing and three days in cooling before the ware is removed. for ornamental and important specimens of a very special nature as long a period as a month may be taken to fire and half that time to cool. but of course this is only in exceptional circumstances. it conjures up a picture of the awful anxiety of some of the great master potters at the critical moment when the doorway is pulled down and the contents of the oven are drawn. it is here where the triumph or the failure of the potter manifests itself. when taken out of the first oven the ware is termed "biscuit." it is now ready for glazing. of course, in such ware as jasper or unglazed stoneware, basalt, and similar kinds, the "biscuit" state is the final one, the object being completed. =the dipping-house.=--in the illustration (p. 57) it will be seen that the ware in its "biscuit" state is dipped in liquid glaze in a very deft manner, after which it proceeds to the "glost" oven to harden this glaze on its surface. it is here that great care has to be exercised in keeping the pieces from coming in contact with each other; spurs and tripods are placed between each piece to obviate this. the "saggers" in which this newly-glazed ware is placed are dusted with material infusible at the lower heat to prevent the pieces adhering to these "saggers." in fact, as is readily seen, a fine specimen may be easily ruined at any stage. in undecorated ware, as in the cream-ware examples illustrated (p. 225), this ends the process, and they are complete. but in ware that is to be decorated _over_ the glaze there is yet another stage before they are finished. it will be observed that we are alluding to _over-glaze_ decoration. but ware may be painted before being glazed,--that is _under-glaze_. in order, however, not to confuse the beginner at the outset, this has been described in a later chapter (p. 326). =the enamel kiln.=--after the decorations have been painted upon the glazed ware it has to be fired in the enamel kiln. a far lower heat than that of the "glost" oven is required; the flames do not pass inside the kiln, as in an oven, but are led in flues all round the kiln. we give an illustration (p. 61) of this for firing colours or gold _over_ the glaze. as will be seen, the pieces are carefully protected from contact with each other, and at this last stage it is quite possible to undo all the patient labour previously employed and irretrievably ruin a piece. in this hasty outline of the various processes of the potter much has been omitted; but, in the main, these illustrations should serve to kindle a more intelligent interest, even among collectors, in the earthenware and china which has passed through so many critical periods in its life-history. [illustration: the oven. showing the "saggers" containing ware ready for firing. _by the courtesy of messrs. josiah wedgwood & sons._] =what to collect.=--this is largely a question of personal predilection. in general the field of english earthenware may be divided into nine classes, and the collector who wishes to specialise will have his individual taste for one or more of these, according as its technical or artistic qualities appeal to him. this arrangement is mainly chronological, but obviously one class will overlap others in point of time. these classes are further summarised in detail in the table intended for use in identifying old earthenware given at the end of this chapter. i. early english pottery. ii. delft ware. iii. stoneware (including staffordshire salt-glaze ware). prior to the inventions of josiah wedgwood. iv. variegated ware--agate and clouded ware. v. cream ware- (1) plain. (2) decorated by painting. (3) transfer-printed. by far the largest variety of english earthenware, including domestic ware and figures. made by all potters. vi. classic ware--the school of which josiah wedgwood is the founder. vii. figures (mainly staffordshire). viii. lustre ware. ix. opaque china } semi-porcelain } nineteenth century. ironstone china } =method of studying old earthenware.=--to those readers who peruse this volume without any definite idea of the standpoint of the collector it should not be left unsaid that the proper study and collection of old english earthenware require a considerable amount of reading and, what is of much greater importance, a very practical examination of some hundreds of specimens. it is this practical experience which alone can give the beginner the training he requires. it is a complex subject bristling with unexpected difficulties in regard to technical points and crowded with apparent contradictions. the bibliography given on pp. 23-25 will enable readers to pursue special studies in greater detail. the next best thing to handling the actual specimens is to see them. it cannot here be impressed upon the beginner too strongly that it is absolutely necessary, in order to educate his eye, that the finest known examples in the particular classes should be frequently seen. the national museums, the victoria and albert and the british, in london, both contain splendid collections classified in a very thorough manner. in the provinces, the following museums among others contain fine collections, often of richer interest in special subjects than the aforementioned. for instance, the public museum at liverpool contains the most representative collection of the various classes of liverpool ware. the fine art gallery at leeds is rich in typical examples of the finest productions in leeds earthenware. at the royal scottish museum, edinburgh, and at the science and art museum, dublin, there are finely arranged collections of pottery. at the castle museum, nottingham, at york, at norwich, at bath, at bristol, at swansea, at cardiff, at the weston park museum, sheffield, at the pitt-rivers museum, farnham, north dorset, at the grosvenor museum, chester, at maidstone, at bury st. edmunds, and at saffron walden, there are collections which can be studied. [illustration: the dipping house. showing how the ware is glazed. _by the courtesy of messrs. josiah wedgwood & sons._] in the district of the potteries itself the following museums have representative collections of special varieties of staffordshire ware. at hanley, at tunstall, at burslem, at stoke-on-trent, and at etruria, with its wedgwood museum, there is material enough to be seen, so that it may be said that there is little need for the beginner to be starved for want of opportunities to see fine examples. =hints as to prices.=--it is impossible in such a complex subject as old earthenware to lay down any hard and fast rules as to prices to be paid. specimens vary very considerably in quality, and according to demand prices fluctuate as in other markets. if the beginner will make a point of learning his subject and will keep in touch with a few dealers, he will find that they will readily assist him to identify his own specimens and systematically aid him in adding judiciously to his collection. a great deal of offensive nonsense has been written by fashionable lady journalists, declaiming against the professional dealer and crediting him with every conceivable trick under the sun. but the greatest and the wisest of collectors number a host of dealers as personal friends. a continuous stream of good things passes through the hands of the dealers who, by incessant handling and practical study, are able and willing to help the collector and to solve his difficulties. _dealers' prices_ are in many cases surprisingly low considering the great trouble they have taken to acquire the pieces. it is far better to procure bargains in this manner, with one's personal knowledge supplemented by the friendly suggestions of one's favourite dealer, than to attempt to obtain through private sources "great bargains" from amateur dealers whose possessions would not, in many cases, bear the light of day in the open market. =forgeries.=--there are many "faked" pieces in existence, and there are many copies and a great quantity of productions of factories of to-day who reproduce their old patterns made a century or more ago. some of this is made with intent to deceive, and much is merely a trade movement to supply a known want on the part of the public. but it is exactly here that the dealer who has a respect for his clients, and being a business man naturally does not wish to ruin his reputation, may be of inestimable value in advising the collector. mr. solon, the eminent authority and a practical worker in artistic pottery, tells in his "art of the old english potter" how, when he was searching for fine specimens to make his collection, he was deceived by some sham old slip ware bought at a high figure in a lonely cottage in a remote district. if the fabricator could lure so studious a collector into his net, it goes without saying that especial precautions should be taken by the beginner not to give large prices unless he has a guarantee or knows the seller's reputation. buyers of old delft ware should be careful in examining the decoration of their purchases. plain ware, which is not so valuable and is comparatively common, is decorated in blue, or a coat-of-arms and a date added, giving a fictitious value to the piece. in fact, such genuine dated pieces are worth ten times the plain ones. plain jars and jugs worth £2 or £3, with the fraudulently added word "sack" and the initials "c. r." in blue, may tempt the unwary collector to give £20. it will thus be seen that this is the most dangerous of frauds, and difficult to detect unless the collector has handled many decorated pieces, for the delft itself is absolutely genuine. [illustration: the enamel kiln. showing the ware after being enamelled stacked ready for firing. _by the courtesy of messrs. josiah wedgwood & sons._] similarly, plain pieces of genuine staffordshire salt glaze are enamelled in colours in order to enhance the value, owing to the fashionable demand for coloured examples. as much as £50 has been paid by an unfortunate collector for a teapot quite worth this if genuine old colour work, but unhappily it was, although fine old salt glaze, quite recently coloured, evidently with fraudulent intentions. staffordshire figures that are modern tell their own story, or should do so, to the collector who has ever carefully examined the potting and the glaze of fine old examples. nor is there much excuse for the blundering collector who cannot readily distinguish between the crude modern toby jug with its blatant colouring, so smudgy and smeary with black stains to impart age, and its genuine prototype. there are some fairly modelled toby jugs, of modern origin, one in particular seated in a corner chair, with a salt-glaze surface. another "fake" appeals to the lover of the whieldon style, and has a mottled base and hat. but they are, as the expressive term goes, "hot from the oven." the "vicar and moses" was so well modelled by ralph wood that it shared the fate of george morland's pictures which were copied by his contemporaries. ralph wood's "vicar and moses" was copied all through the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, and to-day modern fabrications repeat the same model _ad nauseam_. sham voyez "fair hebe" jugs, made for foolish collectors, are frequently to be seen and avoided. leeds ware has engaged the attention of the imitator. some of the ware is made in germany and is unmarked. but other modern productions exist stamped "leeds pottery," and are imitations of the old leeds patterns. there is a tobacco jar in pewter having a shield with the leeds coat-of-arms, and raised medallions of a ship and of the patron saint of the woolcombers. this jar has been of late years copied in cream ware, and with its lid with twisted handle it has passed as "genuine old leeds." but it is nothing of the sort. in general, earthenware comes off better in regard to forged marks than porcelain. in the latter, of course, it is the easiest thing in the world to add the marks, especially when most of them were _painted_. but in earthenware the majority of marks were _impressed_ in the ware and this cheats the "faker" of his quarry. as a matter of fact, the mark should not lead the collector by the nose. before seeing any mark a collector should begin to know his subject so well that the mark is an additional piece of information which serves to confirm his previous conclusions as to the specimen under examination. an unmarked example may show every evidence in modelling, in paste, in colour, and in glaze, of having been made by a certain potter at a particular date. the only confirmation lacking is the mark. it is here that marked ware becomes of paramount importance for purposes of comparison. and it is better to have a genuine marked piece in one's cabinet, from a business point of view, than a genuine piece equally fine that bears no signature or trade-mark. but this craving on the part of collectors for marks has led in the field of china to a disastrous state of things; marks of one potter have been added to the productions of another, and no fabricated worcester china is worth its salt as a correct piece of forgery unless it bears the square mark or the crescent. happily, in earthenware the question of marks only affects the ware from wedgwood's day onwards. the finest specimens of earthenware in the noted collections throughout the country, of elers, and dwight and astbury, and whieldon, and the whole salt-glaze school bear no mark, for the very simple reasons that the old potters had no "marks." but they signed their pieces all over, and the touch of these old masters is immediately intelligible to the trained eye of the collector. =how to identify old earthenware.=--the following table roughly summarises the field under which english earthenware may be classified. it is the hope of the writer that possessors of earthenware which they are unable to identify will, by the help of this table, be able to place their pieces under the sub-head to which they belong. the references given to the chapters dealing with the classes in detail are intended to point the way to a more extended examination of specimens. a good general rule for beginners in attempting the proper identification is to commence by eliminating all the classes of ware to which the piece obviously cannot belong. gradually the field becomes limited to one period, and finally it is narrowed to two or three factories. but it is only by practice that definite and accurate conclusions can be arrived at. table for use in identifying old english earthenware. =i. early pottery.= early examples of green glazed pitchers and jugs of crude form, =mediæval.= 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. domestic vessels. costrels (_i.e._, pilgrims' bottles), flasks with holes at shoulders for use of cord in carrying. ecclesiastical tiles ecclesiastical tiles. incised or (15th-16th centuries). impressed patterns, raised, inlaid, or with slip decoration. floral, geometrical, heraldic ornamentation. figures of men and of animals (see illustration, p. 85). =slip ware.= loving-cups, or tygs, with several (17th century.) handles, posset pots with spouts. lead-glazed, greenish in colour, with tones varying from purplish-brown to black (see illustration, p. 89). wrotham ware wrotham, in kent, the seat (1612-1717). of this ware of red body with slip stamped decorations or incised ornamentation. a great number of pieces of this class bear dates covering a century. toft ware dishes and posset pots of staffordshire (latter half of origin, thomas toft, 1660, 17th century). ralph toft, ralph turnor, william chatterly, robert shaw, william tabor, john wright, joseph nash, john meir and other names appear on this ware, some being those of the potters, and others the owner's name. (=these varieties of early pottery are described in chapter ii.=) =ii. delft ware.= _general characteristics of delft ware._ in appearance it cannot be mistaken for any other ware. it has a brown or grey body, showing at crumbled edges where the glaze is chipped off. the surface is white, and the painting upon it is more coarse than dutch examples. english decorations are mostly painted under glaze in blue, yellow, or dull purple. =lambeth.= dishes, plates, salt-cellars, puzzle-jugs, sack bottles, pharmacy jars early examples, 1630. and candlesticks are most ordinarily found. the enamelled surface of van hamme, potter of lambeth delft has a pinkish tint. lambeth, 1671. plates with portraits and dates (1637-1702), adam and eve dishes, of large size, painted in blue with this and other biblical subjects, "the journey to emmaus," "jacob's ladder," or with oriental designs. earlier specimens have a purplish or dull yellow lead glaze at back of dish. =bristol.= election and other plates dated 1740-1784. painted tiles and plates with landscape subjects--chinese figures, parrots. _bianco sopra bianco_ white enamel on greenish ground. bowls with purple ground and white reserved panels with blue decoration. =liverpool.= prior to 1762 all liverpool delft, including tiles, was printed. early in 18th century, the principal trade delft dishes decorated in chinese of the city. style. bowls with ships as decoration. druggists' jars. transfer-printed tiles by sadler & green, or later by zachariah barnes. =wincanton.= similar to bristol in character. up to the present very little is known of this factory. (see illustration, p. 127.) (=these varieties of delft ware are dealt with in detail in chapter iii.=) =iii. stoneware.= mottled red-brown colour, mostly salt glazed, pitted surface like orange skin. early bellarmine jugs. having dates and coats-of-arms in foreign examples; coarser style probably english. =fulham.= white busts and figures. red, unglazed ware. brown jugs and mugs. marbling on john dwight vases and bases, and stamped ornaments (1671-1703). in relief on teapots. =staffordshire.= a generic name for all unidentified red (unglazed) ware. teapots, &c., elers ware. with stamped ornament similar to dwight. john philip elers, _prunus_ blossom and chinese ornament, david elers in relief. turned on lathe and perfectly (1690-1710). finished. spouts plain, moulded by hand. john astbury red, buff, orange, and chocolate body. (died 1743). similar ware to elers, with the ornaments in relief in white pipe-clay. made early salt-glaze crouch ware. thomas astbury followed same style. little to (from 1725). distinguish his work from that of his father. _astbury_ is a generic term for all ware of this nature, with white stamped ornaments in relief. many staffordshire potters made this type of ware in latter half of eighteenth century, and it was imitated at liverpool. =nottingham.= as early as dwight's day morley made stoneware mugs, and nottingham ware early 18th century holds a high place. the jugs are sometimes with decorative pierced work, showing an inner shell which holds the liquid. the glaze is decidedly lustrous in appearance, and the colour of the body is a warm reddish brown. discontinued at end of 18th century. _bear jugs_ were a feature of this factory, and cruder examples were made at chesterfield and brampton. (=these varieties are described in detail in chapter iv.=) =staffordshire salt glaze= finely potted thin stoneware, surface like skin of orange, almost as astbury and whieldon translucent as porcelain. were the pioneers of this finer stoneware. 1. plain white or undecorated with most of the staffordshire raised stamped ornament. potters from 1725-1780 made salt-glaze ware. 2. plain white body with incised but this ware was ornament filled in with blue. supplanted by wedgwood's cream ware, which seized 3. enamelled in colours on a white body. the market in the last quarter of the 18th 4. body colour blue (rare examples by century. william littler), enamelled decorations in black, white, or gold. 5. pierced ware with decorations in colour, or undecorated. 6. ware decorated by transfer printing. 7. ware with raised ornament, touched with colour. some of this salt-glaze ware is in colour a slate grey. the sharpest cut designs and the highest type of the undecorated ware belong to the period from 1725-1740. the enamelling in colours was at its best from 1745-1760. salt-glaze ware, in imitation of the staffordshire potters, was also made at swansea and at liverpool. (=these varieties are described in detail in chapter vi.=) =fulham.= fulham has been the seat of the (eighteenth century.) manufacture of stoneware since the days of dwight. early 18th century. blue and grey stoneware jugs and mugs, with initials of queen anne or those of george i., often dated. late 18th century. the following are typical--brown stoneware jugs and mugs with bacchanalian subjects, or sporting scenes, in relief, inkstands, brandy flasks of grotesque shape. in 19th century days "doulton & watts, lambeth pottery," is impressed on similar examples, and in middle 19th century days, under the guidance of sir henry doulton, a revival of artistic stoneware took place, which traditions messrs. doulton carry on at the present day. =iv. variegated ware.= marbled or agate wares (1740-1756), dwight (of fulham), john astbury. the earlier usually known under surface marbling or combing supplanted by the generic term of "solid agate" ware--a blending of layers _whieldon ware_. of different coloured clays. early tortoiseshell plates made by whieldon. tortoiseshell and mottled ware also made by philip christian at liverpool, at leeds, and at castleford. _wedgwood._--later developments of this ware--vases and important classic pieces in imitation of coloured marbles. _the imitators of wedgwood._--palmer, neale, and others made this marbled ware. neale employed with great success sprinkled marbling, touched with gold, on a cream body. both wedgwood and his successors made "solid agate" and also surface-decorated ware of cream body. (=this ware is described in chapter v. (whieldon), and in chapters vii. and viii. in regard to wedgwood and later developments.=) =v. cream ware.= _experimental stage._--astbury (1725), whieldon (from 1740), warburton (hot by far the largest lane), baddeleys (shelton). variety of english earthenware. made _queen's ware_ perfected by wedgwood by all potters. the (1765). wedgwood, turner, warburton, standard type of all (leeds) messrs. hartley, greens & co., subsequent domestic liverpool, swansea, derby. ware. _in colour creamy or yellowish white. in weight light._ plain or undecorated. many of wedgwood's finest cream ware pieces are undecorated, and leeds, at first largely imitative, developed a fine quality in design and potting, especially in designs after silversmiths' models. decorated by painting. at first painting was sparely used. the style of enamelling used on salt-glaze ware was modified to suit the new cream ware. later the colours began to emulate those of porcelain. spode, in particular, copied the latter in earthenware, and cream ware became richly painted and gilded. transfer-printed. as the invention of transfer-printing and the perfection of cream ware by wedgwood were contemporaneous, the liverpool printers decorated all the early cream ware. but cream ware was subsequently made as well as printed at liverpool, and printed as well as made in staffordshire and elsewhere. =early cream ware.= _wedgwood._ enormous variety of domestic ware, _plain or undecorated_, as in perforated or basket patterns, fruit dishes, &c., _painted_ in simple border designs, and _transfer-printed_ in red, black, or puce, at liverpool, for wedgwood. warburton, william adams, john turner, spode, and many others made similar cream ware. _leeds._--great variety of dishes, fruit baskets, centre-pieces, &c., made of undecorated cream ware. in addition painted and transfer printed decorations were also employed. =transfer-printing= _liverpool_ made cream ware punch bowls =in blue.= finely decorated in blue. in imitation of chinese _caughley_ produced for a few years styles, and in earthenware of cream body decorated, in competition with the characteristic style, by thomas turner, porcelain of worcester, who introduced the willow pattern in 1780, bow, plymouth, &c. which appears together with similar chinese subjects in his early salopian _porcelain_. =staffordshire.= john turner (of lane end) first introduced (=see chapter x.=) under-glaze blue into staffordshire. josiah spode introduced "willow pattern" into staffordshire, 1784. william adams (of greengates), 1787, fine under-glaze blue. thomas minton, 1793, fine under-glaze blue. apprenticed to thomas turner (of caughley). adams, warburton, spode, and other staffordshire potters engaged largely in this deep blue printed ware. _swansea_ had a similar cream ware, which had painted designs or blue-printed in imitation of chinese style, with pagodas, &c. (see illustration, p. 405.) =vi. classic ware.= =wedgwood.= _red ware_ in imitation of elers ware, chocolate ware with black josiah wedgwood (born, ornamentation in relief. _white fine 1730; died, 1795). stoneware_ used as plinths of marble ware and agate vases; this was the experimental thomas bentley, stage of wedgwood's celebrated _jasper_ in partnership with ware. _black basalt_, or egyptian ware, wedgwood (1768-1780). fine unglazed stoneware, sometimes used for tea services, but mainly for busts, medallions, and vases. _jasper ware._ wedgwood's crowning invention. a fine, unglazed stoneware, white throughout. produced either "solid" or "jasper dip," in blue (various tones), sage green, olive green, lilac, pink, yellow, and black. used in classic vases, and on cameos, plaques, &c., with a ground of one of these colours and relief ornament in white. (=see chapter vii.=) william adams (or =contemporaries of wedgwood.= adams, tunstall), pupil of turner, palmer, neale and mayer, all made wedgwood (1787-1805). ware of a similar nature to above; all of fine quality. benjamin adams john turner's "jasper" was really a (1805-1820). semi-porcelain. john turner (of lane end) other potters whose stoneware in jugs and (1762-1786). pottery vases, &c., carried on the traditions of continued by sons. wedgwood (though in the second flight), { h. palmer (of hanley), were birch, keeling, clews, hollins, { from 1769. steel, myatt, and many others, whose names { neale (1776-1778) are found impressed on ware, betraying the { r. wilson (1778) influence of wedgwood. { neale & co. { (1778-1787). (=see chapter viii. for detailed list.=) jacob warburton (of the _castleford pottery_, near leeds cobridge) (1786-1826). (1790-1820), david dunderdale (d. d. & co.) made black basalt ware in similar style. (=see chapter ix. for details.=) at _swansea_ (1790-1817) basalt figures of fine style were made. etruscan ware (dillwyn & co.), 1845. (=see chapter xii. for marks.=) =vii. figures.= the body of staffordshire figures by ralph wood, neale and palmer, walton, enoch (mainly staffordshire.) wood, salt, and other potters, is of cream ware. _leeds_ figures are similar, and are of the same body as the dessert centre-pieces and other cream ware. most of the staffordshire figures are unmarked, but they can be identified as belonging to one of the following schools, by comparison with similar marked examples. =salt-glazed figures.= a class by themselves. mainly small in size, and no marked specimen is known. bears, cats, birds, and miniature figures of men, chief designs, and the kneeling camel modelled as teapot. =whieldon school.= artistic blending of colourings and (1740-1780.) glazings. animals, birds, sometimes classic figures, _e.g._, diana, venus, and madonna and child. miniature musicians, and satyr head moulded in form of cup. early form of toby jug. (see illustration, p. 179.) =ralph wood school.= this represents the high-water mark of staffordshire figures. _vicar and moses_ ralph wood (died 1772). group, _toby jug_, _st. george and dragon_, _haymakers_, _charity_, ralph wood, jun. (born, _neptune_, _summer_, _old age_, &c., all 1748; died, 1795). remarkable for fine modelling and delicate colouring. =wedgwood school.= many large figures, such as _ceres_, _diana_, _juno_, _prudence_, _fortitude_, josiah wedgwood. _charity_, _venus and cupid_, &c., in { neale and palmer. cream ware delicately coloured. { wilson. { neale & co. other subjects of less classic taste were produced at etruria, _e.g._, voyez, as a modeller, _sailor with cutlass_, employed at etruria, and _girl playing mandoline_, _sailor's by neale and palmer. farewell_ and _return_ (a pair), _the lost piece_ (after the ralph wood model), and lakin and poole. _elijah and the widow_, a popular scriptural subject (a pair). _fair hebe_ group modelled as a jug. =wood and caldwell= _eloquence_ (or _st. paul preaching at_ =school.= _athens_), _descent from the cross_, and enoch wood other fine pieces display the powers of (1783-1840). enoch wood at his best as a fine modeller. wood and caldwell other figures, some marked, are (1790-1818). _st. sebastian_, _britannia_, quin as _falstaff_, _antony_ and _cleopatra_, enoch wood and sons reclining figures (pair), _fire_, _earth_, (1818-1866). _air_, _water_ (set of four), _diana_ (similar to wedgwood); group, _the tithe pig_ (parson, farmer, and his wife and baby and pigs), with tree and foliage as background; _leda and swan_, _jolly traveller_ (man, dog, and donkey), _hurdy-gurdy player_, _sportsman and dog_, _old age_ (pair), _lovers_ on garden bench, tree background, _tailor and his wife_, riding on goats (after the dresden model). busts were also a noteworthy production of this school. _wesley_, _whitfield_, _wellington_, _emperor of russia_, _napoleon_, _miss lydia foote_, and several marked silver lustre busts and figures, _e.g._, _mater dolorosa_, _boys reading_, &c. the _vicar and moses_ group and other earlier models were duplicated by this school, and many _toby jugs_ were produced of bright colouring. =walton school.= continuing the traditions of the wood school, walton and others produced a great john walton (of burslem) number of _toby jugs_, following the ralph (1790-1839). wood model, but growing more debased in form and colouring. _girl_ with lamb, _boy_ with dog, and simple figures largely made for popular markets. =ralph salt school.= great fondness shown for village groups, with figures with tree background ralph salt (of hanley) (imitation of chelsea style). in character (1812-1840). the work of this school differs little from that of walton. (=see chapter xi. for detailed description.=) =leeds school.= some of the leeds figures are marked, (1760-1825.) _e.g._, _venus_, delicately coloured, slight oil gilding. busts were made such as _wesley_, and _rhytons_, or drinking cups, in form of fox's head. rustic figures of _children_, and other miscellaneous subjects. _lion_ couchant, _snuff bottle_ in shape of lady's head. =liverpool school.= largely imitative of staffordshire figures. some excellent busts and figures herculaneum were produced. busts of _wesley_, (1794-1841.) _admiral duncan_, and mask cup moulded with portrait of _admiral rodney_. _toby jug_, man standing upright holding jug of ale. _lady_ with bulldog at her feet. =salopian.= earthenware figures of fine modelling are attached to caughley, but are unmarked. thomas turner _prudence_ and _fortitude_ (large size), (of caughley), _antony_ and _cleopatra_ (recumbent), about 1774. _ceres_ and _apollo_, and others. a figure of _jacobin pigeon_ sitting on nest in shape of sauceboat has the impressed mark =s=. =swansea.= _cows_ and other small figures were typical of swansea, but a recumbent figure of _antony_ is marked "g. bentley, swansea, 22 may, 1791." =sunderland school.= figures of _seasons_, set of four female figures marked "dixon, austin & co." _shepherds_ and _shepherdesses_ and _bull baiting_ groups were also made here. the potting and colouring are crude, and the figures are of no artistic interest. =viii. lustre ware.= =early copper lustre.= richard frank at brislington, near bristol, crudely decorated in simple ornament. =gold lustre.= gold-purple or pink in colour. wedgwood used this lustre in mottled and veined ware with rich effect. _as an adjunct to other decoration_ this lustre has been widely used, crudely as at sunderland, and with fine effect by spode and other staffordshire potters. swansea employed it with great artistic skill. =silver lustre.= _plain._ late 18th century. thomas wedgwood, e. mayer, spode, and others in imitation of silver designs. _decorated._ 1. silver lustre decorations painted on other coloured grounds in combination with subjects in colours, birds, foliage, &c. 2. silver lustre as a background with white, blue, or canary-coloured design. this unlustred ground, used as a pattern, is known as the "resist" style, and some of the most artistic effects are found in this, and in combination with painting in colours. =copper lustre.= _plain._ early 19th century. early and best style thin and well potted. _decorated._ red or blue or green in embossed floral design in combination with copper lustre frequently found. (=for details of makers and marks see chapter xiii.=) =ix. nineteenth century= _early experiments._ =developments.= wedgwood's semi-porcelain, used at first for the plinths of his variegated vases. his _pearl ware_. spode's felspar china, _nineteenth century._ 1805. spode's stone china. josiah spode the second in 1805 introduced an opaque porcelain of ironstone body, which he termed haynes' opaque china _felspar china_, _stone china_, and on (swansea), invented some of his marks, _new fayence_. end of 18th century. spode's new ware received rich decorations mason's patent ironstone in colour, in imitation of derby and other china, 1813 porcelains. riley's semi-china. haynes, of the cambrian pottery, swansea, invented a similar opaque china at the end minton's stone china. of the 18th century. meigh's stone china. at the cambrian pottery in this new hard white earthenware, floral painting by trained artists was done in excellent style on enamelled grounds of chocolate. mason, with an earlier softer body, had followed the japanese colours in his jugs, but when charles james mason, in 1813, patented his ironstone china, the jugs took a new form, becoming octagonal, and their corners were not easily broken as in the chalkier body. long dinner services of a great number of pieces were made in this ironstone china richly decorated. other staffordshire makers made stone china, including minton, meigh, riley, clementson, ridgway, adams, davenport, and many others. by the time the middle of the century had been reached, english earthenware had cast off its own characteristics and become what so many people to-day believe it to be--a poor imitation of porcelain. (=for details and marks see chapter xiv.=) ii early ware chapter ii early ware mediæval tiles (thirteenth to sixteenth centuries)--slip ware--wrotham (kent) (1656-1703)--staffordshire makers (1660-1700)--prices of early ware. as will be seen from the table at the end of the preceding chapter, the main body of english earthenware to which collectors can give their attention, belongs chiefly to the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. the beginnings of pottery and the first steps towards perfection in art are always interesting, but in the realm of english pottery the beginner had better push forward as the subject is a very complex one, and the general collector is perforce obliged to confine attention to the later periods. it will therefore suffice if a hasty survey be made of the chief earthenware prior to the eighteenth century. =mediæval tiles.=--from the thirteenth century to the dissolution of the monasteries the ecclesiastical tiles used in england were of a particularly noticeable character. the tiles vary in size, the earlier ones, as at chertsey abbey, were not more than three or four inches square. the earlier the tile, as a rule, the smaller is its area. the tiles were ornamented in various ways. they had incised, raised, inlaid, or painted patterns. the incised and relief tiles are the most uncommon, probably being the earlier. the designs are very numerous, and vary in character in the different abbeys at which they originated. specimens have been found at great malvern, denny abbey in norfolk, castle acre priory, jervaulx abbey, lewes priory, st. alban's abbey, and at chertsey abbey, which latter had "one of the finest, if not the finest, inlaid tile pavement in existence" (hobson). the chertsey tiles are of different shapes, sometimes being round or half-circular to meet the exigencies of the design, and in general they are very quaint and original in their conception. the british museum has some fine examples of these chertsey tiles in composite pictures made up of many tiles. the designs found on mediæval tiles consist of the figures of animals, mythical and heraldic, of birds, of human heads and grotesques, as well as conventional, floral, and geometric patterns. they are highly artistic and of great technical excellence. it is generally believed that the monks made these tiles themselves in the great religious houses, and possibly some of them may have had foreign inspiration or have been made here by foreigners. but as the tiles at malvern and at chertsey are finer than any found on the continent it opens up a field for conjecture. mr. solon says, "i have often thought that considering the french pavements of the earliest periods have mostly been found in the provinces then under english domination, it would be worth while inquiring whether the art of tile-making had not been imported from england--a point which has never yet been sifted." [illustration: mediæval tiles. tile from chapter house, westminster. probably of the reign of henry iii. (thirteenth century). tile from verulam abbey. bearing arms and initials of sir nicholas bacon (1510-1579). (_by the courtesy of mr. f. w. phillips, hitchin._) tile from malvern abbey. (english, fifteenth century.) tile from whitmore park, near coventry. (early fourteenth century.)] so here, then, is a subject ready to hand for the collector willing to specialise in a branch of ceramic study and collecting not greatly inquired into, and the way has already been pointed out by experts. there is every reason why these ecclesiastical tiles should be studied with as much assiduity as are the bristol delft painted tiles and those of liverpool. =slip ware.=--this ware is peculiarly english and owes little or nothing to any foreign influences, as no ware like it has ever been made on the continent. white or light-coloured clay was used in the form of "slip," that is, a mixture of water and clay of such consistency as to be dropped in fanciful pattern upon the darker body of the ware much in the same manner as the confectioner ornaments his wedding-cakes with sugar. candlesticks, cups, tygs (drinking vessels having several handles for use in passing round), posset-pots, jugs, besides the large ornamental dated dishes by toft and others were all made of this slip-decorated ware. =wrotham, in kent=, claims superiority in the manufacture of this ware, of which many pieces exist. the earliest wrotham specimen is dated 1656 (maidstone museum). there are other dated pieces, one as early as 1621, of red clay with more elaborate slip decoration than is found in staffordshire and elsewhere, and in some cases with fine incised decoration cut through the white dip and exposing the red body beneath. but considerable doubt exists as to whether to ascribe some of this slip ware to kent or to staffordshire. it is probable that it was made at many other places, certainly in derbyshire, in wales, and in london. as some undoubted wrotham pieces betray a slightly advanced type of decoration although prior in date to other pieces made elsewhere, it has been fairly conjectured that the style originated in kent, and was brought thither by some foreign refugees from the continent. but as it became practised more generally in england it assumed a national character entirely its own, and took to itself a quaint humour racy of the soil. [illustration: toft dish, dated 1671. (_in the grosvenor museum, chester._) _by permission of the proprietors of the "connoisseur."_] [illustration: posset pot, staffordshire, dated 1685. decorated in slip ware, yellow ground, with brown ornament. inscribed "william simpson. his cup." (_in the collection of dr. w. l. glaisher, cambridge._)] =toft ware.=--the names of ralph toft and thomas toft appearing on certain large dishes, usually about eighteen inches in diameter, decorated in slip in a somewhat crude manner, have given the name to this class of ware, which at best is peasant pottery. the tofts had their works near shelton in staffordshire. similar dishes were made at derby and at tickenhall. the following names occur on examples in the national and other collections with dates, ralph toft, thomas toft, 1671; robert shaw, 1692; william chaterly, 1696; ralph turnor, 1681; william talor, 1700; john wright, 1707; initials s. m., 1726, _dublin museum_ (possibly samuel mayer, of derby); john wenter, 1686; i. w., 1706. the manufacture of this slip ware continued, in more or less spasmodic manner, throughout the eighteenth century. pots and jugs had illiterate inscriptions on them in halting verse, or pious mottoes. toft ware, that is, the large dish form, apparently was made solely for ornament. there is a remarkable toft dish in the grosvenor museum at chester, having the inscription in toft's peculiar orthography, "filep heues, elesabeth heues" (philip and elizabeth hughes), signed thomas toft and dated 1671. this is evidently a marriage plate. there is the royal arms above, a favourite design in toft ware, probably copied from some of the more elaborate foreign bellarmine jugs. the slip potters had a fondness too for royal portraiture which ended lamentably in becoming dreadful caricatures of the subject. as many as nine crowned heads are found on one dish by ralph toft, signed "ralalph to." these have as much art as the stuart stump-work pictures in needlework, which were contemporary with them, in which kings and queens were represented in no more pleasing manner than on a pack of cards. in speaking of toft's portrait dishes in general, and of the grosvenor museum example in particular, mr. frank freeth, no mean connoisseur, says, "it must not be forgotten that these dishes were ornamental, and intended to occupy a conspicuous place in the homes of loyal citizens, just as oleographs of the king and queen, that one often sees in country cottages, are made for the purpose in the present day. the same idea has remained; but the form of its expression has changed." looking at slip ware as a whole, one must not be too critical in regard to its somewhat inartistic appearance. it certainly has a charm about it which cannot be denied. it is native to the soil, and this peasant industry (if one can appropriately term it such), is chiefly to be regarded from the standpoint of what might have been if it had been allowed to develop on natural and untrammelled lines. but it was pressed on the one side by stoneware, such as the bellarmine jugs and mugs imported from germany, and it finally succumbed to foreign delft, which was largely used here prior to the englishman's determined attempt, at lambeth, at bristol, and at liverpool (where it was the staple industry for some time) to make his own wares. it is the same story with the fine stoneware, the salt glaze of staffordshire, which was a magnificent outburst of english art of the highest order, which fell before the cheapness of wedgwood's and other cream ware, after a heroic struggle in its enamelled stage with the coloured ware of the new english china factories. these precedents might be continued further up to the present day, when german, austrian, and japanese competition have driven english potters into the position of attempting to hold their own against foreign art. it is the opinion of the present writer that the coats-of-arms on the toft dishes were a deliberate attempt to copy those frequently found on the belly of the rhenish stoneware jugs. from the days of elizabeth coats-of-arms and heraldic devices were a feature in these jugs used in this country. among those at the british and the victoria and albert museums, and in the fine collection at the guildhall, the use of crests is seen to be a striking characteristic (see illustration, p. 135). as a conclusive proof that the maker of earthenware had his eye on these stoneware models, we give as an illustration a jug in _earthenware_ (not stoneware) of bellarmine form made in england, undoubtedly by an english potter. the arms on it are those of the earl of dorset, not improbably those of the sixth earl, charles sackville, who lived from 1637 to 1706, and was the author of the well-known song, running- "to all you ladies now on land we men at sea indite; but first would have you understand how hard it is to write"-written in 1665, when he attended the duke of york as a volunteer in the dutch war, and this song he composed when with the fleet on the eve of battle. [illustration: earthenware jug. copy of rhenish bellarmine or greybeard form. with the arms of the earl of dorset. (late seventeenth century.) (_at the british museum._)] there is a sort of heraldic touch about some of these staffordshire dishes of the toft class. the same idea seems to have possessed the workers of the stuart stump-pictures in needlework, which were contemporary with these dishes. coins and medals and stuart marriage-badges are evidently the source from which toft and his school on the one hand, and the gentle needlewoman on the other, derived their inspiration in design. various animals and birds are used symbolically with great freedom. the caterpillar and butterfly nearly always accompany needlework portraits of charles i., and the unicorn was the device of his father james i. there seems some similarity to this idea in the use of the _mermaid_ in the dish by thomas toft. another dish of his, entitled "the pelican in her piety," depicts that bird with her young, the idea being that the pelican used to feed her brood with her own blood. the latins called filial love _piety_, hence virgil's hero is always termed _pius aeneas_. "ralph simpson" is another name found on this pelican dish. we give an illustration of a fine posset-pot of staffordshire origin, dated 1685, in slip ware, with yellow ground and conventional ornament in brown, with dotted work. it is inscribed, "william simpson, his cup." it has three handles and three loops, and is quite a typical piece of this class of ware. it recently sold for fifty-five pounds (p. 89). _metropolitan slip ware._--there is a slight distinction between pieces made in london and found during excavations, and those discovered elsewhere. the slip decoration is lightly done and there is a tendency to incised decoration of conventional floral design. one noticeable feature in this type of ware is its inscriptions, written in doggerel, always of a pious nature. "when this you see, remember me,--obeay god's word"; or "drink faire, don't sware"; or "be not hyminded but feare god, 1638." this class of ware savours strongly of the puritan influence, and it is evident that the potters who made these pieces were of the "praise god barebones" order of visionary, not uncommon at a time when books with titles like the following appeared, "some fine baskets baked in the oven of charity, carefully conserved for the chickens of the church, the sparrows of the spirit, and the sweet swallows of salvation." it seems absurd in regarding the productions of this school of english slip workers, from middle stuart days down to the early years of the eighteenth century, to consider that vandyck had painted his galleries of beauties; that hollar, with his etching needle, had drawn a long procession of figures in costume, thousands of etchings which surely must have caught the eye of some toft or some simpson. there was grinling gibbons working his artistic profusion in wreaths of flowers and fruit carved in wood, and there were the treasures of the silversmith, to say nothing of the sumptuous furniture that was beginning to make its way in england. but these slip ware dishes seem to stand somewhat like the jacobean chairs made in yorkshire and derbyshire, of the same date, apparently unaffected by any of the æsthetic movements of the period. simply and naturally, and, be it said, crudely representing the artistic aspirations of the ordinary craftsman when he was left to himself, it is _naïve_, standing as it does for english native art at a time when bernard palissy, the french potter, had been dead a hundred years. early ware prices. wrotham ware. £ s. d. loving cup, four handled, fine specimen, decorated in slip; initials w.l.r. and h.i.; dated 1656. sotheby, january, 1906 56 0 0 wine jug, brown with yellow slip, inscribed samuel hugheson and dated 1618; 8 in. high. sotheby, june, 1906 10 0 0 cradle, with inscription, "mary overton, her cradle, 1729." puttick and simpson, may, 1908 17 0 0 toft ware. plate (17 in. diameter), with figure of soldier, in relief, with sword in each hand; trellis border; dated 1677. warner, leicester, march, 1906 86 0 0 slip ware. brown posset-pot, two handled with lid, inscribed "william and mary goldsmith," date incised "june ye 7th, 1697"; 9 in. high. bond, ipswich, april, 1906 15 0 0 dish, bearing royal arms of england, inscribed "g. r. 1748"; 18-1/2 in. diameter. sotheby, june, 1906 21 0 0 posset-pot, three handled, inscribed "robert shaw." sotheby, june, 1906 35 0 0 posset-pot, larger, inscribed "god save the queen 1711." sotheby, june, 1906 26 0 0 posset-pot, two handled, inscribed "iohn taylor, 1690." sotheby, november, 1907 12 15 0 dish, slip decorated and salt glazed, inscribed on rim, "joseph mosson, the best is not too good for you 1727." sotheby, may, 1908 13 10 0 dish, trellis pattern, on rim in brown and yellow slip, portraits of charles ii. and catherine of braganza; inscribed with maker's name "george taylor"; 17-1/2 in. diameter. sotheby, may, 1908 53 0 0 posset-pot, yellow ground, conventional ornament in brown, with dotted work, inscribed "william simpson, his cup." dated 1685. sotheby, december, 1908 (see illustration, p. 89) 55 0 0 iii english delft chapter iii english delft what is delft?--its foreign origin--introduction into england--lambeth delft--bristol delft--liverpool delft--delft tiles printed at liverpool by sadler and green--wincanton (somerset)--prices of english delft delft, of all earthenware, is, so to speak, the most earthen, and presents an object lesson to the student. it accurately conforms to the technical definition as to what constitutes the difference between earthenware and porcelain. it consists of a porous body (in the case of dutch delft very porous, as we shall see later), covered by a thick coating of white, opaque enamel. the porous nature of its body makes it light in weight, and the tin enamel which covers the brown body enables the potter to paint upon this white surface designs, usually in blue. this decoration is over the enamel, if it were under this opaque enamel, that is, on the brown underneath body of the ware, the coating of this white enamel would obliterate the designs. after a piece has been fired to the biscuit state and dipped in white enamel and painted upon when dry, it is, to preserve the painting, fired a second time, when it receives a thin surface of transparent lead glaze. =its foreign origin.=--its name is derived from the town of delft in holland. it was about the year 1602 that dutch potters invented this class of ware in their attempts, in common with all the other european potters, to produce some ware as decorative as the porcelain which had been brought to europe long before by the portuguese traders, and now was being largely imported by the east india dutch merchants. this first employment of a white enamel on a brown earthenware was clearly due to the very natural desire on the part of the potter to procure some surface upon which his decorations in colour would show well in contrast. all primitive potters have passed through several stages of evolution. brown ware was at first plain, then it received scratched or incised decoration. searching for greater contrast the potter applied his ornament in relief in white, as in slip ware, or he added coloured glazes, as in the tudor miniature jugs. but it seems that sooner or later the light background for the painted decoration must have become an ideal to strive for. it is, in effect, the same necessity which induces the signboard painter to cover his brown panel with a white background prior to painting in letters of red or blue some attractive announcement. but with the models of the chinese potter now constantly before him the dutch potter commenced at once to imitate them. [illustration: lambeth delft jar. painted in blue, with arms of apothecaries' company with crest mantling and supporters. motto--opifer: quæ: per: orbem: dicor; oval shield below with arms of city of london. (11 inches high, 27-1/4 inches greatest circumference.) (_in the collection of mr. robert bruce wallis._)] but pleasing as is the dutch delft in its fine colours, incorporated as they are with the enamel and glaze and giving the rich tone so much admired by collectors, and faithfully copying the form of the nankin models, it falls short of these oriental prototypes in many important respects. it is admittedly an imitation of the _appearance_ of porcelain, and not an imitation of the qualities peculiar to porcelain. the dutch potter in his delft did not, as in the case of other european potters, essay to copy the body of porcelain, and arrive at true hard white paste, as did meissen. apparently he took his earthenware, and with the limitations in technique in its working he produced a colourable imitation, in appearance only, of his blue and white chinese models, and very fine some of these early seventeenth century dutch delft pieces are, and highly prized by collectors. but delft in comparison with porcelain may be said to be very similar to veneered furniture in relation to solid specimens. the veneer in the one case and the enamel in the other disguises something inferior beneath. =introduction into england.=--there is no doubt that, prior to its manufacture in this country, a great quantity of dutch delft was imported and in general use in the middle years of the seventeenth century. in dealing with delft ware, in connection with the various types of earthenware at different periods of the history of the potter's art it must be borne in mind that delft was entirely of foreign origin. it owed everything to the inventiveness of the dutch potters, and it gained very little when it became acclimatised in england, although it was manufactured here until the closing years of the eighteenth century, when wedgwood's cream ware drove it off the market as a cheap and serviceable ware. naturally the close connection of the royal house of england with holland accelerated the fashion of storing delft in closets and making considerable use of its rich colours as a decorative effect on sideboards and buffets. the lac cabinets and the fine blue and white delft jars at hampton court testify to the influence that the advent of william of orange had on the taste of the country from the memorable year of 1688, when he landed at torbay. delft was presumably being made in this country fifty years before that by dutch refugees, but the thirties of the seventeenth century was not a very happy time to inaugurate the birth of a new branch of art in england. the rumblings of the civil war were in the air. it was in 1642 that charles precipitated matters by going with an armed force to the house of commons to arrest five members; and seven years later he lost his head in whitehall. it is not until the last years of charles ii. that there appears to be any documentary evidence connected with the actual manufacture of delft in england. john ariens van hamme, evidently a dutch refugee, a potter working at lambeth, took out a patent for making "tiles and porcelain after the way practised in holland." the word "porcelain" was used somewhat indiscriminately at this date and apparently meant anything having the appearance of the wares coming over in large numbers from the east, imported by our east india company. [illustration: lambeth delft wine bottle. inscribed "sack wke 1652." (_at british museum._)] [illustration: bristol delft ware. (about 1784.) representing balloon ascent, two figures in car, with union jack flying. (_in the possession of mr. w. l. yeulett._)] =lambeth delft.=--to lambeth must be accredited the best results of english delft ware. the glaze is thinner and whiter than is used elsewhere and the tone of the blue is less crude. it is difficult to differentiate between the work of dutch refugees and of english born potters. drug pots and sack bottles formerly imported from holland began to be made at lambeth. some of these bottles are dated and the dates upon them range from 1649, the year of the execution of king charles i., to 1664, during the early years of the reign of charles ii., the year in which new york, then new amsterdam, a dutch settlement, was surrendered to the english. there are not a great number of these authentic dated sack bottles known. lambeth must also be credited with the series of plates having dates and initials, and with some of the "blue dash" chargers or dishes. these are usually decorated with blue dashes clumsily applied round the edge, sometimes brown is used instead of blue. in the centre of the dish is generally a figure, often on horseback, and the foliage of the trees in the background is done with a sponge hastily applied. the range of colours used is not great--blue, green, orange, puce, and brown. sometimes four colours are found on one dish, but not infrequently the decorator has been content with two, in addition to blue, which is nearly always present. the following are among the subjects found on these dishes, which are usually about thirteen inches in diameter:--charles i., charles ii., james ii., william and mary, william on foot or on horseback, queen anne, the old pretender, duke of marlborough, duke of monmouth, and the celebrated adam and eve dishes, in which eve was represented as queen mary giving a kingdom to her husband, represented by an orange as a pun on his royal house. although portraits of charles i. appear in this series, they are not contemporary, and were probably not made at lambeth until after about 1670, and their manufacture continued for a little over a quarter of a century, that is, until the opening years of the reign of george i. that delft was made in england a little earlier than 1672 is proved by the fact that in that year a royal proclamation forbade the importation of "painted earthenware" to compete with the same production "but lately found out in england." here is an instance of trade protection, but it should be borne in mind at that date we were at war with the dutch, who were in that year defeated off southwold bay. something should be said about the characteristics of this lambeth delft. the body is fairly hard and the tin enamel or glaze is often found on the back of the piece; when this is not the case the back has received an application of yellowish lead glaze. the english clay being less spongy than that of holland, did not take the enamel well, and often shows the colour of the body in pink lines through the glaze. english delft, owing to the glaze not being incorporated, is crazed on the surface. in regard to dated sack bottles, great caution should be exercised in buying them, as genuine examples of plain undated bottles have been skilfully redecorated by fraudulent hands, and the words sack or canary, together with a date, added. there is an element of doubt about much of the lambeth delft ware, as it is certain that some of the patterns were copied by the staffordshire potters, and some of these copies are so faithfully done as to puzzle experts, but many of the cruder dash series of dishes and platters may safely be attributed to staffordshire. [illustration: candlestick, lambeth delft. inscribed w e 1648. (_at victoria and albert museum._)] [illustration: old dutch brass candlestick. (seventeenth century.) (_in the collection of the author._)] in the illustration of a dated candlestick, with the initials w.e. and coat of arms, and dated 1648, from the national collection at the victoria and albert museum, it will be seen that the authorities attribute an earlier date to the manufacture of delft at lambeth than the above-mentioned royal proclamation in 1672 would seem to warrant. but so learned an authority as professor church is of the opinion that "a considerable manufactory existed there at least as early as 1631." it is interesting to compare the style of this delft candlestick with a brass one of early dutch manufacture, which at any rate shows that the design, as well as the method of manufacture, was derived from holland. pharmacy jars, decorated in blue and plain white delft, were also made at lambeth; of this latter there are many small jugs and puzzle jugs, and a variety of fancy pieces. we give an illustration of a very interesting pharmacy jar with the arms of the apothecaries' company, and with motto inscribed. a shield below has the arms of the city of london. =bristol delft.=--there is no doubt that the delft of bristol has not yet been thoroughly exploited. farther removed from the influence of a constant stream of dutch examples, the potters took some of their designs straight from oriental models. richard frank and joseph flower are two potters who had works at bristol. they are known to have manufactured delft as early as the opening years of the eighteenth century, contemporary with lambeth, when the industry at this latter place was in full swing, and delft was made at bristol until the middle of the reign of george iii., after which delft was no longer fashionable. it is not easy to distinguish between the productions of frank and flower, nor is it less difficult in some instances to state definitely whether a piece is bristol, or liverpool, or lambeth, and we might add staffordshire. there is a very interesting delft plate decorated in blue, representing a balloon ascent. in date this is about 1784 and it may be attributed to bristol or liverpool (see illustration, p. 107). but as a rule it is held that bristol delft is bluish in tint, and has a more brilliant and even surface. the ware is decorated with oriental landscapes, and a considerable number of tiles were made and painted for use as pictures in the fireside in old bristol houses a century and a half ago. bowen, john hope, michael edkins, and thomas patience are some of the painters who worked at the frank pottery. there is one subject picture representing hogarth's _march to finchley_, and it was certainly executed more than once as there is one set consisting of forty-two tiles and another of seventy-two tiles of the same subject. a peculiarity of some of the bristol delft is the ground of powdered purple or brown with white panels, having a decoration in blue. we illustrate a bowl of this type of ware, which, although not having the white panel, is representative of this class as the fish is on a white ground with outline decorations in blue (see p. 115). another fine style of decoration is that known as _bianco sopra bianco_, that is, a pattern of foliage or sprays of flowers enamelled in white upon a dull, greenish-white ground (see illustration, p. 115). [illustration: bristol delft plate. decorated in blue in middle and _bianco sopra bianco_ around border. (_at victoria and albert museum._)] [illustration: bristol delft bowl. ground of powdered purple. decorated with fishes in white and blue. (_in the possession of mr. s. g. fenton._)] there are many dated pieces of bristol delft with initials, bowls, marriage and election plates, and sometimes tile pictures. at the victoria and albert museum there is a fine plate with the initials e.m.b., and dated 1760, the initials being those of the painter, michael edkins, and his wife betty. this was made at the factory of richard frank, and was presented to the national collection by the grandson of the painter. in the collection of pottery at the bristol museum there is an example attributed to brislington which in colouring is slightly duller than the bristol examples. connoisseurs of bristol delft divide the ware into the earlier period prior to 1735, when the decoration followed dutch prototypes, and they attribute much of the thinner or finer potted examples to joseph flower, but after that the bristol potters struck out for themselves, and imparted more originality in their ware. landscapes appeared on the ware, but not seen through dutch eyes, and a slight variation was given to the form of the bases of the bowls and plates, falling into line with typical shapes employed by other english potters. we illustrate a very remarkable piece of bristol delft which is dated 1740, and bears the initials i.f., which may probably stand for joseph flower, whose factory was on the quay at bristol. this plate, which is 13-1/2 inches in diameter, has a painted illustration with the inscription in a medallion, "a voyage to the moon, by domingo gonsales from the ile of tenerife." we do not know what is the particular story connected with the making of this plate, nor why such a subject should have been chosen. but there is no doubt that the painter of the plate took his design from a book entitled "the man in the moone, or a discourse of a voyage thither, by domingo gonsales, the speedy messenger." we give a facsimile of the title-page. this was a romance written by francis godwin, bishop of hereford, and in the second edition of 1657, the title-page has the addition, "by f.g.--b. of h." there were many editions of this book, which became very popular. a french edition under the title of _l' homme dans la lune_, is dated 1671, and has the same illustration as the first english edition, with the exception of the inscription on the medallion. this is not the place to give details of this interesting volume, which describes in language as faithful as that of defoe, the voyage of domingo gonsales, a shipwrecked spanish adventurer, from teneriffe to the moon in a car he invented, which was carried by a flock of wild geese he had trained in his solitude. after a stay of a year in that country, and meeting with adventures with the inhabitants of that kingdom, he sets sail for the earth and lands in china. he by great fortune hears of some jesuit fathers hidden away in far cathay, who welcomed him, "much wondering to see a lay spaniard there," and by them his story is committed to writing. written in 1638, the following sentence in the _preface_ sounds quite modern, "that there should be antipodes was once thought as great a paradox as now that the moon should be habitable. but the knowledge of this may seem more properly reserved for this, our discovering age." there is no doubt that the book had a very considerable circulation, and it is not improbable that swift knew of it and incorporated some of the ideas of the author in his "gulliver's travels," which appeared in 1726. but it is not easily explained why this delft plate, dated 1740, bears the inscription and illustration of a volume published nearly a century earlier. [illustration: bristol delft dish. inscribed "a voyage to the moon by domingo gonzales from the ile of tenerife."] [illustration: reverse of delft dish. marked i f and dated 1740. (diameter 13-1/2 inches.)] (_in the collection of mr. w. c. wells._) =liverpool delft.=--collectors of liverpool delft would like to ascribe many pieces to that city. but, unfortunately, the difference between this and the other english delft is not so defined. one has to take the style of subject largely as a guide for the origin. there is a large punch bowl at the victoria and albert museum which may certainly be attributed to liverpool. it was painted by john robinson at seth pennington's factory. a similar bowl is in the mechanic's institution at hanley. it is painted in blue with a three-masted man-of-war inside the bowl. the flag is touched with red. the exterior shows an array of military trophies. it is somewhat confusing to collectors to know that the fine punch bowls of seth pennington, with his renowned blue colouring, are of delft, earthenware, and of _china_. these latter are of great rarity and value. another maker of delft punch bowls was shaw, but it is not easy to determine with exactitude to which factory to ascribe some of these delft bowls, and there is room for considerable inquiry and exhaustive research to be made into the early history of the liverpool potteries in general, as much information is needed to settle controversial points. =delft printed tiles.=--it is here that liverpool stands pre-eminent in the transfer printed delft tiles. as early as 1750 sadler and green discovered the transfer printing by means of adhesive paper placed on previously inked copper-plates and laid on the earthenware as a decoration in black or in red, and sometimes puce. the signature of the engravers appears on some specimens, _j. sadler, liverpool_; _j. sadler, liverpl._; _sadler, liverpool_; _green, liverpool_; or _green_. the invention was invaluable as a decoration for china and earthenware in lieu of painting. the following affidavit was made in 1756 by john sadler and guy green that they "without the aid of or assistance of any other person or persons, did, within the space of six hours, to wit, betwixt the hours of nine in the morning and three in the afternoon of the same day, print upwards of 1,200 tiles of different patterns at liverpoole aforesaid, and which, as these deponents have heard and believe, were more in number, and better and neater, than one hundred skilled potmakers could have painted in the like space of time in the common or usual way of painting with a pencil, and these deponents say that they have been upwards of seven years in finding out the method of printing tiles, and in making tryals and experiments for that purpose, which they have now, through great pains and expense, brought to perfection." there is no doubt that this invention revolutionised the decoration of all wares. in regard to the controversy which has arisen as to the prior claims of battersea for its transfer decorated enamels, and of worcester for similar decorations by hancock, the whole matter has been exhaustively dealt with by mr. william turner in his "transfer printing on enamels, porcelain, and pottery," in which the case for each claimant is minutely analysed. [illustration: title page and illustration. from volume, "the man in the moone," published in 1638. (_in library at british museum._)] sadler and his partner green conducted a large business in this transfer printing for other factories as well as, of course, for the liverpool delft and other wares. sadler apparently left the partnership somewhere between 1769 and 1774, so that the signature on the tiles by him gives the date of their printing. green carried on the business until 1799, and so great was the fame of the firm that cream ware was sent from etruria and by other staffordshire potters to be printed at liverpool, and up till 1799 wedgwood's successors still continued the practice of having their cream ware printed by green. liverpool tiles obviously differ from bristol tiles inasmuch as the former were printed after 1756, but of course before that date liverpool delft tiles must have been painted as they were elsewhere. there are many series of the sadler and green period, one notable one being a number of actors and actresses, including garrick, foote, mrs. abington, mrs. yates, and others, in character. fable illustrations from æsop and others were largely printed, and some of wedgwood's plates have been decorated in red, with fable subjects some five inches square, which, in spite of the festoons in which they are set, cannot escape from seeming what they are--square tile-subjects applied to the decoration of a round plate--and the result is not pleasing. among the signed pieces of sadler and of green, if any difference in style can be discerned in the results, it is indicated by the subjects they chose. sadler's name appears on pastoral subjects with luxurious foliage and with dainty rustic scenery, while green seems to have had a fondness for oriental groups with a framework of fantastic furniture. the best collection of liverpool delft in this country is in the museum at liverpool. at this museum may be seen the printed work on delft tiles of a later liverpool potter, zachariah barnes, who was only twelve years of age when sadler and green commenced their tile printing, but who lived till 1820, and had a considerable business in printing wall tiles of fine character. =wincanton delft.=--a delft factory existed at wincanton (somerset), and recent excavations have brought to light material proving the class of ware made there. nathaniel ireson is believed to have started the works about 1730. there are examples of this delft bearing the name "wincanton," and dated 1737. one specimen has the name nathaniel ireson, and is dated 1748. one of these dated plates is in the national scottish museum at edinburgh, which we are enabled to reproduce as an illustration. it is decorated in blue, with the arms of the masons' company, and inscribed "js. clewett," and dated 1737. at the back of the dish are painted sprays of blossom, and it is marked "wincanton." this is a remarkable specimen. =tudor jugs.=--though earliest in date, we mention this last, as the ware is not true delft. this is a class of elizabethan ware, mostly small jugs some five or six inches in height, of brown-and-blue mottled surface. the exterior has all the appearance of cologne stoneware, but the pieces bear a closer relationship to delft; they have a tin glaze, whereas the stone cologne ware has a salt glaze. they are exceedingly rare and valuable, and some of them are mounted with silver bearing elizabethan hall-marks. they are disclaimed by continental authorities, who refuse to acknowledge them as belonging to their factories, and they apparently were made in england. a great deal of mystery surrounds their origin, and no doubt further research will at some future date determine the history of these specimens which, under various fancy names, such as "tiger" pattern, due to their peculiar mottling, bring considerable prices under the hammer. [illustration: wincanton delft dish. with arms of masons' company. inscribed "js. clewett 1737." back of delft dish. showing the mark "wincanton." (_at the royal scottish museum, edinburgh._)] to bring the story of english delft to a conclusion, it may be said that it had an ephemeral life as a ware for domestic use, until it was dethroned by staffordshire salt glaze ware, which held the field until wedgwood's cream ware drove this latter from the market. delft prices. lambeth. £ s. d. dish, octagonal, decorated in blue and white, bearing arms of routledge family, with motto, _verax atque probus_, dated 1637. sotheby, february, 1906 7 0 0 coronation mug, 3-1/2 in. high, portrait of charles ii., inscribed and dated "c. 2nd r., 1660." bond, bristol, april, 1906 38 0 0 set of six plates inscribed "what is a merry man," &c., all dated 1734. sotheby, june, 1906 41 0 0 vessel modelled in form of cat, painted in blue, dated 1657. sotheby, june, 1906 20 0 0 plaque, with arms of apothecaries' company in blue. christie, november, 1906 9 19 6 wine bottle, inscribed "sack, 1650," in blue. sotheby, may, 1908 15 15 0 plate with blue decoration on border, and c initials a e, 1698. sotheby, april, 1908 3 3 0 staffordshire. delft dish painted with tulip and with blue dash border, 13 in. diameter; another with head of charles ii., and inscribed "the royal oak"; another inscribed g l. 1680. sotheby, december, 1908 1 12 0 bristol. plates, small, ordinary style, from 7s. 6d. to 1 0 0 dishes, larger size, ordinary style, from £1 to 2 0 0 plates, small, with initials and dated, from £1 10s., upwards. dishes, larger size, with initials and dates, or of especial interest, from £2 to £5 and upwards. liverpool. (similar prices to those of bristol.) puzzle jug painted in blue, with verse. puttick and simpson, december, 1905 3 12 6 tudor jugs. these jugs vary in character, but are always of some rarity, and range in value from £10, as a minimum price, upwards. with hall-marked silver mounts, in date from 1530-1600, they are greatly sought after. the west malling jug is the most famous specimen that has been sold of recent years. the description is as follows,- fulham delft or stoneware, splashed purple, orange, green, and other colours. with silver mounts, having london hall-mark, 1581. height, 9-1/2 in. strong probability that it is nothing more than an old sack-pot. sold at christie's, february, 1903 £1,522 10 0 iv stoneware chapter iv stoneware cologne ware and bellarmines--john dwight of fulham (1638-1703)--the brothers elers, working in staffordshire (1690-1710)--john astbury (1679-1743)--thomas astbury--fulham stoneware--nottingham stoneware--prices of stoneware. stoneware in point of date is prior to delft in its beginnings, and it had in its subsequent development a longer life than delft. it has already been shown (chapter ii.) how broken is the history of the evolution of the potter's art in england in the middle ages. there are great gaps which divide the period of the mediæval tiles from the more or less peasant pottery known as slip ware. it is not until the seventeenth century had well advanced that the manufacture of stoneware took its place as an industry. to the beginner it should be explained that stoneware is coated with a glaze by means of common salt. it is extremely hard, and has a surface in old and admired specimens like the skin of an orange being pitted with minute depressions, or in finer and thinner ware being like the surface of leather or chicken skin. the ordinary ginger-beer bottle is stoneware, and although serving in a humble capacity, is often found to be perfect in the technique of salt glazing. in old jugs of seventeenth-century manufacture, the mottled colouring and distinctly pleasing surface varying in tone from warm brown to reddish-yellow, is exceptionally attractive to collectors who import a love for technique into their hobby. undoubtedly the bellarmine, or greybeard, jug was in use in this country for a considerable period. references abound in old plays. ben jonson, in his "bartholomew fair" (act iv.), makes captain whit say, "he has wrashled so long with the bottle here, that the man with the beard hash almosht streek up hish heelsh," in simulation of the speech of a man who has well drunken. but it must be concluded that this stoneware, or cologne ware, was largely imported, and was never greatly made in this country until john dwight, of fulham, took out his patent in 1671. there are pieces bearing elizabethan dates and coats of arms, as, for instance, the small brown cruche in the schreiber collection at the victoria and albert museum, with the initials "e. r." and the date 1594; and the fine bellarmine jug in the british museum, with the arms of queen elizabeth, and dated 1594. we illustrate a fine stoneware bellarmine jug, of the late sixteenth century, having a coat of arms with crown and tudor roses. the character of some of these jugs differs from continental examples. this may have been due to a desire on the part of the consumer for vessels of that type, but there seems some likelihood that the commoner sorts were made here, and it is conjectured that fulham was the chief place of their manufacture. [illustration: stoneware jug. bellarmine or greybeard. having arms with tudor roses. (late sixteenth century.) (_at british museum._)] [illustration: stoneware jugs with royal arms and portrait medallions of william and mary. the left-hand jug with portrait of queen mary is attributed to dwight. (_in the collection of mr. f. w. phillips, hitchin._)] in the group of fine bellarmine jugs illustrated, the characteristics of the ware are shown. the decorations begin to assume a national feeling, and the jugs differ in form from the continental type. the fine specimen of grey stoneware with the portrait medallion of queen mary is attributed to dwight. the inscription runs "maria. d. g. mag. brit. franc, et. hib. regina." the right hand jug in the group has a raised medallion portrait of william iii. the bellarmine, or greybeard or longbeard, is so called from the head which appears on the neck of the jug, which mask is always referred to in a satirical manner as being the likeness of cardinal robert bellarmin, who rendered himself obnoxious by his opposition to the reformed religion in the low countries. these old examples of foreign stoneware, miscalled _grès de flandres_, are known to have been made at raren, at siegburg, at grenzhausen, near coblenz, and later in the seventeenth century they were made at namur. the fact that they were imported and not made here appears from the petition of william simpson, merchant (_lansdowne mss._) to queen elizabeth: "whereas one garnet tyne, a strainger living in acon, in the parte beyond the seas, being none of her majestie's subjects, doth buy up all the pottles made at culloin called drinkynge stonepottes & he onlie transporteth them into this realme of england & selleth them; it may please your majestie to graunt unto the sayd william simpson full power & only license to provyde, transport, & bring into this realme, the same or such like drynkynge pots"; the petitioner adds that "no englishman doth transport any potte into this realme," he also gives a promise "as in him lieth" to attempt to "drawe the making of such like potte into some decayed town within this realme, whereby many a hundred poore men may be set a worke." thirty years later letters patent were granted to thomas rous and abraham cullyn in 1626 for the sole making "of the stone pottes, stone juggs, & stone bottles, for the terme of fourteene years for a reward for their invention." here, then, are sufficient facts to show how largely the importation and manufacture was in foreign hands, and the finer specimens must undoubtedly be assigned to foreign potters. =john dwight.=--in 1671 a patent was taken out by john dwight for "the mistery of transparent earthenware, commonly knowne by the names of porcelaine or china and persian ware, as alsoe the misterie of the stoneware vulgarly called cologne ware." it appears from this patent that he had "invented and sett up at fulham, several new manufactories." there is no doubt that john dwight was one of the greatest, if not the greatest of english potters. his magnificent life-size bust in stoneware of prince rupert, now in the british museum, excites the wonder and admiration of modern potters. the technical excellence he displays in his fine stoneware, which is of a grey-white or pale fawn colour, and is salt glazed, is as remarkable a triumph of modelling as it is of skill in potting. to quote professor church in regard to dwight's busts and figures, "they stand absolutely alone in english ceramics. they are the original and serious work of an accomplished modeller. the best of them are instinct with individuality and strength, yet reticent with the reticence of noble sculpture." [illustration: stoneware bust of james ii. by dwight, of fulham. (about 1686.) (_at victoria and albert museum._)] [illustration: dwight stoneware figures. children reading. (_at british museum._)] the illustration of the bust of _james ii._ (p. 139) is not so well known as the famous _prince rupert_, nor is it of the same superlative power; but it is a fine example of stoneware. the two figures illustrated of _children reading_ have just been added to the national collection, and exhibit the mastery of dwight over his medium. there is no doubt that john dwight is coming into his own. among the fathers of english pottery there are dwight and elers, and astbury and whieldon, and josiah wedgwood, and the greatest of these is unquestionably dwight. dr. plot, in his "history of oxfordshire," published in 1677, passes this eulogy upon him: "he has so advanced the _art plastick_, that 'tis dubious whether any man since prometheus have excelled him, not excepting the famous damophilus and gorgasus of pliny." and yet this dwight is reported to have destroyed most of his formulæ and many of his papers connected with his inventions in the hope that his descendants would not engage in so unprofitable a business. it is not known when dwight was born; 1638 is the conjectured date. he was m.a. and b.c.l. of christ church, oxford, and was secretary to the bishop of chester. between 1671 and 1676 he settled at fulham. it appears that he had previously established a factory at oxford with considerable success. he died in 1703, and the pottery was continued by his son samuel, who died in 1737. the works were carried on by his widow, and subsequently by william white, who married her, and the pottery remained in the hands of the white family until 1862. of his portrait busts and statuettes, the victoria and albert museum and the british museum have about thirteen examples, and there is a fine statuette of _jupiter_ in the liverpool museum. besides this class of ware, he certainly made stoneware jugs of the cologne type, and red-ware teapots. he was known to use small raised ornaments on this ware, produced by the use of metal stamps. his vases have marbled decorations, and he was fully aware of the use of pounded flint, which gave his ware a porcellanous character, "a discovery which was not apparently known to the staffordshire potters until about 1720."[1] [note: 1 "guide to english pottery and porcelain in the british museum," r. l. hobson. in relation to dwight and his patents, new light has been thrown upon the originality of the work of the brothers elers in their secretly-guarded factory at bradwell wood. all earnest students are indebted to professor church for his recent researches to establish dwight's reputation, which go a great way towards dethroning the two dutch brothers elers, who have been hitherto regarded as the pioneers of staffordshire fine pottery. [illustration: coffee pot, elers red unglazed ware. mug, red unglazed ware, probably made by elers or dwight. (_at british museum._)] [illustration: elers red ware teapot. (_in the collection of mr. f. w. phillips, hitchin._)] =elers ware (1690-1710).=--there is a great deal of mystery surrounding the name and fame of the two dutchmen, john philip elers and david elers. they came to this country as did so many of their countrymen in the latter part of the seventeenth century. earlier, dutch refugees had fled hither on account of religious persecution, and later, when william of orange came over, his court attracted many of his countrymen of distinguished birth. martin elers, the father of our two dutchmen, had been ambassador to several european courts. john philip his son was "the godson of the elector of mentz, after whom he was named, and was held at the baptismal font by queen christina of sweden."[2] [note: 2 "staffordshire pots and potteries," g. w. and f. a. rhead.] there is no reason to believe that they had any patronage from the court themselves, but their sister was granted a pension of £300 a year by william, and she subsequently became the second wife of sir william phipps, founder of the house of mulgrave, the title of earl of mulgrave is now borne by the marquis of normanby, whose family name is phipps. however aristocratic they were, it is certain that they had considerable practical knowledge in order to embark in business and carry on a pottery. they prepared the red clay of bradwell in a far more scientific manner than had any staffordshire potters prior to that date, and by the lathe they turned forms far thinner than could be done on the wheel. wherever they had gained their technical skill, they placed for the first time the wares of staffordshire on the same plane as böttcher's work of meissen, or the models of the old chinese potters. we have already shown that they engaged some of dwight's workmen from fulham, and that they infringed dwight's patents in respect to the cologne jugs and red teapots. this does not accord with the fables hitherto industriously repeated in every succeeding volume dealing with china, that the elers employed imbeciles in their factory, in order that their trade secrets might be jealously guarded. it is true that twyford and john astbury learned all that they wanted to know by gaining employment at the elers pottery at bradwell, and there is little doubt that in so doing they simulated a stupid indifference as to the new methods of stamping china ornaments by metal stamps and of the lathe work employed on the red teapots. both black and red teapots were made by elers and ornaments in chinese style added in relief. these ornaments were stamped with a metal die and laid on the vessel, several dies were used for portions of the same teapot. the connecting portions such as the stalks between two sprigs were finished by hand. this red ware was unglazed. as most people are familiar with wedgwood's black, basaltes ware, it is useful to know that, except in colour, the wares are almost identical in point of external appearance and to the sense of touch. some of this red tea and coffee ware or "old china," as it was called, is marked with a seal in imitation of chinese marks. the red teapots of small dimensions sold for ten to twenty-five shillings apiece, and david elers had a shop in the poultry in cheapside, where he sold them. the elers left staffordshire in 1710, so that their pottery lasted only twenty years. in view of the fact that dwight complained about their manufacture of stoneware jugs and mugs as being subsequent to his, it would seem doubtful if they can still be accredited with the invention of this old ware or with the introduction of salt glaze into england. undoubtedly this early class of hard red stoneware, almost approaching porcelain in character, will have to be thoroughly reviewed with the object of assigning to dwight what is his, and to the elers, and to aaron, thomas, and richard wedgwood what is theirs, to say nothing of richard garner, and of john morley, of nottingham, who confessed to copying dwight's "browne muggs." the subsequent history of the elers may be interesting in passing. john philip is believed to have been in some way connected with the foreign glass works at chelsea, established by italian workmen, under the patronage of the duke of buckingham, as early as 1676. he afterwards, with the assistance of lady barrington, set up as a glass and china merchant in dublin, and became successful. david elers remained in london. =john astbury.=--we have seen that the elers' secret became known in staffordshire to twyford, and to john astbury, and this latter together with his son carried on the same style of manufacture. as a general rule it is held that the ware of the earlier astbury is not so sharp in its details as was the careful work of the elers. his ware is of red, fawn, chocolate, and orange colour. his ornaments followed the style of elers in being stamped, but he made them of devon or pipe-clay, which has a cruder effect in white upon the darker grounds. he died in 1743. his son thomas astbury commenced potting in 1723, and his work is so similar to that of his father, that considerable doubt exists as to which pieces may safely be attributed to the father. it is certain that the son experimented with the bodies of clays until he produced a "cream colour," afterwards improved by josiah wedgwood in his renowned cream ware. we illustrate (p. 149) an astbury teapot in date about 1740, with an orange-coloured glaze body having design in relief in white. the other astbury ware teapot is of slightly later date, and has a coffee-brown body with white and green floral ornaments in relief. the porto bello bowl in the british museum, of red clay with white stamped ornaments in relief of a group of miniature ships in battle array, made to celebrate the capture of porto bello by admiral vernon in 1739, is held to be a typical example of the work of the elder astbury. as a rule, black or red specimens having the name of astbury impressed upon them are attributed to astbury the second. but it must be borne in mind that for want of more exact knowledge, all red ware with stamped ornaments applied in relief and with indications of plain engine turning has been generically termed _elers ware_, and it is quite certain that later than astbury junior's day red ware with wavy lines was made. similarly the type of ware with white applied ornament in relief has been termed _astbury ware_. the elder astbury, in addition to the stoneware, made crouch ware, a term employed for the earlier forms of the fine delicate stoneware known as salt glazed. the younger astbury introduced the use of flint into his ware in or about 1723. collectors should be cautioned not to assign plates and dishes marked astbury, to thomas astbury. they are cream ware, and decorated in blue with chinese patterns, and belong to a much later period. mention should be made of ralph shaw, of burslem, who made brown or chocolate ware dipped in white pipe-clay, which afterwards was worked upon with a tool to display the dark body beneath. there is a jug in the british museum (franks collection) which is thus decorated with birds and foliage. twyford, the colleague of astbury the elder, when with the elers, seems to have applied himself to the use of white decoration, sometimes the red and brown ware is wholly coated inside with pipe-clay, and this is supposed to be his work. [illustration: astbury teapot. orange glazed body, pattern in relief. (about 1740. height 4 inches.) (_at british museum._)] [illustration: astbury ware teapot. coffee brown body, white and green floral ornament in relief. (about 1750.) (_at british museum._)] with the advent of josiah wedgwood came the strong classic influence upon his plastic art, and in his various classes of stoneware (dealt with in chap. vii.) considerable variety was introduced both in design and in colouring. among the most notable of the contemporaries and successors of wedgwood who successfully produced high-class stoneware, the following may be mentioned: william adams, turner, elijah mayer, neale, palmer, birch, keeling, and toft, hollins, wilson, spode, davenport, and dunderdale of castleford, and the leeds pottery and the swansea pottery both made basalt in black ware (see chap. viii., the school of wedgwood). =fulham stoneware.=--in the eighteenth century fulham became noticeable for a type of mug similar to that illustrated (p. 153), bearing the initials "w.g." and the date 1725. another series made at fulham are the jugs usually marked with the initials "a.r." and "g.r." belonging to the days of anne and of george i. a great many exist of the fuller-bodied shape, with initials inscribed "g.r." formerly on museum shelves these were attributed to fulham, but it is now generally held that this form was imported from the continent, and belongs to the _grès-de-flandres_ class. the true fulham contemporary form is that which we illustrate (p. 153). the manufacture of stoneware continued for a century, and in the nineteenth century many fine specimens were being made by various potters, and messrs. doulton, of lambeth, still continue to make stoneware vases and jugs and other vessels of an ornamental character. =nottingham stoneware.=--john morley, of nottingham, was cited in 1693, as one of the persons who infringed dwight's patent for stoneware. evidently the same family of potters carried on the business, for in 1726, charles morley was a maker of brown stoneware jugs and mugs. there is a brown bowl at the victoria and albert museum bearing this date. the castle museum at nottingham possesses some fine examples of brown stoneware. the dates of jugs and mugs vary from as early as 1700 to the last quarter of the eighteenth century. nottingham ware is smoother in its surface than old staffordshire, only slightly showing the orange skin texture so noticeable in the other stoneware. it is rich warm brown, sometimes inclining to red and sometimes to yellow in colour. bear jugs are a feature of nottingham stoneware, but they are not peculiar to that pottery, as they were also made in derbyshire and staffordshire. the nottingham stoneware is excellently potted and, of course, is salt glazed, the glaze having a slightly lustrous appearance. the examples most familiar to collectors belong to the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. the bear jugs may be either of plain surface or may have the rough grained exterior formed by minute particles of clay. they frequently have a collar around the neck, and a chain to which is attached a rattle. a rarer form represents a russian bear hugging bonaparte, who wears a big plumed hat. puzzle jugs with incised ornament, and tall loving-cups of large size, are another noticeable production; many of these are inscribed with names and dates. [illustration: fulham stoneware mug. (dated 1725. period of george i.) with embossed ornament of dogs, &c., and medallion portraits.] [illustration: fulham stoneware jug. raised medallion with crown and g.r. (period of george i.) incised decoration filled with blue.] stoneware--prices. bellarmines. £ s. d. the prices of this class vary in ordinary examples, plain, or of slight decoration, from 15s. to 1 10 0 bellarmines with english arms of especial interest are of considerably greater value, though not always of english origin. exceptional pieces bring exceptional prices. dwight. all specimens of dwight are extremely rare. it is impossible to say what a dwight stoneware figure or bust would realise at auction, but certainly a very high figure. elers. elers teapots, &c., are rare. the smaller lighter coloured teapots of the true elers ware are worth as many half-sovereigns as the later coarser examples are worth shillings. astbury. a similar difficulty arises in attempting to state prices for astbury stoneware. fine examples rarely come into the market. fulham. g. r. jugs ascribed to fulham may be bought from 15s. to £1 10s., according to condition and decoration. the large jugs and mugs with medallion busts of william and mary, inscribed and dated, vary in price from £3 to £5 and upwards. nottingham. bear jugs of coarse type may be procured from £1 10s. to 2 10 0 tall loving cups, inscribed with name and date, vary from £2 to 5 0 0 the russian bear model hugging bonaparte is worth £5 or more. nottingham ale jugs, dated and inscribed, have realised £12 under the hammer. v early staffordshire ware thomas whieldon: his contemporaries and his successors chronological table. xviiith century. _anne_ 1704 gibraltar taken by sir george rooke. (1702-1714) marlborough gained victory of blenheim. 1711-1714 addison published the _spectator_. _george i._ 1715 rebellion in scotland. (1714-1727) the old pretender landed at peterhead. 1715-1719 pope translated homer's _iliad_ into english verse. 1719 defoe's _robinson crusoe_ published. 1721 the south sea bubble burst; thousands of families ruined. _george ii._ 1742 fielding's _joseph andrews_ published. (1727-1760) 1748 richardson's _clarissa harlowe_. 1749 gray's _elegy in a country churchyard_. 1750 fielding's _tom jones_ published. 1755 dr. johnson's dictionary published. 1757 clive laid the foundation of the indian empire. _george iii._ 1759-67 sterne's _tristram shandy_. (1760-1820) 1766 goldsmith's _vicar of wakefield_. 1768 sir joshua reynolds first president of the royal academy. 1775 the american war. 1777 sheridan's _school for scandal_. 1779 gainsborough at the height of his fame. 1782 the independence of the united states recognised. 1786 gillray's caricatures commenced to appear. 1790 burke's _reflections on the french revolution_. 1791 burns's _tam o' shanter_. 1792 thomas paine's _age of reason_. 1795 war with holland. capture of the cape of good hope. 1801 union of great britain and ireland. chapter v early staffordshire ware thomas whieldon: his contemporaries and his successors the forerunners of whieldon--the position of staffordshire ware--whieldon as a potter--early staffordshire art--the rivalry with salt glaze--form _versus_ colour--the last years of the eighteenth century--the english spirit--prices. "early staffordshire" is a generic term used to include much of the unknown ware of the early period between about 1720 to 1760. it is not early enough to go back to the butter-pot days of charles ii. nor to include the school of toft and his contemporaries, with their quaint native humour. but it is an important period when earthenware was in a transitional stage. it is, in fact, the period when staffordshire may be regarded as the great nursery of potters in swaddling clothes who came into their majority later with full honours. the chronological table at the head of this chapter shows the great events that were shaping the destiny of this country, and, in politics, in art, and in letters, it must be admitted that the age of anne and the first two georges was prolific enough in incident. it was during the greater portion of the first half of the eighteenth century that english earthenware was finding itself. attempts at classification nearly always leave the borders overlapping. in trying to gather in our net a band of representative potters with work peculiarly illustrative of this period which was essentially english--as english as toft--but progressing towards something that should stand as worthy of our art, several great potters, such as the woods, have escaped, and will be treated separately later. it must be granted that the influence of the whieldon school was not obliterated even by the great rise of the classic school of design as exemplified by wedgwood, turner, and adams. the strong english robustness and the national insularity of design never wholly died out in the eighteenth century. it was eclipsed by classic frigidities from across the alps, and it suffered discomfiture from the rococo insipidities from france first naturalised at chelsea and at derby. but it lingered in the hearts of the common people like the tunes of some of the old ballads in spite of the fashions of gluck and of handel. thus it comes to pass that, side by side with the iphigenias, the andromaches, the venuses, the minervas, and the other esoteric personages from among the gods and goddesses of olympus, with their accompaniment of foreign fauns and satyrs, there were the very english (founded on gillray and rowlandson), almost rabelaisian, grotesques in the army of toby jugs and the sporting, rural, nautical, historic, commemorative, and satiric jugs and mugs and figures, with english doggerel and with idiosyncrasies enough to make our earthenware essentially national. [illustration: whieldon ware cauliflower teapot. with vivid green and yellow colouring. tortoiseshell ware plates. richly glazed, producing clouded and mottled effects. (_at victoria and albert museum._)] unfortunately in the early days it is impossible with any degree of certainty to assign many of these older pieces to any particular potter. the collector can only lament "the iniquity of oblivion blindly scattering her poppy," as sir thomas browne puts it. it is without doubt rightly believed that thomas whieldon had a great and lasting influence upon the potters of his generation, but his own actual work has been swallowed up by the covering phrase "whieldon ware," which, like "elers ware" and "astbury ware," has come to mean a good many things, and these are names of types rather than persons. =the forerunners of whieldon.=--it is necessary briefly to recapitulate the events immediately from the commencement of the eighteenth century to the day when whieldon established his status. there was a continuous chain of potters working in staffordshire from the days of the elers (1690-1710), to the period when josiah wedgwood became a master potter on his own account in 1760; he was then thirty years of age. wedgwood's own estimate of the elers is interesting. speaking of what elers did for staffordshire he says, "it is now about eighty years since mr. elers came amongst us ... the improvements made (by him) in our manufactory were precisely these--glazing our common clays with salt which produced _pot d'grey_ or stoneware, and this after they had left the country was improved into white stoneware by using the pipe clay of this neighbourhood and mixing it with flint stones calcin'd and reduced by pounding in to a fine powder." there is not a word about dwight in all this; evidently josiah seems not to have known of the legal action against elers and one of his own kinsmen amongst others. the invention of flint is an allusion to thomas astbury about 1720, but dwight also knew of this formula as his recorded notes prove. to continue, "the next improvement by mr. elers was the refining of our common red clay by sifting and making it into tea and coffee ware in imitation of the chinese red porcelain by the casting it in plaster moulds and turning it on the outside upon lathes, and ornamenting it with the tea branch in relief, in imitation of the chinese manner of ornamenting the ware. for these improvements--and very great ones they were--we are indebted to the very ingenious messrs. elers, and i shall gladly contribute all in my power to honour their memories and transmit to posterity the knowledge of the obligations we owe to them." this is in respect to a jasper medallion portrait of john philip elers. wedgwood is wrong in one or two particulars. the salt glaze question is open to doubt, and most certainly elers never used moulds for their ware. we give this as showing the continuity which existed between elers and wedgwood, the latter certainly owed his application of the ornamentation in relief to the method which elers had introduced into staffordshire. we do not say invented, because there is always dwight standing in the background. to give elers his due he certainly set staffordshire talking and wondering, and he unwittingly filled twyford and astbury with new ideas which they were not slow to adopt. astbury comes as the echo which elers left behind in staffordshire, a substantial enough echo, for astbury took his master's ideas and created a ware with white stamped ornaments in relief, to which his own name is given as a generic term. john astbury the elder died in 1743, and thomas, his son, commenced potting as early as 1723. and the astburys rub shoulders with thomas whieldon, whose apprentice and sometime partner (1752-1758) was josiah wedgwood. it will thus be seen that thomas whieldon (1740-1780) came upon the scene in the history of the staffordshire potteries when the art was in a somewhat transitional stage. new fields were opening and new ideas developing that were shortly to bring english pottery into line with that on the continent. =the position of staffordshire ware.=--it is necessary to show the stage at which english pottery had arrived in order to place whieldon aright and to show the various impulses which led to the outburst of potting which stirred staffordshire. stoneware in crude form or in highly finished foreign style in cologne ware had been gaining ground since tudor days. later the use of delft had won favour and was still in full swing at lambeth, at bristol, and at liverpool when whieldon commenced potting. it had also become acclimatised in staffordshire. toft's and other slip ware was contemporary with delft as a native art. and now, looking forward, we see the oncoming triumph of stoneware, in its finely potted and highly artistic staffordshire form, which was to overthrow delft and slip ware, and in turn be stamped out by the utilitarian cream ware of whieldon's apprentice, josiah wedgwood, who built up his fortune at etruria on this domestic ware. the whieldon period (1740-1780) was an important one in ceramic events. in 1744 bow commenced to make porcelain. in 1745 is the earliest dated piece of chelsea porcelain, the year that the pretender won the battle of preston pans, near edinburgh, and invaded england, bringing his army as far as derby. in 1750, derby made earthenware, and in 1751 commenced to make porcelain, which is the same year in which worcester commenced a glorious record in the making of porcelain. longton hall, bristol, and liverpool continued the same story, and transfer-printing was practised at worcester by hancock on porcelain, and at liverpool on delft tiles by sadler and green. lowestoft opened a kiln in 1756. leeds ware was made in 1760, and, finally, wedgwood's queen's ware in 1762, and four years before whieldon gave up his work wedgwood had invented his jasper ware. =whieldon as a potter.=--not a great deal is known of whieldon's personality. he must have commenced in a small way of business as he tramped from place to place with specimens of his wares on his back in pedlar fashion. but he became of considerable importance as he held the office of high sheriff of staffordshire in 1786, some six years after he retired from his pottery. whieldon numbered among his apprentices some young men who afterwards became famous. there was josiah wedgwood, who became his partner from 1753 to 1759, josiah spode, and william greatbach, edge, heath, marsh, and there was aaron wood, who was employed at little fenton for some time. on account of his apprentices having become famous, it has been suggested that he was probably indebted to them for much of his fame. on reflection it may possibly be seen that the opposite conclusion may very well be true, and it is not improbable that wedgwood and spode and greatbach and the others owed a considerable debt to whieldon for having received a highly technical training at his hands. [illustration: teapot, tortoiseshell ware. embossed with hawthorn pattern. (_at the royal scottish museum, edinburgh._)] [illustration: bowl and cover, tortoiseshell ware. embossed with floral pattern. (_at the victoria and albert museum._)] in regard to cream ware, undoubtedly this was in an experimental stage, and whieldon in common with astbury made those queer little figures with yellow heads and red or yellow bases, but the tortoiseshell flown colouring apparently denotes some of the specimens made by whieldon. he made salt glaze, he made tea and coffee pots with the astbury decorations, but with a strong leaning to the earlier elers style in his avoidance of too strong contrast between white pipe-clay ornament on a dark body. whieldon toned his ornaments with touches of his own in green and yellow and brown. his solid agate ware and his tortoiseshell and clouded wares, and his cauliflower ware have become so memorable in the cabinets of collectors that they have won him fame, and he has in consequence been credited with all specimens of these classes of ware. we illustrate (p. 161) an example of the whieldon _cauliflower teapot_ with vivid green and yellow colouring. of this early period, the fine group we illustrate (p. 171) with a _coffee-pot_ of glazed red ware, a kaolin of deep cream colour decorated in red, may not unreasonably be attributed to john astbury, while the little _figure_ of flown colouring, with red base and brown shoes, may be either by whieldon or possibly by thomas astbury. the "solid agate" of whieldon is something far more artistic than the combed ware of earlier days or the very rough attempts at solid agate made by clumsier hands than his own prior to his experiments. surface decoration in imitation of agate had been produced by employing two different coloured clays on the surface of a vessel, and when in a wet state combing them to represent the desired veining of the stone to be simulated. "solid agate" is another process of placing layers of clay of different colours and cutting them in section to show the bands of colour. in whieldon's hands the layers were thin and the waves and twists, cut off the clay with a wire like cheese is cut, showed in the finished result something more artistic than had ever been attempted before. he made jugs and sauceboats, teapots, teapoys, and other table utensils of this ware, including knife handles. no two pieces are exactly alike, and there is a considerable variety in the breadth of the veining and in the ware, some being intentionally coarser in order to suit the subject potted. there is no doubt that this ware, standing in a measure in a _cul de sac_ of ceramic art, is highly effective, and wedgwood used with great skill both the solid agate and the surface colour for his ornamental pieces and vases of classic type, in imitation of granite, egyptian pebble, jasper, porphyry, and several kinds of agate. his range of colour was more extended than that of whieldon, but there is little doubt that he gained his first knowledge of the properties and possibilities of this variegated ware when he was with whieldon. casting about for something equally effective with possibly less technical difficulties, whieldon evolved his celebrated clouded wares. here he took advantage of the new cream ware as a body, the surface of which is splashed or sponged with various tints in imitation of tortoiseshell, although many of the colours introduced depart from tortoiseshell tones and introduce something fresh and original in earthenware decoration. [illustration: group of astbury ware. kylin. chiefly red and deep cream colour. coffee pot. glazed red ware. figure. flown colouring, red base and brown shoes. (_in the collection of col. and mrs. dickson._)] [illustration: agate cat. (4 inches high.) grey, with brown solid marbling, and splashed with blue on body and ears. salt-glazed bear jug. (height 3-1/8 inches.) (_in the collection of mr. robert bruce wallis._)] there is the patent taken out by redrich and jones, staffordshire potters in 1724, for "staining, veining, spotting, clouding, or damasking earthenware, to give it the appearance of various kinds of marble, porphyry, and rich stones, as well as tortoiseshell." and ralph wood, of burslem, made variegated ware of a particular kind which may well be termed "tesselated," as small pieces of tinted clay were affixed or inlaid on the surface of vessels to be decorated, and subsequently glazed. this mosaic work in imitation of granite was employed also at leeds. to return to whieldon. there is no doubt that he found this variegated ware in a somewhat inchoate state in regard to technique, and the more scientific exactitude which he employed has gained for his wares their fame. we illustrate (p. 167) two fine examples of tortoiseshell ware, a _teapot_ embossed with hawthorn pattern design, and a finely decorated _bowl and cover_ having a running floral pattern in relief. the many coloured dessert plates, sometimes of octagonal shape, made by whieldon in this later mottled manner, in which the surface only is decorated, are well known to collectors. in whieldon's own examples the potting is more perfect than in those of other potters. his plates are to be recognised not only by their colour, but in the very subtle way he has handled it. the deft touch of blue or yellow or green, has in other hands become a patch of obvious crudity, striking a discordant note at once. the deep grey octagonal plates by him are loved by connoisseurs as exhibiting his subtlety at its best. we illustrate two examples of this class of whieldon tortoiseshell plates with rich brown colouring flecked with green and yellow (see p. 161). the mechanical mottling by his imitators, seemingly dabbed on in spots by a sponge, should not be easy to distinguish after having seen one of his best examples. in regard to the potting, whieldon ware plates have a flat broad rim, which almost invariably has a border of applied strips laid crosswise. but it must not be forgotten that, when once the fashion for "whieldon ware" became general, other potteries came into line. at liverpool this class of mottled and clouded ware was made, and also at the castleford pottery, near leeds, and consequently many unmarked examples may be attributed to these potteries. some of the castleford tortoiseshell plates are impressed "d.d. & co." =early staffordshire art.=--among the earlier figures of the astbury pottery the elder astbury worked from 1736 to 1743, and his son continued his traditions later. there are a number of quadrupeds and birds which are assigned by collectors to the elder astbury, which are, although crude, extremely interesting as showing the experiments in coloured clays and in lead glazing. agate figures of cats of intermingled clays, and diminutive figures of men, some six inches in height, with splashed or clouded decoration, all come into this indeterminate period. the figure in the group (p. 171) already referred to is a case in point. in the illustration of a fine specimen of an agate cat, in height only 4 inches, the body colour is light grey with dark brown solid marbling, and the front and ears are splashed with blue. another miniature animal figure belonging to this period is the salt-glaze jug in form of a bear, only 3-1/8 inches high (see illustration, p. 171). [illustration: whieldon tortoiseshell animal. (_in the collection of col. and mrs. dickson._) splashed cream ware elephant. (staffordshire, about 1750. height 3-3/4 inches.) (_at british museum._)] [illustration: whieldon group. st. george and the dragon. knight in green and cream; horse and base tortoiseshell. early staffordshire figures. old women hucksters. (_in the collection of mr. james davies, chester._)] we illustrate two animals, one of the tortoiseshell variety, a beast of formidable appearance and having considerable power in the modelling and strongly suggestive of the jaguar, but it must be remembered that beasts as depicted in contemporary books have an inclination towards heraldic monsters such as "never were on land or sea." the splashed cream ware elephant, only 3-3/4 inches in height, is fairly well modelled. but these, in common with the many diminutive figures of a like nature, belong to a period when staffordshire was endeavouring to found an english school of potters, blindly groping along in almost untutored fashion--lame in design and feeble in inventiveness. from out of this chaos it seems impossible that there should arise soul enough to set the fashion later--nearly fifty years later--to the continent of europe, and make english earthenware the formidable rival in point of cheapness, and often in point of beauty, to anything produced on the continent. but the earthenware of staffordshire was able to teach new points in technique concerning body and glaze to the continental potter. in the illustration showing the group of _st. george and the dragon_ it will be seen that the modelling begins to assume a more pretentious character. the prevailing colours of the knight are green and cream, the horse and the base of the group are of the familiar tortoiseshell colouring. beside this st. george are two early staffordshire figures representing two old women as hucksters. here the feeling is instinctively english, as national as are the dutch beggars of the seventeenth-century dutch etchers. pity it is that this class of figure, recording national and local types, did not develop on uninterrupted lines. it is true, and of these we shall speak later, that the family of wood in their types carried on the tradition, but the unfortunate classic influence monopolised the talents of the best modellers. we illustrate two fine examples of _toby jugs_ belonging to the whieldon period. there is a strong family likeness between the two. the left-hand one is richly glazed and mottled in tortoiseshell markings. the other has the fine translucent colouring and glazing so noticeably prominent in this school. they are both remarkably good specimens of the whieldon manner, and of unusual interest, as they represent the toby jug in its earliest form. =the rivalry with salt-glaze.=--this "whieldon ware" (of course it must not be forgotten that whieldon made salt-glaze too) was contemporaneous with undecorated salt-glaze ware, which at its best exhibited in no small degree a complete knowledge of the strength and beauty of form unaided by colour. but in this school of whieldon there is a distinct appeal to colour as a leading feature of the ware as opposed to form. there is a fine artistic blending of the colours and the variation of the glazes which palpitate with life and give extraordinary power to pieces possessed of the "whieldon" touch. not only on flat surfaces such as the well-known octagonal plates, but in figures and groups such as we have illustrated, these colour effects were employed with considerable dexterity. so that, in the contemplation of black-and-white illustrations of "whieldon ware," everything is lost which gave the beauty and richness and mellowness which have an irresistible charm to those collectors who confine themselves to this early school of colourists. [illustration: whieldon toby jug. richly mottled and glazed. (_in the collection of col. and mrs. dickson._)] [illustration: whieldon toby jug. fine translucent colouring and glazing. (_in the collection of mr. a. h. baldwin._)] =form _versus_ colour.=--the salt-glaze potters, when they left their ideals of form and essayed to become colourists as well, made this attempt chiefly for two reasons. (1) they had a very laudable desire to emulate the coloured porcelain made at worcester, bow, chelsea, and derby, which had become a serious competitor in their markets. (2) they recognised a certain weakness in their ware in regard to its inapplicability to figures and groups. unless the modelling is of the highest order the salt-glaze figures are insipid. with regard to enamelled salt-glaze in general this is dealt with in another chapter, but it may here be remarked as touching the second point--the salt-glaze figure--that the salt-glaze potter brought himself directly in comparison with the figures and groups of earthenware of the later whieldon school. realising that if he must stand at all as a figure potter his modelling must be superlative, we find the salt-glaze figures, which are mainly small in size, taken direct from the antique or from porcelain models. but feeling the lack of colour he added touches here and there by applying reliefs of different coloured clays to heighten the effect. the salt-glaze potter rarely enamelled his figures in colours. in the illustration of a salt-glazed figure (p. 351) there are slight touches of blue. so that in the contest between salt-glaze (the pre-eminent art of the staffordshire potter in early eighteenth-century days) and its two great rivals, english porcelain and staffordshire coloured earthenware, in other words--form _versus_ colour--the first fall it received was at the hands of "whieldon ware." the coloured and exquisitely clouded tortoiseshell plate, with its fine gradations of tone throbbing with colour, more than holds its own with the salt-glaze plate, even although its clear-cut arabesque designs and intricate patterns exhibit the excellence of its potting. =the last years of the eighteenth century.=--enough has been said to show that this typically english school had firmly established itself in staffordshire. whieldon, dr. thomas wedgwood, aaron wood (block cutter to whieldon), josiah spode the first, greatbach, enoch booth, and many others, firmly adhered to their love of colour and their desire to see cream ware triumphant. the struggle for the supremacy of earthenware over english porcelain was still waging. and wedgwood, with his marvellous invention of jasper ware and his equally stupendous innovation in the introduction of severe classic ornament, did not impose his style on all staffordshire. we shall see in a later chapter how he had a crowd of followers and imitators, but at the same time many, very many, productions were potted contemporary with him that owed nothing in design to him, and on the face of them bear no traces of the classic influence. it is this overlapping period, during which so many examples are unmarked, which is so puzzling to the collector. "old staffordshire," they certainly are, "early staffordshire" they may not be, but they exhibit a national and original feeling which it is impossible not to recognise and value. [illustration: group of early staffordshire jugs. 1. jug. pencilled floral decoration in blue. inscribed "william and mary harrison. one nother and then." 2. jug. panel with _miser_ each side in relief. 3. jug. heart-shaped panel in low relief, _children at play_. 4. jug. panels of _peacocks_ in relief.] [illustration: group of early staffordshire jugs. 1. finely mottled granite jug. 2. whieldon jug. figures in coloured relief. 3. jug. moulded in form of satyr's head. (_the above groups are in the collection of mr. james davies, chester._)] we illustrate two groups of jugs which belong to this period. in the top jug of the upper group, which is pencilled with blue floral decoration, the spout betrays a trace of worcester and a tinge of classicism in the acanthus leaf ornamentation at its base. but the inscription drops at once into the homely vernacular, "william and mary harrison one nother and then." the quaint phonetic spelling tells its own story of the mission of the ale-house jug, with its invitation to another burst of hospitality. the three jugs below are of the same species. the handles vary slightly, showing the inclination to adopt silver models. the left-hand one has a panel with figure of miser in relief each side. the middle jug, with the heart-shaped panel, is decorated in relief with group of children at play. such subjects had not appeared on jugs before wedgwood's day, but the idea might easily have been derived from contemporary prints of the pretty school of bartolozzi and angelica kauffman. the right-hand jug, with its peacocks in relief, is evidently derived from the exotic birds of worcester. in the other group of jugs, the uppermost betrays in the spout and neck distinct traces of its indebtedness to classic forms. it is translucent green in colour, and with coloured figures in high relief. at the front is shakespeare, with figures of _miser_ and _spendthrift_ each side. between these (one is just visible in illustration) are classic medallions. this is an incongruous style of decoration, and shows how little the staffordshire potter who made it understood the meaning of ornament. he realised that the classic style was becoming popular, and so he half hesitatingly affixed two cameos to his otherwise harmonious production. the granite-ware jug, finely mottled, with two black-and-white bands as ornament round body, is the newer development of the early variegated ware. the right-hand jug is, in its gnarled and bulgy protuberances, known as the crabstock variety, the moulding, in the form of satyr's head crowned with vines, is an addition and is extraneous to the usual crabstock form. obviously this is a welding together of the english and classic grotesque, and the combination is not too harmonious. the early staffordshire potters, apart from the splashed and variegated ware associated with whieldon, made a variety of ware in pre-wedgwood days and in the late eighteenth century. obviously such a jug as that illustrated (p. 189) is an oriental design taken straight from the contemporary english porcelain, or even from the actual chinese original. but the staffordshire potter was conservative in his shapes. similarly, such jugs as that illustrated (p. 189) with the rustic design in crude painting, or seemingly in parts applied with a sponge, must have been general in the latter half of the eighteenth century. the scene is suggestive of herrick and maypoles and haywains and rustic junketings, and such early cream-ware cider-mugs and ale-jugs are not uncommon. the _mug_ (illustrated p. 189) shows distinctive qualities. it is by enoch wood. it is decorated with translucent bands at top and base, and ornamented with a diaper-pattern stamped and coloured brown, with alternate lines of grey. these jugs and mugs are here illustrated to impress upon the reader the fact that in the whieldon period (1740-1780) other forms than variegated ware were being made, and much unidentified early staffordshire ware belongs to the later years of the eighteenth century. =the english spirit.=--these forms--and the field is a great one for detailed study--were growing up in spite of foreign and un-english fashions, and long after wedgwood's day they existed. it seems as though it was a dogged and obstinate attempt on the part of the potter to ignore classic models, and produce something "understanded of the people." obviously such ware did not rise to elaborate ornamental vases, but confined itself to mugs and jugs and useful articles in common use. so that, in spite of the enormous influence of wedgwood, both in technique, but more especially in decoration, upon his contemporaries and his successors, it would seem that there was always an undercurrent of pottery which, even if crude, was extremely national. it appealed to no cosmopolitan _clientèle_, and the potters who made it were not important enough to issue price lists in three or four languages. their message--as conveyed by their quaint inscriptions, "one nother and then," "i drink to you with all my hart, mery met and mery part," and a host of other naïve sentiments--comes direct from the heart of the potter to his friend and neighbour who bought his wares. in a word, we may say that much that is native, much that is racy of the soil, in the long line of queer staffordshire figures of animals and birds and of homely individuals, grotesque in their diminutive personality, owe direct kinship to whieldon and the pre-wedgwood school of potters, forgetful of the cold classic day, and, in the words of william blake, snug by the glad sunshine of "the alehouse so healthy and pleasant and warm." [illustration: cream ware jug. painted decorations in under-glaze colours. typical example of oriental influence on earthenware. (_in the possession of mr. w. l. yeulett._)] [illustration: staffordshire cream ware jug. crudely painted in colours with english subject. typical of earthenware of latter part of eighteenth century. (_in the collection of mrs. m. m. fairbairn._)] [illustration: barrel-shaped mug by enoch wood. decorated with translucent green at top and base. diaper pattern stamped and coloured brown, and alternate lines of grey. (_in the collection of mr. robert bruce wallis._) prices--early staffordshire ware. whieldon. £ s. d. teapoy, square, cream coloured, splashed with green, having female embossed figures, and inscribed "abraham randell, alice randell 1779," 5-1/4 in. high. bond, ipswich, april, 1906. 7 10 0 plates, pair, foliage in blue on mottled ground, inscribed "lbc 1739." christie, june, 1906 14 3 6 teapot, agate ware, modelled with shells. christie, june, 1906 12 1 6 figures of musicians (three). christie, november, 1906 13 2 6 plaque. portrait of sarah malcolm saunders, executed in 1733 (very rare), taken from picture by hogarth. sotheby, november, 1906 2 10 0 teapot and cover and milk ewer and cover, mottled. puttick & simpson, november, 1906 4 4 0 figure of "hope," with splashed and mottled base. sotheby, february, 1907 1 15 0 toy teapot and cover, with vine-leaves and grapes in relief, decorated in rich translucent colours. sotheby, february, 1907 2 18 0 teapot and cover, agate ware, modelled with shells. christie, april, 1907 5 15 6 teapot, with roses in colours on blue ground, and another with rosebuds and strawberries on pink ground. christie, april, 1907 27 6 0 teapot, teacup, and two saucers, with flowers in colours in chinese style. christie, april, 1907 11 0 6 group of two birds in tree, translucent colours. sotheby, july, 1907 2 18 0 teapot and cover, with peasant figures in colours. christie, july, 1907 13 13 0 figure of _stag_ at rest, mottled brown and white, on green pedestal (10-1/2 in. high). christie, november, 1907 10 10 0 group of _lovers_, pair, with birdcage, lamb, and dog (10 in. and 11 in. high). christie, january, 1908 22 1 0 _st. george and dragon_ figure (11 in. high), and group nearly similar. christie, january, 1908 10 10 6 figures, pair, peasant boy and girl, emblematic of autumn and winter, on octagonal plinths (7-1/4 in. high), and a figure of _man with bagpipes_ (8-1/4 in. high). christie, january, 1908 13 13 0 "king david" figure (12-1/2 in. high), and "neptune" (11-1/2 in. high), on square pedestals, with medallions in relief. christie, january, 1908 14 3 6 cauliflower-pattern teapot, cream-jug, and canister. christie, february, 1908 11 0 6 teapot and cover, solid agate ware, very large size. sotheby, may, 1908 10 0 0 teapot and cover, formed of leaves, with rabbit on cover. sotheby, may, 1908 4 4 0 astbury ware. teapot and cover, dark buff body, decorated in relief with grapes, tendrils, and leaves in cream colour. sotheby, november, 1907 3 10 0 teapot and cover, brown hexagonal shape, with panels of chinese subject in relief, lid surmounted by rabbit. sotheby, november, 1907 3 15 0 astbury and early whieldon figures, which are of small size as a rule, range in price from £4 to £10. exceptional examples command much higher prices. vi salt-glazed ware--staffordshire chapter vi salt-glazed ware--staffordshire the originality of english salt-glazed ware--what is salt glaze?--early salt-glaze--the classes of salt-glaze--its decadence and its extinction--prices of salt-glazed ware. the fine salt-glazed stoneware of staffordshire which was made during the greater part of the eighteenth century is something in art of which the english potter may very justly be proud. it is remotely derived from the fine flemish and rhenish decorated stoneware, but the connection ends with the common qualities of being glazed with salt and of being extremely hard, almost so hard as to resist a file. but in the staffordshire salt-glazed ware the body became almost of a porcelain-like quality. it was able to be made as thin as stamped silver, and in the thinnest portions of the pieces it is translucent like porcelain. indeed, since the days of elers (whom dwight termed a silversmith) earthenware, or rather stoneware, took some of its details in form and in ornament from the worker in silver. the applied ornament of elers stamped with a brass die suggests the metal worker, and, with the models of the school of astbury before them, staffordshire potters followed the same methods. it is not astonishing to find the moulded designs with their intricate patterns in the newer school of potters of salt-glaze ware--which in its best period (1720-1740) relied solely on form and not on colour, being a dull, creamy white--emulating the fine work of the silversmith. it was only a natural striving in the new generation of potters of the whieldon school, with fresh inventions in clays and glazes and moulds, to cast about them for better and worthier ideals than toft had, and fresher models than stoneware bellarmines which had been in circulation in the country since tudor days. silver models provided many a fine shape for wedgwood, his cream ware and his basalt teapots are bodily taken from sheffield. but imitativeness has always been the curse of english potters. wedgwood copied in jasper ware the cameo work of the classic world, and the whole of staffordshire to a man commenced to pot on similar lines. through the last decades of the eighteenth century, and well into the nineteenth, thousands of vases and jugs were turned out as echoes of etruria in staffordshire which, as its name denotes, was but an echo of something centuries earlier. bow called itself "new canton," and worcester slavishly copied chinese mandarins and exotic birds, coined in the brain of some oriental potter. chelsea copied dresden, and lowestoft copied the bow and worcester copies of chinese originals, and the list could be prolonged _ad nauseam_. [illustration: salt-glazed lovers' teapot. in the shape of a heart. floral decoration slightly gilded. (_at victoria and albert museum._)] [illustration: salt-glazed teapot. in the form of a camel. (_in the possession of mr. f. w. phillips, hitchin._)] indeed, this curse lies very heavy on the collector who has to devote a great portion of his energy to research in order to determine who first made certain models. this, unfortunately, tends to divert the study of old earthenware, its artistic qualities and its technical triumphs, into channels more or less contentious. the literature of english ceramics is rapidly becoming like many of the editions of shakespeare, where a few lines of text stand as an oasis in a desert of commentators' controversial opinions. it is, therefore, refreshing to find, as one does undoubtedly find in staffordshire salt-glazed ware, one of the most remarkable and original outbursts in english art pottery that has taken place. this delicate stoneware is as thin as some of the oriental porcelain, and possesses a grace and symmetry peculiarly its own. in some of its decorations it bears a likeness to chinese work. this does not detract from its high place as a ceramic record. on the contrary, this similitude is a tribute to pay to its artistic excellence, for there is very little earthenware that came out of staffordshire that will bear comparison with the work of the chinese potter. =what is salt glaze?=--we know that many of the stoneware bellarmines and rhenish jugs were glazed with salt. it was a process known on the continent at a very early date, some authorities place it as early as the twelfth century. but it was not until the second half of the sixteenth century that german and flemish potters used this salt glaze to any great extent. we have seen, in the chapter on stoneware, that the appearance in the mottling and in the orange-skin-like surface is due to the action of salt glaze. to cover pottery with an outer surface has been practised from earliest times either by the use of some glassy material or by powdered lead. glazing with common salt was quite a new departure by the english potters. in order for this salt glaze to be used there must be a very high temperature, so high, as a matter of fact, that it would melt or soften in the kiln most english earthenware. this is where stoneware in its body differs from earthenware; it is what is termed "refractory," that is to say, it is not readily fusible. stoneware is not always glazed. elers did not glaze his red ware, and wedgwood did not glaze his basalt or black ware. stoneware can also be glazed with other processes than the salt glaze, but, as a rule, stoneware is associated with salt glaze. without entering too tediously into the exact steps by which salt glazing is performed, it may be roughly described as follows. other glazes, such as lead, are applied to the surface of the ware prior to its entry into the kiln for firing, but in salt glaze the glaze is incorporated with the ware while it is actually in the kiln. towards the end of the firing common salt (chloride of sodium) is thrown into the kiln, which is packed with the ware, through apertures in the kiln which has to be specially designed for salt-glaze use. at the high temperature of the kiln (about 2,190° fahr.) the salt is volatised and its vapour penetrates the saggers (that is, the earthen vessels containing the pieces being made), which have perforated sides to enable this vapour to form on the surface of the pieces being fired. this vapour chemically unites with the silica largely present in the body of the stoneware, and forms a silicate on the surface of the ware. that is to say, the stoneware becomes coated with a thin layer or glaze of sodic silicate or soda-glass. [illustration: group of salt-glazed ware. jug enamelled in colours. teapot blue enamel by littler. (_in the collection of col. and mrs. dickson._)] this chemical action taking place simultaneously with the final firing of the ware before its removal from the kiln incorporates the glaze with the body of the ware itself. it is this combination which causes the minute depressions or tiny pin-holes in all stoneware from bellarmines down to the finely and nearly translucent salt-glazed staffordshire ware which has a surface like that of leather. the same multitudinous pin-hole surface is characteristic of oriental porcelain, which like stoneware is fired at a very high temperature, and the glaze and the body completed at one firing in the _grand feu_. though, of course, this is not salt glaze, nor is the surface other than as smooth as glass to the touch, although under a strong glass or even to the naked eye these pin-holes are easily discernible. at the present day salt glaze is mainly used for such ware as ink-pots, drain pipes, insulators for telegraphic instruments, and common ginger-beer bottles. the connection between john dwight, of christ church, oxford (master of arts), the creator of the magnificent bust of _prince rupert_, the glory of the ceramic collection at the british museum, and between john philip elers, godson of queen christina, and this sad array of utilitarian nondescripts, is not a pleasing subject for reflection. it is sad to think that these triumphs have been won in vain by the genius of the old potters over the plastic clay. what an ignoble ending to the long chain of experiments! when dwight destroyed his secret memoranda it is as though he foresaw the era of the drainpipe. =early salt-glaze.=--the early stages of the manufacture of salt-glazed ware were crude and experimental. there is some connection between the finely potted lustrous stoneware of nottingham and "crouch ware," the undeveloped form of the later phase of finely-potted staffordshire salt-glaze ware. this "crouch" ware represents the transitional stage between the ordinary brown stoneware and the later drab or greyish white examples. crouch ware at its earliest was not made in staffordshire till 1690, and there is presumptive evidence to show that salt-glaze brown ware was made at some pot-works at crich, near matlock, derbyshire; and that the same or similar clay was used by the staffordshire potters who gave it that name, and there is proof that the crich pottery existed as early as 1717, and nottingham has dated pieces as early as 1700. on the face of it, in spite of josiah wedgwood's letter in connection with the medallion to john philip elers, there is little evidence to go upon to credit the elers with having made salt-glaze ware at all. excavations on the site of their factory at bradwell wood have only resulted in the discovery of fragments of their unglazed red ware, "red porcelain" as it was called, and experts have pronounced their oven as being unfitted for salt-glaze operations. on the whole, therefore, in accordance with the latest research, one is inclined to come to the conclusion that the brothers elers did not invent staffordshire salt-glazed ware. if they made it at all, they made very few examples. the red ware is theirs as far as staffordshire is concerned, although dwight had something to say on that score when he charged them and nottingham potters and others with infringing his patents. [illustration: salt-glazed teapot. enamelled in colours. marked "john toft." (_in the collection of col. and mrs. dickson._)] among the early makers of salt-glazed ware were astbury and twyford, and thomas astbury, son of the former, being associated with the introduction of ground flint into the body in 1720. thomas billing in 1722, and ralph shaw in 1732, made further improvements in the body. dr. thomas wedgwood and aaron wood, and thomas whieldon and ralph daniel, of cobridge, were all well-known makers of this ware, the latter having introduced plaster-of-paris moulds in lieu of alabaster, and being further notable for his enamelled decorations in colour, in the period 1743 to 1750, which attempted to vie with the contemporary coloured porcelain. william littler, of longton, used a similar blue to that which he used on the porcelain at longton hall. at this date the ware became white in colour, and took its pleasing forms so dear to connoisseurs. =the classes of salt-glaze.=--in its various styles salt-glazed ware may be roughly divided into periods. the experimental stage was over in 1720. from 1720 to 1740 the undecorated or white examples were made, depending on form for their beauty. these had applied ornamentation stamped with metal dies, or made in separate moulds and affixed to the body to be decorated (similar to the elers style). it is during this period that some of the finest pieces were made with sharp, clear-cut designs. later, when moulds were made of plaster-of-paris in place of alabaster, the design became blurred. among the most beautiful designs in this plain white ware having raised ornament are sauceboats, pickle trays, sweetmeat dishes, teapoys or tea canisters, and teapots; these latter are of a great variety of shapes, many having shell ornament, very exquisitely moulded, and others being of hexagonal shape divided into compartments. there is, too, a trace of the grotesque discernible in some of these teapots and a subtle humour too rarely found in english pottery. there are those of the camel form, such as the specimen illustrated (p. 197). the peculiar handle made by hand is very noticeable, usually such handles are snipped off at the end. others are of the shape of a house, and many types of this design occur. some are in the form of a squirrel. then there are the heart-shaped teapots with the spout incongruously representing an arm resting on the neck of a swan. these teapots were supposed to have been made for lovers. we give an illustration (p. 197) of one of these heart teapots, and it will be seen how a slight touch of gilding has been added to heighten the effect on the embossed portions showing the fruit. of course the cauliflower teapot exhibits a touch of humour, too, but this form is rarely found in salt glaze. the bright natural colours of that interesting vegetable were reproduced by whieldon, who made this type as well as melon and pineapple teapots and coffee-pots. the vivid green and yellow glaze of this cauliflower ware is of the period when josiah wedgwood was with whieldon and is held to be young josiah's invention. he afterwards made similar ware himself. the next stage was the slight use of colour in what is termed "scratched" blue. this style of decoration is the opposite of the relief ornaments. the pattern was incised with a sharp instrument on the piece, in the lines thus cut cobalt blue was applied with a sponge. birds and foliage are the typical form of decorations to pieces of this style from 1740 to about 1750. from 1745 to 1750 william littler introduced his cobalt blue ware over which decorations in black or white were enamelled or gilded, and such pieces are rare. (see illustration p. 201.) [illustration: salt-glazed vase. enamelled in colours--turquoise blue, yellow. (height 5-3/4 inches.)] [illustration: salt-glazed punch bowl. enamelled in colours, with portrait of the young pretender. (diameter 10 inches.) (_in the possession of mr. s. g. fenton._)] then comes the period in which colour was in full swing. from 1740 to 1760 enamelling in colours was extensively used. it was employed on plain surfaces, or as a touch of colour to ornaments in relief. there is no doubt that some of these coloured examples are very beautiful. it is not necessary to dethrone the plain white ware from its place of honour. with later developments it was found that colour could be used with artistic advantage, nor is there any deterioration of the ware from an æsthetic point of view in this colour work when in the hands of skilled craftsmen. similarly transfer-printing was recognised as a suitable means of decoration, and pieces are found with printed designs of black or red or puce. the head of the king of prussia is found on some specimens of this type. of course this is later in date, and must have been subsequent to 1760, when sadler and green invented transfer-printing at liverpool. doubtless these pieces entered into competition with the new colour ware then in vogue, which drove the salt-glaze ware from the market, and killed the most artistic and original productions the english potter had ever made. the industry had by this time grown to great dimensions, and apparently the staffordshire potters were turning out this salt-glazed ware as fast as they could, no very good sign that good work was to last much longer. nor is all the enamel work english; two dutchmen were secretly employed at burslem to do this enamelling in colour. but the secret spread, and we find two leeds painters, robinson and rhodes, doing enamelling on the salt-glazed ware for the staffordshire potters. we are enabled to reproduce a very fine example of enamelled salt-glaze ware having the inscription "james and martha jinkcuson," and dated 1764. it stands as a fine specimen of its class. the colours of the flowers and insects are very rich, being, as is usual, enamelled over the salt-glaze ground. dated salt-glazed ware is always uncommon, and an example of such fine colouring in such perfect condition stands as a rare and splendid specimen. there is yet another style in salt-glaze in which the whole surface of the piece to be decorated is coated with a slip of another colour, and the decoration cut through it to show the white body beneath. this belongs to the last period, 1760 to 1780, as also does the basket work for which aaron wood, and r. j. baddeley, of shelton, are noted for their fine patterns. incised work in imitation of japanese work was also prevalent during the last period of salt-glaze work. we illustrate another very important salt-glazed piece, a teapot enamelled in colours having what is known as a "crabstock" handle, spout, and lid. it is remarkable as being incised with the name "john toft" (see p. 205). undoubtedly this is a member of the celebrated toft family, whose dishes, marked "ralph toft" and "thomas toft" in slip-ware, gave the generic name to a class of ware. it is not improbable that one of the tofts modelled the celebrated salt-glaze "pew group" in the victoria and albert museum. it exhibits the peculiarly quaint doll-like faces with beady eyes associated with toft dishes. [illustration: salt-glazed jug. richly enamelled in colours, and inscribed 'james & martha jinkcuson 1764.' (_in the collection of mr. frederick rathbone, south kensington._)] in the group illustrated (p. 201) there is one enamelled jug. the two dishes show another type of plain salt-glaze. the teapot shows incised work on the broad band around it, but no indication of colour. the coffee-pot is the well-known squirrel form, and the dark teapot on left is enamelled in blue by thomas littler, and is a rare example. in colouring the salt-glazed vase in bright turquoise blue and pink and green, with its oriental design, strongly suggests the enamel work of limoges (see p. 209). it stands in the eighteenth century in the same relationship to the metal enameller as does a modern french factory at bordeaux, messrs. viellard & cie., whose work in coarse earthenware simulates the _cloisonné_ enamel. the punch bowl illustrated has a portrait of the young pretender. in date it is, of course, not earlier than 1745, the year of the rebellion in scotland on behalf of the pretender, and when his son charles edward landed and defeated the royal forces near edinburgh. this punch bowl tells its story of stirring days, when jacobites secretly met at night in quiet manor houses and drank a toast to the stuart claimant. in public by a kind of subtle jest when they were driven to drink the health of "the king," they by a specious mental reservation flourished their glasses over any water on the table, the hidden meaning being "the king--over the water." but here is a punch bowl which was probably brought out for the sworn partisans to drink to the pious memory of the exiled stuarts. there was always, even when the stuart cause was a lost one, a tender recollection of "prince charlie," the "young chevalier." the lilting lines of bobbie burns in the last quarter of the eighteenth century, always awaken romantic associations, and bowls such as this were relics of something that had been, and without doubt in its day this same bowl has filled the glasses of a loyal company who drank the health of his gracious majesty george the third. as we have pointed out in the introductory note there are many monuments in clay on the collector's shelf which punctuate the sonorous phrases of the historian. such pieces are exceptionally interesting in aiding the reflective mind to recreate the events of a former day which touched the life roots of the nation. prices. salt glaze. £ s. d. teapoy, square shaped, decorated with scratched flowers in blue. with female half-length figure (within a chippendale frame), inscribed "martha saymore september ye 25th 1770" (5-1/4 in. high). bond, ipswich, april, 1906 11 0 0 bowl and cover and milk jug decorated, rich blue ground. sotheby, june, 1906 26 0 0 teapot, brilliantly enamelled in colour with roses, auriculas, &c., with turquoise handle and spout. sotheby, june, 1906 50 0 0 teapot, crimson ground, with white panels with flowers in colour. sotheby, june, 1906 26 0 0 teapot and cover, modelled as house with royal arms over door. sotheby, february, 1907 5 12 6 teapot and cover, modelled as a camel. sotheby, february, 1907 6 6 0 jug and cover, hexagonal, with subjects in relief. sotheby, february, 1907 4 4 0 teapot, enamelled in colours, with portrait of frederick king of prussia; on reverse, spread eagle holding ribbon with inscription, "semper sublimis." sotheby, march, 1907 21 10 0 milk jug and cover, enamelled in colours in a continuous landscape with castle, obelisk, and other buildings. sotheby, march, 1907 7 15 0 vessel, modelled as a _bear_, head forming cup. sotheby, march, 1907 4 4 0 basin with raised subjects in panels. sotheby, july, 1908 13 5 0 teapot and cover, enamelled in colours, with roses, &c. sotheby, july, 1908 8 0 0 teapot and cover, dark blue ground. sotheby, july, 1908 8 5 0 coffee-pot and cover (small), decorated in enamel colours with chinese figures. sotheby, july, 1908 14 15 0 vii josiah wedgwood chapter vii josiah wedgwood 1730-1795 josiah wedgwood's place in the ceramic world--his business abilities--josiah wedgwood's wares--cream ware and its invention--jasper ware and its imitation--the influence of josiah wedgwood--wedgwood marks--the prices of wedgwood. the time is now ripe to form a mature judgment as to the exact niche in the temple of fame which josiah wedgwood is to occupy permanently. his immediate successors were in too close proximity to his own day to form an opinion as to his life-work in relation to what had gone before and what has succeeded him. the inquiry into the origins of certain inventions attributed to him have been pursued of late years with a scientific thoroughness, and many facts have come to light which tend to raise the reputation of other lesser known potters who immediately preceded him or were his contemporaries. john dwight (of fulham) has come into his own. the elers (of staffordshire) have been dethroned from the unique position they occupied as pioneers of salt-glaze ware. in regard to the astburys, father and son, credit has been given them for great work, and whieldon is held to have had an immense influence on his contemporaries. during the great outburst in salt-glazed ware, cream ware, its later rival and conqueror, was in a transitional stage. this transitional period embraces a great field of pioneer workers who experimented unceasingly with clays and glazes. the days of salt-glaze were drawing to a close, it had many obvious defects; the ware would not readily stand hot liquids--and this in an age when tea drinking was becoming fashionable. the artistic side for the moment was cast aside in these experiments, the uppermost question in the staffordshire potters' minds was the invention of some ware that could hold its own against the competition of the new english porcelain factories. it thus came about that this period of great technical activity (1720-1740) was immediately succeeded by an almost simultaneous exhibition of work, suggesting a renaissance of earthenware in england (1740-1800) and establishing the european reputation of staffordshire. josiah wedgwood with john turner, of lane end, and william adams, of greengates, stand as a trio of master potters who developed the classic spirit in jasper and kindred ornamental ware. in regard to developing the manufacture of cream ware and stone ware for domestic use, and in building up a continental and american trade which won for british earthenware the supremacy of the world's trade in pottery, josiah wedgwood takes an equal prominence together with warburton and the baddeleys and the adamses and turner. in roughly detailing the stages which led up to the manufacture of the main classes of ware for which wedgwood was famous, it will be shown how with a masterly mind for realising broad results he combined the patient industry of a practical potter. he commenced with a capital of twenty pounds and died worth half a million. in spite of his ill-health and the loss of his leg, his unflagging energy and his keen foresight enabled him to build up an important business which is still carried on by his descendants. his love of organisation and the system of control which he exercised over his own enormous output had a lasting effect on the methods of the staffordshire potteries. the genius of josiah wedgwood has won the continued admiration of succeeding generations. it may be that he has somewhat overshadowed many of his contemporaries, and his successors have been termed imitators. in order to adjust matters there is a tendency in some quarters to belittle the work of the great josiah. but surely the pendulum has swung too far the other way when it is advanced that "wedgwood himself was no artist, he was a tradesman pure and simple." this is not the opinion of critics with nicer balanced judgment and of cosmopolitan taste. the epitaph upon his monument in the parish church of stoke-upon-trent, which bears the inscription that he "converted a rude and inconsiderable manufactory into an elegant art," has been assailed in order to prove it to be a "travesty of the fact," and to state that "what he _really_ did was to convert an art--rude it may be, and inconsiderable, but still an art--into a manufacture. in other words, he inaugurated an entirely new order of things in the production of pottery, and a less desirable one." the truth is that it is not necessary to belittle wedgwood in order to put his great contemporaries in the order of their merit. the later and more corrected opinion may be arrived at quite judicially by crediting them with some of the artistic impulses he possessed. while he lived he worked harmoniously and in close friendship with his fellow potters, and a century after his death it should not be difficult to determine their relative positions without bespattering his epitaph with mud. =wedgwood's business abilities.=--he was undoubtedly a keen man of affairs. when in partnership with whieldon he had travelled to london, to manchester, to birmingham, to sheffield, and to liverpool, which brought him into touch with silversmiths and metal workers in connection with the agate knife-handles and similar whieldon ware. he evidently realised that staffordshire was behind other districts in many respects. although only a young man, he interested the influential people in the neighbourhood of the potteries and the roads were improved and water transit provided as an outlet for goods. he cut the first sod of the trent and mersey canal. in 1759 he was master potter, but he made most of his own models, prepared his own mixtures, superintended firing, and was his own clerk and warehouseman. less than ten years afterwards, on the advice of the duke of marlborough, lord gower, and lord spencer, he opened showrooms in london in newport street. a year after this the demand for his fine jasper ware and expensive ornamental productions had so increased that he found the greatest difficulty in finding sufficient workmen. [illustration: wedgwood cream ware dessert basket. showing fine pierced work. _by the courtesy of messrs. josiah wedgwood & sons._] [illustration: wedgwood cream ware dessert centre-piece. designed from josiah wedgwood's collection of shells. (_in museum at etruria._) _by the courtesy of messrs. josiah wedgwood & sons._] his catalogues were printed in several languages, and he had the shrewd common sense to add some forewords of his own to indicate the lines on which he was working as a potter and to bring the attention of likely buyers to his ware. =wedgwood as a potter.=--there is no doubt that wedgwood always had in view the improvement of whatever ware he engaged to make. when with whieldon he perfected the green glaze in the cauliflower and kindred ware, and when he became a master potter in 1759, he produced pieces which were eminently remarkable for their fine technique. there is no doubt that his connection with silversmiths induced him to follow their designs. some of his early ware, such as teapots, have punched perforated ornament in the rims for which he invented tools. in the museum at etruria are some six thousand trial pieces, some few inches in length, covering a wide period when josiah was pursuing his way towards his crowning achievement, the invention of his jasper ware.[3] [note: 3 these have been recently arranged and catalogued by mr. frederic rathbone.] he claims credit for great improvements, both as an inventor and as a ready and masterly adapter, quick to seize the salient points of a half-perfected ware and by a few touches of genius make it his own. he was made a fellow of the royal society for his invention of a pyrometer, an instrument for registering high temperatures in the kilns. his experiments led him into new fields in connection with bodies, glazes, and colours, and he introduced for the first time in pottery certain minerals such as barytes in his pastes. =josiah wedgwood's wares.=--it will be seen, in the enumeration of the various classes of ware which were produced by him, in what respect he added improvements which in their turn were improved upon by later potters, and to what extent his productions were entirely original, adding a new note in english pottery, creating an entire school, and leaving the mark of his genius on his successors for nearly a century. _variegated ware._--the agate, the cauliflower, and melon ware, the clouded and mottled glaze, and the various imitations of marbling, came into vogue in the days of whieldon. but wedgwood was more ambitious in his designs. we have already seen, in dealing with whieldon ware, how the "solid" agate ware was produced by means of fine layers of clays of different colours, which after careful manipulation produced a series of waves resembling the natural ornamentation of the stone. wedgwood also employed "surface" colouring for this variegated ware, the body being of the common cream-coloured earthenware and the veining and mottling being applied to the surface. in such pieces the handles and the plinths were usually oil gilded; later he used a white semi-porcelain for plinths of such ware. two agate vases and ewers marked "wedgwood and bentley" belong to the period 1768 to 1780. the plinths of the agate vases show the white undecorated body. wedgwood imitated egyptian pebble, jasper, porphyry, and various kinds of granite speckled with grey, black, white, or green. much of this is a flight higher than the agate ware. _black basalt ware._--in this ware, which was termed "egyptian black," wedgwood triumphed over his predecessors. we know the black ware made by elers and by twyford (two fine black twyford teapots are in the hanley museum), but the ware into which wedgwood infused his genius is worthy to be called what he termed it--"black porcelaine." with its rich black, smooth surface it was capable of varied use, including useful as well as ornamental ware. in the former, we find tea services and coffee or chocolate pots strictly adopting the severe queen anne silver shapes, and in vases he followed bronze prototypes. see illustration (p. 241) of two _black basalt teapots_. it was used in fine manner for life-size busts and for medallion portraits of "illustrious ancients and moderns." this basalt ware wedgwood further used in combination with other processes. he imitated the ancient greek vase paintings by decorating the black surface with unglazed colours, or he had ornaments in relief in red. another replica of classic art was his simulation of bronze, and this black ware formed the groundwork to which he added the bronze metallic colouring in his rare bronze examples. the two black basalt ewers, entitled _wine_ and _water_, designed by flaxman, are well known. it is at once evident that they owe no inconsiderable debt to the metal worker. it requires no great stretch of imagination to believe them to be in bronze. technically, as specimens of earthenware, they are perfect, but it is open to question whether the potter has not trespassed on the domain of the worker in metal. there are canons which govern the art of pottery; form and ornamentation strictly appropriate in metal are utterly unfitted for the worker in clay. branched candelabra are false in porcelain though extremely beautiful in silver. in passing this criticism, which applies to some of wedgwood's work, we are incidentally brushing aside the contention of those critics who find him unoriginal. as a matter of fact he was so original and so responsive to the suggestion of allied arts that he often undertook the creation of pieces in his kilns the like of which no potter had ever attempted before. _red ware._--it is not to be supposed that wedgwood would allow the fine red elers ware to stand as representative of the uttermost that staffordshire had produced without attempting to emulate this early ware. accordingly, we find in what he terms his _rosso antico_, a red ware of extraordinary beauty. some of the engine-turned pieces of this red ware are exceptionally fine. there is in the hanley museum a coffee-pot of great technical and æsthetic value. wine-coolers and other useful creations, with classic ornamentation in relief, show the wide range of this red terra-cotta or unglazed ware. the elers style was simple, with applied stamped ornament of small dimensions and oriental rather than classical in _motif_. the red stoneware of böttcher, of dresden, was by this time fairly well known, and wedgwood had both elers and böttcher to serve as models, although he does not seem to have employed this red ware to any great extent. nor did wedgwood confine himself to red in this type of ware; he made chocolate-coloured examples, and in his cane-coloured and bamboo ware he made articles for domestic use, such as tea and coffee services as well as mugs and jugs of this type, which differed from the black basalt inasmuch as the basalt was an especially hard body, whereas these others were porous and soft. as was usual with wedgwood, not only did he have a series of wares of different colours, but he often worked with a combination of these colours in the same piece. =cream ware.=--something must be said concerning the development of cream ware before it can be accurately determined how much staffordshire was indebted to wedgwood for its development. at the outset it must be granted that he did not invent the ware. but he improved it. similarly it was further improved subsequent to his day by other potters who made it finer and whiter. but to this day, a hundred and fifty years after the introduction of this cream ware, his descendants, still trading under the name of messrs. josiah wedgwood and sons, produce this cream ware exactly as it was then produced. dinner services are made with flaxman's designs on the border, essentially english in character and feeling. last year messrs. james powell and sons, of the whitefriars glass works, near the temple, which were flourishing in 1710, and still continue to produce the finest glass in england, held an exhibition of wedgwood ware. considerable interest was drawn to the subject of this revival of the old patterns of 1775 from the designs of josiah wedgwood's band of artists. those connoisseurs who love old furniture and old eighteenth-century glass ware, as made by messrs. powell, welcomed the wedgwood queen's ware designs as being something eminently fitted to strike the right note of harmony, and accordingly, by arrangement with the firm at etruria, some of the finest patterns of the old ware are exclusively made for messrs. powell. the english dinner table may now be as english as it was in georgian days, and, happily, this æsthetic revival has met with a warm response by the patronage of the royal family, the nobility, and by all those who love the old-world charm of the domestic art of our forefathers. before wedgwood's day cream ware was made. astbury used an addition of white clay and flint to his bodies about 1720. in 1726 the grinding of flint stones into powder for the potters' use became so important that thomas benson took out a patent for a machine to do this. in 1750 we find cream ware being largely made. aaron wedgwood and william littler introduced about this time a fluid lead glaze instead of the old manner of using powdered galena (native sulphide of lead). body and glaze were at this period fired at one operation. enoch booth improved this by revolutionising the method of glazing. he fired the pieces to a biscuit state and then dipped them in this fluid lead glaze (ground flint and white lead), and refired them at a lower temperature. at this date two other potters, warburton (of hot lane) and baddeley (of shelton), followed booth's practice, and cream ware may be said to have been in a fairly flourishing condition. these facts are all important and cannot be ignored in arriving at a satisfactory conclusion. wedgwood commenced as a master potter in 1759, that is, about nine years after the latest inventions in cream ware had brought the ware into something more than an experimental stage. in 1761 wedgwood's cream ware, both by its variety of beautiful form and its finer glaze and body, had surpassed that of his rival potters. in 1762 wedgwood presented to queen charlotte a caudle and breakfast service of the ware; this was painted by thomas daniel and david steele. the queen and the king were so pleased with the ware that complete table services were ordered, and wedgwood received the queen's command to call himself "potter to her majesty" in 1765, and from that date he termed the ware "queen's ware." [illustration: wedgwood cream ware plates. painted with english scenery. from service made for catherine ii. of russia, 1774. having green frog in reserve on each plate. (_in museum at etruria._) (_at british museum._)] [illustration: wedgwood busts of rousseau and voltaire. enamelled in colours. (height 6-1/2 inches and 6 inches.) (_at victoria and albert museum._)] though the invention of cream ware may not be his, there must have been something essentially more pleasing in his productions to have made such strides in so short a time. perhaps wedgwood, "the tradesman pure and simple," had something to do with this achievement, but we prefer to think it was the master hand of wedgwood the potter and wedgwood the artist. we cannot leave this _cream ware_ question without referring to an old legal controversy. this brings us down to the year 1775 when wedgwood, in company with john turner (of lane end) journeyed to cornwall and jointly leased some clay mines. the reason for their visit was that the whole of the staffordshire potters were up in arms. salt glaze was coming to an end in spite of the enamelling in colours in emulation of english porcelain. and now cookworthy, the potter of plymouth, the maker of the first hard porcelain in england, had sold his patent rights to champion of bristol, who, in 1775, applied for a further patent for fourteen years to use certain natural materials for making porcelain. the staffordshire potters elected josiah wedgwood and john turner as their representatives and petitioned against the granting of this patent, and wedgwood urged that "the manufacture of earthenware in staffordshire has of late received many essential improvements, and is continually advancing to higher degrees of perfection; that the further improvement of the manufactory must depend upon the application and the _free use_ of the various raw materials that are the natural products of this country." he further adds that "the natural productions of the soil ought to be the right of all." incidentally, this controversy throws light on the position of wedgwood as a maker of cream ware, and it had a lasting effect, as we shall show in the improvement of cream ware itself and upon the class of ware turned out in staffordshire. champion, in his reply to the staffordshire outburst in petitioning parliament not to grant his patent, pays wedgwood a great compliment: "mr. champion most cheerfully joins in the general praise which is given to mr. wedgwood for the _many improvements which he has made in the staffordshire earthenware_, and the great pains and assiduity with which he has pursued them. he richly deserves the large fortune he has made from these improvements." champion goes on to make a most vital point in upholding his claim to protection that he "has no objection to the use which the potters of staffordshire may make of his or any other raw materials _provided earthenware only, as distinguished by that title, is made from it_." here, then, is the reason of the visit of wedgwood and turner to the west, in search of the natural earths that half the potters in europe had been hunting for since böttcher, of dresden, made his great discovery of white clay. but the story of _cream ware_ is not ended. wedgwood to this printed "reply" by champion entered the lists with some printed "remarks," which he circulated to members of parliament. in this--and we must bear in mind that he was holding a brief on behalf of all the staffordshire potters--we find the following statement:- "_when mr. wedgwood discovered the art of making queen's ware_, which employs ten times more people than all the china works in the kingdom, he did not ask for a patent for this important discovery. a patent would greatly have limited its public utility. instead of one hundred manufactories of queen's ware there would have been one; and instead of an exportation to all quarters of the world, a few pretty things would have been made for the amusement of the people of fashion in england." in spite of the opposition of staffordshire, the bill enabling champion to obtain his patent rights passed both houses of parliament, and in the last stage a clause was inserted throwing open the free use of raw materials to potters for any purpose _except for the manufacture of porcelain_; practically this patent was to be enjoyed by champion for nearly twenty-two years. two extraordinarily important effects upon the pottery industry in staffordshire were the result of this controversy: (1) the staffordshire potter confined himself to earthenware. (2) growan stone and cornish kaolin were added to the cream ware body, which enabled earthenware to compete successfully with china. it may have struck an inquiring spirit as singular that the staffordshire potters as a body were content to imitate english porcelain and compete with it. at first, of course, the remoteness of the potteries from the west accounted for this, but clay was brought by sea from bideford to chester and carried overland to staffordshire, but not the growan stone nor cornish kaolin. chelsea and bow did not have natural earths to hand. but the additional reason seems to be the one we have given--that practically champion's patent precluded them from making porcelain. when, in or about 1769, cream ware was perfected there was no need to cast about for new bodies. staffordshire earthenware had found itself, and all other improvements after that date, for fifty years, until early nineteenth-century days, mainly concerned enamelling, printing, glazing, and the _exterior_, or developments in mechanical production, or attempts at higher artistic effects. in the illustrations we give of cream ware it will be seen that it was of varying form and it received a variety of decoration. it was _plain or undecorated_, relying chiefly on its symmetry of form as an artistic asset. the cut and pierced designs and many other shapes followed those of the silversmith, and in dessert dishes and centre-pieces considerable beauty was exhibited in modelling--a style which was closely followed by the leeds potters, who made excellent cream ware. a beautiful example of the perforated basket ware is illustrated (p. 225). it is a dessert dish of most pleasing shape, and is a rare specimen of the pierced work in wedgwood's cream ware. wedgwood, as early as 1775, still experimenting with a view to make his cream ware better, determined to make a whiter body by the addition of more china clay and flint and to kill the yellow tone by the use of blue (oxide of cobalt). this later white ware he termed "pearl ware." among the most noticeable productions in this whiter ware are the dessert services modelled from shells. we know that wedgwood had a collection, although he was not a conchologist, yet it is not improbable that the contemplation of these beautiful forms suggested ideas and he derived many of his artistic shapes from the forms of shells. the use of shell forms was not unknown. salt-glaze pieces repeatedly show the pecten shell design, and plymouth porcelain had adopted shell designs in salt cellars and similar pieces. we illustrate (p. 225) a remarkable example of a centre-piece in the form of a nautilus shell. some of the shell dishes have a faint wash in pink, and yellow radiating bands, hardly perceptible, but conveying the suggestion of the interior of the shell. queen's ware, when decorated, was of two classes: (1) painted; (2) transfer-printed in red or puce or black. it is not necessary to go into details in regard to these two forms of decoration. it is interesting in regard to the enamelling in colour to know that wedgwood sent his ware to mrs. warburton's factory at hot lane to be painted. he also employed a band of enamellers at chelsea who had been trained in the china factory. we reproduce an illustration (p. 233) of two painted queen's-ware plates from the celebrated service executed for catherine ii. of russia. the enamel painting of the views and borders cost wedgwood over £2,000. in the centre of each piece is a scene representing some place of interest in the country. each view in this series of british scenery is different, and there are some twelve hundred. the body is in pale brimstone and the view painted in a brownish purple; the border was a wreath of mauve flowers and green leaves, and, as will be seen in the illustrations, each plate has a green frog in a reserve. this design has puzzled many writers, but as the messalina of the north intended to place this service in her palace of la grenouillère, near st. petersburg--grenouillère meaning a marshy place full of frogs--explains the whimsical design of the frog on each plate. this dinner and dessert service was completed in 1774 at a cost of about £3,000. it was exhibited in london, and set the town agog with amazement. the rooms in greek street, soho, were thronged with fashionable people, and, as may be imagined, it gave a great impetus to the manufacture of wedgwood's ware. the other decoration employed by wedgwood on his cream ware was transfer printing. he availed himself at once of the new style of printing by sadler and green on the glazed surface of his ware, which was periodically sent to liverpool to be so decorated. in the earlier pieces the tile design is evident, quite unsuitable for a round plate, in spite of wedgwood's addition of wreaths and ribbons in enamel painting to help out the incongruity. in early books illustrated by bewick with square woodcuts a similar use of garlands and ribbons as an ornamental border is observed. nor was the cream body confined to strictly domestic ware. among his multifarious productions wedgwood made some fine coloured figures, remarkable for strong modelling and subdued and harmonious colouring. the large figures, such as fortitude, charity, ceres, juno, prudence, and many others, are not always marked. "fortitude" and "charity" both bear the impressed mark wedgwood, the latter belonging to the series faith, hope, and charity designed for wedgwood by mrs. landré, and a marked example is in the willett collection. many small coloured cream-ware busts were made. we illustrate two typical examples (p. 233) of rousseau and voltaire. they were evidently intended for the french market, and are very dainty though somewhat highly-coloured likenesses of two great frenchmen. jean-jacques is portrayed in armenian costume, after the well-known portrait. the coat is a chocolate brown and the stand is marbled. voltaire has a blue surcoat, a terra-cotta cloak, and lilac vest. [illustration: wedgwood black basalt teapots. wedgwood jasper ware diced pattern tea set. _by the courtesy of messrs. josiah wedgwood & sons._] =jasper ware.=--as early as 1773 wedgwood was experimenting with a view to producing jasper body. it is here that his greatest triumph in the ceramic art was won. nothing like it had ever been seen in pottery before, and the ware he produced in an endless variety of forms which were termed "ornamental" by him to distinguish them from the queen's ware, or "useful" ware. about 1775--a great date in wedgwood's history--the jasper ware was perfected, and from 1780 to 1795 is the period when it was at its best, when he poured forth from etruria, then filled with a highly-trained body of workmen and artists, his jasper ware, exquisite with grace and beauty of form and fascinating in its charm of dainty and subtle colour. the spirit of classicism was in the air in the days of wedgwood. dr. johnson had imposed his ponderous latinity on the world of letters. alexander pope was still writing when josiah was apprenticed and known already as a "fine thrower." homer's _iliad_ and _odyssey_ had appeared in many editions just prior to wedgwood's manhood. the statues of naval and military commanders in westminster abbey were in roman costume. the brothers adam were in the heyday of their popularity. from sedan chairs to silver-plate their style was the vogue. the classical mouldings, capitals, and niches, the shell flutings and the light garlands in the adam style are welcome sights in many otherwise dreary streets in london. in furniture, the adam style is as severe as the french prototypes which had absorbed some of the ancient spirit of rome and greece. as early as 1763 grimm wrote, "for some years past we are beginning to inquire for antique ornaments and forms. the interior and exterior decorations of houses, furniture, materials of dress, work of the goldsmiths, all bear alike the stamp of the greeks. the fashion passes from architecture to millinery; our ladies have their hair dressed _à la grecque_." men of thought joined in clamouring for simplicity, and diderot lent his powerful aid in heralding the dawn of the revival of the antique long before the france of revolution days. but eyes other than french were fixed on the remote past. the excavations of herculaneum and pompeii had given a new stimulus to archæological research. in this country sir william hamilton, as early as 1765, promoted the publication of the magnificent work, "greek, roman, and etruscan antiquities," illustrated from his collection. it was a specially valuable exposition of the system and methods and æsthetic value of classic art, especially plastic art; and in promulgating this sumptuous illustrated disquisition on the ancient potter's art sir william hamilton laid modern workers in the same field under a heavy debt. incidentally it may be mentioned that sir william was the husband of the beautiful lady hamilton. so that in the midst of this eighteenth-century classic revival josiah wedgwood was but the child of his age, and, associated in partnership with bentley, a man of refined and scholarly tastes, he entered into the new spirit with willing mind. adroitly seizing classic models, wedgwood in his art adapted all that was most suited to modern requirements. pope translated homer into english verse, and wedgwood translated classic designs into english pottery. [illustration: wedgwood jasper vase. subject--representing the apotheosis of virgil; surmounted by pegasus cover. _by the courtesy of messrs. josiah wedgwood & sons._] wedgwood's jasper ware is of various colours--blue in various tones, sage-green, olive-green, lilac, pink, yellow, and black, and, of course, white, which is its natural body without the addition of metallic oxides. it is capable of taking a polish on the lapidary's wheel. in use it was mainly employed for ware of a highly ornamental character, though it was also employed for utilitarian objects, such as tea and coffee services, dishes, and flower vases, and in plaques it was used as interior decorations in fireplaces and in furniture. we illustrate (p. 241) a jasper ware diced pattern _tea set_, which shows how wide a field wedgwood covered with his new ware. it is usually found with a ground of one colour, such as blue, lilac, _et cetera_--one of the seven--and the ornament applied in relief is, as a rule, white. it was wedgwood's appreciation of antique gems that suggested the idea of reproducing them in earthenware, and in the period prior to bentley's death, in 1780, cameos, portrait medallions, and plaques were mostly made. there are two classes of jasper ware--_solid jasper_ and _jasper dip_. the difference is similar to that between solid agate and surface agate. solid jasper is coloured throughout. that which is coloured only on the surface is jasper dip. this latter gives more delicate effects, and was employed, after 1780, in the important series of classic vases which required translucency and greater delicacy in the white reliefs, which is especially effective in the filmy garments and flowing draperies of the classic figures. considerable progress had been made in staffordshire since elers left in 1710, but it is the elers method of stamping the ornaments and applying them to the body of the ware that wedgwood adopted. but there was more than enough originality of invention in this jasper ware to carry his fame to the confines of europe. blue and white porcelain in imitation of his jasper was made at sèvres, and other continental factories, such as meissen, furstenburg, and gros breitenbach, made similar echoes of this wonderful english jasper ware of josiah wedgwood. no illustrations can do justice to the charm and tender colour of some of the finer examples of this wedgwood jasper ware, varying from pale lemon colour to delicate mauve as a ground, and having translucent diaphonous draperies in white standing in relief in the groups of figures. to the sense of touch fine old specimens of this jasper ware are as soft as satin. usually the dull matt surface of this ware is left without polish, though it is so dense and hard as to receive a high polish, which was occasionally employed in the inside of basins and cups and on the bevelled edges of some of his cameos. his classic subjects were no feeble echoes of ancient art, but were executed from designs by a band of great artists working together and saturated with the spirit of the new classic revival. john flaxman, james tassie, john bacon, william hackwood, thomas stothard, george stubbs, william greatbach, were all employed by wedgwood. and distinguished amateurs such as lady diana beauclerk and lady templeton supplied him with designs, and it is interesting to note that mrs. wilcox, an accomplished painter of figures and borders on his etruscan ware, was a daughter of fry, the mezzotint engraver and founder of the bow porcelain factory. we illustrate (p. 245) a fine jasper vase representing _the apotheosis of virgil_, the cover surmounted by a pegasus. the square pedestal has griffins at the corners. a companion vase, _the apotheosis of homer_, changed owners at eight hundred guineas, and is now in the possession of lord tweedmouth. wedgwood himself regarded his copy of the celebrated barberini vase, which was lent to him by the duke of portland, as his masterpiece. this vase is a cameo glass vase, which was discovered in the middle of the seventeenth century in a marble sarcophagus on the road to frascati, two miles from rome. this vase belongs to the early part of the third century. it was bought by sir william hamilton for £1,000, and subsequently purchased by the duke of portland. this vase, of rich dark blue glass, almost black, is decorated with opaque white enamel cameos in relief cut with the most extraordinary skill, and it stands as a superb example of classic art. strictly speaking, wedgwood's copy of this was at best a copy in one material of the technique of another. but if it be not the highest art to copy thus in intricate detail, yet it must be admitted that such masterly elaboration had never before been attempted by the potter, and the early copies of wedgwood (he set out to make only fifty) stand unequalled as specimens of potting by the hands of trained workmen directed by genius. =wedgwood and his influence.=--as a final word on wedgwood and his influence, something should be said as to the charge laid against him that he inaugurated the factory system as applied to pottery. there is no doubt that he organised what was before his day a somewhat chaotic industry. and it is certain that he trained his workmen to become specialists, and that the system of the division of labour was the order of the day at etruria. but how else could such an output as his be handled? it has been advanced that the quaintness of the peasant potter and his later development was submerged, and that all individuality was lost under the new system. there was a growing tendency to develop mechanical perfection and to introduce labour-saving appliances, but this was the spirit of the oncoming modern age. other factories, his contemporaries, were adopting the same principles, and those who think wedgwood unoriginal or uninventive are quite willing to credit him with all the inventiveness and originality necessary to overturn the old system. the truth lies between these two extremes. wedgwood, in common with his contemporaries, not unwillingly embraced all the newest devices known. it was sadler and green, of liverpool, who together in one day by their invention printed as many tiles as it would have taken a hundred painters to do in the same time. similarly all over the country artisans in the china trade were becoming specialised. there were the enamellers at chelsea and other places, and a little examination will show that wedgwood did not inaugurate this modern factory method, but without doubt, in common with all other master potters, he had to go with the times. trade rivalry was very strong, and competition was not unknown when every potter in staffordshire was jealously watching the latest improvement of his neighbour. but to saddle josiah wedgwood with the responsibility of stamping out original talent is beside the mark. his life-work stands impregnable against petty assault. "in a word, no other potter of modern times has so successfully welded into one harmonious whole the prose and the poetry of the ceramic art." wedgwood marks. [illustration: wedgwood] 1.--this mark occurs upon a very early specimen of "queen's ware," a teapot, painted with flowers, &c., supposed to have been made by wedgwood at burslem: each letter apparently stamped singly with printers' type. [illustration: wedgwood wedgwood wedgwood] 2, 3, 4.--these marks, varying in size, were, it is thought, used by wedgwood up to the accession of bentley as his partner, 1768-9, and are found upon specimens said to have been purchased about that period. [illustration: wedgwood & bentley] 5.--the circular stamp, without the inner and outer rings, and without the word etruria, is doubtless the earliest form of the wedgwood and bentley stamp, and is found upon a set of three early painted vases, in imitation of natural stone, with gilt serpent and scroll handles. no other example of this mark is known: it may have been an experimental one, afterwards changed for no. 6, and never in general use. [illustration] 6.--this mark, with the word etruria, is made upon a wafer, or bat, and fixed in the corner, inside the plinth of old basalt vases, reversing for candelabra and some large specimens; it is sometimes found on the pedestal of a bust or large figure. [illustration] 7.--the well-known circular stamp, with an inner and outer line, always placed round the screw of the basalt, granite, and etruscan vases, but is never found upon the jasper vases of any period. [illustration: wedgwood & bentley wedgwood & bentley wedgwood & bentley wedgwood & bentley] 8, 9, 10, 11.--these marks, varying in size, are found upon busts, granite, and basalt vases, figures, plaques, medallions, and cameos, from the largest tablet to the smallest cameo for a ring (the writer has one, only half an inch by three-eighths of an inch, fully marked); also found upon useful ware of the period. [illustration: wedgwood & bentley 356] 12.--marks upon the wedgwood and bentley intaglios, with the catalogue number, varying in size. very small intaglios are sometimes marked w. & b. with the catalogue number, or simply with number only. [illustration: wedgwood & bentley.] 13.--this rare mark is found only upon chocolate and white seal intaglios, usually portraits, made of two layers of clay; the edges polished for mounting. it may be noted that the word "and" in every wedgwood and bentley mark is always contracted "&," that no punctuation or other points, excepting those in marks no. 5, 6, 7, and 13, are ever used. [illustration: wedgwood wedgwood wedgwood wedgwood wedgwood wedgwood wedgwood] 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20.--marks, varying in size, attributed to the period after bentley's death, and probably used for a time after wedgwood died. these marks and others were used by chance--a small piece often bearing a large stamp, and a large one a minute stamp. [illustration: wedgwood & sons] 21.--this rare mark exists upon some large square plateaux in cane-coloured jasper. it may have been one adopted upon the change of partnership in 1790, but little used. the circular announcing the change says: "the mark 'wedgwood' will be continued without any addition." [illustration: wedgwood etruria wedgwood etruria wedgwood etruria] 22, 23, 24.--these marks rarely found upon pieces of very high character--usually upon dark blue stoneware, vases, and glazed ware. adopted about 1840, but soon disused. [illustration: wedgwood (_in red, blue, or gold_)] 25.--the mark upon wedgwood porcelain made from 1805-1815. always printed either in red or blue, sometimes in gold. an impressed mark cannot be used with certainty upon soft-paste porcelain, being so apt to diffuse out in firing. [illustration: wedgwood wedgwood ] 26, 27.--these marks, varying in size, are still used at etruria for the modern jasper and useful ware of all varieties. [illustration: wedgwood] 28.--the manufacture of fine porcelain was revived at etruria, 1878, and is still continued. this mark, _printed_ in black and other colours, is used. [illustration: england] 29.--the word england was added to the mark wedgwood in 1891, to comply with the new american customs regulations, known as the mckinley tariff act. the occurrence of three capital letters, ano, rep, &c., in addition to name appears on ware after 1840. the first two letters are workmen's marks, and the third is a date letter, _e.g._, o = 1855, p = 1856, and so on, as in hall-marks on silver. prices. wedgwood. £ s. d. oval. ganymede feeding eagle (6-1/4 in. by 5-1/4 in.), marked wedgwood & bentley christie, june, 1906 40 19 0 oblong oval. marriage of cupid and psyche (6 in. by 7-3/4 in.), marked wedgwood & bentley. christie, june, 1906 54 12 0 busts, _minerva_ and _mercury_, black basalt, 18 in. high. christie, november, 1906 16 16 0 oval portrait, in jasper, white on blue ground, of captain cook (10 in. by 8 in.), marked wedgwood & bentley. sotheby, february, 1907 16 16 0 jasper vase, blue, with venus and cupid in relief, handles coiled with serpents. christie, february, 1908 33 12 0 a pair of splashed mauve nautilus shells, marked wedgwood. sotheby, december, 1908 3 10 0 the above prices are for ordinary collectors' examples of old wedgwood. but exceptional pieces bring exceptional prices. the largest known example of a blue and white jasper plaque (11 in. by 26 in.) sold for £415 at christie's in 1880, and the fine jasper vase _the apotheosis of homer_ (now in the tweedmouth collection) realised 800 guineas. viii the school of wedgwood chapter viii the school of wedgwood 1760-1810 william adams (of greengates) (1789-1805)--john turner (of lane end) (1739-1786)--the plagiarists of wedgwood--the wedgwood influence--the passing of classicism--table of marks--prices. potters who followed wedgwood may be divided into three classes. men such as john turner and william adams, who were competitors with him in friendly rivalry, each striving to emulate the successes of the other, and each doing original and independent work. indebted, and greatly indebted to wedgwood as these potters were, they produced work equal with his in technique. the blue jasper of william adams, if anything, is rather finer than that of his master. john turner, of lane end, made jasper from a different formula to wedgwood, being more porcellanous in character. these men, his friends and intimates, and palmer, of hanley, who was first to apply bas-reliefs to his black vases, in 1769, may be said to represent original research, as compared with uninventive copying. the second class, which includes contemporaries such as elijah mayer, and palmer, of hanley, who must be included here (in spite of his streak of originality above alluded to, and his fine use of gilding to granitic ware), and neale, his brother-in-law, and voyez, the modeller, and hollins, may all be said to be plagiarists who lived largely on wedgwood's jasper and basalt ware, as well as several schools such as hartley greens (of leeds), and swansea and spode, and many others who followed his cream-ware designs. in regard to palmer and neale and voyez the case is very strong, as they are stated to have forged the mark "wedgwood & bentley" in some of their medallions; but against the others the case must not be pressed too closely, as they undoubtedly displayed a fertility of invention and an originality after they had once learned the wedgwood manner. leeds, in particular, having caught the spirit that wedgwood had transplanted from the silversmith to his dessert services, produced cream-ware rivalling that of etruria. tennyson had a set of verses which illustrate this situation. he tells of him who "cast to earth a seed" which grew so tall "it wore a crown of light." "but thieves from o'er the wall stole the seed by night." sown far and wide in every town, it won universal admiration, and, says the poet--who, by the way, was thinking of plagiarists of his own style- "most can raise the flowers now, for all have got the seed." we must make one other point; it was wedgwood who lighted the way even to his source of inspiration. he made no secret of his indebtedness to the art of the silversmith, and in recognising in the antiquarian works of count caylus and sir william hamilton a new field, he left it open for others to go to the same original sources, nor were his contemporaries slow in doing this. so that, in a measure, this second class of potters may be exonerated from the charge of plagiarism when we find them striking out for themselves. chippendale, when he promulgated his "director" giving designs for furniture, straightway started a school of cabinet-makers, who worked after his designs in every locality in england. these early pioneers in art--chippendale, the masterly adapter of all that was best on the continent, and wedgwood, translator of classicism into english pottery--worked with broad and generous spirit, and their contemporaries and those who came immediately after them helped themselves liberally to the overflowing profusion of ideas. the third class is the great crowd of lesser men, potters who claim little attention for original work, but who are remembered as producing, as an echo to the great classic revival, designs and shapes and copies of wedgwood's ware, sometimes in stoneware for jugs, and more often in cream-ware, without an added touch of originality. in this decadent period, when not only in staffordshire but in other parts of the country this was being largely done, and not always done well, though there are exceptions to which we shall allude later, one is reminded of the pregnant words of goethe: "there are many echoes, but few voices." =william adams (1745-1805).=--the adams family are renowned in staffordshire as being among the oldest potters in the country. in connection with classic ware william adams, of greengates, is pre-eminent. at his death, in 1805, the works were carried on by benjamin adams till 1820. there is considerable confusion between contemporary members of this family, both of the same name, william adams (of cobridge), william adams (of greenfield), and the subject of the present remarks, william adams, of greengates, who commenced as master potter there in 1789. there were other firms, such as j. adams & co., or adams & bromley, who made jasper ware between about 1870 and 1886, and who stamped their ware "adams," or "adams & co." this, of course, does not come into the realm of collecting, and this latter firm has nothing to do with the old-established family of adams. but collectors cannot be too careful when auction catalogues describe such ware as "adams." the beautiful adams blue which is of a violet tone is much admired, and in the finely-modelled classic reliefs the style is less frigid than wedgwood, as william adams drew his inspiration more from latin than greek models. as a rule his jasper is a trifle more waxen than that of wedgwood, but never glossy. william adams was a favourite pupil of wedgwood, and was doubtless indebted to him for the guidance that set the young potter to work in friendly and amicable rivalry with his late master. [illustration: blue and white jasper vase. impressed mark turner. subject--diana in her chariot. (john turner, of lane end, 1762-1786.) blue and white jasper vase. impressed mark adams. (about 1790.) (william adams, of greengates, made jasper 1787-1805.) (_at british museum._)] as a modeller he was of exceptional merit, and it is known that he designed, himself, several of his finest pieces, such as the _seasons_, his _venus bound_, and _cupid disarmed_, his _pandora_, _psyche trying one of cupid's darts_, and the _muses_. monglott, a swiss artist, was employed by him on jasper vases, and it is believed that enoch wood is responsible for designing the hunting scenes which appear on the fine stoneware jugs and tankards similar in style to the turner jug illustrated (p. 267). many of his jugs had silver mounts. in regard to marks, that usually found is adams impressed. sometimes, though rarely, the mark is adams & co.; and later his son, benjamin adams, had the impressed mark b. adams, which appears on stoneware and blue printed ware. to those who desire to familiarise themselves with the genius of william adams, there is a special volume by mr. william turner, entitled "william adams, an old english potter" (chapman & hall, 1904), which is a full and learned monograph, dealing in thorough manner with the productions of william adams and of his kinsfolk, the adams family of potters. we illustrate one of a pair of jasper vases in blue and white by adams, in date about 1790. the classic figure subjects, as will be seen, display a simplicity and exquisite grace of modelling and arrangement not surpassed even by wedgwood (see p. 261). =john turner, of lane end (1739-1786).=--wedgwood and turner were intimates, and in considering turner we must regard him as a friendly neighbour, as well as a rival potter. he made some remarkably fine jasper, though it differed in its body very greatly from that of wedgwood, being more closely allied with porcelain. it contained no barytes in its composition. in design turner, though not imitative, followed the greek school and produced, as a modeller himself, some exquisitely proportioned pieces. we illustrate a fine vase in blue-and-white jasper which is especially graceful in design, the severity being relieved by the delicacy of the fine subject in relief of _diana in her chariot_ drawing a pair of goats and accompanied by flying cherubs (see p. 261). this subject, it will be noticed, is reproduced in a transfer-printed jug illustrated in a later chapter (p. 319). but it is in the unglazed stoneware that he surpassed anything his contemporaries had done. it was about 1780 that he discovered, after hunting for clay even so far afield as cornwall, the precise earth he wanted in his own neighbourhood at longton. in colour it was a warm biscuit tone, and it was capable of being modelled with exactitude into fine sharp designs in relief. in stoneware jugs with classic figures in relief he set the fashion for half a century. his teapots and coffee-pots are models of graceful design. we illustrate a fine example of a _teapot_ (p. 267), with the lid perfectly fitting, made to slide in a groove, and showing in clear relief the style of ornamentation for which turner became so renowned. the other illustration, on the same page, of an equally perfect _stoneware jug_ with metal mounts, shows a slight departure from classic ornament. the figures are in old english costume, and are engaged in archery. it will thus be seen that even in the early days there was exhibited a tendency to depart from classic figure design and turn to equally graceful but homelier subjects. possibly this influence may have been due to enoch wood, who is believed to have been employed by turner as a modeller; but accurate information regarding turner's modellers is not known. besides the above-mentioned wares, turner also made black basalt of very high quality, being preferred by some connoisseurs to that of wedgwood. he also was the first to introduce under-glaze printing into staffordshire, and although he did not introduce the "willow pattern" (spode brought that from caughley), he made ware with this pattern printed in under-glaze blue, and his plates and dishes have perforated borders. we illustrate a fine example of this ware (p. 331). =the plagiarists of wedgwood.=--we have seen that john turner, of lane end, that william adams, of greengates, came under the strong influence of wedgwood, but were no more imitators, in the broad sense, than gainsborough and romney may be said to be imitators of sir joshua reynolds. it must be allowed in art that a school may arise under the guidance of some remarkable genius who tinges the originality of his contemporaries with his own master mind. wedgwood had the inspiration to transplant classic decoration into staffordshire--the rest was easy; having shown the way, crowds of lesser men seized the new ideas with avidity. chief among the direct copyists was henry palmer. he had a spark of originality, as we have seen, anticipating wedgwood by some five years in applying bas-reliefs to his black vases, and the sprinkled marbled ware touched with gold was another success of his, but here his ingenuity ended. he must have been a great thorn in wedgwood's side, for he is said to have procured every new pattern on its appearance and copied it. voyez, who was a modeller and not a potter, assisted in this nefarious traffic; but voyez, in spite of his rascality, was a clever modeller, and struck out a new line in his rustic or "fair hebe" jugs. he was employed at one time by wedgwood, and probably by ralph wood. voyez specialised on the intaglio seals, and added wedgwood and bentley's names to his handiwork. on other intaglios, equally imitative, and on vases is the name palmer or the initials h. p. wedgwood himself--as do collectors nowadays--was obliged to acknowledge the fine quality of the work of palmer and of neale, for he admitted to bentley that they were "serious competitors," and he evidently feared their activity, as he says, "we must be progressing or we shall have them treading on our heels." the sagacity of wedgwood's remark is obvious, for an examination of the neale-and-palmer jasper and other ware reveals an amazing mastery of technique. it is finely potted and well balanced in ornament and design. if it were not for the impressed mark such vases might readily pass as wedgwood. it is not improbable that in the middle nineteenth century the names both of adams and palmer and neale were ground out of the bases of some of their finer vases by ingenious persons, who passed them off as the work of wedgwood. [illustration: turner stoneware teapot, unglazed. with ornament in relief and classic figure subjects. mark impressed turner. (height 4-1/2 inches.) (_in the collection of mrs. l. scott._)] [illustration: turner stoneware jug, unglazed. with decoration in relief of archery. silver lid and rim. mark impressed turner. (height 9 inches.) (_in the collection of mr. john watson bradley._)] =marks--palmer, neale, wilson.=--in regard to marks, h. palmer or palmer. hanley is the earliest--sometimes only the initials h. p. about 1776 he entered into partnership with his brother-in-law, and sometimes the mark neale alone is found and often neale & co. these marks are usually in circles; on one piece appears i. neale, with the word hanly (spelt wrongly) beneath. about 1778 robert wilson joined the firm, and after 1788 his name alone appears. stoneware jugs--drab ground with cupids in relief--baskets, and cream-ware are often found marked wilson surmounted by a crown with the letter c above. sometimes this is present without the name. wilson, too, is remembered for having introduced chalk into the body of his cream-ware, which was of exceptional value in whitening the ware and rendering it more adapted for under-glaze printing. at wilson's death, in 1802, david wilson succeeded to the pottery, and the firm shortly after became d. wilson & sons. these wilsons made pink lustre, similar to that of wedgwood, and also silver lustre, upon some of which the name of wilson is impressed. this brings the factory down to 1820, when it passed into other hands. we have seen that adams and turner and palmer and neale came more or less into touch with wedgwood as contemporary rivals. before coming to the crowd of lesser men, or lesser-known men, we must not omit josiah spode, who was a colleague of wedgwood under whieldon; elijah mayer, whose black basalt was almost equal to that of wedgwood, and whose enamel cream-ware stands artistically very high; and samuel hollins, of shelton, with fine red or chocolate ware, having as dense a character as wedgwood's imitations of the elers ware, and hollins in his jasper produced some fine examples with original combinations of colours. =josiah spode= the first (there are three potters in succession of that name) made, in common with other potters, the black basalt ware from 1770, when he commenced as potter, and he produced stoneware jugs similar in character to those of adams and turner, following the sporting subjects in relief and departing from the ultra-classical subjects of wedgwood. this class of jug and mug was made by many potters--its character was english, and it was evidently popular. an illustration of the type appears on page 277. davenport, of longport, made the same pattern; it was made at castleford, near leeds, and hollins and others adopted the design in relief of a fox-hunt, with horsemen dismounted preparing to join others at the "kill," which is shown on the reverse. in fact, it was almost as much copied in stoneware as the "willow pattern" was in blue-printed ware. but josiah spode is best known as devoting considerable skill in the improvement of under-glaze blue-printing cream-ware. in 1783 he brought two workmen into staffordshire from caughley, where under-glaze blue-printing under thomas turner was in full swing. spode was not the first to introduce under-glaze blue-printing into staffordshire; this is due to john turner, of lane end (whom we have described, maker of the fine jasper-ware and stoneware teapots and jugs), not to be confounded with thomas turner, the maker of porcelain at caughley, who introduced the "willow pattern" in 1780, which same design was introduced into staffordshire in 1784 by spode--a year after his two men came over from caughley. but this and blue transfer-printing is dealt with in a subsequent chapter. something should be said of josiah spode the second (1797-1827), who continued the blue-printed ware, and produced a great number of stoneware jugs with decoration in relief similar to those we have alluded to, and produced jasper ware in blue and white with the familiar subjects of wedgwood's day. to him must be given the credit of introducing colour into staffordshire earthenware, colour such as it had never before attempted. his fine imitations of the derby-japan porcelain designs mark a new era in staffordshire earthenware. [illustration: black basalt teapot, unglazed. impressed mark e. mayer. (1770-1813.) (about 1786.) (_at british museum._)] [illustration: black basalt teapot, unglazed. impressed mark birch. (about 1802.) (_in the possession of mr. f. w. phillips, hitchin._)] these illustrations show the imitativeness of this school of potters and the difficulty of identification. the spodes brought something new into staffordshire earthenware. the elder spode evidently had a strong love for oriental subjects, as in the "willow pattern," which he "lifted" from caughley porcelain. he broke away--and others followed him readily enough--from the cupids and psyches and gods and goddesses of the old world, and followed the newer-imported ideas in chinese taste, now the fashion at worcester, bow, and other china factories. leeds and swansea were not slow in snatching at this new oriental style of decoration. in the staffordshire cream-ware jug we previously illustrated painted in under-glaze colours, somewhat brown owing to the imperfect knowledge of the staffordshire potter in under-glaze work submitted to great heat, we see an example of painted design in oriental style, which came shortly to be more perfectly done in under-glaze blue, as in the painted plate of leeds ware illustrated (p. 303). but much in the same manner work such as the painted scenery on services like that made by wedgwood for catherine ii. was shortly supplanted by black and purple and red transfer-printing done at liverpool, so the short-lived under-glaze blue painting on earthenware was quickly killed by spode and the other staffordshire potters when they rapidly developed the under-glaze transfer-printing in blue. it was quite an original departure, and owed nothing to josiah wedgwood (who never employed transfer-printing in blue), though it was adopted very successfully by the firm after his death. and josiah spode the elder most certainly had a strong influence in the potters of his day in acclimatising the "willow pattern" in staffordshire, and in assimilating the best efforts of chinese decoration as applied to blue-and-white ware. and josiah spode the second, with equal originality, took up the next stage in adopting the gorgeous colouring of japan. this brings the story of the development of wedgwood's cream-ware up to modern times. and the same chain of development might be traced in the history of some of the other great potters whose descendants still carry on the manufacture. cream-ware at first painted, then transfer-printed in black or red, then painted in blue under-glaze--which was killed by the blue under-glaze printing--finally emulated the rich colours and gilding of porcelain. to return to =elijah mayer= (1770-1813). from 1786 he appears to have produced black basalt tea ware; his fine teapots with the seated figure at the apex are well known, and his unglazed cane-coloured ware is much prized, with its simple decorations in lines of green and blue. we illustrate (p. 271) an example of a _black basalt teapot_, and beneath it an illustration of a similar model by birch, showing the imitativeness of this school of potters and how difficult it is to identify specimens. his cream-ware deserves especial attention, as his enamelling was in very artistic manner, and it stands out prominently among a crowd of imitators of wedgwood's cream-ware borders. every maker not only took the body of the ware, but in so doing he followed the designs by flaxman or some of wedgwood's other artists, still found in the old pattern-books to-day at etruria. as an example of this imitation in detail, see the swansea cream-ware plate illustrated (p. 397). mayer made black glazed tea ware, and this, when unmarked, is very commonly attributed by beginners to turner. the marks impressed are e. mayer, and after 1820 e. mayer & son. at a later period the mark was joseph mayer. =samuel hollins= (1774-1816), with his red and chocolate unglazed ware decorated with ornament in the elers manner and made from the clay at bradwell wood, is deservedly noteworthy as well as for several important departures in colour in the stoneware teapots and coffee-pots which he made of green, with touches of applied ornament in blue jasper. he followed silver designs, and avoided the cold, classic forms of wedgwood. he departed from the straight lines of the turner teapot. he loved ornament, and there is a touch of elaboration in his design, as though attempting to shake off the severe formality of the brothers adam style of design, and he strongly loved colour. samuel hollins was one of the proprietors in the new hall china works, and his successors were t. and j. hollins, who continued to make jasper ware in the style of wedgwood. their names are impressed on many examples. =the wedgwood influence.=--in the latter days of the eighteenth century and the early days of the nineteenth, the direct influence of wedgwood became something more remote. but even in early nineteenth-century days there were undeniable traces of the old models and the old form of ware. take, for example, the unmarked early nineteenth-century _black basalt teapot_ in the form of a barrel, with the grape-vine ornament in relief, and the pine cone at top of lid (illustrated p. 277). undoubtedly this has left all classic form, but it has retained the technique of wedgwood. in some of the buff-coloured, unglazed stoneware jugs which are unmarked, there is the inclination to follow the sporting subjects in relief, which adams and turner and spode so successfully adopted, and the twisted snake-handle and reptilian-modelled mouth become original in treatment. in general, it may be said, that the classic influence remained for a considerable time in the stoneware of various kinds, but in the cream-ware which is the main stream of english earthenware, the forms and the ornamentation more rapidly departed from the styles of wedgwood's queen's ware. hence we find two opposing influences working against each other in the staffordshire potters' minds. the best of them in their highest flights essayed to make jasper, or to copy or emulate wedgwood's classic style in vases and important ornamental pieces. most of them largely made the stoneware of various colours, and also the black basalt. all of them made cream-ware, which was the staple ware of staffordshire, in a thousand different forms. as time went on all except cream-ware began to deteriorate from the earliest prototypes, and the later forms are debased in design and inferior in potting. [illustration: spode stoneware jug. rich blue glazed ground with decoration of hunting scene in white relief. davenport stoneware jug. same design as adjacent jug, but having white ground with subject in relief. (_in the possession of mr. hubert gould._)] [illustration: black basalt teapot. in the form of a barrel, with grape-vine decoration in relief. (early nineteenth century.)] =the passing of classicism.=--from the first there were those who were classic only by compulsion. wedgwood was regarded as too classic for vulgar tastes. the cream-ware and the coloured figures display a ready appreciation of public wants. even voyez descended to rusticity in his jugs. spode had a leaning for oriental subjects in his blue printed ware, which was quickly adopted by leeds. adams leaned to landscape subjects after claude and english scenery. nor was this all. the cream-ware figures and the mugs and jugs provided full scope for the potter's fancy in political, satirical, patriotic, and humorous and fancy subjects. from sunderland to swansea the cream-ware took to itself more homely sentiments and more characteristic design. it became, during the last quarter of the eighteenth century and the first quarter of the nineteenth, as english as if the gods and goddesses had never descended into staffordshire, and as though wedgwood had never been. most of this cream-ware was transfer-printed, the caxtons of staffordshire had found blank spots enough to fill on their white ware, and in filling them they have left us a permanent record of popular feeling which was at the time strong enough to induce them to rush into print on every conceivable subject with queer engraved decoration and whimsically illiterate verse. =marks.=--the following are some of the names, mostly found as impressed marks, on ware of the wedgwood school, in date from 1760 to 1835, a period of three-quarters of a century. in many cases in addition to ware bearing traces of a classic influence, the potters made cream ware with blue-printed decoration, a style which was not employed at etruria until the second wedgwood period, on the death of josiah wedgwood in 1795.[4] [note: 4 compare this with the list of marks on transfer-printed ware, pp. 347-35.] the names are arranged alphabetically, and, where of interest, the class of ware associated with the potter is given. william adams 1787-1805 fine jasper ware of the highest (of greengates) quality. stoneware and blue-printed ware. j. aynsley 1790-1826 silver lustre. transfer-printed ware. melonand barrel-shaped teapots. batty & co. vases and jugs, classic figures as frieze, printed in under-glaze blue touched with vermilion. e. j. birch black basalt ware of good quality (sometimes marked with e.i.b. impressed). bott & co. busts painted in colours. vases transfer-printed. j. clementson 1832-1867 white ware blue-printed with foreign scenery. (marked with name and phoenix.) clews 1814-1836 stoneware jugs. blue-printed cream ware. picturesque views and subjects after wilkie's pictures, rowlandson's _dr. syntax_, _don quixote_, &c. close & co. from 1843 cream ware with printed decoration (successors to w. in brown. adams & sons, of stoke.) cookson & harding 1856-1862 cream ware blue transfer-printed. c. & h. (late hackwood.) davenport (longport) 1793-1834 cream ware painted and printed. (firm continued handles in form of dolphins. plates till 1886.) and dishes--dragons and fret border printed in blue; ground pencilled in scale pattern. eastwood 1802-1830 vases small, jasper, wedgwood style; stoneware blue and buff. w. baddeley, of _eastwood_, is believed to have used this mark, frequently found. hackwood 1842-1856 cream ware painted with knights and armed figures. harding 1862-1880 blue glazed earthenware, white ornaments in relief. brown glazed jugs and teapots in rockingham style. harley about 1809 teapots, white glazed stoneware; cover surmounted. heath 1770-1777 heath & bagnall 1777-1785 heath, warburton 1786 & co. s. hollins 1774-1816 jasper ware, white ground cameo figures in blue. t. & j. hollins 1802-1820 similar ware to above. a. & e. keeling 1786-1828 black basalt and cream ware. lakin cream ware blue-printed with english landscape subjects, &c. lakin & poole 1770-1846 dishes and cream ware. centres often finely painted with exotic birds in worcester style. j. & t. lockett 1786-1829 white stoneware and salt-glaze. e. j. mayer 1770-1813 black basalt tea services, &c., with animals in relief; silver lustre. e. mayer & son 1813-1830 mayer & newbold 1823-1837 made porcelain as well as earthenware (marked m. & n.). mayer & elliott cream ware, blue-printed. f. meir white glazed earthenware services, english landscapes printed in blue, dishes with pierced border. morr & smith moseley 1802-1825 black basalt ware; teapots, &c. myatt 1802-1840 unglazed red ware coffee-pots in elers style. engine-turned with wavy patterns. sometimes marked with an oval enclosing letter =w=. h. palmer 1760-1775 fine jasper ware, granitic vases; figures. neale & palmer 1776-1778 jasper ware strongly imitative of wedgwood. neale & co. 1778-1788 jasper ware and classic figures. phillips (longport) 1760-1830 small dishes; salt cellars, cream ware, oriental decoration, blue-printed. pratt vases and jugs, white stoneware, with blue figures in relief; border of vine. ridgway 1790-1854 various elaborate marks used. w. ridgway and w. ridgway & son. in 1836 the firm became w. ridgway, morley, wear & co. riley rogers 1786-1829 blue-printed stoneware. inferior imitations of wedgwood. salt 1820-1864 figures enamelled in colour. shorthose 1783-1802 black basalt vases and flower jars. shorthose & heath 1802 white glazed earthenware, transfer printed in red over-glaze. subjects--children at play, &c. cream ware embossed with wicker pattern pierced border. (mark printed in red, also impressed.) sneyd about 1850 imitations of portland vase, &c. josiah spode 1770-1797 black basalt ware. stoneware (_the first_) jugs with sporting subjects in relief. steel 1780-1824 jasper and ornamental ware, white relief on blue, dark blue figures in relief on pink ground, &c. w. stevenson about 1828 white glazed ware, classic figures in relief on pale blue ground; impressed mark w. stevenson, hanley. john turner 1739-1786 fine jasper ware of excellent (of lane end) quality. stoneware jugs, &c., of warm biscuit colour unglazed. black basalt, and under-glaze, blue-printed ware. walton 1806-1839 figures-classical lions, _fishwife_, _gardener_, &c. warburton 1751-1828 rarely marked. mrs. warburton, of cobridge, in 1751 made great improvements in cream ware prior to wedgwood's queen's ware. in 1828 the firm was j. warburton & co. wilson 1788-1820 stoneware jugs with classic figures in relief. ornamental vases in wedgwood style. copper lustre ware. e. wood 1784-1790 cream ware, basket pattern, &c. busts. wood & caldwell 1790-1818 white glazed earthenware. figures, coloured busts, &c. enoch wood & sons 1820-1846 figures of classic form. prices. =school of wedgwood.= adams. £ s. d. jug (with old sheffield plate lid), chocolate band with bacchanalian subject. escritt & barrett, grantham, april, 1907 2 2 0 jug, blue jasper, with figure subjects of _seasons_ in white relief, old sheffield plate cover. sotheby, may, 1908 6 5 0 sucrier and cover, marked "adams & co." sotheby, november, 1908 2 14 0 turner. female figure of a "water carrier" in black basalt, marked turner. sotheby, december, 1905 3 5 0 teapot and cover, blue ground with classical subjects in high relief; impressed mark, turner. sotheby, november, 1908 2 6 0 teapot, of different form, similar decoration, unmarked. sotheby, november, 1908 2 4 0 sucrier and cover, similar decoration; impressed mark, turner. sotheby, november, 1908 3 12 0 cake plate with classic decorations in relief; impressed mark, turner. sotheby, november, 1908 4 10 0 coffee pot and cover, similar style; impressed mark, turner. sotheby, november, 1908 4 0 0 neale & palmer. vase and cover with medallions, wreaths and masks in relief, in gilt on mottled grey-blue ground, marked neale, hanley. puttick & simpson, nov., '08 4 10 0 vase and cover, urn-shaped, with medallion and figure subject in white relief; ram's head handles, wreaths and borders in gilt on mottled-blue ground, marked h. palmer, hanley. puttick & simpson, november, 1908 3 10 0 ralph wood. figure of apollo with lyre. sotheby, may, 1908 2 5 0 figures, boy and girl harvesters, square bases; one marked r. wood. sotheby, may, 1908 10 5 0 e. wood. bust of john wesley, signed enoch wood. sotheby, june, 1906 2 0 0 e. mayer. four plaques of cupids in relief; mark impressed, e. mayer, and dated 1784. sotheby, november, 1905 1 18 0 heath. plate of cream ware, crudely decorated for the dutch market, subject--abraham offering up isaac (hodgkin collection). sotheby, december, 1903 0 3 0 lakin. dish decorated with border of rose, shamrock, and thistle. prince of wales' feathers and lion over crown in centre. made for the prince regent (george iv.); marked "lakin." sotheby, february, 1906 2 0 0 pair of _lakin_ plates from above service. sotheby, november, 1907 3 0 0 lakin & poole. mug, with mask head on front, marked "lakin & poole," and four shell dishes. sotheby, june, 1906 1 6 0 ix leeds and other factories chapter ix leeds and other factories leeds marks--the best period of leeds--leeds cream ware--blue and white ware--leeds ware decorated at lowestoft, castleford, jackfield, rockingham, sunderland, and newcastle--table of marks--prices. leeds claims notice mainly on account of its fine cream ware that was produced in the period from 1783 to about 1800 when the factory was at its zenith. the date which commences its known history is the year 1760, a most pregnant year in the history of pottery. before that there always exists some doubt as to the exact date or the particular maker. "early staffordshire" or "whieldon" are as definite as most collectors dare go. in 1762 wedgwood's cream ware was perfected, and all staffordshire was aflame with the prospects of something that at last was to stand artistically side by side with bow and chelsea and worcester and derby and plymouth. it did nothing of the sort, but still it was the dream of the staffordshire potters that it should by reason of its cheapness smash the new china factories, and it seems to have had no little share in doing this. in 1775 the leeds pottery was in the hands of humble and green. in 1783 it was known as hartley, greens & co., and for the next ten years some splendid examples of cream ware were produced rivalling the best productions of wedgwood, at first imitative, but later strikingly original, and possessed of extraordinary artistic qualities. down to the opening days of the nineteenth century the trade in cream ware was considerable. pattern books and catalogues were issued in french and german and spanish, and the output from leeds was very considerable, and the continental trade very extensive, especially with northern europe. from 1825 to 1832 the firm was known as samuel wainwright & co. from 1832 to 1840 the name changed again to the leeds pottery company, under the managership of stephen chapel, who, together with his brother james, held the pottery till 1847. in 1850 warburton, britton & co. were proprietors until 1863, and richard britton & sons carried on the works until 1878 when the factory closed. =forgeries of leeds ware.=--leeds ware has appealed, on account of its artistic qualities, to so wide a circle of collectors and admirers that it has had the honour of being forged with intent to deceive. nearly all these pieces are marked either "leeds pottery," "l.p.," or "leeds p." in addition to being copied for sale to unwary collectors some of the basket and other patterns have been of recent years made in germany for sale in this country. but to any one who has had the opportunity of handling genuine old leeds ware the lightness in weight, the fine finish, and the peculiar colour of the body, especially the slightly green tinge in the old leeds glaze are never to be mistaken. the modern copies lack the fine potting, and they are slightly heavier in weight, and always without exception have a thick white, glassy glaze which fills the corners of the pierced work, and shows the touch of modern haste. =leeds marks.=--the following marks occur on leeds ware, largely on the blue-printed ware which was after 1791, for many of the finest examples of cream ware are unmarked. however, these marks used may be a guide: leeds pottery (often printed twice over and crossing at right angles), hartley, greens, & co., leeds pottery (either in two lines or in a semicircle), also the initials l.p. in its latter stage (1863-1878) r. britton and sons marked their ware r. b. & s. with the initial l enclosed in a circle. the don pottery at swinton near leeds, established about 1790, came in prominence about 1800, when one of the brothers green, of leeds, became owner. it passed through various vicissitudes of fortune, a comparison of the old pattern books show that many pieces made at the don pottery were originated at leeds. in 1834 it was purchased by samuel barker, and in 1882 it was still known as samuel barker and sons. the don pottery mark was both printed and impressed don pottery in its early days prior to 1834, and sometimes the word green appears above. later in the barker _régime_ a demi-lion rampant holding in his paws a pennon with the words "don pottery" was used, sometimes with the word barker, and sometimes with the initials s. b. & s. [illustration: leeds cream ware centre-pieces. made to take into four parts. (height 4 feet.) pierced baskets, removable. (height 2 feet 6 inches.) (_in the collection of mr. richard wilson._)] =the best period.=--but it is chiefly the best period, that is, hartley, greens & co., from 1781 to about 1805, which appeals to collectors of old leeds, though a pattern book was issued as late as 1814, which still maintained the old traditions, but when hartley died in 1820 the factory practically went to pieces. the two brothers green and william hartley nobly carried on the manufacture of cream ware. at first they looked to wedgwood for inspiration, but very shortly introduced a lightness of design in the exquisite and intricately pierced patterns in the borders, and original touches in the feather edges in relief and twisted handles and the floral terminals. the gadrooned or fluted edges of leeds plates were sometimes painted in blue. the ware is extremely light in weight, and varies in colour from a pale, sometimes a very pale, cream colour to a light buff. we have seen how wedgwood invented punches at first for his pierced cream ware. but he at a later stage had the perforations punched _en bloc_. but in leeds ware each perforation is done separately by hand, and the edges are sharp and clean-cut. these are in the shape of diamonds, squares, ovals, and hearts, arranged in geometrical patterns. the characteristic feature of leeds ware is the varied use of this pierced work in the rims of plates and dishes and trays and cups. this work was carried into such unlikely portions of the ware such as bases of candlesticks or plinths of massive candelabra. in conception no doubt it followed the work of the silversmith, but as it developed it acquired the character of some of the finest oriental types of this class of ware, and in particular the leeds potters achieved a ceramic triumph when they made, in the delicately pierced work with small apertures, something not dissimilar to the rice-grain form found on old chinese white ware which in the case of chinese wine-cups of white porcelain is filled with glaze. this especially fine style is at the present day being carried out by the potters at the copenhagen porcelain factory. when held up to the light this porcelain of china and of denmark is singularly beautiful, and looks as though it is perforated--but is not. if leeds at first copied wedgwood and the staffordshire cream-ware patterns the staffordshire potters were not slow to return the compliment when they saw that leeds had a note of originality, consequently we find many salt-glaze pieces of identical shape to some of hartley, greens & co.'s patterns. it is improbable that salt-glaze ware was ever made at leeds, though before salt-glaze was as well understood as it is now much of it was wrongly attributed to leeds. we give an illustration (p. 319) of a salt-glaze plate which has the typical perforated edge of leeds cream ware, and is decorated with a transfer-print of a fable subject, illustrating "hercules and the waggoner." but leeds very early did its own printing, and only the early examples were sent to liverpool to sadler and green. at this time salt-glaze ware was in a bad way, and every effort was being made to compete with cream ware its new rival, and with porcelain which had struck the first blow at its supremacy as domestic ware. when cream ware was decorated by transfer-printing salt-glaze followed the new fashion, and leaving its lofty ideals of undecorated form it hastily assumed the enamel colouring of the english porcelain. =leeds cream ware.=--the various classes of leeds cream ware may be roughly divided into two classes: (1) _plain or undecorated_, in which (especially by reason by the grace and lightness of structure imparted by the nicely balanced perforations) artistic excellence is reached by _form_ alone. (2) _decorated cream ware._ decorated with enamel colours, green, red, lilac, and yellow being usually found, or transfer-printed in the early manner of liverpool--black, puce, or red, or later by printing in blue. in regard to the finer specimens of the cream ware dependent on form and exhibiting especial delicacy in the treatment of the pierced work, the illustrations here given convey a pictorial representation of the great variety and fertility of the design. the two magnificent centre-pieces represent leeds cream ware at its highest. the favourite form of the centre-piece is that in which tiers of escallop shells are supported by dolphins or by ornamental brackets. the left-hand centre-piece illustrated (p. 291) is in the form of the trunk of a tree, supporting four tiers of leaf-shaped dishes. the piece is surmounted by a classical draped figure. it is noticeable that the brackets have every resemblance to metal design. these large centre-pieces are made to take apart. this example illustrated takes into four pieces, which fit into each other with great accuracy, showing great technical perfection in potting. it is no less than 4 feet in height, and one of the largest pieces known. its rich cream colour, the perfection of the glaze, and the graceful proportion in the structure, and the modelled figure have won for this and similar creations of leeds the admiration of all connoisseurs. [illustration: chestnut basket and candlesticks. pierced leeds cream ware. (_in the collection of mr. richard wilson._)] [illustration: leeds cream ware candlesticks and kettle and stand. with fine pierced work. (_in the collection of mr. richard wilson._)] the other centre-piece illustrated is 30 inches in height, and is constructed in the form of hanging baskets separate and removable. these baskets, which are of exquisite pierced work, are in three tiers supported from the central column. the top consists of a vase resting upon four winged figures. the piece is surmounted by a classical draped figure of flora with a cornucopia. such pieces as these hold the blue riband of leeds cream ware, and collectors who wish to find specimens only approximating to them in grace and beauty have to search as far afield as russia and sweden before they can hope to gratify their desire. another class typical of leeds cream ware in its highest moods is the large class consisting of handsome cruets, baskets, and a great variety of candlesticks. the pierced work in these articles is of very fine character, and the design is happily lightened by this style of decoration. in regard to imitations of this cream ware, as has already been mentioned, they are heavier, are thickly coated with white glaze, whereas old leeds pieces are extremely dainty and light in weight, and when the glaze is seen in the crevices where it may have run it is of a peculiar green, due to the use of arsenic. we illustrate two groups of leeds cream ware, exhibiting the perfection of its pierced work. the chestnut basket in the upper group is partly derived from wedgwood's model. there is an indication in the use of the sphinx in the pair of candlesticks of one of wedgwood's models in basalt. but the treatment here is more graceful, and the character imparted by leeds to its cream ware is peculiarly its own. leeds cream ware undecorated plates have a great variety of patterns in the pierced borders, and are always attractive to collectors. some of the leeds plates, with blue painted feathered edge, had either a crest or printed design in middle. in regard to colour, there are fine under-glaze blue plates in which there is as strong a leaning to oriental pagoda designs as at bow and worcester. we illustrate a fine plate of this nature (p. 303), similar in design to plates impressed astbury of staffordshire. under-glaze blue-printing (black printing over-glaze was done, but not to the same extent as in staffordshire) was introduced about 1790. the willow pattern, among others, was a favourite design, and most of these printed blue plates are marked. it may be of interest to the collector to know that there are marks on the old blue-printed leeds ware which tell their own story. these marks were made by the "cockspurs" placed between each plate to keep them separate in the kiln. there were three of these little tripods of earthenware placed between each plate. they made, as they had only one point at their apex, only three "spur" marks on the front of the plates in the border, and nine "spurs" at the back, in groups of three. [illustration: leeds cream ware. seascape, and floral decoration in puce, green, red, &c. painted by allen at lowestoft and refired there. (_in the collection of mr. merrington smith, lowestoft._)] in regard to subjects in colour it may be mentioned that a good many leeds jugs bear names and dates upon them, from about 1769 to 1786. these enamel colours are green, red, lilac, and buff, and are not dissimilar to those employed at lowestoft. we illustrate a fine leeds mug with the characteristic twisted handle (p. 303), having oriental figure in colour and dated and inscribed. the following curious and gruesome verses appear on it. inside the mug is a modelled frog, as found in sunderland examples. "in marriage are two happy things allowed a wife in wedding-sheets and in a shroud. how can a marriage state be then accurs'd since the last days are happy as the first." then follows "i. c. u. b. yy for me" (i see you be too wise for me). "samuel cudworth, 1777." * * * * * =leeds ware decorated at lowestoft.=--there is a connection between leeds and lowestoft. it appears that some of the leeds ware was sent undecorated to allen, of lowestoft, who decorated it there and refired it, disposing of it on his own account. the fine leeds mug having the painted decoration, over-glaze of course, of a vessel, and entitled "homeward bound" (illustrated, p. 299), is typical of this work of allen at its best. he appears to have procured ware from turner and other staffordshire potters for decoration and sale by himself. we illustrate (p. 303), a staffordshire jug painted by allen, of lowestoft, representing a local scene, recognisable by the tower in the background. he inscribed it "a trifle from lowestoft." this is enamel work over-glaze, the key pattern at the rim is under-glaze and was done in staffordshire. another leeds jug decorated by allen is that illustrated (p. 299), bearing the verses:- "from hence to the deep may division be tost and prudence recovre what folly have lost." the "have" is a peculiarly suffolk idiom. the floral scrolls are in the usual low tones of lowestoft colouring. =castleford= (1790-1820).--this factory, some twelve miles from leeds, was established about 1790, contemporary with the establishment of the don pottery near doncaster. this castleford factory, under the proprietor, david dunderdale, commenced to make cream ware, black basalt, and the usual stoneware teapots with ornaments in relief. the mark employed by this factory, when it was used, is d. d. & co., castleford. this is impressed, and is found on various imitative ware, such as clouded tortoiseshell plates in the whieldon manner. one of the characteristics of castleford teapots with raised figures is the use of a blue line at the edge and the tops of these vessels depart from the straight lines of turner and are scalloped, as in the illustration (p. 307) of a castleford black ware jug and cover, having the impressed mark of the factory. [illustration: leeds cream ware plate. painted with oriental figures in under-glaze blue. (_in the collection of miss feilden._) leeds cream ware mug. with oriental figure and set of verses. (_in the collection of mr. robert bruce wallis._)] [illustration: staffordshire jug. painted and inscribed by allen at lowestoft. (_in the collection of mr. merrington smith, lowestoft._)] =rockingham.=--at swinton, near rotherham, as early as 1778 a factory was started by messrs. thomas bingley & co., who began to manufacture cream ware. the leeds factory, apparently jealous of rivals, as in the case of the don pottery, soon had an active interest in this factory. in 1790 it became greens, bingley & co., and the ware then made was blue printed and the highly glazed black pottery associated with jackfield, of which we shall speak later. at this time a brown glazed earthenware became widely known and appreciated. it was cream ware which had received a heavy lead glaze richly and warmly coloured in brown. from 1796 to 1806 this glaze became extensively used, not only by swinton or, as it afterwards came to be known, as "rockingham," taking the name from the marquis of rockingham, upon whose estate the works were situated. this "rockingham ware," of smooth surface and fine reddish brown colour, was very popular, and a teapot was made, known as the "cadogan," which was an imitation of the chinese puzzle teapot. it was made without a lid and was filled by turning it upside down. an opening, very much in the manner of the safety glass inkpot, admitted the tea, and on reversing the vessel it could be poured out. some of these teapots are marked "rockingham," or "brameld," or "brameld & co.," and sometimes "mortlock," a london dealer for whom they were made. in 1806 the leeds interest passed out of the firm, and the factory remained in the hands of john and william brameld. in 1826 it assumed the name of the rockingham works, and used the crest of the fitzwilliam family. china was made there from 1820, and the factory obtained considerable reputation and was still in the hands of the brameld family till the close of the works in 1842. a gorgeous rockingham china dessert service made for william iv. costing £5,000. we illustrate a "cadogan" teapot, with its rich brown glaze, and moulded in the form of a peach, with smaller peaches applied at the top. it is a remarkably un-english design, and it is singular that it became so fashionable. =jackfield.=--we mention jackfield here, as it has become among collectors quite a generic term for all highly glazed black ware, especially little teapots and cream jugs. it is certain that elijah mayer and other staffordshire potters largely made this ware, and bingley & co. (swinton) among a crowd of others. jackfield is in shropshire. its history as a pot works is as old as any in the country, but it is chiefly in the period between 1760 and 1765, when maurice thursfield carried on the little factory, that it became renowned for its black ware. it is quite unlike black basalt. it is red clay, covered with a bright and highly lustrous black glaze. this is ornamented with oil gilding, which in use has almost disappeared. some of the ware is decorated with raised ornaments of vine leaves. the lids of teapots often have a bird, with outstretched wings. the designs were not original, and are found in salt-glaze and in whieldon ware, and some of this so-called "jackfield" ware may be attributed to him. =newcastle and sunderland.=--on the tyne, the wear, and the tees there were a group of potters working at gateshead, at hylton, at stockton-on-tees, but mainly at newcastle and sunderland. there is nothing exceptionally artistic in any of these productions. some of these transfer-printed mugs were made by dixon & co., of sunderland, to commemorate the building of the iron bridge over the wear, which was begun in 1793 and completed in 1796. [illustration: rockingham teapot. known as the "cadogan" pattern. in form of peach. having no lid and being filled from bottom. copied from chinese rice-spirit pot. (_at victoria and albert museum._)] [illustration: black basalt jug. castleford pottery. impressed mark d d & co. (height 6 inches.) (_in the collection of mr. f. w. phillips, hitchin._)] among the names found on this ware are impressed: sewell, or sewells & donkin, or sewells & co., sometimes with the addition of st. anthony's. these were made at st. anthony's, near newcastle, in date about 1780 to 1790. fell, or fell newcastle, made at st. peter's, newcastle, about 1815. scott, or scott bros., made ware at southwick, sunderland, 1789-1803, when they were succeeded by moore & co. j. phillips, hylton pottery, appears on some sunderland pieces. this firm was established as early as 1765. ford is another name in connection with the south hylton works about 1800. dixon, austin & co., sometimes with the addition of sunderland, is found at the beginning of the nineteenth century. w. s. & co., with the word wedgewood (having an additional "e") was the mark used by william smith & co., of stockton-on-tees, or even "wedgwood & co." against this firm messrs. josiah wedgwood & sons, of etruria, obtained in 1848 an injunction to restrain the use of their name. another equally confusing mark to collectors is that of a firm near pontefract, who marked their ware "wedgwood & co." sometimes with the word name of the factory, "ferrybridge," and sometimes "tomlinson & co." their ware is mainly cream ware of an ordinary type. in regard to the productions of newcastle and sunderland these are best known by the familiar mugs and jugs having a nautical flavour, with ships in black transfer decoration, and never without verses appropriate to the _clientèle_ of sailors, for whom they were made. these mugs and jugs are frequently decorated with pink lustre at the rims and in bands around the body. a feature which associates these northern factories with leeds is the frequent use of a modelled frog crawling up the inside of the vessel, which was intended as a practical joke on the person who was lifting the jug to his lips. these frog mugs were previously made at leeds, and the one illustrated (p. 303) has a frog so affixed in the inside. the ware, as a whole, is rather crude in its potting and slightly inferior to similar staffordshire ware, but all these northern factories are now closed, and the quaint doggerel, the queer nautical allusions, and the strain of patriotism found on much of this humble earthenware always appeal strongly to the collector. =marks used at leeds, castleford, rockingham, newcastle, and sunderland.= [illustration: hartley greens & co leeds +*+ pottery] =leeds.= from 1783, hartley, greens & co. [illustration: leeds pottery leeds pottery] 1825-1832, samuel wainwright & co. 1832-1840, leeds pottery co. [illustration: leeds +*+ pottery] 1840-1847, stephen and james chapel. 1850-1863, warburton, britton & co. [illustration "r b & s [printed]] 1863-1878, richard britton & sons. after which the works closed. [illustration: +l+ [impressed]] [illustration: don pottery] =don pottery= (at swinton near leeds). [illustration: don pottery barker] 1790-1834, at one time in hands of john green, of leeds pottery. [illustration: s b & s] 1834-1850, samuel barker, and 1851-1882, samuel barker & sons. [illustration: don pottery] late marks used by the barkers during above period:-in addition to the lion with pennon the word barker was added later, when the mark was _printed_. [illustration] another _printed_ mark was an eagle and ducal coronet, used when the firm became samuel barker & sons in 1851. but was shortly discontinued, and the lion-printed mark again used. [illustration: d d & co castleford] =castleford= (near leeds), 1790-1820. david dunderdale & co., and the impressed mark in margin is found on some of the productions of the castleford pottery. =rockingham.= [illustration: rockingham brameld] the name of the factory at swinton, established 1757. came into the hands of the bramelds in 1807. ceased, 1842. [illustration] the "cadogan" lower glazed teapots sometimes bear the impressed mark "mortlock," the london agent for whom some of them were made. [illustration: rockingham works. brameld.] the crest of the fitzwilliam family was printed as a mark after 1826, and is also found _printed_ on porcelain made at the rockingham factory. =newcastle-on-tyne=. [illustration: fell newcastle 15] fell of newcastle (about 1815), impressed cream ware mugs and jugs with this mark. various figures appear underneath, denoting the particular pattern. [illustration: fell] =sunderland.= [illustration: sewell. st anthony's] messrs. sewell, established about 1780, after sewell & donkin, used these marks. [illustration: sewell & donkin] other sunderland makers--dixon, austin & co., dixon & co., scott brothers & co. (established 1788), phillips & co. (established about 1800), j. phillips, hylton (established, 1780), dawson (about 1810)--impressed their names on ware. prices. leeds. £ s. d. coffee pot and cover, with mask under spout, twisted handles, decorated in colours. sotheby, june, 1906 2 2 0 basket dish, with stand and covers with embossed and open work. sotheby, june, 1906 2 2 0 jug, painted with flowers, inscribed "john barnes, chadlington, 1769." sotheby, july, 1907 2 10 0 teapot and cover, painted with portraits of george iii. and queen charlotte. sotheby, november, 1908 2 8 0 teapot and cover, printed in red, with lady and gentleman taking tea, with negro servant at side; on reverse, a shepherd and sheep. sotheby, november, 1908 1 10 0 jug, printed with transfer medallions of ladies seated in a garden, blue and black bands at rim. sotheby, november, 1908 1 14 0 castleford. loving cup with handles, painted with fruit and roses, made for david dunderdale. escritt & barrett, april, 1907 3 15 0 jackfield. figure of _diana_ (height 10 in.). escritt & barrett, april 1907 3 5 0 jugs, brown glazed, two. sotheby, november, 1907 1 1 0 rockingham. small "cadogan" teapot, marked _brameld_, richly gilt upon brown, and another without gilding. sotheby, june, 1906 1 14 0 milk jug modelled as cow, brown glaze; figure of horse; jug, brown glaze, with twisted handles, marked _rockingham_. sotheby, june, 1906 2 5 0 "cadogan" teapot, rich brown glazed; impressed mark. sotheby, may, 1908 1 2 0 sunderland. sugar basin and cover and six cups and saucers, painted with figure subjects on yellow ground, marked sewell. sotheby. november, 1905 1 13 0 newcastle. frog mugs and jugs vary in price from 10s. to £2, according to the style of decoration. x transfer-printed ware chapter x transfer-printed ware its origin--liverpool--its adoption in staffordshire--what is transfer-printing?--over-glaze printing--under-glaze printing--the staffordshire transfer-printers--other transfer-printers--leeds, swansea, sunderland, and newcastle--the mission of black transfer-printed ware--types of blue-printed ware--the willow pattern--table of marks--prices. before the year 1756, all ware, whether it be porcelain or delft or earthenware, was painted, or, to follow the term used in popular phraseology, it was "hand painted." it is an essentially english art, and something which stands with salt-glaze and with wedgwood's jasper ware as being famous throughout europe. the subject of transfer-printing is surrounded with a certain amount of conjecture in regard to its invention. quite a dozen persons were credited with having originated it. mr. william turner, in his volume, "transfer printing on enamels, porcelain, and pottery," published by messrs. chapman and hall, in 1907, has thoroughly investigated the various claims set up for the discovery of transfer-printing and, with no little research extending over a wide area, has for the first time settled the relative position of the various claimants and factories for which this honour is claimed. it is impossible, covering the same ground as mr. william turner, to say anything new on transfer-printing, and we must express our indebtedness to him in making use of his original investigations and embodying them in this chapter on transfer-printed ware. in regard to over-glaze printing, including copper enamels such as battersea, porcelain such as worcester, and earthenware such as liverpool delft--it was at battersea where enamels were first printed in 1753; liverpool, with sadler and green's invention, comes second with printed delft tiles in 1756. a year after, in 1757, we have worcester with transfer-printed porcelain. this worcester printed ware is well known from the early transfer-printed design known as hancock's "tea party" and the "king of prussia" jugs and mugs. after worcester all the other porcelain factories followed with transfer-printed ware. there was derby in 1764, and caughley in the same year. it will be seen that, so far as liverpool is concerned as representative of the earthenware factories (cream ware being printed here to the order of the staffordshire potters), earthenware over-glaze printing is slightly ahead of the porcelain factories. but in under-glaze printing porcelain stands easily first. worcester commenced under-glaze printing in the same year (1757) that over-glaze was employed there, and derby is the second in the field in under-glaze printing in 1764. [illustration: salt-glazed plate. transfer-printed in red. fable subject--_hercules and the waggoner_.] [illustration: liverpool transfer-printed jug. medallion representing _diana in her chariot_. (height 9-1/4 inches.) (_in the possession of mr. s. g. fenton._)] it has already been shown that liverpool did the printing on the staffordshire cream ware for the potters who sent it there to be printed, and the same method was followed by leeds. but there came a time when it was no longer necessary to ask liverpool to employ a secret process for the decoration of staffordshire or leeds work. the secret known at worcester, and derby and battersea, was not many years a secret. the staffordshire potters undertook to do their own printing, and every pottery soon learned the new process of transfer-printing, and it was not long before improvements were made and newer forms of printing adopted. =its adoption in staffordshire.=--allusion has been made to the awkward form of the square tile decoration of fable subjects at liverpool as applied to circular plates. but staffordshire in its adoption of the new process made the transfer fit the object to be decorated. in the illustration of the salt-glaze staffordshire plate with the black transfer-printed design of "hercules and the waggoner" from _æsop's fables_ (p. 319), the engraver has departed from the four corners of his circumscribed tile, and we may put this piece down as of staffordshire printing. it is often largely a matter of conjecture as to what was printed at liverpool and what was printed elsewhere (with the exception of worcester, where the engraving and printing were more delicate). the staffordshire jug showing a full-length portrait of his royal highness frederick, duke of york, having on the reverse the dragoon in the uniform of the period, tells its own story as regards date. frederick was the second son of george iii. and was born in 1763 and died in 1827. as this portrait represents him as being advanced into manhood and as at that date--say about 1786--the liverpool printers had been at work twenty years, the transfer-printing may very reasonably be attributed to staffordshire. but it is not always easy to fix the date of the printing, and determine whether by that time staffordshire had embarked on its own transfer-printing in black; of course, blue transfer-printing is later. the difficulty usually arises in connection with black transfer-printed ware. liverpool was still engaged in printing for staffordshire potters as well as printing cream ware of its own potting, and leeds was producing similar transfer-printed over-glaze ware, so that in unmarked pieces there must always be an uncertainty in coming to a definite conclusion. in all probability the jug (illustrated p. 323) and bearing the inscription "success to trade" and having a typical eighteenth century rural subject on the reverse entitled "the faithless lover," was actually printed by sadler and green at liverpool. another finely decorated printed jug is that illustrated (p. 318), the subject representing _diana_ on crescent moon driving a pair of goats in her chariot. the date of this piece is about 1780 to 1800, and is strongly suggestive of wedgwood cream ware. it will be observed that the design is identical with that in the turner jasper vase (illustrated p. 261). [illustration: jug, transfer-printed in black. emblems and inscribed "success to trade." subject on reverse--"the faithless lover." (height 7 inches.)] [illustration: jug, transfer-printed in black. portrait of duke of york, and mounted dragoon on reverse. (height 7 inches.) (_in the possession of mr. hubert gould._)] =what is transfer-printing?=--a piece of pottery may be plain or undecorated, it may be painted, or it may be printed. the process of printing consists of affixing an engraved print from a copper plate and transferring an impression to the pottery to be decorated. it is this latter process which claims our attention in this chapter. when transfer-printing was first used, subjects such as portraits (king of prussia), costume subjects (series of actors and actresses on liverpool delft tiles), fancy or pastoral scenes (such as _æsop's fables_, &c.), were produced in black, puce, or reddish brown. these were at first culled from contemporary volumes with engraved copper-plate prints as illustrations. we find wedgwood in quite early days searching london for suitable prints of views and similar small subjects for decorative purposes. probably at first the copper plates which had been used in books were bought up by the potters, and did service again for their ware. later they employed engravers, who no doubt copied or adapted other people's engraved work to suit their purpose, and as the art advanced it gained in originality, and a band of engravers worked for the potters in designing subjects strictly applicable to the limitations in the technique of earthenware. this process of transfer-printing is roughly as follows. the copper-plate is inked, and a sheet of tough tissue paper, wetted with a mixture of soap, is applied to its surface and printed in a press. the paper is taken off, showing an impression or print, which is carefully laid on the surface of the piece of earthenware to be decorated. the inked design on the paper transfers itself to the earthenware. =over-glaze printing.=--the difference between over-glaze and under-glaze decoration always seems to puzzle the beginner, but the explanation is simple enough. a piece of pottery is produced by the following steps. the clay is "thrown," that is, it is spun into shape on the potter's wheel, or it may be made in a mould. when in this soft state, say in the form of a basin, it could be crushed by the hand into the shapeless mass of clay whence it sprung. it is next put aside to dry sufficiently to allow handling. it may receive some of its decoration at this stage as it is possible to paint on the more or less damp clay, but as a general rule that is left till the next stage. it is now placed in the "biscuit" oven and receives the most intense heat, and is here stacked in fireproof saggers or boxes to protect it from the flames, and it is fired for about three days before being taken out in the state known as "biscuit." wedgwood's jasper ware, black basalt, and all unglazed stoneware stop at this biscuit or unglazed stage. it is next dipped in liquid glaze and goes again to be fired, this time into the "glost" or glaze oven, which is lower in temperature. after coming from this second oven it is no longer "biscuit" in appearance, but is covered with a skin or coating of glass or glaze, which has amalgamated with the body underneath. it is now ready for painting with enamel colours or for transfer-printing, which obviously is "over-glaze" decoration. lastly, after this decoration has been made, it goes to be fired for a third time, and is put into the enamel or "muffle" kiln, which is the lowest temperature of the three. in effect, then, the "over-glaze" decoration is on top of everything, and obviously, when the piece is scratched in use, this decoration wears away first. this at once gives the reason for another process, known as under-glaze decoration, where the work receives the protection of the glaze. as a postscript to this description of the three firings, it may be noted in passing that, in true porcelain, such as chinese, dresden, and bristol (all hard pastes), the body and glaze are fired at one operation, the glaze receiving as high a temperature as the body. [illustration: chinese blue and white porcelain plates. painted in dark blue under-glaze. painted in light blue under-glaze. the types from which english potters made their copies. (_in the collection of the author._)] [illustration: chinese blue and white porcelain plates. painted in rich blue under-glaze. the "willow pattern" and the "aster pattern." the types from which english potters made their copies. (_in the collection of the author._)] =under-glaze printing.=--this is printing which is transferred to the ware, either porcelain or earthenware, when in its "biscuit" state _prior to being dipped in glaze_. blue was the most frequent colour used in under-glaze transfer-printing, as of course it was the earliest colour used in the painted under-glaze decorations at worcester and caughley. there are other colours, obtained from metallic compounds, used both on porcelain and earthenware under the glaze, and owing to the temperature required for firing in this manner the range is limited, being usually confined to cobalt blue, green, brown, lilac, black, and a few others. but blue is the chief under-glaze colour to be considered in connection with under-glaze transfer-printing. there was a great demand for deep blue and for a lighter blue, both of which came to the staffordshire earthenware printers and potters from english porcelain factories such as caughley, where thomas turner, an apprentice at worcester under robert hancock, made in 1780 his famous under-glaze blue "willow-pattern"; or the idea may have been derived straight from the chinese blue porcelain under-glaze of nankin, so much in vogue in middle eighteenth-century days. =staffordshire transfer-printers.=--it has been shown how the staffordshire potters at first turned to liverpool, and readily sought the aid of sadler and green in the decoration of their salt-glaze and their cream ware, in order to compete with the porcelain factories with worcester and caughley at their head. but trade secrets found their way into staffordshire. the over-glaze printing as practised by sadler and green was soon mastered, and later the under-glaze blue printing was imported by workmen from caughley. among the staffordshire potters the following are the principal pioneers in regard to transfer-printing in its various developments. william adams, of cobridge, in 1775 first introduced transfer-printing into staffordshire. john turner, of lane end (not to be confounded with thomas turner, of caughley) was the first to print under-glaze blue in staffordshire. josiah spode, about 1784, introduced his under-glaze blue "willow pattern," a copy of the caughley pattern. william adams, of greengates, in 1787 brought out his under-glaze blue, which in richness and mellowness has never been surpassed; and josiah wedgwood, although he never deserted liverpool for some of his patterns, had a press at work at etruria, in 1787; and thomas minton, now a master potter at stoke, formerly an apprentice at caughley with thomas turner, designed the celebrated "broseley dragon" pattern tea service for porcelain in 1782 (following the willow pattern, 1780), and produced in the late years of the eighteenth century, about 1793, some fine blue-printed ware at stoke. these may be termed the earlier exponents of transfer-printing in staffordshire, but there were others whose blue-printed ware was of great merit in staffordshire, and leeds and swansea, held no insignificant place. [illustration: spode earthenware. transfer-printed under-glaze blue. "bridge pattern" plate and "willow pattern" jug.] [illustration: cream ware dish with impressed mark "turner." with pierced border and band of embossed wickerwork. centre printed in blue with "willow pattern." (_at victoria and albert museum._)] =other transfer printers.=--staffordshire did not long have the monopoly of under-glaze blue-printed ware. leeds and swansea both produced similar work, and in both cases there is a strong attachment to oriental design. black transfer-printing was also executed at both these factories, and at swansea some exceptionally fine engraved work was turned out (see illustration of swansea plate, p. 397). at sunderland and newcastle the black transfer-printed mugs and jugs with the _wear bridge_ and with nautical subjects became quite the vogue, and in these two factories the jugs and mugs often had a frog modelled in the interior, and pink lustre decoration was used in combination with the transfer design usually at the borders or at the rims. =the mission of black-printed ware.=--in the designs and inscriptions of the black transfer-printed ware the staffordshire potter used his jugs and his mugs as a medium to record events and to ventilate grievances, not in "imperishable verse," but in the fickle body of the clay. this class of ware from 1760 to 1860 stands for a century as typically english in character. it reflects the political, social, and religious events, and in matter-of-fact, humorous, or satirical fashion. the black transfer-printed or earlier period, (though some of this class come down as late as the railway mugs of 1830), may be said to depict events and chronicle popular sentiment in black and white. the blue transfer-printer strove to be decorative, and mainly represented scenery and topography, and much of it was bound down to formal designs of oriental nature. at first fable subjects, as on wedgwood's cream ware, were employed, and it has been seen how the square tile form was discarded by the engraver who made his engraving fit the object to be decorated. this perfect mastery of the technique of transfer-printing is shown very clearly in the old blue spode service of the "tower" pattern (illustrated, p. 335). it will be seen how, as the shape of each vessel differed, the engraver has altered his bridge to fit the new circumstances. at one time, on a broad, flat dish, it appears as a wide bridge, and in the circular plate the trees appear at greater height and the viaduct assumes a more circular form. in the jug of the same design the bridge is narrow, as though spanning a deep ravine. to enumerate the classes of ware with black transfer-printing is to make a catalogue of the principal events which stirred the heart of the people. it must be borne in mind that this school was working side by side with the makers of fine stoneware and of jasper ware with classic subjects, but it is, after all, to the black-printed ware that one turns most lovingly as being more human. it will suffice, perhaps, if we quote a few examples and stir the enthusiasm of the reader to pursue the collection of these really historic records which have something more endearing in them than the relics of napoleon or the shoestrings of some of the stuart monarchs. there is a fine flavour of patriotism, of conviviality, and of homely sentiment in some of the following:-on a bowl, salt-glazed ware, with admiral vernon and his fleet is inscribed "the british glory revived by admiral vernon. he took porto bello with six ships only. nov. ye 22 1739." a cream-ware jug printed, with medallion portrait of earl howe, is inscribed "long live earl howe, commander-in-chief of the victorious british fleet. in the ever memorable engagement on the glorious first of june, 1794." on a cream-ware jug about 1800 with a view of greenwich hospital, and entitled "the sailor's adieu," the following lines are inscribed: "what should tear me from the arms of my dearest polly but the undeniable calls of my country in whose cause i have engag'd my honour and my life." this in date is the last year of the eighteenth century. [illustration: old spode blue printed ware. "tower pattern." (_in the collection of mrs. herman liebstein._)] "the sailor's farewell and return" are rather frequent, and charles dibdin's verses appear on some of these jugs and mugs. there is one interesting jug in the form of a sailor seated on a chest, coloured earthenware about 1770, with a breezy inscription, "hullo, brother briton, whoever thou be, sit down on that chest of hard dollars by me, and drink a health to all sailors bold." another cream-ware jug, partly printed and touched by colour representing a man-of-war towing a frigate, has the inscription: "a sailor's life's a pleasant life; he freely roams from shore to shore, in every port he finds a wife, what can a sailor wish for more?" a red earthenware mug with white slip may be mentioned here as having a characteristic motto: "from rocks and sands and barren lands good fortune sets me free; and from great guns and women's tongues, good lord, deliver me." a staffordshire blue-printed jug, made in 1793, shows the execution of louis xvi. at the beginning of the nineteenth century there was quite a burst of napoleonic jugs and mugs and busts, and some of gillray's caricatures find themselves on earthenware. there is one lustre earthenware jug printed and coloured with caricatures entitled "jack frost attacking 'bony' in russia" and "little 'bony' sneaking into paris with a white feather in his tail." this is in date about 1813. a cover of an earthenware jar has the inscription printed in violet within a wreath, "peace! may its duration equal the years of war." the relations between england and america received attention at the staffordshire potters' hands. there are cream-ware mugs and jugs and plates with portraits of washington in date from 1785 to 1790. on one the inscription runs, "success to the united states, america." prize-fighting, bear-baiting, cock-fighting, racing, coaching, all received their records on the earthenware of the late eighteenth century. stag hunting, fox hunting, coursing, come as ready subjects to the transfer-printer. cricket is recorded in earthenware on a printed mug representing the "grand cricket match played in lord's ground, mary-le-bone, june 20 and following day between the earls of winchester and darnley for 1,000 guineas." the date of this is 1790. even the velocipede and the balloon are not disregarded. this list is but a rough outline of the mission of the transfer-printer in recording current events on his earthenware, for the pleasure of his own contemporaries and for the information and delectation of succeeding generations of collectors who may be something other than connoisseurs of pastes and bodies, and have learned to read aright the story of the china-shelf and enjoy to the full the secret pleasures in the byeways of collecting. =types of blue-printed ware.=--the black over-glaze transfer-printing came into staffordshire in imitation of the transfer-printed delft tiles of liverpool. but it rapidly acquired a strength and originality of its own. it lacked the delicacy of the transfer-printed black porcelain of worcester, but its virility more than made up for its artistic defects. under-glaze blue-printed ware was an imitation from the porcelain printed at caughley. here again it may be said to have outstripped by new departures and broader effects the under-glaze blue-printing of the early china factories. in common with them its inspiration was from the chinese. we illustrate (p. 327) four examples of chinese porcelain plates, which are types of the oriental china designs which served as models both for the english porcelain makers and for the earthenware of staffordshire. the lower left-hand plate is evidently the chinese design from which the english potters derived the well-known and favourite "willow pattern." after thomas turner, of caughley, had printed it on china in 1780, and josiah spode in 1784 had employed it on his earthenware in staffordshire, all the other potters commenced to make the same design with slightly different details, mainly in the fret border. the other plate on the right hand is the well-known "aster" pattern, so frequently adopted by english potters in blue-printed cream ware. the two upper octagonal plates show the two styles of dark blue and light blue under-glaze painting employed by the chinese; and the staffordshire potter, true to his models, followed in his under-glaze blue-printing these tones. the period when the rich deep dark-blue-printed ware was in vogue is from the early nineteenth century to about 1825. light blue printing was employed from 1790 till the deep blue supplanted it, and when the craze for deep blue had spent itself the light blue again became fashionable until printing in colour in the middle period of the nineteenth century came to be largely practised. in the treatment of the border in the oriental example we illustrate, it will be noticed how josiah spode and others, including the fine school at leeds, who were printing in under-glaze blue in 1790, and the potters at swansea, followed this decorative treatment. spode in particular had a great fondness for chinese subjects. we illustrate (p. 345) a blue-printed dish by him, where, as was his wont, he introduced, quite incongruously, a gothic castle. the fine, rich colouring of this dish is most noticeable. in the spode earthenware _jug_ and _plate_ illustrated (p. 331), it will be seen that the plate, known as the "bridge" pattern, closely follows the design of the chinese porcelain plate (p. 327), and the jug is decorated with the familiar "willow" pattern. another variation of the "willow" design is found on the _turner cream-ware dish_, illustrated, having a band of embossed wickerwork and a pierced border. this piece has the impressed mark turner. a similar oriental influence is seen in the dark blue transfer-printed dish by william adams, of greengates (see illustration, p. 341). the inclination here is towards figure subjects, and the decorative use of the exotic bird, as shown in the centre panel of this dish, finds a place on some of mason's early blue-printed dishes. of the colour of the dishes of william adams, of greengates, it may be remarked that for richness of tone in the under-glaze blue he introduced in 1787 they have never been surpassed. =what is the willow pattern?=--the name "willow-pattern" has been so frequently mentioned in connection with the subject of old english earthenware and china that it will be of service to state something of the details of the history of this particular pattern, which seems to have unaccountably seized hold of popular imagination. [illustration: dish, transfer-printed in deep blue, by rogers. subject--the naval fight between the _chesapeake_ and _shannon_. (_in the collection of miss feilden._)] [illustration: dish, transfer-printed in blue. mark impressed "adams" (of greengates). (_in the collection of mr. russell allan._)] by the courtesy of mr. percy w. l. adams. from "_william adams. an old english potter._" the caughley pattern, which some authorities believe was engraved by minton when he was an apprentice there, was closely followed by spode, adams, wedgwood, davenport, clews, leeds, the don pottery, and swansea. the differences are slight mainly in the treatment of the fretted border, either a lattice-work or conventional butterfly being used, and details of the fence in the foreground differing. the term "willow" is applied in a general way to many of the copies of the blue-and-white oriental porcelain imported from china during the last half the eighteenth century. but the "willow pattern," to which a story is attached, is of the same design as the chinese plate illustrated (p. 327), which caughley copied. this popular adaptation appears as a decoration on the covers of this volume. whether the story was invented by some ingenious person to fit the plate we do not know; but there is strong probability that this is so. on chinese plates the _dramatis personæ_ are missing. the willow has ever been a sad tree, whereof such as have lost their love make their mourning garlands. "i offered him my company to a willow-tree ... to make him a garland, as being forsaken," says benedick in _much ado about nothing_. this is the love-story that is told concerning the "willow" plate. chang, the secretary of a mandarin whose house is on the right of the plate, dared to love his master's daughter, li-chi. but the mandarin had other designs, and his daughter was promised to an old but wealthy suitor. in order to prevent the lovers from meeting, the mandarin imprisoned his daughter in a room in his house overlooking the water. a correspondence ensued, so the story goes, between the lovers, and the lady sent a poetical message, in a cocoa-nut shell, floating down the river, that she expected chang when the willow-leaf commenced to fall. by the connivance of a gardener, who apparently lived in the small cottage on the left, overshadowed by a fir-tree, the lovers escaped, and are depicted as fleeing over the bridge--the mandarin behind with a whip in his hand, the lady in front, and chang in the middle carrying her jewel-box! the individual in the junk, higher up, is intended to denote that they fled to the island in the north-west of the plate. they lived happy until fate, in the shape of the wealthy lover, overtook them and burned their house to ashes. but the gods changed them into two doves, which, of course, figure prominently in the design. this tragic story of disastrous love has clung to the willow-pattern plates, and nobody can shake the belief of owners of indifferent specimens of middle-nineteenth century days that these plates are of great value. as a matter of fact, apart from the eighteenth-century examples, anything else is not worth the attention of the serious collector. we have alluded to the historic character of the black transfer-printed ware, but sometimes similar subjects were attempted in the blue ware. we illustrate a dish known as the "chesapeake and shannon" dish, depicting the famous naval encounter between these two vessels. [illustration: spode dish. transfer-printed in deep blue under-glaze.] [illustration: dish with landscape subject in style of claude. transfer-printed in deep blue under-glaze. (_in the possession of mr. s. g. fenton._)] at a time when the school of landscape engravers dearly loved a classic ruin or the broken arch of a temple in the composition of the scene, it is only natural to find this class of subject on the printed ware. we illustrate a typical under-glaze blue-printed dish with fine contrasts showing very accurately what excellent decoration was employed in this engraved work. the school of claude landscapes found its votaries, and some strong engraving by brookes and others was done for this old blue earthenware. it is pictorial, and betrays an attempt to break new ground and get away from the conventions of oriental design, but the border in the dish we illustrate (p. 345) shows the strong japanese spirit which had inspired spode, and this touch of incongruity makes it more than probable that this dish is of spode origin. there are many other phases of printed ware that can only be alluded to in passing. the transfer printing in outline, the colour being added by hand, was the beginning of the establishment of all the modern methods for china and earthenware as commonly in use. something, too, should be said of "bat" printing. this was the use of a block of glue instead of transfer-paper to receive the inked impression from the copper plate and transfer it to the body of the earthenware. william adams, of cobridge, in 1775 first introduced "bat" printing into staffordshire. of the various types of engraving, such as line, and stipple, and aquatint, and, later, lithography, there is no space to deal. but enough has been said in connection with the various types of printed ware to show that when pursued in a special manner it may be found to be of exceptional interest to the collector. marks. transfer-printed earthenware. many printed examples are unmarked, both of the early transfer-printing in black over the glaze, and of the latter under-glaze blue-printed ware, but over a wide period the following names are found as marks upon various transfer-printed specimens. it will be observed that in addition many of these potters made stoneware, following the wedgwood influence.[5] [note: 5 compare this with the list of marks of the school of wedgwood, pp. 279-282.] william adams 1787-1805 blue-printed under-glaze (marked (of greengates) adams). benjamin adams 1805-1820 blue-printed under-glaze (marked (of greengates) b. adams). william adams 1804-1835 dark blue-printed under-glaze and & sons (of stoke) black over-glaze (marked adams). (marked "close & co., late william adams & sons, stoke on trent"--after 1843.) william adams 1830-1840 black over-glazed printing. & sons (of burslem) wedgwood 1795-1845 blue-printed ware introduced (of etruria) (the second shortly after the death of josiah wedgwood wedgwood in 1795. black period) transfer-printed views after 1830. wedgwood & co 1790-1796 ralph wedgwood. black (of burslem) transfer-printing over-glaze. josiah spode the 1798-1827 blue under-glaze printing of great second (of stoke) variety. thomas minton 1790-1836 blue under-glaze printing, oriental (of stoke) and other patterns. john davenport 1793-1834 under-glaze blue-printing (marked (of longport) davenport, longport). henry and william davenport 1835-1869 john turner 1762-1786 oriental patterns, under-glaze (of lane end) blue (impressed mark, turner). william & john 1786-1803 turner (sons of above) john aynsley 1790-1826 masonic plates printed in outline (of lane end) over-glaze and coloured. t. fletcher & co 1786-1810 black transfer-printed sporting (of shelton) subjects, sometimes _under-glaze_. shorthose & co 1783-1802 red over-glaze printed fancy (of hanley) subjects. andrew stevenson 1810-1818 black over-glaze printing tinted (of cobridge) in colours (marked a. stevenson, with crown in circle). joseph stubbs 1798-1829 dark blue under-glaze printing (of longport) (marked joseph stubbs in circle. longport impressed). james clews 1814-1836 black under-glaze after 1825. (of cobridge) american views of hudson river, &c. john and richard 1820-1827 blue under-glaze printing. riley (of burslem) picturesque views. miles mason 1813-1851 rich blue under-glaze printing; (of lane delph) oriental subjects and birds. enoch wood & sons 1820-1846 deep blue under-glaze printing. (of burslem) r. & j. baddeley 1780-1806 } (of shelton) } } j. & e. baddeley } transfer printing from the hicks & meigh 1806-1820 } earliest date, both over-glaze and (of shelton) } under-glaze. } hicks, meigh & 1820-1836 } marked i. e. b., or full names, johnson (of shelton) } or r. m. w. & co. } john and william 1824-1836 } deep dark blue under-glaze ridgway } printing. "beauties of america," (of shelton) } and other views. } ridgway, morley, 1836-1854 } wear & co. (of shelton) } leeds 1790-1878 over-glaze black printing (little practised), under-glaze blue, oriental subjects (marked leeds pottery). don pottery 1790-1834 under-glaze blue, oriental subjects (near doncaster) (marked _don pottery_ or _barker_--the latter after 1834). liverpool 1796-1841 deep under-glaze blue-printed; (herculaneum) oriental subjects (marked herculaneum). swansea 1802-1870 under-glaze blue-printing and (cambrian pottery) over-glaze, black and brown printing (marked dillwyn & co.) (see group illustrated, p. 397.) derby 1780-1785 over-glaze black printing of (cockpit hill figure subjects (marked derby pot factory) works). caughley 1780-1799 under the management of thomas (salopian) turner. dark blue under-glaze printing; oriental subjects (marked in blue +c+). sunderland and 1790-1850 black transfer-printed mugs and newcastle jugs of crude decoration. various firms. _sunderland._--scott brothers, brunton & co., moore & co. (1803), phillips. _newcastle._--dixon, austin, & co., dawson & co., fell & co. (1817), marked with +f+ and anchor, sewells & donkin. middlesborough 1831-1850 blue-printed ware (marked with pottery impressed anchor and _middlesbro' (yorkshire) pottery_, or with the word _london_ and anchor, about 1848, or m.p. co). prices--transfer-printed ware. £ s. d. transfer-printed jug with ship on one side and mariner's compass on reverse; another jug with sailor and his lass. sotheby, november, 1904 1 18 0 transfer-printed jug with portrait of lord nelson on one side, and plan of battle of trafalgar on reverse. sotheby, november, 1904 3 15 0 transfer-printed jug with "britannia weeping over the ashes of her matchless hero, lord nelson," and a sailing ship on reverse, with motto "success to trade." sotheby, november, 1904 3 8 0 transfer-printed jug with subject relating to the independence of america; _rare._ sotheby, november, 1904 3 3 0 twelve plates, transfer-printed, with farmyard scenes in blue, and large dish similar. sotheby, may, 1907 1 10 0 [illustration: staffordshire figure, salt-glazed. touched in parts with blue. (height 5-1/8 inches.) (_in the collection of mr. robert bruce wallis._)] [illustration: staffordshire earthenware figure of cock. tail feathers enamelled in dark blue. (height 8 inches.) marked r wood. (_in the collection of mr. robert bruce wallis._)] xi staffordshire figures [illustration: old staffordshire figures. diana. birth of venus. modelled from the plymouth porcelain group. (_in the collection of miss feilden._)] [illustration: group of staffordshire figures. minerva. parson and clerk. toby jug. finely modelled. all marked neale & co. (_in the collection of col. and mrs. dickson._)] chapter xi staffordshire figures early period (1675-1725): slip, agate, and astbury figures--best period (1725-1760): fine modelling and reticent colouring, ralph wood the elder, aaron wood, thomas wheildon--classic period (1760-1785): wedgwood, neale, voyez, ralph wood, junior, enoch wood, lakin and poole--decadent period (1785-1830): walton, scott, bott, lockett, dale, and imitative school. in attempting to classify the great array of staffordshire figures and groups, extending over a period of a century and a half, no little difficulty has been experienced. the number of unmarked specimens is very great, and in many cases, owing to trade rivalry, models were so extensively imitated that it is impossible to say who was the first modeller. these staffordshire figures, except in the instances of the highest modelling and restrained under-glaze colouring of the best period, cannot be regarded as ceramic triumphs. but they are highly valuable, although not from an artistic point of view, as illustrative of the character of the common folk in england, and exemplifying their tastes and their sentiments. ornament, even in the humblest articles of daily use, has its meaning and can tell its story, to those who read aright, of the feeling of the man who produced it; whether he took a pleasure in making the article, or whether he was a machine, human or other, producing only a thin echo of art. practically it may be asserted that from middle eighteenth-century days to middle nineteenth-century days ceramic art was steadily deteriorating. applied art had practically ceased to exist in the early nineteenth century. it is said that men's eyes were first opened to this fact by the cumulative hideousness of the great exhibition of 1851, and certainly a perusal of the illustrated catalogue of that exhibition is a saddening occupation. in the study of the china shelf this decadence must always be considered, and it is fully borne out by a close study of the subject of staffordshire figures. practically, the crude agate cat and the little mannikin of early days playing bagpipes found replicas in crudity and poverty of invention in the spotted poodle dog or the kilted scotsman, the common cottage ornaments of a century later. and between these two dates, with the exception of an outburst which promised to develop into something really great and almost did so, there was, owing to want of artistic instinct and general lack of culture, a fairly rapid degeneration into the hideous nightmare of the toby jug and all the awful insularities of the late staffordshire period. [illustration: staffordshire figure of eloquence. (sometimes known as _st. paul preaching at athens_.) in coloured earthenware. (height 18 inches.) similar to figure in schreiber collection by enoch wood. (_in the collection of col. and mrs. dickson._)] =early period= (1675-1725).--the method of slip decoration has already been described, and to this period, when toft and his school had implanted their quaint and original taste upon the common people, these early figures belong. among the best-known figures of this early date are small _cats_ of stoneware or earthenware body, coated with white and ornamented with spots in brown slip. _ducks_ are sometimes found similarly ornamented in spots and wavy lines. these figures are only 3 inches in height. to these days belong the solid agate _cats_ made of two or three clays of different colours intermingled, and highly glazed. these are some 5 or 6 inches in height. we give an illustration of this type of ware (p. 171). _bears_ in agate ware the same nature, and small figures of doll-like individuals are also found. the elder astbury (1736-1743) has been credited with a series of figures of men, some 6 inches in height, playing bagpipes or other instruments. they are splashed with green and brown, and have yellow slip ornament, their lead glazing is warm and rich. the beady eyes of some of these tiny figures is suggestive of the toft slip applied figure on some of his dishes, and was produced by the use of manganese. among early figures those of salt-glaze are rare and of exceptional interest, and the figure illustrated (p. 351), stands as a typical example of a class not frequently met with, and highly prized by collectors. we have seen in the chapter dealing with whieldon and his influence that he commenced potting before 1740 and continued till 1780, and although none of his figures is marked it is tolerably certain that he produced some fine work in which he introduced the beautiful tortoiseshell glazings, which characteristic is found on figures attributed to him. obviously over a period of nearly half a century whieldon ware varies in quality. the following class of figures may be attributed to the early whieldon period, that is, before 1760. _actor_, with turban and flowing mantle, hand resting on dagger; tortoiseshell ware, brown and green glazing; height, 5-1/2 inches. _diana_, with dog, on square hollow pedestal made of buff clay; brown and grey glazings, eyes of brown clay; height, 7 inches. _venus_, with bow, on irregular base, eyes brown clay; height, 5-1/2 inches. figure of _sphinx_, coloured with brown and green glazings; height, 3-1/2 inches. _monkey_, eyes, black; height, 4 inches. other animals, such as _lion_, height, 3-1/4 inches; _squirrel_, height, 7 inches; _cock_, height, 7-1/4 inches; _cow_, in form of small jug with woman milking, height, 5-1/2 inches; _dog_, with brown glazing, height, 3-3/4 inches. other figures of this early period are _summer_ and _winter_, each 4-1/2 inches high; sauceboats in form of _duck_ and _drake_, coloured glazings, height, 4-1/2 inches. (we have illustrated several types of these figures, pp. 171, 175). =the best period= (1735-1760).--this is known to collectors as the wood school. briefly, the history of the wood family is as follows, and will be of interest to collectors of staffordshire figures. so strong and original is the work of the modeller ralph wood the elder, that connoisseurs recognise the class of face in his work. aaron wood and ralph wood were the sons of the old ralph wood, a miller. they were both modellers of distinction. aaron is mainly known as a block-cutter of salt-glaze moulds. ralph wood (1750-1772) made figures and other rustic groups at his own factory at burslem. his models are straightforward and homely and strongly english, not greatly influenced by any extraneous classic models. he modelled the celebrated "vicar and moses," which for quaint humour is inimitable. it has been copied by all the potters, and much of its strength and simplicity of modelling has been lost, while its restraint in colouring disappeared in the copies upon which enamel colours were lavishly laid. [illustration: old staffordshire group, bacchus and ariadne. by enoch wood. enamelled in colours. (height 24 inches.) (_in the collection of col. and mrs. dickson._)] [illustration: old staffordshire earthenware figures. adonis (after the antique). (height 23 inches.) venus. (height 24 inches.) (_in the possession of mr. s. g. fenton._)] there was a strong quaker element in staffordshire, and the established church was the subject of a good deal of satire by the potter. the _parson and clerk_ returning home after a carousal, _the tithe pig_ and other subjects exemplify this. fielding published "joseph andrews" in 1742, and it appears that parson-baiting was a familiar form of amusement. probably there were a good many abuses in the church that were evident. the hunting parson was often the boon companion of the drinking squire. at any rate the ralph wood group, entitled _the vicar and moses_,[6] showing the sleeping vicar, with full-bottomed wig, and moses, the clerk, seated underneath the pulpit exhorting the congregation with uplifted hand, is a masterly piece of modelling. in colour the original ralph wood examples are light purplish throbbing brown in the pulpit and desk, and carved cherubs, green in the canopy behind the vicar, and who has a white cassock, and the coat of moses is a slatey blue. the flesh tints are low in tone. [note: 6 see coloured _frontispiece_.] to return to aaron wood, the brother of ralph wood, he was the father of william wood, who became one of wedgwood's modellers, and of enoch wood, who went to palmer as modeller for some years. in 1784 enoch wood commenced business for himself. he produced cream ware and black basalt and, what most interests us here, he made some excellent figures, including a bust of _john wesley_. in 1790 he entered into partnership with james caldwell. the ware is marked "wood and caldwell" till 1818, when the firm became "enoch wood and sons," till 1866. in regard to ralph wood, the elder, he appears to have engaged his son in his pottery, so that prior to his death, in 1772, we do not know which ralph wood modelled some of the figures; but from 1772 to 1797 ralph wood, junior, was responsible for the factory, and there seems to have been business connection, about 1786, between him and his cousin enoch wood. concerning the figures of ralph wood, father and son, it may be said that they were the first to impress their names upon staffordshire figures. some of the pieces are marked with impressed mark r. wood, ra wood, burslem (impressed on _vicar and moses_). this mark is found on some of the finest and earliest toby jugs. it is believed, though not proved, that "ra wood" is the mark adopted by ralph wood, junior. that the woods reflected english feeling and sentiment and did not go to the classics for their inspiration is shown by their fine model of _hudibras_ upon his horse, in the act of drawing his sword. "the trenchant blade, toledo trusty, for want of fighting was grown rusty, and ate into itself, for lack of some body to hew and hack." the horse of hudibras is as famed in story as _rosinante_, the famous charger of don quixote, and in fine satire butler enumerates his points. [illustration: bust of bonaparte. coloured earthenware. by enoch wood. (height 9-1/2 inches.) (_in the collection of mr. robert bruce wallis._)] [illustration: bust of alexander, czar of russia. coloured earthenware. by wood & caldwell. (_in the collection of col. and mrs. dickson._)] it is not too much to aver that, if it were not known that the wood model bore the title _hudibras_, the source of inspiration would go unknown. similarly it may not be impossible, since no title appears on the famous _toby philpot_ jug, that it may be derived from the character of _uncle toby_ in sterne's "tristram shandy," which was published in nine volumes from 1759 to 1767. the type of blunt, jovial, rubicund englishman was beginning to become as pronounced in bunbury and other caricaturists as it became later on the china shelf. among other noticeable figures of the ralph wood period the pair of figures are the _haymakers_, separate figures (7-1/2 inches high each, impressed r. wood), a youth and maiden leaning against tree trunks. a bust of _milton_, cream ware, uncoloured, is impressed ra. wood, burslem; height, 9 inches. _old age_ is represented by a rustic figure of an old man leaning upon a stick and a crutch. _neptune_ and _venus_ and _apollo_ betray the contemporary classic influence. in examining the figures of the elder ralph wood they will be found in parts, though hardly perceptible, to be unglazed. this is owing to the fact that he applied his glaze with a brush. in the figures of the best period the colouring is extremely delicate, and the flesh tints do not approach the rosy pink associated with other figure work. it is difficult to describe them, but they approximate to a biscuit-coloured grey. but there are the usual exceptions to all rules. in one case in particular the colouring is more pronounced--the bust of _handel_, who died in 1759. it is marked "ra. wood." it is finely modelled and bright in colouring. a figure of a _cock_, marked r. wood, is illustrated (p. 351). it is 8 inches in height. the body is light in colour, with light and dark brown decoration about the neck. the wings are yellow, with brown stripes, the tail brown and dark-blue enamel colours. legs dark brown and green and splashed base. this specimen is in one piece, not having any joint at neck. the fine coloured large figure (18 inches in height) of _eloquence_, known also as _st. paul preaching at athens_, is by enoch wood, after a model by sir h. cheere. there is a similar figure in the schreiber collection at the victoria and albert museum. but it must be admitted that some of these large figures bear a strong resemblance in technique and modelling to those of wedgwood. the _bacchus and ariadne_ group was most certainly reproduced by enoch wood, who signed it. so that the difficulty in such cases of determining which was the original model becomes very great. =the classic period= (1760-1785).--it appears that josiah wedgwood, when under the influence of whieldon and before he embarked upon his classic ornamentation under the guidance of bentley, modelled some very fine figures which are unmarked, but exhibit considerable strength and beauty. there are three figures, _faith_, _hope_, and _charity_, in date about 1770, in the willett collection marked wedgwood. other figures are the large ones of _fortitude_ and _prudence_ (height 21 inches). but these symbolistic figures betray the classic influence. they are magnificent pieces of modelling. then there is the fine group of _bacchus and ariadne_, the same height. the specimen at the british museum is cream colour, but later imitators adopted the same modelling and added colour to the decoration. a copy of this group so treated, possibly by enoch wood, is illustrated (p. 363). other busts of wedgwood in coloured cream ware of _voltaire_ and _rousseau_ will be found illustrated on p. 233. [illustration: staffordshire earthenware figure of falstaff. shield decorated in silver lustre. marked wood & caldwell. (_in the collection of mr. f. w. philips, hitchin._)] [illustration: derby porcelain figure of falstaff.] [illustration: chelsea porcelain figure of falstaff.] =neale & co.= betray classic influence in much of their work, and as voyez, the frenchman, was their modeller, this is not hard to understand. among their well-known figures are _flora_ (12-1/2 inches high) and _diana_ (5 inches high), and they were large makers of toby jugs. we give an illustration (p. 355) of a group of finely modelled ware by neale & co., including a toby jug copied from the ralph wood model and impressed naele & co., and the familiar group of the _parson and clerk_ copied by them after the well-known chelsea-derby porcelain model of the same subject, and reproduced as an earthenware group by many other staffordshire potters. it is often attributed to ralph wood the younger. it is interesting to compare the _minerva_ with the _diana_ illustrated above. the same classic spirit was the inspiration of the two modellers, and in the case of unmarked classic figures there always exists considerable difficulty in definitely assigning their origin. in regard to all these coloured staffordshire figures it should be borne in mind that, until well towards the close of the eighteenth century, they were coloured by the use of pigments under the glaze, which gave a low-toned effect of very delicate character. later, enamel colours were used with lurid effect, and much of the beauty of the old school vanished. =enoch wood= (1783-1840), =wood and caldwell= (1790-1818).--of this school there are several fine examples. there is no doubt that the ease with which classic prototypes could be copied and porcelain figures imitated began to tell upon the originality of most of the modellers. the _bacchus and ariadne_ (illustrated p. 363), with the vine leaf wreaths in green around the heads and the finely coloured drapery, is by enoch wood. there is a specimen in a private collection at eccles signed "e. wood, sculp. and hewitt pinxt." (the height of this example is 27 inches), in spite of the similar uncoloured group at the british museum marked wedgwood. enoch wood is best known for his portrait busts of _john wesley_ and of _george whitfield_. the former who stayed at his house in the potteries sat for this bust, which is a fine piece of portraiture. this is marked "e. wood," and sometimes "enoch wood, sculp., burslem 1781." george whitfield was probably modelled at a later date. there is a fine equestrian statuette of _st. george and the dragon_, sometimes signed "e. wood," similar in modelling to the whieldon mottled tortoiseshell coloured specimen (illustrated p. 175). there are other busts by enoch wood which are noteworthy. there is the fine bust of _bonaparte_ as first consul in coloured earthenware, with blue coat with yellow border, and having marbled base. the height of this is 9-1/2 inches, and it is marked "e. wood." this is in date about 1802. a bust of _alexander i._ of russia, in highly coloured earthenware, in military costume, marked wood & caldwell. the date of this is later than the bonaparte, an inscription on the back on some examples runs "alexander aet. 35. moscow burnt. europe preserved 1812." another well-known figure by wood and caldwell is the figure of quin as _falstaff_. by the illustrations we have given (p. 371) it will be seen that this model was in direct imitation of the similar figures in porcelain at derby and chelsea. the colouring is different, the shield is silver lustre, the costume consists of red breeches, striped yellow and white surtout; but these colours are a feeble imitation of the finer enamel work on the china models from which they have been copied. [illustration: staffordshire figure. (about 1790.) decorated and refired by absolon, of yarmouth.] base of figure. (enlarged.) showing painted mark "absolon yarm." (_in the collection of mr. f. i. burwood._)] the group of _toby jugs_ illustrated (p. 383), exhibit the best known models of a much collected variety of earthenware. these examples are collectors' specimens, but later models may be said to be like- the grand old name of gentleman, defamed by every charlatan, and soil'd with all ignoble use. that it was not infrequent to take a model bodily from english porcelain is shown by the group entitled the _birth of venus_, which is taken from a plymouth group of the same subject (illustrated p. 355), this apparently belongs to the enoch wood period. in the figures of children we illustrate p. 387, the figures of _flower boys_, some 4-1/2 inches high, are evidently inspired by some of the chelsea-derby figures which in their turn were under strong french influence. the middle figure of the trio is one of a pair by wood and caldwell. the figure of _cupid_ above is a fine specimen, standing 17-1/2 inches in height. cupid is fully armed with his deadly bow and arrow, which by the way are decorated in silver lustre, suggestive of the falstaff shield of wood and caldwell, and at his feet are two lions crouching in subjugation, and he holds the torch of hymen in his hand. this is a remarkably fine modelled figure representing this contemporary foreign influence upon staffordshire figures at its best. in regard to the strong classic influence the two figures (illustrated p. 363) are in white earthenware. that on the left, of _adonis_, is obviously taken direct from the antique, while the _venus_ is a fine staffordshire adaptation of a well-known classic statue in the pose and in the dolphin by her side. the only touch of colour is the darkening of the hair. it is a magnificent piece of modelling something in the nature of the classic art seen through french eyes. to find this in staffordshire is as though one found _la source_ of ingres in the royal academy of the year 1856. the date of this staffordshire _venus_ cannot be stated. it is an important figure, being 24 inches in height and exhibits something so strikingly realistic that it must be assigned a high place among the figures. we illustrate a staffordshire figure belonging to this period, which is signed "absalon, yarmouth." towards the end of the eighteenth century, as in the latter days of lowestoft, a factory termed "the ovens" at yarmouth carried on a decorating business, receiving the ware from leeds and from staffordshire, and decorating and refiring it in the glost oven. the date of the figure illustrated is about 1790. on some of the pieces decorated by absalon, the name of the staffordshire maker, turner, appears as an impressed mark. turner, who carried on an extensive trade with the baltic and northern europe, no doubt readily came into touch with these east anglian decorators. [illustration: girl with tambourine. coloured staffordshire figure.] [illustration: coloured staffordshire figures. tambourine player (marked salt) and musicians. (_in the collection of miss feilden._)] =the decadent period= (1785-1830).--it is impossible to keep exactly to dates in any of these periods of rough classification. but in general the later period becomes more homely and a great number of mantel ornaments of a simple nature with rustic subjects were made for the homes of cottagers. these have trees as background and are arcadian in subject. they are, when in this style, of the finnicking school of the chelsea shepherds and shepherdesses known as of the boscage school. john walton (1790-1839), made a great many figures in this manner, accompanied by a lamb, as well as a great number of toby jugs. another potter is ralph salt (1812-1840), whose name appears on the little _tambourine player_ (p. 379), and probably the _musicians_ of the adjacent group are by him too. a larger figure of the _girl with tambourine_ above is of the same period, though its maker cannot be identified. we illustrate (p. 391) two later figures, _the fishwife_ and _mother goose_. both are well modelled, and were evidently intended to meet the popular taste. the days of gods and goddesses were over, and figures and groups begin to grow commonplace. in _mother goose_ the nursery rhyme is substituted for the mythology of the greeks. among other names found on these later figures are lakin and poole, dale (mark usually impressed i. dale burslem), and edge and grocott, who made figures of boys partly draped holding baskets of flowers. it is possible that they made the two outside figures of _flower boys_ (illustrated p. 387). there is to lovers of the ultra-aesthetic something which appears to be trivial and insipid in this peasant pottery of the later date. but in spite of its defects, it holds, to those who read between the lines and can add that necessary touch of human interest to their collecting, a charm on account of its quaintness. those who have sought these old cottage treasures high and low and secured from far-away habitations snug in the hills or lone huts on the wolds, or from the dim-lit cabins of fisher folk these relics of byegone days, read into their newly acquired possessions something of the life history in their old environment, lying _perdu_ these many years, perched aloft on the high mantel or hidden in the cupboard recess silently listening to the old tales of the strange men and women who live apart from the hum of cities. chelsea we know, derby we know, bow we know, with their dainty china shepherdesses minding impossible sheep, and with gallants prinked out in all the colours of the humming-bird. these were the trifles in porcelain that my dear lady disdain in a waft of bergamot set apart in her glazed case by sheraton. in the days of paint and patch and of the revels at vauxhall and ranelagh, virtuosos drowsily passed comment on my lady's latest acquisition just to please her passing whim and wean her from the vapours. these earthenware figures "in homespun hose and russet brown" suggest the old world nooks of other days. give chelsea and bow to the town. this homely art of staffordshire became english after all. it was found in thatched cottages "with breath of thyme and bees that hum." these boscage shepherds and shepherdesses, these rustic musicians, lusty post-boys, and the family of toby philpots, found kinship in the miller and the farmer, the herdsman and the milkmaid, the gamekeeper and the woodman, the ostler and the waggoner--simple, kind-hearted folk, the children of nature uncloyed by the subtleties of art. red-cheeked lasses and wrinkled crook-backed old dames, mother and daughter and granddaughter, toilers and sufferers, who chose the warm west window seat in the sun and the ingle nook by the fireside--these were the whilom owners of the old staffordshire figures. somehow, nor is the fancy a foolish one, one likes to associate these diminutive figures with the old gardens of england set in sweet places where one "can watch the sunlight fall athwart the ivied orchard wall; or pause to catch the cuckoo's call beyond the beeches." [illustration: group of finely coloured toby jugs. (date 1790-1810.) (_in the possession of mr. s. g. fenton._)] there seems to be something added to old staffordshire figures which have steeped themselves in somnolent repose these many years till they have become invested with a subtle human interest not easily disassociated from them. the squire had his services of worcester and of crown-derby, and the nobleman relegated his cases of fine porcelain to the care of his housekeeper, to dust and to safeguard till he came again to hunt and to shoot. but the cottager's staffordshire figures were lovingly handled when the good wife furbished up her brass candlesticks, and they insensibly became part of the environment of the cottage home. here, then, is the key to the charm and magic which goes to the collecting of old staffordshire figures, even of the decadent period. there is within them and around them and about them something redolent of a sturdy peasantry, something sad, something tinged with autumn days and autumn mists because they belong to days that have faded, and almost to a race that is extinct. [illustration: cupid large coloured staffordshire figure. (height 17-1/2 inches.) bow and arrow in silver lustre. (_in the collection of miss feilden._)] [illustration: coloured staffordshire figures of flower boys. pair 4-1/2 inches. centre figure one of pair by wood & caldwell. (_in the collection of miss feilden._)] prices. leeds figures. £ s. d. pair of leeds cream-ware figures of musicians, youth and girl; _rare_. marked "leeds pottery." sotheby, november, 1904 6 6 0 staffordshire figures. group of madonna and child (probably wedgwood), illustrated in "english earthenware" (professor church). sotheby, february, 1906 8 0 0 staffordshire models of cottages (some porcelain), encrusted with flowers. christie, january, 1906 (59 models). 31 10 0 "vicar and moses," group, decorated in translucent colours. sotheby, june 1906 35 10 0 "vicar and moses," group, decorated in translucent colours. sotheby, november, 1906 8 10 0 bacchus and ariadne, large; brown glaze; 25 in. high. christie, november, 1906 13 2 6 toby philpot jugs (four male and one female), grotesque models. christie, november, 1906 30 9 0 falstaff, two examples, on plinths, encrusted with flowers; 9 in. high. christie, november, 1906 5 15 6 "elijah," "the widow," and "virgin and child"; three figures. puttick and simpson, march, 1907 3 12 6 busts of _milton_ and _handel_, impressed mark, "ra wood burslem"; white: 9 in. high. sotheby, july, 1907 6 0 0 figure of gamekeeper: white; 8-1/2 in. high. sotheby, july, 1907 2 0 0 figure of _lost sheep_; white; 8-3/4 in. high. sotheby, july, 1907 2 18 0 figure of _girl haymaker_; white; 7-3/4 in. high. sotheby, july, 1907 3 0 0 figures, _chaucer_ and _sir isaac newton_, decorated in colours; marked "ra wood"; impressed "burslem." 12-1/2 in. high. sotheby, 1907 12 10 0 figures, _cobbler and his wife_, pair, large, seated; 12-1/2 in. high. christie, january, 1908 13 2 6 figures, reclining, _cleopatra_, 8-1/2 in. high, and _antony_, 8 in. high. christie, january, 1908 14 14 0 "bacchus and ariadne," 25 in. high; _female_, holding dove, 25 in. high. christie, january, 1908 16 16 0 figures, pair, boy and girl harvesting, square base, one marked "r. wood." sotheby, may, 1908 10 5 0 "vicar and moses," in whieldon colours (attributed to r. wood), yellow, green, brown, manganese purple, &c. sotheby, may, 1908 15 0 0 _shepherd and shepherdess_, seated, with dog, lamb, and goat; shepherd playing flute; whieldon colouring (attributed to r. wood). sotheby, may, 1908 12 0 0 "st. george and dragon" in whieldon colouring (attributed to ralph wood) sotheby, may, 1908 14 0 0 toby jug, representing man seated with jug on knee (attributed to r. wood). sotheby, may, 1908 6 6 0 [illustration: figure of fishwife. (late staffordshire.) (_in the collection of miss feilden._)] [illustration: figure of mother goose. (staffordshire, early nineteenth century.) (_in the collection of the author._)] xii swansea and other factories chapter xii swansea and other factories swansea--the cambrian pottery--opaque china--etruscan ware--lowesby pottery (leicestershire)--liverpool, herculaneum (1794-1841)--bristol, joseph ring (1784-1825)--caughley or salopian (1751-1775)--derby, john and christopher heath (1758-1780)--isleworth, shore & goulding (1760-1830)--marks--prices. undoubtedly the earthenware productions at swansea are of a high artistic order. for a century, from 1768 to about 1870, the cambrian pottery at swansea manufactured ware bearing various marks and comprising a wide range of examples. during part of the time a rival factory at glamorgan, which existed from 1814, to 1839, produced "opaque china" and cream ware in common with swansea. practically the history of the cambrian pottery dates from 1790, when george haynes bought the factory. fine black basalt ware was produced. there are two recumbent figures of _antony_ and _cleopatra_, the latter in the victoria and albert museum having the impressed mark swansea, and the former in the possession of mr. c. f. cox, and marked with the name of the modeller, "g. bentley, swansea, 22 may, 1791." the length of these figures is 12 inches. two somewhat similar recumbent figures of _antony_ and _cleopatra_ in colours have been attributed to lowestoft (see "lowestoft china," by w. w. r. spelman, jarrold & sons, norwich, 1905). but these more properly belong to the staffordshire school, and are probably by neale and palmer. under-glaze blue-printed ware, notably "willow pattern" from caughley, had been made at swansea probably before haynes bought the factory, certainly not later than 1790, when leeds commenced similar imitations of turner's "willow patterns." salt-glazed ware, some marked "cambrian pottery," but mostly unmarked, was made and decorated in enamel colours with figure subjects, landscapes, and flowers. the transfer-printed ware is of great variety and is excellently finished, and compares very favourably with the best of the staffordshire cream ware similarly decorated, or with the highest productions of leeds in the same manner. we illustrate (p. 405) a group of various types of transfer-printed ware in black and brown, and blue under-glaze transfer-printing. as will be noticed, the oriental influence from caughley and the china factories was very strong, but in the print of the ship there is something suggestive of liverpool. [illustration: swansea plates. 1. cream ware, rim painted in green and violet with vine pattern. mark impressed swansea. 2. earthenware, black transfer-printed. mark impressed dillwyn & co. swansea. (_in the royal scottish museum, edinburgh._)] [illustration: set of finely painted swansea bulb pots. (_in the collection of col. and mrs. dickson._)] a very fine transfer-printed plate in black is illustrated (p. 397), showing something higher in engraving than staffordshire had attempted. it stands, leaving out the delicate black transfer-printing done on the worcester porcelain, as an exceptionally artistic piece of work. the adjacent plate in the illustration at once shows the source of its inspiration. it follows one of wedgwood's queen's ware patterns painted in green and violet of the grape pattern, although it must be admitted that the swansea adaptation is richer than the somewhat thinner design found on old wedgwood plates. one of the most interesting features in the history of the swansea factory is the introduction by haynes of a ware termed "opaque china," which was in reality a finer and whiter kind of cream ware, and eminently suitable for the painted decorations by w. w. young, an artist from the bristol factory, who painted from about 1803 to 1806, flowers and butterflies and shells with great fidelity. he was followed by another artist thomas pardoe, from the derby factory, who brought more poetry into his floral subjects. another artist named evans painted flower-pieces with almost equal beauty. we illustrate a fine cambrian vase painted by pardoe, and a swansea jug painted by evans (p. 401). there is no doubt that a very high standard of painting on the swansea ware prevailed during the best period, and the illustration of a set of three swansea-ware bulb pots (see p. 397) shows that landscape painters of no mean gifts were employed. it is this picturesque quality of decoration (dependent in a great measure on the fact that from 1814 to 1824 porcelain was made too), together with the equally fine quality of the ware itself, that has placed swansea well to the front among the collectors of artistic earthenware. we have alluded to haynes the proprietor who first brought the factory into prominence. this was in 1790. but in 1802 it passed into the hands of lewis weston dillwyn, and it was during this period that w. w. young did the work we have alluded to. in 1817 the factory passed into the hands of the bevingtons, and in 1824 it again came into the possession of the dillwyn family, who held it till about 1850, when the firm was known as evans and glasson, and later as d. j. evans & co. until its close in 1870. during this long period the marks assumed various characters. we have at the end of this chapter given most of the more important to enable collectors to identify the period of their swansea ware--when marked. another ware greatly collected must be alluded to, of which an illustration is given (p. 405). this etruscan ware, following the early example set by wedgwood, was an attempt to copy some of the greek vases which were painted red on a black body. in "dillwyn's etruscan ware," made only for three years from 1847 to 1850, the body was a warm red, and the design was impressed thereon either by means of black transfer-printing or outline, and the background was then painted and the classic figures heightened. this ware is not always marked, but when the mark appears it is in a scroll, as given in the list of marks (p. 416). =lowesby pottery.=--there is very little to be said about this pottery in leicestershire, which was conducted under the auspices of sir francis fowke about 1835. the mark is always puzzling to collectors which is a _fleur-de-lis_ with the name lowesby, both impressed. the ware usually made at this small pottery was red terra cotta coated with a dull black upon which were flowers and butterflies painted in bright enamel colours. this decoration was done elsewhere, probably in london. [illustration: cambrian vase. painted by pardoe. (_in the collection of mr. a. duncan._)] [illustration: swansea jug. painted by evans. (_in the collection of mr. a. duncan._)] =liverpool.=--we have already alluded to the liverpool delft, but the story of liverpool as a potting centre is not yet complete. there was, of course, the enormous business in transfer-printing on staffordshire cream ware established by sadler and green. but they made cream ware themselves as well as decorated it for others. cream ware was produced at the factories of chaffers, barnes, pennington, and others. and at a date immediately prior to the cream ware, shaw, of liverpool, had made "astbury" and "whieldon" and salt-glaze wares. so that here at once is a difficulty, and a very great one, in identifying with exactitude the origin of some of these wares. there is a great deal yet to be discovered concerning the long line of liverpool factories, and if only as much special attention had been given to this locality as has been given to the much smaller factory of lowestoft, original research might disentangle many a ceramic puzzle. =w. reid & co.=--these potters made artistic earthenware from about 1754 to 1760, another firm established by richard abbey about 1793 continued till 1796 to make cream ware of a high order. this pottery, bought by messrs. worthington, was named herculaneum pottery. =the herculaneum pottery= (1796-1841).--at first, when a band of staffordshire potters came over to the new works, stoneware and black and red unglazed ware in the wedgwood manner were made. later a considerable amount of cream ware of pleasing character was turned out. the various marks found on the ware of this factory are given at the end of this chapter. shortly after the end of the eighteenth century porcelain was made here, and some of the examples are of a very high quality both in potting and in decoration. from 1836 to 1841 the proprietors were messrs. close, mort & co. until more facts come to light and trained research is applied to all classes of liverpool ware nothing definitely can be stated. but it is certain that some of the liverpool ware is so fine in character as even to confuse old collectors who have never seen specimens before. we illustrate a liverpool plate (p. 409) with the usual oriental design, and having no special feature about it which many another factory could not have produced. its blue is fine and its potting is excellent, but it is not exceptional. the illustration beside it (p. 409) is of an earthenware mug some 5 inches in height which undoubtedly is a puzzle to experts. the exquisitely-painted exotic birds in rich colouring are not less perfect than those painted on worcester vases or on chelsea dishes. indeed, it seems to show very strong traces of the style of worcester painting. one is inclined to attribute it to liverpool with the proviso that it must have been painted by some artist who had been trained at worcester. it will thus be seen by this case that in unmarked earthenware there are exceptional difficulties in correctly placing examples where so much cream ware was made not very dissimilar in character, and where artists, as we have seen at swansea, came over from other factories, apparently to the confoundment of the present-day collector. [illustration: group of swansea ware. transfer-printed in blue, black, and brown. (_in the collection of mr. a. duncan._)] [illustration: dillwyn's etruscan ware. vase. with warriors in chariot and pegasus. (height 14 inches.) tazza. with dancing girl (side view and interior). (10-1/2 inches diameter.) (_in the collection of mr. a. duncan._)] =bristol.=--joseph ring in 1786 commenced to make a cream ware with the assistance of potters he engaged from shelton in staffordshire. in colour it was a warm cream due to the glaze and not to the body of the ware itself. connected with this factory are some finely painted flower-pieces in enamel colours by william fifield (born in 1777, and died in 1857), and his son, john fifield. the factory changed hands in 1825, and became pountney and allies and pountney & co. until 1872. many of fifield's decorated pieces with floral works bear the name and date of the person for whom they were made. these are quite characteristic of the pottery, and occur after 1820 and in the pountney and allies period. there is a strong similarity in these chains of flowers and garlands to the oriental ware, and its later french imitation which poses as lowestoft. much of this bristol earthenware is confounded with somewhat similar new hall porcelain, and is termed by very inexperienced buyers and sellers as "cottage worcester." "cottage" it may be, but it has no relationship with worcester. =caughley or salopian.=--the caughley under-glaze blue-printed ware with its rich almost purplish blue is well known, but the various tints of this blue employed in the porcelain are not so well known varying as they do from this deep blue to a fairly light slate blue--but that concerns china and is another story. the coalport factory china mark at the present day has the date 1750, proudly going back to these early days. of salopian earthenware not too much is known, it is eclipsed by the porcelain which thomas turner commenced to make at caughley in 1772. but earthenware was made at the factory from 1750 to 1775 by browne, the owner of the factory, whose niece thomas turner married and took over the pottery in 1772. there are, belonging to this early period, some exceedingly well-modelled caughley figures which are equal to the finest work of the staffordshire potters. some of these figures are 20 inches in height, and among those attributed to this salopian pottery are the following: _prudence_, holding a mirror, draped classical figure with figured gown; and _fortitude_, a companion figure. _antony_ and _cleopatra_ are also believed to belong to this factory by some collectors. caughley pottery is sometimes, though rarely, marked with the word salopian or with the initials s or c in blue under the glaze. a considerable doubt still exists as to what is and what is not salopian or caughley earthenware, and an opinion should not be hastily arrived at on superficial examination. many of the early under-glaze blue-printed porcelain cups and saucers with oriental designs similar in character to the "willow pattern" bear a mark of a blue crescent not unlike that of the worcester factory. when such specimens in earthenware are found thus marked in under-glaze blue with the crescent they may certainly be pronounced to be caughley, in date about 1772 to 1785. some of the octagonal dark blue-printed caughley earthenware plates are of similar shape to the oriental porcelain model (illustrated p. 327), and the design especially in the treatment of the border is handled in the same manner except that turner was fonder of more crowded detail. [illustration: copy of portland vase. in red ware isleworth. (early nineteenth century.) marked s & g. (height 7-3/4 inches.) (_in the collection of mr. w. g. honey._)] [illustration: fine earthenware mug. exquisitely painted with exotic birds in worcester style (attributed to liverpool). (_in the collection of col. and mrs. dickson_.) liverpool cream ware plate. with oriental decoration in blue. (_in the collection of miss feilden._)] =derby earthenware.=--derby porcelain is well known. but it is not so well known that derby earthenware is worth considering from a collecting point of view. there is a certain amount of obscurity surrounding the early ware made at cockpit hill. slip ware was made in early days and delft appears to have been made there at the beginning of the eighteenth century. in 1772 the derby pot-works, in the hands of the heath family who were bankers, produced cream ware, though not equal to the staffordshire products. messrs. john and christopher heath, of derby, are described as "bankrupts" in 1780, and a great sale of the earthenware in stock took place. the collector has mainly to rely on dated examples, which are very rare, or on pieces bearing local allusions to elections which may be safely attributed to derby, but like so many of the extinct factories the ware has not received special attention in regard to its identification, nor is the task an easy one owing to cream ware being of very general manufacture. =isleworth.=--there is not much known about this factory established by joseph shore, who appears to have come from worcester in 1760. the ware later is marked with the initials s. & g. after the firm became shore and goulding. the factory was never very large, and employed only twenty hands at the most. we illustrate (p. 409) a copy of the celebrated portland vase in red ware marked s. & g., and although some of the isleworth ware appears to have been coarse earthenware to which the term "welsh ware" was applied, some of it reverting to the old method of slip decoration, yet it must be admitted that certain pieces in red unglazed earthenware are of a high artistic character. there is a very fine teapot of this red ware in exact imitation of the oriental style, being hexagonal in form, and having embossed decorations on the panels, the lid being surmounted with a chinese grotesque animal, such as never was designed in europe. the potting of such pieces as these has directed the attention of connoisseurs to this obscure factory. there is no doubt that some of the finer pieces of isleworth red ware have passed as elers ware, but the former has a slight glaze and the handles are moulded. it is heavier in weight, and the teapots, &c., by elers were undoubtedly of small dimensions. it appears that "hound jugs" were made at isleworth too. they were made at brampton and elsewhere, but in those illustrated (p. 413) the mark is s. & g. they are brown stoneware with subjects of game in high relief, and are early nineteenth century in date. in the second illustration it will be seen that the handle of the hound jug shows a later stage in its development. the reason is not far to seek, the awkward points of the hound handle were found to be in the way when betsy prue drew the beer. any projection of this nature is distinctly out of place in earthenware for everyday use. this the potter readily recognised, and pattern number two was the result. here he followed, without knowing it, the practice of the japanese, who in their finely-carved ivory netsukes, so much collected nowadays, which were used as buttons and fastenings for dresses, always took care to leave no projecting points--the sleeping mouse has his tail well coiled around him--the dwarf mime has a smooth head and a figure as rotund as a miniature barrel. it will be seen in this second illustration that the hound is still discernible in the handle, but probably only to those who have seen him in his former state. he has now become a clumsy, twisted handle with less meaning. it is here that his delicately balanced proportions when he was leaping over the brim with outstretched limbs--the attitude to the life of a hound when attempting to get through a fence--became a mere symbol in this later stage of his ceramic existence. [illustration: brown stoneware jugs. decorated with game in high relief. shore & goulding (isleworth). marked s & g. (height 7-1/2 inches.) (_in the collection of mr. w. g. honey._)] [illustration: brown stoneware jugs. with sporting subjects in relief, the handles showing a debased form of the "hound" handles. (_in the collection of mr. w. g. honey._)] the pictorial history of the evolution is not a pretty one. it shows how the rushing need of the public for "more pots" destroyed the craft of the potter. it was far easier, since the demand was for pots, to turn out hasty work, and to let the modelling take care of itself. for this reason the mug degenerated into a mere commonplace mug, such as staffordshire could produce quite as cheaply by the ton. so the factory put out its furnaces for ever. marks used at swansea, lowesby, liverpool, caughley, derby, and isleworth. [illustration: haynes, dillwyn & co cambrian pottery swansea] =swansea.= established 1769, works closed 1870. cambrian pottery, after 1780. a large number of marks employed. sometimes the marks were impressed, but more often painted or stamped in red. [illustration: cambrian] the word "cambrian" as a mark is very uncommon. [illustration: opaque china swansea] used on the improved white hard earthenware invented by haynes at the end of eighteenth century. [illustration: improved stone ware dillwyn & co] stone china was made from 1810-1830, and on some pieces this mark is found. [illustration: dillwyn] other of dillwyn's marks, from 1802-1817, are given here. [illustration: dillwyn swansea] swansea _porcelain_, with its finely painted flowers, was produced from 1814 to 1817. [illustration: dillwyn's etruscan ware] the celebrated "etruscan ware" was made by dillwyn from 1847 to 1850, and it generally bears this printed mark. [illustration: d j evans & co swansea] from 1850 to 1870 the firm was evans & glasson, and d. j. evans & co., and some of the later marks printed on the swansea ware of this period are reproduced. [illustration: d. j. evans & co swansea] this prince of wales' feathers mark was often accompanied by the fancy name of the particular pattern on which it appeared. [illustration: lowesby] =lowesby.= the mark of this small leicestershire factory often puzzles collectors, and it is given here. in date it is about 1835, and it only existed for a few years. [illustration: p p] =liverpool.= the marks of liverpool are of exceptional interest. sadler & green (except in rare instances, when they signed their tiles) did not use a mark. seth pennington (1760-1790), celebrated for punch bowls of rich blue decoration, may have used the mark here given. [illustration: herculaneum] [illustration: herculaneum] the herculaneum pottery (1794-1841) (which produced porcelain too, in 1800, as did w. reid & co. (1754-1760) of fine quality, but unmarked). [illustration] the herculaneum marks are various on earthenware, and when the mark of the bird, the "liver," appears, it may be attributed to herculaneum. [illustration: liverpool] [illustration: salopian] =caughley or salopian= (1751-1775). as a china factory caughley is well known, and is the parent of the coalport porcelain factory. [illustration: turner.] in its early days nothing was marked, but from 1772 to 1775, under thomas turner, salopian figures, some of large size, were made, and a great deal of under-glaze blue-printed earthenware produced. the word salopian sometimes appears, and turner is impressed on cream-ware plates (often ascribed to john turner, of lane end, staffordshire). [illustration: s c] sometimes the letters =s= or =c= appear in blue under the glaze. these marks appear also in salopian porcelain. [illustration: bristol pottery] =bristol.= the pottery at bristol has a history extending from seventeenth-century days down to 1820. its delft frequently had dates inscribed, and sometimes initials of potters. its later ware was rarely marked. but sometimes a blue cross appears, and we give a late mark, found infrequently. [illustration: s & g] =isleworth= (1760-1830). as much of the red ware of messrs. shore and golding passes as elers ware, the mark should be of interest to collectors. it is very small and impressed sometimes at the side of the piece near the base. prices. swansea earthenware. £ s. d. dillwyn. dinner service decorated with figures, and quantity of tea and breakfast ware similar (60 pieces in all). leeder, swansea, september, 1906 7 18 6 etruscan ware drinking cup, formed as horse's head. sotheby, february, 1908 2 0 0 liverpool. cream-ware punch bowl, printed outside with figure subjects and inside with ship in full sail, in colours, and inscribed "success to the glory 1783." sotheby, february, 1906 2 18 0 bowl with ship inside, inscribed "success to william and nancy," dated 1776. sotheby, november, 1906 3 0 0 mug, with painted portrait of william pitt. sotheby, november, 1906 2 8 0 caughley or salopian earthenware. figures, reclining, _cleopatra_ and _antony_, on oblong blue plinths (19-1/2 in.). christie, january, 1908 15 15 0 isleworth. ewer, decorated with etruscan figures, rare, marked. sotheby, november, 1907 1 2 0 bristol earthenware. jug with inscription and landscape in blueand white. sotheby, february, 1907 1 8 0 lowesby. basket of tortoiseshell ware, another of stoneware, another of red ware, marked "_lowesby_," illustrated in _queen_, january 26, 1907. sotheby, december, 1908 2 0 0 vase of red ware and two bottle-shaped vases, decorated with flowers in colours, marked "_lowesby_." sotheby, december, 1908 4 6 0 xiii lustre ware chapter xiii lustre ware early crude copper lustre (brislington)--gold lustre, pink and purple wedgwood, leeds, swansea, sunderland--platinum lustre (termed "silver lustre").--thomas wedgwood (1791), spode, e. mayer, wood and caldwell, leeds, castleford, swansea, and others--lustre in combination as a decoration--"resist" lustre--copper or bronze lustre--marked lustre ware--prices. the collection of lustre ware is comparatively modern. in common with salt-glaze ware which was not thought much of in the auction-room some few years ago, lustre-ware has been studied and collected with avidity, and a good deal has been discovered concerning its origin. it may be said at the outset that lustre varies very considerably in quality, and the plain undecorated platinum or "silver" lustre is being produced at the present day in teapots and cream-jugs in simulation of the old georgian silver patterns. so great is its variety and quality that some collectors have confined themselves specially to the collection of what is known as silver lustre "resist" style, and others have specialised in the pink or gold purple, with veined effects, of the wedgwood school. lustre ware may be divided into the following classes:-1. _early brown copper lustre_, crude in style, made by frank, of brislington, near bristol, about 1770. 2. _gold lustre_, probably invented by josiah wedgwood, about 1792 (not to be confounded with gilding). the effect varies from pink to purple, and in the early pieces a combination was effected of gold, yellow, and purple, iridescent in varying lights. 3. _platinum or "silver" lustre_ (discovered by thomas wedgwood, the youngest son of josiah wedgwood, about 1791), imitations of silver ware, busts, &c. 4. _copper or bronze lustre_ (differing from the coarse early ware of brislington), plain or undecorated. 5. gold or purple lustre _used as an adjunct or decoration_, either around band or rim, as at sunderland, &c. 6. platinum or "silver" lustre _used as an adjunct or slight decoration_ such as in the _falstaff_ figure (illustrated p. 371), or in the figure of _cupid_ (illustrated p. 387). 7. platinum or "silver" lustre _in combination with other painted decoration_: (_a_) birds, foliage, &c., painted in silver lustre on a ground of another colour; (_b_) silver lustre "resist" style when the ground is platinum and the ornamentation is white, blue, or yellow. 8. copper or bronze lustre _in combination with painted designs_. [illustration: pair of mottled pink gold lustre goblets. (_in the collection of miss feilden._)] [illustration: goblet and gold lustre mugs with mottled interiors. (_in the collection of miss feilden._)] =early lustre (brislington).=--richard frank, the delft potter, of bristol, produced a crude ware composed of a hard body coated with a yellow dip resembling delft in character, and, upon this surface, ornamentation in copper lustre was made which gave it the appearance of burnished copper. it has been most inaptly compared with the hispano-mauro ware, with its rich arabesque ornamentation. there is nothing in common between the two except that they are both lustrous, and here the similarity ends. the brislington colour was crude and the lustre ornaments extremely inartistic, and only suitable for the baking-dishes and mere utilitarian articles rudely and sufficiently decorated. finer and thinner lustre ware found in the vicinity of bristol can more safely be attributed to swansea. =gold lustre.=--as may readily be imagined, the amount of gold in the lustre decoration is very small. gold lustre is _not_ heavy english gilding. as early as 1776 josiah wedgwood obtained a formula from dr. fothergill, a fellow of the royal society, of which he himself was a fellow, which induced him to experiment with gold in order to produce lustrous effects. the purple of cassius was employed with great success in obtaining marbling and veining, but it was not till late in his career, about 1792, that he produced the gold lustre in its happiest combination in connection with the fine pearl ware shell dessert-services. we have already alluded to the thin wash of yellow and pink which was applied to these dishes to represent the interior of the shell, but the addition of gold lustre was the finishing touch, and such pieces are remarkably rare. they glow with fleeting colours as the light plays upon their surface. in regard to this gold lustre, it should be stated that it varied, and varied most considerably, according to the character of the body not only subjacent to it, that is upon which it was placed, but owing to its filmy and translucent character it received reflection from adjacent surfaces. on a brown body the same effect is different from that on a white or cream body. this must be borne in mind to a smaller extent in platinum lustres. the warmer the body beneath, the richer the lustre and the greater its similarity to the silver which it is intended to imitate. we illustrate two very fine mottled pink and gold lustre goblets which belong to the wedgwood period and are very light and of very fine lustrous appearance (p. 425). in certain districts these are termed "funeral cups," and whether they were used only on those solemn occasions or not, we cannot say. it appears that gold lustre was sometimes used in combination with copper or bronze. in the two mugs illustrated (p. 425), the interiors are finely mottled in purple and gold, and suggest by the beautiful potting the work of the goldsmith in their sharp contour. they may be attributed to the best period, as, too, may the goblet in the centre which glows like gold. incidentally it may be remarked that the photographs used for these illustrations cannot convey the rich and glorious colouring of these examples. the writer knows of a cup and saucer marked "dawson." there was a samuel dawson in 1802, a staffordshire potter, and there is dawson of sunderland, a better-known maker of ware, which has lustre decoration, to which latter pottery this may more safely be attributed. in general effect the scheme of colour is ambitious. the centre panel is painted in red enamel colours over the glaze. the borders have a highly lustrous gold floral decoration on a ground of pink. in regard to sunderland and newcastle, as a rule, the ware is crude and may be readily dismissed, but not too hurriedly. the rough bands of purple lustre inartistically painted as borders to the transfer-printed jugs and mugs with nautical subjects are well known. in broad effect on a jug or a punch bowl, this class of pink or purple lustre decoration is seen at its best. on a jug of this nature with bands and rough spongings of purple lustre appear the verses- "the man doomed to sail with the blast of the gale, through billows atlantic to steer, as he bends o'er the wave which may soon be his grave remembers his home with a tear." it is not a happy sentiment and suggests more the landsman's views of the sea than those of the sailor. the following has a truer ring, but it was not put on jugs to be sold to sailors' wives:- "go patter to lubbers and swabs, d'ye see, 'bout danger and fear and the like; a tight water-boat and good sea room give me, and it ain't to a little i'll strike." =platinum or silver lustre.=--it is not definitely known who was the first potter to adopt this decoration. obviously it could not be earlier in date than the year that platinum was discovered as a new metal. its chemical individuality and qualities were established by the successive researches of scheffer (1752), marggraft (1757), bergmann (1777). in 1784 the first platinum crucible was made by achard. in 1800 knight, of london, published all that was known concerning the use of platinum in manufacture. thomas wedgwood, the youngest son of josiah, employed it as early as 1791, but it is claimed that john hancock (born 1757, died 1847), first employed gold, silver, and steel lustres at messrs. spode's factory at stoke for messrs. daniel and brown, who were decorating spode ware at that date. that is his own account when he was eighty-nine years of age. but he was employed at etruria. at any rate hancock did not retain the secret, for among contemporary potters john gardner, of stoke, sparkes, of hanley, and horobin, of tunstall, seem to have practised it. at the beginning of the nineteenth century other potters were making lustre. in 1804 john aynsley, of lane end, and in 1810 peter warburton, of lane end, who took out a patent for "decorating china, porcelain, earthenware, and glass with native pure or unadulterated gold, silver, platina, or other metals fluxed or lowered with lead or any other substance which invention or new method leaves the metals, after being burned, in their metallic state." pieces of silver lustre occur with the name wood and caldwell impressed on them. this was the style of the firm from 1790 to 1818. such pieces may have been made during the last years of the factory's existence. but we know that it was made in 1810, for a painted lustre jug bears the inscription "richard bacchus, 1810." another name which the writer has seen impressed on plain silver lustre ware of early-georgian shape is e. mayer, who commenced as a potter in 1770, and died in 1818. it thus appears that at present, until more marked pieces turn up, the exact date within a few years of the manufacture of platinum or silver lustre in its first form is not determinable. [illustration: pair of silver lustre figures. by wood & caldwell. (height 6-1/4 inches.) (_from the collection of mr. w. g. honey._)] [illustration: silver lustre jugs. 1. "resist" style, with stencilled decorations. 2. bird painted in red, foliage in green in panel, silver lustre painted bands and borders. (_in the possession of mr. hubert gould._)] among makers known to have produced silver lustre are robert wilson, of hanley, who was in partnership with neale prior to the manufacture of this ware. his brother david wilson, in the opening years of the nineteenth century, made silver lustre goblets and figures. there is a mounted figure of a hussar with uplifted sword attributed to the wilsons, at the british museum. the wilsons also made copper or bronze lustre ware. lakin and poole is the name of another firm, and spode, and it is believed davenport embarked on this popular ware also. it is known, too, that leeds made silver lustre ware of fine quality, that has stood the test of time; and gold lustre in imitation of wedgwood's "pearl ware" lustrous decorations was made in early nineteenth-century days. swansea is credited with similar productions of gold and gold-purple lustre on a marbled ground, although none of its silver-lustre ware is marked. probably the earliest use of silver lustre was when it was employed as an adjunct to figures in subsidiary portions in lieu of gilding. but most certainly it began to simulate the silver ware at an early date. this early type is undecorated, and was also used in busts or statuettes of classical form. we illustrate a pair of silver-lustre figures by wood and caldwell. there is another pair of children in silver lustre, marked wood & caldwell, which are colourable imitation of the figures of "children reading" made by dwight (illustrated, p. 139). in regard to decorated silver lustre we give two examples which are fairly typical of a large class. the illustration (p. 431) shows a jug decorated in enamel colours. the bird is in red and the foliage in green, on a cream ground. the border of the panel is in silver lustre and the rim of the jug and the bands around neck are also silver lustre. this decorated silver-lustre ware is of two classes. the first class comprises patterns painted in silver lustre on a white ground, the foliage and birds and other patterns being in silver lustre, carefully painted over the white. as a rule in such pieces there is more white showing, and the lustre silver is palpably a decorative effect. in the second class the silver lustre appears as a background, and the ornamental decoration is in white, covering the piece in most elaborate designs. this is known as "resist" ware, and on account of the great beauty and variety of its ornamentation, has strongly appealed to latter-day collectors. the pattern twining its way over the silver-lustre background may be white, blue, canary colour, pink, apricot, or turquoise-blue. white is most frequently found. this second style is capable of the most intricate designs varying from farmyard and hunting scenes to ordinary conventional floral arrangements almost resembling the japanese stencilled work in another field of art. =how "resist" ware is made.=--if a white design is intended the ware is left white, but if any other colour, such as those we have mentioned, that colour is laid as a body or ground colour on the specimen to be lustred. the next step is to paint the exact design which later is to appear white, or blue, or yellow, on the surface of the vessel. this pattern is painted or stencilled on the ware with a substance composed of a glucose matter such as glycerine. the next stage is to apply the silver lustre to the whole surface which is allowed partially to dry. on its immersion in water the pattern painted previously to the addition of lustre peels off being on a soluble ground. the result is that the background of white or yellow or blue is laid bare, and the rest of the vessel is covered permanently with silver lustre. the adhesive lustre "resists" the water, adhering to the surface by means of its resinous nature, except in the pattern which peels off. hence the term "resist" ware. we illustrate one specimen of this silver-lustre "resist" ware (p. 431). it is of the ordinary floral conventional pattern probably stencilled on as described above. some of the more elaborate specimens are painted. one of the finest collections of "resist silver lustre" is that of mr. william ward, at the kennels, mellor, near blackburn. it comprises examples that one may search for in vain in any of the museums. many of the examples are marked such as "warburton," or with the letter "w" impressed, and one specimen is marked "leeds" a rare mark. the subjects of some of these jugs and mugs relate to the napoleonic wars, and are dated. there is one rare jug entitled "boney escaping through a window," and in combination with this "resist" style are examples finely painted or transfer-printed in colours. =copper or bronze lustre.=--this class of lustre is generally held to be later (excepting of course the early attempts at brislington which stand by themselves). it is held too by collectors up to the present not to offer such artistic possibilities as the "resist" silver lustre. this is amply borne out by the prices obtained at auction. but it must not be forgotten that this bronze or copper lustre varies very considerably. it may be and often is very coarse brown ordinary ware, and it may be very thin and delicate as to tempt the connoisseur to regard it with more than a passing glance. in the highest forms of copper or bronze lustre, painted views appear in panels against the lustrous background, and such views are of a high order of merit. they may in all probability have been executed at swansea. we illustrate a fine example (p. 437) of a large copper lustre mug with painted panel of landscape and other panels of fruit. very frequently in this copper lustre the jugs and mugs have ornamentation in relief which is enamelled in vivid colours. this is a fairly common form, and has been reproduced in very coarse examples, not to be confounded with the finer and thinner copper lustre at its best. we illustrate a copper lustre jug (p. 437) with serpent handle and bellarmine mask spout, decorated in turquoise blue, and with basket of flowers in relief. the goblet to the right is of similar decoration, and that on the left is of conventional coloured design on a mottled pink lustred band. =marked lustre ware.=--we have already mentioned a number of potters who are known to have made lustre ware, but the following names have been found impressed on the ware in various collections throughout the country, and may be of interest to collectors who have specimens either by these potters or by other makers not on this list. wedgwood, wilson, warburton, bailey and batkin, j. lockett & sons, e. mayer, mayer & newbold, e. wood, wood & caldwell, minton, bott & co., p. & u. (poole & unwin), meigh, c. meigh & sons, copeland & garrett, and leeds pottery. [illustration: large copper lustre mug. panels painted with landscapes and flowers in colours. (_in the collection of miss feilden._)] [illustration: group of coloured copper lustre. goblet with enamelled decoration in relief. jug with bellarmine mask and spout and decorated in turquoise blue. (_in the collection of miss feilden._)] prices. lustre ware. £ s. d. _silver lustre_ barber's jug with medallion of barber and customer, inscribed "william freeman, 1809"; 6-3/4 in. high. bond, ipswich, april, 1906 5 0 0 _silver lustre_ "resist" pattern jug with grape and barley design. sotheby, june, 1906 2 0 0 _nelson & hill_ jug in silver lustre and decorated in red and black. sotheby, june, 1906 1 10 0 _silver lustre_ jug, decorated with bird and flowers, and inscribed "j. simpson, original staffordshire warehouse, 1791." christie, january, 1908 14 14 0 _lustre decorated_, sunderland figures of _seasons_ (four) decorated in colours and purple lustre; all impressed, mark "dixon, austin & co." sotheby, february, 1908 10 0 0 _copper lustre_ pair of five-fingered flower vases marked sewell. sotheby, november, 1905 4 15 0 xiv late staffordshire ware chapter xiv late staffordshire ware the school of colour--josiah spode the second (1798-1827)--davenport (1793-1880)--thomas minton--semi-porcelain--ironstone china--the masons--early nineteenth-century commemorative ware--the revival of stoneware--messrs. doulton--the twentieth-century collector--table of marks--prices. the latest phases of earthenware are mainly concerned with the school of colourists, the chief of which was josiah spode the second, who controlled the factory on the death of josiah his father, in 1797, and took william copeland as partner. it was this spode who introduced into earthenware decorative patterns of japanese colouring in which reds and yellows and dark cobalt blue predominate, following the style of the crown-derby japan style. about 1800 spode commenced the manufacture of porcelain as well as earthenware, and his richly gilded japan patterns began to rival those of derby. in regard to the light-blue-printed ware of a fine quality turned out by spode, an illustration is given in the chapter on transfer-printed ware (p. 331). it was this second josiah spode who standardised the body used in english porcelain, which is to-day practically the same as spode's formula. it may be said, roughly, to consist of the constituents of true porcelain plus a proportion of bone ash. enoch wood, when an apprentice with palmer, was the first to use bone with earthenware, about 1770. it is obvious that with these rich colours of staffordshire porcelain side by side in the same factory, with earthenware, the latter began to assume all the decorative appearance of porcelain. a reign of colour set in. earthenware was as lavishly decorated in colours, and as richly gilded as any of the contemporary porcelains, and in putting on these colours it lost all its old characteristic features and became an echo of porcelain. before leaving the spode family, it may be mentioned that josiah spode the second, who died in 1827, aged seventy-three, was succeeded by his son, josiah spode the third, who died within two years. william copeland had died in 1826, and in 1833 the factory at stoke came into the hands of w. t. copeland, known as alderman copeland, as he then was, of the city of london. he became lord mayor of london in 1835, and in that year took thomas garrett into partnership. copeland and garrett is the name of the firm till 1847. for twenty years it was known as "w. t. copeland, late spode," and is now at the present day messrs. w. t. copeland & sons. the marks belonging to the firm at various dates are given at the end of this chapter. we illustrate a row of five remarkably fine earthenware vases decorated in rich colour in the derby style, so perfectly simulating the brush work of that famous porcelain factory, that upon a hasty examination they would pass for crown-derby. they evidently belong to the days when josiah spode was turning out at stoke more japan patterns than were produced at derby. at the same time a good deal of less ornate earthenware for cottage use was being made, and specimens may frequently be met with, such as tea-sets with old-fashioned teapot and two-handled sugar-bowl made about 1825. their homely english rural subjects are very pleasing, and show that there was still a large market in the country for simple ware without any great pretensions to foreign taste. it was the last stage of the great tradition of old english earthenware. =davenport (1793-1880).=--john davenport, of longport in staffordshire, began potting in 1793. there is no doubt that he was a great potter with artistic instincts. he went to france prior to 1800, and on his return introduced a porcelain body superior to anything then produced in england. with josiah spode the second he claims more attention as a maker of porcelain than of earthenware. but his earthenware is highly prized by collectors. his blue-printed ware was exceptionally fine, and he followed in his plates and dishes the style of turner and of minton in the perforated rims. his stone china is well potted and carefully painted, and in design he was not loth to follow mason of whom we shall speak later. many specimens of the familiar type of jug associated with mason's name, of octagonal shape are found in porcelain. some collectors noticing the great similarity to mason have been inclined to attribute these porcelain jugs to him, and doubtless, as mason made china, many are his, but davenport who made replicas of the mason stoneware jugs, being a maker of porcelain too, is likely to have produced these porcelain replicas also. none of these porcelain jugs appears to be marked. davenport ware is strong in colour, and follows the rich designs of spode. some pieces of stoneware are richly gilt, and have finely painted fruit-pieces and landscapes, some probably by steel from the derby factory. the illustration (p. 447) of the highest flight of mason typifies this class of landscape ware. swansea, in common with staffordshire, had not hesitated in painting earthenware with landscape subjects hitherto employed only by artists who decorated porcelain. the davenport marks are given at the end of this chapter, and are always prized when found on specimens, as davenport did not mark his ware so freely as did spode. from 1835 the firm became "william davenport & co.," and later "davenport & co.," and ceased about 1880. [illustration: dessert plates. with border richly gilded with floral design. impressed mark mason's patent ironstone china. (_in collection of author._)] [illustration: dessert dish. richly gilded border with landscape painted in colours. impressed mark mason's patent ironstone china.] =semi-porcelain.=--this is found as a term in some of the marks of the early-victorian period; sometimes the title "opaque china" appears. these descriptions are always puzzling to the collector. as a matter of fact they tell of the later and more modern development of earthenware. it had snatched the china glaze, it had employed the enamel colours, and had adopted the designs of the english porcelain factories. the rivalry of the staffordshire potters and the english porcelain factories was coming to an end. this stage of semi-porcelain and semi-china represented the last word of earthenware. it now simulated porcelain in its body, with one drawback, it was not translucent as is porcelain. it was naïvely termed "opaque china." but the potters were proud of their latest achievement, and accordingly marked their wares with the above terms. as has been shown, swansea came to the front, and haynes in the closing years of the eighteenth century produced a hard, white earthenware termed "opaque-china," and riley's "semi-china" about 1800 was the staffordshire equivalent. but, as we have seen, the staffordshire potters not only imitated porcelain, continuing a long trade rivalry extending over nearly a century, but many of them had commenced to make porcelain themselves. even the firm of wedgwood succumbed to the temptation, and made porcelain from 1805 till 1815, which manufacture was revived again in 1878. =thomas minton (1765-1836).=--minton was one of spode's engravers, and commenced as a master potter at stoke in 1793. minton had been apprenticed to thomas turner, of caughley, as an engraver, and it was he who designed the celebrated "broseley dragon" pattern on the caughley porcelain, and it is held by some authorities that minton engraved the "willow pattern" too. at first, at stoke, he made only earthenware, and his blue and white ware in imitation of the nankin porcelain won him distinction. about 1800 porcelain was made and was continued throughout the nineteenth century. his son, herbert minton in 1836, took into partnership john boyle, who joined the wedgwoods in 1842. herbert minton raised the quality of the productions, being one of the greatest of the staffordshire modern potters. in the latter half of the century mintons obtained a world-wide reputation. from 1850 to 1870 a band of french modellers and painters executed some fine work, but this trespasses on the field of porcelain. among the earthenware of minton some of the early pieces such as plates and dishes enamelled in colours with chinese subjects, are marked with the letter m in blue and a number. some of the earliest-known examples in earthenware of the celebrated "willow pattern," such as plates with perforated edges (similar to that illustrated, p. 331) and baskets, are by thomas minton. _ironstone china._--this again is a term used by mason and others in regard to an earthenware body for which the firm of mason, of lane delph, took out a patent in 1813. it is a ware, heavy in weight, and possessing great strength. in pieces of important size, such as punch bowls of huge proportions, and posts for old-fashioned bedsteads this was of no little value. we have already alluded to the mason series of octagonal-shaped jugs of pleasing shape, undoubtedly following the spode scheme of colour in japanese style, but lacking the finer finish of spode ware. although undoubtedly original in design, these jugs were easily excelled in potting and colouring by copyists such as davenport. but mason's blue in his imitations of old nankin ware is exceptionally fine. there are dinner-services consisting of a great number of pieces painted in under-glaze blue which are very rich in tone, and stand comparison with any of the blues of staffordshire, not excepting those of adams and minton. we illustrate a large vase obviously a replica of a chinese model, and enamelled in very rich colours. it shows a remarkable facility in potting, and although strongly coloured conveys without caricature the decorative qualities of the chinese potter. [illustration: "granite china" vase. richly decorated in colours. grass-green ground. panels with landscape in japanese imari colours. rich blue base and top heavily gilded. dragon handles salmon-pink colour. (height 2 feet.)] [illustration: base of above vase. showing mark "granite china. staffordshire potteries. fenton stone works. c j m & co." (_in the collection of dr. h. bournes walker._)] the vase is two feet in height. the ground is grass green. the panels have painted landscapes in imari colours. the base and the top are a rich blue heavily gilded, and the dragon handles are a salmon pink. obviously this, although imitative, is a very ambitious piece. the mark of this vase stamped on the bottom (illustrated p. 451) is interesting. an outline design represents the pottery works. it is marked "fenton stone works c. j. m. & co." and in the outer rim is the inscription "granite china," "staffordshire potteries." the initials c. j. m. stand for charles james mason, who together with g. miles mason applied for the ironstone china patent in 1813. among other ware, similar to the early cream ware is a body termed "mason's cambrian-argil." this evidently is in direct rivalry to the swansea cream ware marked "cambrian." earlier jugs by him are rarely marked, and are not of the octagonal form, though the sides are prismatic, and usually seven in number. they are of a buff-coloured, soft, and chalky body, but the decorations are obviously his in similar style to his series of stoneware jugs. the handle of this earlier form is not of the snake or lizard form, but follows in design the metal handle of teapots of the period. that the masons could and did produce earthenware of a very high, artistic quality is shown by the illustration (p. 447) of three pieces marked with the impressed mark running in one line across the back of the examples "mason's patent ironstone china." the gilding in the floral design in the borders is well done, and the landscapes in the centre are finely painted. they are in the brush work patiently stippled with as much minuteness as the work of birket foster. a dessert service of which this forms portion, is a very desirable acquisition, and represents stone china at its high-water mark. the various marks used by the masons are given at the end of this chapter. in 1851 the pottery was purchased by francis morley, and it was incorporated with ridgway, morley, wear & co., and at a later date passed into the hands of messrs. c. e. ashworth and taylor ashworth, who to this day revert to the original patterns of the mason jugs which have become so deservedly popular. most of these old patterns are being produced, although of course they have not the charm for the collector whose interest ends with the original period under mason. "stone china" became a term used by many other potters who produced strong and durable earthenware, heavy in weight, and extremely suitable for domestic use. mintons had a series of patterns in this ware decorated in oriental style in colour. the most popular of these is one termed "amherst, japan," following the old anglicised versions of japanese imari designs and colours. this was at the date when lord amherst was in the public eyes. it will be remembered that he headed an embassy to china, and was requested to perform the _ko-tou_, or act of prostration, nine times repeated with the head touching the ground. sir george staunton and other members of the canton mission protested, and the mission was admitted to the emperor's presence on their own terms, which consisted of kneeling upon a single knee. lord amherst was later appointed governor-general of india. there are a great many potters whose names are found on earthenware of mid-victorian days. they cannot be said to exhibit much originality in design, and their value as collectors' specimens is infinitesimal. [illustration: plates, transfer-printed in blue under-glaze. impressed mark "improved felspar. c. meigh & son." (date 1850.) (_in the collection of the author._)] [illustration: set of staffordshire earthenware vases. floral decoration in gold on rich blue ground. flowers in enamel colours on white panels in imitation of derby porcelain style. (_in the collection of miss feilden._)] we illustrate two finely-potted stoneware plates, by messrs. c. meigh and sons, made about 1850. they are printed in blue with designs of english primroses twined with peacock feathers! here is east and west in strange combination. fortunately the plates are not in colours or the result might have been disastrous; as it is they are very pleasing for the blue is of a very excellent tone. there is nothing hasty about the potting; the finish and the minor details suggest work of the old days long gone. it is evident that in the treatment of the design the inspiration came from the japanese potter whose influence was beginning to make itself felt in pictorial art even so far back as the middle of the nineteenth century. whistler's peacocks and the dawn of the later æstheticism were at hand. =nineteenth century commemorative ware.=--it has been previously shown how fond the potters became of recording events and creating figures of popular heroes in earthenware. the story is continued in the nineteenth century, which covers, one is apt to forget, the last twenty years of the reign of george iii., includes the ten years of george the fourth's reign, and the seven of william iv., commencing the victorian era in 1837 on the accession of the late queen. so that the term early nineteenth century is not the same as early victorian; as a matter of fact a good deal of very good porcelain and earthenware comes well within the nineteenth century, but very few examples that appeal to the artistic collector belong to the early-victorian period. the nineteenth century as a whole was crowded with incident, and in the class of earthenware with which we are now dealing the record is a full one. from nelson to garibaldi; from maria martin the victim of the red barn murder to moody and sankey, the american revivalists; from napoleon crossing the alps to george iii., as the king of brobdingnag, looking at napoleon through a telescope; from burns's _souter johnny_ to dickens's _sam weller_; from punch bowls, inscribed "rum and water" and "health to all," to figures of father mathew, the temperance reformer--all sub-heads are touched, and although the artistic may be absent the human touch is ever present. there are jugs and mugs with a portrait of "orator hunt," with inscriptions "universal suffrage," "no corn laws," dating from 1818. a lustre mug has a print with a dragoon represented as riding over a woman, and has the legend, "murdered on the plains of peterloo, near manchester, 16th august, 1819." the woman carries a flag inscribed, "liberty or death." a puzzle jug of staffordshire earthenware is inscribed, "hatfield shot at george iii., 1800. god save the king." the trial of queen caroline produced a crowd of figures and mugs and plates with portraits and verses. the crimean war had its ceramic record. there is a newcastle earthenware butter-dish printed and coloured, with an english soldier greeting a french soldier, and motto, "may they ever be united." [illustration: nelson jug. portrait of admiral nelson, inscribed "england expects that every man will do his duty." on reverse, female figure and children, inscribed "behold the widow casting herself and orphans on benevolent britons." (_in the collection of miss feilden._)] [illustration: nelson jug. with portrait of admiral lord nelson. aged 47. inscribed "england expects every man to do his duty." on reverse, plan of battle of trafalgar.] the transfer-printed jugs and mugs with nautical subjects we have already alluded to in a previous chapter. the unfamiliar uniform of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century "jack tar" is a study in costume. this silent ceramic world of old three deckers and ships of the line and barques and brigantines is all that is left of a fleet of ships which have long since sailed their last voyage--an armada of non-existent craft as ghostly as the phantom ship of vanderdecken. nelson jugs are of many types; we illustrate two varieties (p. 459). some of them are as early as 1797, and others as late as 1820. the top jug illustrated is of staffordshire cream ware, and is in date after trafalgar (1805), made to commemorate this victory. the portrait of nelson has an inscription over it, "england expects every man to do his duty." on the reverse is a plan of the battle of trafalgar with the disposition of the ships and a slight description which ends in the sentence "in which action the intrepid nelson fell covered with glory and renown." the lower jug is of the same period and the portrait of nelson is more authentic. it is transfer-printed, the uniform being slightly touched in colour. on the reverse there is a female figure and two children, and the sad human touch in the inscription, "behold the widow casting herself and orphans on benevolent britons." this is, indeed, the reverse of the medal. the glory of war is exalted unduly. but the awful reality does not always come home so pointedly as in this homely jug, which in its way records the "simple annals of the poor." we are reminded of the lines of that forgotten poet, amelia opie, and of the wood-engraving by dalziel in willmott's "poets of the nineteenth century," published in the sixties. "the orphan boy's tale," who tells how pleased he was- "when the news of nelson's victory came, along the crowded streets to fly and see the lighted windows flame!" the shouts of the crowd rejoicing drowned the widow's tears. in simple, but none the less poetical, language the child continues: "she could not bear to see my joy; for with my father's life 'twas bought, and made me her poor orphan boy." it is undoubtedly such human touches as these on the domestic crude ware which stir the heart's blood quicker than all the gods and goddesses ever turned out in staffordshire. the age of steam and steel and its inventions did not come unheralded. we illustrate a plate of one of the earliest steam carriages (p. 463). the plate is of staffordshire origin and evidently was intended to be sold in germany as a "present from london," as the inscription runs, "dampf wagen von london nach bristol. ein geschenk für meinen lieben jungen" ("steam coach from london to bristol. a present for my dear boy"). in date this is about 1827 as the accompanying engraving, entitled the "new steam carriage," is from a periodical publication of that date. [illustration: transfer-printed plate in colours. inscription--"dampf wagen von london nach bristol. ein geschenk für meinen lieben jungen." (staffordshire, about 1830.) (_in collection of author._)] [illustration: "new steam coach." from an old print dated 1827.] equally interesting is the staffordshire blue-printed _jug_ marked at back "liverpool and manchester railway" showing the famous _rocket_ steam-engine invented by george stephenson. the date of this is 1830. a fine _cyder mug_ printed in black with touches of colour shows an early passenger train. the luggage, as will be seen, is on the roofs of the carriages. the aristocratic company at the rear are seated in their own carriage, the ladies of the party are noticeable by their old-fashioned poke bonnets. there is something very interesting in these old railway mugs and jugs. they are modern, that is in regard to technique and artistic beauty, but the subjects are of sufficient interest to make the ware important enough to find a treasured place of honour in the collector's cabinet. =lambeth stoneware.=--mention should be made of the revival of artistic stoneware at lambeth about 1850 by henry doulton, of the lambeth pottery. an attempt was made to make vessels for ordinary use as ornamental in character as the old flemish stoneware. some of the early pieces are in brown stoneware with incised decoration filled with blue-glaze. tankards and vases and jugs were made of very pleasing character. under sir henry doulton great advances were made, and mugs with hunting subjects and many grotesque brandy bottles of stoneware were made. light brown stoneware flasks modelled to represent lord brougham, and impressed "the true spirit of reform," and "brougham's reform cordial," are often of lambeth origin. in date these are about 1830, other factories made similar ware, including the derbyshire potteries. of the doulton and watts period which commenced 1815, from 1815 to 1832 some fine napoleonic stoneware was turned out. there is, in particular, a small stoneware, brown jar of napoleon made about 1825, which is finely modelled and an excellent portrait. in the reform days of the early thirties they produced, to supply a public demand, many spirit jars with more or less grotesque models of earl grey, lord brougham, william cobbett, and lord john russell. in the museum at messrs. doulton's at lambeth are some fine examples of the early period. we illustrate a strongly modelled jug with bacchanalian subject in high relief (p. 471), showing the excellence of some of this early work at its best. =the twentieth century collector.=--the story of the triumphs and sometimes of the decadence of english pottery cannot be ended without a passing reference to the wondrous ware being produced at the end of the nineteenth century and now. it should appeal to-day to the prescient collector. it will appeal to the collector fifty years hence. under the name of the lancastrian pottery messrs. pilkington, at clifton junction, near manchester, have during the past few years produced some of the most beautiful ware ever seen in this country. at the exhibition of this ware in london in 1904 they astonished all experts. the indescribable variety of exquisite colours, ranging from faint pink and sky blue to the richest purple and dark green and amber, showed at once that modern scientific methods and painstaking research had rediscovered the lost glazes of the old chinese potters. the starry crystalline glazes so well known in the copenhagen porcelain have been faithfully reproduced, recalling the patterns traced on the window-pane by frost--sometimes brilliantly coloured blue or green against a background of pale lavender blue, at other times having a sheen like bronze. other crystalline glazes are the _sunstone_ in which brilliant prismatic and golden crystals are disseminated through rich green yellow or olive brown glazes. the fiery crystalline glazes display brilliant red crystalline formation through purple and grey glaze in dazzling patches. [illustration: staffordshire blue printed jug. marked at back "liverpool & manchester railway." showing the famous _rocket_ locomotive invented by george stephenson. (date 1830.) (_in the collection of miss feilden._)] [illustration: cyder mug. printed in black with touches of colour. (_in the collection of mrs. m. m. fairbairn._)] opalescent clouded, or curdled, or veined, or serpentine glazes have countless variations of colours--copper-green, turquoise-blue, or deep lapis-lazuli broken with white curds, or opalescent veinings, or fine lines of variegated colour shot through the glaze from top to bottom--this alone suggests a dream of colour schemes, and the wise collector will realise without further ado that we are in a period of great ceramic triumphs in pottery of this nature. texture glazes of chicken-skin, fruit-skin, and orange-skin are highly prized, and vellum or egg-shell glazes splashed and marked like nature's own handiwork in the most beautiful birds' eggs. or there are metallic effects of peculiar beauty and golden lacquer glazes resembling the old gold lac-work of chinese and japanese artists so cunningly imitated by martin, the french cabinet-maker, in his vernis-martin, so beloved of collectors of furniture and fans. of purple glazes of the transmutation class some of the richest effects have been obtained in colour and in splashed effects. wine purple, mulberry, and other alluring tones have burst upon an astonished circle of connoisseurs. of the _flambé_ specimens it is not too much to say that their like, for which the chinese potters were so famous, have never been seen before in europe. the havilands of limoges, copenhagen, and sèvres, and berlin potters, as well as the artists in the rookwood pottery in america, have worked in the same field; but it is pleasant to think that english potters have produced greater variety, including lancastrian lustre ware of wealth of glowing colour not surpassed by the hispano-moresque potters nor by the lustrous majolica of the italian renaissance. to the scientific activity in wresting from the past the lost secrets of the old chinese potters, a great tribute of praise should be accorded to mr. william burton and his brother, mr. joseph burton. other workers in the same field of glazes are mr. bernard moore, of london, whose glorious _flambé_, rich red, and _sang-de-boeuf_ glazes are of unsurpassed beauty. mr. william de morgan has for many years been known for his lustrous tiles and work of fine originality and strength. another pottery known as the ruskin pottery conducted by mr. w. howson taylor at west smethwick, birmingham, is a bright spot in recent ceramic enterprise, and has won distinction for ware which is of great beauty. in bringing the story of english earthenware to a conclusion, it is the hope of the writer that the ground has been sufficiently covered to provide an outline history of a complex subject. it may be that much appears that might have been omitted, and that much is omitted that might have appeared within these covers. but it must be allowed that personal tastes play an important part in selection either by the collector or by the student. but in matters of fact and in the mass of details relative to the potters and their wares no pains have been spared to make this little handbook worthy of its subject. [illustration: doulton stoneware jug. (date about 1845. height 10 inches.) (_in the collection of mr. w. g. honey._)] marks found on late staffordshire earthenware. the first half of the nineteenth century in earthenware included a variety of types: (1) the last output of the classical school; (2) cream ware transfer-printing in under-glaze blue; (3) the school of colourists in imitation of english porcelain. in the following list a great many names appear of potters not well known nor worthy of more than passing allusion. but their trade marks often puzzle collectors. =adams.= one of the oldest firms in staffordshire. [illustration: adams & co.] early mark for cream ware, plain and enamelled, 1770-1790. [illustration: adams & co.] mark used for solid jasper ware, 1780-1790. [illustration: adams] mark for printed ware, stoneware, and jasper, 1787-1810. [illustration: adams warranted . staffordshire] mark used for deep blue-printed ware, 1804-1840, so much collected by american connoisseurs. =spode.= [illustration: spode stone-china or spode stone-china] josiah spode the second, who introduced derby-japan patterns into earthenware. the name is found impressed, or printed, or painted in colours on back. [illustration: spode's new fayence] [illustration: spode] at the introduction of ironstone china other marks were introduced, and they were printed on the ware. [illustration: spode's imperial] similarly the "new fayence," another of spode's improvements, was printed on ware of that character. [illustration: copeland & garrett late spode the tiber copeland & garrett new japan stone] other marks, both impressed and printed, in the ware are spode, son & copeland, or spode & copeland. [illustration: copeland and garrett] copeland & garrett new fayence] from 1833 to 1847 these, among other trade marks, were used. [illustration: copeland mark used 1847-56.] from 1847 to 1856 this mark was used. [illustration: copeland late spode] the present day mark of messrs. w. t. copeland & sons. =davenport= (1793-1886). [illustration: longport] [illustration: davenport] [illustration: davenport] these marks are found on the earthenware, stamped or printed, in small letters in red, and other davenport marks, such as that with the anchor and the stone china design used after 1805, are frequently puzzling to collectors, especially when partially obliterated. [illustration: davenport stone china] =minton.= established at stoke, 1790. in 1800 porcelain was made, and was continued throughout the century and at the present day. [illustration: m & b felspar porcelain] from 1790-1798 blue and white earthenware in imitation of common nankin largely made. in 1798 semi-porcelain was made. felspar china, similar to spode and stone china, in common with other staffordshire potters, was largely produced. from 1836-1841 the firm was minton & boyle, and afterwards minton and hollins, and at the present day minton is one of the best-known english firms. not many of the early earthenware pieces were marked, and it is difficult to distinguish minton's firm from some of the fine blue-printed ware of adams and of mason. [illustration: b b new stone] this +b b+ mark appears on all stone china of minton from 1845-1861, signifying _best body_. the name minton was not stamped nor impressed on the ware till after 1861. about 1823 the _amherst japan_ pattern was made, and has a printed mark in a scroll. it is frankly imitative of spode and the derby-japan style. [illustration: r m & co] a rhomboidal mark with the letter +r+, sometimes "+r^d+," signifying that the design is "registered," and having +m & co+, is not confined to mintons, as other potters used the same mark with their names or initials underneath. it is quite late and on ware not likely to appeal to the collector. =mason.= [illustration: mason's cambrian-argil] the marks of mason are found, after 1813, either impressed in a straight line or having the mark under a crown and in scroll, on his celebrated ironstone china printed in blue. [illustration: mason's patent ironstone china (_impressed_)] [illustration: m. mason] his semi-porcelain or cambrian-argil bears the name on the ware, and was intended to compete with swansea. [illustration: miles mason] an illustration of the mark on stone china, marked "fenton stone works, c j m & co," is given on page 451. [illustration: mason's patent ironstone china] it should be mentioned that the blue-printed mark with a crown and scroll does not necessarily mean that the ware (especially in the hexagonal set of jugs) is old. it is still used at the present day by messrs. ashworth, who are reproducing some of the old and favourite patterns. collectors are advised to buy one of these jugs as a model to compare it with the older work. [illustration: p. b & co] the mark of pindar, bourne & co., of burslem, who made red terra cotta spill vases decorated in colours and gold with arabesque designs, about 1835. in 1880 the factory passed into the hands of messrs. doulton. [illustration: rogers] mark of dale hall pottery, john rogers & son, 1815-1842. notable for light blue printed "willow" and "broseley dragon" series. [illustration: _j e & s_ dale hall] j. edwards & son, dale hall, 1842-1882. [illustration: w b. w & b w b & s clews] =w. brownfield & son= (cobridge) 1808-1819. [illustration: w b] bucknall & stevenson and a. stevenson alone during part of above period. _james clews_, 1819-1829. his mark was a crown above his name. _robinson, wood & brownfield_, 1836. [illustration: warranted real ironstone china w & b] _wood & brownfield_, 1836-1850. _w. brownfield_, 1850-1870. _w. brownfield & sons_, 1871 to present day. china has been made since 1871. [illustration: italian garden w & b] we append some of the marks of this firm, including the staffordshire knot, which has been used by other staffordshire potters. [illustration: i. ridgway] [illustration: jr victoria] =ridgway=, founded in 1794. j. & w. ridgway and ridgway & sons, 1814-1854. many of these marks have puzzled collectors, as only the initials are used in many cases. the firm subsequently became t. c. brown-westhead, moore & co., and has had a distinguished career in the ceramic world, gaining honours at the various international exhibitions. [illustration: india temple stone china j.w.r.] (_see table p. 349_). [illustration: p & b] [illustration: best p & b] these marks are found impressed in ware of messrs. powell & bishop, 1865-1878, of hanley. they are often confused with pindar, bourne & co., when only initials are used. [illustration] another form is a caduceus, the emblem of mercury, impressed in the ware and sometimes printed. (_messrs. powell & bishop._) [illustration: oriental ivory] a seated figure is another trade mark which has given rise to a good deal of speculation among tyros in collecting. (_messrs. powell & bishop._) [illustration: g. heathcote & co cambria] _heathcote & co._ is a mark found in early nineteenth century ware. the blue-printed earthenware was of a fine quality. [illustration] =late nineteenth century earthenware.= the three marks of the lancastrian pottery, the ruskin pottery, west smethwick, and of the earthenware of mr. william de morgan, are known to connoisseurs of what is great in latter-day english earthenware, and they are given here for the information of collectors who may be interested. [illustration: ruskin pottery west smethwick 1907.] [illustration: d m] prices. late staffordshire. £ s. d. =spode= (earthenware). spode felspar, ice pails and covers painted with flowers and richly gilded. puttick & simpson, march, 1907 12 1 6 =davenport= (earthenware). toby jug, marked "davenport." sotheby, november, 1904 3 12 6 =minton= (earthenware). set of chessmen, in form of mice, drab and ivory coloured, decorated with black and gold. kings and queens crowned, knights with swords, bishops with croziers, and castles with warder on top and a mouse imprisoned below. sotheby, july, 1908 2 0 0 =mason.= vases, pair, large, decorated in gold with kylin tops. debenham, january, 1906 8 5 0 ironstone china dinner service (197 pieces) floral decoration in colours. christie, march, 1906 53 11 0 vases, pair (12 in. high), mazarin blue ground, decorated with oriental birds, &c. bradby, perth, september, 1906 7 7 0 ironstone china bowl, decorated in flowers blue, red and gold. puttick & simpson, january, 1907 5 0 0 early victorian. =staffordshire= (earthenware). red barn (scene of well-known murder of maria martin), very scarce. sotheby, february, 1907 2 10 0 jug, with portrait of lord nelson, marked hollins. sotheby, november, 1908 1 19 0 jug with figures of volunteers, and a smaller jug with portrait of wellington. sotheby, may, 1907 3 0 0 three jugs, brown ground, with madonna and child in relief, marked "meigh," and three jugs with tam o' shanter subjects marked "ridgway." sotheby, may, 1907 1 3 0 index a abbey, richard (liverpool), 403 absalon, decorator at yarmouth, 378 "adam and eve" delft dishes, 67, 109 adams (marks), 263 adams (prices), 282, 283 adams & bromley, 260 adams & co., marks, 260, 473 adams, benjamin, mark, 263, 348 adams, william (of cobridge), 260, 329 adams, william (of greenfield), 260 adams, william (of greengates), =259-263=, 279, 330, 340, 348 (mark) adams, william, & sons (of burslem), 348 adams, william, & sons (of stoke) (mark), 348 æsop, _fables_ of, reproduced on earthenware, 321, 322 agate ware, definition of, 27; summary of, 70, 169; _solid_ and _surface_ (wedgwood), 228 alexander, czar of russia, bust of, 374 allen, of lowestoft, leeds ware decorated by, 301 america and england (in earthenware), 337, 338; independence of, jug relating to, 350; views in (clews), 349 "amherst, japan" (minton), 454 anchor as a mark, fell, newcastle, 350; middlesbro', 350 animals, figures of, 174 antony and cleopatra, swansea figures, 395 ashworth, c. e., messrs., 454 astbury, john, =147-151=; the successor of elers, 164; early salt glaze, 204 astbury, thomas, 147; flint, 232; figures, 361; as a mark, 298 astbury ware, definition of, 27; summary of, 68; prices, 155, 191, 192 aynsley, john, 348; lustre ware, 430; mark, 279 b bacon, john, 248 baddeley, 222, 232 baddeley, j. and e., 349 baddeley (r. j.), basket-work, salt glazed, 212 baddeley, r. and j., 349 baddeley, w. (eastwood), 280 bailey and batkin (lustre ware), 436 balloon ascent depicted on delft, 113 bamboo ware (wedgwood), 230 barberini vase, 249 barker (mark), leeds ware, 289, 310 barnes, zachariah, 67, 125, 403 basalt ware, definition of, 27; wedgwood, 228 basket-work, leeds, 297; salt glaze, 212; wilson, 266 "bat" printing, 347 battersea enamels, 318 batty & co., 280 b b. new stone (minton mark), 476 bear hugging bonaparte (nottingham), 152 bear jugs, nottingham, 69, 152 beauclerk, lady diana, 248 beehive as a mark (ridgway), 479 bellarmine jugs, 68, 134; prices, 152 benson, thomas, use of flint, 232 bentley, his influence on wedgwood, 244 bentley, g., modeller (swansea), 395 bevington (swansea), 399 biblical subjects in delft, 67 billing, thomas (1722), 207 birch, e. j., 280 birch, black basalt ware, 274 bird as a mark, 417 birds, figures of, 174 bingley, thomas, & co., 302, 305 biscuit, definition of, 27, 51 black basalt (e. mayer), 269 black printed ware, its mission, 333 blue dash decoration (delft), 109 blue enamelled salt-glazed ware (littler), 207 blue printed ware, =338-347= body, definition of, 28 bonaparte, bust of, 374; caricatures of in earthenware, 337; lustre ware, 435; russian bear hugging, 152; stoneware, 465 bone-ash, first use of, 444 bordeaux earthenware, 215 books, quaint titles of puritan, 95 booth, enoch, 182; improved glazing, 232 boscage school of figures (walton), 378 bott & co., 280; lustre ware, 436 boyle, john, 449 brameld, rockingham, 305, 311 brampton pottery, 69, 412 brislington lustre, 424 bristol delft, summary of, 67, =113-118=; prices, 129 bristol earthenware prices, 419 bristol pottery, 404; mark, 418 british museum, mediæval tiles at, 84 britton & sons (leeds), 288, 310 bromley (adams & bromley), 260 bronze busts imitated, 229 bronze lustre ware, 435 brookes, engraver for earthenware, 347 brougham, lord, stoneware flask, 465 browne, sir thomas, quoted, 163 brown-westhead, t. c., moore & co., 479 burns's _souter johnny_ in earthenware, 458 busts and figures, stoneware, 68 butler, samuel, _hudibras_, quoted, 366 c c as a mark, 408, 418; caughley, 349; wilson, 266 "cadogan" teapots, 305, 311 caduceus as a mark, powell & bishop, 480 cambria as a mark, heathcote & co., 480 cambrian-argil (mason), 453 cambrian pottery (swansea), 395; marks, 415 camel pattern teapots, 208 c. & h. (cookson & harding) mark, 280 "canary" bottles, fraudulent, 110 caricatures in earthenware, 337 castle acre priory, tiles from, 84 castleford pottery (d. d. & co.), 174, 270, 302, 311; prices, 313 catalogues printed in several languages (leeds), 288; wedgwood, 224 cats, figures of, 174; slip decorated, 358; agate, 359 caughley earthenware, 407; prices, 419; marks, 417, 418 caughley, transfer-printing at, 318 cauliflower ware, 169; teapots, 208 caylus, count, 259 chaffers (liverpool), 403 chalk introduced into cream ware, 269 champion (bristol), 235-237 chapel, stephen (leeds), 288 chatterly, william, 66 chertsey abbey, tiles from, 83 chester, grosvenor museum, toft dish at, 88 chesterfield, 69 china, definition of, 28 china clay, definition of, 28 china stone, definition of, 28 chinese pottery as a model for delft, 102; inspires english potters, 196; old glazes of, rediscovered, 466 chippendale, his similarity to wedgwood, 259 christian, philip (tortoiseshell ware), 70 chronological table of chief events, eighteenth century, 158 church, professor, quoted (lambeth delft), 113; dwight ware, 138 c j m as a mark (mason), 453 classicism, eighteenth century, 243; foreign to staffordshire, 160; the passing of, 276 classic ware, summary of, 73, 74; greek designs (turner), 263; figures, staffordshire, 370 claude landscapes on earthenware, 344 clays used for pottery, 28; various, how used, 47 clementson, 79 clementson, j., 280 clews, 280 clews, james, 349 close & co., 280; mark, 348 close, mort & co. (liverpool), 403 cobalt blue used in salt-glazed ware, 208 cobbett, william (stoneware flask), 465 cockspur-mark, definition of, 31, 298 collecting, the field of, 52; reasons for, 35 cologne ware, 134 colour, its adoption, 273; _versus_ form in earthenware, 178 coloured salt-glazed ware, 211 cookson & harding, 280 cookworthy (plymouth), 235 copeland, 443, 444 copland & garrett, 444; marks, 474, 475 continental potters, indebted to staffordshire, 177; imitations of wedgwood, 247 copenhagen porcelain, 293, 466 copper lustre ware, 435; wilson, 282; prices, 439 copyists--earthenware imitating china, 43; of wedgwood, 257, 265 cornish clay mines, 235; kaolin, its use in cream ware, 237 cottage ornaments, figures for, 378 "crabstock" handles, 212; jug and handle, 185 cream ware, =230-240=; definition of, 28; its experimental stage, 169; its later white body, 44; leeds, =293-301=; queen's ware, 232; revival of old wedgwood designs, 231; summary of, =71-73= crich ware, 204 cricket match depicted in earthenware, 338 crouch ware, 204 crown in circle as a mark (stevenson), 348 crown as a mark, 266 d dale (mark), 381 dalehall as a mark, 477 daniel, ralph (salt-glaze), 207 daniel, thomas, painter, 232 davenport marks, 475; prices, 481 davenport, john, 445 davenport (of longport), 269; mark, 280 davenport, thomas, 348 davenport, henry and william, 348 davenport & co., 446 dawson, samuel (lustre), 428 d. d. & co., castleford mark, 302, 311 decadent period staffordshire figures, 378 delft ware (_bristol delft_), 113-118; definition of, 28; general characteristics of, 67; how made, 101; its foreign origin, 102; its introduction into england, 105; (_lambeth delft_), 106-113; (_liverpool delft_), 118-125; prices, 129-130; summary of, =67-68=; (_wincanton delft_), 125 de morgan, william, pottery of, 481 denny abbey, tiles from, 84 derby (earthenware), 408; (pot works) mark, 349; transfer-printing at, 318 dickens, _sam weller_ in earthenware, 458 dillwyn, l. w. (swansea), 399 dillwyn & co. (marks), 415, 416 dipping-house, the, 51 dixon, austin, & co., sunderland, 309 dixon & co., sunderland, 306 d. j. evans & co., swansea, 400; marks, 416 d. m., mark of william de morgan, 481 don pottery marks, 289, 310, 311 dorset, earl of, arms on jug, 92 doulton, lambeth stoneware, 151, 465 drug pots, 106 dunderdale, david, 302 dunderdale & co. (d d & co), 174 dutch enamellers employed on salt-glaze, 211 dwight, john, 68, 134, =138-142=; prices, 155 e eagle as a mark (leeds), 311 early english ware, =83-98= early pottery, summary of, 66 early salt-glazed ware, 203 early-staffordshire ware, =159-192=; prices, =187-192= early-victorian earthenware (prices), 482 earthenware, definition of, 29, 40; figures compared with china, 382; how made, 44; imitating porcelain, 273; its appearance, 43; method of studying, 55; the nine classes of, 55; _versus_ porcelain, 182 east india company, 106 eastwood mark, 280 edwards, j., & son, dale hall, 477 egyptian ware, definition of, 27 e. i. b. mark, 280 eighteenth century, chief events of, table, 158 election plates (_bristol delft_), 67, 114 elers, david, 142, 146 elers, john philip, 144 elers brothers (_not_ the inventors of salt glaze), 204; prices 155; their effect upon staffordshire, 164; wedgwood's opinion of, 163 elers ware, definition of, 29, =142-147=; summary of, 68 elizabethan silver mounts on earthenware, 126; coats of arms on jugs, 134 enamel colours, definition of, 29; use in salt glaze, 211; kiln (enamel), description of, 52 engine turned ware, 148 english character in early staffordshire ware, 160; costume subjects, 264; porcelain factories largely imitative, 196; scenery (on earthenware), 277; national spirit in earthenware, 186 engravers employed to decorate earthenware, 325 etruria museum, catalogue of, 227 etruscan ware, dillwyn's (swansea), 400; prices, 418 evans, painter (swansea), 399 evans & glasson (swansea), 400 exhibition, great, of 1851, hideousness of, 358 f f as a mark (newcastle), 350 fable subjects in earthenware, 321, 322; liverpool tiles, 125 factory system, the, its origin, 249 falstaff, earthenware figure of, 374 fell (newcastle), 306 ferrybridge, 309 fifield, william and john, painters (bristol), 404 figures (astbury), 361; astbury prices, 192; earthenware and china compared, 382; leeds prices, 385; salopian, 407; salt-glazed, 181; staffordshire, best period, 362; staffordshire, =357-389=; decadent period of, 378; prices, 385, 386; summary of, =74-77=; wedgwood, 240; whieldon, 361; prices, 192 firing, period of duration, 51 fitzwilliam family, crest of, as a mark, 311 flaxman, john, 248; his designs in cream ware, 231; designs of, copied, 274 fletcher & co. (shelton), 348 _fleur-de-lis_ as a mark, 400 flint introduced into body, thomas astbury, 207; use of, 232 ford (south hylton pottery), 309 forgeries (in general), 59 forgeries--slip ware, 60; sack bottles, dated, 60; salt-glaze coloured, 60; toby jugs, 63; "fair hebe," 63; "vicar and moses," 63; whieldon ware, 63; leeds, 63. form _versus_ colour in earthenware, 178 fowke, sir francis (lowesby), 400 frank, richard (brislington), 424 freeth, mr. frank, quoted (toft ware), 91 frog, green, on catherine ii. service, 239 frog mugs, 309 fulham stoneware, =151=; summary of, 68, 70; prices, 155 funeral cups (lustre), 428 furniture decorated with wedgwood ware, 247 g gateshead potteries, 306 gilding used in salt-glazed ware, 208 gillray's caricatures in earthenware, 337 glazes, various, definition of, 29; rich, used by whieldon, 169 glazing, description of process, 51; improvement by booth, 232 glost oven, description of, 48, 51 godwin, francis, bishop of hereford, 117 goethe, quoted, 259 gold lustre ware, 427 gonsales, domingo, voyage to moon, 117 granite ware, 170; wedgwood, 228 greatbach, william, 166, 248 great malvern, tiles from, 84 green (mark), leeds ware, 289; signature of, liverpool tiles, 121 greens, bingley & co., 302 grenzhausen, stoneware of, 137 _grès de flandres_ ware, 137, 151 grey, lord (earthenware flask), 465 greybeard jugs, 134 griffin as a mark (rockingham), 311 grotesque design, in early staffordshire ware, 160; in english pottery, 208 growan stone, its use in cream ware, 237 h hackwood, 280 hackwood, william, 248 hamilton, sir william, 244, 259 hancock, john (lustre), 430 hancock, robert, 329; his "tea party," worcester, 318 harding, 280 harley, 280 hartley, greens & co., 288 haynes, 79 haynes, george (cambrian pottery), 395 haynes, dillwyn & co., marks, 415 heath, 280; prices, 284 heath family, derby potters, 408 heath & bagnall, 280 heath, warburton & co., 280 heathcote, c., & co., mark, 480 herculaneum pottery (liverpool), 403; marks, 417; figures of, 77 hewitt, painter (wood figures), 373 hicks & meigh, 349 hicks, meigh, & johnson, 349 historical events, chronicled in earthenware, 333 hollins, samuel, 269, 275, 280 hollins, t. & j., 281; mark, 275; prices, 482 howe, earl, portrait of, 334 hudson river, american views (clews), 349 humble & green, 288 humour in pottery, 208 hylton potteries, 300 i i. dale, mark on figures, 381 identification of earthenware, 65; =table=, =66-79= i. e. b. as a mark, baddeley, 349 imitation of porcelain in earthenware, 273; bronze busts (by wedgwood), 229; chelsea and derby figure of falstaff 377; chinese pottery (at leeds), 290; crown derby, 443; japanese incised work (salt-glaze), 212; oriental porcelain styles, 196, 215; plymouth group by staffordshire, 377; silversmiths' work (by elers), 195; at leeds, 294; by wedgwood, 196; wedgwood, 257, 265; wedgwood's queen's ware at swansea, 396 imitativeness of english potters, 196 imitativeness, black basalt ware, 274 incised decoration, salt glaze, 208 "indian temple," j. w. r. (ridgway), 479 ireson, nathaniel, 125 ironstone china, 450; definition of, 30; prices, 482 isleworth pottery, 411; marks, 418; prices, 419 "italian garden" (w. and b.), mark, 478 j jackfield pottery, 305; prices, 313 jacobite toasts, 215 james ii., dwight bust of, 141 japanese decoration adopted in staffordshire, 273 japanese incised work imitated, salt glaze, 212 jasper ware, definition of, 30; adams, 259-263; turner, 263-265; wedgwood, 240-249; _solid_ and _dip_, definition of, 247 j. e. & s. as a mark, 477 jervaulx abbey, tiles from, 84 jinkcuson, name on salt-glazed jug, 212 jonson, ben, quoted, bellarmine jugs, 134 j. r. as a mark, ridgway, 479 j. w. r. as a mark, ridgway, 479 k keeling, a. and e., 281 kilns, the various, description of, 48 l l., leeds mark, 289, 310 lakin, 281; prices, 284 lakin & poole, 281 (lustre ware), 433; mark, 381; prices, 284 landré, mrs., figure designer (wedgwood), 240 late staffordshire ware, 443-483; marks, 473 lambeth delft, =106-113=; summary of, 67; prices, 129 lancastrian pottery, 466 landscape subjects after claude, in earthenware, 276 lead-glaze, definition of, 29; early experiments, 174; improvements in, 232 leeds ware, =287-301=; basket-work, 297; best period of, 290; decorated at lowestoft, 301; decorated at yarmouth, 378; figures, 76; figures, prices, 385; a fine collection of, 56; fraudulent, 63; marks, 289, 310; prices, 312 leeds pottery co., 288 leeds pottery (lustre), 436 lewes priory, tiles from, 84 lion as a mark, 289, 311 littler, william, lead glaze, 232; salt glaze, 207, 208 liverpool, fine collection of, 56; (_cream ware_), =402-404=; figures, 77; prices, 419; (_delft_), =118-125=; prices, 130; tiles, subjects of, 125 lockett, j. and j., 281 lockett, j., & sons (lustre ware), 436 london as a mark, 350 longton hall, blue used on salt-glazed ware, 207 lovers' teapots, 208 lowesby pottery, 400; prices, 419 lowestoft, leeds ware decorated at, 301 l. p. (leeds), mark, 288 l. p., monogram, as a mark, 481 lustre ware, =423-439=; definition of, 30; first use of lustre, 430; marks, 430, 433, 435, 436, 439; prices, 439; summary of, =77=, =78=; copper lustre, 435; wilson, 269, 282; silver lustre as a decoration to figures, 377; silver or platinum, =429-436=; silver, j. aynsley, 279; various classes of, 424 m m. as a mark (minton), 450 m. & co. as a mark (minton), 476 m. & b. as a mark (minton & boyle), 476 m. & n. as a mark (mayer & newbold), 281 malling jug (tudor earthenware), 130 marbled ware, definition of, 30; summary of, 70 marbling on early vases, 68 _marks_ (see under special class of ware), their use and value, 30; used fraudulently, 64 marseilles earthenware imitates dresden models, 43 martin, maria, of red barn, in earthenware, 482 mason (ironstone china), 450; marks, 477; prices, 482 mason, miles, 349 masonic plates (j. aynsley), 348 mary, queen, portrait of, on jug, 137 mayer, e., lustre, 430; prices, 284 mayer & newbold, 281; lustre ware, 436 mayer, e., & son, 281 mayer, e. j., 281 mayer, elijah, 151, 269, 274; glazed black ware, 305 mayer & elliott, 281 mediæval tiles, 83; summary of, 66 meigh, 79 meigh, c., & sons, 457; lustre ware, 436 meir, f., 281 meir, john, 66 meissen, imitation of wedgwood by, 247 metal imitated: wedgwood, silver lustre, 229 metal designs copied at leeds, 294 metal dies used by elers, 195 metal stamps, used for ornament in earthenware, 142 metal workers, influence of, upon pottery: elers, 195; wedgwood, 196 metropolitan slip ware, 95 meyer, joseph (mark), 275 middlesbrough pottery (mark), 350 milton, bust of (r. wood), 369; prices, 386 minton, 79; marks, 476; prices, 482; (thomas), 330, 348, 449; (herbert), 449 modern, earthenware when considered, 30 modern silver lustre teapots, 423 modern spirit, the beginning of the, 249 monglott, swiss artist (adams), 260 moore & co. (sunderland), 306 morley (nottingham) (seventeenth century), 69 morley, charles (nottingham), 151 morley, john (of nottingham), 146 morr & smith, 281 mortlock as a mark, 305, 311 moseley, 281 m. p. co. as a mark (middlesbro'), 350 museums where earthenware is exhibited, 56 musicians, earthenware figures of, 381 myatt, 281 n namur, stoneware of, 137 napoleon, bust of, 374; caricatures of 152, 337; in lustre ware, 435; in stoneware, 465 nash, joseph, 66 national character in early staffordshire ware, 160 national spirit in earthenware, 186 nautical subjects in earthenware, 334 neale & co., figures, 370; marks, 266 neale & palmer marks, 266; prices, 283 nelson jugs, 461 newcastle lustre, 428; transfer-printing at, 330 newcastle ware, =306-310=; prices, 313 new stone b b. (minton), 476 nineteenth-century commemorative ware, 457 nineteenth-century developments, 78, 79 niderviller earthenware imitates dresden models, 43 nottingham ware, early, 204; summary of, 69; prices, 155-156; stoneware, 151-152 o omar khayyam quoted, 48 opaque china, 79, 446; haynes (swansea), 399 opie, amelia, quoted, 461 "orator hunt" on late earthenware, 458 oriental decoration adopted in staffordshire, 273; designs at leeds, 298; styles imitated (leeds), 290 "oriental ivory" as a mark (powell & bishop), 480 oven, description of, 31, 48, 51 over-glaze, definition of, 29; printing, description of, 325 p p as a mark (lancastrian pottery), 481 palmer, henry, 265; marks, 266; prices, 283 p & b as a mark (powell & bishop), 480 p. & u. (poole & unwin), lustre ware, 436 pardoe, thomas, painter (swansea), 399 parson and clerk group, 365 paste, definition of, 31 p. b. & co. as a mark (pindar, bourne & co.), 477 pearl ware (wedgwood), 238 peasant pottery of nineteenth century, 381 "pelican in her piety" (toft dish), 95 pennington (liverpool), 403; marks, 417 pharmacy jars, 106; (lambeth), 113 phillips, j. (hylton pottery), 306 phillips (longport), 281 phoenix as a mark (clementson), 280 pilkington, messrs., 466 plagiarists of wedgwood, 257, 265 plaster of paris moulds first introduced, 207 political events chronicled in earthenware, 333 poole & unwin (lustre ware), 436 porcelain colours imitated in earthenware, 273 porcelain copied in earthenware, 43; made by earthenware potters (caughley), 407; (minton), 449; (rockingham), 305; (staffordshire), 444; (swansea), 399 portland vase, 249 porto bello bowl, the, 147 portraits in earthenware: bonaparte, 337, 435, 465; brougham, 465; cobbett, 465; duke of york, 321; grey, 465; james ii., _bust_, 141; king of prussia, 318; nelson, 461; prince rupert, _bust_, 138; rousseau, _bust_, 240; washington, 338; wesley, _bust_, 374; william iii., 137; young pretender (salt-glaze), 215 posset-pot inscribed "wm. simpson, 1685," 95 potter's wheel, the, 48 pountney & allies (bristol), 407 pountney & co. (bristol), 407 powell & bishop (mark), 480 powell & sons, messrs. james, 231 pratt, 281 prices, hints concerning, 59; dealers', 59 prince of wales's feathers as a mark, 480 prince rupert, dwight bust of, 138 printed ware, =317-350= printing on earthenware, at leeds, 293; over-glaze, description of, 325; under-glaze, description of, 326 prussia, king of, mugs and jugs (worcester), 318 puritan influence on earthenware, 95 q queen's ware (wedgwood), 232 queen's ware, its decoration, 238, 239 quin as _falstaff_, figure of, 374 r railway mugs, 462 railway, liverpool and manchester, inscription on jug, 462 raren, stoneware of, 137 rathbone, mr. frederic (wedgwood), 24, 25, 227 r. b. & s., leeds mark, 289, 310 reasons for collecting, 35 red barn murder, in earthenware, 482 redrich & jones, patent of, 170 red ware, wedgwood, 230 reform days, commemorative ware, 465 reid, w. & co., liverpool, 403; marks, 417 renaissance of staffordshire, 165 resist pattern, definition of, 31 "resist" silver lustre, how made, 434 rhodes, salt-glaze enameller, leeds, 211 ridgway, 79; prices, 483 ridgway, j. & w., 349; marks, 479 ridgway, morley, wear & co., 454; mark, 349 riley, 79, 281; semi-china, 449 riley, j. & r., 349 ring, joseph, bristol, 404 r. m. w. & co. as a mark, 349 robinson, salt-glaze enameller (leeds), 211 rockingham, 302; prices, 313 rogers, 281 rogers, john, & son (mark), 477 rous, thomas, 138 rousseau, bust of, 240 royal portraits, on delft, 109; on stoneware, 137; on toft ware, 91; bust of james ii., 141; king of prussia, 211, 318; bust of prince rupert, 138; duke of york, 321 ruskin pottery, mark, 481 s s as a mark, 408, 418 "sack" bottles, 106; fraudulent, 60, 110 sadler & green, 122 sadler liverpool tiles, signature of, 121 saggers, definition of, 31; description of, 48 st. alban's abbey, tiles from, 84 st. anthony's as a mark, 306 salopian earthenware, 407; prices, 419 salopian, earthenware figures, 77 salt, 281 salt, ralph, figures of, 378; school of, figures, 76 salt-glaze, definition of, 29; description of process, 199 salt-glazed ware, =195-217=; classes of, 207; coloured, fraudulent, 60; defects of, 222; figures, 74, 181; prices, 216; rivalry with early staffordshire, 178; summary of, 69 s. & g. (mark), isleworth, 411, 418 satire, earthenware the medium for political, 333 s. b. & s. (mark), leeds ware, 289, 311 scieux earthenware imitates dresden models, 43 scott brothers (sunderland), 306 "scratched blue," salt glaze, 208 semi-china, definition of, 31 semi-porcelain, 446; definition of, 31 sewell, 306 sewells & donkin, 306 sèvres, imitation of wedgwood by, 247 shakespeare, quoted (potter's wheel), 48; willow pattern, 343 shaw (liverpool), 403 shaw, ralph, 148, 207 shaw, robert, 66 shell forms used in earthenware, 238 ships as decoration on delft (liverpool), 67 shore & goulding, 411 shore, joseph, 411 shorthose, 281 shorthose & co., 348 shorthose & heath, 282 siegburg, stoneware of, 137 silver designs, in earthenware, 195, 196, 229; copied at leeds, 294; imitated (hollins), 275 silversmith, influence of, upon earthenware (elers), 195; (wedgwood), 196 silver lustre as a decoration to figures, 377 silver lustre ware, =429-436=; j. aynsley, 279; marked pieces, 430, 433; prices, 439; summary of, 78 simpson, ralph, 95 simpson, william, 95; petition of, 137 slip, definition of, 31, 47 slip ware, 87; prices, 97; summary of, 66 sneyd, 282 solid agate ware, 170; wedgwood, 228; definition of, 27 "solid" jasper, definition of, 247 solon, mr., quoted (mediæval tiles), 84 spode, josiah (the first), 269, 330, 339; josiah (_the second_), 270, 348, 443; marks, 474; prices, 481 sporting subjects in earthenware, 269, 270, 338 "spur" marks, 298; definition of, 31 squirrel pattern teapots, 212 staffordshire delft, prices, 129; early ware, =161-192=; figures, =357-389=; figures, best period of, 362; figures, decadent period of, 378; potters ahead of the continent, 177; potters confined to earthenware, 237; pottery, its renaissance, 165; the transfer-printers of, 329 steam carriages, on earthenware, 462 steel, 282 steele, david, painter, 232 stevenson, a., 348 stevenson, w., 282 stockton-on-tees potteries, 306 stone china, 79; marks, 474-477 stoneware, =133-156=; definition of, 32, 40; lambeth (nineteenth century), 465; prices, 152; summary of, =68-70= stothard, thomas, 248 stuart, stump work pictures, similarity to toft ware, 91 stubbs, george, 248 stubbs, joseph (mark), 349 sunderland school, figures of, 77 sunderland ware, 306-310; lustre, 428; moore & co., 306; prices, 313; transfer-printing, 330 surface agate ware, 169; definition of, 27; wedgwood, 228 swansea, =395-400=; figures, 77; marks, 415; prices, 418; transfer-printing at, 330 syntax, dr., tour of (on earthenware), 280 t =tables=, chief events of eighteenth century, 158; dividing earthenware into classes, 55 tabor, william, 66 tassie, james, 248 templeton, lady, 248 tennyson, quoted, 258 thrower, the, 48 thursfield, maurice, 306 tiles, bristol delft painted, 67, 114; printed, 121; mediæval, 83; transfer-printed (liverpool delft), 67 titles of puritan books, strange, 95 toby, jugs, 366, 374; fraudulent, 63 toft, john, name on teapot, 212 toft, thomas, toft, ralph, 66 toft, ware, =88-95=; prices, 97; summary of, 66 tomlinson & co., 309 tortoiseshell ware, 170, 177; summary of, 70; castleford, 302; castleford (d. d. & co.), 174; liverpool, 174 transfer-printed ware, =317-350=; marks, =347-350=; prices, 350 transfer-printers, the staffordshire, 329 transfer-printing, definition of, 32; description of, 322; in outline, 347; its adoption in staffordshire, 321; at battersea, 318; at caughley, 318; at derby 318; at leeds, 293; at liverpool, 318; at newcastle, 330; in staffordshire, 329; at sunderland, 330; at swansea, 330, 396; at worcester, 318 triangle as a mark (powell & bishop), 480 tudor jugs, 126; prices, 130 turner, john (lane end), 235, =263-265=, 330; marks, 348; prices, 283 turner, thomas (of caughley), 270, 329, 339; marks, 418 turner, william and john, 348 turnor, ralph, 66 twentieth century collector, the, 466 twyford, early salt glaze, 204 u under-glaze, definition of, 29 under-glaze printing, description of, 326 v van hamme (lambeth), 67; his patent (delft), 106 variegated ware, =169-174=; summary of, 70; "tesselated" style, 173; wedgwood, 228 vernon, admiral, victory of porto bello, 334 verse on earthenware, 334, 337 vicar and moses group, 362, 365; fraudulent, 63 viellard & cie (bordeaux), 215 voltaire, bust of, 240 voyez, modeller, 265, 370 w w as a mark (lustre ware), 435; (myatt), 281 wainwright & co. (leeds), 288, 310 walton, 282; (john), figures by, 378 walton school, figures of, 76 warburton, 222, 232, 282 warburton, peter (lustre ware), 430, 435 warburton, britton & co. (leeds), 288 washington, portraits of, 338 w & b as a mark (w. brownfield), 478 w b as a mark, 478 w b & s as a mark, 478 wedgwood, aaron (lead glaze), 232 wedgwood, josiah, as a potter, 227; his views of elers, 163; influence of, 249; gold lustre, 427; under-glaze blue, 330; josiah _the second_, 348 wedgwood, ralph, 348 wedgwood, dr. thomas, salt glaze, 207 wedgwood ware, =221-254=; figures, 370; influence, the wane of the, 276; marks, 251-253; printed at liverpool, 240; prices, 253, 254; school, 257; figures of, 75; old cream ware designs, revival of, 231 wedgwood & co. (of burslem), 348 "wedgwood & co.," spurious mark, 309 "welsh" ware (isleworth), 411 wesley, john, busts of, 374 wheel, the potter's, 48 whieldon (thomas), =159-193=; prices, 187 whieldon school, figures of, 75 whieldon ware, definition of, 32; prices, 187-192 whitefriars glass works, 231 whitfield, george, busts of, 374 wilcox, mrs. (etruscan ware), 248 wilkie's pictures on earthenware, 280 william iii., portrait of, on jug, 137 willow pattern at caughley, 329; at leeds, 298; at swansea, 396; chinese original of, 339; where first made in england, 329; story of the, 340 wilson, 282; (d. wilson & sons) marks, 269 wilson, robert (marks of), 266 wincanton delft, 125; summary of, 68 wood (aaron), salt-glazed basket-work, 212; salt glaze, 207 wood, e., 282; prices, 284 wood, enoch, 373; mug, 186; (turner jugs), 264; use of bone ash, 444 wood, enoch, & sons, 282, 349 wood & caldwell, 282, 373; lustre, 430, 433 wood and caldwell school, figures of, 75 wood family, the, staffordshire figures, 362-370 wood, ralph, 362; prices, 284; variegated ware, 173 wood school, figures of, 75 worcester, transfer-printing at, 318 workmen, trained, transferred to new factories (liverpool), 403; (minton), 330; (shelton), 404; (under-glaze blue printing), 329 worthington, liverpool, 403 wright, john, 66 wrotham (kent) ware, 87; prices, 97; summary of, 66 w. s. & co. (william smith & co.), 309 y yarmouth, staffordshire figures decorated at, 378 young, w. w., painter (swansea), 399 unwin brothers, limited, the gresham press, woking and london. transcriber's notes in the text version of this book, italic text is marked _italic_ and bold marked =bold=. the text also contains some single character pottery marks and these are represented as e.g. +c+ blank facing pages to illustrations are included in this books page numbering system (although they are not marked). these page numbers are not shown in the html version of the text. minor punctuation errors and inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation have been corrected. p 488. derby (earthenware), 408; (pot works mark, 349; changed to: derby (earthenware), 408; (pot works) mark, 349; p 496. ((under-glaze blue printing), 329 changed to: (under-glaze blue printing), 329 p 153. raised medallion with crown and g.r. (period of george i. changed to: raised medallion with crown and g.r. (period of george i.) p 243. added a closing quote to _à la grecque_." p 365. including bust of _john wesley_ changed to: including a bust of _john wesley_ p 395. caughley or salopian (1751-1775) derby, changed to: caughley or salopian (1751-1775)--derby, [illustration: wedgwood portland vase] pottery and porcelain, _from early times down to the philadelphia exhibition of 1876_. by charles wyllys elliott. with one hundred and sixty-five illustrations, and the more important marks and monograms. new york: d. appleton and company, 549 & 551 broadway. 1878. copyright by d. appleton and company, 1877. preface. what we have attempted has been to gather and present, in a way to be easily understood, the most important facts respecting "pottery and porcelain." the study of this interesting subject has for more than a century been constant in europe, and notably so during the last twenty-five years. a correct knowledge of it may now almost be called a liberal education. in the united states something has been done; and the public mind is now asking, "what is it that makes 'pottery and porcelain' so attractive to scholars, statesmen, women, and wits?" in some degree we have answered this question. my part of the work has been to gather where i could such historical and technical facts and such illustrations as seemed most valuable, not only to the student but to the collector. many of these came from europe, of course, where since queen anne's day the love of "old china" has at times risen to enthusiasm. but i have drawn from our own collections whenever it has been possible. in the preparation and engraving of the illustrations i hope the judicious critic, as well as the judicious public, will give due credit to the publishers and their artists, who, it seems to me, deserve great praise for having so well done what they have undertaken to do. permit me to say a word for _collectors_. busy men who are making railways and coal-pits, under the pleasing illusion that they are developing the country more than the rest of us, are apt to think a man with any hobby except that of making money is wasting his time. i would like to remind the reader that there are a few--many of them young men and young women too--who have money enough for all reasonable wants, and who do not care to waste time and life in getting _more_ money, for which they have no special uses; these persons find a perennial occupation in the study, the comparison, the purchasing, the collecting, of all that will illustrate their subject of study--their hobby. around this subject of pottery and porcelain may be grouped, if one so pleases, all the habits, the wants, the inventions, the growths, of human society. some have yet a notion that the study of the politics and the fightings of man is most important; others, how man came to be an arminian or an augustinian; others, whether the sun is or is not gradually cooling down, and must finally cease to be, or whether, on the contrary, its flames are fed by the self-sacrificing stars. without detracting from their labors, i beg leave to say that my great hobby or central fact being the _home_, i hold that whatever makes that interesting, beautiful, or useful, is, or should be, interesting, beautiful, and useful, to all the world. i believe that what we call politics, or government, is only valuable in that it helps to create and to protect desirable homes; all the rest--all the speeches, and processions, and crownings, and court-balls, and receptions, and dinners--are "leather and prunella." therefore i believe the "art of living" is first and foremost; to know how to make _this_ life comfortable and beautiful is all-important. yet there is not a teacher of this great art in all the land, although "professors" are legion. we may well ask, when we go to a house: "what have they there to tell us--what to show us? what have they collected to interest, to please, to instruct?" if a person has only many bonds bearing coupons locked up in his safe--delightful as the fact may be to him--what pleasure or satisfaction is that to us? but if in that house are gathered all the interesting examples of any growth of nature or of art, what a pleasure to go there!--they may be beetles, or butterflies, or stones, or shells, or silvers, or porcelains. i thank god that here is a man who can and does collect--one who does care for something which i too care for. i wish, therefore, that every young man and young woman would get a _hobby_ early in life to which he or she can at any time devote some spare time and spare money. _ennui_, the demon who afflicts the idle, is thus exorcised, and vice loses its charming power. the collector, too, does not waste his money. there is not a collection of pictures or of minerals, of birds or of butterflies, of chinas or of books, of armor or of gems, of laces or of tapestries, if made with ordinary care and knowledge, but is worth more--often ten times or fifty times more--than it has cost. even in a pecuniary way, therefore, the hobby is productive; and the collection is not only as interesting, but it is as good as gold. our collections.--of collections of porcelain and pottery one must of course look for great exhibitions to the museums of europe--such as the kensington museum, in london; the cluny, in paris; the green vaults, in dresden; the oriental, at leyden--and to private collections, such as the rothschilds have made at london and at paris, to lady schreiber's, and many more, in england. what are accessible to us are the private collections of some of our own people. in new york, mr. william c. prime's collection is quite large, numbering some four thousand pieces. it is particularly devoted to the porcelains of europe, and is an excellent collection. in it are some four or five complete dinner-services of old dresden and sèvres porcelain, and many single pieces which rank high. mr. s. p. avery's collection of oriental porcelains is the most complete we have, and is very rich in all the departments, especially the chinese. his pieces of "celestial blue" number more than any other single collection in this country. in the loan collection of the metropolitan museum of art have been exhibited many examples from mr. prime's collection of porcelains, and about five hundred pieces of oriental ware from mr. avery's, of nearly every distinctive style made in china and japan in their best times. the collection of mr. robert hoe, jr., is extremely choice in its admirable specimens of oriental porcelain. its egg-shells, crackles, and "celestial blues," are not to be excelled. in this collection are also examples of other styles, among them some of the best of old dresden. mr. w. l. andrews, of new york, has a very choice collection of oriental porcelain, probably the best in the country, and, containing the most of the "rose-back" and other "egg-shell." mr. edward cunningham, of milton, massachusetts, has many superb vases, some of them of great size, obtained by himself in china. in albany, mr. j. v. l. pruyn has several complete dinner-services of sèvres porcelain, made for king louis philippe, one large service of lowestoft, and many other individual and interesting specimens. some of his examples of sèvres painting cannot be surpassed. he has also a small breakfast-service of "celestial blue," mounted in silver, which is excellent. in boston, mr. g. w. wales's collection is very varied and rich. he has excellent examples of oriental and of european porcelains, and some perfect pieces of "celestial blue." many of his best specimens are on loan in the boston art museum. mrs. anson burlingame's collection of chinese porcelain, at cambridge, made while in china, is not large, but it has in it some of the best examples of the "green," the "celestial blue," the "rose," and the "chrysanthemum." some of these have been exhibited in the loan collection in boston. dr. f. w. lewis and mr. e. s. clarke, of philadelphia, have small and good collections, particularly devoted to oriental porcelains. mr. w. s. vaux and dr. lewis have made interesting exhibitions of the pottery of greece and of italy. mr. joseph a. clay, of philadelphia, has a small and valuable collection of early peruvian pottery, of the period before the spanish conquest. there is also a varied collection of south and north american indian pottery in the peabody museum at cambridge. there may be, and probably are, in the united states many interesting collections of which i know nothing. i am told that mr. walters, of baltimore, and mr. probasco, of cincinnati, both have many very rare and valuable pieces; but, i regret to say, i have had no opportunity of seeing them. i do not doubt that the love for these fine works of man's hand will grow, that more and more small collections will be begun, and that time will make them large and valuable and interesting. a word of caution may be said to guard against imitations, which abound in europe. i hear now that the chinese and japanese are learning, all too quickly, our christian ways of counterfeiting, and are likely to better the instruction. in conclusion, i implore our people not to fill their houses with imitations of old things--not even when the antiques are good is it desirable to encourage porcelain-painters in that sort of thing: when it comes to copying antiquity which is _poor_, it is inexcusable; and when we reach the _counterfeiting_ of the antique, it smacks of baseness. for this sort of thing we, the public, are responsible. the painter paints what will sell. no gentleman or lady should consent to be shabby, or to help other people along that facile road. let us keep our eyes open to any and all _new_ work which is good, and especially to all which shows originality and courage on the part of modelers or of painters. let us moderns admire the good in the orientals, but let us worship our _own_ gods, and dare and do for ourselves. as far as practicable, i have in these pages pointed to examples, and have illustrated by such as are owned in this country; so that many persons who wish to examine these interesting works of fictile art may see them for themselves. the public collections are of course all open; and i am glad to say that private collectors seem willing and ready to open their collections to students as much as possible. it is human and pleasant to wish that others should enjoy what we enjoy. _marks_, and especially upon porcelain, are not the most important thing; but still they are important, and to many are most satisfactory. i have therefore included in this volume all the prominent ones; so that the book will be found useful not only to the collector at home, but also to him who travels abroad. the traveler who has a wise hobby gets a thousand times more pleasure from his travels than he who has no purpose except change of place and aimless movement. i suggest to the man who has none to try "pottery and porcelain." as to _prices_ of porcelain, etc., i have given those paid at actual sales whenever i could find them; they will be of service to buyers and collectors, as something of a guide to what they may safely pay. _books_ which may be referred to, and especially such as may be found in some of our public libraries, are given at the end of the volume. i hope the public will buy this book, and also good pottery and porcelain. _c. w. e._ contents. chapter i. unglazed pottery. the pottery of the stone age.--the lacustrine dwellings.--vases of the bronze age.--peruvian pottery.--mexican pottery.--pottery of western mounds.--the cesnola collections.--roman pottery.--saxon and scandinavian pottery.--the pottery of ancient gaul--of ancient germany.....page 13 chapter ii. unglazed pottery.--the greek vase. palaces of homer's heroes.--the ceramicus at athens.--egyptian pottery.--etruscan tombs.--good and bad vases.--age of vases.--various styles.--the archaic style.--the fine style.--beauty a birthright.--aspasia's house.--names of vases.--the cup of arcesilaus.--number of extant vases.--their uses.--the greek houses.--greek women.--greek men.--the hetairai.--etruscan vases.....29 chapter iii. unglazed pottery at the great exhibition of 1876. unglazed water-colors.--clay sketches.--japanese clay figures.--spanish pots.--italian peasant pottery.--egyptian.--turkish.--mexican.--watcombe terra-cotta.--copenhagen pottery.....63 chapter iv. glazed pottery.--grès de flandre, french, german, etc. definition of glaze.--varnish.--enamel in egypt, babylon.--the arabs and the moors.--grès de flandre.--cologne, regensburg, baireuth, neuwied, grenzhausen, coblentz.--holland.--beauvais.--flanders.--apostle-mugs. --graybeards.--"bellarmines."--"pottle-pots."--modern work.--doulton stone-ware.--early german stone-ware at breslau.--hirschvogel. --nuremberg.....69 chapter v. glazed pottery.--moorish, persian, rhodian, etc., etc. the arabs in spain.--cordova, granada, seville.--enamel and lustres.--hispano-moresque.--the alhambra.--tiles.--vase of the alhambra.--malaga.--majorca and maiolica.--rhodian pottery.--damascus pottery.--persian and arabic pottery.--persian porcelain.--persian and arabic tiles.....81 chapter vi. glazed pottery.--italian maiolicas. the word maiolica, or majolica.--italian renaissance.--the dark ages.--the crusades.--the mezza-maiolica.--the true maiolica.--luca della robbia.--urbino.--xanto and fontana.--raffaelesque ware.--mr. fortnum.--prices to-day.--gubbio.--maestro giorgio.--the lustres.--castel-durante.--faenza.--the sgraffito.--forli, venice, castelli, etc.--castellani.--maiolicas at the centennial.....95 chapter vii. french faience.--palissy ware, and henri-deux ware. bernard palissy.--the catholics and the huguenots.--saintes.--figurines.--the centennial exhibition.--prices.--henri-deux--where made--when.--copies at philadelphia.--list of pieces extant, and prices.....123 chapter viii. french faience.--nevers, rouen, beauvais, etc. number of manufactories.--their rise and decline.--nevers.--prices.--beauvais.--rouen.--moustiers.--strasbourg, or haguenau.--marseilles.--sarreguemines.--sinceny, nancy, creil, montpellier.--paris.--paris to-day.--limoges.--deck.....138 chapter ix. dutch delft and english earthen-ware. delft, number of fabriques.--haarlem.--paste.--great painters.--violins.--tea-services.--a dutch stable.--broeck dutch tiles.--england.--queen elizabeth.--pepys's diary.--brown stone-ware.--the tyg.--lambeth pottery.--fulham pottery.--elers.--elizabethan pottery.--stoke-upon-trent.--josiah wedgwood.--cheapness.--queen's-ware. --jasper-ware.--flaxman.--cameos.--basalt.--the portland vase.--prices.....153 chapter x. the porcelain of china. difficulties.--the porcelain tower at nanking.--first making of porcelain.--kaolin and pe-tun-tse.--marco polo.--portuguese importation.--the city of king-te-chin.--jacquemart's groups.--symbolic decoration.--inscriptions.--the ming period.--the celestial blue.--the celadons.--reticulated cups.--the crackle.--various periods.--individualism. --marks and dates.....175 chapter xi. the porcelain of japan. corean porcelain.--katosiro-ouye-mon.--the province of idsoumi.--styles prevailing in japan.--marks.--japanese blue.--indian porcelain.--dutch east india company.--egg-shell and crackle.--mandarin china.--kaga ware.--satsuma ware.--japanese art.--the philadelphia exhibition.....210 chapter xii. the porcelains of central europe--dresden, berlin, höchst, etc. dresden china.--porcelain in europe.--the alchemists.--augustus ii.--böttger.--tschirnhaus.--experiments.--kaolin discovered.--höroldt and kändler.--fine art, or decorative art.--lindenir.--angelica kauffmann.--rococo-work.--collectors.--marcolini.--prices.--marks.--berlin. --the seven years' war.--frederick the great.--prices.--marks.--vienna. --stenzel.--maria theresa.--lamprecht.--prices.--marks.--hungary.--herend. --fischer.--marks.--höchst, or mayence.--ringler.--marks.--frankenthal, or bavarian.--carl theodor.--melchior.--prices.--marks.--fürstenburg, or brunswick.--von lang.--prices.--marks.--nymphenburg.--heintzmann and lindemann.--prices.--marks.--ludwigsburg, or kronenburg.--fulda. --hesse-cassel.--switzerland.--marks.....229 chapter xiii. the porcelain of france--st.-cloud, chantilly, sèvres, etc. hard and soft porcelain.--discovery of kaolin.--st.-cloud.--_pâte tendre._--marks.--rouen.--small manufactories.--marks of same.--chantilly.--scéaux-penthièvre.--niderviller.--marks.--limoges. --sèvres.--flower-work.--hard porcelain, _pâte dure_.--the grand monarque. --florid taste.--boucher.--vieux sèvres.--three vases.--greek vases.--prices at bernal sale.--chemists.--colors used.--collections.--art museums.--alexandra brongniart.--marks and dates.....253 chapter xiv. the porcelains of southern europe--italy, spain, etc. florentine, or medicean.--is it a true porcelain?--the house of medici.--marks.--doccia porcelain.--the marquisginori.--beccheroni.--present work.--marks.--venice.--vezzi.--cozzi.--marks.--turin.--gioanetti.--marks. --nove.--terraglia.--marks.--capo di monte.--naples.--in relief.--marks.--spanish porcelain.--buen retiro.--marks.--portugal.....274 chapter xv. the porcelains of england. bow.--chelsea.--derby.--chelsea-derby.--lowestoft.--worcester.--chamberlains. --plymouth.--bristol.--pinxton.--nantgaraw.--swansea.--turners.--coalport. --coalbrookdale.--herculaneum.--shelton, new hall.--rockingham.--spode, copeland.--place.--daniell.--minton.--prices and marks.....288 chapter xvi. the porcelains of northern europe. holland and belgium.--oriental trade.--weesp.--marks.--loosdrecht.--amstel, old and new.--marks.--the hague.--marks.--lille.--mark.--tournay.--marks.--sweden.--gustavus adolphus and charles xii.--marieberg.--rörstrand.--marks.--denmark. --copenhagen.--marks.--russia.--peter the great.--catherine ii.--marks. --tver.--gardner.--moscow.--popoff.--gulena.--mark.--poland.--korzec.....319 chapter xvii. pottery and porcelain in the united states. the first porcelain made here.--bonnin and morris.--franklin institute.--william ellis tucker.--tucker and hemphill.--thomas tucker.--general tyndale.--porcelain of t. c. smith and sons.--early advertisements.--josiah wedgwood.--lord sheffield's report.--alexander hamilton's report.--history of norwich.--samuel dennis, new haven.--isaac hanford, hartford.--gallatin's report.--the "washington pitchers."--lyman and fenton, vermont.--rouse and turner, new jersey.--potteries at trenton.--in ohio.--the centennial exhibition.....331 pottery and porcelain. chapter i. unglazed pottery. the pottery of the stone age.--the lacustrine dwellings.--vases of the bronze age.--peruvian pottery.--mexican pottery.--pottery of western mounds.--the cesnola collections.--roman pottery.--saxon and scandinavian pottery.--the pottery of ancient gaul--of ancient germany. [illustration: fig. 1.--_bowl of the stone age._] so ancient is the potter's art that it may be said to have begun with the beginnings of man. a belief exists still in silesia that there is a mountain out of which cups and jugs spring spontaneously, as the mushrooms shoot from the moist soil of the plains. interwoven, then, as pottery is with the history of the race, having relations daily and hourly with man's universal and greatest vocation--the preparation of the food which supports and continues _life_--it has had and will have an interest as vital as it is wide-spread. [illustration: fig. 2.--_vase of the stone age._] [illustration: fig. 3.--_vase of the bronze age._] man a cooking animal.--man is the only cooking animal, so far as i know. it is easy to believe that archaic man, when he began to evolve from the animal state, at once began to invent, and that, after he had discovered the uses of fire, the first need was of vessels which could be used upon the fire to seethe and boil. and what do we find? the reindeer age--the stone age.--of prehistoric times, when the reindeer roved free over europe, even to the shores of the mediterranean, in the stone age, even when man lived in caves and was only able to fashion things with stones, a few pots have been found, showing how early his wants led him to fashion things of clay. [illustration: fig. 4.--_vase of the bronze age._] the lacustrine dwellings of the stone age have given up a few traces of men. the remains of lake-dwellers have been found mostly in switzerland, but somewhat in ireland and scotland. these reveal a people who built their huts for safety upon piles or upon fascines anchored in the small lakes. a variety of interesting things, consisting of spear-heads, knives, hatchets, etc., have been found, some of flint, some of bone, and some of bronze. among these, which pertain to our subject, are a few pots of clay, which have survived the gnawing tooth of time. [illustration: fig. 5.--_bronze age._] in figs. 1 and 2 are to be seen two of these. they are coarse and clumsy, and are of blackish-gray clay, hardened in the sun or in an insufficient fire. they are not turned upon a wheel, but show marks of the fingers impressed in the soft clay. yet we cannot but be struck with the faint attempt at decoration to be seen on the foot of one of them, even in that era of savageness. [illustration: fig. 6.--_bronze age._] [illustration: fig. 7.--_bronze age._] the bronze age yields up pottery which does not yet show the invention of the potter's wheel. the work is still moulded by the hand, but the clay is better, and the forms begin to show clear indications of a sense of proportion and a considerable degree of choice. the shapes are in greater variety, and some of them certainly are good. of the five examples (figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7) none are very bad, and two (figs. 3 and 4), if not three, are excellent. [illustration: fig. 8.--_peruvian._] [illustration: fig. 9.--_peruvian._] the pointed bottom appears here as it does in the early forms of the greek amphora; and, as the illustrations show, this involves a necessity for a further invention in the tripods upon which they rest. i have seen no explanation of this more difficult construction, and can think of none. it is certainly no easier to make the pointed than the flat bottom, and it certainly is not so useful. why, then, was it so common? i can only suppose that when _first_ made the point was intended to be thrust into the ground; but the moment they had hit upon the flat bottom, that moment the point, i should fancy, would have been abandoned; but it evidently was not. perhaps they loved the _old_ as some of us do, not because it was good, but _because it was old_. who can tell? [illustration: fig. 10.--_ancient peru._] [illustration: fig. 11.--_ancient peru._] [illustration: fig. 12.--_ancient peru._] how early the varied decoration showed itself we cannot know, but in many examples of early fictile work, the meander, the chevron or saw-tooth, and the fret, now called the greek fret, are sure to appear--and among the most diverse and distant nations; so, too, the forms and the uses of the vessels. [illustration: fig. 13.--_ancient peru._] do not these things show that man develops everywhere along a corresponding line? they have not copied from one another, but a like want has produced a similar result in all. [illustration: fig. 14.--_ancient peru._] [illustration: fig. 15.--_ancient peru._] as we approach the historic ages, we find among the egyptians, the mexicans, the peruvians, the greeks, the assyrians, the romans, the gauls, the germans, the use of the potter's wheel, one of the earliest machines made by man. of the egyptian and greek pottery i shall have something to say in a chapter upon the "_greek vase_." [illustration: fig. 16.--_roman cup._] the mexican pottery, sometimes called _aztec_, is usually of reddish clay, and the vessels are almost identical in form and decoration with those of the peruvians, which will appear in their place. they are of great variety, and must have been made in large numbers. the mexicans also made grotesques and idols of clay, which are usually hideous, and are intended to be; for the gods of evil were those they feared and worshiped most. these potteries are of unglazed clay, as are all those we are now treating. [illustration: fig. 17.--_roman vase._] the civilizations which organized themselves in mexico have always been an interesting and curious study. when cortez and his conquering, gold-seeking white men reached the high lands of the beautiful interior (1517), they found the splendid city of mexico, built over and along the shores of the inland lake, and stretching toward the foot-hills which protect it from unfriendly winds. here the aztecs had organized society. they had succeeded to the toltecs, a prosperous, industrious, and probably a peaceful people--a people coming from the warmer south, and unable to cope with the more hardy aztecs, who came down from the north. [illustration: fig. 18.--_roman vase found at london._] these aztecs had not only developed the arts of architecture and painting, as well as most of the mechanic arts; they had also reached to a literature, to laws, to a religion most elaborate and splendid; and they had not neglected to conquer and tax surrounding tribes, and make them pay tribute, as all the "great" white nations of the world have done. but all their civilizations, laws, religions, arts, were swept into ruin by the conquering hand of cortez and his successors. and what have we now in mexico? what has come of the destruction of the great indian races there? what but greed, anarchy, cruelty, ruin? it would be a curious speculation now to picture what that country--the most beautiful and most bountiful--might now be in the hands of its own people, and with a government which could protect life and make labor safe. as it is, its life and its art give us nothing to look at or to enjoy. must man always destroy first in order that he may build up, and then be himself destroyed? no remains have come to us of glazed pottery belonging to these times; and it is probable that, their wants being fewer, their climate milder, and their food simpler, invention was not so much on the alert as it might have been in a colder and harsher climate. that these races were for some unknown reason superior to those living farther to the north, none will doubt when they know what they accomplished as compared with the indians of the united states. the peruvians were the most cultivated and comfortable nation upon the western continent when pizarro (1531) invaded, and, i may say, destroyed them. indeed, when we read the accounts given of them by the spanish writers themselves, we have only another proof that what we call "carrying to other peoples the blessings of civilization and christianity" means rather the cursing them with cruelty and greed. [illustration: fig. 19.--_vase. pottery of ancient gaul._] a large collection of their pottery was shown at the united states exhibition in philadelphia in 1876, and there is a sufficient and most interesting exhibit of it in the peabody museum at harvard in cambridge. in this collection, also, are to be found many examples of like unglazed pottery found in the western mounds of the united states by professors shaler and carr, who for some years have been engaged in researches in kentucky and at other points in the west. upon some examples of this american pottery (figs. 8 to 15) are to be seen decorations in color, mostly red, black, and brown; and it would seem impossible that these colors should have lasted through so many centuries, if they were not fixed by fire, and therefore were mineral. [illustration: fig. 20.--_pottery of ancient gaul._] the decorations, too, were somewhat varied, but in none which i have seen do they go beyond the elementary styles already mentioned. the production of idols and fantastic vases, animals and grotesques, must have been extensive, as so many of these have already been found; indicating that they must have been common in their day. examples of this fantastic decoration and modeling are seen in figs. 12 to 15--and in fig. 14 is an approach to portraiture. in one (fig. 15) is seen the double-bellied bottle, so much in use in china and japan. the twin-bottles seen in figs. 8 and 9 are good examples of a fancy which evidently pleased potter and people in those "good old peruvian times." a most singular fact is mentioned by demmin, that on one of their _casseroles_ the handle is clearly the phallus, symbol of life, found on egyptian sculptures, and once worshiped. one curious fact is asserted by the french _savants_,[1] that there is abundant evidence to show that through a long succession of years, perhaps three thousand, the character of these american potteries grew less and less pure and simple, and more and more debased and vulgar; which one can well believe, when we see everywhere that whole nations, some of them calling themselves civilized, have gone the same road, downward from the good to the bad, and not upward toward the true and the beautiful. [illustration: fig. 21.--_ancient gaul._] the opening of the cesnola collections, at the new york museum of arts, shows us a vast number of early potteries which are as yet hardly classified or understood. many of them bear marks of assyrian or of phoenician inspiration; and among them are rude vessels closely resembling those of peru, and also many grotesque forms of vases and animals, such as mark the early attempts at art in other nations. that collection should be examined by those who are interested in this subject. the hand-book published by the museum is full of condensed information, and should be carefully preserved. the pottery of the romans went wherever their armies went. thus it is found in france, in england, in germany, in spain, etc., etc. this roman pottery has been found where excavations have been made, in italy, in france, in england, along the rhine, and in other places. it is distinguished as being more heavy and clumsy in form than that made in greece, and the color of the clay is red, lighter or darker. the best of the roman ware is often called _samian_, because it was supposed to resemble that made at samos in greece, though it is quite different. the finest pieces approach to the color of sealing-wax, and have a lustre thin and brilliant, which has given rise to some dispute whether or not it is the result of an applied mineral varnish, or whether it is the product of careful hand-friction, developed and perfected by a high heat. the varnish, if such, is so thin that it has not been possible to analyze and decide upon it. [illustration: fig. 22.--_ancient gaul._] this red samian or roman much resembles the polished red ware made to-day in egypt--of which a collection was shown in the recent philadelphia exhibition, and this bore no varnish. one thing remarked as to this roman pottery is, that it is never decorated with designs or ornaments in one or more colors. the decoration is sometimes incised, but more often is in relief. this is curious, too, as those master-potters, the greeks, used colors in their designs. these pieces are to be seen in the museums of paris, london, and elsewhere. the example engraved (fig. 16) is a cup on which the decoration is in relief, and the fillets and bands are carefully moulded on the potter's wheel. figs. 17 and 18 were found in excavations made in 1845 in the city of london, and are excellent examples of this pottery. they are now in the museum of geology at london. fig. 17 is a sort of vase, or perhaps a drinking-cup, and is ornamented with the head of an animal. it is described as of "a pale red with a darkish-brown varnish." fig. 18 is called the "cup of samos," resembling so much as it does the work made at samos. while these pieces were found in the earth beneath the city of london, many others have been found elsewhere; and much is believed to have been made at the old anglo-roman town of caistre, in england, where remains of many furnaces have been unearthed. [illustration: fig. 23.--_ancient gaul._] roman pottery has been found on the banks of the rhine, near bonn, coblentz, mayence, in baden, etc., etc.; in france, at auvergne, and at other points. this finer work is supposed to date about the first century of our era. it is classed by m. demmin as being made at arezzo, the ancient aretium, in tuscany. commoner styles of roman pottery were made, and many examples of these have been found of a coarser clay, and varying in color, gray, black, and yellow, or light paleish red; sometimes with a black or brown varnish. these were doubtless made for the common uses of the kitchen. the drinking-cups of this pottery often bore inscriptions, such as _ave_, welcome; _vivas_, live; _bibe_, drink; _vive, bibe multum_, live and drink much, etc. [illustration: fig. 24.--_ancient german._] pottery was undoubtedly made by the saxons, the scandinavians, the gauls, and the germans, before the coming of roman armies and roman potters. of these early remains examples have been found in the _barrows_ of england, and in other excavations. m. cleuziou published a work in 1872, "la poterie gauloise,"[2] warmly and strenuously claiming for the gauls an art and a pottery before the coming of the all-grasping romans; who, he asserts, not only stole their country, but also have claimed to be their benefactors and civilizers when they were not. i cannot, of course, discuss the question here. the engravings given (figs. 19, 20, 21, 22, 23) are quoted by m. figuier, from whom i take them, as examples of this early and curious work. some of these certainly seem to indicate an inspiration original and quite different from what we see among the romans. later, and after the coming of the romans, there were produced in gaul vases and other articles, which may well be called "_gallo-romaine_," or _gallic-roman_. [illustration: fig. 25.--_german pottery._] [illustration: fig. 26.--_german pottery._] the german potters also produced at a very early day large quantities of pottery, which has a character of its own. that it must have been very extensively made and used is evident from the many specimens exhumed in various parts of germany; in such numbers, indeed, that the peasantry have a profound belief they are the work of the dwarfs, and that they sprout spontaneously like mushrooms, as i have said. the examples we present are more simple than most of the roman work, and the decoration is more severe. (figs. 24, 25, 26.) pots, vases, and children's toys, are also found in tombs in various parts of germany, some of which show decided marks of art. in some of these are found the ashes of the dead, in others bones broken up, and so preserved. chapter ii. unglazed pottery.--the greek vase. palaces of homer's heroes.--the ceramicus at athens.--egyptian pottery.--etruscan tombs.--good and bad vases.--age of vases.--various styles.--the archaic style.--the fine style.--beauty a birthright.--aspasia's house.--names of vases.--the cup of arcesilaus.--number of extant vases.--their uses.--the greek houses.--greek women.--greek men.--the hetairai.--etruscan vases. the greek vase has come to be a synonym for beauty of form. not that every greek vase is perfect--by no means--but that the greeks had come to feel and were able to express perfection of form in it as it had not been done before, and as it has not been better done since. [illustration: fig. 27.--_egyptian kylix._] so much interest hangs around this expression of the potter's art, that we give more space to the subject than to many other branches of the art. keeping this perfection in mind, the manner of life of those greeks, out of which the greek vase grew, becomes of value, and is indeed of most interest. how did the greeks live, and why was the greek vase made? that the finest houses or palaces of the chiefs of the heroic or homeric period were larger, and more marked by barbaric splendor, than were the dwellings of the great in the days of pericles, is admitted. we give from mr. bryant's translation of the iliad a brief description of hector's return to troy from the battle-field: "and now had hector reached the scean gates and beechen tree. around him flocked the wives and daughters of the trojans eagerly; tidings of sons and brothers they required, and friends and husbands. he admonished all duly to importune the gods in prayer, for woe he said was near to many a one." he passed onward in search of andromache: "and then he came to priam's noble hall, a palace built with graceful porticoes, and fifty chambers near each other walled with polished stone, the rooms of priam's sons, and of their wives; and opposite to these twelve chambers for his daughters, also near each other; and with polished marble walls, the sleeping-rooms of priam's sons-in-law and their unblemished consorts. there he met his gentle mother on her way to seek her fairest child laodice." that the description is glorified, we need not doubt, for that is the province of poetry; and poor is the poet who does not see the beauty through the squalor, the sunshine through the cloud. the greek house of the time of pericles was much smaller and less splendid than this. it is a curious fact to know that most of what remains to us of the _living_ greeks and egyptians has been saved for us by the dead. not a complete house of the living exists; while those of the dead have been unearthed not only in greece, but in parts of italy, which in many places was colonized by greeks, and in which greek customs and greek art had a strong hold. [illustration: fig. 28.--_egyptian bottle, side and front view._] the egyptians honored their dead, the greeks honored their dead, and the romans honored their dead. let them have our thanks; for, because of that, things of interest and beauty are left to us. in their tombs have been found gold-work, jewels, manuscripts, vases: all of which tell their stories of the way men lived, how they worked, what they sought; all of which show us that man then was the same as man is now--if you pricked him he bled, if you tickled him he laughed. we are apt to think that the past was ignorant, brutal, savage. have we, boastful as we are, made porcelain better than the chinese? have we made vases more beautiful than the greeks? poetry more musical? in the far past man was savage, brutal, ignorant; and there is in man still the latent tiger. in the civilization of which we boast, there exist in all great cities, side by side with luxury and splendor, poverty, wretchedness, squalor, brutality. in the days of pericles, in those days when the amphora and the temple reached their most perfect development, the influences of art and poetry were most potent upon that small democratic oligarchy which possessed athens and tyrannized over greece. then the tiger lay down in the midst of a wonderful wealth of architecture, sculpture, poetry, eloquence, painting (we suppose), and pottery. then a whole district of the city to the northwest of the acropolis and the areopagus was occupied by the shops of the potter and the painter, and was known as the ceramicus, or _keramicus_, as it now is often spelled. from that centre went out into all the coasts of the mediterranean sea thousands upon thousands of those vases and pots which were made and decorated there, and from whose pictures we have drawn much of our knowledge of greek life, art, manners, and dress. [illustration: fig. 29.--_egyptian vase._] in this high time of art lay the seeds of corruption and death. the athenian greek became critical, refined, weak, luxurious, corrupt, base; and then he went to decay. in some tombs (fig. 30) opened in italy, the body is found lying at length in the middle, and about it stand perfect vases, love-offerings of friends: were they once filled with perfumes upon which the spirit of the dead was wafted away? we place flowers in the graves of our lovely ones, and, beautiful as they are, they vanish with the dead. but the greek vase remains to us after the lapse of two thousand years. [illustration: fig. 30.--_tomb found in the environs of naples._] when the greeks--how early--began to fashion their fine work is not surely known; but pottery of theirs exists dating as far back as 700 b. c. behind them were the assyrians and the egyptians, both nations great in war and great in the arts of peace. the remains we have of both show the egyptians to have been the masters, with whom began those arts which grew and bore fruit in assyria and in greece. but the art of the egyptians seems never to have reached the lightness, the delicacy, the exquisite beauty of line, which yet glorify the fictile art of greece. older than the oldest writings of the hebrews, older than homer, is the potter's wheel; through all history it has been the friend and companion of man; its products are part of his daily life; and delicate, brittle as they are, they have proved more enduring than the pyramids. [illustration: fig. 31.--_the archaic period._] nearly all the pieces of pottery found in egypt belong to those things which went into the daily uses of life. most of them are of common clay, with common forms, and rude finish; and they seem to have been of all shapes and designed for many purposes. great casks, vases, pots for oil, for grain, for meats, for wines, for drugs, for lamps; children's marbles, checkers, toys, rings, amulets, bottles, etc., etc., are among the many things shaped by the potter in egypt. of those things made for ornamental purposes, there still exist some vases which approach the simple beauty of the greek; of which we give one as pictured by wilkinson in his work upon the antiquities of egypt. fig. 27 is an _egyptian kylix_ or _drinking-cup_. it much resembles the greek kylix or cylix, except that the foot is less perfect. [illustration: fig. 32.--_the departure of achilles, from vase in the louvre._] the highly-ornamented bottle (fig. 28, _aryballos_) is another thing made purely for purposes of luxury, which potiphar's wife used to hold her dainty perfumes--perfumes which, we may easily believe, would add to her dangerous charms. it is modeled from the african calabash, which was the first vessel used there for carrying water. form and decoration are both perfect in this small bottle. [illustration: fig. 33.--_kylix, of an early form._] we add a figure of very ancient egyptian pottery, an early example of the efforts of that people at the human figure in clay. it is made to serve the purposes of a vase, whether for religious uses or other we do not know (fig. 29). [illustration: fig. 34.--_kylix, finer form._] the terra-cotta earthenware vases and cups of the greek and etruscan potters, by universal consent, have come to be accepted as the most beautiful and satisfactory. that they were thus perfect from the start, and always so, no one need maintain; but that from greece and from many parts of it should have come such a vast number of vessels, nearly all of which are beyond criticism, is what no one can fully explain. whence came the inspiration, the perception of beauty, which made the ordinary potter an artist, no man can tell. it is not possible that the men who worked at the potter's wheel in athens, or in samos, or in crete, were "educated," as we say it, to such a fine sense of the beautiful. we, with all the education we can put into our people, do not equal them. we can no more explain this than we can tell how such a wonderful growth of beautiful cathedrals shot up into life in france in what we call the "middle ages." nor was this perfection only to be found among the potters who worked in greece. it brought forth works fit for gods in cyrenaica, on the northern coast of africa, in great abundance; of which farther on we give an example in the _cup of arcesilaus_. the wandering potters who went into italy, and there produced those beautiful vases, were greeks. we have been in the habit of calling them "etruscan vases," because they have been found in largest numbers and in most perfect preservation in etruria. but it is now well known that the real etruscan potters never reached the same technical skill, or had any such eye for form, as was common among the greeks. [illustration: fig. 35.--_greek rhyton, in the louvre._] i have mentioned the tombs--that many of the finest greek vases have been found in those of italy, and particularly in the part once called etruria. in fig. 30 is shown one of these tombs discovered near naples. in it may be seen the remains of the body, with vases of various shapes standing or hanging on the wall. most of the vases found with the dead in greece were buried in the soil, and are thus less perfect than those found in italy. [illustration: fig. 36.--_greek amphora, panathenaic._] good and bad.--while, then, we can exalt the greek vase to a foremost place in the perfection of form, let us say that there are very many greek vases and pots which are _bad_, _common_, _vulgar_. so that no buyer, no student, must admire with his eyes shut. hardly any considerable collection is without these bad things. therefore, whoever seizes upon a greek vase with the belief that it is beautiful because it is greek, may wake some day to dash his god to pieces as false. [illustration: fig. 37.--_amphora, from the louvre._] let us guard, too, against another chance for disappointment. nearly all the best vases extant have lain for centuries underground; they have lost the freshness and fineness of their polish; their coloring is often defaced; they are, perhaps, scratched or chipped. seeing these rather dilapidated examples of the fictile art with eyes of extravagant expectation, one may feel disappointment or disgust. but let him look on till he sees and feels the subtile springing lines which shot from the brain of the potter, and inspired his hand to shape the vase. [illustration: fig. 38.--_amphora._] as to the age of the greek vases there are some evidences. the greek poet pindar, who lived between 520 and 440 b. c., describes the amphoræ, those painted vases which were given as prizes at the panathenaic festivals (see fig. 36), and they are spoken of by aristophanes, strabo, and others.[3] many attempts have been made to classify the works of the greek potters, and the result is of some value, though a considerable degree of vagueness must attach to such as cannot be fixed by any signature or by the subject. demmin,[4] brongniart,[5] birch, and others, have attempted classifications. we give here a sketch of that of the last as, on the whole, the most simple and probable; the writer follows gerhard: 1. the "ancient" or "archaic" style, from b. c. 700 to 450. 2. the "fine style" from b. c. 450 to 328. the best were during the time of phidias. 3. the decadence, from b. c. 228 to the end of the social wars, b. c. 87. this includes all made in italy down to the time of augustus, at which period most of the towns and works in "magna græcia" and the south of italy had been destroyed. to the first or archaic period are attributed the vases with yellow ground, having brown and maroon figures, mostly hatchings, flowers, or rude representations of animals, such as the goat, the pig, the stork, etc., etc. whenever the human figure appears on the vases of this period it is shorter and less graceful than that on later work. the next period is likely to show the figures in yellow upon black ground; the designs here are more beautiful; the subjects are mythological, historical, and poetical, and the human figures often have the grace and beauty which mark the best period of grecian art. the decadence is marked by coarser work, less purity of form, and grosser and clumsier designs. the paste or clay at times approaches the hardness of "terra-cotta;" at others it is so soft as to be scratched with a knife, and is easily broken. its color varies: the earlier or archaic period is mostly of a pale lemon-color; the clay used at athens and melos was a pale red; and in the best period of greece the color becomes a warm orange; while those found in italy usually called etruscan are always of a dull, rather pale, red. upon these grounds figures were painted in black, brown, yellow, and red. [illustration: fig. 39.--_amphora._] perspective those true artists did not strive after. the greeks sketched in their designs in clean lines, and colored them with flat color, touching the muscles and articulations here and there to bring out more fully the action; but to rival the painter upon his canvas, that was not attempted upon pottery. it seems desirable to give some notion, as well as can be done in black-and-white, of what the earlier vases were like; and we, therefore, transcribe here some examples given by birch, which show, not only the style of the decoration, but the forms, of the archaic period (see fig. 31). the animals shown are rude and clumsy, and are arranged in bands, which are sown with flower-shapes without order or meaning. the forms, too, of the pots themselves, especially the two largest, are wholly lacking in that fine, subtile grace which marks them during the time of the "fine style." that the art of greece was not born full-grown and perfect like the goddess minerva is certain; but that it grew and grew fast to its perfectness in that most keen and cunning greek brain is also certain. the time of the "fine style" was the time of pericles, of aspasia, of æschylus, of phidias; the time when the most beautiful of the beautiful greek temples was built on the acropolis sacred to minerva; when sculpture, painting, poetry, and architecture, reached their height; when the human form and the human face arrived at such a divine beauty as they had never reached since the days of paradise, and have not again reached. in this wonderful time the greek vase was born into its perfect form. some peculiarities of the old or archaic style, after it passed the simple method of decoration already described, and when it began to treat the human figure, are thus specified by mr. birch: "the faces of the females are white to indicate superior delicacy of complexion, and the pupils of their eyes, which are more elongated than those of the male figures, are red. the eyes of the men are engraved and of a form inclining to oval, the pupils circular. the eyes of the women are sometimes made like those of men, especially on those vases on which the faces are colored black upon a white ground. the forms are rather full and muscular, the noses long, the eyes oblique and in profile, the pupil as if seen in front, the extremities long and not carefully finished, the outlines rigid, the attitudes _à plomb_, the knees and elbows rectangular, the draperies stiff, and describing perpendicular, angular, and precise oval lines. the faces are generally in profile, full faces being very rare." we quote again as to the work upon the fine style: "in this the figures are still red, and the black grounds are occasionally very dark and lustrous. the ornaments are in white, and so are the letters. the figures have lost that hardness which at first characterized them; the eyes are no longer represented oblique and in profile; the extremities are finished with greater care, the chin and nose are more rounded, and [illustration: fig. 40.--_krater (vase campanienne), from the louvre._] have lost the extreme elongation of the earlier school. the limbs are fuller and thicker, the faces noble, the hair of the head and beard treated with greater breadth and mass, as in the style of the painter zeuxis, who gave more flesh to his figures, in order to make them appear of greater breadth and more grandiose, adopting the ideas of homer, who represents even his females of large proportions. the great charm of these designs is the beauty of the composition and the more perfect proportion of the figures. the head is oval, three-quarters of which are comprised from the chin to the ear, thus affording a guide to its proportions, which are far superior to those of the previous figures. the disproportionate shape of the limbs disappears, and the countenance assumes its natural form and expression. the folds of the drapery, too, are freer, and the attitudes have lost their ancient rigidity. the figures are generally large, and arranged in groups of two or three on each side, occupying about two-thirds of the height of the vase." the design we have given to illustrate in some degree the "fine style" is the "departure of achilles" (fig. 32), taken from a vase in the louvre. in our modern time it has come to pass that men worship strength, power, words, gold, brass--everything but beauty. they care little to have beautiful things about them, less to be beautiful themselves, to create beautiful children, or to do beautiful work. and what is the result? often they are as unlovely in their souls as in their persons; and so, while we boast of great cities, and long railways, and amazing cotton-mills, we boast not of beautiful men who make beautiful work. perfection tends to perfection, and ugliness to ugliness. therefore, let the perfect man and the perfect woman marry, that thus we may have the perfect race once more. to bring this to pass we must insist upon perfect form and perfect decoration in all things about us; we must know beauty and value it. one step to this great end is to study the greek vase. the next step is to make every home a temple of art. what can we not believe of such a house as that of aspasia in athens, when she was virtually the wife of pericles in the best period of greece? that it was graced surely by works of divinest beauty; that these exquisite vases which we are praising stood upon her shelves, graced her pedestals, and adorned the corners specially made for their reception. we may believe that the potters themselves presented their beautiful work to the most distinguished woman of all greece; that the victor in the panathenaic games should ask a place for his prize in the atmosphere of light and learning which surrounded this remarkable woman. the shapes and uses of the greek vases, cups, jugs, etc., etc., are many. we mention here those most known as follows: for holding oil, wine, etc., etc., _amphora_, _pelice_, _stamnos_; for carrying water, etc., _hydria_, _kalpis_, or _calpis_; for mixing wine and water, etc., _krater_, _oxybaphon_, _kelebe_; for pouring water, wine, etc., _oenochoe_, _cruche_, or _kruche_, _olpe_, _prochoos_; for cups and drinking-vessels, _cylix_, or _kylix_, _kantharos_, _kyathos_, _rhyton_, _skyphos_, _phiale_, etc., etc.; for perfumes, ointments, etc., _lekythos_, or _lecythos_, _alabastron_, _cotyle_, or _kotyle_, _aryballos_, etc. [illustration: fig. 4.--_hydria._] the vases most known are these: the _amphora_ (figs. 36, 37, 38, 39), a name applied to vases with two handles, sometimes with a pointed base to thrust into the ground or to be set into a tripod; great numbers of these exist, and in various shapes, some of which will appear in our illustrations. the _amphoræ_ were used to hold wine, oil, wheat, and a great variety of other articles. the _hydria_ (figs. 41 and 42) and _kalpis_ were used to carry water. the former has one handle. the _krater_ or _crater_ (fig. 40) was a large, open-mouthed vessel used for mixing wine with water. the _cruche_ (fig. 43) and _oeochoe_ were jugs or pitchers used to pour liquids at the symposia. the _kylix_ or _cylix_ (figs. 33 and 34), the _rhyton_ (fig. 35), and the _kyathos_, were drinking-cups used at feasts. the _lekythos_, and _kotyle_ and _alabastron_, were used for perfumes, pomatums, and other such luxuries for the bath and the toilet; and we may believe, from the number of these found, that woman in those antique days was careful to enhance her charms. [illustration: fig. 42.--_hydria._] we give two examples of the cylix or kylix used for a drinking-cup, which always carried two handles. the first (fig. 33) is of the earliest period, and is more severe than the last. it is ornamented with the greek fret, with zigzags or chevrons, etc., etc., of simple design. the other (fig. 34) is more graceful and finished in form, and has a more elaborate design, which, however, seems to me quite behind the work found on the cups of the "fine style." [illustration: fig. 43.--_vase for libations._] we give some particulars of the greek vases, mostly from the collections of the louvre at paris. some of the amphoræ were designed for particular uses; as, for example, for prizes to the victors of the public games (fig. 36). the fashion which prevails with us of giving cups for prizes at our races, etc. (usually pieces of silver), is a fashion which began with the greeks, and has continued till to-day. sometimes these vases were filled with oil made from the olive blessed by minerva. we may well believe such amphoræ so won were highly valued; and this will explain the curious history of the one now in the museum of the louvre. in 1827 this good find came to light: "they recently found at capoue the vase given to the victor at the athletic games at athens in the year 332 before christ. beside the vase lay the skeleton of the victor, the athenian himself, as was supposed. the vase is of clay covered with paintings, showing upon one side the goddess pallas athene (fig. 36) launching a javelin; on the other side is a group of wrestlers, a young man who is a looker-on, a judge, and an old man holding a wand. at the top is found the name of the ruler of athens in the year 332 b. c., and the words '_prize given at athens_.'" the victor is vanquished, his name and fame are forgot, but the vase is perfect after the lapse of twenty-two centuries. the vase next presented (fig. 37) is an amphora decorated with equestrian figures, marked by that archaic stiffness which some value. its height is put by figuier at thirty-seven centimetres--about fifteen inches. the color is yellowish; it is shaped with much care; the black varnish is brilliant, and is laid upon the yellow body; the outlines are incised to limit the figures; and the parts in relief are of a rusty red and unpolished. the great amphora (fig. 38) is in the louvre museum, and is one of the most perfect known. we see this form, as well as many others of the greek amphora, in all modern work. the clay is yellowish, and is covered with a deep black. the figures are reserved on the yellow and are well brought out by the black. the simplicity and dignity of this vase can hardly be excelled, and they are in striking contrast with the over-decorated things, so many of which have been made at sèvres and meissen. the great virtue of reticence was known and observed among the greek artists. the next (fig. 39) is of a more uncommon form than the others, in its swelling out at the base. the handles, too, are rare, and the twisting together at the top quite peculiar. the great vase krater (fig. 40), called "campanienne," is some fifteen inches in height, and is perfect in form and decoration. the figures are painted in black upon its surface. they have been found in great numbers in various parts of italy. the hydria (figs. 41 and 42) is a water-jug; another term which is used for the same vessel is _kalpis_, but the latter has two handles. these vary much in form, decoration, and beauty. the one (fig. 41) has a black ground with red figures; the other (fig. 42) is just the reverse. [illustration: fig. 44.--_lekythos._] the _cruche_ or vase shown in fig. 43 is supposed to have been used for libations when sacrifices were made to the gods. the neck and mouth are peculiar. this example has a red body covered with a black varnish, the designs showing the red. the lekythos is a sort of cylindrical amphora, with a straight neck and a single handle. this beautiful vase was made to contain perfumes and unguents, which were largely in use. the figure (44) here given is a perfect example of this delicate vase, and is painted with colored clays, which are fixed to the body of the vase by heat, and are, therefore, indestructible. [illustration: fig. 45.--_pot for infusion._] a pot for infusion (fig. 45) is easily understood. it is a greek ancestor to our teapot, and is marked by that elegance of form which appears in much of the work of the grecian potters. the curious cup (fig. 46) called a couthon is about eight inches in diameter. our illustration shows at a the top of the cup with the open centre, while at b and c may be seen the peculiar involuted form. just what uses this could have been put to does not appear. it is more an object of curiosity and gracefulness than of use. just in what way such a pot can have been turned is not plain to the uninitiated soul. the cup of arcesilaus (shown in figs. 47 and 48) is one of the most graceful and beautiful things which has come down to us from the greeks. it is supposed to date back to the time of pindar, some 500 years before christ. the cup is now to be seen in the collection of the rue de richelieu in paris; it was found in etruria, but was made by a potter of cyrene. it is discovered that at this african city was a great pottery for the making of greek vases, out of which have come some of the most perfect found; among them this one. so far had the art and culture of the greeks spread even then. the cup is about thirteen inches in diameter. its name comes from the king of cyrenaica, whose glories were sung by pindar. the clay is very fine, and is of a delicate red; and this has been almost hidden by a black which appears solidly at the handles and foot. the design is put on with a colored clay or _engobe_ of a yellowish-white, which is fixed by the fire; and it is believed that it must have passed through the furnace some three times. the picture (fig. 48) is curious and interesting. the king is shown sitting on the deck of a vessel afloat, holding his sceptre. before him his servants are weighing baskets of merchandise, and below the deck others are seen carrying away the baskets into the hold. now, what is this they are weighing and carrying away? [illustration: fig. 46.--_a couthon._] m. de witte, in making his catalogue, decides that the greek word near the manager who is pointing to the scales means _silphium_ or _asafoetida_: the most odious of flavors to us, but one which still provokes delicious titillations in some orientals. altogether, we get a glimpse of life in this early pindaric time; we see that a king then was not a mere figure-head, but a real king who oversaw his cargoes, and probably loved asafoetida, and was fond of making money, as some of our sovereigns are to-day. the _number_ of these vases, cups, etc., now existing in europe is very great--at least 20,000, and some experts make the number as high as 70,000. the best-known collections are--at naples in the museo borbonico, 2,000; in the vatican at rome, 1,000; at florence, 700; at turin, 500; at vienna, 300; at berlin, 1,690; at munich, 1,700; at dresden, 200; at carlsruhe, 200; at paris, the louvre, 1,500; bibliothèque nationale, 500; at london, british museum, 2,600. there are also a great many in private collections throughout the world. what the keen and artistic mind wants to know is, not only what fine work was done by the greeks, but why they did it--what, indeed, made that life more beautiful than any we find in all the earlier histories of man. through the wrecks and convulsions of time this crowd of delicate, perishable things still exists; what vast numbers must have been made and destroyed in the varying populations of greece, rome, tyre, carthage, and wherever grecian civilizations and tastes made their way, it is not easy for the mind to compass. and we must remember that these things we now describe were not in every man's hand; they were in a good degree for the rich and well-to-do. no slave (and slaves then abounded) used a _kylix_ from which to drink his wine, nor an _oenochoe_ from which to pour it. that vases and cups were used and made especially as tokens of affection to be placed in the tombs, we know; that they were fashioned and painted for prizes at the panathenaic games of greece, we know; and that they were used in many ways in the symposia and feasts, we also know; and the numbers made must have been nigh countless. no satisfactory explanation of this profusion has so far been hit upon. the potteries, of course, must have been many; for brongniart cites in greece proper twelve now known cities where vases were made; in italy, some fourteen; and we know, also, that they were made in most [illustration: fig. 47.--_cup of arcesilaus, view of the outside._] of the colonies where greek customs stamped themselves. the demand for all this product was, of course, equal to the supply. while we know that greek civilizations had reached a high place, and that man, physically and intellectually, had come nigh to perfection, _woman_ had not kept pace with him. the home then was not what we now make it, or attempt to, a temple in which all of comfort, all of luxury, all of beauty, are gathered. the greek house, even in athens, was rarely, large; the principal _salons_ for the feasts were used only by men, for the ladies of the house did not appear at those times. the women's apartments were more secluded, and were not used for show; we should not, therefore, expect them to be _filled_ with objects of art and ornament, though they would not, of course, be excluded. that there should be, as we have shown there was, a great production of articles devoted to the tastes of the fairer sex is easy to understand, and for them, as well as for men, were made the beautiful _lekythoi_, the _alabastron_, and other articles, for perfumes, for the toilet, and the bath; for these we can account. the life of the married woman was not then passed in public and out-of-doors as it now has come to be; she was not the central or only or principal figure around which society revolved; nor did the social or intellectual, the artistic or literary life find its centre or its applause with her. that she frequented the theatres with men is not believed, though she had her own opportunities for the indulgence of this taste; and it seems probable that some representations--as the tragedies--were open for both men and women. her life partook of the seclusion which stamped the asiatic courts. she had many duties and occupations; for the wife, with her maidens or her slaves, not only must prepare and serve the food, she must also spin and weave and make the garments for her household. [illustration: fig. 48.--_cup of arcesilaus, view of the inside._] the care and education of children, the supervision of the house and the slaves, the production of stuffs and garments, of perfumes and unguents, gave necessary occupations in great profusion, and such as would alleviate _ennui_--such as would put amusements into a second rather than a first place in her heart. but the truth is that her life was so dull, so devoid of exciting cares, that many women, and among them some of the most beautiful, most witty, and most cultivated of greece, preferred the seductive and exciting dangers of the life of the _hetaira_ to the safe and frigid respectability and dullness of the married wife. [illustration: fig. 49.--_etruscan vase._] that dress was a matter of important thought with woman there also, is beyond doubt; and the textures of the _chitons_ and _himations_, the proper colors of their bands and their girdles, caused much perplexity to the beautiful greek maiden, as they have to the beautiful american of to-day. but the greek seems to have escaped one great misery and mystery--_her fashions did not change_; no staff of designing men was working with swift brain, hand, and pencil, in athens or corinth, to perplex her delicate mind with fashion-books, thus forcing her into exquisite torture, and keeping her there. the pictures upon the vases continuing through many centuries, show no very marked changes in dress. was woman, then, supremely happy? who can say! besides dress, there can be no question, from the large numbers of perfume-bottles and vases of clay, as well as from the quantity of those of glass found by cesnola in his excavations, that a very great degree of luxury, if not of dandyism, was reached by the women as well as the men in that "good old day of greece." we know something of the luxury, the lavish daintiness of alcibiades and his friends, but very little of that of their wives. there was, however, an evil thing in greece, and one which the greek wife felt strongly, keenly--it was the _hetairai_, the _demi-monde_ of the great cities. nowhere except in england and america has the virtue of married woman been held at so extreme and exalted a height, nowhere has its sale been lowered to such a depth, as in athens. among the _hetairai_ of athens and corinth were found the most beautiful, the most brilliant, and the most highly-cultivated women of greece; to them every attraction was of inestimable value, and whatever would charm men was to be sought and seized. that among them were women of great mental gifts, of much political knowledge, of highly-cultivated artistic perceptions, we have every reason to believe; that the _hetairai_ made their houses as attractive as possible we may also believe; and in them, we do not doubt, were found some of the best examples of the art of greece outside the temples and the gymnasia. here we may suppose that the fine vases found appreciative recipients, as well as appreciative admirers among men. that all who sold their charms were what we term "abandoned" is not true; they did not so consider themselves, and were not so esteemed among the men or women of greece; that some of them, many of them, became so, is beyond doubt true. but among them some (how many who can tell?) were cultivated, interesting, able, there is no doubt; and that they continued so. it was long the fashion to suppose and to say that the poetess sappho, and the politician aspasia, were courtesans, which hardly any man will now maintain. as to the former less is known, but aspasia, though not legally married to pericles (as she could not be), was virtually his wife and partner through all his life, in his schemes for governing, exalting, and beautifying athens. her house then was the most beautiful, the most complete, and the most attractive, in athens; and to it resorted the most noted statesmen, rhetoricians, philosophers, wits, and artists, of that most remarkable city and time. [illustration: fig. 50.--_etruscan vase._] it is a misfortune to us that no greek house of the time of [illustration: fig. 51.--_etruscan vase._] pericles, the perfect day of a most remarkable and highly-æsthetic civilization, remains; either its stone-walls, or in pictures on its temple-walls or on its vases. the great catastrophe which overwhelmed herculaneum and pompeii has secured to us the means of knowing how the luxurious roman lived in those little seaside cities eighteen hundred years ago; a time when cæsar was hardly dead, and jesus almost unknown. every house in athens and in corinth, in samos and in melos, has been swept away by the besom of war or the feathered wing of time. we know what we do know from the verses of the poets or the allusions of the playwrights, and that is all; but from these we gather that the house or home was a place rather for the woman than for the man; that in it the woman, though not exactly a prisoner as in the harems of the asiatic kings, was expected to stay and to find "her sphere." the porter sat at the door of the house, and when the woman walked forth she went accompanied by her slave, and it was known for what she went. the life of the greek man was essentially and in his best hours outside his own house. by the greek man we now mean the upper or more wealthy classes; all these had their work done by slaves. he went forth in the early morning to visit the theatres, where he was entertained with the dramas of æschylus, of euripides, of aristophanes; he breakfasted; he visited the markets; he went to the bath; to the hairdresser; he conversed in the porticoes; he frequented the gymnasia, where he could talk or listen, where he could exercise and enjoy his body, where beautiful bodies and philosophic tongues found free play and ample room. everything of politics, of poetry, of art, of scandal, was a delight to the keen and active intellect of the greek; as in st. paul's day, he was eager to hear or see some new thing: and when such a ruler as pericles had grasped the purse and the sword, and had gathered together in the small city of athens all the sculptures, all the poetry, all the eloquence, all the pictures, all the vases, to adorn and glorify it, the greek man may be said--using our expressive american phrase--"to have had a good time!"--as good as he has been able yet to see in the long history of the race. [illustration: fig. 52.--_etruscan vase._] knowing as much as we do of the life of the greek man and the greek woman, need we be surprised that the rather sharp-tempered xantippe, wife of that delightful vagabond and philosopher, socrates--he who puzzled the too conscious sophists and pleased the simpler people, who loved the true and hated the false; he who lived for wisdom and not for power; who cared much for mind and less for money; who basked in the sunshine of the porticoes and pined in the shadows of his own house--need we be surprised that this wife of his was driven to go forth at times to seek her vagrant lord in the throng of the market-place or the excitements of the academy, and to lead him thence to the place of his wife and children? need we be surprised that her speech was then unmelodious, unconjugal, and that she became a sport and by-word for the wicked wits of that brilliant city? [illustration: fig. 53.--_etruscan vase._] but with his faults socrates had the great virtues of serenity and patience, always indispensable in the married man, at least. if the vases had only preserved for us the portraits of xantippe and socrates, or even of the room they lived in, how much would we thank them! as to the _pictures_ upon the vases, the best of them seem to be copied or adapted by the vase-painters from pictures of the best artists of greece, made to illustrate the worship or the doings of the gods, the great deeds of the heroes, the feats at games, the triumphs at the feasts, etc., etc. many of these are but carelessly, even poorly, put upon the vases; the _best_ are those we must look for to admire, to enjoy, and to emulate. the _tub of diogenes_, there is reason to believe, was a great earthen vase or pot--the pithos. these were built up of clay by the greeks by hand around a frame, and were afterward baked. as they sometimes reached the dimensions of over three feet in diameter and six or seven feet in height, it is plain that they could not be turned upon the potter's wheel. it is easy, too, to understand what an excellent shelter such a pot would make for such a cynical philosopher as diogenes, who needed a very cheap rent. but if a wicked boy _should_ throw a cruel stone some fine evening, striking the pot in a weak spot, the rent might end in a convulsion and ruin. etruscan vases.--the "_etruscan vase_" not being what we have here described and figured as the "greek vase," it remains to say briefly that the vases and pots made by the etruscans before the coming of the greek potters were quite different; ruder and less fine in form and in decoration. indeed, it is not likely that the painted vase found in italy, known as the greek vase, was ever the work of the etruscan workmen. the etruscan pottery was thicker, less ornamental, and it indicates a different race and lower æsthetic development. in the museum of art at boston is now placed a collection of etruscan work which is said to be unique in this country as well as in england. in this are a number of vases which are ornamented with heads and figures in relief, not sharp and fine; these are wholly covered with a black color. a few which are painted are quite different and inferior to the work of the greeks. the collection was secured in italy by mr. j. j. dixwell, who has been so good as to present it to the museum. figs. 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, are examples of some of the vases in the museum of the louvre, which present the general style and character of this work; they show clearly how much the real etruscan vase differs from the true greek vase. chapter iii. unglazed pottery at the great exhibition of 1876. unglazed water-colors.--clay sketches.--japanese clay figures.--spanish pots.--italian peasant pottery.--egyptian.--turkish.--mexican.--watcombe terra-cotta.--copenhagen pottery. the reports of the judges have not yet appeared, so that we do not and cannot know what their awards may be. but as so many persons who saw and judged for themselves may never see these reports, it may therefore serve to remind them of many things there if i put down here my own notes of what i saw and admired. my notes do not cover the whole ground, by any means, but i think they touch upon the best examples of the unglazed work, of which, however, the quantity in no degree equaled that of the glazed pottery or faience; and, indeed, it could not, because for most of the uses of life it is valueless. the glazed pots are of course much stronger, and, for household uses, have almost entirely supplanted the other. unglazed pots and pans are still in common domestic use, but they have a glaze on the _inside_ which renders them capable of holding liquids. unglazed vessels are much used along the shores of the mediterranean for the purpose of cooling water, the percolation and evaporation from the surface bringing the water to a delicious coolness, which is grateful to the parched palate; indeed, it is much more wholesome than the intense coldness created by the use of ice. many a dyspeptic stomach with us would gladden if refreshed with the crisp water produced by the spanish or egyptian coolers, which are now made feverish with the icy american draughts poured into them. in paris are still made many small figures in unglazed clay, some of which are full of artistic effects; they are sketches in clay, and are valuable when they are such. a great many are made at some of the potteries in england, which are useless as works of art, and are useful only as cheap decorations. some of them are well moulded, and are pleasing. i noticed none of these at the exhibition, though it is likely they were represented there. a very fine example of this sort of unglazed figure-work was to be seen in a case in the japanese collection sent by kiriu kosko kuwaisha. it was a much higher class of work than the peruvian, of which an illustration is given at page 19, and in its way could hardly be excelled. the figure was about twelve inches high, and seemed to be an intense embodiment of japanese jollity; its half-shut eyes, lolling tongue, and relaxed figure, told the story perfectly. my japanese guide, philosopher, and friend, did not consider it in any way a god, though it was so like the chinese poutai, god of content, that one wondered. if it indeed had been a domestic god, our keen japanese gentleman would not have been likely to urge that view to us, who have less regard for other people's gods even than for our own. not far from the japanese exhibit was to be seen in the spanish collection a pyramid of unglazed pottery, nearly or quite all of a light-buff color. it had this value, that it was such as is in use to-day in the houses of the common people; and that is about all we can say for it. the whole of it has been bought for the pennsylvania school of art. why they should want a hundred pieces of this work one may well be at a loss to know, unless it is true that to own what nobody else has is always a pleasure. throughout the southern countries of europe, in spain, france, italy, greece, turkey, and on the southern shores of the mediterranean, this kind of pottery is made and used, and in some cases it has much merit in its forms; when decorated, it often reaches a _naïve_ and fascinating kind of art. some very pretty, simple, and original pieces of this sort of pottery have been brought to us from time to time from naples, though i have never seen any for sale. i learn from one of the castellanis that in many places of italy this sort of work is made to-day, much of it for decorative purposes. at some of them vases and other vessels which are distinctly traditions derived from the greek potters of a thousand years ago are still made; at others are made pots and vases, cups and _bénitiers_, which have sprung out of the simple artistic feeling of the potters themselves, and which have that flavor of genuineness which cannot be too much encouraged. the tendency everywhere is to _copy_ something; let us, as far as we can, buy the real and disparage the copy. a hundred pieces of this peasant pottery were sent me a few years ago, but they were wrecked upon the "vexed bermoöthes," and are lying at the bottom of the sea. a few pieces of a light-gray body in the egyptian collection were excellent both in form and in their many-colored decoration. these pieces were like, but better than, most of that which comes out from africa through tangier, of which we saw none in the main building, but learned that there was a collection in the tunisian building. many good pieces of this barbaric pottery are in the country, though most of the specimens are glazed. these egyptian pots have this vast merit, that they have come from the personal wants and the depths of the moral consciousness of the egyptians themselves; from potters who know no language, no country, and no art, but their own; and therefore they are in no way imitations of what has been done in france, or england, or boston. the dark-red terra-cotta ware from egypt was mostly in small pieces, but was excellent in its modeling and finish; and it was satisfactory to see that it was much bought by our people. this clay, with its polished surface, is peculiar to egypt; at least we see it nowhere else. this red egyptian ware, is much like the red roman ware often called samian, which has been spoken of in a preceding chapter. some larger pieces have been brought by private parties from egypt, which have much merit in form, as well as in incised decoration. the turks sent a few examples of their simple pottery, some of it unglazed, and some covered with a deep-green glaze, which were simply what they pretended to be. their polychrome decoration was also good, but not so good as the egyptian. mexico, too, sent a small collection of this sort of work, which [illustration: fig. 54.--_danish pottery._] smacked yet of the aztec races, but too little of it to be of much use. a few glazed pots painted in the native fashion were excellent, and were bought up quickly, because they suggested montezuma and his brown people, who have been wholly consumed by the greedy whites. the belief of señor alejandro cassarin, the potter or dealer who sent from mexico, evidently was that this native spontaneous pottery, which doubtless is yet to be found, in out-of-the-way places, is not a thing to be proud of--at least, it is not to be sent to us; that what we want is a very poor imitation of european porcelain. nor is such a delusion his alone. of terra-cotta work in red and in buff there was a good show, mainly from england and denmark. the clay, the modeling, and the finish, were quite perfect in many of these. the watcombe people, in england, had already reached perfection in the color and texture of their clay; and the greek vases, as well as jugs, ewers, and a variety of things--their own designs--could not have been bettered some three years ago. they were then satisfied to insure a simplicity which touched perfection. in their exhibit at philadelphia it was clear that they are no longer satisfied with this, or that a jaded taste needs excitement. the work sent us constantly says, "we are trying to do something new and surprising, if nothing better than before." the principal novelty was the combining of two colors of clay in the same pot; as, for example, a lighter body with a darker red for the handles, mouldings, and ornaments. dignity and repose were thus lost, and no new pleasure was supplied. we felt sure that this would not last. and then, when bands of color or polychrome decoration are used on the fine red clay, they nearly always do harm; and the inevitable tendency to overdo cannot be restrained. their modeled figures seemed to have neither the delicacy of the parian nor the sketchy freedom of some of the french designers. the color of the clay and the finish of the watcombe terra-cotta vases are superior to any i have ever seen. some years ago the copenhagen potters made a very considerable success in their revival of the greek vase, both plain and painted in black, with greek figures of horses, warriors, women, etc. (fig. 54). these have had for the last ten years a large sale; and as we cannot have the real greek vases because of their scarcity and price, it is well to have some examples so well copied as these are. but there is a limit to one's capacity for copies of greek vases, and it seems positive that we have reached it. we hope so. ipsen's widow sent us some of the yellow vases and pots, most delicately and delightfully painted with the lotus and other egyptian designs, which for subtilty of color and precision of touch cannot be surpassed. these we were glad to see our people buying, and not the other. among much that was commonplace, there were many examples of good work in the department of unglazed pottery. it would have been a great satisfaction to have met with more which showed _courage_ and _freshness_ of design. while the public are not so responsive to these as one could wish, there is still enough to encourage potters and designers in this direction, if they will only believe it. chapter iv. glazed pottery.--grès de flandre, french, german, etc. definition of glaze.--varnish.--enamel in egypt, babylon.--the arabs and the moors.--grès de flandre.--cologne, regensburg, baireuth, neuwied, grenzhausen, coblentz.--holland.--beauvais.--flanders.--apostle-mugs. --graybeards.--"bellarmines."--"pottle-pots."--modern work.--doulton stone-ware.--early german stone-ware at breslau.--hirschvogel.--nuremberg. before saying anything about the various styles of glazed pottery, it may be well to give the definitions of glaze, as presented by marryatt, thus: "glaze (_glauçure_, _vernis_, fr.).--the composition used for coating pottery is composed chiefly of lead and silex. that for porcelain is analogous to flint-glass (whence the derivation _glassing_ or _glazing_). in fact, this term may be applied to any substance that covers the surface of the piece; as, for instance, that produced by the decomposition of salt on stone-ware. m. brongniart classes the different kinds of glazing, or vitreous substances with which pottery is covered when finished, into three kinds: "'_varnish._--every vitrifiable substance, transparent and plumbiferous, which melts at low temperature, generally inferior to that required for the baking of the paste: common pottery, fine earthen-ware. "'_enamel._--a vitrifiable substance, opaque, generally stanniferous (tin): majolica and common earthen-ware. "'_couverte._--a vitrifiable substance, earthy, which melts at a high temperature equal to that of the baking of the paste: hard porcelain, some stone-wares....' "the mark caused by the absence of glaze is very apparent in oriental porcelain, the bottom edge being rough and sandy. this defective appearance is obviated in europe by supporting the piece upon a tripod with very small points (_prenettes_, fr.). the three ugly marks upon old chelsea china are caused by the clumsy tripod which was employed." the use of glaze and of tin to form the glaze or enamel seems to have been known to the chinese beyond the time when occidental records were kept. it appears, according to sir gardiner wilkinson and mr. samuel birch, that very early indeed the egyptian potters knew the use of the siliceous glaze, composed of sand and potash or soda; and also that small sepulchral figures have been found, coated with enamels made from oxides of tin or copper, dating as far back as the sixth dynasty (b. c. 3703). in the museums of europe are preserved tiles and bricks taken from the temples or palaces of egypt and babylon, and they must have been largely used long before our historical time. these glazed bricks are supposed to date back twenty-five hundred years before our era. mr. birch, in his "history of ancient pottery," says that the use of these bricks was probably learned by the assyrians from the egyptians, "who at a very early period had inlaid in this manner the chamber of the pyramid at saqquara." he says: "the glazed or enameled bricks from nimrúd are of the usual kiln-dried kind, measuring thirteen and a half inches square, and about four and a half inches thick. they were laid in rows horizontally above the slates of sculpture of the mosul marble, and seem to have been employed in the construction of cornices. they are glazed on one of the narrow sides or edges only, having on this edge various patterns, chiefly of an architectural nature, such as guilloche or chain ornaments, bands of palmettes or helices, and fleurettes or flowers of many petals. the colors employed were blue, black, yellow, red, and white. the glaze, which is much decomposed, easily exfoliates, and the colors have lost much of their freshness. it would appear that patterns of tolerably large size were executed in this manner, each brick having its appropriate portion enameled upon it.... another brick, found by mr. layard in the earliest palace of nimrúd, has an horizontal line of inscription in arrow-headed characters of a darker color, and with square heads like nails. its tenor was of the usual purport: 'this is the great palace of "asar-aden-pal."' bricks of this glazed kind were found chiefly in the space between the great bulls which flanked the entrances of the chambers. from nimrúd were also brought corbels of blue faience, or what has been called porcelain, the under part modeled to represent the five fingers of the hand." this much is given to show how the glaze was applied to pottery by the nations of that very early time. where they got their knowledge--whether they discovered it for themselves in their search into the secrets of nature, or whether they derived it from the great world of life which lay beyond in the far east--we do not and cannot know. but why this so valuable knowledge was not applied universally by those acute peoples to the utensils of every-day life, and to all which we now call "artistic pottery," remains a curious question. that it was applied to some things, we know; for small vases, toys, marbles, etc., etc., have been found among the egyptian tombs coated with this enamel; but most of the pottery found in egypt is without glaze, which would indicate that what was in ordinary daily use was unglazed. examples of this enameled ware are to be seen in the british and other museums of europe. coming to the greeks, it is singular that nothing of this enamel-glaze is found. the inference is, that they had not the knowledge of it, and that the art must have been lost; for surely so valuable and beautiful an art, if known, must have been applied by so æsthetic a people as the greeks to the uses of life. upon the greek vases, of which so many examples remain, there appears sometimes to have been used a very thin and very transparent varnish; but this does not seem to have been a glaze made either of glass, or of lead, or of tin. if it was a varnish, and not a polish, the probabilities point to its being a thin wash of soda or potash. this varnish served to protect the painting, but did not prevent the percolation of water. the greek methods prevailed among the romans. among the great numbers of potters, and the vast production of pottery, the romans seem not to have used the glaze. all that remains of their work, found in gaul, in britain, and in other parts of europe, is the unglazed ware. the arabs and the moors brought into europe a knowledge of the stanniferous (tin) glaze, as has been explained more fully elsewhere. to this keen and most energetic civilization europe owes its beginnings in the arts of pottery, as well as in many other things. the value of the glaze in all the arts of life cannot be estimated. when the only cooking-utensils were those made of unglazed pottery, the cooking was of the simplest, if not most insufficient, character. indeed, at that time it is not likely that meat was cooked in the pot at all. in addition to this, the difficulty of making unglazed vessels capable of holding wine, oil, etc., without wasting them slowly, must have forbidden those things being kept to such a time as to insure perfection, not to mention the inevitable loss. it is likely that such unglazed pots were then painted on the inside with some resinous substance which in a degree met the difficulty, but which, at the same time, imparted a flavor to the wine which we cannot believe to have been delicious. between china and the spanish moors exist a wide gap and centuries of time, in which glazed pottery and porcelain intended for the uses of domestic life seem to have been unknown. and this, too, was among the greeks, the phoenicians, the romans--nations eager for every good thing, astute, keen, grasping. among the remains of roman art have been found a few pieces of pottery upon which are traces of the use of a glaze; but, if it was used at all, it seems to have been almost an accident--not at all as with us, to complete and perfect the work. to the moors and the moorish civilization of spain, europe owes the knowledge or the introduction of this most valuable art, which has enabled her to reach such perfection in the making of fictile ware as we now see and enjoy. not only has the glaze (and enamel) given great strength to pottery, and increased its use to an infinite variety: it has also enabled most nations, beginning with the chinese, to add to its beauty, and, indeed, to develop or create a method of artistic expression which is peculiar and most interesting. this subject will be treated more fully, in the progress of this work, in a chapter upon decorating porcelain and pottery. after the work of the moors in spain, which will be treated in a separate chapter, one of the earliest applications of the glaze in europe was upon a hard sort of _stone-ware_ made at various places along the rhine, and in flanders and germany. it has come to be known under a generic title of grès de flandre, while but little of it was really made in flanders. a great centre of its manufacture and sale, as early as the 1300's of our era, was at cologne; and a more fit name for it would be grès de cologne; still, the usual name is the one the world knows it by. the body or paste of which this is composed differs from the faiences or earthen-wares of which we write. it is harder, heavier, and much more durable. the commoner kinds are made so by a considerable mixture of siliceous sand; while in the finer kinds, known as grès de flandre, there are mixed with the paste other clays, such as _terre de pipe_ and _kaolin_. this hard and heavy body has long been used for common stone-ware jugs and pots made for every-day use. in china it was and is still used as a body for vases and dishes, which received a covering or "engobe," and upon that an artistic finish--such as the crackle-vases, and many others. the glaze upon what we know as grès de flandre was made by using in the furnace common salt; the fumes of which, combining with the fused silex, resulted in what is termed the _salt-glaze_. this requires a high degree of heat, in which no colors will stay except the blue of cobalt, a brown, and a violet. the grès de flandre, of which we give two illustrations (figs. 55 and 56), is now well known under that name. its color is a liquid gray, and its decoration is made with the blue of cobalt. some pieces of this ware are highly and beautifully decorated, as is seen on the fine fountain now in the museum of the louvre (fig. 55). most of the figures and reliefs are made with moulds, which have a quaint interest; they were cut in wood, carefully, often with considerable artistic expression. the best work of this sort was made in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and is mostly german. [illustration: fig. 55.--_grès de flandre fountain, musée du louvre._] there were factories at cologne, at regensburg, at baireuth, at neuwied, at grenzhausen, at coblentz, and at other places along the rhine. the same work was also made in holland, in flanders, and in beauvais. many pieces of this style of work were decorated with figures of saints, and other sacred emblems. some pieces, such as salt-cellars, inkstands, and candlesticks, were carefully modeled by hand, and have thus an added interest. i know of but few pieces of this work in our museums, while those of europe have made special attempts to secure examples of it; for it has a peculiar character of its own, and in many cases is delicious in color and most quaint and artistic in its forms and decoration. often coats-of-arms are found impressed upon tankards and bottles and flagons of this work, and most of these are german. they were evidently reproduced from the moulds, and sold to others than the persons whose arms they bore. [illustration: fig. 56.--_pilgrim-shaped grès bottle, in the british museum._] the making of this ware was undoubtedly one step by which böttcher at last succeeded in making true porcelain at dresden. fig. 56 is a pilgrim-bottle, bought at the bernal sale by the british museum for eighteen pounds. at baireuth were made, in the 1600's, some very curious mugs, called _apostle-mugs_, because the figures of the twelve apostles were worked in relief around the cup. the clay was a dark-brown, but the dresses of the figures and the inscriptions were painted in colors. mr. frederick j. betts, of new york, has one of these interesting bits of work; they are now hardly ever offered for sale. [illustration: fig. 57.--_brown graybeard or bellarmine._] the _graybeards_, or _longbeards_, or _bellarmines_, were made largely in the low countries for their own uses, and were exported to england. we give an illustration (fig. 57) of one in mr. prime's collection. there is also an excellent one, i believe, in possession of dr. breck, of springfield, massachusetts. these were intended for use, and usually carried from one quart to three gallons. they were always in brown--at least i have seen none in the gray; but their decoration was sometimes touched with the violet-color. they are a very handsome and decorative bottle. the name of "bellarmine" was given them because, in the sixteenth century, when these bottles were made and used, the cardinal bellarmin was sent into the low countries to counteract the movements of the pernicious reformers then so zealously at work there. he was cordially hated by the protestants, and received from them his due share of contumely. having a short stature and a large stomach, like the longbeard bottles, and, as they said, holding like them much vinous or other liquor, they soon called the bottle a bellarmine, which name it bears to this day--so that, indeed, it may be said, the bottle has immortalized the man. these bottles were largely in use on the continent and in england all through shakespeare's time, and one was dug up on the site of the "boar's head at eastcheap." the "pottle-pot," as the bottle was then called, held about two quarts. in one of the old english plays, clodpate says: "uds-buds, my head begins to turn round; but let's into the house. 'tis dark, we'll have one bellarmine more, and then bonus nocius." sometimes these graybeards were handsomely mounted, and came to be ranked high among the household gods. an inventory of the duke of burgundy, made in 1467, speaks of one of them as being decorated with silver and gold: "ung hault _goblet de terre_ ouvré et chiqueté à ung visaige d'un heremite, garny au dessus et au dessoubs d'argent doré, et le couvercle aussi d'argent doré." upon the rhine these stone pots are still made for common uses, and largely; the same sort of clay is also extensively converted into seltzer-water bottles. near coblentz are several potteries devoted to this sort of work. at these places, since the great desire for interesting pottery has sprung up, some very fair copies of the old _grès_ have been made. at first they were made with considerable care, and then had _some_ value, showing us, as they did, what this very quaint and very original pottery was; and they were of value, as we could not have the originals. but now there is no restraint, and they are turned out by the ship-load in a slovenly style, and are to be seen in every shop-window. fortunately, they do not pretend to be the _real_ thing; and, fortunately, they will have but a short existence, as they do not grow out of any true want or true use. doulton stone-ware.--on the other hand has sprung up at lambeth, england, in the potteries of the doultons, stone-ware which is true, original, artistic, and delightful. this is the same paste as the [illustration: fig. 58.--_doulton ware._] _grès_; but, instead of imitating that, a scale and a variety of colors have been developed which the old _grès_ could not at all touch. by means of thousands of experiments and much scientific knowledge, colors have been found which will bear the heat, and some of the results attained there of color alone are gratifying. no pains or cost have been spared by the messrs. doulton to bring about the best work. artists have been employed--indeed, have been created--to invent and to bring forth works novel in design and color; and they have done it. we cannot but welcome their work with open hands and open hearts; and we have reason to believe that the public has welcomed it with open purses. a very fine exhibition of this work was made at the united states centennial festival at philadelphia, which attracted much and deserved praise. among the artists early engaged were some ladies named barlow, i think, who did excellent work. one of them etched in the wet clay groups of animals which were spirited and fascinating; the other, i believe, did flowers and plants. these ladies went to _work_, and thus solved the "woman question," so far as it concerned themselves. their work was much valued by collectors as far back as five or six years. besides this style, many decorated vases, bottles, jugs, cups, etc., etc., have been made, of which examples will be seen in our illustration (fig. 58). not only have great variety and beauty of form been reached, but the methods of decoration are equally varied. one of the most elaborate is in the use of beads in lines or singly, so as to produce a jeweled effect, often very brilliant and very finished; this is in danger of being carried to excess. so many pieces of their work have been brought to the united states, that those interested can see them for themselves, and will need no further description. early german glazed pottery.--before leaving this subject a few words may be said upon the early german work in pottery. we know but little of the history of the german or teutonic tribes before the time of cæsar; but it was found then that here existed strong, handsome, vigorous races, who had reached an unexpected degree of civilization. they had brilliant arms and armor; they respected woman, and honored old age. in the museums are found examples of the early german unglazed pottery, so much like that found in egypt, in gaul, in peru, and in most other parts of the globe, examples of which are shown in our first chapter upon unglazed pottery. just when they began to use the glaze for the finishing and protection of pottery, we do not know. but it is known that it was in use there some two hundred years before it had been applied in italy in the 1400's a. d. there are evidences sufficient to prove that the use of enamel, in which tin was an element, was known in germany as early as the thirteenth century. the most famous piece of this early glazed pottery is to be seen in the church of the cross, at breslau, prussian silesia. it is a great monument of pottery, built in honor of the founder of the church, henry iv. of silesia. he lies at length, the size of life, wearing his armor and his crown, and with a sword in the right hand, a shield in the left. around the sarcophagus upon which he lies are twenty-one figures in bass-relief, the whole executed in the style of the earliest german-gothic. upon the monument is an inscription, saying that henry iv. died on the night of st. john, in 1290, etc., etc. this does not prove that the monument was executed then; but there are other proofs that it was made about that time, in the dress, etc., etc. the name most conspicuous among the early potters of germany is hirschvogel, who worked at nuremberg, and who, indeed, founded potteries there which continued through the century. he was born in 1441, and died in 1525. he appears to have been a painter upon glass, but from that went to the production of glazed pottery. large plaques in bass-relief exist of this work, and also artistic earthen-ware stoves, some of which are elaborately and beautifully modeled. examples of these, as well as pots, cruches, etc., etc., are to be seen in the museum at nuremberg. the work of the german potters appears to have been finished with the glaze earlier than that of any others of europe, except that of the moors, in spain. chapter v. glazed pottery.--moorish, persian, rhodian, etc., etc. the arabs in spain.--cordova, granada, seville.--enamel and lustres.--hispano-moresque.--the alhambra.--tiles.--vase of the alhambra.--malaga.--majorca and maiolica.--rhodian pottery.--damascus pottery.--persian and arabic pottery.--persian porcelain.--persian and arabic tiles. before giving some particulars of the interesting examples of pottery which have come to us from the arabs and the moors of spain, it may be well to devote a few moments to the people themselves. i have thought it well to group under one head a number of their productions, because they are peculiar, and because they seem to have sprung from one centre, or to have grown up under a corresponding sense of the beautiful, so different from that of other peoples. beginning with the pottery of the spanish moors, now called _hispano-moresque_, and which is the latest, we run backward to the _rhodian_, the _arabic_, the _damascene_, and the _persian_. from what examples i have been able to see of these, they certainly show a strong family likeness in their colors, their designs, and their clays. it is hardly to be supposed that this grew out of their religion, or that the fervid soul of mohammed fired the souls of his followers with that striking and low-toned and intense and subtile harmony of blues, greens, and browns, which is so often seen on their tiles and dishes. it is more likely that, beginning somewhere, the arabian potters carried with them wherever they went their colors and their secrets; and that what was desired in persia, or damascus, or cairo, must be desired wherever the "followers of the faithful" were found; and thus they went to work to produce these various fictile wares which are now so much sought for. one of the most curious, most interesting, and most picturesque episodes in modern history is that of the moors in spain. from the year 712 to the time of the discovery of america, in 1492, these moslems held possession of the finest parts of spain, including the cities of cordova, granada, and seville. of these, cordova and seville are older than the romans. in the first century they were fought over by cæsar and pompey, but were not destroyed. the shores of spain were visited by the ships of tyre, and afterward by the greeks; but these came as traders, rather than as conquerors. the old inhabitants, the iberians, were brave and determined; but they could not organize, could not resist the invading arms of rome, which swept over the world under the leadership of some one able and daring leader. then came in the vandals and the goths. they swarmed down upon italy, and into spain, where they became strong and great. as we read history, we see almost nothing but one long, fierce, destructive fight, and we wonder that there could have been any art, any learning, any kindness, in the world; for every man's hand was against every man, and the chief vocation of great men was to rob and enslave other men. so it has been, so it is now; the forms change, the fact remains. we have our feudal barons to-day. but how came the moors--the arabs, rather--in spain? briefly this may be answered: the amazing, almost miraculous power with which _mohammed the promised_ had inspired the arabian race led them forth to conquer and convert. they went east and they went west, until they stretched along the shores of the mediterranean sea and reached the pillars of hercules. could the narrow strait stop their way? they passed over it like dry land, and spread their victorious bands over the southern part of the peninsula, and possessed themselves of the lovely lands of andalusia, estremadura, castile, and even penetrated to the cold and savage mountains of navarre. what were these moors? were they savage beasts, cruel robbers? they appear to have brought into spain not only art, but the arts, sciences, learning, literature. under the strong and able rule of abderrahman iii. (912 to 961), agriculture, science, trade, and decent living, throve as they never yet had done in spain. during the five or six centuries in which the moors held the land, it is easy to believe that spain enjoyed a greater measure of worldly prosperity than before or since. in this time cordova, the seat of the caliphate, grew to have a population of a million souls; it had three hundred mosques and nine hundred baths. its greatest mosque, begun in 786, shone with four thousand silver lamps, and its dome was raised aloft on twelve hundred slender pillars. the city of granada was built, and upon the sides of its mountain sprang into being the fairy fortress and palace of the _alhambra_. its halls, its courts, its galleries, its arabesques, its fretwork, its fountains, even in their ruin, tell us of the power of this singular people. in seville, too, the _alcazar_ and the _giralda_ even now bear beautiful witness to their art, their skill, their industry. there seems little question now that the moorish potters brought with them into spain the arts which the persian or arabian potters knew, not only for the preparing the clays, but that they also had the secret for making the _stanniferous enamel_, or glaze, into which the use of tin enters. they also applied to the decoration of their wares certain _lustres_, which demmin says were produced by the fumes of bismuth, of antimony, or of arsenic. it is not probable that gold was a component part of these lustres. just when the moors went to work to make their tiles and their lustred dishes, we do not know. but as ornamental tiles--_azulejos_--were used to decorate their walls, we conclude that the production began almost at once. these tiles were not only used in bands or strips on the walls; they were also used as pavements, and the floors of the alhambra were glittering with them, some few of which still remain there. mr. ford's description of them, thus quoted by marryat, says: "moorish very fine, and most ancient; surface plain, painted and enameled blue; the elaborate designs in gold lustre. the inscription on the shield is the well-known motto of the mussulman founders of the palace of granada: 'there is no conqueror but god.' the date of its manufacture may be placed about 1300." [illustration: fig. 59.--_from the alhambra._] our engraving of one of these tiles (fig. 59) gives a good representation of the design, but it cannot, of course, express the color. no one can fail to see how far away it is from the commonplace and the ordinary geometric patterns into which the dull man invariably falls; no one can fail to be struck with the simple intricacy which interests, we cannot tell why. another remarkable piece of their work is _the vase of the alhambra_ (fig. 60), one of the most beautiful and most interesting vases anywhere known. this is sometimes called "la jarra," and is figured in owen jones's "alhambra," where will be found much more that is worthy of attention. this is supposed to have been made about 1320. i take the description from marryat's work: "it is of earthen-ware; the ground white, the ornaments either blue of two shades, or of that gold or copper lustre so often found in spanish and italian pottery. this beautiful specimen of moorish workmanship, which is four feet three inches in height, was discovered, with another similar to it, beneath the pavement of the alhambra, and is said to have been filled with gold. it was copied in 1842, at the manufactory of sèvres, from drawings made in spain by dauzats." it has since been copied by deck, of paris. [illustration: fig. 60.--_the vase of the alhambra._] _malaga_ was probably the place where the best of the moorish work was made, and there the manufacture continued for centuries. at valencia faiences were afterward largely produced, as they are still. the examples of moorish dishes remaining are marked by a peculiar _lustre_, which i have mentioned, which is either a lighter or a darker yellow, and sometimes of a deep coppery color. [illustration: fig. 61.--_hispano-moresque plate._] a very fine example of this golden lustred ware is in the collection of mr. wales, at boston, through whose kindness i am enabled to present the accompanying illustration (fig. 61). it is now, i think, hung in the loan collection of the museum of arts at boston, with many other of his valuable and interesting pieces. that any pieces of this work should yet be in existence may excite our surprise. the struggle between the christians and the moslems for the possession of the government and the religion of spain went on through the centuries. yet through all these troubled centuries these moors found time to build great cities, and to create those beautiful examples of their peculiar architecture which are so satisfactory even in ruin. they also did more to encourage learning and the arts than any other nation of europe; so that their schools and their scholars became renowned the world over, and were flocked to by christian students. in due time internal dissensions weakened them; then they went to ruin, and at last were driven out of spain by the combined christians. then it was that the bitterness of war was intensified with the hatreds of religion; and then it was that a war of destruction was waged, not only against the persons of the "vile moslems," but against all their works; so that nothing should remain to tell the story of their hated supremacy and their hated religion. then it was that the moorish potters of malaga and valencia were slaughtered or expelled, and then, too, their handiwork went with them into wholesale destruction. in this wreck and ruin, it is singular that the mosques, those finest monuments of the arts and the industry of the moors, were spared. these remain, and a few examples of their pottery, of which we have striven to give some idea, though faint. one thing seems to be admitted on all hands, viz.: that to the moors of spain europe owes either the invention or the introduction of siliceous or glass-glazed wares, and that from that date begins all improvements in fictile work; that directly from it came the potteries of the balearic islands, and that from majorca came not only the names into italy, but in all probability the potters or their secrets, which resulted in the production, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, of the wares now so famous under the name of _majolica_, or, as it is now spelled, maiolica, of which we shall have something to say further on. rhodian pottery.--pursuing this subject eastward, we find traces of a lustred pottery on the island of _sicily_, believed to be the work of arabic potters. still farther eastward, upon the island of rhodes, have been found many plates and dishes, now classed as _rhodian_, sometimes as _persian_, and sometimes as _damascus_ ware. the styles of this work, their colors and their designs, seem to group them together, and it is difficult to separate them in any consistent way. the first i saw of these were hung on the walls of the house of mr. frederick leighton, the distinguished artist of london. while following his art on the island of rhodes, he had heard that some pottery of this sort was now and then to be found on the island; the pieces he saw were very bold and striking, and tradition there said that they were the work of persian potters, who, as prisoners, had centuries before been placed on the island. finding clay to their hands, they went to work at their trade, and, with little doubt, practised it diligently through a long time, and handed it down to their children. whatever was the truth of the tradition, a search among the poor people of the island unearthed many pieces of the ware, which mr. leighton brought with him to london. this was repeated on a second visit, until now this private collection is probably one of the best in england. upon his second return, mr. leighton told me he found in london, for sale, plates and dishes of the same character and coloring which were said to have been brought around from persia; so that, whatever may have been the origin of this ware, whether rhodes, persia, or damascus, the product was almost the same. mr. fortnum, in his "hand-book upon maiolica," says: "the paste varies in quality more than in kind, being of a gray-white color and sandy consistence, analogous to that of the persian wares. the decoration is more generally rich in color, the ground white, blue, turquoise, tobacco-color, and lilac, sometimes covered with scale-work, with panels of oriental form or leafage, large sprays of flowers, particularly roses, tulips, hyacinths, carnations, etc., the colors used being a rich blue, turquoise, green, purple, yellow, red, black. the forms are elegant: large bowls on raised feet; flasks or bottles bulb-shaped with elongated necks; pear-shaped jugs with cylindrical necks and loop-handle; circular dishes or plates with deep centres, etc. an interesting example of the highest quality of this ware is in the writer's possession, and is described and figured in color in vol. xlii. of the 'archæologia.' it is a hanging-lamp made for and obtained from the mosque of omar at jerusalem, signed and dated june, 1549. "two leading varieties are known in collections: namely, _damascus proper_; known by its evenness of surface and rich glaze with subdued but harmonious coloring, certain tones of which are peculiar to this variety; for example, a dull lilac or purple, replacing the embossed red so conspicuous on the rhodian, and used against blue, which is of two or three shades, the turquoise being frequently placed against the darker tone; a sage green is also characteristic. the dishes of this variety usually have the outer edge shaped in alternating ogee. "this kind is much more uncommon than the other, rhodian or lindus, to which the greater number of pieces known in collections as 'persian ware' belong. it is to mr. salzmann that we owe the discovery of the remains of ancient furnaces at lindus, in the island of rhodes, from the old palaces of which he collected numerous examples. this variety, although extremely beautiful, is generally coarser than the former, and the decoration more marked and brilliant. a bright-red pigment, so thickly laid on as to stand out in relief upon the surface of the piece, is very characteristic and in many cases is a color of great beauty; the predominant decoration of the plates consists of two or three sprays of roses, pinks, hyacinths, and tulips, and leaves, sometimes tied together at the stem and spreading over the entire surface of the piece in graceful lines; the border frequently of black and blue scroll-work. ships, birds, and animals, are also depicted; and a shield-of-arms occurs on some pieces." a few of these striking rhodian plates are to be seen in america; and i here engrave one (fig. 62) from mr. w. c. prime's collection, which is an excellent example. it shows a group of flowers starting from a point, the central stalk being that of a purple hyacinth. this method of grouping was a favorite one with these painters. these plates vary in price in europe from fifteen to seventy-five dollars each. of the damascus pottery little can be said, because little is known. from time to time plates and dishes are purchased there and brought to us, which possess the general character already described as rhodian, but are thought to have a delicacy and fineness not found in that pottery. a very handsome example is in mr. wales's collection, which bears a little gilding, and which, perhaps, may be classed as of damascus. [illustration: fig. 62.--_persian and rhodian pottery._] of persian and arabic pottery it is impossible, in the vagueness existing with respect to it, to do more than make a few suggestions. we cannot do better than to read what mr. fortnum has gathered with regard to this ware: "we do not derive any information from m. de rochchouart on the subject of the lustred wares, except in his description of the tiles of the mosque of natinz of the twelfth century; nor do we learn anything of that variety of creamy white pottery having the sides pierced through the paste, but filled with the translucent glaze, and which is believed to be the gombr[=o]n ware of horace walpole's day. but he gives interesting information on the subject of the tiles used for decoration, of which the finest are those mentioned above; those of ispahan and of the period of shah abbas being also admirable for their exquisite design. "the persian glazed pottery known to us may be divided into: "_a._ wares, generally highly baked, and sometimes semi-translucent. paste, fine and rather thin, decorated with ruby, brown, and coppery lustre, on dark-blue and creamy-white ground. "_b._ wares, of fine paste, highly baked, semi-translucent, of creamy color and rich, clear glaze, running into tears beneath the piece of a pale sea-green tint. its characteristic decoration consisting of holes pierced through the paste, and filled in with the transparent glaze: the raised centres, etc., are bordered with a chocolate brown or blue leafage, slightly used. this is supposed to be the gombr[=o]n ware. "_c._ wares, frequently of fine paste, and highly baked to semi-transparency: the ground white; decoration of plants and animals, sometimes after the chinese, in bright cobalt blue, the outlines frequently drawn in manganese; some pieces with reliefs and imitation chinese marks also occur; this variety is perhaps more recent than the others." this description may apply rather to a sort of semi or imperfect _porcelain_ of persian manufacture, as to the reality of which there has been and is much doubt, rather than to the peculiar class of faience of which we have been writing. as to the _porcelain_ or hard faience of persia, here and there are to be met with singular examples, which, because of a peculiar style of painting, combined with a certain coarseness or imperfectness of paste, have usually been relegated to the less dexterous potters of persia. that pottery has been made in persia, far back in the dimness of the dark ages, there seems to be no doubt; just what it was remains a doubt; because even then a sort of commerce, probably by sea and land, existed with china, and thence came porcelains of various qualities and many designs. we are apt to believe that, until our day, there were few "cakes and ale"--little art, or only coarse fabrics. whereas fine and admirable work of many sorts, and especially in porcelain and pottery, had reached perfection before our european or western civilization began. out of china came porcelain to persia; out of persia and phoenicia came pottery to us. of the persian porcelain, or hard pottery, a single example is to be seen in mr. avery's collection, now in the museum of art at new york. it was bought at the vienna exhibition from prince _ehtezad-es-saltenet_, uncle to the shah of persia, and we may suppose it, therefore, to have about it the true flavor of genuineness. it is a bowl of rather coarse ware, approaching to the hardness, if not the translucency, of porcelain; it is painted with blue of a common color, and with a not very interesting design; and is valuable as an example of the probable work of persian potters. but there exist many pieces of pottery besides these, which have usually been called persian because of their peculiarities of design and of coloring. some of these approach closely to the work already designated as rhodian or damascene. in the upper plate of fig. 62, from mr. prime's collection, is shown one of these, which the owner is inclined to believe may be persian and not rhodian. so also the painted faience egg (fig. 62), obtained by him from a lamp in a mosque of the holy land. the face and the coloring do certainly impress one with a persian faith, though it may not be easy to explain the reason why. in my possession is a sweetmeat-pot covered with an "engobe" or "slip," upon which are boldly painted in colors flowers and leaves; these last are peculiar in shape, and are by some believed to be persian work--i doubt it, but it is possible. we have a few words to say of the persian or arabic tiles. these have been found inlaid upon the walls of mosques and palaces and tombs in damascus, in cairo, in ispahan. as far back as the palmy days of babylon and assyria, these enameled or glazed bricks or tiles were used to decorate the walls of their buildings; and that is about all we know. these bricks remain; for, of all the works of man, the brick is seemingly imperishable. it is also certain that upon some of these bricks or tiles is found a glaze or enamel made with the use of tin; so that what is now called _stanniferous_ enamel was known at that early day, and long before it was used in italy by _luca della robbia_, who at one time was supposed to have invented it. the example here given (fig. 63) is a very beautiful plaque, made up of many pieces, and is remarkable for the splendor of its color, rather than for any perfectness of design. it is interesting, however, as showing the dresses of the cavaliers of the persian court. [illustration: fig. 63.--_persian plaque._] in the walls of damascus, of jerusalem, and of cairo, these tiles were imbedded for ornamental and decorative purposes, and from them they have been gathered by those good people called "collectors." in fig. 62 is an engraving of one in mr. prime's collection, which gives simply the lines, but wholly fails to give the magic and mystery of color which endues it with beauty. this cannot be described, nor can it be pictured; the combinations of blues are too subtile for the palette of the painter; they have been sublimated in the fiery heats of the furnace. a few of these tiles are in possession of mr. prime and of mr. wales; and a very fine collection is now in the house of mr. leighton, of london, of which i have spoken. he has had them imbedded in the walls of his halls, which they tinge with their peculiar and pensive light. chapter vi. glazed pottery.--italian maiolicas. the word maiolica, or majolica.--italian renaissance.--the dark ages.--the crusades.--the mezza-maiolica.--the true maiolica.--luca della robbia.--urbino.--xanto and fontana.--raffaelesque ware.--mr. fortnum.--prices to-day.--gubbio.--maestro giorgio.--the lustres.--castel-durante.--faenza.--the sgraffito.--forli, venice, castelli, etc.--castellani.--maiolicas at the centennial. the term maiolica, or _majolica_, as has been often explained, came from the island of majorca, whence came to italy, in the twelfth century, some of those peculiar potteries already described under the name of _hispano-moresque_. the balearic islands, lying in such convenient proximity to the mainland, were then possessed by the active and enterprising moors--that most daring and doing race, who had planted the standard of the prophet in southern europe. from these convenient islands they could organize pleasant surprises upon the coasts of italy, and gratify themselves with much plunder. while human nature can bear and does bear much marauding, there comes a time when endurance ceases to be a virtue, and then--war ensues. such a time had come in the twelfth century, when the pisans, and their friends along the italian coasts, determined to plunder, rather than be plundered; and then they pounced upon the hated moors of the islands, and turned the tables upon them. it is believed that, among the spoils carried away to italy, were many pieces of the peculiar wares made by the moors in these islands as well as in spain. that these examples, and some of the potters themselves, were carried away to the italian coast, is most likely; and that the italians, always a people with quick sensibilities, and a ready perception of the beautiful, if not of the good or the true, at once saw that here was a manufacture ready to their hands, which combined use and beauty, as their own did not. at any rate, it was during the most vivid period of the _italian renaissance_ (1350 to 1600) that the production of the highly-decorated fictile work, known as maiolica, sprang up, culminated, and went to decay. through the centuries called the dark ages, art and literature had not died; their fires were kept bright in the monkish cell, where some alcuin, in england or in france, traced with painful pen the lives of the saints, or the romaunts of the lady; and touched their illuminated margins with those exquisite colors which feed the eye with a pleasant surprise now, when centuries have passed, and books lie about our feet as thick as leaves in vallambrosa's vales. during this dark time art and literature flourished among the saracens along the african coast, and grew into splendor in the halls of cordova and seville. but a day was at hand when peter the hermit made his pilgrimage to the "holy city" (1093), and came back to preach his fiery crusades against the abominations with which the moslems defiled the sepulchre of the lord. then through some two centuries europe was converted into religious camps, from which streamed out toward jerusalem the armies of the cross--the crusaders--and that oriental world was thus mingled in a great warlike confusion with the occidental world of europe. how does all this touch upon the small matter of italian maiolicas, of which i treat? thus: these religious wars made venice, leghorn, and genoa, into great centres of commercial activity, and into them flowed wealth, as well as every kind of merchandise and manufacture known in the east. the people of these small kingdoms grew rich, and vastly so. the dandolos, the dorias, the medicis, founded princely families, and became patrons of learning and art. then, too, the church grew great, all-powerful, and rich; for the fervor of piety, which fired all hearts, sought expression not only in shedding its blood to rescue the holy places, it poured in of its earnings or plunderings rivers of wealth to enrich the coffers of the church. the popes, the cardinals, the bishops, grew great, not so much in religious truth, but more in lands, in castles, in gold, and in goods. thus every prelate and every patriarch became a prince, with gold to give, and favors to bestow. then they became, all through italy, patrons of art and fosterers of learning. we see in this the spring out of which flowed the "renaissance" of literature and the arts, and which resulted in the architecture, the painting, the poetry, the maiolicas, and the luxury, of that new italian life. the term _maiolica_, in its generic sense, means what _delft_ does in holland, _faience_ in france, and _earthen-ware_ in england. all are soft pottery, covered with an opaque glaze called enamel. the term was once applied only to the lustred wares of spain and italy; but now it has come to mean such dishes--ewers, vases, etc., etc.--as were made in italy during the period of the renaissance, which have an expression of art, and can be termed decorative; perhaps it goes still further, for the druggists' pots (fig. 64), then much in use, and which may perhaps be classed wholly with the useful, are not excluded; for upon some of these much decoration was put. the word also carries a subdivision called _mezza-maiolica_. [illustration: fig. 64.--_druggist's pot._] mezza-maiolica.--we cannot attempt to give a history of all the potteries which sprang into being in italy during this time; it would be both difficult and useless. of course, we know that many existed, and must have existed even from the days of the roman dominion. but, under the influences mentioned, they took on a new life. not only had striking examples come to the italians from the moors of majorca, but beyond question many others had reached them from time to time from the east. common and unglazed potteries gave place to the better sorts; and a vast stride was taken when the vessel came to be protected by a glaze made with the use first of lead (_plumbiferous_), and then of tin (_stanniferous_). the italian writers assert that the use of lead--the _plumbiferous glaze_--was applied in urbino as early as 1300. why need we doubt it? at pesaro it reached its perfection about 1540. the common earthen or red ware of the country was dipped into a _slip_ or "_engobe_" of white clay; then it was dried or baked; then painted, and afterward covered with a thin skin of lead-glaze, which was fixed with the fire. the colors used in decorating these pieces were few, being mostly yellows, greens, blues, and black. this lead-glaze was soft, but it had a sort of metallic, iridescent lustre, which is one of its peculiarities and beauties. it is almost useless to attempt with the engraving to express fully the characteristics of this ware; the colors we cannot give. one piece (fig. 65) will serve to show the kind of design often used, which bears unquestioned testimony to its moorish parentage. this finer work seems to have been made about 1500 to 1550, and at pesaro. the true maiolica is that which is covered with a glaze made with the oxide of tin and siliceous sand. this _stanniferous glaze_ or enamel takes the place of the "slip" or "engobe," and covers the potter's clay with a clear white enamel, upon which the colors can be laid. the avidity with which the new art was seized upon in italy by dukes and priests, by workmen and artists, we can hardly comprehend. it would seem that the whole italian world then rushed into every form of art and literature with an eagerness only to be explained by a desire to make good the lost ages--often called the "dark ages." furnaces and potters sprang out of the ground, and almost every good town sooner or later had its "botega." of these we may mention as among the most noted: urbino, gubbio, pesaro, castel-durante, faenza, forli, caffagiolo, siena, deruta, venice, castelli, besides many others. [illustration: fig. 65.--_mezza-maiolica._] before giving some particulars of these manufactures, it may be well to refer to a name which seems to take precedence of others among the artists in ceramic work in italy. this man was luca della robbia, born in the year 1400. m. ritter says of him: "he was a sculptor first, and a potter afterward. an artist of the highest power, he was inspired with all the marvelous æsthetic force and subtilty and fertility of his age and of his country. he was not satisfied, as other sculptors are, with form-beauty alone, but cast about to add to his moulded figures the further beauties of coloring and surface-texture. he no doubt well knew the wares of the moors of spain, and probably was acquainted with the secret of the tin-glaze already used by the italian potters. it is needless to assume, as most writers do, that he discovered tin-glazes for himself; but he at any rate adopted the process, and he has left us bass-reliefs and even life-sized statues covered with a fine stanniferous polychrome-glaze, which are among the wonders of italian renaissance art, and which to this day are, in their way, unsurpassed triumphs of skill." the portrait (fig. 66) which we give shows him to be among the strong and able men, who might not only stand before kings, but might be a king himself. [illustration: fig. 66.--_portrait of luca della robbia._] there are but few pieces of his work in this country--so far as i know, only these: one a virgin and child, in possession of mr. prime, of new york; the other now in the loan collection of the art-museum at new york, the property of mrs. robert m. grinnell. it is thus described: "the child jesus lies on a mass of green grass. white lilies with yellow stamens spring up behind him. the virgin kneels; above her two winged cherub heads, and two arms stretched down hold a crown over her head. on the crown, yellow and blue spots." from the description, the reader will not be likely to rank this among works of the finest art. these works were produced to meet the religious wants of the time and people, and were in great demand. but to-day, for other than religious reasons, they sell for twenty times the prices they then did. in fig. 67 is to be seen a _retable_, now in the museum of the louvre, which is probably among the best examples of his style of work. these bass-reliefs were at first done with white figures on a blue ground; subsequently other colors were introduced, such as greens, browns, and yellows. his four sons and a nephew carried on the same styles of work, but failed to improve upon their master. from the two or three pieces of the work which i have seen, i could value them as examples in the history of ceramics; as _works of art_, for myself not at all. italian writers naturally wish to claim for luca della robbia all possible merit, and particularly that he discovered and first applied in europe (outside of spain) the enamel made from tin; thus raising him to a high rank as a discoverer and originator, as well as an artist. much discussion and speculation has been indulged in, which is, however, of but little interest to us, and probably less to della robbia himself. what he did do, and for which he deserved praise, was, that he seems to have worked at the new business he had taken up with honesty and persistency; that he was patient and painstaking. these are always good. he was merchant enough to make what then would sell; that is, works for the ornamentation of churches and altars, one of which we have illustrated. he was successful, and that was a satisfaction to him as it is to us. he made, besides altar-pieces, rondels and squares to be set into walls, upon which were masks, scrolls, fruit, flowers, buds, etc., etc.; and these were sometimes white, and sometimes enameled with various colors. his nephew andrea followed his lead, but did not improve upon his master; and _his_ four sons, giovanni, luca, ambrosio, and girolamo, continued to make the same description of reliefs, but greatly inferior to those of the first della robbia. [illustration: fig. 67.--_altar-piece, by luca della robbia, in the museum of the louvre._] urbino.--the dukes of urbino were foremost in encouraging and developing the maiolica work of italy; and around them, as a sort of centre, the ceramic art seems to have gathered. i give from mr. fortnum's book a brief account, which may interest many. having had whatever good could be derived from the great and valuable collections of the kensington museum, and being a man of keen perceptions and sound judgment, whatever he writes deserves respect. he says: "in 1443 what had been but an unimportant mountain fief was erected into a duchy, and the house of montefeltro ruled a fair territory in the person of the infamous oddantonio, the first duke of urbino. on his violent death in 1444, federigo, his illegitimate brother, succeeded to the dukedom. of enlightened mind, as well as of martial capacity, he developed the native capabilities of the country, and gathered about him at the court of urbino the science and learning of the period. he built a noble castellated palace at urbino, for the embellishment of which he invited the leading artists of the day. a patron of all art, and a great collector, he encouraged the manufacture of the maiolica wares which flourished under his reign. on his death, in 1482, his son guidobaldo i. continued his father's patronage to the ceramic artists of the duchy, although much occupied in the italian wars consequent on the french invasion by charles viii. passeri states that fine maiolica (by which he means that covered with the tin-enamel) was introduced into pesaro in 1500; and there is some reason to believe that the new process came from tuscany. it differed materially in composition and manufacture from the 'mezza-maiolica' wares, to which it was very superior, and was known as 'porcellana,' a name applied at that period in italy to the choicer description of enameled earthen-ware. passeri also states that in the inventory of the ducal palaces a large quantity of painted 'maiolica' vases were included under this name. the superior whiteness of the enamel, more nearly approaching to that of oriental porcelain, was probably the reason for its adoption; but we must not confound the term as used in this sense with its technical meaning in reference to a decorative design known as 'a porcellana.'" these famous manufactories of maiolica at urbino, gubbio, pesaro, and castel-durante, sprang into life about the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth centuries. that of urbino perhaps took the lead, being so directly under the patronage of the dukes. the two most distinguished artists here were _francisco xanto avelli da rovigo_ and _orazio fontana_; they are commonly spoken of as "_xanto_" and "_fontana_." besides these were battista franco and raffaelle del calle, among the best painters upon maiolica. during the time of these artists many elaborate pictures were painted by them upon the vases and plates of urbino. following the mezza-maiolica, the work at first showed much of the oriental character of design, and the lustred surfaces were continued. but soon ambition seized them, and they transferred to the surface of the clay elaborate scriptural, historical, and allegorical subjects. original designs were made to some extent; but to a larger extent the great pictures of the great masters were seized upon--such as raffaelle's "triumph of galatea," and other works of the same sort. the engravings of marc antonio and of albert dürer, then just at hand, gave easy aid; and with such helps, with a rich and art-loving public to encourage them, we can see how the production should flourish. the vase (fig. 68) is a good example of one of their best works. these fine pieces were used as presents by grandees to grandees, and by princes to princes. pieces and sets were painted expressly as gifts for lovers, for espoused persons, for safe deliveries; as marks of favor, and as persuasives for favors to come. then grew up a large production of plates painted expressly for lovers, upon which the portrait of the lady was painted; in many cases, i am sure, with unnecessary ugliness, but with a sufficiently lovely motto to atone in some degree for the injury, no doubt unwittingly done--such as "diva" or "paragon di tutti." these are known as _amatorii_, and are much prized. in fig. 69 we give one of these amatorii, and one of the most pleasing; some are of supreme ugliness. this one is dedicated to _vanna bella_--the beautiful vanna; and in its time was more beautiful than now, for it was the inspiration of love. among the fancies indulged in upon the amatorii plates and jugs are mentioned such as these: on one, we have two hands clasped over a fire; and above, a golden heart pierced by two darts. on another, a heart transfixed with a sword and an arrow over a burning flame, bedewed with tears falling from two eyes placed above. [illustration: fig. 68.--_maiolica vase, david and bath-sheba._] on a saucer is a youth kissing a lady, and giving her a flower--_dulce est amare_. on another is a greyhound with a heart in its mouth--_per mento di mia fè in te_, etc. all of these are sufficiently youthful and sentimental to meet the wants of the valentine-makers of to-day. but the subjects of paintings were not all either divine or historical or amatory. many subjects painted from the old mythology had a too palpable quality which we more fastidious people might call coarse, if not roughly vulgar; and such subjects do not heighten the pleasure we expect to find in examining these works. the "_raffaelle ware_," as it is sometimes called in england, had a quality of design which is peculiar, and therefore an example of it may be of service here (fig. 70). the combination of scrolls, masks, cupids, flowers, buds, etc., which marks this style of work, is found more or less to pervade much of the ornamentation of what is known as italian renaissance. [illustration: fig. 69.--_example of amatorii._] it has sometimes been said that raffaelle himself painted upon the maiolica, but it is not proved; and the finest pieces were not made until after his death. it is true that many of his pictures were copied or adapted by the maiolica-painters for their own uses; and it is also asserted that some of his pupils painted upon the clay. marryat states that the engraver _marc antonio_--good prints of whose works now sell to collectors for enormous prices, beautiful specimens of which have been shown in the famous collection of mr. rose, of london--was in the height of his powers when the brilliant young painter raffaelle was in the full command of his; and that the engraver lived in the house of the painter, worked with him under his own eye, and was influenced by his inspirations. we cannot wonder, therefore, that the finest results were thus produced. but it is not to be believed that either of them worked upon the clay. copies of their pictures were painted upon the maiolica by other hands, and vastly inferior ones to theirs. [illustration: fig. 70.--_raffaelle ware._] what is known as raffaelle, or raffaellesque maiolica, are not those pieces which carry copies of raffaelle's pictures, but those, like the example seen in fig. 70, which are ornamented with arabesques, chimeras, scrolls, etc. of the painting of xanto, a competent critic, mr. j. c. robinson, thus writes: "xanto's works may be considered to represent perfectly the 'majoliche istoriate,' and he certainly had a talent for the arrangement of his works in composition, nearly all his subjects being 'pasticci;' the various figures or groups introduced being the invention of other artists copied with adroit variations over and over again, and made to do duty in the most widely different characters. as an original artist--if, indeed, he can be so considered--he may be classed with the more mannered of the scholars of raffaelle. his designs are generally from classical or mythological subjects. xanto's execution, although dexterous, is monotonous and mechanical; his scale of coloring is crude and positive, full of violent oppositions, the only merit, if merit it be, being that of a certain force and brightness of aspect; in every other respect his coloring is commonplace, not to say disagreeable even; blue, crude opaque yellow, and orange tints, and bright verdigris green, are the dominant hues, and are scattered over the pieces in full, unbroken masses, the yellow especially meeting the eye at the first glance. in the unsigned pieces, before 1531, the glaze is better and more transparent, the execution more delicate, and the outline more hard and black, than in the later specimens. some of xanto's wares are profusely enriched with metallic lustres, including the beautiful ruby tint; these specimens, however, form but a small, percentage of the entire number of his works extant. this class of piece is, moreover, interesting from the fact that the iridescent colors were obviously not of xanto's own production, but that, on the contrary, they were applied to his wares by mo. giorgio, and the supposed continuers of giorgio's 'fabrique' in gubbio. many pieces are extant which, in addition to xanto's own signature, nearly always written in dark-blue or olive tint, are likewise signed with the monogram 'n' of the giorgio school in the lustre-tint; and one specimen, at least, has been observed which, though painted by xanto, has been signed in the lustre-tint by maestro giorgio himself." at this time there came to urbino some artists who took the name of _fontana_, whose works have a great fame--when known; their name originally is believed to have been pellipario. these brothers appear to have founded a factory or "botega" of their own at urbino, where they did much work which reached a high reputation. but little of it, however, is surely known; for these painters, like most of the maiolica-painters, but rarely signed their pieces. "with regard to the fontana family, chiefs among italian ceramic artists, we quote from the notice by mr. robinson appended to the soulages catalogue. he tells us that 'the celebrity of one member of this family has been long established by common consent. orazio fontana has always occupied the highest place in the scanty list of maiolica artists, although at the same time nothing was definitely known of his works. unlike their contemporary xanto, the fontana seem but rarely to have signed their productions, and consequently their reputation as yet rests almost entirely on tradition, on incidental notices in writings which date back to the age in which they flourished, and on facts extracted at a recent period from local records. no connected account of this family has as yet been attempted, although the materials are somewhat less scanty than usual. there can be no doubt that a considerable proportion of the products of the fontana "boteghe" is still extant, and that future observations will throw light on much that is now obscure in the history of this notable race of industrial artists. orazio fontana, whose renown seems to have completely eclipsed that of the other members of his family, and, in fact, of all the other urbinese artists, is first mentioned by baldi, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, in his eulogy of the state of urbino pronounced before duke francesco maria ii.... from documents cited by raffaelli, it is established beyond doubt that the original family name was _pellipario_, of castel-durante, fontana being an adopted surname; and it is not immaterial to observe that down to the latest mention of any one of the family (in 1605) they are invariably described as of castel-durante.... the fontana were undoubtedly manufacturers as well as artists, i.e., they were the proprietors of "vaserie." of the first nicola, as we have only a brief incidental notice, nothing positive can be affirmed; but with respect to his son guido we have the testimony both of works still extant and of contemporary documents. we know, also, that guido's son orazio also had a manufactory of his own, and the fact is established that between 1565 and 1571 there were two distinct fontana manufactories--those of father and son. what became of orazio's establishment after his death, whether continued by his brother camillo or reunited to that of the father, there is no evidence to show. with respect to the remaining members of the family, our information is of the scantiest kind. camillo, who was inferior in reputation as a painter only to his elder brother, appears to have been invited to ferrara by duke alfonso ii., and to have introduced the maiolica-manufacture into that city. of nicola, the third (?) son, we have only incidental mention in a legal document, showing that he was alive in the year 1570. guido, son of camillo, lived till 1605; and of flaminio, who may either have been son of camillo or of nicola, dennistoun's vague notice asserting his settlement in florence is all i have been able to collect. no signed pieces of camillo, flaminio, nicola the second, or guido the second, have as yet been observed. "'a considerable proportion of the fontana maiolica is doubtless still extant; and it is desirable to endeavor to identify the works of the individual members of the family, without which the mere knowledge of their existence is of very little moment; but this is no easy task; although specimens from the hands of one or other of them are to be undoubtedly found in almost every collection, the work of comparison and collation has as yet been scarcely attempted. the similarity of style and technical characteristics of the several artists, moreover, working, as they did, with the same colors on the same quality of enamel-ground, and doubtless in intimate communication with each other, resolves itself into such a strong family resemblance that it will require the most minute and careful observation, unremittingly continued, ere the authorship of the several specimens can be determined with anything like certainty. the evidence of signed specimens is, of course, the most to be relied on, and is indeed indispensable in giving the clew to complete identification in the first instance; but in the case of the fontana family a difficulty presents itself which should be noticed in the outset. this difficulty arises in determining the authorship of the pieces signed "_fatto in botega_," etc.--a mode of signature, in fact, which proves very little in determining individual characteristics, inasmuch as apparently nearly all the works so inscribed are painted by other hands than that of the proprietor of the vaseria. in cases, however, in which the artist has actually signed or initialed pieces with his own name, of course no such difficulty exists, but the certainty acquired by this positive evidence is as yet confined in the case of the fontana family to their greatest name, orazio.'" with regard to the artistic quality of this work, i will quote the criticism of a competent judge, mr. fortnum, as upon the general question i have a few words to say further on; for it is unfortunately true that too many buy for the name, and not the merit. he says: "the celebrated vases made for the _spezieria_ of the duke were produced at the fontana fabrique, and subsequently presented to the santa casa at loreto, where many of them are still preserved. those shown to the writer on his visit to that celebrated shrine some few years since did not strike him as being of such extraordinary beauty and great artistic excellence as the high-flown eulogy bestowed upon them by some writers would have led him to expect. the majority of the pieces are drug-pots of a not unusual form, but all or nearly all of them are 'istoriati,' instead of being, as is generally the case, simply decorated with 'trofei,' 'foglie,' 'grotesche,' the more usual and less costly ornamentation. some of the pieces have serpent-handles, mask-spouts, etc., but he vainly looked for the magnificent vases of unsurpassed beauty; nor, indeed, did he see anything equal to the shaped pieces preserved in the bargello at florence. the work of the well-known hands of the fontana fabrique is clearly recognizable, and several pieces are probably by orazio. some, more important, preserved in a low press, were finer examples. we have said that the pieces individually are not so striking, but, taken as a whole, it is a very remarkable service, said to have originally numbered three hundred and eighty vases, all painted with subjects after the designs of battista franco, giulio romano, angelo, and raffaelle; and, as the work of one private artistic pottery in the comparatively remote capital of a small duchy, it bears no slight testimony to the extraordinary development of every branch of art-industry in the various districts of italy during the sixteenth century." at the period of which we write, italy had become the leading nation of europe in all that pertained to literature and the arts; her painters, sculptors, and poets, had thrown over her people and history a glory, or rather a glamour, which was but the iridescence which whispered of decay. within a century all had sunk into insignificance and palsy. to-day the world visits italy to see with curious eyes what she _has_ been, not what she is. the art and the maiolica which she now produces are but copies, and too often bad copies, of that past. the manufactories of _ginori_ at florence, and of _giustiniani_ at naples, make much good work; but, so far as i have seen, they blindly copy the shapes, the colors, and the decoration, of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and attempt nothing more. and the pity is that we, who buy to-day, seem to _want_ only those! in our pursuit of art it may be well to remember that no nation can be created by "art," and none can be saved by it. when it is enlisted only in copying the past, it means feebleness and decay. from about the year 1500 to 1560 is counted the "fine period" of maiolica-painting, when the painters of whom i have spoken were transferring the compositions of such artists as raffaelle, giulio romano, and parmegiano, to the clay. these have always had a great value, and always will. the prices vary as the fashion varies. i find at the bernal sale, in 1856, the prices quoted range from five to one hundred and twenty pounds, since which time they have enormously increased, so that marryat quotes one piece at eight hundred and eighty pounds; and a beautiful ruby-lustred dish of _gubbio_ maiolica, exhibited in sir richard wallace's collection at bethnal green, _was said_ to have cost forty thousand dollars, which one easily doubts. the most extreme prices were and are paid for the elaborate figure-pieces copied from the works of raphael and others. when to these are added the brilliant lustres of gubbio, we have all that maiolica can show. when the fabric began to decline in quality, the elaborate figure-painting rapidly went out of use, and arabesques of all kinds, conceits of all kinds--birds, boys, monsters, anything--came in to vary the decoration: these could be done by inferior painters; and the decline of maiolica was as sudden as its rise had been rapid. gubbio.--i have spoken of a beautiful plate, brilliant with its ruby-lustre, exhibited at bethnal green in the collection of sir richard wallace. the work done at this small town of gubbio is noted for its _lustres_; for, while other maiolicas also were decorated with these exquisite flashings of color, these had a marked superiority. the paintings applied there, like those at urbino, castel-durante, and the other "botegas," were in considerable variety, including sacred, profane, and historical subjects; the beauty and the value of these colored lustres were soon discovered. to one man the especial honor has been given of making them, whether he was the discoverer or not. he is known as _maestro giorgio andreoli_, usually called "maestro giorgio." he was not only a painter and designer, but he early saw and seized upon the magical art of imparting an added beauty by the use of what is termed _lustre_. it was applied before his day by the moors of spain and majorca, and also by the potters at pesaro. but giorgio seems to have produced results finer than any; and one, the ruby-color, seems to be identified with him. besides the ruby, he used, with great effect, gold, silver, and copper lustres; and not only were these applied to the paintings done under his eye, but works from other factories were sent to him to be endued with this subtile charm. i cannot do better than to give here the results of mr. fortnum's careful study of this subject: "chiefly under the direction of one man, it would seem that the produce of the gubbio furnaces was for the most part of a special nature; namely, a decoration of the pieces with the lustre-pigments, producing those brilliant metallic-ruby, golden, and opalescent tints which vary in every piece, and which assume almost every color of the rainbow as they reflect the light directed at varying angles upon their surface. that the gubbio ware was of a special nature, and produced only at a few fabriques almost exclusively devoted to that class of decoration, is to be reasonably inferred from piccolpasso's statement, who, speaking of the application of the maiolica-pigments, says, '_non ch'io ne abbia mai fatto ne men veduto fare._' he was the maestro of an important botega at castel-durante, one of the largest and most productive of the umbrian manufactories, within a few miles, also, of those of urbino, with which he must have been intimately acquainted and in frequent correspondence. that he, in the middle of the sixteenth century, when all these works were at the highest period of their development, should be able to state that he had not only never applied or even witnessed the process of application of these lustrous enrichments, is, we think, a convincing proof that they were never adopted at either of those seats of the manufacture of enameled pottery. although much modified and improved, lustre-colors were not invented by italian artists, but were derived from the potters of the east, probably from the moors of sicily, of spain, or of majorca. hence (we once more repeat) the name 'majolica' was originally applied only to wares having the lustre enrichment; but, since the decline of the manufacture, the term has been more generally given: all varieties of italian enameled pottery being usually, though wrongly, known as 'maiolica.' "that some of these early _bacili_, so well known, and apparently the work of one artist, were made at pesaro, whence the secret and probably the artist passed to gubbio, is far from improbable. the reason for this emigration is not known, but it may be surmised that the large quantity of broom and other brush-wood necessary for the reducing process of the reverberatory furnace in which this lustre was produced might have been more abundantly supplied by the hills of gubbio than in the vicinity of the larger city on the coast. that the process of producing these metallic effects was costly, we gather from piccolpasso's statement that sometimes not more than six pieces out of a hundred succeeded in the firing. "the fame of the gubbio wares is associated almost entirely with one name, that of giorgio andreoli. we learn from the marchese brancaleoni that this artist was the son of pietro, of a 'castello' called 'judeo,' in the diocese of pavia; and that, accompanied by his brother salimbene, he went to gubbio in the second half of the fifteenth century. he appears to have left and again returned thither in 1492, accompanied by his younger brother giovanni. they were enrolled as citizens on the 23d of may, 1498, on pain of forfeiting five hundred ducats if they left the city in which they engaged to continue practising their ceramic art. patronized by the dukes of urbino, giorgio was made 'castellano' of gubbio. passeri states that the family was noble in pavia. it is not known why or when he was created a 'maestro'--a title prized even more than nobility--but it is to be presumed that it took place at the time of his enrollment as a citizen, his name with the title 'maestro' first appearing on a document dated that same year, 1498. piccolpasso states that maiolica-painters were considered noble by profession. the family of andreoli and the 'casa' still exist in gubbio, and it was asserted by his descendant, girolamo andreoli, who died some forty years since, that political motives induced their emigration from pavia. "maestro giorgio was an artist by profession, not only as a draughtsman, but as a modeler; and, being familiar with the enameled terra-cottas of luca della robbia, is said to have executed with his own hands and in their manner large altar-pieces. we were once disposed to think that great confusion existed in respect to these altar-pieces in _rilievo_, and were inclined to the belief that, although some of the smaller lustred-works may have been modeled by giorgio, the larger altar-pieces were really only imported by him. judging from the most important which we have been able to examine, the 'madonna del rosario,' portions of which are in the museum at frankfort-on-the-main, it seemed to approach more nearly to the work of some member of the della robbia family. this fine work is in part glazed, and in part colored in distemper on the unglazed terra-cotta, in which respect it precisely agrees with works known to have been executed by andrea della robbia, assisted by his sons. there are no signs of the application of the lustre-colors to any portion of the work, but this might be accounted for by the great risk of failure in the firing, particularly to pieces of such large size and in high-relief. be this as it may, from a further consideration of the style of this work and the record of others, some of which are heightened with the lustre-colors, and the fact stated by the marchese brancaleoni that a receipt for an altar-piece is still preserved in the archives of gubbio, we are inclined to think that history must be correct in attributing these important works in ceramic sculpture to maestro giorgio andreoli. if they were his unassisted work, he deserves as high a place among the modelers of his period as he is acknowledged to have among artistic potters. "maestro giorgio's manner of decoration consists of foliated scrolls and other ornaments terminating in dolphins, eagles, and human heads, trophies, masks, etc.; in the drawing of which he exhibited considerable power, with great facility of invention. these 'grotesche' differ materially from those of urbino and faenza, approaching more to the style of some of the castel-durante designs. in the drawing of figures, and of the nude, giorgio cannot be ranked as an artist of the first class. from 1519 his signature, greatly varied, occurs through succeeding years. it would be useless to repeat the many varieties, several of which will be seen in the large catalogue and among the marks on specimens in other collections. we believe that to whim or accident may be ascribed those changes that have tasked the ingenuity of connoisseurs to read as other names. his finer and more important pieces were generally signed in full, 'maestro giorgio da ugubio,' with the year, and sometimes the day of the month." it may be said that the secret of this ruby-lustre was soon lost, and has not been fully recovered; although admirable pieces are now made in england. it is impossible to convey in any engraving the subtile beauty imparted by these lustres; it seems to me that this is by far the finest and most fascinating quality of the maiolicas. of the work made at castel-durante but little need be said in addition to what has been written upon the general subject of italian maiolica. this was a small town in the neighborhood of urbino; which town since then has been dignified with the name of urbania, after pope urban viii. at castel-durante pottery was made long before it reached the name and fame of maiolica. through a book left by a potter of the place, named piccolpasso, it is perhaps better known than by the maiolica made there. this manuscript book, which he illustrated with pen-and-ink drawings, gives some account of the wares produced there. i believe the book is now the property of the kensington museum at london. there are some few signed examples of the maiolica of castel-durante in the collections of england and of the continent. i know of none in the united states. of a piece owned by mrs. h. t. hope, of england, mr. robinson says in his enthusiastic way, "in the design and execution of the painting, splendor of color, and perfection of enamel-glaze, this magnificent piece is a triumph of the art." the ware made here is said to be recognized by "a pale buff-colored paste, and great richness and purity of the glaze." still none but an expert--a person who has made these productions a study--could distinguish them from those made at some other italian factories. faenza.--under the name of _faenza_, an old town of roman italy, all sorts of waifs and strays which have no other home are likely to be classed. its productions have no such peculiarities as mark those of urbino, gubbio, and some other italian "botegas." but for the antiquity and extent of its potteries, and also because it seems to have given the name "_faience_" to all earthen-ware pottery made in france, it has a certain importance. i therefore give a single extract from what mr. fortnum has written about it. as there are a considerable number of these druggist's pots (see fig. 64) in this country, the matter may be of interest. he writes: "from an early period faenza seems to have produced a large number of electuary-pots and pharmacy-bottles; a pair are in the hôtel cluny, one bearing the name faenza, the other 1500. many of these vases are decorated in the style known as _a quartiere_, being divided into compartments, painted in bright yellow, etc., on dark blue, with foliated and other ornament, and usually having a medallion with profile head or subject on one side, under which the name of the drug in gothic lettering is inscribed on a ribbon. a curious example is in the british museum: a large flask-shaped bottle of dark-blue ground with yellow leafage and with twisted handles, upon the medallion of which is represented a bear clasping a column, with the inscription, '_et sarrimo boni amici_,' allusive, in all probability, to the reconciliation of the rival houses of orsini and colonna in 1517. "we would here refer to the frequent occurrence on these vases, as occasionally upon other pieces, of pharmaceutical and ecclesiastical signs, letters, etc., surmounted by the archiepiscopal cross and other emblems which we believe have reference to the uses of monastic and private pharmacies for which the services were made, and not to be confounded, as has been too frequently the case, with the marks of _boteghe_ or of the painters of the piece. these emblems have no other value to us than the clew which they might afford to patient investigation of the locality and brotherhood of the conventual establishment to which they may have belonged, and among the archives of which may be recorded the date and the fabrique by which they were furnished. but what are of far greater interest are those admirable early pieces, painted by ceramic artists of the first rank, who, beyond a rare monogram or date, have left no record of their place or name; and whose highly-prized works, for their authors are several, are jealously guarded in our public and private museums. some of these, with reasonable probability, are believed to have been executed at faenza. several examples are preserved, of an early character, perhaps the work of one hand, who marked them on the back with a large 'm' crossed by a paraph. they are usually plateaux with raised centre, on which is a portrait-head, or shallow dishes with flat border. variations of the letter 'f' are found on pieces, some of which are fairly ascribable to this fabrique; but we need not point out the fact that many other localities of the manufacture can claim the same for their initial letter, and that the characteristics and technical qualities of the pieces themselves are a necessary test. "later in the sixteenth century, when subject-painting, covering the whole surface of the piece, was in general fashion (_istoriata_), the unsigned works produced at faenza are difficult to distinguish from those of other fabriques. some examples exist in collections, as one in the louvre, with the subject of a cavalry-skirmish, and inscribed, '_1561 in faenca_;' but we have no knowledge of their painters, and even the occurrence of the name of that city is but rarely met with. her wares are usually richly ornamented on the back with imbrication, as was the manner of manara, or with concentric lines of blue, yellow, and orange. "of the pottery produced at faenza during the seventeenth and the last century we have but little record. some pharmacy-vases are mentioned by m. jacquemart, signed 'andrea pantales pingit, 1616,' but the signature does not appear to be accompanied by the name of that city. in 1639 francesco vicchij was the proprietor of the most important fabrique. "a modern establishment professes to occupy the premises of the ancient casa pirota, where we have seen fairly good reproductions of the ordinary _sopra azzuro_ plates of the old botega; but these are but weak imitations, and the glory of faentine ceramic art must be looked for in museums." the "sgraffiato" wares of italy do not come under the head of maiolica. the term is used to designate work where the design is scratched or incised upon the clay; and in italy, often upon a white clay laid over a darker clay, so that the design shows through the lighter "slip" or "engobe," as the covering is called. of _forli_, _venice_, _castelli_, or _abruzzi_, and the many other manufactories of maiolica, it will be almost useless to write here. we have few, if any, examples of the work in this country; and without examples it is difficult to make the subject interesting. i have not attempted to give any "marks" of maiolica, for two reasons: one, that we have so little opportunity for purchasing that the knowledge of the marks, such as they are, would be almost wholly useless; and, second, these marks are of little use anywhere. few of the painters were in the habit of marking their work; and, when they did, their marks seem to have had no uniformity, and were varied in many whimsical ways. those who wish to buy pieces of maiolica, unless they have made the matter a study, will hardly do it without consulting a person of experience; and a person of experience will not be guided solely by the marks. it can do no harm to say that admirable counterfeits are now made, both in italy and in france (probably also in germany), of the finest of the old maiolicas, design, color, and all complete. even judicious chippings of edges and mild cracks are added to please the exacting connoisseurs. any person, therefore, who is looking for the best specimens of "genuine old" maiolicas, at the _smallest prices_, will be fairly and fully met in the shops of the continent. [illustration: fig. 71.--_from the kensington collection._] with regard to some of the most celebrated maiolica, i have quoted the judgments of two most competent writers as to the beauties of two of the most famous artists. it is far from being high praise. i venture to say, in addition, that much, very much, of what i have had the opportunity to see, strikes me forcibly as being crude and poor in color, bad in drawing, uninteresting in design, and wretched in clay and in glaze. not that there are not good and beautiful works among the maiolicas; but it seems to me they are few. besides this, i believe the great maiolica-painters, such as xanto and giorgio, were wholly wrong in attempting to transfer to pottery the pictures of raffaelle and giulio romano; at least, they can be but very poor representations of the pictures themselves, and therefore unjust to their models, and useless to us as examples of high art. we copy here (fig. 71), from mr. fortnum, one of the elaborate figure-pieces of maiolica in the kensington collection; which, as it seems to us, is a striking proof of what has just been said. in the collections of the museum of fine arts at boston are to be seen ten or twelve plates, bowls, etc., which give a fair exhibition of the work of the sixteenth-century painters. some of these are attributed to the best masters, the fontana and xanto, and one has the mark of xanto. the large and varied collection of italian maiolicas brought to the philadelphia exhibition in 1876 is now (may, 1877) to be seen in the rooms of the metropolitan museum of art at new york, and it offers an excellent opportunity for examining and studying these styles of fictile work. what is doing in italy now.--a very large show of italian maiolica of to-day was made at the centennial exhibition at philadelphia in 1876. what did we find there? hundreds of imitations. italy especially has been devoting herself with great industry to reproductions of the vases, ewers, tazzas, plaques, dishes, and so on, of the past; and some very fair ones were sent from pesaro, rome, and faenza. the vases and ewers bearing figure-pieces or mythological pictures had a certain quality peculiar to this style of work which at first may excite distaste rather than desire, but after a time may induce a mild sort of assent; more, we believe, from the low and quiet tones and harmonies of color than from any marked excellence of either the form of the vase or the painted subject. the two names most conspicuous as potters in italy now--_ginori_ at florence, and _giustiniani_ at naples--did not appear among the exhibitors, so far as we know. of ginori's work we give a fine example in fig. 71_a_. but if draughtsmen and artists so good would only give us their pictures of the life of italy to-day as they so well could do--of the peasants and their donkeys, their vine-dressing and wine-making, their fishing, their cooking, their street-work in its thousand varieties! that they could, and do not; that they continue on and on with the stupid round of copy after copy in all departments of art, may mean that the good public who have money to spend want these copies, and therefore potters and painters sink from the clear air of invention and originality into the dull inanities of copying. [illustration: fig. 71 _a_.--_maiolica vase, by ginori._] chapter vii. french faience.--palissy ware, and henri-deux ware. bernard palissy.--the catholics and the huguenots.--saintes.--figurines.--the centennial exhibition.--prices.--henri-deux--where made--when.--copies at philadelphia.--list of pieces extant, and prices. bernard palissy.--over the name and fame of palissy hangs an aureola of glory. he was a potter, and he learned his trade through much perseverance and much suffering. but, more than that, he was a protestant in the days of the leaguers, when to be a protestant in france meant to persecute or to be persecuted; and it meant also peril and probable death. palissy was born about 1510, and died in 1590. he lived, therefore, through the times of the bitter and cruel wars of the huguenots and the catholics, when political and religious and social intrigues divided the nobility of france into factions, which were not only ready to, but did, rend each other's throats. he lived--he, a protestant--through the wholesale butcheries of st. bartholomew (1572), when it is asserted that from twenty to one hundred thousand protestants were slaughtered in the kingdom of france in cold blood. palissy was one of those protestants, was known as one, and he was not slaughtered. from this fact has come a good part of his glory, as a few words may serve to explain. for a long time the struggle for power between the catholic party and the huguenot party had raged, with varying fortunes, when both sides pillaged and persecuted, and true religion was driven to the wall, or fled from france. at last the catholic party, under the lead of the duke of guise, secured the preëminence, and in due time--in 1559--severe edicts were issued against the protestants. palissy was not safe; but by that time he had acquired reputation as a potter, and had made pieces of his rustic ware for the king and for members of the court. he was known to the king; and the queen-mother, catherine de' medicis, brought him to paris, established his furnaces in the grounds of the tuileries, made him a servant of the king, and so saved him for the time from the persecutions which swept away his brethren. it must be remembered that those were days in which many men _believed_--believed that their truth or faith was the only thing to save them from the eternal fires of hell. palissy was one of those earnest, intense, narrow natures who believed their faith was the only true faith for man. all the influence of the queen, the persuasions of the priests, and even the appeals of the king, could not shake him. palissy has written his own story, and it has the interest of romance and the fervor of faith. when he was eighty years old he was thrown into the bastile, with other stanch huguenots, because of his faith. the king, henry iii., is reported to have said: "my good friend, you have now been five-and-forty years in the service of my mother and myself; we have allowed you to retain your religion in the midst of fire and slaughter. now i am so hard pressed by the guises and my own people, that i am constrained to deliver you up into the hands of your enemies, and to-morrow you will be burned unless you are converted." inflexible to the last, the old man is reported to have answered the king in this wise: "sire, i am ready to resign my life for the glory of god. you have told me several times that you pity me; and i in my turn pity you, who have used the words '_i am constrained_.' it was not spoken like a king, sire; and these are words which neither you nor those who constrain you, the guisards and all your people, will ever be able to make me utter, for i know how to die." the whole world admires pluck; and that, we cannot doubt, marked the character of the man. we need only to look at his face (fig. 72) to believe that he might have said those words. and those who came after him, inheriting in a degree the hatred of the catholics which he enjoyed, have not allowed the words nor the fame of the man to die. but he was not put to death; he lingered out his last year in the prisons of the bastile, and then departed. the story he left behind him, of his own struggles and sufferings in seeking and finding the arts of the potter, has been intensified by his admirers; they have added to its intrinsic interest by telling of his patience, his endurance, his suffering, and his final success--that which can be imparted by the glow of admiring souls, who see in him a hero such as they would themselves wish to be, but are not. [illustration: fig. 72.--_bernard palissy._] that story is briefly this: he was born poor, but he had patience, industry, and an aspiring nature. he studied, he learned, he sought; he became something of a draughtsman, a painter, a surveyor, a writer. glass-painting may be said to have been his occupation, or one of them; and, in following this, he came quickly into sympathy with cognate arts. we can well believe, therefore, that when he saw a beautifully-enameled cup--whether one of those now so famous as the _henri-deux_ ware, or whether one of those already made at nuremberg by _hirschvogel_ (probably the latter)--we can well believe that it inspired his soul with enthusiasm, and held him with the tenacity we know to have marked his character. from that day he was possessed; he had a mastering thought: it was to discover the secrets of this art, and to apply them to the production of like ware in france, where it was not known. with little or no knowledge of chemistry, with none of pottery, he set himself to the task. he worked persistently, indefatigably, but darkly, ignorantly, wastefully, and at last only reached a half-success. he did this, too, by sacrificing largely of his own life for sixteen years, and, more than that, as he has himself told the story, by the hard and almost cruel sacrifice of the decent comforts of life of his wife and family. he borrowed the money of his friends and neighbors to conduct his experiments; he burned his tables and chairs to heat his furnaces; he could not pay his assistants; he could bear the tears and reproaches of his wife and his friends, and did so for years; and all this for what some persons call the "glorious result" of discovering a glaze for pottery--which had already been known and was in full practice at nuremberg, only a hundred miles from him! if, as is stated by demmin, he did himself visit nuremberg to see and learn what was there being done, his course becomes still more inexplicable and unpraiseworthy. and what makes the matter still more curious is that, after all, he did not succeed in discovering or applying the stanniferous enamel; for m. demmin states positively that his glaze was the plumbiferous glaze, and not the stanniferous. quoting his words, he says: "on ne rencontre pas la moindre parcelle d'émail stannifère, blanc ou autres, sur les poteries attribuées à ce maître. le _blanc_ est une terre blanchâtre qui, couverte d'un vernis incolore, conserve sa blancheur." if, therefore, it may be questioned whether the object of discovering a stanniferous glaze was worthy the sacrifice of sixteen years of his own life, as well as of the peace and comfort of his friends and family; and if, after all, he did not discover it; and if, besides that, he might have obtained it from hirschvogel without all this tribulation, and did not--we may well be at a loss to understand the high praise which in some quarters has been lavished on palissy; and for myself i am not willing to continue it. martyrdom is usually a very poor business, and the cause of good pottery certainly does not demand it. [illustration: fig. 73.--_large oval dish, from the museum of the louvre._] the work begun at _saintes_ about 1535, and afterward carried on at paris, is marked by peculiarities which for a long time were supposed to be confined to the wares of palissy. these were the use of shells, lizards, snakes, fish, frogs, insects, and plants, in high-relief upon the surface of his plates and dishes. this will be shown in the example we give (fig. 73), which is one of the finest pieces of this work extant, now in the museum of the louvre. and even this is now believed by some competent experts to be of modern manufacture. these natural objects were modeled with considerable care, and colored to represent the real things, so that they have a value to the naturalist as well as to the potter. [illustration: fig. 74.--_palissy dish._] as works of ceramic art, can we accord them a high rank, or can we get much satisfaction in their contemplation? can we accept them as _art_ at all? admit them to be clever imitations--and that is all, it seems to me, we can do--and they fall to the place of prettiness, and rank with wax-flowers and alabaster-apples. [illustration: fig. 75.--_a basket, by palissy, in the kensington museum._] it is quite certain that work of this sort was done by many potters after palissy, if not by his contemporaries; and collectors have been induced to pay great prices for things alleged to be the work of palissy which are now known not to have been made by him. in addition to this, the world is full of counterfeits of this sort of thing which out-palissy palissy; and the extravagant prices once paid for counterfeits cannot now be obtained for what are known to be genuine. [illustration: fig. 76.--_perpendicular view, showing the marguerites on the edge._] the other two examples shown in figs. 74, 75, and 76, differ from the first; and it may be doubted whether these are not to be attributed to some other potter than palissy. the cornucopia on fig. 74 was a favorite decoration at rouen, and might readily enough find a place there. this style of work, being made in moulds, can be easily and cheaply reproduced. at one time a large number of _figurines_, such as "the nurse" and others, were attributed to palissy, notwithstanding that the dresses, and in some cases the persons, did not exist until after the time of palissy; but it is now asserted that there is nothing at all to prove that palissy ever made this style of work. a great number of examples may be seen of so-called "palissy" in the kensington museum at london and in the louvre at paris. but they nowhere hold the high places they once did, nor do they bring the prices they once did. in the centennial exhibition at philadelphia of 1876 a great variety of this sort of work was shown, made by the clever potters of the day in europe. [illustration: fig. 77.--_palissy jug, from the museum of the louvre._] a very large sale has been found within the last twenty years for imitations of palissy ware, and these have been made with great skill by barbizôt and aviso, of france, and by minton, of england; indeed, some of these seem much better than any i have seen supposed to be the genuine thing. the virtues most needed are, of course, patience and a keen faculty of imitation--art in any good sense is not essential. the sales of palissy ware at the bernal sale were not at the high figures they afterward reached. the prices ran from seven to one hundred and sixty-two pounds, the latter price having been paid for a circular dish twelve and a half inches in diameter, which, having been broken into pieces and mended, was bought by the baron rothschild. we give, in fig. 77, another style of work--a very beautiful jug in the collection of the louvre. it is there placed among the works of bernard palissy; and there are various other pieces of like work so catalogued in the public and private collections of europe. but there are doubts as to these, which in some minds approach to certainty--doubts whether palissy himself worked at all with the human form. it is well known that he was a naturalist, a geologist, a scientist, but it is not certain that he was an artist in this direction. some students assert distinctly that he was not; and it seems most probable that he was not a modeler of the human figure. as work like this, shown in the last illustration, has for so long a period been attributed to him, it has seemed desirable to give an example of it in our pages. that it is work of his time, if not made by him or under his direction, is not questioned. henri-deux ware: faience d'oiron.--this unique earthen-ware for years perplexed the lovers of pottery. it seemed to appear from touraine and la vendée, and only here and there a piece. it was so peculiar, so different from any and all the known styles, that no one could decide whence it came or by whom it was made. the impression--and it was only an impression--seemed to be that it must have come out of italy, and that benvenuto cellini was as likely as any one to have had to do with its designs or execution; and this simply because he was known to have stamped his peculiar taste upon works which might be classed with this only in expressing the finer forms and decorations of the italian renaissance. a few pieces only of this ware came to light from time to time, but they were eagerly seized upon, and they gave rise to much speculation. why there should be so few, and why no traces of like ware were found in other directions, remained for a time a mystery. but it was solved. i quote here from a paper by mr. ritter, which sums up what is now known upon the subject; he writes with the knowledge and appreciation of a practical potter: "it was so late as the year 1839 that m. andré pottier, a french writer on art, first announced to the world the existence of the singular species of pottery now known as 'henri-deux' ware. he gave it as his opinion that it was the production of florentine artists working in france. until thus brought to the knowledge of connoisseurs, the very existence of this exquisite ware had been forgotten. it soon, however, became famous. every corner of europe was ransacked for specimens of it. dukes, princes, and millionaires, contended with the heads of national museums for the few pieces still to be found. no ware ever yet became so costly; for every hundred pounds that a rare piece of sèvres or maiolica will fetch, the 'henri-deux' will bring its thousand. as yet only about fifty pieces have come to light; and of these fifty more than one-half have found their way into the galleries of our wealthier english amateurs. "those who see a specimen of this rare and precious pottery for the first time are apt to be extremely disappointed. they see a vase, or a ewer, or a candlestick, of fantastic shape, covered with a thin, greenish-yellow glaze, the coloring not by any means brilliant, and the surface seemingly inlaid and incrusted with the innumerable details of a most elaborate ornamentation, made out in quiet browns, blacks, and sad neutral tints. nothing is less striking to a casual or an ignorant observer--nothing in the whole range of decorative art so absolutely exquisite in design and effect to the cultivated appreciation of a connoisseur in renaissance-work. "no sooner was the ware discovered than speculations began as to its maker, its date, and the locality of its fabrication. on no single point did the ten or twelve french writers on the subject come to an agreement, and a certain amount of unsolved mystery still attaches to all these points. there is no so-called 'potter's mark' on any of the pieces except one, and this solitary mark is not recognizable as that of any known potter. it may be tortured into a monogram, or assumed to be a device, at the pleasure of those who form their various theories on the origin of the ware. "the pieces are decorated with the arms of french royal and noble families. one piece has on it the salamander surrounded by flames, the device of francis i. of france; and very many out of the fifty bear the well-known monogram of henry ii. worked into the ornamentation of the surface--a circumstance which has given the ware its name. the date is, therefore, more or less fixed to the short period between 1540 and 1560, or twenty years. as to the nationality of the artist, the best authorities join in thinking he must have been a frenchman, because the work is essentially of the style of the somewhat distinctive french renaissance then prevailing. the precise locality of its production could only be inferred to be somewhere in touraine, because a majority of the pieces can be traced as coming from that province. "such was the mystery which hung about all connected with this curious ware--a mystery which not a little enhanced the interest taken in it, and perhaps the estimation in which it was held. "this mystery is now, to a great extent, cleared up. "at the court of king francis lived a widow lady of high birth, named hélène de hangest. her husband had been governor of the king, and grand-master of france. she was herself an artist, and a collection of drawings by her of considerable artistic merit is preserved. they are portraits of the celebrities of the period. she was in favor at court; the king himself composed a rhymed motto to each of her portraits, and some of these verses are written in his own hand. it is established that hélène de hangest set up a pottery at her château of oiron, and that francis charpentier, a potter, was in her employ. to his hand, under the auspices of the châtelaine of oiron, is due the famous ware of 'henri-deux.' "mr. j. c. robinson gives it as his opinion that the technical merit of the 'henri-deux' ware is very small. with due deference to mr. robinson, who, as a rule, writes well and learnedly upon this and cognate matters, we do not think he would say this if he had been able to appreciate the subject from a potter's point of view. the _body_ of the 'henri-deux' ware is of admirable texture and quality; the mode in which the various clays are incorporated into the substance of the pieces without shrinking or expansion, the clearness, thinness, and smoothness of the glaze--which, by-the-way, is plumbiferous--all these things are so many marvels of skillful manipulation, and fill the mind of a practical potter with admiration." these curious and interesting facts were brought to light by the researches of a french _savant_, m. b. fillon, about 1862. [illustration: fig. 78.--_henri-deux faience vase._] it appears that this ware was not made for sale, and that it was not sold, but was made for presents, and therefore was produced only in small quantities. the clay itself is what the french term _terre de pipe_, and what we know as pipe-clay--a white, delicate, and very light clay. the inlaying, or the incised lines which are filled with colored clays, are most delicately cut, and so much resemble work done by book-binders that some persons have suggested that they were made with the tools used in the bookbinder's trade. at any rate, one should give these pieces a close look, for any thoroughly good piece of work is a source of supreme satisfaction. admirable copies have been made of some pieces of this work by an artist named toft, which were exhibited at philadelphia in 1876 by minton, of england. [illustration: fig. 79.--_henri-deux salt-cellar._] we give, in figs. 78 and 79, two examples, more to exhibit something of the forms and conceits indulged in than to show the delicacy and precision of the work, which are perfect. fig. 78 is termed a _biberon_; it is but seven inches high. "the upper part is white, the ornaments yellow; and the lower part black, with white ornaments. on the shield underneath the spout are the three crescents interlaced." fig. 79 is a salt-cellar. after the decease of madame hélène de hangest, who was the widow of arthur gouffier, a gentleman of rank, the manufacture of this peculiar ware was continued at the château d'oiron by her son, claude gouffier; but the production was still limited, and it is doubtful if any pieces were ever sold. it is therefore of great rarity and of corresponding money-value, only fifty-three specimens of it being known to exist. the interest in these pieces is such now that many persons may like to know where they are and what they are thought to be worth. i transcribe from chaffers as follows: in england there are twenty-six pieces: ---------------------+----------------------------+==> | | description. | owner. | | | ---------------------+----------------------------+==> 1. large ewer | h. magniac | 2. " " | sir anthony de rothschild | 3. " " | " " | 4. candlestick | " " | 5. hanap | " " | 6. tazza | " " | 7. cover of a cup | " " | 8. bouquetière | " " | 9. candlestick | andrew fontaine | 10. biberon | " " | 11. salt-cellar | " " | 12. biberon | baron lionel de rothschild | 13. salt-cellar | " " | 14. tazza | duke of hamilton | 15. salt-cellar | " " | 16. " " | george field, esq. | 17. part of ewer | h. t. hope | 18. small ewer | " " | 19. " " | m. t. smith | 20. biberon | j. malcolm | 21. salt-cellar | south kensington museum | 22. tazza and cover | " " | 23. tazza | " " | 24. candlestick | " " | 25. salver | " " | 26. salt-cellar | " " | ---------------------+----------------------------+==> ---------------------+--------------------------------+-------+--------- | | | description. | whence obtained. | cost. | estimated | | | value. ---------------------+--------------------------------+-------+--------- 1. large ewer | odiot sale, 1842 | £96 | £1,500 2. " " | strawberry hill, 1842 | 20 | 1,200 3. " " | de monville collection | 140 | 1,200 4. candlestick | préaux sale, 1850 | 208 | 1,000 5. hanap | de bruge sale, 1849 | 20 | 500 6. tazza | préaux sale, 1850 | 44 | 500 7. cover of a cup | unknown | | 150 8. bouquetière | bought of a curé at tours | 48 | 800 9. candlestick | bought a century ago | | 1,000 10. biberon | " " | | 800 11. salt-cellar | " " | | 500 12. biberon | bought of madame delaunay | | 800 13. salt-cellar | strawberry hill, 1842 | 21 | 300 14. tazza | préaux sale, '50; rattier, '59 | 280 | 500 15. salt-cellar | " " | 80 | 300 16. " " | ... | | 300 17. part of ewer | de bruge sale, 1849 | 16 | 300 18. small ewer | " " | 20 | 600 19. " " | bought as palissy | | 600 20. biberon | pourtalès sale, 1865 | 1,100 | 1,100 21. salt-cellar | soltykoff, 1861, to napier | 268 | 300 22. tazza and cover | " " | 450 | 500 23. tazza | poitiers, 50 s., delange | 180 | 180 24. candlestick | de norzy sale | 640 | 750 25. salver | espoulart, 1857 | 180 | 400 26. salt-cellar | addington collection | 300 | 300 ---------------------+--------------------------------+-------+---------in france there are twenty-six pieces: --------------------+--------------------------+==> | | description. | owner. | | | --------------------+--------------------------+==> 27. tazza | le duc d'uzes | 28. cover of cup | " " | 29. pilgrim's bottle| " " | 30. tazza and cover | m. hutteau d'origny | 31. " " | musée de cluny | 32. salt-cellar | baron a. de rothschild | 33. jug or canette | " " | 34. small ewer | " " | 35. candlestick | baron g. de rothschild | 36 hanap | " " | 37. tazza | baron james de rothschild| 38. biberon | museum of the louvre | 39. salt-cellar | " " | 40. " " | " " | 41. " " | " " | 42. tazza | " " | 43. salt-cellar | " " | 44. tazza | " " | 45. " | sèvres museum | 46. cover of cup | " " | 47. salt-cellar | madame d'yvon | 48. " " | comte de tussau | 49. " " | " " | 50. " " | " " | 51. cover of tazza. | m. b. delessert | 52. biberon | | --------------------+--------------------------+==> --------------------+-----------------------------+-------+--------- | | | description. | whence obtained. | cost. | estimated | | | value. --------------------+-----------------------------+-------+---------27. tazza | | | £500 28. cover of cup | | | 150 29. pilgrim's bottle| | | 800 30. tazza and cover | | | 500 31. " " | bought by m. thoré in 1798 | £20 | 500 32. salt-cellar | | | 300 33. jug or canette | bought by strauss, £600 | 800 | 1,000 34. small ewer | préaux sale, 1850 | 44 | 500 35. candlestick | | | £1,000 36 hanap | | | 500 37. tazza | south of france, 1860 | £480 | 500 38. biberon | sauvageot, from tours | | 800 39. salt-cellar | sauvageot, from lehrié, 1824| 5 | 300 40. " " | sauvageot, from troyes | | 300 41. " " | " " | | 300 42. tazza | sauvageot, bo't as palissy | 8 | 500 43. salt-cellar | revoil collection, 1828 | | 300 44. tazza | " " | | 500 45. " | | | 500 46. cover of cup | | | 150 47. salt-cellar | | | 300 48. " " | | | 300 49. " " | | | 300 50. " " | | | 300 51. cover of tazza. | south of france, by rutter. | 4 | 150 52. biberon | | | --------------------+-----------------------------+-------+---------in russia, one piece: --------------------+---------------------------+==> description. | owner. | | | --------------------+---------------------------+==> 53. biberon. | prince galitzin | --------------------+---------------------------+==> --------------------+------------------------------+-------+--------- description. | whence obtained. | cost. | estimated | | | value. --------------------+------------------------------+-------+---------53. biberon. | préaux sale, 1850 | £100 | £800 --------------------+------------------------------+-------+---------chapter viii. french faience.--nevers, rouen, beauvais, etc. number of manufactories.--their rise and decline.--nevers.--prices.--beauvais.--rouen.--moustiers.--strasbourg, or haguenau.--marseilles.--sarreguemines.--sinceny, nancy, creil, montpellier.--paris.--paris to-day.--limoges.--deck. of french faiences, the _palissy_ ware and the _henri-deux_ have been already treated. i now propose to give some account of the most prominent among the very large number of potteries which, in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, sprang up in various parts of france. mr. chaffers, in his work upon "pottery," etc., enumerates one hundred and sixty-five factories which in 1790 petitioned the national assembly that they might not be ruined by the floods of cheap pottery then being sent in from england; and this was not the whole number in france. great skill and much good taste have been expended upon the faiences of france, and some of the work rises into the region of art. much of that found in collections and museums is of this kind. but it should not be forgotten that the great purpose and business of those manufactories was the production of dishes, plates, and services, for the table--for the uses of life. and in this direction the production in france was very large and profitable, until the time when, as said above, the introduction of cheap wares from england ruined the makers. these disastrous changes and whimseys of trade, disagreeable as they may be to the masters and the workmen who are ruined, do give a certain zest and variety to human history; they relieve life from the monotony and dullness which usually attends upon unbroken prosperity. as some of the _doctrinaires_ tell us, they are really blessings--often very much in disguise; at least, they seem so to those who are the immediate sufferers. nearly the whole of the french potteries went down about the period of the great revolution, from the effects of the wares introduced from england, and the troubles growing out of the political disorders. within this last quarter of a century a noted revival has come to this most interesting industry, of which some notice will be made hereafter. it is the fine examples of the work of the older potteries which collectors are desirous to get. _marks_ are often found upon pieces of the faiences of france, the delft of holland, etc.; but i do not reproduce them here, partly because they are much less important than those on the porcelains, and partly because we should have almost no occasion for their use. nevers.--it is supposed that at nevers was made the first enameled pottery in france, in the days of catherine de' medicis. m. broc de ségange, in his work "la faïence, les faïenciers et les émailleurs de nevers,"[6] traces the beginning of the work to an italian named _conrad_, who probably came to france with the queen, and was naturalized in 1578. he and his brothers began the manufacture about that time. another famous potter there was _pierre custode_. it was inevitable that the early faience of nevers should bear a likeness to that which had grown up so rapidly in italy, and had impressed itself so vividly upon the artistic mind of europe. but it was not an imitation. we have little if any examples of this work in our country, and i give marryat's brief distinction: "the nevers pottery differs in many points from its italian original. the outlines of the figures are traced in violet, the flesh in yellow. the red color is seldom used, but a copper-green is peculiar to this ware. blue and yellow are the predominating colors, separated by a line of white. the sea is represented by undulating lines of blue, in the style of orazio fontana, and the urbino school. the lips of the ewers are in the form of leaves, the handles in that of dragons." [illustration: fig 80.--_faïences of nevers._] demmin separates the work done here into four styles or periods, as follows: "1. the italian, 1602 to 1670. "2. the persian, about 1640. "3. the chinese and dutch, 1640 to 1750. "4. the popular and patriotic, about 1789." the examples shown (fig. 80) are of the later periods, and partake of a general character which prevailed at other manufactories of the periods in france. the colors during the persian period were often effective, and the lapis-lazuli blue was rich. a very great quantity of plates, vases, dishes, etc., was made, many of them rude and cheap, during the time of the french revolution, which were decorated with revolutionary emblems, pictures of the destruction of the bastile, with the liberty-cap, and with patriotic cries, such as "_liberté, égalité, ou mort!_" and "_vive le roi citoyen!_" at the beginning of the eighteenth century there were twelve manufactories, or "_fabriques_," in full blast at nevers. at the present time there is a very considerable production of faience at nevers, much of which is only the imitations or reproductions of that made in the earlier centuries. nothing of special interest, so far as i know, was shown at the centennial exhibition at philadelphia. at the bernal sale was "no. 1981: a pair of bottles of nevers ware, light blue, spirally fluted with dark-blue flowers; twelve inches high. eleven pounds.--_j. s. forbes, esq._" beauvais.--how early pottery was made at beauvais is not certainly known; one of the earliest notices is of a pot of charles vi. in 1399, "un godet de terre de beauvais, garny d'argent;" and rabelais mentions this work more than once, in this way, "une salière de terre; et ung goubelet de beauvoys," etc. various pieces of this very quaint and interesting pottery are extant in the museums of europe. the great plate we illustrate is in the imperial library at paris, and bears the date of 1511 (fig. 81). it is of fine paste, and is about seventeen inches in diameter. its ornaments are in relief, and are the arms of france and of brittany at that period. many elaborate and decorative pieces were made here, and some of them were designed and were used for presents to distinguished personages who visited the city. not only were these works of luxury made, but large quantities of household work were manufactured for the uses of france; and there was a very considerable export of it to england. [illustration: fig. 81.--_beauvais pottery._] rouen.--one of the most extensive productions of pottery in france began at rouen as early as 1542; and after 1640 were made here many large and highly-decorated pieces, of which we give some illustrations. just when work of this kind was first produced does not clearly appear; but a very considerable number of fabriques were established in this city, and many men and women were employed. there is no question that at one time the potteries of delft had a considerable influence upon the work at rouen, and much that was then made [illustration: fig. 82.--_rouen faience._] showed traces of imitation. pieces of large size were produced, such as fountains, vases, busts, figures and figurines, and even mantel-pieces. work was done for the table, some of which holds high rank. when louis xiv. sent his silver to be minted in 1713, to pay for his extravagant wars, he had it replaced by a service made at rouen. some pieces in the sèvres museum, marked with the _fleur-de-lis_, may have belonged to this. [illustration: fig. 83.--_rouen faience._] many of the rich and the noble followed his example, and the result was that a marvelous impulse was given to the increase and the perfection of the faiences at rouen. before the final closing of the works, about 1789 or 1790, some eighteen extensive fabriques were in active work. the variety of articles made at rouen was very great, ranging from salt-cellars and candlesticks to mantel-pieces and stoves. [illustration: fig. 84.--_rouen faience._] the paste of the rouen faience is stronger than that of delft, and the pieces i have seen show a reddish clay through the breaks of the enamel. many of the paintings indicate much taste and skill. it seems to me that this work is marked by more originality, and by a finer perception of the fit and the beautiful, than any other french pottery. the pieces shown in figs. 82 and 83, as far as engravings can do it, prove this. they do not show the variety and the richness of color which distinguish much of the best work. the early rouen work, in a considerable degree following the delft, was painted, as some suppose, by men brought from there. imitations of the chinese at one time were in vogue; and a good deal of work was done in blue--_en camaïeu_--in one color only. but the colored or polychrome rouen is most distinctive, most brilliant, and most desired. one of the styles most sought for is termed _à la corne_, showing cornucopias combined with flowers and birds. it is very effective. the example engraved is a beautiful plate from mr. wales's collection at boston (fig. 84). many pieces of this ware are in existence, and they are found in all the museums and in many private collections of europe. mrs. moses ives, at providence, has some perfect examples, gathered by her from old houses in rhode island. her belief is, that they got into rhode island from ships captured by privateers and brought into newport, where their cargoes were sold and scattered. it seems probable. moustiers.--within the last twenty-five years the faience of moustiers has been separated from that of other places in france, into which it had once been merged. the little town in the department of the _lower alps_ seems to have had a fabrique as early as 1686, when the records mention the name of _antoine clerissy_ as _maître fayensier_. two other names are known as master-potters of that town--_olery_ and _roux_. all these made ornamental work of an excellent class, some of which is much valued. three styles of decoration are assigned to these potters. the earliest is recognized as being painted in blue camaieu (in one color), with subjects--hunting-scenes, escutcheons and armorial bearings, country-scenes, figures of the time of louis xiv., etc. most of these are assigned to clerissy. the second style runs from about 1700 to 1745. "the specimens of this period are better known to amateurs, and not so rare; they are also decorated in blue camaieu, with highly-finished and gracefully-interlaced patterns, among which are cupids, satyrs and nymphs, terminal figures, garlands of flowers, masks, etc.; and canopies resting on consoles, or brackets, from which hangs drapery bordered or framed with foliage and hatched spaces; mythological personages, vases of flowers, and other designs, being frequently introduced; the centre subjects are classical or _champêtre_ figures in costume of the time, sometimes coats-of-arms. some of the faience of this period is painted in cobalt-blue in the chinese style, which m. davillier attributes to pol roux, and refers to a similar plate in the sèvres collection bearing the arms of _le grand colbert_." in this style there is evidently a following of the maiolicas of italy in what is known as the raffaelesque ware. but that was never, i believe, painted in blue. [illustration: fig. 85.--_faience of moustiers._] the third style, running from 1745 to 1789, is almost always painted in polychrome; the colors are blue, brown, yellow, green, and violet. garlands of flowers, fruits, and foliage, are used. mythological subjects also appear--cupids, medallions, gods and goddesses, etc. to this class apparently belongs our illustration (fig. 85). some of these ornamental pieces are well painted, and latterly have been much sought for, but they do not rank with the work of nevers or rouen. at the time of the french revolution there was a large industry in pottery at moustiers--some twelve fabriques being in full activity. nearly all have disappeared,[7] and the town has dwindled into one-third its former size. strasbourg, or haguenau.--the beginnings of a faience fabrique here were probably about 1721. _hannong_ was a potter, who came to the town from germany and established himself at haguenau, near to or a part of strasbourg. this had been a german city until louis xiv. clutched it and made it french and catholic. in 1870 the germans took it back, and are now converting it to german and protestant. the faience made here has never taken so high a place as that made at the other fabriques i have mentioned. but some of the decorated pieces--vases especially--were of good form and pleasing coloring. the most common painting was roses and flowers, in a free, bold, and rather rough style. sometimes this has been confounded with delft; but it is quite different. it more resembles the pottery made at marseilles. some of the marks on the faience are like those on the porcelain which was made here for a short time; these were an "h." or "p. h." combined, indicating the maker's name--_hannong_. the marseilles potteries were in full activity at the beginning of the 1700's--a single piece exists which is marked 1697. in the middle of this century the number of fabriques had increased to some twelve, employing about two hundred and fifty workmen. all have gone down. the faience made here followed that of moustiers for its best work, and that of strasbourg for the more common. the flower-painting done here is said to be distinct from that of strasbourg, in that the flowers are perceptibly raised by the paint; while in that of strasbourg the painting is melted into the glaze. a very pleasing style of classic vases, made here in the time of louis xv., are painted in camaieu rose-color, the wreaths and ornaments often being in relief. at sarreguemines, in the moselle country, very beautiful faience was made in the last century--about 1775--some of which was highly finished in the lathe. work was made there, too, with white figures on blue and colored grounds, much resembling the jasper ware made by wedgwood. there is an extensive pottery now at work at sarreguemines, in which great quantities of domestic pottery are made for the market. at sinceny, nancy, creil, montpellier, and many other small places, potteries were at work in the last century; few, if any, of which continued beyond the great revolution. paris, too, had many small fabriques of faience, but none of them reached much importance. the name of _briot_ is yet kept in mind. to-day (1876) france has burst into a great blossoming, not only of porcelain, but of decorative faience. in paris, _collinot_ has made a style of relief-enamel, in imitation of _cloisonné_, which is rich and effective in color, and often very beautiful; many have followed him. barbizôt has made and is making the imitations of palissy better than palissy himself. brianchon has made and perfected a lustrous ware like mother-of-pearl, which he calls "_nacre_;" it is pretty and fanciful, and is very like what is made in ireland, and called _belleek_. durand ruel had, in his exhibitions in 1875, some of the most superb and richly-colored faience-vases i have ever seen; but the name of their manufacturer was not made known. laurin, chapelet, and some other artists at bourg-la-reine, struck out a style of faience-painting about the same time--1874 to 1875--which, for richness and mystery of color, freedom and force of design, and for _delicious_ treatment--if i may call it so--has rarely been surpassed. it is original, and different from anything the orientals have done, and quite as good. [illustration: fig. 86.--_limoges faience._] the havilands, at limoges, have gone on with this work, and have not let it falter; their exhibition at philadelphia in 1876 was excellent. i venture to include my notes made at the exhibition: but, in the way of earthen-ware, nothing in the french or english exhibits is at all equal to the vases, bottles, etc., shown by haviland, from limoges. these, we were told frankly and with all desire to [illustration: fig. 87.--_limoges faience._] give the artists their due share, were modeled by lindencher and painted by lafon (we hope we have their names right). the forms of the pots and the relief-modelings are bold, unconventional, and excellent. the artist has studied nature, and art also, but not to copy. this is true too of lafon, whose lavish and daring use of color is remarkable. nothing is niggled or petty, as in this kind of work nothing should be. as examples of real art, they are equal to the best work of china and japan; and a true man would wish rather a hundred such vases as the pennsylvania industrial museum has bought, than one of those great vases from sèvres which stand in the french picture-gallery. this is the same kind of art-work which for a few years has been done by chapelet and a little band of artists near paris, some of which has been brought to boston by the household art company, and has had a tedious sale. these painters are artists in color. bold and strange as the work is, nothing is glaring, showy, bright, or flashy; throughout there is that reserve which indicates strength and creates confidence. i give also some illustrations of their work, which in a faint degree exhibit its excellence. the color cannot be expressed (figs. 86 and 87). deck, of paris, should not be forgotten. i believe he is an alsatian; he, his brother, and sister, are all fine specimens of the german-french; they have been at work since 1859 in producing some of the most beautiful things to be made; and the work done there now sells at high prices. t. deck is himself an artist; but many others are engaged there in making flower, figure, and other paintings. their exhibitions at london have attracted much attention, and their productions have been quickly sold. no doubt other artists are to-day engaged at paris in this fascinating work, which is attracting so much attention, and feeding well the desire for the useful and the beautiful. great establishments, with hundreds of workmen, are now in full activity at _nevers_, at _gien_, at _nancy_, producing wares at low prices, which have much merit, and for every-day uses are good. mostly they follow the old designs, and attempt little else. as they do not pretend that these are anything more than that, and as the prices are very reasonable, they reach a great sale. chapter ix. dutch delft and english earthen-ware. delft, number of fabriques.--haarlem.--paste.--great painters.--violins.--tea-services.--a dutch stable.--broeck dutch tiles.--england.--queen elizabeth.--pepys's diary.--brown stone-ware.--the tyg.--lambeth pottery.--fulham pottery.--elers.--elizabethan pottery.--stoke-upon-trent.--josiah wedgwood.--cheapness.--queen's-ware.--jasper-ware.--flaxman. --cameos.--basalt.--the portland vase.--prices. there was a day (about 1650) when the dutch town of delft had fifty manufactories of earthen-ware, and employed in them over seven thousand people. to-day she has but one--if even that--and the work done there has sunk into insignificance. to those who are fond of change, of excitement, this will be a pleasant fact to know; it goes to show that macaulay's prophecy, that the coming new-zealander will sit on the piers of london bridge in the "good time that is coming," and moralize over the ruins of london, may come true--pleasanter for the new zealand _savant_ than for the english statesman! haydn's "dictionary of dates" states that pottery was made at delft as early as 1310; and there are records of its importation from there into england in the time of king henry iv. (1399 to 1413). the great industry was undoubtedly stimulated by the close knowledge of japanese and oriental porcelains which the dutch merchants at a very early day and for so long a time had access to; which they brought to holland in such large quantities, and which by them were distributed over europe. but the cost of these was, of course, very considerable for those times; and the discovery of good clays in holland gave the dutch every facility for engaging in the manufacture, which they had the wit to seize and the skill to develop; so that they were able to make earthen-ware of good quality, with creditable ornamentation, at comparatively small prices. the dutch were then the great "traders" of the world. they soon sent this pottery far and wide, into germany, france, and england; and they got much money for it. holland grew rich. haarlem was also a centre for this industry; but it made less impression there than at delft, and went down sooner; so that but little is known of it. the _paste_ of the delft, or at least some of it, is of a fine quality, so that it was worked quite thin, and yet preserved sufficient strength for use. to make this, a good deal of pains and skill was applied to it before it went to the deft hand of the modeler. of course, the great production at delft was for the uses of the table, and its work did much to effect a revolution in the household-art of the table. before this production the plates and dishes of the common people were of wood or "tre;" often only a square bit of board upon which the meat could be laid and cut. the better-off people had plates of pewter, and kings and princes indulged in those of silver. boitet, writing in 1667 of delft, says: "one of the principal branches of industry at present consists in the manufacture of a kind of porcelain[8] which nowhere in europe is made of such fine quality and so cheap. for some years, indeed, porcelain has been manufactured in saxony, and also at some places in france. the former is finer than that made at delft, but more expensive likewise, and therefore not much in general use; whereas the delft porcelain, on account of its more moderate price, is more salable; and it is sent not alone to most places in europe, but even to asia also. the clay of which it is made comes from the neighborhood of maestricht, and is purified in delft by divers processes. besides larger articles for general use, complete services are made here, ornamented with escutcheons, as they may be desired, beautifully gilt and painted, almost equal to the east indian in transparency, and surpassing such in the painting. many persons of property have such sets with their escutcheons made here, which then pass for japan or chinese porcelain." we must receive m. boitet's judgment that the delft "_surpassed_ the east indian (or chinese) in the painting" with many grains of allowance. still, when it is known that many services were painted with landscapes after berghem, and that william vandervelde, van der meer, and jan steen, painted some of the ware themselves, we may easily believe that many pieces of delft had a character of their own, which gave it a very high rank. i have myself never seen such pieces of these, and hardly know where to look for them. marryat says that in the sèvres museum is a large dish, in the centre of which is a landscape, with animals and figures after berghem, which is one of the finest examples known; and that other fine pieces are in the japan museum at dresden. some of these finest pieces are (or were) in the collection of m. demmin at paris; one of them is a portrait of jan steen himself about twenty-five or thirty years of age, with flowing light hair covered with a cap or bonnet. of the paintings upon delft by van der meer, demmin enumerates a number; among which the "head of a woman," a "landscape," and a "view of delft," are at the hague; the "porch at delft, upon which 'le taciturne' was assassinated," is in the museum at amsterdam; and a variety of portraits, landscapes, city views, etc., are in private collections. demmin describes a very elaborately-painted picture upon delft tiles in the gallery suermondt at aix-la-chapelle, containing a country-house, a figure of a woman, a well and a person drawing water from it, a pigeon, a tree, and the sunlight shooting through it and touching the walls of the house here and there. this very elaborate picture, so well and minutely painted, has been attributed both to ruysdael and to hobbema; it is now ascribed to van der meer. this is work which will bring any price, because it is so difficult and so uncommon; but it is not what i should value upon delft or porcelain. it can never be _so good_ as upon canvas; it is much more difficult to make it, and a small accident ruins it past repair. it is not "decorating china;" it is simply trying to make a picture with materials unsuited for the purpose; and its only merit is that it shows difficulties overcome. it is precisely the same in principle as the mosaics. it would have been idiotic for raffaelle to have made the dresden madonna in mosaic or on porcelain. [illustration: fig. 88.--_delft._] in the decorative work of the delft potters it seems to me the things to desire are the fine plates and dishes painted, as many of them are, with luminous blues almost equal to the celestial blues of china, such as we see in fig. 88; and the vases, the flagons, the cups and mugs, in every style and shape; the same things in polychrome, with those bold groups of flowers, equal in their way to the work of the orientals. besides, there are the figures of peasants, etc.; also their cows and horses, which have a quaint interest not easily explained. the dutch potters ran into many things, such as small foot-stoves, barbers' basins, casters, salt-cellars, etc. about much of the good delft is that same quaint, countrified beauty of which i have spoken. it is good, because it is real and native to the people and its painters. when they left this and went to imitating the chinese and the japanese, their work seems to me almost worthless; because it was an _imitation_, and it was _inferior_. in one of the largest workshops, or fabriques, a custom prevailed that one should read portions of the bible, which all might hear and all might discuss. this was a time when religious heat was fervent; when the great questions of church direction and free thought were rife; when catholic and protestant often went from the assault of the tongue to that with the arquebuse. this practice no doubt made good protestants, but also without doubt poor potters. the most curious pieces of delft known are four _violins_, still extant, very carefully made and very carefully painted. one is (or was) in the museum at rouen, one at the conservatoire at paris, the third in the collection of m. demmin, and the fourth in a private collection at utrecht. the story still lives that these four violins were made by the master-modelers for marriage-gifts to the four daughters of the master of the fabrique, about to marry four young potters; and that the music for the dance was drawn from them. it was a pretty conceit. some elaborate dinner-services were made at delft, which required much skill and much work. the covers of the dishes were modeled in the likeness of birds or fish, indicating whatever was to be served in them; these were painted carefully to imitate nature, so that the guest, in seeing the table, would know if it were a turkey, a pheasant, a ptarmigan--whatever luxury had been provided for his delectation. tea-services.--it is possible there are persons who believe that tea has always been known, and that the lovely tea-services out of which, we sometimes drink it have existed from the time of noah and the deluge; not so. pepys, in his "diary," speaks of it in 1661 as "a china drink of which i had never drunk before." and at that time it sold in england at fifty or sixty shillings a pound--an enormous price. tea and coffee pots were first brought to holland from china, and do not appear earlier than about 1700; so that those which came over in the mayflower and the half-moon and the ark must have been made by elder brewster and henry hudson and leonard calvert from the "depths of their moral consciousness." tea, we must remember, was not drunk in england earlier than about 1660, and then but rarely; and coffee was introduced into england about 1637. teapots have from time to time been a collector's fancy, and persons have again and again got together four or five hundred, of all patterns and decorations. nothing would be more pleasing in this way at the afternoon tea, when every guest should have each his own service, and every one beautiful. that the use of delft-ware for ornament throughout holland was great is evident from the number of decorated plates and vases, many of large size, and many showing a careful style of painting; these are now constantly coming from that country, and they are not counterfeits. most of them certainly are rudely but effectively painted, and are very decorative. upon a farm, not far from amsterdam, the cows during the summer season being upon the pastures, i found the stables carefully cleansed and whitewashed, and the stalls and walls hung with large and gayly-painted plates and plaques; and some pieces of brass-work were added to impart a desired brilliancy. nearly every house, great and small, in the palmy days of holland had more or less decorative delft-ware hung upon its walls and placed upon its mantel-pieces; many of these have been carefully treasured up, and they are the stores from which the world now makes its drafts. a favorite decoration was a garniture for the mantel-shelf, consisting of three covered and two uncovered vases, such as are seen in fig. 89. they are often painted in blue alone, which for a long time was the prevailing color, and which sometimes nearly equaled the best blues of china. the ones here figured are of an excellent blue, and show a religious subject--the virgin, child, and st. john. the variety of decoration was great; but mostly of birds, flowers, fruit, and other objects of nature. [illustration: fig 89.--_delft._] afterward these, as well as plates, dishes, mugs, etc., were painted with many colors; and some of these were quite rude and garish, to suit a low and garish taste. but, as decoratives, these too have a certain value. at the small village of broeck, some seven miles from amsterdam, there was in 1870 a very nice collection of delft for sale, among which were a dozen or more large plates of the best blue. it was the collection of a woman who had for a long time been a dealer there. the town of broeck, as most know, has been a point to visit; it was at one time the cleanest spot in the known world, no horse or cow or other animal being permitted in its streets. in those days it was a sort of country-seat for the rich amsterdam merchants. it is changed now. the _marks_ upon delft are mostly those of the individual painters, and may be found in considerable variety in demmin's more elaborate work. [illustration: fig. 90.--_delft plate._] fig. 90 is a good representation of the bold painting of the delft workmen. these great plates, when standing on shelves or fastened to the wall, produce a striking and pleasing effect. they are now much sought for; and the high-class work brings high prices, though not such prices as the italian maiolicas. tiles were made from an early period in holland, and during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in great quantities. they were used to decorate fireplaces, stoves, walls, hearths, etc. the blue and brown scripture-tiles were made in great numbers, and found a wide and ready sale. they are rude, quaint, and interesting--are not _art_ at all, but whimsical expressions of a religious sentiment. they are still made in holland almost identical in design and feeling with those produced three hundred years ago. english pottery or earthen-ware. very primitive unglazed pottery was made in england by the britons and saxons before the days of written history. some account is given, in the chapter upon "unglazed pottery," of the red roman unglazed ware found in london and elsewhere, which, beyond any reasonable doubt, was made largely in england. an account of the use and production of glazed pottery in england will be in place here. down to the times even of queen elizabeth (1558 to 1603) we know that trenchers of wood, and cups and bottles of wood as well as of leather (these were called "black jacks"), were in common use even in good houses. as late as 1663, pepys, in his most entertaining "diary," says that at the lord-mayor's feast meats were served on wooden dishes, and were eaten off trenchers. the common dishes in queen elizabeth's housekeeping were of wood; while those for the queen's table were of silver, or possibly of pewter. these silver and pewter services prevailed on the tables of the wealthy till some time after the introduction of porcelain from china, and delft from holland, which came in in considerable quantities about 1650 and later. the first glazed ware made in england seems to have been the brown stone-ware, which, chaffers says, was in use down to about 1680, and mostly in the shape of pitchers, jugs, and bottles. it did not at first come into use for table-dishes. after this dishes were made of coarse and gritty clay, not at all equal to the delft-ware, upon which a lead-glaze was used of a greenish or dark-yellowish color. this lead or plumbiferous glaze continued in use for a long time; but when it was _first_ used in england seems unknown. salt-glaze was used in staffordshire in 1680. one of the earliest attempts at "fancy" in english pottery is to be seen in the drinking-cup called a "_tyg_," which has three handles, intended for three friends; so that each could drink from his own lip in succession. mugs with two and four handles were also made. at lambeth it is believed that some dutch potters made earthenware resembling delft as early as 1650. a patent was granted to some potters by the name of van hamme in 1676. various pieces of glazed pottery with english designs remain, bearing dates from 1642 down to 1682, which it is thought were made here. at fulham stone-ware of a fine quality seems to have been made by a mr. dwight as early as 1671. this, in the accounts of the day, was sometimes called "_porcellane_." there is reason to believe that a good degree of advance was reached here, and that the work approached that made at cologne, now called "grès de flanders." figures and busts were also made here, a few of which are still extant. two gentlemen named elers, who came to england with william of orange, were clever men, and one of them was a chemist. they discovered clay at bradwell, and established a pottery there, where for a time they produced good ware from the red clay. but curious eyes were at work to discover their processes, and one astbury, pretending to be a half-witted fellow, succeeded in doing it; and then their business was ruined and broken up. from paul elers descended the wife of richard lovel edgeworth, whose daughter is known as maria edgeworth. a white salt-glazed stone-ware was made in staffordshire about 1700, which has been called "elizabethan." this often had designs made from a mould applied to the surface. stoke-upon-trent, in staffordshire, very early became a centre for potter's work, as it is to-day; the country there for miles being a string of villages, filled with furnaces and the houses of potters. it is not my purpose to attempt a detailed history of the immense pottery industries which have been developed in and about staffordshire--potteries which, for variety and extent, have never been equaled, unless perhaps in china. there is, however, one potter, whose life and work have had a distinguished influence upon the potteries of england, to whom some space must be given; he is josiah wedgwood. born in 1730 at burslem, he came from an ancestry of potters, and he breathed the air of the potteries, so that he may be said to have been a born potter. he was one of thirteen children; he grew up with the small amount of school education then in vogue in that part of england--especially among his class of _workers_--and was apprenticed to a potter when he was but fourteen years old. the english nation has in these latter days gone into a sort of frenzy upon the subject of school education, having got the impression that that will enable them to compete with or excel all the nations of the world. this i believe to be a mistake. i may, i think, fairly point to germany, whose commissioner at the american exhibition writes home that the productions of germany are marked by lack of taste, lack of thoroughness, and lack of honesty; in other words, germany, with the most thorough system of common-school education, is distinguished for the "cheap and nasty" in her work. what was it, then, i may ask at this point, which made josiah wedgwood, this unschooled boy, the most able and successful potter of england, and perhaps of all the world? i attempt to answer it by stating my belief _that he was not living for riches, but for excellence_. he worked all his life to combine the useful with the beautiful more and more perfectly; and in a surprising degree he succeeded. this was not because of his intellectual ability, but because of his sense of _honor_. the world has gone into a craze for intellect--not at all for _honesty_. i mean by honesty not a sickly sort of conscientiousness, which often hinders; but honesty of intention, showing itself in work. to illustrate my meaning, i may say that my own experience has been that the larger part of mankind are quite willing to "shab" a thing--to do it poorly--provided it will sell, and give them their wages. this, it seems to me, was just what made wedgwood what he was; he could not do that. all the work of his i have seen was done as well as it could be done. i do not mean that all his designs were good or his decorations faultless; but, as it was, it _was as well done as he could do it_. [illustration: fig. 91.--_portrait of wedgwood._] it seems to me that in his portrait (fig. 91) a good deal of this robust, manly, honorable character is to be traced. i like to think that the face here, as in many cases, is a sort of promise of the man. i cannot do better than to quote, from one of wedgwood's catalogues, his own words, which are better than any sermon, better than much "burnt-offering and sacrifice;" which phrase of the prophet shows that there were shabby fellows then, even in the days of god's jews. i quote: "a competition for cheapness, and not for excellence of workmanship, is the most frequent and certain cause of the rapid decay and entire destruction of arts and manufactures. "the desire of selling much in a little time, without respect to the taste or quality of the goods, leads manufacturers and merchants to ruin the reputation of the articles which they make and deal in; and while those who buy, for the sake of a fallacious saving, prefer mediocrity to excellence, it will be impossible for them either to improve or keep up the quality of their works. "all works of art must bear a price in proportion to the skill, the taste, the time, the expense, and the risk, attending the invention and execution of them. those pieces that for these reasons bear the highest price, and which those who are not accustomed to consider the real difficulty and expense of making fine things are apt to call dear, are, when justly estimated, the cheapest articles that can be purchased; and such are generally attended with much less profit to the artist than those that everybody calls cheap. "beautiful forms and compositions are not to be made by chance; and they never were made nor can be made in any kind at small expense; but the proprietors of this manufactory have the satisfaction of knowing, by a careful comparison, that the prices of many of their ornaments are much lower than, and all of them as low as, those of any other ornamental works in europe of equal quality and risk, notwithstanding the high price of labor in england; and they are determined to give up the making of any article rather than to degrade it." from all this is it not evident that wedgwood too found his world full of _shabby buyers_? i think so; and that has been the misfortune of others. while the buyers are apt to vituperate the workmen, in too many cases _they_ are the culprits. few will dispute it, that nearly all the manufacturing and trading world has been sliding downward into shabbiness since wedgwood's day; and few will dispute it, that the _mania_ to "buy cheap and sell dear" always did and always will debase any people. it is not my purpose to give any detailed history of the life and doings of wedgwood. all who are enough interested will find these in his "life," by llewellynn jewitt, and in that by miss meteyard, both of which are full, and are profusely illustrated. what i can do here is to call attention to some of the most distinctive things accomplished by this great potter. almost from the first, wedgwood perceived or felt that there were good and bad both in form and decoration; and he set to work to secure perfection in both. while all his life he wished to make, and did make, vases and other works for purely ornamental and artistic purposes, in which the expression of beauty alone was sought, he had that practical sense which taught him to apply his skill and his perception first to the production and improvement of earthen-ware which came into the daily uses of life. out of this came his "queen's-ware," which soon had such a reputation for form and quality that it went in large quantities all over the trading world. from this it should be known that wedgwood made the money with which he carried forward those investigations and experiments which at last culminated in his finest works of fictile art. it may as well be said here that even _his_ art-work made him no money, although many of his pieces were reproduced. the fifty copies of the "portland vase"--of which more hereafter, and which sold for fifty guineas each--cost him more than he got for them. it is best to say this, because some men and women think that artists are sure to become rich. no man should attempt to be an artist with such an expectation; for, while here and there one is caught on the wave of fashion and borne onward to fortune, the number of these is few. no artist must expect a _speedy_ recognition for good work. wedgwood would not have been wedgwood had he not had a foundation for his art-work in his "queen's-ware." upon this ware a word of explanation may be desirable. he early brought this every-day ware to great perfection, not only of form, but of paste and glaze. it was not painted, but was of a creamy white; and, being at such a small price, it went into very wide use. having sent some pieces of it as a present to queen charlotte, she was induced to order a complete table-service, and to request that it might be called "queen's-ware" thenceforth, as it is to this day. this service was painted in the best style then in vogue by the two chief artists at the works, _thomas daniell_ and _daniel steele_. one of the most remarkable dinner-services made by wedgwood was for the empress catharine ii. of russia, for her palace near st. petersburg called _grenouillière_. it is thus described by chaffers: "this splendid service was commenced in april, 1773, and had upward of twelve hundred views of the seats of noblemen and gentlemen in england, and a green frog was painted underneath each piece. the form chosen was the royal pattern, and was made of the ordinary cream-color ware, with a delicate saffron-tint. the views were in purple camaieu, bordered with a gadroon pattern in indian-ink, and round the edge a running wreath of mauve flowers and green leaves. the two services for dinner and dessert consisted of nine hundred and fifty-two pieces, had twelve hundred and forty-four enamel views, which cost, on an average, twenty-one shillings each, the borders and frogs to each about fifteen shillings more; making the entire cost, with fifty-one pounds eight shillings and fourpence for the cream-ware itself, a total of twenty-three hundred and fifty-nine pounds two shillings and one penny, without calculating many extras. the price ultimately paid by the empress was stated to be three thousand pounds. in june, 1774, the service was sufficiently completed to exhibit at the new rooms in portland house, greek street, soho, no. 12, where it remained on show for nearly two months. the empress showed it to lord malmesbury when he visited the grenouillière in 1779." i may refer here also to his partnership with mr. bentley as another of the important elements of his success. bentley was a man with capital, and also a man with an artistic sense; and he coöperated heartily with wedgwood in a desire for thorough work, for excellence, and for profit. the artistic work for which wedgwood is so distinguished is what the pottery collector is most interested in. this, as wedgwood himself has said of all good work, was not the result of chance. from the first he used his _own_ brains and those of others. he studied whatever he could find to improve his profession, and became something of a chemist; so that the values of clays and silex, and the composition and use of metallic oxides for coloring them, grew to be an art in themselves in his hands. the work upon which wedgwood applied his inventions and his art may be classified in this way: 1. queen's-ware, for the table. 2. terra-cotta, to represent porphyry, granite, etc. 3. basalt, or black egyptian. 4. white biscuit. 5. bamboo, cream-colored biscuit. 6. jasper, or onyx. 7. a hard porcelain biscuit, for chemists, etc. he conceived that he could produce a paste or body so fine, compact, and homogeneous, as to be finished without a glaze, and, at the same time, be susceptible of receiving color in purity and perfection throughout this body. this he succeeded in doing, and this is what is now known over all the world as wedgwood's jasper, or onyx. this is the ware upon which he afterward applied the cameo ornaments in white upon a ground or body of various tints--blues, sage-green, and purple. at first the color permeated the whole paste; afterward it was applied on the surface only by means of a "dip." this was begun about the year 1776, and went onward till the end of his life. it is of interest for us to know how the beautiful cameo ornaments used on this ware were obtained. the enthusiasm and the sense of honor which inspired wedgwood gave him access soon to the best people and the best collections in england. in the collections of sir william hamilton, and others, were the exquisite intaglios found in the antique art-work of egypt, greece, and rome. wedgwood took most careful and delicate impressions of these, and from these his careful and delicate cameos were formed. not only did he draw thus from the ancients, he also enlisted the best designers and workmen wherever he could find them, and among these the most distinguished was the sculptor flaxman. it may interest the rising sculptor to know that flaxman's price for designs made for wedgwood was a half-guinea each. at this time he was a young man struggling into recognition; and he was glad of the opportunity, as well as of the money, which wedgwood gave him. his designs all bear unmistakable indications of greek inspiration, and he has been called an "english greek." miss meteyard, in her "life of wedgwood," quotes a number of the bills paid to flaxman. one in 1775 runs thus: "a pair of vases, one with a satyr, the other with a triton-handle, three guineas; bass-reliefs of the muses and apollo, hercules and the lion, hercules and the boar, hercules and cerberus, bacchus and ariadne, jupiter, juno, minerva, justice and hope--for each of these he received ten shillings and sixpence; table of the four seasons, two pounds and two shillings," etc. flaxman modeled, too, a goodly number of busts of distinguished persons. models and designs were also procured from artists in italy, many of which were made under the supervision of flaxman while he was studying and working there. of this jasper was made a great variety of objects, besides vases and tea-services. of the last we engrave portions of one in possession of mr. wales, of boston, which is as near perfection as any work of this kind can be (fig. 92). [illustration: fig. 92.--_old wedgwood._] this jasper-ware was used in many ways, as the following list will indicate. it shows something of the variety of art-work made by wedgwood: 1. cameos and intaglios. 2. bass-reliefs, medallions, and tablets. 3. kings and illustrious persons of asia, egypt, greece, etc. 4. busts of kings, emperors, popes, etc., down to modern times. 5. heads of poets, painters, divines, etc. 6. busts, statuettes, animals, etc. 7. lamps and candelabra. 8. ornamental vases and antique vases. 9. painted etruscan (greek) vases, etc. so great was the production of the cameos and antique ornaments, and so greatly were they used as articles of jewelry, for settings in furniture, etc., that over two thousand different moulds and designs were made. we engrave here one of these small cameos, which, however, fails to convey a full sense of the delicate character of the work (fig. 93). they reached almost the perfection of gems. [illustration: fig. 93.--_wedgwood cameo._] [illustration: fig. 94.--_teapot._] fig. 94, a teapot, which is not remarkable for beauty of form or execution, is given as an example of the work done by the english potters before wedgwood's day, to meet the ordinary wants of common life. it should be kept in mind, in estimating wedgwood's character, that he combined, in an eminent degree, the _artistic_ and the _commercial_ faculties, and thus was able to produce results of a striking kind. like shakespeare, he was omnivorous, and browsed wherever the pastures were sweet. all food was good which could be turned into delectable milk. some of the most perfect of wedgwood's work was made in the black _basalt_; which, however, lacks the brilliancy that colors gave to the jasper-ware. the example engraved (fig. 95) is from mr. wales's collection. [illustration: fig. 95.--_wedgwood basalt._] in 1787 the most celebrated vase of antiquity, called the "barberini vase," and now the "portland vase," was to be sold by auction. wedgwood was inspired with a desire to possess it; probably with the intention of making copies. he kept bidding upon it, but his competitor was the duchess of portland, who also was inspired with the desire of ownership. finally, when the price had reached eighteen hundred guineas, she sent wedgwood word that he should have the _loan_ of the vase, if he would withdraw his competition. it was so agreed; and wedgwood set to work. he paid webber five hundred guineas to make the model, for he was not allowed to make a mould. he then produced fifty copies (some say fewer) in his jasper-ware, the body being black, with a tinge of blue; the reliefs being in white. it was as nearly a perfect reproduction as could be made by the hand of man. as i have said, the cost of these was more than the price received. this remarkable piece of antiquity is now in the british museum. it was once shown to a crazed man, who, with a blow of his stick, broke it into a dozen pieces. it is, however, thoroughly repaired. the original vase is nine and three-fourths inches high and twenty-one and three-fourths inches in circumference. wedgwood's reproduction of it was pronounced by the best judges to be faultless. it was exhibited at all the principal courts of europe by his son in 1791. the moulds are still in existence, and other copies have frequently been made by wedgwood's successors, but they are not equal to the first in finish. we give a photograph of this celebrated vase as a frontispiece. miss meteyard gives the following account of this renowned vase: "the original vase is supposed to have been manufactured in the glass-works of alexandria at their best period. brought thence to rome, it was used as a receptacle for the ashes of the funeral-pyre, as it was found inclosed in a sarcophagus of excellent workmanship, and this in a sepulchral chamber beneath a mound of earth called monte del grano, about three miles from rome, on the road to ancient tusculum. the discovery was made between the years 1623 and 1644, during the pontificate of urban viii. (barberini). an inscription on the sarcophagus, which was otherwise covered with fine bass-reliefs, showed it to have been dedicated to the memory of the emperor alexander severus, and his mother, julia mammæa, both of whom were killed in the year 235, during the revolt in germany. the vase, ten inches in height, was deposited in the library of the barberini family, and the sarcophagus in the museum of the capital. the material of which the former is composed was, by montfauçon and others, conjectured to be a precious stone, but wedgwood's examination proved it to be formed of glass; the ground being a dark blue, so nearly approaching black as to appear to be of that color, except when held in a strong light. the white bass-reliefs are of glass or paste, the material having been fused on in a mass, and then cut out by the skill and patience of the gem-engraver. the subjects of these bass-reliefs, as also the age and place of production of the vase, are points so wholly unknown as to be open to conjecture and criticism. with respect to the first, critics have differed. they have been generally considered to bear reference to the eleusinian mysteries; but one of the most learned critics of our own day, whose works on 'gems' are known to every artist, scholar, and man of taste, considers that one of the group represents peleus approaching thetis. at best, the vase must ever remain what erasmus darwin termed it, 'portland's mystic urn.' wedgwood valued the copy represented at two hundred pounds." i must say for myself that, having seen the original--now in the british museum, where it is most jealously guarded--i cannot but admire the careful and beautiful cutting of the figures in the designs which surround the body; but i did not when i saw it, nor do i now, think the form of the vase in any degree equal to the best of the greek or etruscan vases. wedgwood's life was an active and a productive one. he learned how to live, not from books, not in schools, but in doing the work his hands found to do. he was born a potter, he remained a potter, and he died a potter. he did not esteem his occupation a thing to be dropped as soon as possible, that he might be something else; or, as many persons are apt to do, that he might do nothing. work, to him, was not only honorable, it was _necessary_. the old notion, that work was a curse, never entered his sound head. it is an honorable thing that his merits were recognized while he lived; for this is rare in the heat and hurry and competition of this day of ours. before he died, in 1795, he was made a fellow of the royal society, and of the society of antiquaries; and was recognized by a large number of people as a thorough worker and an able man. since his death, honors have descended on his head. his "life" has been carefully written by mr. jewitt and by miss meteyard; and mr. gladstone, england's ablest man, has spoken with generous and discriminating praise of him and his works. in many private collections, as well as in all public ones, these works are prized; and not the least interesting and valuable of these collections is that of mr. gladstone, now loaned to the city of liverpool. the prices which fine pieces of wedgwood's work have sold for will be seen in the following, from a sale of mrs. brett's, in england, in 1864: plaques, white on blue ground, "virgil reciting before augustus," 7-1/2 by 18 inches £44 five groups, infant bacchanals, 5 by 23 inches 64 basin, with cupids and figures 10 at a sale of de la rue's, in 1866: pair of two-handled seaux, with satyrs, gnomes, etc. £39 18_s._ dish, nautilus-shell 9 10_s._ large bowl on foot, with boys, festoons, etc. 27 6_s._ busts in black-ware sold as follows: de witt £17 17_s._ seneca 15 bacon 10 10_s._ venus 15 15_s._ cato 9 10_s._ at mr. marryat's sale: a black tazza supported on three figures, 11 inches £6 10_s._ a pair of black vases and covers, with white figures in cameo, 12 inches 46 a black lamp, with red figures 2 10_s._ a granite vase, with handles, gilt ornaments, etc., 9 inches 4 4_s._ a watch-stand, with cupid in relief in white, on sage-green ground, 6 inches 8 a candlestick, in form of a tree, with cupids ditto, 11 inches, 16 staffordshire now smokes for miles with the fires of her kilns, and vast quantities of wares are produced. within the last twenty-five years a growing desire has been felt to bestow upon these articles of every-day use some grace of form and some decoration of art; and in both the english and the french pottery of to-day beauty and use are combined. chapter x. the porcelain of china difficulties.--the porcelain tower at nanking.--first making of porcelain.--kaolin and pe-tun-tse.--marco polo.--portuguese importation.--the city of king-te-chin.--jacquemart's groups.--symbolic decoration.--inscriptions.--the ming period.--the celestial blue.--the celadons.--reticulated cups.--the crackle.--various periods.--individualism.--marks and dates. no people and no civilization have been or are still of greater interest than those of the "flowery kingdom;" and, spite of much study and careful investigation, of none are we less certain than of these. through thousands of years a peculiar people have developed a peculiar social system--most striking, most distinct, and, in its way, as complete as any other, even if compared with ours, of which we loudly boast. and now this singular people--a people who have grown into a population of four hundred millions, having their barriers broken down by the guns and rams of england, so that trade should enter--are themselves coming out to do the work of the world cheaper than any others can do it. we see them in batavia, in siam, in singapore, in great numbers, as workers, as brokers, as merchants, as manufacturers, and now they are flowing a steady tide into california; and who can say where the flood will reach, where it will stop, and whom it will submerge? no other question of such importance now presses upon us as this. but here we have to deal only with one of the most perfect and most beautiful of industries--one which seems to have had its rise and its culmination with this strange people. what we know of it we can hardly be said to _know_. the chinese have always kept their own secrets, and have not cared to convert us to their methods, or to cater to our ways. we therefore gather, here and there, a scrap of information upon the subject of porcelains; we get, when we can, examples of their work; we try to learn something of their processes; but, after all, can only submit what we gather with some misgivings as to the absolute truth. we do not know how to spell their names in our letters, and they vary infinitely; so too the inscriptions upon their plates and dishes vary with the knowledge and the fancy of the translator. of course, we approximate to the truth, but not more; for no two chinese quite agree as to what this most flexible writing may mean. as to dates on the pieces, some certainty seems to have been reached; and such is valuable. i have added to this article _marks_ and dates as now understood by the best authorities in england, and as arranged by mr. a. w. franks, who is the latest writer upon the subject. the knowledge of these helps the student, and is valuable to the collector. [illustration: fig. 96.--_pou-tai, "the god of content."_] the opening cut (fig. 96) in our chapter shows the chinese god pou-tai--the "god of content." he is described as "corpulent, his chest uncovered, mounted upon or leaning on the wine-skin which holds his terrestrial goods; his face, with half-closed eyes, beaming with an eternal laugh." his image, done in porcelain, is found in the workshops of china, where men wish more than they can obtain; he allays, perhaps, but does not quench. this image would be most useful--at least, most suggestive--if it could be set up in every _bourse_ of the western world. [illustration: fig. 97.--_the porcelain tower at nanking._] the nanking tower (fig. 97) once stood near the city of nanking, from which city much of our finest porcelain comes. it was built with bricks or pottery, the face of which was coated with a dip or slip of porcelain; and the whole thing was valuable and interesting as a monument of the potter's art. it is now razed to the ground, the last destruction being that of the taiping rebels. the history of pottery is in a good degree the history of man. all nations have done something in this way, from the rude clay pots of the barbarians, through the gayly-painted dishes of the incipient civilization, up to the culmination of the art, when perfection seems to have been reached in china through the centuries extending up to the sixteenth. this manufacture, which reached in china and japan to the point of finest art, has not been surpassed by any civilized race, if equaled. i am unable to do anything but admire a people whose workmen did and liked to do such fine and faithful work, and found such large patronage for it; and it seems a ludicrous and stupid judgment for us, who admire and pay for the sculptures of mr. mills and miss ream, to call those peoples barbarians! are they not justified in calling _us_ "outside barbarians?" this chapter will treat briefly upon these oriental productions, and i hope no apology is needed. three thousand years (2697 b. c.) before our christian era these chinese were great potters, had reached to a high point in form and decoration; and porcelain, the finest pottery, began to be made some two hundred years before our era. at that time our ancestors were in a state of gross, if not beastly, barbarism; while _they_ showed skill, taste, refinement, in this and in other ways. as late as the seventeenth century cups and trenchers of "honest tre," or wood, were used in the best castles of england, and the dishes were often square bits of board; and down even to a much later day the fingers were used to carry the meat to the mouth. some two hundred years, then, before christ, it appears that the chinese had discovered and applied to the making of porcelain two fine clays, one called _kaolin_, and the other _pe-tun-tse_; the first is a decayed feldspar; combined, these clays produce the fine semi-transparent body which we call china or porcelain. all china, then, has in a greater or less degree this quality of translucency. it appears, therefore, that most of the canton ware brought to us is not porcelain at all, but simply a kind of stone or earthen ware, coated with an enamel or "slip," which sometimes may contain porcelain. so, too, the most beautiful satsuma ware from japan is not porcelain, but a fine sort of pottery or earthen-ware, the decoration of which is most marked and harmonious. for more than two thousand years the "heathen chinee" has been working at the production of porcelain--and apparently most intelligently and skillfully. he has accomplished this: 1. the materials used are selected with the greatest care. 2. they are combined, and ground, and mixed, with consummate knowledge. 3. the articles desired are turned and modeled with great precision and dexterity, oftentimes with the keenest perception of beauty of line. 4. the decorations exhibit an exquisite feeling as to value and harmony of color, and freedom of design. this combination of knowledge, skill, and taste, the chinese were the first to combine in pottery and porcelain, and they have not been excelled. to those who are ignorant, it seems a very paltry thing to make a dinner-plate; but to make a perfect one requires most of the best faculties of man. ignorant and foolish people hold the china-lovers in contempt; we reciprocate: we believe that the man who does not perceive and enjoy all this beautiful handiwork is willfully ignorant or pitiably stupid: he has our pity and our prayers. traces of porcelain are found in the ancient tombs and among the mummies of egypt, in the form of small bottles as here shown (fig. 98). just what was their use or significance we do not know; but some think they prove that intercourse existed between those countries in very early days. marco polo visited china in the latter half of the thirteenth century, and he told of the great factories for the production of porcelain there; and how certain kinds of earth were collected, and, after being exposed to air and rains for thirty or forty years, were then fit to be made into cups and bowls. great quantities were sold in the city. "for a venetian groat you may purchase eight porcelain cups." beginning of course with useful articles simply, this manufacture progressed until pots and vases and dishes were made for purely decorative purposes. [illustration: fig. 98.--_porcelain bottle, from egyptian tomb._] as porcelain was introduced into europe by the portuguese about the year 1518, we are obliged to pierce into the dimness of the past with the aid of the chinese themselves. m. julien,[9] a frenchman, has compiled from the chinese writings mostly all we know, some parts of which may come into this chapter. jacquemart, marryat, chaffers, demmin, and others, have drawn from him. as early as the tchoin dynasty (about 583) fine qualities were produced, and the court of the emperors demanded it. artists began to appear, and rare and rarer qualities were made. we find that different styles were sought for and were held in highest esteem; that "the tsin held the blue china in high estimation;" the soni or sui (581 to 618) gave the preference to green. the thang dynasty (618 to 907) required that it should be white; and in 621 ho made porcelain for the emperor of a white ground, "brilliant as jade;" while the emperor tchi-tsong (954 to 959) gave his family name to a beautiful blue, the most highly esteemed of all the ancient porcelains of china.[10] how fine this was we cannot know, as it is not likely that any piece of it exists with us, even if among the chinese. the production grew, until in 1369 in the city of king-te-chin, according to the statement of father d'entrecolles, it was estimated at a million pieces a year. a vast and varied industry in making china was carried forward here, down even to the present times, when the taiping rebels (who we are told were _christians_) completely destroyed it. from the accounts, mostly of the french missionaries, it seems that while the three thousand furnaces at king-te-chin baked the porcelain which was modeled there, it was taken to nanking and canton to be decorated; and, as far as we know, the painting of nanking was superior to that of canton. king-te-chin is swept away, and nanking is almost destroyed; so that we can expect no more fine art-work in porcelain from china. it is likely, however, that much decoration was done at the great city of king-te-chin; but what we know now as "the celestial" or nanking blue was probably done at nanking; of this more will be said in the progress of this chapter. it is impossible here to dwell upon or to know much of the various descriptions of china made down to the period of the ming dynasty (1368 to 1649). upon the productions of this period the chinese collectors and antiquaries place the highest value--in many cases much greater even than is now given to them in europe. some examples of this period are to be seen in europe and a few in america. one of our commissioners, who met the chinese and japanese at the vienna exposition, was told by them that they were purchasing choice pieces of porcelain, intending to take them back to their countries, where they are more valuable than in europe: for, from the earliest days, it seems that both the chinese and japanese have been keen critics and lovers of this most fascinating work. jacquemart and others have attempted to arrange the decorated work into groups as follows: the archaic--of which perhaps none exists. the chrysanthemo-pæonienne. the famille-vert, or green. the famille-rose, or pink. besides these are many sub-varieties. these groups indicate the style of decoration of which we shall attempt to give some sketches, although, as they want color, they must necessarily be faint. the chrysanthemo-pæonienne exhibits the use in various ways of the chrysanthemum and peony. we give here examples to show the style of decoration, as far as we are able to do it without color. [illustration: fig. 99.--_pot from mrs. burlingame's collection._] fig. 99 is a pot from mrs. burlingame's collection. it stands about twenty inches high, and is a fine example of the early style of work. the paste and glaze are not so good as in the rose family, but still all is excellent. the chrysanthemums are yellow, red, and black. this work is no doubt very old. we give (fig. 100) a sketch of a small snuff-bottle from the same collection, drawn the real size. it is a perfect piece of work: the paste [illustration: fig. 100.--_from mrs. burlingame's collection._] [illustration: fig. 101.--_from mrs. burlingame's collection._] is a fine white; the overturned preserve-pot is a clear lemon-yellow, with a little color in the rings; the grasshopper is alive and is brilliant with greens, blacks, and blues. the stopper is a bit of purple amethyst. it is so _complete_ that it fills the mind with satisfaction, more thorough than the sight of st. peter's can give. [illustration: fig. 102.--_chinese vase._] [illustration: fig. 103.--_from miss wyman's collection._] the _famille-vert_, or green, is so called because a clear, brilliant green is the only or prevailing color. the plate here shown (fig. 101) is also from mrs. burlingame's collection. the paste is a brilliant white, the glaze perfect; and the dragons, in green, have all that freedom and fancy for which the early chinese artists were remarkable. the vase, fig. 102, also belonging to the green-family, from jacquemart, is a beautiful example of this style of work. the figures are most deftly drawn and colored. the subject we suppose to be historical. [illustration: fig. 104.--_from mr. wales's collection._] the _famille-rose_, or red, describes a group where the rose and ruby colors are the distinguishing ones. this fine color is produced from gold. nearly all of this work shows the color in low-relief. three very fine examples are given of this rose-family. fig. 103 is an octagon plate, with an exquisitely flowered and diapered border, from the collection of miss wyman, of cambridge. figs. 104 and 105 are equally good, from mr. wales's collection. in this class rank the delicate egg-shell cups and saucers with "rose-backs," in which mr. andrews's collection at new york is so rich. in these three divisions is contained much of the very best productions of china. the chrysanthemum and peony decoration was probably most in use, and was made in greater quantities than any. some of the older pieces of this show the chrysanthemum in black (fig. 99), as well as in other colors. the body of this group is not so fine as the two later descriptions, but the decoration is full of beauty and variety. in the green and rose groups, the paste, the decoration, and the coloring, reached perfection; and it is impossible to surpass the best work of these classes. [illustration: fig. 105.--_from mr. wales's collection._] but in all this work there is no imitation, no absolute copying of the flower, the bud, the landscape, the lady. the chinese were fond of a symbolic or fabulous decoration. the engraving (fig. 106) pictures a conflict going on between the spirits or demons of the water and the air; it is most free and effective. this vase belongs to the collection of mrs. burlingame. i saw in england a small blue vase, at mr. talbert's, upon which was shown the trinity (three figures) in a sort of balcony in the sky; beneath them was a sea of fire, out of which appeared the dragon or devil spitting venom at the godhead, one of which was warding it off with a drawn sword. it was curious, if not true, and showed their notions of european beliefs, obtained, no doubt, from the early missionaries. the dog of fo is one of the sacred symbolic animals, and was placed at the thresholds of temples to defend them from harm. [illustration: fig. 106.--_from mrs. burlingame's collection._] he has feet armed with claws, a great grinning face full of teeth, a curly mane, and might be supposed to be modeled, by an oriental fancy, from the lion. sometimes this creature has been described as a chimera. the fong-hoang also is sometimes pictured. this is a strange and immortal bird, which descends from the regions of highest heaven to bless mankind. it bears a fleshy head, soft silky feathers about its neck, the body ending with a tail combining the feathers of the peacock and the argus pheasant. in very early centuries this bird was the symbol of royalty. other symbolic and sacred creatures are often pictured, among them the kylin, which was believed to foretell good fortune. "its body is covered with scales; its branched head represents that of the dragon; its four delicate feet are terminated by cloven hoofs, resembling those of a stag; it is so gentle and benevolent, notwithstanding its formidable aspect, that it avoids, in its light step, to tread under foot the smallest worm."[11] the dragon, symbol there of empire and power, is thus described: "it is the largest of reptiles with feet and scales; it can make itself dark or luminous, subtile and thin, or heavy and thick; can shorten or lengthen itself at pleasure. in the spring it rises to the skies, in the autumn it plunges into the water. there are the scaly dragon, the winged dragon, the horned and the hornless dragon, and the dragon rolled within itself, which has not yet taken its flight into the upper regions."[12] the example (fig. 101) shows this dragon as pictured by the chinese. the dragon is shown with five claws, for the imperial household; four claws, for a lower rank in china; while in japan the creature is usually figured with but three claws. he appears to have been accepted as the symbol of power, much as the lion has been with occidental nations. the white stag, the axis deer, and the crane, express longevity; the mandarin duck, affection. symbolism also prevailed in the uses of colors and of flowers. green and vermilion upon the walls of a house belonged only to the emperors. the primary colors were applied in this way: red belonged to fire; black to water; green to wood; white to metal; earth was represented by a square; fire by a circle; water by a dragon; mountains by a hind. pots and vases were made for special occupations, such as those for soldiers, governors, writers, etc. jacquemart describes a bowl in his collection: "it is a cup of 'the learned;' at the bottom is seen the author, seated under a fir-tree, in deep meditation; his _ssé_, placed near him, permits him to modulate the songs he may have composed. on the exterior we see the scholar, with his elbows on the table, surrounded by his literary treasures. he reflects, and from his forehead, which he leans on his hand, issues a stroke which unrolls into a vast phylactery, upon which the painter has traced various scenes of the drama to which his genius is giving birth." in mr. avery's collection is an admirable example of this cup. vases, figures, etc., were made for religious uses, and upon the household altars were placed vases for burning perfumes, cups and bowls for wine, images of fo and other representative deities. use was, at the beginning, the motive for the production of all fictile dishes; and china was at first, and it has always been, made for the purposes of the table. twelve small dishes of fine porcelain were presented to mrs. burlingame while at peking; and the high compliment was enhanced by the fact that they were sent to her unwashed after they had been eaten from by the chinese owner. the paste and glaze are excellent, and the decoration of the outsides exquisite; but the insides show painting of a much commoner type. a gift of this kind is considered the height of courtesy in china, where the visitor is treated as a friend. in chinese houses are found decorative pieces of the highest excellence and value. it is no uncommon thing for a piece of rare china to sell for a thousand dollars there. many of them bear inscriptions, such as: "a precious thing to offer;" "splendid, like the gold of the house of jade;" "i am the friend of yu-tchouen." the chrysanthemo-pæonienne, the customary decoration, while most in use, is, so far as i know, never seen on dinner-services sent to us. i may ask attention to a characteristic of all the best oriental art: _it is not imitative_--not absolutely a copy. the artist seizes the _spirit_, the action, the color, of a bird or flower, and, by a few fine, keen strokes, fastens them upon the china. no attempt is made to display a botanical or ornithological specimen. all is free, bold, effective--a sketch, but not a slovenly one. it is not easy for words to explain this. now, the methods of the occidental and civilized peoples, as we call them, are the reverse of this. at sèvres and dresden, for example, is to be seen the most elaborate, careful, and detailed penciling or imitation of a flower, or a face, or a landscape, requiring extreme and persistent attention and labor. this is copying--the _spirit_ is rarely seized; the other is art, and is certainly the highest and the most satisfactory. the oriental feels; the occidental reasons. the oriental perceives and creates; the occidental criticises and copies. herein lies a supreme difference, sufficient to explain why so much of the oriental china touches the imagination, and why the european china so rarely does. the oriental leads us away out of the region of the real and the commonplace, into a state of ideal and spiritual-sensuous art. he is never without body, the real part, the base of all life and art; but he has glorified it by a display of the fine and subtile essence which may be called its soul. this is not always so. often he is most clumsy and rude in form, and common in decoration; but, when he is an _artist_, he is the finest we know of. it is probable that the chinese had some blue equivalent to cobalt [illustration: fig. 107.--_from mrs. burlingame's collection._] from an early day, but the real cobalt blue was introduced into china from europe during the ming period (about 1500). they at once seized it, and from it was produced that charming variety known as the "heavenly" or "celestial" blue; the glaze, the clay, and the color, are all perfect; and it certainly deserves its name of heavenly. a mania for it has existed, and continues to exist, in europe. one of the finest collections in england--that of mr. rossetti, the poet--was recently sold. in america, mr. avery and mr. hoe, of new york, mr. wales, of boston, and mrs. burlingame, of cambridge, have many beautiful examples. fine pieces of this blue sell for from twenty-five to [illustration: fig. 108.--_celestial blue teapot._] [illustration: fig. 109.--_celestial blue snuff-bottle._] five hundred dollars. the color varies from light to dark; some collectors choose one, some the other. some pieces are known as the "six-mark," and many attach an added value to this evidence; but it does not seem to indicate greater perfection: many of the finest pieces i have seen have no potter's mark. within the last twenty-five years a very active desire for these fine blues has broken out in england, which does not abate. it has not been so keen in france, and prices have not there gone so high. [illustration: fig. 110.--_pot in boston art museum._] this celestial blue was painted at nanking, and is a wholly different thing from the ordinary canton blue of trade. it is probable that some of this blue dates back to the ming dynasty. the color was mostly painted under the glaze. this luminous blue is nothing like the turquoise, which also the chinese carried to great perfection. the turquoise was produced from copper, the celestial from cobalt. the pieces figs. 107, 108, and 109 are excellent examples of the celestial blue. fig. 107 is a large vase of mrs. burlingame's, and has the stately palm which is much used in this color. the vase is some eighteen inches high. fig. 108 is a delicately-formed teapot, with exquisite glaze and paste, the blue showing in the reserves and along the handle and spout. it was given to the writer by a gentleman in holland. fig. 109 is a most dainty bit, a small snuff-bottle. there are some few others in this country--two of them, mounted in silver, belong to mr. schlesinger, of boston. [illustration: fig. 111.--_incense-pot, from mr. avery's collection._] the art-museum of boston has now two exquisite pots of turquoise blue, bought at the sale of mr. heard's collection for some six hundred dollars. we picture one of these to show the form, and the dragon which finishes the top (fig. 110). the dragon is in dark red, the pot in turquoise blue; but this blue has another and a rare quality: it is covered all over with delicate spots or dots of the same color, what is called "soufflé"--this is said to be produced by blowing the color through a fine screen or gauze on to the clay. the sea-greens (_céladons_) are among the rarest chinese colors, and some pieces are thought to be among the oldest--dating back possibly one thousand years. the violets and crimsons are also rare and beautiful; they are almost always applied to vases and bottles; and are often flamed, splashed, or clouded. the imperial yellow, some pieces of which are in the green vaults at dresden, was never sold; it was made only for the royal family of peking. i have not seen it, but it is described as a very clear and beautiful citron-color. marryat mentions two pieces in mr. beckford's collection as having been sold for their weight in gold; they would now sell for ten times that. the small incense-pot (fig. 111) is from mr. avery's collection. it is a very pure lemon-yellow, and is quaint in form and peculiar in every way. nothing can be better here than the condensed information prepared for his catalogue by mr. a. w. franks. it is as follows: "the tints are very numerous; we find, for instance, sea-green or _céladon_, yellow, red, blue, purple, brown, black, and several variegated hues. these glazes owe their color to various metallic oxides, of which an account may be found in the 'history of king-te-chin,' book vi., section xi. the exact tint must be in some measure due to the amount of firing which the vase has undergone, and the mottlings and other variations of color which they present must have been to a certain extent accidental. "among these simple colors the first place must be assigned to the bluish or sea-green tint, termed by the french _céladon_. it is probably of considerable antiquity; and it is remarkable that the earliest specimen of porcelain that can now be referred to as having been brought to england before the reformation--the cup of archbishop warham, at new college, oxford--is of this kind. by the persians and turks it is termed _mertebani_, and it is much valued by them as a detector of poisonous food. specimens of this porcelain were sent to lorenzo de' medici, in 1487, by the sultan of egypt. it owes its preservation, no doubt, to its great thickness. the surface is sometimes covered with impressed or engraved patterns filled in with the glaze. "yellow glazed porcelain is much valued by collectors, owing to the supposed scarcity of specimens of this color, it being the imperial color of the reigning dynasty. many of them, however, bear dates of the ming dynasty, when the imperial color was green, and can therefore have no relation to the emperor. "the red glaze is of considerable antiquity; some of the vases made under the sung dynasty at tsing-cheou are mentioned as resembling chiseled red jade. one tint, the _sang de boeuf_ of french collectors, is much valued in china. occasionally portions of red glazed vases appear purple, owing probably to a different chemical condition of the coloring-matter in those parts. "blue glazes must have come into use in very early times, as blue is stated to have been the color of the vases of the tsin dynasty (a. d. 265 to 419). the tints appear to have varied greatly, one of the most celebrated being the blue of the sky after rain, which was the tint selected for the palace use by the emperor chi-tsung (954 to 959). "the purple glaze is another beautiful variety. specimens of this color are mentioned as early as the sung dynasty (900 to 1279). the brown and coffee-colored glazes do not appear to be very ancient, as père d'entrecolles, writing in 1712, mentions them as recent inventions. "a brilliant black glaze is by no means common, excepting where it is used in combination with gilding, and is probably not very ancient, as a brilliant black is said to have been invented under the reign of the emperor keen-lung (1736 to 1795). "the variegated and mottled glazes may properly be included under this head, as they owe their appearance not so much to a difference in the coloring-matter as in the mode in which it is applied. they are called by the french _flambé_, and were no doubt originally accidentally produced. according to père d'entrecolles (second letter, section xi.), such vases are called _yao pien_, or transmutation-vases. "it is probable that many of the specimens which are covered with single glazes are of a coarse ware--rather a kind of stone-ware than true porcelain. some of the glazes have been applied at a somewhat lower temperature, called by the french _demi-grand feu_." porcelain-painting is done in two ways: under the glaze directly on the clay, or upon the glaze. most of it is upon the glaze, into which it is melted by a mild heat. to show to the uninitiated what time, talent, and labor, are applied to pottery and porcelain, it may be well to state that fine work requires many firings, and that the delicate teacup, which fools hardly look at, passes through some seventy hands to reach its perfectness! in some eyes a big thing (even if ugly) is admirable; a small thing, however beautiful, is contemptible. in the eye of god is anything small, anything large? enameling is a style of glaze mostly applied to a stronger, more opaque body, often not porcelain at all. the enamel, which is made from oxide of tin, may be applied in masses of color upon the glaze so as to produce the effect of slight relief, or cameo. much of it is beautiful, but it often lacks the fineness and preciousness of china. of the egg-shell china most have seen excellent examples brought from japan, where it is now made. the cups are turned down to an extreme thinness, almost to that of thick writing-paper, before the last glaze is applied. the oldest egg-shell was a pure white; later, flowers in colors were applied. [illustration: fig. 112.--_grains-of-rice pot._] the "reticulated" cups are very curious and interesting; the inner cup for holding the tea is surrounded by another pierced through its side with a variety of designs. it is difficult to see how these could have been baked together without fusing and fastening them. the "grains-of-rice" cups are made by cutting the design through the body, which spaces are then filled with a translucent glaze; the cut spaces show when held up to the light, and resemble in most cases grains of rice. the engraving (fig. 112) represents a pot in mr. avery's collection. just when the "crackle" decoration was applied cannot well be known, but it was in vogue in the beginning of the ming dynasty. it seems that the purity of the paste was greater during this period than later, and that the colors, therefore, became more brilliant. "crackle" china has long been prized, and much sought for, especially the best specimens. this ware shows a network of veins covering the whole piece, the lines of which are sometimes filled with a color such as brown, black, green, etc. it remains a mystery to us how this effect is produced, though it is still made. marryat seems to believe that the crackle is produced in the glaze, and possibly by subjecting it, when heated, to sudden cold, which causes the contraction and crackle; a close examination shows that the crackles are in the body itself, and are afterward covered with the glaze. this decoration is curious rather than beautiful. the crackles vary in size from a half-inch to a very fine network; and this last is most valued. mr. franks gives the following as the result of his investigations: "this is one of the most peculiar productions of the art of the chinese potter, and has not been successfully imitated elsewhere. occasionally european pieces assume a crackled appearance, but this has not been intentionally produced, and has been subsequent to the baking. "there is a considerable variety in the colored glazes which are thus crackled. some colors, such as turquoise-blue and apple-green, seem nearly always to assume a crackled appearance; others, such as the reds, are rarely affected. the color chiefly selected is a grayish white; the forms are archaic, and with ornaments in dark brown, occasionally gilt. the crackled appearance, though now always artificial, doubtless owes its origin in the first instance to accident, and at an early period. some of the vases of the sung dynasty (a. d. 960 to 1270) are noticed as being crackled. the productions of the two brothers chang, who lived under that dynasty, were distinguished by one being crackled and the other not. crackled vases were called 'tsui-khi-yao,' under the southern sung dynasty (1127 to 1279), and are thus described in the 'history of king-te-chin:' 'the clay employed was coarse and compact, the vases were thick and heavy; some were of a rice-white, others pale blue. they used to take some hoa-chi (steatite), powder it, and mix it with the glaze. the vases exhibited cracks running in every direction, as though broken into a thousand pieces. the cracks were rubbed over with indian-ink or a red color, and the superfluity removed. then was seen a network of charming veins, red or black, imitating the cracks of ice. there were also vases on which blue flowers were painted on the crackled ground.' [illustration: fig. 113.--_crackle vase._] "a different mode of making the crackles is described in another chinese work, and is as follows: 'after covering the vases with glaze, they are exposed to a very hot sun, and, when they have become hot, they are plunged into cold water for a moment. on being baked, they appear covered with innumerable cracks.' the way in which the size of the crackle is regulated seems to be indicated in one of the receipts for making crackle-vases, given in the 'history of king-te-chin' (page 214), from which we learn that the material of the glaze was to be finely or coarsely washed, according to the size of the crackle required. "the difference between the paste and the thick glaze is well illustrated by fragments of ancient vases, some of which are exhibited. the interior is of a coarse paste, nearly resembling stone-ware, and of a buff or even pale-red color. this is coated on both sides with a white material, in which alone the crackles appear. this illustrates a passage in the 'history of king-te-chin,' where porcelain is spoken of as having red bones. such vases would not be transparent." [illustration: fig. 114.--_from mr. avery's collection._] the japanese now produce a crackle under the glaze, and also a very fine crackle in the glaze itself; which last is probably much the easiest to do. fig. 113, copied from m. jacquemart's work, represents a rather clumsily-shaped vase with the larger crackle, which is less prized. fig. 114 is finely crackled, and is most subtile in form. it is in mr. avery's collection. at the end of this chapter will be found some of the most important _marks_ for dates, etc. these few are used by the chinese as symbolic: [illustration: _pearl._] [illustration: _sonorous stone._] the _pearl_ is the symbol of talent, and was sometimes used to mark pieces intended for poets and literary men; the _sonorous stone_ was for high judicial functionaries; the _tablet of honor_ for men in official positions; the _sacred axe_ for warriors; the "cockscomb" promised longevity; and the "outang or leaf," the "shell," the "precious articles," had each a significance, and often indicate pieces of china intended as presents or as expressions of honor. [illustration: _tablet of honor._] [illustration: _sacred axe._] [illustration: _cockscomb (flower)._] [illustration: _outang._] [illustration: _shell._] [illustration: _precious articles._] it is probable that many of the best examples of chinese porcelain date from the ming dynasty, some of which are to be found in our public and private collections. the history of the manufacture there since that time is thus summed up by mr. franks: "the troubles of the later emperors of the ming dynasty, who succeeded one another rapidly, and were constantly at war with the tartars, probably caused the porcelain-works to fall into decay; we hear, at any rate, nothing of their productions, nor have any dated specimens been seen. "with the accession of the tsing dynasty of tartars, still occupying the throne of china, a new period of activity commenced. under kang-he, the second emperor of the dynasty (1661 to 1722), a great impulse was given to the ceramic arts. the long and peaceful reign of this emperor, extending to sixty-one years, his great understanding, and the assistance perhaps of the jesuit missionaries, led to many improvements in the porcelain-manufacture, and to the introduction of several new colors. it is probably to this reign that we may refer most of the old specimens of chinese porcelain that are to be seen in collections, even when they bear earlier dates. the wares made under his successor, yung-ching (1723 to 1736), do not appear to have been remarkable. "the fourth emperor, keen-lung (1736 to 1795), reigned for sixty years, when he abdicated. a large quantity of fine china was made during his long reign, much of it exhibiting very rich and minute decoration. under his successors the manufacture appears again to have diminished in excellence; and the destruction caused by the rebellion of the taipings not only greatly interfered with the extent of production, but caused the downfall of the most celebrated of the fabrics--that of king-te-chin. "as we have already said, however, the native accounts do not furnish much information that can be rendered available; but they show very clearly that at all times the porcelain-makers were in the habit of copying the works of their predecessors, and instances are given where they have even succeeded in imposing upon the best judges of their own country. "the places at which manufactories of porcelain have existed or still exist in china are very numerous, no less than fifty-seven being recorded in the 'history of king-te-chin.' they extend to thirteen of the eighteen provinces into which the country is divided, but are especially numerous in honan, chihkiang, and kiangsi, probably owing to the presence of the materials for the manufacture in these provinces. the following is a summary: chihli 5 keang-nan 5 shansi 5 shantung 2 honan 13 shensi 4 kansuh 1 chihkiang 8 kiangsi 8 szechuen 1 fokien 2 kwangtung 1 hoonan 2 "of all these manufactories, the most famous appears to be that of king-te-chin, in the province of kiangsi. it has long been the site of a fabrique, as in a. d. 583 the then emperor ordered the inhabitants of the district now called king-te-chin to send him porcelain vases. the old name was chang-nan-chin, and the present one was assumed in the period king-te (a. d. 1004 to 1007), whence its name. in 1712 père d'entrecolles states that there were three thousand porcelain furnaces in this town, which found employment for an immense multitude of people. the manufactory has suffered severely, as we have already stated, during the rebellion of the taipings. "porcelain is termed by the chinese _yao_, a name which seems to have been brought into use at the commencement of the tang dynasty (a. d. 618), before which it had been called _tao_. the word 'porcelain' is european, possibly italian, and is supposed to have been derived from the similarity of the glazed surface to that of the cowrie-shell (_porcellana_), which itself took its name from its form (_porcella_, a little pig). marco polo employs the word in both senses. in french mediæval inventories the word '_pourcelaine_' is often found, and evidently denoted a substance which could be sculptured. m. de laborde has collected a number of quotations, in the valuable 'glossaire' appended to his catalogue, of the enamels in the louvre, and has come to the conclusion that mother-of-pearl was intended; it will, however, be safer to consider that the word was used for any kind of shell, the cowrie and other shells being as well, or even better, adapted for carving than mother-of-pearl. in later inventories the word seems to have been used both for shell and oriental porcelain. "the claim of greatest antiquity that has been hitherto put forward for specimens found out of the limits of the celestial empire have been in favor of the little chinese bottles, which were stated by rossellini and others to have been found in undisturbed egyptian tombs, dating from not less than 1800 years b. c. this claim has, however, been disallowed. the bottles are of good white porcelain, painted in colors, and bearing inscriptions. now, we have seen that the chinese themselves do not claim a greater antiquity for the invention of porcelain than between b. c. 206 and a. d. 87. color-painting must have been introduced at a much later date. the inscriptions are in the grass-character, which was not invented till b. c. 48, and contain passages from poems which were not written till the eighth century of our era. they are, in fact, identical with snuff-bottles still for sale in china. their introduction, therefore, into egyptian tombs must have been due to the fraud of arab workmen. the whole subject has been gone into by m. stanislas julien, in the preface to the 'history of king-te-chin,' as well as by others. "the next claim has been made on behalf of the _murrhine_ vases of the ancients, which are described as 'cooked in parthian fires.' now, it is probable that, at the commencement of our era, chinese porcelain was not far advanced beyond pottery or stone-ware, and little superior to the so-called egyptian porcelain. no fragments of chinese vases have been found with greek or roman antiquities, nor of imitations of them in other materials, so as to correspond with the false murrhine of the ancients. it is therefore far more probable, as has been suggested by mr. nesbitt, in his notes on the 'history of glass-making,' that the murrhine vases were made of agates and other hard stones, of which the colors had been modified in the east by heating and staining. the false murrhines would then be the glass bowls imitating hard stones, but with various strange tints not to be found in natural stones. "in 1171 we first find any distinct mention of porcelain out of china. in that year saladin sent to nur-ed-din various presents, among which were forty pieces of chinese porcelain. "marco polo, traveling in 1280, visited one of the sites of the porcelain manufacture, and mentions that it was exported all over the world. it is probable that he may have been the means of calling the attention of his countrymen to this production of the far east. many other notices from travelers of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries might be cited. it was probably through egypt that it reached europe; at any rate, a present of porcelain vases was sent by the sultan of egypt, in 1487, to lorenzo de' medici. to the portuguese is no doubt due the first direct importation of chinese wares into europe, in which they were followed by the various india companies of holland, england, france, sweden, etc. "it may be convenient shortly to describe the mode of making porcelain in china, as derived from the letters of père d'entrecolles (1712 to 1722), and the 'history of king-te-chin,' in which m. julien has reproduced the chinese plates illustrating the processes. "porcelain in china is usually formed of two materials: the one, termed in chinese _pe-tun-tse_, is a white, fusible material--a mixture of feldspar and quartz, obtained from a pounded rock by repeated washing, and formed into cakes or bricks, whence its chinese name, 'white-clay bricks;' the other, termed kaolin from its locality, is infusible, being a hydrated silicate of alumina, derived from the decomposed feldspar of granite; this is also formed into cakes. these two materials, having been thoroughly cleansed, are kneaded together in varying proportions, and form a clay ready for the potter. the wet clay is turned on the wheel or potter's table, and, after passing through the hands of several workmen, who add handles and other accessories made in moulds, smooth the surface, etc., the vessel is put out to dry, the foot still remaining a solid mass; any decoration in blue, or other colors which require to be highly fired, is then added. the glaze is next applied, either by dipping, or by blowing it on with a tube. this strengthens the vessel sufficiently to enable the workmen to fashion the foot on the wheel, and to inscribe any mark; this being likewise coated with glaze, the vessel is ready for the furnace. the pieces of porcelain are packed in clay seggars to protect them from injury, and placed according to the degree of heat which each specimen requires. the furnace is then lighted, the entrance walled up, and it is kept supplied with wood during a night and a day, when it is allowed to cool and the porcelain removed. if enamel-colors are to be applied, it then passes into the hands of the painters, who are very numerous, and each confined to his own special detail; any gilding or silvering is added at this stage. it is then baked again, at a much lower temperature, in a small muffle or an open furnace. it should be mentioned that the glaze is formed of pe-tun-tse, mixed with fern-ashes and lime, but other materials are occasionally used; for instance, hwa-chi (steatite) is employed, sometimes mixed with the glaze, as well as sometimes with the paste of the porcelain. any colors which will bear to be highly fired, and are required to cover the whole surface, are mixed with the glaze before it is applied. "there is considerable difficulty in distinguishing glazed vases of chinese pottery from true porcelain, as the colored glaze in many cases conceals the material, and the thickness prevents their being translucent--a distinguishing quality of porcelain. the substance of many of the vases is coarse, sometimes gray or even red, and such as would, in european fabriques, be termed stone-ware. by chinese writers, however, no distinction seems to be made, and even enamels on copper are included in the term they use for porcelain. it has, therefore, been thought best to class together glazed chinese pottery and porcelain, though some of the specimens are undoubtedly stone-ware." the key to oriental decoration may be expressed by the word _individualism_. the artist did draw from the "depths of his moral consciousness," and did not copy blindly. he seems to have expressed what he _felt_, rather than what he saw. his perception and arrangement of color seem to have been inspired, not learned. he is daring; he does not hesitate to hang his ladies in a balcony up in the air above the procession passing beneath, as may be seen in a very ancient vase belonging to mrs. gridley bryant, of boston; he does not fear to put blue leaves to his trees, or to make a green horse; his butterfly is as large as a man, if he wishes to show a figure or a mass of color; his boats are smaller than the passenger, if that suits his fancy; he attempts little perspective, and it is, we may say, impossible on a china bowl; symmetry he abhors; pairs do not exist. what is the result? we see it in the porcelain of china and japan, the shawls and carpets of india, the pottery of the persians and the moors, the architecture of karnak and the alhambra, all of which are satisfying to the eye and to the taste. i believe they had no schools of art; they were not _taught_ to do what some one else had done, to copy a master or to copy nature, or to think symmetry beauty, or the circle the perfect line. the artist was, as he ought to be, a law to himself; he saw what _he_ saw, and felt what _he_ felt, and he expressed these in his own way; not in titian's way, or rembrandt's way, or giorgione's way. there is, therefore, a freedom, a freshness, an _abandon_ about this work that we find nowhere else, and a charm which never tires. we are intellectualists rather than artists; and, moreover, we are ruined by cheap and incompetent criticism, the whole gospel of which is, "always condemn, never praise." too much writing _about_ art and too little doing it, is the fashion of to-day; and he who does least finds most fault with him who creates. the artist is the creator, the critic the destroyer; and yet the last values himself most! the "third estate" did not rule in china. if _we_ are to have a true and high artistic expression, our artists, must dare; and we must allow them to dare; we must encourage rather than discourage. we must, above all, get rid of the base old notion that head-work is divine and "gentlemanly," hand-work ignoble and vulgar: both are divine, and when the two are combined we shall see the finest possible man--an _artist_, whether he works with paint, marble, wood, clay, or metal. marks, etc.--the following copies of marks, as translated by mr. franks, will be found useful: [illustration: 1. a. d. 1721.] [illustration: 2. a. d. 1078 to 1086.] [illustration: 3. a. d. 1368 to 1399.] [illustration: 4. a. d. 1403 to 1425.] [illustration: 5. a. d. 1426 to 1436.] [illustration: 6. a. d. 1465 to 1488.] [illustration: 7. a. d. 1465 to 1488.] [illustration: 8. a. d. 1488 to 1506.] [illustration: 9. a. d. 1506 to 1522.] [illustration: 10. a. d. 1522 to 1567.] [illustration: 11. a. d. 1567 to 1573.] [illustration: 12. a. d. 1573 to 1620.] [illustration: 13. a. d. 1644 to 1661.] [illustration: 14. a. d. 1661 to 1722.] [illustration: 15. a. d. 1723 to 1736.] [illustration: 16. a. d. 1736 to 1795.] [illustration: 17. a. d. 1796 to 1821.] [illustration: 18. a. d. 1821 to 1851.] [illustration: 19. a. d. 1851 to 1862.] [illustration: 20. a. d. 1862 to 1875.] [illustration: 21. a. d. 1875.] [illustration: 22. a. d. 1004 to 1097.] [illustration: 23. a. d. 1403 to 1425.] [illustration: 24. a. d. 1426 to 1436.] [illustration: 25. a. d. 1723 to 1736.] [illustration: 26. a. d. 1736 to 1795.] [illustration: 27. a. d. 1736 to 1795.] [illustration: 28. a. d. 1796 to 1821.] [illustration: 29. a. d. 1821 to 1851.] [illustration: 30. a. d. 1851 to 1862.] [illustration: 31. a. d. 1862 to 1875.] chapter xi. the porcelain of japan. corean porcelain.--katosiro-ouye-mon.--the province of idsoumi.--styles prevailing in japan.--marks.--japanese blue.--indian porcelain.--dutch east india company.--egg-shell and crackle.--mandarin china.--kaga ware.--satsuma ware.--japanese art.--the philadelphia exhibition. of porcelains from the island of corea but little is known, and all our statements are made with doubt. it is believed by some that from corea came the first porcelain-makers into japan. in new york, mr. hoe and mr. avery have each pieces which are peculiar, being bolder in decoration and cruder in color than the chinese or japanese, but which may have been made in japan. so, too, with persian porcelain: there is about it much vagueness and uncertainty. there seems to be testimony to prove that porcelain was made in that country. in india, too, it has been now and then asserted that porcelain was made. but, as the chinese and japanese had much trade with those nations, and as they certainly did work from designs sent from other countries, it is most reasonable to believe that what some persons have supposed was indian or persian was really chinese porcelain. japanese porcelain is a more difficult subject for study than the chinese, owing to this circumstance: about the year 1211 or 1212, a japanese artist crossed over to china, to study the processes by means of which the chinese had reached such surprising excellence. his name, according to dr. hoffman, was katosiro-ouye-mon. through him the art received in japan a new impulse, new knowledge, new methods. it may be of service to us to know that the wonderful perfection achieved by the japanese in this art was due not only to the skill of her artists, but also, and more, to the fact that the government gave direct, persistent, and liberal pecuniary aid to the industry. genius will, of course, work its miracles; but, if we in the united states are to reach excellence in art-work, it will be, must be, only fitful and short-lived, if it is to depend upon individual effort or chance patronage: only by means of the persistent and intelligent fostering of a state, whose life is perennial, can the greatest things be accomplished. there are fanatics who hold to free trade in poetry, invention, art, patent-right, copyright. no doubt they mean well, but the nation may beware of them. the art-museums now being established cannot fail to do good; but they will fall lamentably short of their aims if they are not directly and powerfully aided by the state. to illustrate this, let me refer to the fine collections known as the kensington museum and the british museum, in england. both are the creations of the state, and both have been generously treated. it would have taken a hundred or a thousand years of individual contributions to accomplish what the kensington museum has done in twenty. already, it is a great and noble school--teaching by example--of _art applied to the uses of life_; and already it has placed some of the manufacturers of england in the first place of the world. i wish, then, to repeat that the work which katosiro did would not have been done--could not have been done--by his own individual effort. he not only added vastly to the satisfaction and delight and riches of his own people, but he has given us cause to bless the government of japan for the satisfaction and delight we, too, are enabled to draw from his work. pennsylvania is taking the lead here. with a keen perception and a profound wisdom, that state, i am told, has united with the city of philadelphia to found and maintain a school of applied art, which cannot fail to be an incalculable good to the industries and the happiness of her people. depending upon individual contributions, boston and new york must struggle far behind, and finally dwindle away. we need, in every great industrial centre, a "council on instruction," which shall provide models of art-work, and teaching enough to make these models plain to industrial seekers. we have tried free schools, free trade, free press, and no one is happy. i pray we may for a century fairly and fully try household art: that is the art which shall make the home the most attractive place on this footstool of heaven. in this work all sects and sexes may unite. every man and woman can and will agree that his or her home shall be a page from the book of paradise; one on which they can write, and one from which all may read. according to the best authorities we are able to get, we conclude that the japanese have from the earliest days been great potters, and that the chinese discovery of porcelain was carried to japan probably in the century before our era. it appears from the researches of dr. hoffman, of holland, that in 662 a buddhist monk introduced the secrets of translucent porcelain into the province of idsoumi, and a village then became famous as _to-ki-moura_, "village for making porcelain." in the year 859 the two provinces of idsoumi and kavatsi went into a violent quarrel over a mountain which contained clay and firewood. but the vast wants of such a tasteful and teeming people as the japanese advanced this most useful and beautiful industry until the time of katosiro (in the 1200's), when it went forward to perfection, and rivaled or excelled the best work of china. in later years the great centre of porcelain-production has been the island of kiushiu. upon the idsoumi-yoma (or mountain of springs), where was found the kaolinic clay, dr. hoffman numbers some five-and-twenty shops famous for porcelains. from the recent work of messrs. audesley and bowes, it seems that the province of hizen has produced the finest examples of japanese porcelain. the first number of this work has just reached us, and gives great promise. the authors are mr. george ashdown audesley, architect, and james lord bowes, president of the liverpool art club. no work upon the ceramic art has appeared superior to this, especially in its decorations. [illustration: fig. 115.--_japanese vase._] while the fine, delicate perception and touch of the japanese have given an added grace and finish to most of their work, as a whole their porcelain may be said to be a following (rather than a copying) of the chinese: in china porcelain was indigenous; in japan it was an importation. in china, then, we shall find more original invention and greater variety; in japan, more finish. the best work of japan is often superior in the paste and in the glaze to the chinese. as to classification, it is found that the two styles of china porcelain called "the chrysanthemo-pæonienne" and "the famille-rose" are the two which most prevail in japan; and it is not easy to distinguish the fine work of the one country from that of the other. in the rose family is to be found much of the best work of japan. in figs. 115 and 116 are two good examples of this work. the "famille-vert," or green, was not made there. [illustration: fig. 116.--_tea-caddy._] we cannot do better than to quote from jacquemart: "a radical difference separates the two countries as regards drawing. at niphon the figures, though affected, and too much resembling each other not to be the produce of 'pouncing,' have a simple grace and softness, the evident reflex of oriental manners. certainly, it is not an imitation of nature; it is not art, such as we understand it, with its complex qualities; but it is a dreamy act, a first manifestation of thought under form. a scene of frequent occurrence represents two women standing, one upon a rose, the other upon a leaf, and thus floating upon the waves in an aureole of clouds: the first, elegantly attired, holds a sceptre; the second is her attendant, and carries a basket of flowers passed through a kind of lance or instrument for ploughing. according to the indications of the japanese pantheon, it is the goddess of the seas or patroness of fishermen. it matters little which it may be; but, by the modest grace of the attitude, the easy elegance of the draperies, this painting approaches the graceful vellums of our artists of the middle ages. the birds and plants partake of these merits, and are truthfully drawn, the details most delicately rendered. nothing is more beautiful than these venerated silver pheasants, the proud-looking cocks perched upon the rocks or lost among the flowers; nothing more charming than certain crested blackbirds with rose-colored breasts, and other passerine birds of beautiful plumage." while it is true that the japanese flower-painting approaches nearer to nature than the chinese, it does not seem correct to say that it approaches to, or is, a copy of nature. it is difficult to see anything which is not treated freely and strongly rather than naturally. some of the decorations peculiar to japan may be mentioned as follows: the kiri, or flower of the paulownia. the imperial _three_-clawed dragon. the noble bird. the sacred tortoise. the pine, the bamboo, and the crane. the crane and the tortoise are emblems of longevity. two marks were the official signs of the mikado: first, the kiri-mon, or flower of the paulownia; and, second, the guik-mon, or chrysanthemum; while to the temporal prince, or siogoun, belonged the three-leaved mallow. [illustration: _kiri-mon._] [illustration: _guik-mon._] [illustration: _three-leaved mallow._] the vase here given (fig. 117), from mr. avery's collection in the new york museum of art, is a good illustration of the way the japanese used natural forms artistically rather than naturally. [illustration: fig. 117.--_from mr. avery's collection._] the description is as follows: "vase, of elegant form, a ground of white, a branch of a tree in violet color running around the body, from which depend the fruit and flowers of the peach of longevity in rich colors. storks delicately outlined in black, their bodies being filled in with dead-white enamel, peck at the fruit or blossoms, or disport through the air. the neck is ornamented with a band of yellow, scrolls, fruit, bats, and _honorific_ designs." [illustration: fig. 118.--_from mr. avery's collection._] we give in fig. 118 a bottle of square form painted delicately on each side with groups of figures, most likely representing incidents in japanese history. it is a fine example from mr. avery's collection. the colors are green, blue, and yellow, and are very rich and harmonious. a style of decoration found among the japanese rather than the chinese might be described as a sort of medallion-painting: the round spaces are distributed over the pot regardless of symmetry, and the effect is charming. fig. 119 shows one of these, belonging to mrs. rockwell, of boston. it is modern work, and, while not expensive, is very satisfactory. an impression prevails that it is very creditable to pay dear for and to own antique work--not so modern work. but, if we are to do any good ourselves, we must believe in our own modern work when we can, and be glad to buy and pay for it. also, we must praise our artists. let us do so, and let us not forget that what is old and good now was once _new_ and good; none the less good because it was new. [illustration: fig. 119.--_from mrs. rockwell's collection._] the japanese blue is exquisite, certainly, but it lacks the deep vivid brilliancy of the nanking. it is believed that the blue is applied over the glaze, and it has a melting softness which is most pleasing. many of these pieces bear the six marks, as with the chinese. another blue, which is a deep or mazarin color incorrectly called "celestial," is quite a different thing, but very choice and beautiful. the color is applied as an enamel, and in relief, and with wonderful skill. i have never seen any pieces of this which were supposed to date far back; and it is certain that it is among the fine productions of to-day, but none the less beautiful for that. a porcelain with very marked decoration and coloring has been somewhat of a puzzle, and has been called indian, being so very distinct from anything produced in china. jacquemart thus describes it: "a particular decoration which we call variegated-leaved is very brilliant, and might have found grace even in the eyes of the puritan wagenaar. the principal subject is a group of pointed leaves, some in blue under the glaze; others of a pale green, or of a pink and yellow enameled; at the base of the tuft expands a large ornamental flower, with notched pink petals lined with yellow; the heart, forming a centre, is yellow or greenish streaked with pink; notwithstanding the indentations which overload it, it is easy to recognize the flower as an anona or custard-apple. the leaves would lead one to suppose them, by their form and size, to be those of a chestnut-tree, while their color recalls the tricolor plane-tree so beloved by the orientals, and which decks itself with tufts, varying from light green to red, passing through the intermediary tints. behind these leaves, and upon the edge of the pieces, appear light and delicate small enameled flowers of iron-red, yellow, rose, or blue." (fig. 120.) this porcelain was made in japan, and was brought by the dutch into europe at a time when their trade was so great. the dutch east india company was formed in 1602. in the year 1664, forty-four thousand nine hundred and forty-three pieces of rare porcelain were carried into holland from japan, and sixteen thousand five hundred and eighty pieces of the same work were sent from batavia. in some way not known, this peculiar work has been called "indian." i found two pieces of it in holland, one of which is in mr. wales's collection, and one piece, my own, is figured here. it is not easy to see anything more perfect. the japanese have excelled also in the production of "crackle," also of the "egg-shell" porcelain, neither of which differs enough from the chinese to need description. [illustration: fig. 120.--_japanese variegated-leaved porcelain._] in the loan collection at new york is to be seen a crackled bottle, which has broad bands running around it, that are not crackled. more remarkable than this is a crackle vase belonging to mr. h. dwight williams, which contains reclining figures delicately painted, that are not crackled. technical skill can go no further, it would seem. the japanese lacquer far exceeds anything made in china, and is among the most beautiful of human work. we know but little of the processes of its manufacture, and only introduce it here because the japanese have applied it to the decoration of porcelain. very charming and surprising effects are produced. the lacquer is laid on as a varnish made from some vegetable gum or gums, but in what way or how applied we know not. it is exceedingly hard and durable, and takes a variety of colors exquisitely. it is applied mostly to wood, sometimes to porcelain. mr. george james, of nahant, has a very fine porcelain figure which is finished with lacquer. "_cloisonné_" work applied to porcelain has been made in japan. how the delicate metal lines can be fastened to the surface of the porcelain, and how the vitrifiable colors can be melted into the spaces with such perfection, can never fail to surprise. to see such perfect and delicate workmanship is a satisfaction: what pleasure must the artist himself not enjoy! the "mandarin china" (fig. 121), as it is termed, was made in japan rather than in china. this term is applied to such vases and pieces as bear the figures of mandarins wearing the toque or cap topped with the button which marks their grade. it appears that the thsing conquerors, when they overcame the ming dynasty in china, attempted to efface the old customs and dress, and among other things they ordered was the adoption of the toque or cap. hence, to protest against their conquerors, no such designs appear on the old chinese porcelain; but only on the japanese, which was carried to china and sold.[13] this variety is not to be confounded with a gayly-colored kind of heavy porcelain made in china, which often goes under the name of mandarin. on this japanese mandarin-ware, gilding is likely to be found, and indeed the japanese were much more inclined to its use than the chinese. european and christian subjects were sometimes painted upon the japanese porcelain to meet the wants of the dutch exporters. in the metropolitan museum of art at new york are some of these pieces belonging to mr. avery's collection: one has a portrait of luther; another has the baptism of christ, another a dutch landscape with figures. they are most curious, and upon the scripture subjects hangs a tale: [illustration: fig. 121.--_mandarin china._] as early as 1534 we know that the portuguese had established a trade with japan, and, with the aggressive spirit of all occidentals, had attempted to introduce their religion into japan, against the usages and prejudices of the japanese, which were potent then. they pushed it to an irritating point, and it is asserted that their meddling with the decorations in the porcelain factories at last led to their expulsion, and to the massacre and destruction of some forty thousand of their christian converts in 1641. the dutch then persuaded the japanese to allow them the privileges of trade, which they held for some two hundred years; and it is through them that most of our fine examples have been brought to europe and here. [illustration: fig. 122.--_example of old satsuma ware._] besides the porcelain productions of japan are two varieties of pottery or faience, which are remarkable for richness of color and decoration: the one is called "kaga ware," the other "satsuma," from the districts where they are produced. most of the kaga ware brought to us is of a thick, heavy body, and colored with a dark sort of indian-red, touched with lines of gilding. some of the finer specimens, however, like the vases shown in the recent work of messrs. audesley and bowes, are in polychrome, and very beautiful. the satsuma faience is made of a rich, creamy paste, and is thicker than most porcelain; but it is delicious in tone and delightful in decoration. there are a few pieces in this country; and more, but not large quantities, in europe. some of the finest pieces i have seen are in the collection of the eminent english artist, mr. frederick leighton, whose house, as well as works, can only give pleasure. [illustration: fig. 123.--_example of modern satsuma ware._] the old satsuma has peculiarities which, added to its rarity, make it exceedingly valuable and desirable. fig. 122 is one of the pieces pictured in the audesley-bowes book, as an example of the old satsuma, and is very curious in form. the modern satsuma is much of it very beautiful, but of course it commands no such prices as the older. most of it shows the glaze broken throughout into a most delicate network of crackle, which is peculiar and interesting. the small teapot here shown is not only perfect in tone, glaze, and decoration, but also in form. it is modern work, and was imported by mr. briggs, of boston. (fig. 123.) mr. franks thus writes: "the princes of satsuma have founded a manufactory from which have issued some very remarkable products, much esteemed by collectors; the paste is of a pale yellowish tint, not unlike wedgwood's queen's-ware in color, and is slightly crackled; over this are thrown sprays of plants, with rich diapered borders, the effect of which is enhanced by the delicacy of the colors and the richness of the gilding. this ware is probably not very ancient. mr. a. b. mitford has informed me that he does not remember seeing any specimens more than fifty years old, and that the oldest were undecorated. "another beautiful ware is that made near kioto, in which the colors are much stronger, and the paste of a darker tint. some of the specimens seem to be of considerable antiquity. "at kutani (the nine valleys), in the province of kaga, is made another fine ware, some of which appears to be porcelain. the most characteristic products of this factory are bowls and dishes decorated only in red with gilding. "another peculiar fabric has produced very thin teapots of a gray stone-ware, showing the marks of the workman's hands. mr. mitford has furnished me with the following note respecting them: 'for some thirty years past a man named banko insetzu, of kuana, in the province of isé, has been famous for producing a curious kind of pottery, which, being finished off with the finger and thumb before being subjected to the fire, shows the lines of the skin of the hand upon its surface. no teapots equal those of banko for producing a delicate infusion of tea, and all lovers of tea patronize them; they are fragile to a degree, the paste being as thin as a wafer.'" the peach, or, as the japanese term it, the "peach of longevity," is a favorite decoration with the japanese; we can appreciate its value, as one of the finest fruits of our temperate zone. we give here (fig. 124) a teapot showing the fruit with some of the leaves. this is copied from jacquemart; but the curious may see a better example at the metropolitan museum of art, from mr. avery's oriental collection. japanese art is still more marked than the chinese in that it is as free and yet more delicate. the artist clearly was a close observer of nature, and saw and felt its infinite variety; saw, too, that nature was never square, or round, or double. nothing in nature need duplicate any other thing. we occidentals have delighted in the use of-the square, the circle, and of pairs, or a symmetrical arrangement of ornament, or of columns, or openings. we have also found a crude satisfaction in the use of strong, glaring colors. we have delighted to _copy_ and to tell a common story in a common way in our decorations. i believe this is wholly wrong. the japanese artist never uses the square, or the circle, or the pair. nor does he use crude and glaring colors; always the most subtile and fascinating shades and vanishing tints. he _suggests_ the story; he never tells it as watteau did. [illustration: fig. 124.--_teapot with peach decoration._] a pair of vases belonging to mrs. james, of cambridge, have a picture of a gentleman and lady, above whose heads is seen a canopy or roof. the meaning is thus explained by a japanese gentleman of this day, who was in boston: the figures represented are a nobleman and his wife, one of the five hundred families of the _flowery class_; they are dressed in the ancient costume of japan, now no longer worn. the part of a tent or pavilion indicates that they are out-of-doors, at a picnic; the white blossoms of the cherry which surround them show a favorite tree in japan; the color of this vase and the kind of crackle prove its age. all is suggested; the imagination is spoken to, not the intellect; the artist feels, and makes us feel. we are forcing ourselves and our civilization upon the japanese who do not want us, and we curse them. we have attacked the simplicity of their lives, we shall increase their immorality, and we shall degrade their art. twenty years hence, artistic and patient work will have disappeared from among them. good work has almost disappeared from among us, as well as from europe: we do all in a hurry, all for cheapness, all for money. the artist, the workman, delight no more in _perfect work_, which is godlike. "progress," they tell us, requires us to force the japanese to trade with us. it is a much-abused word; in the hands of plunderers and traders it means only--"you shall give us the opportunity to cheat you." we have demanded that, and have succeeded; but we shall be none the better for it, and the japanese will be the worse. they will learn, do learn fast, to cheat back; and already we see signs of it in their demoralized productions. they are already making copies--counterfeits of some of the high-priced porcelains of china--and putting on these the marks intended to deceive. fools say, "trade is a blessing;" wise men, "it is oftener a curse." honest, faithful production _is_ a blessing; juggling, barter, _is_ always a curse. in the centennial exhibition at philadelphia the japanese had the largest and the finest exhibit of porcelain. we were told by the officials that there are at hizen some five factories of fictile wares; at kioto, ten; at owari, three; at kaga, five; at satsuma, one; at banko, one; and at tokio (yedo), forty-three. this last statement was a surprise, but it was reiterated. the porcelains of hizen rank first, and the exhibit from there was the largest. the two great vases, some eight feet high, of lacquer or porcelain, were the largest pieces of potter's work we had ever seen, and they seemed cheap at twenty-five hundred dollars. in the middle part of the two great cases were two small tea-sets of some five pieces each, which were the finest of porcelain in all particulars, and yet no one bought them at one hundred and thirty dollars each; not even the philadelphia museum, which showed a marvelous skill in selecting the best. there were also quite a number of excellent pots and vases, from which mr. brown secured a very desirable pair, sage-green with white bands containing grotesque designs. it was to be expected that the chinese and the japanese, if they made an exhibit at all, would take the places of honor. this they have done for quantity, and the japanese do so for quality also. the owari porcelain is mostly the blue. the body or paste seemed clear, but there was a want of good form and superiority of coloring and decoration. some excellent and striking pieces could be found here. but, so far as one visit could reveal, there was nothing equal to the old six-mark blue. the kioto is a faience of a weaker body than the satsuma, and running more to a lemon-yellow. its decoration is marked by a certain delicacy which in small articles is good, but which in large ones lacks strength. shimzi, of kioto, had a case of good pieces. meyagama, of yokohama, had some delightful porcelain vases, decorated in relief with butterflies, plants, etc., which, it is satisfactory to know, were bought by our new york friends. the case of old wares shown by kiriu kosho kuwaisha, from tokio, contained a collection which had a kind of mysterious fascination even to us "outside barbarians," which we suppose might have become an intense desire to possess, could we have known anything about them. chapter xii. the porcelains of central europe--dresden, berlin, höchst, etc. dresden china.--porcelain in europe.--the alchemists.--augustus ii.--böttger.--tschirnhaus.--experiments.--kaolin discovered.--höroldt and kändler.--fine art, or decorative art.--lindenir.--angelica kauffmann.--rococo-work.--collectors.--marcolini.--prices.--marks. --berlin.--the seven years' war.--frederick the great.--prices. --marks.--vienna.--stenzel.--maria theresa.--lamprecht.--prices. --marks.--hungary.--herend.--fischer.--marks.--höchst, or mayence. --ringler.--marks.--frankenthal, or bavarian.--carl theodor.--melchior. --prices.--marks.--fürstenburg, or brunswick.--von lang.--prices.--marks. --nymphenburg.--heintzmann and lindemann.--prices.--marks.--ludwigsburg, or kronenburg.--fulda.--hesse-cassel.--switzerland.--marks. in this chapter i wish to give some comprehensive account of the famous porcelain of dresden, which in europe first came into prominence, and kept its place for so long a time. with this the other manufactories of central and eastern europe will be grouped, for convenience rather than for the purposes of classification. we will take a comprehensive survey of-1. dresden, meissen, or saxony (it has all these names). 2. berlin, or prussian. 3. vienna and hungary. 4. höchst, or mayence. 5. fürstenburg, or brunswick. 6. frankenthal, or the palatinate. 7. nymphenburg. 8. kronenburg. 9. fulda. 10. limbach. 11. switzerland, etc. we are apt to think that the mental force of europe, down to very recent days quite into the last century, was directed almost wholly to the science and the practice of war. a great force certainly was so exhausted; but there was also, after the renaissance (a. d. 1200 to 1300), a powerful stream turned upon literature, science, art, and religion. the alchemists, in their searchings for the secret of happiness--for the changing of baser things to gold--in their hunt for the fountain of perennial youth, were all chemists; and out of their (what we are pleased to term) "visionary notions" came many discoveries most curious and valuable to man. when, in 1518, the portuguese introduced fine oriental porcelains into europe, and, after them, the dutch brought by ship-loads the beautiful productions of china and japan, they were spread over europe like water passing its dikes. every king, every noble, every man of taste, was touched as by a fairy wand, and became inspired with a desire of possession, and also with a wish to create such articles of use and beauty. but the secrets of porcelain were locked in the souls of those keen orientals, who would not part with their knowledge. still the chemists, the alchemists, of europe were at work, peering with curious eyes into the composition of the most exquisite of fictile ware. the paste, the glaze, the ornament--all were of profound interest. pottery of various kinds had been made in europe from the earliest times, but no porcelain. how could the superior european compete with or equal the inferior mongol? a hard question. for a long time it has been believed that the earliest european production of porcelain was in saxony, about the years 1710 to 1715. but within a late period it has been found that porcelain--soft paste--was discovered and made in florence as far back as 1575 to 1587, under the direction and patronage of francesco i. (de' medici), the grand-duke of tuscany. no great quantities were made, and but few pieces of it exist now, of which we may treat hereafter. the porcelain of dresden is also called saxon and meissen; dresden being the capital of saxony, and meissen the village, some twelve miles from dresden, where the factories are established. how were they established, and why? augustus ii., elector of saxony, and afterward by election king of poland, born in 1670, was a man of expensive habits and luxurious tastes. while a young man he visited italy and other countries, always indulging these tastes by the purchase of pictures and other works of art. the beautiful porcelains of china and japan, then rare in europe, interested him, and he became of course a collector; and so he continued through his luxurious and troublesome life. that i cannot write; it may only be said that he combined with peter the great and with denmark to drive out and keep out of his part of europe that enterprising and indefatigable fighter, charles xii. of sweden, and was himself utterly routed and driven from poland in 1704. he still retained the throne of saxony, to which his son succeeded. this elector inherited the tastes and habits of his father, and continued to encourage and support the manufactory of porcelain at meissen, until, entangling himself with maria theresa of austria in an alliance against frederick the great, that restless and irresistible king overran his country, and for a time destroyed the production of porcelain in saxony (a. d. 1756). in 1706 it appears that a prussian named böttger, an apothecary's clerk, in danger of persecution as an alchemist, fled to dresden for safety. the elector, believing or hoping that he knew the secret of making gold, sent for him, anxious to learn the secret, which böttger denied that he possessed. the elector thought it best, nevertheless, to put him in charge, for safe-keeping, of his alchemist tschirnhaus; and with him he worked on, seeking to discover the "philosopher's stone." that he did not discover--few have done so--but, in mixing clays and preparing crucibles, it so chanced that a hard and semi-vitreous pottery was produced, which at once excited attention and sharpened invention. was it porcelain, or could it be worked into porcelain? from that day böttger's whole thought and ingenuity were at work to produce porcelain; the philosopher's stone was forgotten, and he and tschirnhaus worked at their new problem. while the character of böttger does not bear careful inspection, there is no question that he was a keen, dexterous, and daring man. the picture we have of him indicates a man of executive force (fig. 125). [illustration: fig. 125.--_johann friedrich böttger._] in 1708 some ware was produced by him and tschirnhaus which approached the characters of oriental porcelain, but it was not white or translucent. a teapot of this ware in red unglazed, and one in black glazed, are in the valuable collection of w. c. prime, esq., of new york (fig. 126, the two tall teapots on the right and left). this was not white, nor was it true, porcelain. in 1710, however, they succeeded in making white porcelain of an inferior quality; it was "thick and muddy." nothing as yet was perfect. what they lacked was the two fine materials known to the chinese as kaolin and pe-tun-tse. kaolin is a native clay, the result of decayed feldspar. it is found in europe at aue in saxony, near st.-yrieix-la-perche in france, in cornwall in england, and in delaware in america. pe-tun-tse is a siliceous stone found in china, and in cornwall, england, is known as a granite. this last melts at a lower heat, and a mixture of kaolin is essential to give strength and hardness to the work. oriental china (and all true porcelain) has the quality of hardness, and, when held up to the light, of translucency. european porcelains are known as hard and soft, the _pâte dure_ and _pâte tendre_ of the french. the dresden china is hard. [illustration: fig. 126.--_dresden._] in 1710 böttger had not succeeded in making perfect porcelain. he had not yet the perfect clay. but the clay was found; and this, too, was accidental--so we now term it: once, a happy discovery was called "providential." the discovery came at the right moment. it seems that a rich iron-master of saxony, when riding one day (1711), saw that his horse's feet were held with tenacity in a soft white clay. it struck him that this white clay might be dried and made into hair-powder, then greatly in use. he tried it; it succeeded, and large quantities were sold. the hair-dresser of böttger used it, and, when böttger found it was heavy and a mineral, he at once applied it to the production of porcelain. "eureka!" the secret was found! it was kaolin, the great clay--the body or bones of porcelain. doubt fled. courage was assured. augustus at once built the great factory at meissen, and in 1715 enough porcelain was produced to be offered for sale at the fair of leipsic. the first ware made was white, and this was ornamented with vine-leaves and grapes in low-relief, or was pierced through the sides or borders. it is doubtful whether any of this white was sold, most of it being disposed of as presents. the first color used was blue, probably in imitation of the nanking ware. böttger, who appears to have been a sort of artistic scamp, died in 1719, at the age of thirty-seven, a victim of his own vices; but his work was carried onward by others. the news of this successful discovery spread, like fire on a prairie, throughout europe, and every device was resorted to to get at the secrets, which were closely guarded at meissen. every director and officer was monthly sworn to secrecy; every workman had before his eyes, "be secret to death!" and it was well known that any traitor would be punished with imprisonment, or worse. the works were continued, after the death of böttger, under höroldt's direction; and it was during this time that the decorations swung clear of oriental imitation. painting in colors, and gilding, were employed; vases, dishes, services, were made; delicate copies of paintings were produced; also birds, insects, animals, flowers, etc. a sculptor named kändler was employed from 1731 to 1763, and under him figures of many sorts were produced, some of them still quite famous--"the tailor and his wife" riding on goats, figures of the carnival of venice, figurines of cupids, of lawyers, doctors, and many professions and trades. he also modeled animals and birds, the twelve apostles, of life-size, etc. chaffers quotes from the _london magazine_ of 1753: "this fabric, which brings annually great sums of money into the country, is daily increasing in reputation, and is carried to all the courts of europe. even the turks come from constantinople to purchase it, and the rarest pieces that are made are carried thither to embellish the grand-seignior's and his great officers' houses and seraglios." let us quote further from the same: "the sets of porcelain for tea, coffee, or chocolate, may be had for fifteen to sixty guineas. there is one particular kind from which they will abate nothing of one hundred guineas the set; this is a double porcelain, not made at once, but a second layer added to the first form, resembling a honey-comb on the outside, which is of a pale-brown color, the _letts_ or cavities being all painted, as well as the bottoms of the insides of the cups and dishes. this, as all other sorts, may be had painted with landscapes and figures, birds, insects, fruits, flowers: the first being the dearer; the latter, the best executed, being almost equal to nature in beauty and liveliness of the colors. the grounds of all these different sorts of porcelain are various, some being painted on white, others on pink; some in compartments, others without. the spaces between are sometimes of a white, yellow, or pea-green color; or the whole ground is white, with running flowers. this sort and the pea-green in compartments are the newest made and in the most elegant taste." table-services at this time cost from one hundred to one thousand guineas each, according to the number of pieces and the elaborateness of the decoration. the figure-pieces, some fifteen inches high, were sold at from sixteen to twenty guineas; and the smaller figurines, five or six inches high, for as many pounds. these dresden figures of this early period now sell for very high prices, and are much sought for, as are also the figure-pieces of the höchst and chelsea factories. but let us ask ourselves, "why should we pay such great prices for work which, as _art_, has but a reflected value?" i am sure that no great sculptor will apply his best work to china, or to any material which is so liable to be spoiled in the baking, and to one which, after all, is not suited to what we term high or fine art. these figures are of value, of course, as illustrations of the possibilities, and also as historical illustrations, of the growth and development of the fictile art. no man will wish to have an ariadne in china made by an excellent artist, if he can have the same work of the same artist in marble. we have the same feeling in regard to a fine painting: would any one wish to exchange the dresden madonna of raphael on the canvas for a perfect copy in mosaic, or in the most exquisite gobelin tapestry? none. and yet the mosaic or the tapestry has cost ten times more of human labor. the artificialities of life come to be supreme at times, and the human mind, in some stages of development, loses all sense of what is good or bad, in an exaggerated appreciation of what is difficult or uncommon; and, in many cases, a fashion or whim of the hour rides down a sound judgment. among the more intellectual peoples this prevails. assuming that the orientals are races who perceive or feel, rather than reason--while the reverse of this is true of europeans and americans--we find our art often losing its way, which that of the orientals seldom does. the natural or instinctive soul, by its native sense, is guided in matters of color and decoration more truly than we who attempt to reason out these things. now, applying this to the facts of fictile art, we find that the chinese and japanese never attempted figure-work in porcelain, except in some few cases of burlesques, or of animals and birds. their work was applied to that which comes into the uses of life--for the table first and mostly; after that for vases, which became works of pure ornament, but yet behind which lay the motive of _use_. in all this, it seems to me, the orientals were right, and the saxons wrong. i believe, then, that the best and purest art will be found in porcelain when applied to the decoration of dinner and tea services, of vases, and of articles which do not attempt to rival sculpture or high art; and those may reach perfection, while the porcelain sculptures will not. i believe, too, that the best style of decoration for porcelain is not imitative, but suggestive--that is, an elaborate and careful _copy_ of a flower or a figure upon the clay is not so appropriate or so satisfactory as a free translation of the sentiment of the flower or the figure, which suggests it to the soul rather than tickles the eye. it is not appropriate, so it seems to me, that a delicate painting of a beautiful girl should be made on the dinner-plate upon which you are to put your squash or your pudding; such delicate penciling should be devoted to art pure and simple--to "fine art," as it is called. such paintings on china cannot be put to use; they are too costly, and therefore they fail to be either useful art or fine art. now, the tendency of european porcelain-decoration is always in this "fine-art" direction, and is always false; that of oriental porcelain is always in the useful-art direction, and therefore true. the pure white porcelain of meissen was not at first sold, but was reserved for the king's use, or for presents to distinguished personages. in later times it was sold, and is still; and the pieces so disposed of have a _scratch_ cut across the _mark_, to indicate that they were not painted in the factory. the works at meissen grew in importance and in public favor up to the time of the seven years' war (1756 to 1763), when frederick the great overran saxony, broke up the meissen factory, and removed the workmen to berlin, where he established the prussian potteries, which afterward came to be of great consequence. an english merchant visited the works at meissen in 1750, and found "about seven hundred men employed, most of whom have not above ten german crowns a month, and the highest wages are forty, so that the annual expense is not estimated above eighty thousand crowns. this manufactory being entirely for the king's account, he sells yearly to the value of one hundred and fifty thousand crowns, and sometimes two hundred thousand crowns (thirty-five thousand pounds sterling[14]), besides the magnificent presents he occasionally makes, and the great quantity he preserves for his own use." the best period of dresden production is estimated as being from about 1730 to 1756. during this period the works of kändler were made, and also the paintings of lindenir, which are much valued. in fig. 126 is to be seen a fine plate with a pierced border, in the centre of which are painted birds, in the style introduced by lindenir. the other pieces shown in fig. 126 are excellent examples of good meissen porcelain; the cup and saucer, showing cupids, is most delicately and elaborately painted. among those who painted somewhat upon the dresden china was angelica kauffmann, whose figures are pervaded with a certain grace and refinement always charming. [illustration: fig. 127.--_dresden._] fig. 127 shows some choice small pieces from mr. wales's collection the centre flower-dish is very finely painted with birds, and the meandering lip, intended to confine the flowers, is peculiar. the two cups and saucers on the right are very richly gilded, the compartments containing delicate flower-painting. the cup and saucer on the left is one of the best examples of the marcolini period; the gilded edges are exquisitely done, and the flowers, painted in tender browns and greens--not in high colors or in the colors of nature--are charming. many pieces of the old dresden porcelain (and of modern work [illustration: fig. 128.--_dresden vase._] also) are elaborately decorated with rococo scrolls and flower-work in relief, applied upon candelabra, chandeliers, vases, cups, etc. unsympathetic buyers will be apt to seize upon these pieces, and they are most common in ordinary collections; but they are very far from being the best or the most interesting. this style of work was introduced and practised by kändler (1731 to 1763) at the period when the best works were produced; but this style of work is not itself the best, though it may be the most costly. in fig. 128 we present one of the most elaborate and magnificent examples of this excessive decoration. nothing is spared; the painting is most delicate, the flowers most intricate, the figures all most perfectly modeled; and yet upon one it produces satiety. it is overdone. like an overdressed woman, we have lost the divine creation in her clothes. [illustration: fig. 129.--_dresden._] in fig. 129 may be seen a style of dresden work which has had much popularity; it is costly, for it shows great difficulties well surmounted. but do you care for it as you would for a fine plate or an ample punch-bowl? it is a candelabrum sold at the bernal collection, and is thus described: "a pair of superb candelabra, each formed of a female draped figure bearing scroll-branches for five lights, seated on pedestals, round which cupids are supporting shields-of-arms. these magnificent objects of decoration are twenty-four inches high." the price was two hundred and thirty-one pounds sterling (eleven hundred and fifty-five dollars). it may not be amiss to hint to incipient collectors that not all dresden porcelain is equally beautiful or desirable--which is true of the paintings of raphael or murillo--and that every collector should consider the intrinsic excellence of each piece, rather than the mark or name of the factory. the productions of the dresden factory have continued down to the present time, but the periods of greatest excellence have been from 1731 to 1756, and from 1763 to 1814. in 1796 count marcolini was made director, and under him was produced some of the finest flower-painting; he also introduced the classic shapes and decorations into the vases; which style of decoration came into wide fashion during the days of napoleon i., who was an imitator of cæsar, and of the work of cæsar's day. some idea of the values of pieces of dresden china may be of use, and i take a few from the great bernal sale made in london in 1855: a scalloped cup and saucer, with minute landscapes £ 1 14_s._ $8 50 a pair of cups and saucers, with buildings on gold ground 7 7_s._ 36 75 a coffee-pot, crimson ground, with landscape 9 5_s._ 46 00 a small oval pierced tray, with two figures in green; and a small coffee-pot, with figures after watteau, 19 8_s._ 6_d._ 100 00 marks for dresden porcelain: [illustration: _augustus rex, 1709 to 1712._] [illustration: _the caduceus, about 1712 to 1720._] [illustration: _böttger, about 1718._] [illustration: _böttger, about 1718._] [illustration: _imitation of oriental, about 1718._] [illustration: _höroldt, manager, about 1720._] [illustration: _about 1726._] [illustration: _about 1730._] [illustration: _about 1739._] [illustration: _bruhl, manager, about 1750._] [illustration: _bruhl, manager, about 1750._] [illustration: _meissen porzellan-manufactur._] [illustration: _early mark._] [illustration: _about 1750._] [illustration: _königlichen porzellan-manufactur._] [illustration: _about 1770._] [illustration: _marcolini, manager, about 1796._] [illustration: _a small engraved cut across the swords was placed on white pieces for sale. when there are_ two _engraved cuts, it means the pieces are not wholly perfect_. ] the crossed swords are still used. we often meet with pieces of dresden china which have an engraved cut or scratch across the swords, which indicates, as before said, that the pieces have been _painted_ outside the factory. the beds of fine clay in saxony are much deteriorated; and the productions at meissen no longer hold so high a place as they once did. berlin porcelain--hard paste.--it was not until 1751 that attempts were made to produce porcelain in prussia. this was a private enterprise undertaken by a mr. wegeley. the _gentleman's magazine_ of 1753 spoke of him in this way: "there has been discovered here at berlin the whole art of making china-ware, without any particular kind of earth, from a kind of stone which is common enough everywhere," etc. wegeley worked on for eight years, but could not make the production pay, and abandoned it; when it was taken up by a banker named gottskowski (1762), who, having capital, pushed it toward success. in 1763 the establishment was bought by frederick the great, who made it a royal manufactory, and forced a success. [illustration: fig. 130.--_berlin porcelain._] when frederick took dresden, the porcelain-works at meissen were temporarily suspended. he had an eye to understand the value of the porcelain industries, and he took measures to grace his capital and increase the wealth of prussia by establishing a great manufactory at berlin. he carried off from meissen some of the best examples of the porcelain collection, transported to berlin tons of the fine clay, and borrowed the best workmen and the most distinguished artists for his new factory; among these the names of meyer, klipsel, and böhme, are mentioned. the berlin productions soon rose into fame and obtained a wide circulation. not only did the king spread the work abroad by means of exquisite presents; he also took measures at home to secure a market. he ordered that no jew should marry until he had provided himself a sufficient outfit of porcelain from the royal manufactory. now, the jew does not like to waste his money, and he at once sought a market for the wares he had been forced to buy. all this advertised and spread abroad the excellent work. during the collapse of meissen, russia became a large customer for berlin; and its finished and elegant dinner-services went into her palaces and mansions. the best work of berlin equals the best work of dresden; its paste is more creamy, and some of its painters were not excelled. a favorite decoration at berlin was the small watteau figure-pieces, painted in medallions or reserves. its examples of pierced or open-worked border plates are excellent. in fig. 130 are two examples of these, from mr. prime's collection, which are perfectly painted in the naturalistic way. so, too, is the tureen, which has finely-modeled heads for handles, which yet are unsatisfactory. this is one piece of a large dinner-service. berlin porcelain ranks high, and good specimens bring good prices. two factories continue to produce fine porcelain--one at berlin, and one at charlottenberg, which was founded in 1790--and both are under the direction of the state. the berlin factory grew to such importance in the last century that it employed seven hundred workmen. the prices paid for some pieces of berlin porcelain at the bernal sale were as follows: a berlin coffee-pot, with river-scene and landscape £5 $25 00 a plate, with salmacis and hermaphroditus, gold border, 13 10_s._ 67 00 a cup and saucer, deep blue, with female busts in red, on gold ground 4 10_s._ 22 00 a cup and saucer, with pink festoon border and exotic birds 1 10_s._ 7 50 a cup, cover, and stand, pink, with black medallions of the princess de lamballe and her cipher 5 15_s._ 29 00 marks of berlin porcelain: [illustration: _this indicates wegeley, and was in use about 1751 to 1761._] [illustration: _the globe and cross-mark are found on a few pieces, about 1830._] [illustration: _the mark of the sceptre was afterward used in various forms._] [illustration: 1833.] [illustration: _another form of sceptre._] [illustration: _sometimes these are painted over the sceptre._] since 1833 the mark has been a double eagle, surrounded by the words "_porzellan-manufactur, königl._" the mark of charlottenburg has been the double eagle crowned, holding a sceptre in one hand, a globe in the other. vienna porcelain--hard paste.--the vienna manufactory was started about 1717 to 1720, and was a private enterprise. the principal man was stenzel, who had escaped from meissen, and was warmly welcomed at vienna. he possessed the meissen secrets, and was able to give character and value to the vienna ware. the early examples were thicker and coarser than that of dresden, and the paste was grayer and less pure. it was not till 1744, when maria theresa purchased the works, that vienna porcelain rose to its best estate. this beautiful and capable woman for a long time was a prominent figure in the politics of europe. her father, the emperor charles vi. of hapsburg, during his life secured to her the succession of the austrian throne, by an agreement with the other powers called the "pragmatic sanction," which, however, proved a treacherous security, so that wars and rumors of wars followed her. the porcelain-works were, however, not neglected, and the patronage of the court, and the fashion the courtiers made, secured a good success; so that, in 1785, more than five hundred workmen were employed. not only were the products largely used in austria, but there came a great demand from turkey. the first work was, of course, a following of dresden. the best painters possible were engaged, and animals, landscapes, and figures, were applied. [illustration: fig. 131.--_vienna and herend porcelain._] about 1796 a painter named lamprecht painted excellent animals, and his pieces bear his name; they are rare. some of the other painters were perger, furstler, wech, and varsanni. nigg was a painter of rare flower-pieces. the turkish demand caused the production at vienna, and also in hungary, of what may be called oriental or asiatic styles of decorations. figures, of course, gave way to arabesques--for no true moslem copies the human figure--and more and richer colors were used. the best work was made during the latter part of the last century, when a style of decoration of burnished gold in relief upon dead gold was used, which is now much prized. the work went on, with varying success and at great cost, till 1856, when it was given up. some of the pieces at the bernal sale were as follows: a plate with green border and white stars, with flowers £2 2_s._ $10 50 one with brown and gold border, with flowers 1 1_s._ 5 00 a plate with lilac border, and friezes, from gems in indian-ink 37 16_s._ 189 00 a cup and saucer, beautifully painted, with venus and cupid, after sir joshua reynolds 8 15_s._ 44 00 the teapot and cup and saucer in fig. 131 are vienna work, and are excellent examples both of paste and coloring. the three lower pieces in fig. 131 are _hungarian_; the bowl and sugar-bowl are highly colored, and are very oriental in both color and decoration. the plate with fish is a direct imitation of the chinese. marks for vienna porcelain: [illustration: _this shield varies in shape and size. it has been in use since 1744._] hungary.--toward the end of the last century a porcelain-factory was at work in herend, at which porcelain of an oriental character and much richness was made. this was doubtless intended for the turkish and asiatic markets. a piece bought in ispahan, as oriental, is now pronounced to be herend, and was purchased by the south kensington museum in 1863. some pieces figured on the lower line of the engraving (fig. 131) show the oriental character of the decorations, but not the bright and rich colors. the word "herend" is found impressed on the ware; sometimes in incised letters. in 1839 fischer established a porcelain-manufactory, which, i believe, is still at work. sometimes he used the shield of the arms of austria for a mark, and at others his own initials, =mf= (morris fischer), combined. höchst (or mayence) porcelain--hard paste.--mayence, or mainz, was once a small state or duchy, presided over by the elector, who was archbishop of the state. pottery had been made there for many years; and at last, in 1740, an escaped workman from vienna, named ringler, taught them the secrets of porcelain. he seems to have been a man of force--one who worked for excellence--and under his direction some of the best porcelain was made. when the manufactory became a state establishment, the services of an artist named melchior were secured as modeler and decorator. he was one of those rare men who have an innate sense of the beauties of form and proportion, which study had made more keen and true. his figures and small groups rank highest of any for their spirit, grace, and delicacy, and command to-day extreme prices. the letter "m" is engraved on the bottom of many of melchior's productions, in addition to the wheel, or wheel and crown, which was the common mark for the factory. the vases and table-ware partake of the general character of the dresden, which led all the rest; it had a good sale, and, being never produced in great quantities, the pieces are not now very common. they are desired in all good collections, and the prices are high. one day, when ringler had taken too much wine, his workmen stole from his pocket the secret for mixing the paste, and from this many of the smaller manufactories of germany took their start. the factory was destroyed by the french in 1794. the mark of the höchst ware was a wheel, with or without the crown. [illustration: _the wheel was sometimes in gold, then in red, then in blue. demmin thinks these indicate their respective periods since 1720._] frankenthal, (or bavarian) porcelain--hard paste.--hannong, a strasburg potter, having discovered the secret of porcelain, and being forbidden to use it in france, sought work in the palatinate at a town called frankenthal in the year 1754. soon after this, ringler, who had had the care of the works at höchst, having had his secrets stolen, left that place in disgust, and offered his services to hannong at frankenthal, and was gladly received. together they at once brought their productions to a point of great excellence; and when, in 1761, the elector palatine, carl theodor, purchased the works, and made them a state establishment, they grew into great fame. melchior, whose figures had made the work of höchst so famous, was induced to come to frankenthal, where his skill and taste were made most useful. examples of this porcelain are much sought for. the excellence of the work declined afterward; and about the year 1800, the country being overrun by french armies, the works were ruined and the tools were sold. the prices at the bernal sale were about the same as the best dresden. we give some form-marks supposed to belong to frankenthal: [illustration: _crest of the palatinate._] [illustration: _mark of joseph adam hannong._] [illustration: _the crown._] the first, the crest of the palatinate, was used from 1755 to 1761. ph combined, sometimes found on this porcelain, marks the work of hannong. the crown, with the letters c. t. (carl theodor), indicates the late period from 1762 to 1798. fürstenburg (or brunswick) porcelain.--the interest excited by the production of porcelain at dresden, vienna, and höchst, inspired many of the rulers of states with a desire to establish manufactories of the beautiful wares in their own dominions; among whom was charles, duke of brunswick (1750). one of the höchst workmen was secured to superintend the works at fürstenburg; but he soon died, when baron von lang was placed in charge. he was an accomplished chemist, and his skill, with the funds put at his disposal by the duke, enabled him to produce work equal in decoration to that at dresden, though the paste is not considered so fine. fine vases, groups, and dinner and tea services, were the result, which are now much prized. at the bernal sale a fürstenburg cup, cover, and stand, painted with flowers and surmounted by a flame, sold for six pounds ten shillings sterling (thirty-two dollars). the mark is a cursive letter _f_ more or less rudely done in blue. [illustration: fig. 132.--_fürstenberg._] in fig. 132 is seen a basket from mr. wales's collection, made at fürstenburg, which is carefully modeled, though it bears very little decoration. nymphenburg, in bavaria, had a small porcelain-manufactory as early as 1746 or 1747, but it seems to have had only a fitful and uncertain existence until after the death of carl theodor, when the frankenthal workmen were taken to nymphenburg, carrying with them skill, taste, and knowledge. the manufactory received many favors, and much good work was done. among the known artists employed were heintzmann, who painted landscapes; adler, who did the figures; and lindemann. some of the white pieces made at nymphenburg bear the impressed stamp of the factory, and painters' marks also, when decorated outside the walls of the manufactory. the establishment is said to be still in existence. nymphenburg was once a royal palace, a few miles from munich. at the bernal sale some pieces sold as follows: a nymphenburg basin with an elaborate painting of a battle, in indian-ink £10 $50 00 a cup and saucer with figures, in indian-ink and gold 2 10 00 a basin with figures and scrolls, in indian-ink and gold 2 12_s._ 6_d._ 13 00 a basin with medallions in indian-ink, figures in colors, and gold scrolls 14 70 00 a basin with three landscapes 4 20 00 the marks of the nymphenburg are-[illustration: _the shield of the arms of bavaria. a section of this was sometimes used._] [illustration: _the double triangle, with numerals and letters._] besides these more important manufactories of porcelain were a number of less note, which sprang up during this period of active interest; such as those of _ludwigsburg_, or _kronenburg_, _fulda_, _hesse-cassel_, etc. in thuringia, also, were a number of small establishments, many of which produced fine work. marks of ludwigsburg, or kronenburg: [illustration: _from 1758._] [illustration: _sometimes without the crown._] mark of fulda, in hesse (1763 to 1780): [illustration: _signifying the prince of fulda._] marks of limbach, in saxe-meiningen (about 1760): [illustration: _sometimes this was a script l._] [illustration: _another mark._] in switzerland, at nyon and at zurich, small factories went to work, whose productions are sought for by collectors; but they do not reach the importance of the leading german establishments. the manufactory at nyon (1712) had sometimes a fish, and sometimes a painter's name in script-letters, as _guide_, or _g_. [illustration: _nyon-mark._] [illustration: _the mark of zurich_ (1755).] chapter xiii. the porcelain of france--st.-cloud, chantilly, sèvres, etc. hard and soft porcelain.--discovery of kaolin.--st.-cloud.--_pâte tendre._--marks.--rouen.--small manufactories.--marks of same.--chantilly.--sceaux-penthièvre.--niderviller.--marks. --limoges.--sèvres.--flower-work.--hard porcelain, _pâte dure_. --the grand monarque.--florid taste.--boucher.--vieux sèvres.--three vases.--greek vases.--prices at bernal sale.--chemists.--colors used.--collections.--art museums. --alexandre brongniart.--marks and dates. the porcelain of sèvres is probably better known than any other by name, if not by sight. the production has been steadily under the protection of the state since 1760, when the crown became sole owner of the works. time, thought, skill, talent, ingenuity, and money, have been spent upon this work unceasingly for more than a century; and some of the most elaborate, most finished, and most costly pieces of porcelain which the world has anywhere seen, have come out of the small town of sèvres. kings, nobles, poets, painters, have recognized the beauty and value of this work, and have given of their strength to help it onward toward perfection. the history of the manufactory at sèvres might fill a book: here we are limited to a brief space, which may suffice for most readers. some experts hold that _true_ porcelain is only what is known as hard porcelain, called _pâte dure_ by the french. such is always the porcelain of china and japan; such is that of dresden and the centre of europe. this hard porcelain has always the two qualities of hardness and translucency. we have elsewhere explained to what these qualities are due, and how and when they were brought to perfection in europe, first at dresden or meissen (see dresden porcelain). france lacked the peculiar clay necessary for making hard porcelain till the year 1765, when chance discovered the magic earth at st.-yrieix; after which time its manufacture was brought to a high pitch of excellence at sèvres. the soft porcelain, or _pâte tendre_, can be made without the admixture of the clay called by the chinese _kaolin_. it has the quality of translucency, but lacks hardness and strength. it melts at a lower heat, and, while very delicate and beautiful, it is not so enduring as the _pâte dure_. experts can distinguish the two at sight; but there are some signs which will help the uninitiated. the soft porcelain is likely to be more creamy, and softer to the eye and touch, than the hard; the painting blends more into the glaze; the bottoms of the pieces or the rims are covered with the glaze; while, in the hard porcelain, these rims, from standing on the sanded floor of the furnaces, show no glaze. the painting on the hard porcelain is likely to be sharper, and more on the surface, than that on the soft, into which it seems to melt. st.-cloud.--before the discovery of kaolin in europe, as early as 1695, soft porcelain, or _pâte tendre_, was made at st.-cloud in great variety and of considerable excellence; and the story of french porcelain, begun there, may be divided into two parts: 1. soft porcelain, begun at st.-cloud in 1695, continued there, and afterward at chantilly; then at vincennes, in 1745; still later at sèvres, in 1756. the production of soft porcelain, or _pâte tendre_, continued at sèvres, in company with that of the _pâte dure_, until 1804. 2. the hard porcelain, or _pâte dure_ of the french; which was made after the discovery of the kaolin of st.-yrieix, at sèvres. marks used at st.-cloud: [illustration: _the mark of the sun._] [illustration: _another one._] [illustration: _the fleur-de-lis, sometimes impressed._] [illustration: _this mark indicated the factory and the name of the director (trou) from_ 1730 to 1762.] the early porcelain made at st.-cloud is said to have been quite coarse and unsatisfactory. examples of it are very scarce. that made later was better, but a long way behind what was made afterward at sèvres. at rouen, in france, porcelain appears to have been made, but it never proceeded so far as to be a business. at menecy-villeroy, about 1735, soft paste was made; and later there were various limited efforts at brancas-lauraguais, at arras, at vincennes, at boulogne, at étoilles, at bourg-la-reine, at clignancourt, at orleans, at luneville, at bordeaux, at valenciennes, at limoges, at sarreguemines, at strasbourg; at paris, a great number, some of the products of which are still in existence. we give the marks of some of the most important. marks of clignancourt: [illustration: _a windmill in blue._] [illustration: _another form._] [illustration: _this varies a good deal_ (1775).] [illustration: _monograms of louis stanislas xavier, count de provence._] [illustration: _porcelaine de monsieur_ (1780).] marks of orleans: [illustration: _a label_ (_lambel d'orléans_).] [illustration: _a label_ (_lambel d'orléans_).] [illustration: _a label_ (_lambel d'orléans_).] [illustration: _monogram of benoist le brun, the director._] [illustration: _monogram of benoist le brun, the director._] marks of valenciennes: [illustration: _the letter v, for valenciennes, combined with l, the name of the wife of the director._ ] [illustration: _the letter v, for valenciennes, combined with l, the name of the wife of the director._ ] [illustration: _the letter v, for valenciennes, combined with l, the name of the wife of the director._ ] marks of strasbourg: [illustration: _either of these marks indicates the name of hannong, the founder._] mark of marseilles: [illustration: _this letter indicates m. robert, the founder_ (1766).] the paris marks are so manifold that the student must refer to some manual of marks, such as are mentioned in the list of books at the end of the volume. besides the smaller factories first mentioned, a few words may be well upon some factories whose productions are now and then offered for sale. chantilly.--as early as 1725 this factory produced a great variety of articles of soft paste, which were and are highly esteemed. a design used there--a small blue flower upon the white--called _barbeau_, was much in fashion. the workmen at chantilly were afterward engaged at vincennes. the mark is a hunting-horn, sometimes impressed, sometimes painted on. [illustration: _hunting-horn._] sceaux (sometimes sceaux-penthièvre) was a small factory near paris, begun in 1750, where, for some twenty or thirty years, very delicate soft-paste porcelain was made. the marks were sometimes the letters s x or s p, and the anchor. [illustration: _sceaux-penthièvre_ (_about_ 1750 to 1760).] [illustration: _the anchor in blue_ (1751 to 1792).] at niderviller, near strasbourg, in 1760, a factory was established by baron de beyerlé, which afterward (about 1780) went into the possession of general de custine, whose head was cut off during the french revolution. both soft and hard porcelain were made here, and some of the biscuit figures are of great excellence. the marks most known are these; but the letter _n_ in script is sometimes found on pieces of this work. marks of niderviller: [illustration: _baron de beyerlé, the founder_ (1760).] [illustration: _general de custine_ (1786).] [illustration: _another variety._] [illustration: _monogram of f. c. lanfray, director._] [illustration: _lanfray, director._] at limoges, in 1773, soft porcelain was made; later, hard paste was made. the old mark was =c. d.= at the present time a number of factories are busily at work there, among which is that of haviland and company, whose faience will be mentioned elsewhere. sèvres.--we cannot to-day appreciate the enthusiasm which existed at this period (1750) in france, as well as in many other states of europe, upon the subject of porcelain manufacture. among royal and noble people it was peculiarly strong. the kings of france were always open to the projects of experts, who promised to produce wonderful results; and, in 1745, when the company was formed to produce porcelain at vincennes, the king, louis xv., contributed to the capital the sum of one hundred thousand livres. madame de pompadour, at this period the most beautiful woman and the most influential personage in france, was an eager patron of the ceramic arts, and gave all her influence to promote their development; the queen, too, was greatly interested; we may be sure that all good courtiers followed their lead. about this time (1740 to 1750) a wonderful production of porcelain flowers was in vogue at vincennes, and the most elaborate work was done there, so that two bouquets made for the king and dauphine cost them the great sum of three thousand livres (francs) each; which was a great deal more than three thousand francs is now. a single order given by the king amounted to the sum of eight hundred thousand livres. this attempt to _imitate_ flowers in colored porcelain we now consider foolish, as well as false art; and very properly it has passed away as one of the whimsies of the time. some of these flowers, such as double ranunculuses, orange-flowers, anemones, etc., still remain, wonders of fictile work, in the musée céramique, at sèvres. but the porcelain-works at st.-cloud and vincennes, the _avant couriers_ of sèvres, produced many other and more legitimate objects of use as well as art. the dinner and tea services made here were most elaborate and costly; one made for the empress of russia was decorated with paintings of antique cameos, and the cost was some three hundred and sixty thousand livres, a vast sum surely. at certain seasons the courtiers were expected to purchase the work of the royal factory, and presents were sent hither and thither; so that for a time the manufactory not only enjoyed the favor of the king, but also the sunshine of the court. in 1748 a superb vase was made and presented to the queen. it stood on a bronze pedestal, and was about three feet high. the marvelous part of it was the great bouquet it contained, which consisted of four hundred and eighty porcelain flowers exquisitely modeled and colored after nature. the mark used at vincennes will be given with those of sèvres. in 1756 the porcelain-works of vincennes were removed to sèvres, and from that period everything possible was concentrated there; and in 1759 or 1760 the whole came under the control and direction of the king. we see, therefore, how out of the efforts at st.-cloud and chantilly and vincennes the works at sèvres at last grew up. all was now combined at sèvres. the production of hard porcelain at this period had become a matter of importance; for it was well known that at dresden most finished work of this kind had for a long time been made. soft porcelain, though equally or more beautiful, was difficult to make, was then expensive, and lacked the strength and durability of the hard. hard porcelain or _pâte dure_, was the one thing desired. but this could not be made without the peculiar clay called kaolin, which the saxons had, but which they would not allow the french to get. this was not obtained, as has been said, till 1765, and from that time sèvres entered upon a period of production which has had no equal in europe. the buildings were ample, the gardens were pleasant, and the interest in the production of the royal works may be appreciated from the fact that the king, accompanied by madame de pompadour, made weekly visits, to see that all went well. and all did go will. no money was wanting; artists of the highest rank were enlisted; skilled men of every kind contributed their knowledge and keenness to bring the delicate work to perfection. madame de pompadour, herself an artist in her way, not only came weekly to enjoy the work of others, but she often applied her own hands to making designs, or to touching or perfecting what fine thing might be going forward. under such stimulus as this it was inevitable that every modeler, every artist, every colorist, should be inspired to do his best. they were patronized by royal hands which disposed of all the glory and wealth of france. painters having a wonderful technical skill were eagerly engaged, and much of the work done has the merit--not the highest one, certainly--of being most delicately and elaborately penciled. no work of this kind ever has surpassed what was done on the vases, teacups, écuelles, etc., made at sèvres. the variety of decoration upon these elaborate pieces was great, comprising among others, birds, flowers in wreaths and garlands, and bouquets, landscapes, figures, arabesques, cupids, emblems, cameos, masks, miniatures, watteau pictures, children, pastoral subjects, chinese and japanese imitations, butterflies, medallions, sea-pieces, insects, etc.: the whole of nature and art was ransacked for interesting and attractive material. almost or quite all of this may be characterized as most clever imitation, exquisitely painted. even the artists who were inspired by love of oriental work seem to have imitated or copied that; they did not learn by it how to express occidental life and growth, in their own individual way, and with that piquant fresh touch which marks so much of the best oriental work. nevertheless, it is exquisite, and conveys a sense of satisfaction and completeness because of that, even to those who do not approve of it as the best decorative art. it is safe to say that the grand monarque, louis xiv., was the greatest affliction which the kingdom of france was ever called upon to endure. his reign was unfortunately long--1643 to 1715. it was marked by a false splendor of success, by luxury such as the world had not seen since the days of the decline and fall of rome, by the most venal public service except that which his successor permitted, by the most unblushing corruption in private life, among men and women both; and by a general degradation of all the standards of frugality, sincerity, honor, and nobleness, in public and in private life. was it possible for art to escape this contamination? impossible! the florid and foolish taste of the perruquier prevails everywhere, in architecture, in painting, in sculpture, in dress; all is tainted with the showy and the shallow. the flowing scroll appears in all its splendor, decoration is piled in meaningless profusion, and talent and taste, heart, mind, hand, and gold, are lavished in folly and vice, which finally culminated in the social and political revolution of louis xvi., when king and noble, lord and lady, went under in a sanguinary flood of anarchy and ruin. could the taste and the art which prevailed at sèvres escape this? it could not, and it did not. while, therefore, we cannot but admire the care, the pains, the skill, of the workmen and the artists, let us not be misled by the false glamour of that time, so as to learn to love or to imitate their florid and extravagant tastes in architecture, in furniture, in dress, or in porcelain. chaffers, in his work upon "pottery and porcelain," gives the private marks of some one hundred and twenty-six painters, who were employed at sèvres before 1800, and quite a number who have painted there since. among these are some who reached a european reputation: of these _boucher_ is perhaps most famous; his medallions are sought for, and highly valued. [illustration: fig. 133.--_enameled sèvres vase, called "vase genicault."_] a distinction is sometimes made between old sèvres and modern sèvres. the old--_vieux sèvres_--comes down to the year 1800; after that it is designated as modern, for convenience. it does not intend to exalt one and condemn the other, as too many now are apt to think, the truth being that equally good work has been done since that time as before it. indeed, within this year i have seen some pieces of sèvres painting, such as i fancy have never been done there before, and which can hardly be excelled; in which the artist ceases to be a copyist, abandons himself to the imagination, and produces work which gratifies the highest faculty. somebody, then, has broken away from traditions and academic rules. not only were the early painters ranked as artists, but designers and modelers of vases and other pieces had high rank and high pay, so much so that their names were and are attached to their productions; as, for example, vase clodion, vase duplessis, vase falconnet, etc. i may say here that elaborate and beautiful as many of them certainly are, the sèvres vases, inspired as they too often are by that expression of art so acceptable to louis xiv. and xv., are so decorated, scrolled, and worked, that they create a sense of surfeit in many minds. in figs. 133, 134, and 135, we have three excellent examples of this work which may really be called _magnificent_. they have all the qualities which characterize the elaborate work of sèvres. the size and elaborateness of these force them into the collections of emperors and kings, and here and there into the fine museums of the world, where they are to be seen of all men. fig. 133 is a superb covered vase, enameled most elaborately and exquisitely, in the best of what may be termed a renaissance decoration, which had its birth in italy. the masks and floating figures suggest a delicate reminiscence of pompeii and the luxury and decadence of those greek romans, which there reached a full development, and which remain to us when all of rome is in ruin, preserved by the ashes of vesuvius through these nineteen centuries. the vase, fig. 134, is the largest of all, reaching some forty inches in height. fig. 135 shows us a superb vase, called "_cuve ovale ducereau_." in this vase the artist has closely approximated to the _form_ of some of the old greek vases, but the decoration is more striking and elaborate. [illustration: fig. 134.--_sèvres vase, called vase etrusque carafe._] a perception of this excessive ornamentation came to somebody about the year 1785, for in that year louis xvi. bought from m. denon a collection of greek vases, "to serve as models of pure and simple forms, and thus change the exaggerated, exuberant contours given to porcelain in the preceding reign." [illustration: fig. 135.--_sèvres vase, called "cuve ovale ducereau."_] the wonderful virtue of simplicity which the greeks at their best fully valued, seems to have fled from france during the times of louis xiv. and xv. this, in a degree, was restored by the purer and better tastes of the time of louis xvi., when there was a reaction toward the classic in both literature and art. in fig. 136 we have engraved a vase of the time of louis xvi., which indicates the improvements made at that time, both in form and decoration. it approaches the classic forms of greece, and is a step away from that excessive and meretricious decoration which marked the times of louis xiv. and xv. it was sold at the bernal sale, and is thus described: "a magnificent centre vase and cover, _gros bleu_, with upright handles of foliage, a festoon of leaves, raised gilt, encircling the vase and falling over the handles, the lower part fluted with pendant lines of leaves; in the centre is a most exquisite painting of a peasant and two girls gathering cherries, a donkey with panniers filled with cherries at their side, a group of flowers on the reverse--on square plinth, eighteen inches high. sold to the marquis of hertford for eight hundred and seventy-one pounds ten shillings sterling (four thousand three hundred and fifty-five dollars). [illustration: fig. 136.--_sèvres vase._] i have spoken of the many styles of painting applied at sèvres, and also of the great carefulness and elaborateness of the modeling. another skilled body of men was called upon to contribute toward the perfection at which they all aimed; these were the _chemists_. to devise, to combine, and to adapt many and more and more beautiful colors than any in use, which could be applied to porcelain and would stand supreme heat, required the aid of science. this the chemists gave; and the result has been such rich, such subtile, such brilliant colors as no other manufactory has reached. some of these colors have become well and widely known under the following names: _bleu de roi_, made from cobalt; a deep lapis lazuli, sometimes veined and sown with gold. _gros bleu_, a deeper color of the same. _bleu céleste_, a turquoise blue, from copper. _rose pompadour_, improperly called _rose du barri_ in england. _violet pensée_, a rare and beautiful violet. _jonquille_, a rich canary. _vert pomme_, a delicious apple-green. _vert pré_, a bright grass-green. _rouge de fer_, a brilliant red. these are among the most famous colors used to cover the ground or body of the finest vases, the reserved spaces being filled with the rarest paintings. in addition to these perfect colors, gilding of the heaviest kind was used--often too freely. to glorify the work still more, what are termed _jewels_ were applied in rows, or singly, of many colors; but pearls and rubies were most in use. the _rose pompadour_, or _rose du barri_, has, within the last twenty years, become most in vogue, so that at the bernal sale, in 1856, a pair of vases of this color, painted with groups of cupids in medallions, was purchased by the marquis of bath at eighteen hundred and fifty guineas. an english collector, of moderate views, told me he proposed to purchase a pair of vases of this color, some twelve inches high, at a sale at christie's, some five years since, if he could do so for, say, one hundred pounds sterling. the first bid was one thousand pounds, and they were knocked down at sixteen hundred and fifty guineas. the variety and splendor of these _vases de luxe_ are great. they are to be seen in most of the collections of europe, and, to some extent, in america; but their great cost, and the fact that they are so rarely offered for sale here, make them quite uncommon in the united states. visitors to europe should see those in the kensington museum, and in private galleries; such as that of m. rothschild, whose collection is worth _millions_. [illustration: fig. 137.--_sèvres._] it is a singular thing that during that fearful tempest known as the french revolution, when almost everything which had a suspicion of royalty or luxury was swept away, the works at sèvres were not destroyed, but were carefully guarded and supported by the republican directory. besides these "articles of luxury," the sèvres works have always made a large number of services for household use, which, however, must always be costly. some of these are in this country; also a good many single pieces, particularly from the collections of louis philippe, which were large, and which were scattered at the time of the revolution of 1848. quite a goodly number were in the sale of mr. lyons's collection, in 1876. some of these dinner-services were of course very elaborate and some intended for royal houses were finished in the rich and heavy colors, such as the _bleu de roi_, which for myself i would never desire; but most of them were decorated with edges of very rich gold, and bands or bouquets of flowers painted on the white. [illustration: fig. 138.--_sèvres, white and gold._] in fig. 137 we present some pieces from a handsome service belonging to w. c. prime, esq., of new york. the forms as well as the decoration are perfect; the dark bands are a rich yellow, and the edges are finished with heavy gold leafage and lines. this is a large and complete set. the single plate shown in the picture, containing the portrait of montaigne, of course does not belong to the service. it is an admirable piece of the miniature work done at sèvres, and must find its place as a picture does on the walls of the house. plates, however, as valuable as this should have the protection of a frame. fig. 138 is from a part of a tea or breakfast service belonging to the collection of george w. wales, esq., of boston. it is clear and brilliant, being wholly of white and gold, and is really surprisingly attractive, partly from its simplicity, and more from its perfectness. some of the finest pieces of sèvres porcelain in our country are to be found in the collections i have already mentioned. there are also fine examples in possession of mr. barlow, mr. belmont, and mr. matthews, of new york; of dr. mitchell, and other connoisseurs, at philadelphia. mr. j. v. l. pruyn, of albany, has one large and beautiful dinner-service of the white and gold sèvres, and one made for louis philippe, having bands in colors. in his collection are two plates jeweled--one bearing the portrait of the princess lamballe, painted by le guay; and the other, that of gabrielle d'estrées--which are of the highest class. the knowledge of and love for good examples of fine porcelain are on the increase, and no doubt in a few years we shall be able to see and enjoy fine work, without the disagreeable experience of crossing the implacable ocean. our art-museums will also give to thousands the opportunity of seeing and studying these things which no private collections can so well do. the name of alexandre brongniart (fig. 139) is now identified with the best period of sèvres porcelain, and its high reputation and great success are due more to him than to any one man. not only did he aim for excellence himself, he also insisted that others should do likewise. he gave tone and character to what was done there. nothing having any flaw or blemish was allowed to go from the works; and in that way the standard was kept high in the minds of artists and workmen as well as in those of amateurs. prices, too, were kept at such a point that more and more could be attempted and accomplished. to brongniart is due the _musée céramique_ at sèvres. in this museum are examples of all or nearly all the famous work ever done there, as well as a great number of examples of both porcelain and faience made elsewhere. this museum is still receiving constant additions. before his appointment brongniart was ranked as a _savant_ in other branches. he was known among the most eminent of geologists, and in conjunction with cuvier he made a careful examination of the geology of the neighborhood of paris, and wrote upon it a learned essay. he was also a student of chemistry, and this knowledge was most valuable after he became director at sèvres. for some fifty years after 1800 he held that post, and during the time he gave his soul to the work he had in hand; he encouraged the mature and he brought forward the young. his work "traité des arts céramiques" is most valuable, and is looked upon as an authority to-day. [illustration: fig. 139.--_portrait of alexandre brongniart._] since his day the works have been in careful and competent hands, and admirable porcelain is still produced in many styles. marks.--the vincennes mark used from 1745 to 1753 was the interlaced l's without any inclosed letter, like the first mark of sèvres. beginning at 1753 the sèvres mark was the interlaced l's inclosing the letter a. the marks at sèvres changed many times, so that it is necessary to give quite a list of them as well as a table showing how the letters of the alphabet indicate the year when the piece was made. the following table will help to explain the use of the letters of the alphabet when placed in the interlaced l's: a 1753 b 1754 c 1755 d 1756 e 1757 f 1758 g 1759 h 1760 i 1761 j 1762 k 1763 l 1764 m 1765 n 1766 o 1767 p 1768 q 1769 r 1770 s 1771 t 1772 u 1773 v 1774 x 1775 y 1776 z 1777 aa 1778 bb 1779 cc 1780 dd 1781 ee 1782 ff 1783 gg 1784 hh 1785 ii 1786 jj 1787 kk 1788 ll 1789 mm 1790 nn 1791 oo 1792 pp 1793 qq 1794 rr 1795 t9* 1801 x* 1802 11* 1803 --\\- 1804 /|\ 1805 ==:== 1806 7 1807 8 1808 9 1809 10 1810 o.z. (onze) 1811 d.z. (douze) 1812 t.z. (treize) 1813 q.z. (quatorze) 1814 q.n. (quinze) 1815 s.z. (seize) 1816 d.-s. (dix-sept) 1817 18 1818 19 1819 etc., etc. [illustration: _a comet was sometimes used as a mark in the year 1769._] marks used at sèvres: [illustration: _the royal period, sometimes with a crown (1753)._] [illustration: _hard paste first made (1768)._ _republic (1792 to 1798)._] [illustration: _republic (1792)._] [illustration: _consular period (1803)._] [illustration: _imperial manufactory (1804 to 1809)._] [illustration: _imperial manufactory (1810 to 1814)._] [illustration: _louis xviii., and the year (1814 to 1824)._] [illustration: _charles x. (1824 to 1829)._] [illustration: _on plain ware (1829 and 1830)._] [illustration: _on decorated ware (1829 and 1830)._] [illustration: _louis philippe (august to december, 1830)._] [illustration: _louis philippe (1831 to november, 1834)._] [illustration: _louis philippe (november, 1834, to july, 1845)._] [illustration: _louis philippe (1837)._] [illustration: _louis philippe (1845 to 1848)._] [illustration: _on white porcelain (1833 to present time)._] [illustration: _republic (1848 to 1851)._] [illustration: _napoleon iii., emperor (1852)._] [illustration: _napoleon iii., emperor (1854 and after)._] [illustration: _present mark--the cut shows pieces sold in the white (1861)._ ] chapter xiv. the porcelains of southern europe--italy, spain, etc. florentine, or medicean.--is it a true porcelain?--the house of medici.--marks.--doccia porcelain.--the marquis ginori.--beccheroni.--present work.--marks.--venice.--vezzi.--cozzi.--marks.--turin. --gioanetti.--marks.--nove.--terraglia.--marks.--capo di monte.--naples.--in relief.--marks.--spanish porcelain.--buen retiro.--marks.--portugal. florentine (or medicean) porcelain.--in the time of the 1700's, after the discovery of kaolin in saxony, kings and princes were eager to signalize themselves by establishing porcelain-works in their states, and upon these they spent much money. it has come to light within a few years that the merchant-princes of the house of medici enlisted in the same cause, and were the _first_ to establish a porcelain-factory in europe; this discovery, made by dr. foresi, of florence, has been confirmed by various others. the question only is, "is it porcelain?" mr. j. c. robinson, a distinguished english writer, says: "a discovery of some curiosity and interest in connection with the history of the manufacture of porcelain in southern europe has recently been made by the acumen of dr. foresi, of florence, and which has the effect of antedating the manufacture by at least a century. before this discovery the fabrique at st.-cloud, in france, was the earliest that could be authenticated. this was about the year 1695; but the facts now brought forward prove the existence of a factory for the manufacture of a true porcelain at florence, under the patronage of the grand-duke francis i., about the years 1580 to 1590. for some time the doctor had observed a peculiar ancient porcelain of a fine body and glaze, and covered with an arabesque ornament in blue, which, while it generally resembled oriental porcelain, showed unmistakable features of european design. it was also marked in a peculiar manner, and, as one mark consisted of the well-known pellets of the medici family arms, he was induced to search the records of the house, and, to his surprise, found--what had been overlooked by all historians of the potter's art--that the duke above named had attached to his well-known laboratory in the boboli gardens a small manufactory of porcelain. by continuing his researches he at last exhumed a manuscript from the magliabecchian library, which had been compiled by some person employed by the duke, and which also detailed the facts connected with the composition of the ware." this manufacture continued from 1575 to 1587. the medici.--the history of this remarkable family of the medici can never fail to interest. roscoe has presented it well in his "life of lorenzo the magnificent," etc. the origin of the family is very vague; but the fact is well known that the founder of its greatness was giovanni de' medici (he died 1429), who, instead of grasping states and principalities with one hand, while the other held the glittering sword, as had for so long a time been the fashion, seized upon the great trade which then had sprung up between the occident and the orient, and which became vast and profitable in the hands of the merchants of florence, genoa, and venice. this trade poured ducats into his coffers like the flow of a river, and when he died he left vast stores of gold to his sons cosmo and lorenzo. cosmo, instead of degenerating into a "rich man's son," went on with the work which his father had begun; but he conducted it as a great man should, not as a great miser would. this was true of his successors, who continued to be merchants and bankers, even after they had come to be grand-dukes and rulers of the florentine state. this wealth was used, of course, to push their own fortunes and ambitions, but it was used in a ducal way, not only in the building of palaces and galleries, but in the encouragement of the arts and of letters, all of which increased his own glory, while it ministered to the magnificence of the state. the medici had ceased to be merchants long before the time of francis, but it is easy to believe that the traditions of his family ran in his veins, and that he should have been ready to attempt the production of porcelain in his city, when the love for it and the desire for it had grown to be an influence in europe, as it had in the seventeenth century. nineteen specimens only are known of this earliest porcelain, and these are in the hands of museums and of private collectors. examples may be seen in the sèvres and kensington museums. it seems that the best quality was made for the family of the founder, and this bears the mark of six pellets, each with a letter and one with a _fleur-de-lis_. these letters, f. m. m. e. d. ii., mean _franciscus medici magnus etruriæ dux secundus_. [illustration: fig. 140.--_medicean porcelain._] we engrave here (fig. 140) a beautiful _bocca_, or pitcher, fifteen inches high, of this porcelain, which is in the collection of the baron de rothschild. the decoration resembles the style of maiolica known as raffaelesque; the body is white and the painting of a light blue. the handle is a crown, formed by uniting those of the medici and of austria. the less beautiful pieces are described as "coarse, opaque, and of a bluish gray, the glaze thick and vitreous." this china was something between hard and soft. whether this production of italy is really porcelain, is open to doubt. m. demmin, who is certainly entitled to great consideration, denies it very plainly. he states that the vase exhibited by m. rothschild, in 1865, showed a break at the neck, and that the body was not porcelain, but a white clay--_terre de pipe_. he states, also, that the five pieces in the museum of sèvres are not translucid, and have no signs such as mark the _pâte tendre_ of france or italy. english writers choose to class this under the head of porcelain, which seems, at least, to be very questionable. the two marks are: [illustration: _the duomo of florence and the six pellets of the medici._] doccia (near florence)--hard and soft paste.--in the beginning of the last century there existed in the north of italy families who had inherited wealth and honor, and who still retained their vigor. they may not have been many, but among them the ginori were numbered. italy has been living in the luminous glories of the art of the renaissance these five centuries, and the light, as it seems to us, grows dim rather than glowing. neither painting, sculpture, nor architecture, seems to-day to have more than a thin flavor of that past, when church and state, noble and simple, combined to welcome the advent of a new artist. the production of porcelain belongs to the later time; but it certainly, in a limited way, shows signs of life and of originality more than any art of the later time, except, perhaps, music. to-day it is not so. the productions of the south--capo di monte--i have elsewhere spoken of as not being servile imitations of anything, and as possessing much merit and originality. of the productions at doccia i have seen none, and the descriptions in books do not enable me to form any judgment. of the maiolicas of italy, now being reproduced largely at doccia, i shall write hereafter. the marquis ginori founded a manufactory near florence in 1735, which is in a flourishing condition to-day. inspired with the desire to produce work of a high character, he spared neither trouble nor cost, and sent a ship to china to procure there the clays which had secured the chinese porcelain its peculiar character and its great excellence. not only were services for the table and other articles for social use produced by the workmen and artists under the direction of the marquis, but almost immediately they were engaged in the production of statues and groups, in great variety, and some of which were half the size of life; many were modeled from fine work of the greek sculptors. the paste is said to have been of a high grade, but the glaze was then lacking in the finest effects of the chinese potters. having seen none of it, i am unable to say more than that. a pair of vases from this factory, in walpole's collection at strawberry hill, are described as "vases with blue and white oblique flutes; they are of coarse workmanship, although the form is good." forsyth, an english traveler who visited the factory in 1802, speaks of the works and the work very disparagingly, and says the latter was then much inferior to that of england, as it doubtless was. in 1821, when the capo di monte factory, at naples, was discontinued, the moulds were bought and taken to the doccia works, and are still owned there. the peculiar work in relief, which will be spoken of under the head of "capo di monte," is now made there, and is sold in considerable quantities, and often for the genuine capo di monte, from which, of course, it is not easy to distinguish it. marryat states that this was made at doccia, in the last century, probably from moulds procured then at naples. sèvres shapes and designs were imitated at doccia, and a large production is now going on of the maiolica vases and dishes of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, which are sold all over europe and in america. in paris are produced copies of these, not only in design, but also with marks to indicate age, intended to deceive the unwary. we do not believe this of the works at doccia. still, one can but regret that the public demand for these copies should be so great as to forbid original work there. the artist most praised is beccheroni, and his painting of miniatures is spoken of as "exquisite." baldassini and tuppi are also mentioned in terms of high praise. a note in marryat's volume says: "the manufactory now employs two thousand persons. attached to the establishment are a fine park and farm, schools for the children, an academy of music for the workmen, a savings-bank, and everything that can be devised to promote the moral improvement of its occupants. in the chapel annexed are monuments in porcelain of the deceased marquises; and in the adjacent parochial church the high altar, _torchères_, candlesticks, ciborium, etc., are all in porcelain--an offering of the ginori family." some of the ware made here is stamped _ginori_; others bear some one of the following three marks. [illustration: _doccia marks._] venice--hard and soft paste.--pottery had been made at venice from an early day, at least as far back as 1515. but, after the production of true porcelain at dresden, it seems that a rich merchant of venice, named vezzi, in company with some others, engaged in the production of porcelain there, getting his clay from saxony. various articles were made, and their production probably continued till about 1740. but it was not a success, owing, besides other causes, to the fact that the clay had to be transported so far. it could not, of course, compete with the works at dresden. some few examples of this exist, but very few. the mark of vezzi's factory was the letters, painted or stamped, ven^a, a contraction for venezia. later, about 1753, a german named hewelcke made some attempts at venice, with no practical result. _cozzi's_ productions were of more importance. chaffers quotes from an official report as follows: "concerning the manufactory of japanese porcelain, it was commenced only in 1765, your excellencies were eye-witnesses of its rapid progress and therefore deservedly protected and assisted him. he now works with three furnaces, and has erected a fourth, a very large one, for the manufacture of dishes. he has constantly in his employ forty-five workmen, including the six apprentices whom he has undertaken to educate, and from the date of his privilege, in august, 1765, down to the middle of december, 1766, has disposed of sixteen thousand ducats' worth of manufactured goods, etc., so that it may be fairly inferred that he will yet continue to make greater progress both in quantity and quality." at these works, for about fifty years, a great variety was made, such as vases, statuettes, both white and colored, plates, dishes, services, etc. the imitations of chinese work were so good as to deceive many. the designs of dresden, sèvres, and the english workmen, were also produced here with great skill. some excellent vases made at venice are to be found in the collections in europe. in new york, mr. barlow and mr. prime have some pieces which may be of venice, or they may be of chelsea, as the paste and the mark are almost identical. the marks of the vezzi and the cozzi wares are as follows: [illustration: _marks of the vezzi and the cozzi wares. the anchor-mark was used at chelsea._] at turin and treviso porcelain was made in the last century; as to the latter but little is to be said. some pieces are known, upon which is the mark g. a. f. f. and the name _treviso_ in script. near turin, at vineuf, a manufactory was established about 1770 by a physician named gioanetti. "it was noted for its fine grain and the whiteness of its glaze," says chaffers; while marryat says, "the glaze, however, is wavy and yellowish." it was sometimes marked with a simple +, at others with a =v= under the cross, and again as shown here: [illustration: _meaning vineuf, dr. gioanetti._] nove--hard paste.--porcelain seems to have been attempted at nove, near bassano, in italy, about 1752, by a man named antonibon, who with his son afterward continued it till 1781 or later. some elaborate pieces were made here, one of which we have taken from marryat's book, because it seems to possess, what so few do, excellence and originality. it is in the reynolds collection in england, and is some twenty-seven and a half inches high--a superb piece of work (fig. 141). the business passed into other hands, and after 1800 it gradually went to decay. in 1825 it was revived by some descendants of the first antonibon, who struggled on for ten years, but they could not sustain themselves against the capital, the clay, the brains, and skill of saxony and sèvres. they still make there, as they always did, maiolica, fine and common, and _terraglia_ faience, in considerable quantities and of much excellence, called in france _terre de pipe_. this _terraglia_, it may be said, is a sort of demi-porcelain, being made of a mixture of the true porcelain clay and the native potter's clay. it is susceptible of great precision of modeling and of a high finish, and some beautiful work has been done in it in italy. [illustration: fig. 141.--_nove porcelain vase._] the marks of nove were usually a star or asterisk, with six rays; sometimes the letter n, or the word nove, was added. [illustration: _marks of nove._] capo di monte--soft paste.--this beautiful porcelain was made first at naples in 1736, under the direct patronage of the king, charles iv., afterward charles iii. of spain. the king was an enthusiast, and sometimes worked in the factory himself, and under this inspiration it is not surprising that excellent work was done. but, besides this, very common services and figures were made later, many of which bear the mark of the _fleur-de-lis_, so that all capo di monte is not equally good or equally valuable. and the same may be said of the productions of any man or any manufactory. a letter written to lord chatham in 1760 says of this king charles: "he is particularly fond of the china-manufacture at capo di monte. during a fair held annually in the square before his palace at naples, there is a shop solely for the sale of a part of this china, and a note was daily brought to the king of what was sold, together with the names of those who bought; and it is said he looked often favorably upon the persons who made any purchases." [illustration: fig. 142.--_capo di monte._] the king, being of a spanish family, succeeded to the crown of spain in 1759, when he carried with him many of the workmen and his own tastes, and established there the manufactory of _buen retiro_, of which is a brief account hereafter. after his departure the factory languished, lacking his interested inspiration. the marked originality of the capo di monte porcelain is the _designs in relief_ which were impressed upon the plaques, and also upon teacups, vases, etc. these were very delicately and carefully _stippled_ in colors, and this distinguishes them from imitations and reproductions which have been made in great numbers at florence, and which are sold at very much smaller prices. [illustration: fig. 143.--_capo di monte._] not only were these articles in relief and of great beauty made here, but also very excellent, creamy, soft porcelain painted on the flat, and exquisitely painted, too. the specimens i have seen have a character of their own, which has the great merit of being indigenous and not an imitation. the tea-services, of which we now and then see single pieces, are lovely. [illustration: fig. 144.--_capo di monte._] mr. prime has some excellent pieces, of both styles; as has mr. wales, from whose collection we have engraved our illustrations. the three pieces marked fig. 142, 143, and 144, are painted on the glaze, and are exquisite both for design and color. the single vase (fig. 145) has two bands, most delicately modeled and painted in relief. [illustration: fig. 145.--_capo di monte._] work was continued with more or less success until 1821, when the moulds were sold to the doccia manufactory, at florence; but after 1780 hard paste was made at this factory, under the patronage of king ferdinand. the marks used are here given; the earliest was a ruder form of _fleur-de-lis_. this _fleur-de-lis_ mark was also used at madrid, and, as the work was almost identical, it is not easy to distinguish them. demmin says the marks on the hard porcelain were a crown, under which were sometimes the locked letters re or fk. marks of capo di monte: [illustration: _about 1786._] [illustration: _about 1759._] [illustration: _about 1759._] [illustration: _ferdinandus rex (1780)._] [illustration: fig. 146.--_buen retiro._] spanish porcelain--buen retiro.--when charles iii. came to the throne of spain in 1759, from naples he brought with him many of the workmen and much of the skill which had produced the beautiful china at naples. these he established near his palace of _el buen retiro_, at madrid, and here his experiments and the manufacture were carried on with great secrecy and much care. a letter from spain, written in 1777, quoted by marryat, says: "in the gardens of buen retiro the monarch has established a china manufactory, which strangers have not hitherto been permitted to examine. it is undoubtedly intended that experiments shall be secretly made, and the manufacture brought to some perfection before it be exposed to the eyes of the curious. its productions are to be seen nowhere except in the palace of the sovereign, or in some italian courts, to which they have been sent as presents," etc. during the napoleonic wars, when spain was overrun with troops, the factory was destroyed (1812), and it has not been restored. the single illustration (fig. 146) is a very beautiful small vase, from mr. wales's collection. it is exquisitely painted, and closely resembles the porcelain of capo di monte. marks supposed to have been used at buen retiro: [illustration: _the same as ludwigsburg._] [illustration: _the same as capo di monte._] [illustration] some porcelain has been, and i believe still is, made at alcora. in portugal, at oporto, porcelain has been made since 1790, of no supreme qualities. it is rather singular that the people who first introduced the fine porcelains of china and japan into europe, who, for some two centuries, had almost uninterrupted control of the commerce, who brought it by ship-loads to all the countries of europe, should apparently have had less interest in the subject than any other, should have less of it to show to-day than most others, should have made less effort to produce it in the past, and should be doing almost nothing to-day. but countries, like men, have their manhood and their dotage, and then they pass out of the active life of the world: such seems to be the condition of portugal to-day. chapter xv. the porcelains of england. bow.--chelsea.--derby.--chelsea-derby.--lowestoft.--worcester. --chamberlains.--plymouth.--bristol.--pinxton.--nantgaraw.--swansea. --turners.--coalport.--coalbrookdale.--herculaneum.--shelton, new hall.--rockingham.--spode, copeland.--place.--daniell.--minton. --prices and marks. in england, following the discovery and production of porcelain in saxony, there sprang up a very wide interest in the art. it was not an interest which enlisted all classes there--as, indeed, it did not anywhere in europe; but among persons of taste and wealth it became of such importance as to be a "fashion." the discovery of kaolin-clay in saxony stimulated enterprising men to seek for it elsewhere. there is much doubt yet, and there has been a vast amount of time spent upon the question in england, as to when and where the production of china first took place in that country. it is not for me, here in america, to make any attempts to solve it. what i may do is to try to present to our own people, in some compact and readable form, what marryat, chaffers, and others in england, have arrived at after much patient research and comparison. some of the most useful and most important works on pottery and porcelain--of which enough have been written to form a library of themselves--will be mentioned at the end of this book; for in all of them much is to be found of value to those who care to go into this curious and interesting branch of art-production more fully than any one volume will enable them to do. from these facts--that many of the manufactories in england had but a short career; and that the work produced, in many cases, had no marks, or had a great variety of marks; that in some cases but little work was made, and that of that little much has disappeared--a surprising interest has come to be attached to that which remains; and in some cases surprising prices have been paid for it, and are now paid. it is for these reasons, rather than for its intrinsic beauty, that most english porcelain is so eagerly desired. it is not generally remarkable for perfection of form or of paste, or for originality or beauty of color and ornament; but in some cases all of these are to be found. the early paste of the older factories, such as bow and chelsea, is considered inferior to the best chinese and japanese, and to the early dresden and sèvres. afterward the paste was greatly improved, until now that made at the porcelain-works at worcester, and at some other of the english factories, is not surpassed anywhere. it seems to me that the english modelers have not cultivated that sense of perfection of form and grace of line which was so wonderful in greece, and in which the french modelers excel the english. it may be that the desire for strength, which seems to inspire most english porcelain, has demanded the sacrifice of that delicacy, thinness, and niceness, which have for a long time prevailed in france. but the english porcelain is noted for its strength and wearing quality; it is certainly superior in this respect to most of the french work. whoever has interest enough in the subject should visit, when in england, the porcelain-works at worcester, now conducted by mr. binns. here he can see all the processes going on, by means of which the teacup and the dinner-plate are brought to perfection. it is not a simple matter. several kinds of clays are to be got together--some from england; some, perhaps, from elsewhere. these are ground to such an impalpable fineness that they are floated away in water, and are allowed to settle into tanks, from which, when in the right condition, they are taken to the moulder for use. the collecting, the mixing, the grinding of these clays is the result of much brain and hand work--a great deal more than most men are obliged to use in getting into congress or parliament, or in writing a book. as the dexterous potter moulds upon his wheel the forms of the greek amphora or the chinese teacup, they seem to spring under his hand as if touched by the fairy's wand. i think no one can see this work grow without a feeling of surprised pleasure; and, after witnessing it, no one can fail to have a greater satisfaction at seeing and using the various objects of use and beauty, to be found now in every house--a satisfaction increased by knowledge. even in the ordinary mug or jug which costs a sixpence, are often to be detected great knowledge, much art. we do not give the workman half his due when we fail to feel how much we owe to him. an eye to see the beautiful, the good, the true, is to be prayed for. when the turner and modeler has perfected his pot, it has to go through its firings, glazings, paintings, until it comes to us a perfected work, which we too often hardly look at. it is only a jug! there is more than the money's worth in every good piece of cabinet-work, iron-work, woven fabric, etc.; for with every honest workman's hand goes a part of his soul: he gives it willingly, gladly. bow--soft paste.--the small village of stratford-le-bow, in middlesex, now, i think, a part of london, is believed to be the place where a china-factory was first established in england, and some suppose it may have been as early as 1730, though 1744 is the earliest authentic date mentioned. mr. chaffers[15] says--and it has some interest to us americans, as perhaps showing whence the old and great england drew its first porcelain life--"william cookeworthy, of plymouth, writing to a friend in 1745, says: 'i had lately with me the person who has discovered the _china-earth_. he had with him several samples of the china-ware, which i think were equal to the asiatic. it was found on the back of virginia, where he was in quest of mines; and having read du halde, he discovered both the _petunze_ and _kaolin_. it is this latter earth which he says is essential to the success of the manufacture. he is gone for a cargo of it, having bought from the indians the whole country where it rises. they can import it for thirteen pounds sterling the ton,'" etc. it seems probable or possible that this earth was used to some extent in the earlier productions at bow, as it is mentioned in the application of the company for patents, and as it appears that some hard porcelain is found among the earlier examples existing, in which this kaolin was perhaps used--called by the natives "unaker." the enterprise at bow was purely a private one, originating with edward heylin, a merchant, and thomas frye, a painter. unlike the works at meissen, sèvres, and indeed many others on the continent, none of the factories in england had the assistance of the government. the bow works were afterward carried on by crowther and weatherby. in the british museum is a large punch-bowl, made at bow and painted by thomas craft, which is accompanied with his certificate. this statement shows that the works at bow at that time (1760) had become extensive, if not profitable, for he mentions, "they employed there three hundred persons; about ninety painters (of whom i was one), and about two hundred turners, throwers, etc." the examples existing, and recently-discovered documents, go to show that the paste or body at bow was not of supreme excellence, and not at all equal to that made on the continent at that time. the painting was in a variety of designs, as appears by some memorandum-books, still existing: "blue newark pattern," "sets of blue teas," "a dinner-service," "blue and pale as you please." tea-sets were evidently much made, and "white bud-sprigs," "sprigged tea-sets," and "dresden sprigs," are mentioned. while all the first work at bow was hand-painted, it appears that later, about 1756, printed or transfer work was used there; this, of course, secured cheaper sets. a great variety and number of figures, such as shepherdesses, birds, animals, hunters, chinese figures, etc., were made at bow as well as at chelsea, which, of course, have been much sought for, and have sold at high prices. though these figures are not desirable as pieces of _sculpture_, many of them are interesting as showing the dresses of the day, especially such figures as woodward the actor, and mistress kitty clive, who were modeled at bow. much confusion exists as to what is bow and what is chelsea, as the styles of work run much together. many pieces of each factory bore no mark. some of the best-known marks will be given at the end of this account; but it may be well to say that the incised triangle, which for a long time was supposed to be a sure indication of bow, is now placed with chelsea. some pieces marked "new canton" are known to be bow. it is curious to note that he who would be a good salesman in those "good old times," must do what salesmen in these later and baser times are sometimes tempted to do. let me explain. mr. bowcocke was a manager or salesman at bow, and he kept a note-book, in which are written down his doings with mrs. mcnally, a good customer of the wares: _oct. 16._--bought a china figure for mrs. mcnally 4_s._ painting " " 1_s._ 3_d._ treating mrs. mcnally, wine 1_s._ went to see her home from the play 1_s._ paid 2_d._ if that were the only transaction, think of it! sales 5_s._ 3_d._ expenses of same 2_s._ 4_d._ not lucrative to the bow salesman! the bow works continued with varied success until about 1775 to 1776, when the moulds, implements, etc., were sold to mr. duesbury, who transferred and merged all into the greater works at derby. (_see_ derby.) marks on bow porcelain: [illustration: _these are found on some pieces._] [illustration: _positions vary._] [illustration: _the triangle now is given to chelsea, possibly to derby, not to bow._] [illustration] [illustration] chelsea--soft paste.--the porcelain-works at chelsea, near london, were begun before the year 1747, by some workmen brought from burslem and elsewhere; a little later, in 1748 to 1749, they were more firmly established, under the direction of a foreigner named sprimont, or spremont. the works were carried on by him until about the year 1769, when they were advertised for sale, and he retired from the business. some very expensive, elaborate, and beautiful vases were made by him, of which two in the possession of earl dudley are said to be hardly surpassed by anything made at dresden or sèvres. the price paid for one of them, in 1868, was two thousand pounds sterling. the first work made seems to have been in imitation of chinese porcelain, and it is doubtful if much original designing was done at chelsea. chaffers says: "the fine vases in the french style, in imitation of sèvres, with gros bleu, crimson, turquoise, and apple-green, were made from about 1760 to 1765." the illustration given (fig. 147) is one of their most highly-decorated vases, and is unquestionably brilliant. but it has the vice, as it seems to me, of over-decoration; there is no restraint, none of the delicacy of true art. the form, too, lacks perfectness in many ways. the want of invention or original design in england would seem to indicate that porcelain was not a natural or spontaneous art there. in france and in saxony, on the contrary, while much of the taste is questionable, and some of it bad, many original and peculiar works were designed and executed. this was not the case in england; and, indeed, excepting wedgwood, we can hardly point to any conspicuous examples of creative power. here the god of trade comes in, for it _pays better_ to copy than to create. [illustration: fig. 147.--_fine chelsea vase._] about 1769 the chelsea works went into the hands of duesbury, of derby, who carried them on in connection with his derby works until about 1784, when all were transferred to derby. the paste or body used at chelsea was so soft and tender that it was nearly valueless for works of use. it was therefore confined to articles of beauty and luxury, such as vases, bowls, dishes, cups, and tea-services; also to figures in great variety, like those made at bow. these are much, sought for, and command high prices. they have been counterfeited to some extent. one very curious incident is quoted by marryat, from faulkner's "history of chelsea:" "mr. h. stephens was told by the foreman of the china-factory (then in the workhouse of st. luke's, middlesex), that dr. johnson had conceived a notion that he was capable of improving on the manufacture of china." he visited the factory with his house-keeper, had access to the various mixing-rooms, made his own composition, had them baked, etc., but always "completely failed." the doctor retired in disgust. that the brain of the purblind, the prejudiced, the arrogant british philosopher should have thought of many things, and should have believed himself capable of any and all things, is not surprising; but the sight of him in a porcelain-factory might well enough have originated the stories in history of "the bull in a china-shop." one might be pardoned for paying a "good penny" for a teacup modeled by the dexterous hands of dr. johnson. another curious fact which may interest and encourage us in these "trading-times" is, that the proprietors of the chelsea works were then obliged to protest and petition against the smuggling of french and dresden porcelain into england _for sale_ in quantities, under the cover of the ministers' privilege to import for their own use. so, if all the men in the days of our fathers were brave, they certainly were not all honest. at the sale of the bernal[16] collection, in 1855, some chelsea china sold as follows: a pair of beautiful globular scalloped vases and covers, deep blue, painted with exotic buds, with pierced borders and covers of the highest quality £110 5_s._ a cup and saucer, with festoons in raised white (chipped) 1 1_s._ another, with flowers and crimson drapery edges 3 a beautiful two-handled cup and saucer, with medallions of cupids in pink, and striped gold sides 21 mr. marryat mentions the sale of some "chelsea" in 1865: at lord cardogan's sale, a pair of vases, painted with exotic buds on gold ground 60 guineas. a two-handled vase, open-work back and cover painted with flowers, on a gold ground, seventeen inches high 250 guineas. a fine figure of a female holding a branch, a lion at her feet, penciled in gold 100 guineas. fifteen plates of old chelsea, blue and gold, fetched £150 there are but few examples of bow and chelsea in this country. mr. prime, and mr. barlow, of new york, i am told, have some pieces. mr. wales has a bowl, and cup and saucer, in very rich, warm colors, being designs from china, which are no doubt chelsea, and excellent work. they are shown in fig. 148, on the right-hand corner, but this cannot, of course, give any idea of the fine coloring. [illustration: fig. 148.--_english porcelain._] marks of chelsea porcelain: [illustration] derby--soft paste.--the derby china--and the "crown derby," now most known--was famous in its day--from about 1750 to the end of the century--and from derby, in england, it was sold to a very wide extent over europe. specimens are met with in holland, italy, spain, etc. the factory was established by william duesbury, and was, after his death, carried on by his son; by a mr. reeve, who married the widow; and, in 1815, it went into the possession of robert bloor. the works were not finally closed till 1848. duesbury, who purchased the moulds and property of both the bow and the chelsea factories, carried on the works at derby and at chelsea for some time; and much of the porcelain made at that time is called chelsea-derby. the early mark of the derby was a capital d, and the chelsea-derby mark is the same d, with the chelsea anchor in its middle. the crown with the anchor, or with crossed lines and dots, and sometimes with the d under it, was used after the patronage of george iii. had been extended to the works (about 1777), and is now most commonly found upon the best work of this factory. after 1815 "bloor's" name is found upon the work. during the best portion of duesbury's time, dinner, dessert, breakfast, and tea services, of great richness and splendor, were made; and at that time the patronage of nobility and gentry was more generous than it had been to any other english factory. duesbury carried to great perfection the combination of a rich blue with gold, not only in his vases, urns, etc., but also as edges to his dinner and tea services. "he has brought the gold and blue to a degree of beauty never before obtained in england, and the drawing and coloring of the flowers are truly elegant," writes a tourist in 1777. in the examples i have had an opportunity of seeing, this is true; but one is obliged to feel in this, as in almost all the fine china of england, a lack of perfection and delicacy in form and modeling. groups and figures were made in great variety and number at derby, upon which no splendor or expense of gold and color was spared. these are found in nearly all the good collections of england and the continent. at this time--the end of the last century--it was much the fashion for ladies to paint, for their own use and for gifts, single pieces, and indeed whole sets; and the white china of derby was often sold for that purpose. these amateur productions occasionally find their way into the shops, and naturally perplex the collector. duesbury's prices were not high. in an invoice extant we find: pair of knotting figures, finely enameled and gilt £2 2_s._ twenty-four dessert-plates, in medallions and grapes, each 13_s._ three large punch-bowls, painted, ye allusion of stag-hunting, hare-hunting, and fishing; each 42_s._ great care was taken that nothing but perfect work went from, the factory; this kept the character of the derby works high. but it filled their shops with many "seconds." when mr. bloor came into possession, of the factory, these seconds were sold by auction in various parts of england; and this greatly injured the name and fame of "derby," from which it did not recover. the bernal sale records of chelsea-derby and derby: five old derby plates, with cupids in pink and flower borders £9 three of derby-chelsea, with bases and deep-blue borders 2 12_s._ 6_d._ a two-handled cup, cover, and saucer, with landscapes and roses on a yellow ground 17 6_s._ 6_d._ none of these were the best work, and brought but corresponding prices. marks used on derby porcelain: [illustration: _duesbury (1756)._] [illustration: _derby-chelsea (1770)._] [illustration: _first in lilac, then in red._] [illustration: _crown derby (1780)._] [illustration: _sometimes d is in old english--d (1780)._] [illustration: _imitation of sèvres (1798)._] [illustration: _imitation of chinese._] [illustration: _probably workman's mark._] [illustration: _sometimes in oval (about 1830)._] lowestoft--soft and mostly hard paste.--much uncertainty, discussion, and perplexity, have prevailed concerning the porcelain made at lowestoft, on the eastern coast of england, near yarmouth. about 1756, as is agreed to by both marryat and chaffers, a gentleman named luson attempted a manufactory of pottery and porcelain there, which was not successful. shortly after another was attempted, which for a time succeeded well; in this mr. robert browne was the principal man. pottery and porcelain were made here in great variety and in considerable quantities--much of it for exportation, and especially for the turkish markets; and some of it appears to have been marked with a crescent, like that made at worcester. but, as a rule, no marks, either of the factory or the painter, were used at lowestoft. not only was pottery, or earthenware, made here, but the early porcelain was soft ware. mr. chaffers states that, about 1775, hard paste was made there in close imitation of chinese. he states, also, that some of the heavier pieces, like tureens and punch-bowls, had a sort of uneven surface, as if it had been patted into shape by the hand or a tool. this patted or uneven surface is a defect; but as this is found also in heavy pieces of porcelain, which are chinese beyond question, it ceases to be a distinguishing mark of lowestoft work--if, indeed, it is a mark of it at all, which one may be permitted still to doubt. some of the work reached great perfection, and the egg-shell cups, etc., made there are said to be equal to any others made in europe. among the peculiar decorations were hares' heads for handles, fruits for knobs of covers, doubled handles to mugs, braided or crossed, which are asserted to be quite distinct from oriental designs. "another striking variety is the fan and feather pattern, in imitation of _capo di monte_, painted in purple, blue, and red, in the form of basins and ewers. many of these vases are elaborately painted, with diaper-work in gold, and colors, and escutcheons of flowers, and small landscapes. among all the flowers and exquisite floral patterns the rose predominates, and it is remarkable how easily the peculiar touch of the artist--whose name was rose--can be detected. another style of decoration peculiar to lowestoft is a rococo scroll or running border of flowers, slightly raised upon the plain surface in opaque white enamel." in the collection of mr. j. v. l. pruyn, at albany, is quite a large dinner-service with the rose-decoration, which we can easily believe to be true lowestoft. the colors are not brilliant, nor is the glaze perfect. the paste lacks the whiteness of the best chinese, and is lighter than any true chinese porcelain i have seen. some persons in this country think that many or most of the dinner and tea services ordered in the united states during the last century, and which it was supposed were made in china, really came from lowestoft through liverpool or bristol; among them those sets which bore initials in a sort of shield, and were finished on the edges with a deep-blue band studded with gold stars. it seems certain that this kind of decoration was done at lowestoft; it is equally certain that it was also done in china, from designs sent out there. i have myself some pieces so decorated, which were imported direct from china to new haven about the end of the last century. [illustration: fig. 149.--_lowestoft porcelain._] the perplexity and discussion existing as to the hard-paste porcelain made at lowestoft have been increased by the statements made by mr. marryat and mr. jewett, in england, that much white undecorated porcelain was imported into lowestoft from china, and was painted in england. some of the forms and decorations made at lowestoft are so like those made in china that it has been almost impossible to distinguish them. to a person not interested, this will seem a matter of the very slightest consequence; to a china-fancier quite the contrary. sydney smith, you will remember, said it was strange, but quite true, that "there were persons living who spoke disrespectfully of the equator, but we should bear with them and pity them." this advice we must apply to those who care nothing about porcelain. mr. chaffers, in his work, "marks and monograms on pottery and porcelain," presents very strong and varied testimony to show that no white porcelain was imported from china and painted at lowestoft; that the hard paste made at lowestoft is quite different, and not so hard as that made in china, and need not be confounded with it. my own belief is that much of what is called "lowestoft," both in england and in the united states, was made in china. we engrave (fig. 149) a pretty tea-service from mr. wales's collection, which will recall to many of our readers what they have seen on their grandmothers' tables any time in this century. it is a style of decoration which was done at lowestoft, and also in china. no marks were used on the lowestoft. [illustration: fig. 150.--_lowestoft plate._] the next illustration (fig. 150), from the collection of john v. l. pruyn, esq., of albany, is characteristic as showing the use of the rose at lowestoft. no better example of it probably exists in this country. the paste is peculiar, and not like much which is called lowestoft. the plate is sixteen and a half inches in diameter, the colors are good, and the painting is carefully done. worcester--soft paste.--at worcester, in the year 1751, the worcester porcelain company was formed, which has continued from that day to this. dr. wall, a physician and chemist, has the credit of being the originator of this the largest and most enduring of english porcelain-works. the clergy of the cathedral were greatly interested, and had much to do with the success of the company. in the beginning, it seems, there was a large production of tea and breakfast services for domestic use; and much of this was like the chinese blue and white, copied from oriental designs. afterward a trade sprung up with turkey, and much china was made for that market. many of the early marks, and particularly upon the oriental designs, were copies of those found upon pieces of chinese porcelain; among which the square seal-mark (given further on) is most often met with. the crescent, which is a well-known worcester mark, most likely came into use when the production of porcelain for the saracen markets became an important business. it is curious to note how very large a demand for fine china came from turkey at that day, and it exists still. it is now some four years ago that i found, in holland, a large selection of high-priced china had just been made for constantinople, and i was told then that there was always a good demand there, and at good prices. the turk is not altogether abominable, though he is a most disturbing quantity in the politics of europe (1876 to 1878). the blue, so much in use in the early decoration, was not a good color, being inclined toward black; but afterward this was greatly improved--approaching the fine cobalt color, though it never reached the exquisite "celestial blue" of nanking. a very large production at worcester was in making copies of vases and other work done at dresden, upon which birds, insects, and flowers, were painted with great care; so much so that, if the paste were not different, it might not be easy to distinguish them from the dresden. the crossed swords and caduceus (see dresden marks) were also used as marks on these. it is quite clear that those things which imitated what other nations did, sold best at that time in england; and this, more than poverty of invention, we may suppose induced those excellent english artists to copy rather than create. chaffers mentions the following as the most noted painters at worcester: pennington, figures; astle, flowers; davis, exotic birds; webster, landscapes and flowers; barber, shells; brewer, landscapes; baxter, lowe, and cole, figure-subjects; billingsly, flowers. [illustration: fig. 151.--_royal worcester porcelain._] printing in black upon the porcelain was practised at worcester to a considerable extent; and mugs with pictures of frederick the great seem to have been popular at that day, and are much sought for now. the portraits of george ii. and iii. were also in demand, as well as many others. the flower-painting upon this, as upon all other european porcelain, was naturalistic--copied, as nearly as possible, from nature. good as much of it is beyond question, it fails to give to most persons the gratification which comes from the oriental treatment. the last is decoration, the first is imitation. [illustration: fig. 152.--_worcester and spode porcelain._] the rich dark blues, lighted up with much gilding, is a characteristic of some of the best worcester work, as well as that made at derby. without reaching the fine translucency of the dresden and sèvres paste or body, that at worcester was a great advance upon the other english factories, inasmuch as it was strong and durable; and the glaze was also better; it did not "_craze_"--shoot into cracks--like much of that made at derby. in 1783 the works went into the possession of the messrs. flight. in 1793 they were carried on by flight and barr. in 1840 they were controlled by chamberlain; and at the present time (1876) they are in charge of mr. k. w. binns, who employs a great force, and produces much excellent work, and some which may be called exquisite. his imitations of limoges enamels and chinese ivory-work are perfect; as it seems to me, quite too good. i should like to see such perfection applied to genuine work and to original design. he has also made a specialty of reproducing curious examples of japanese, chinese, and corean porcelain, sometimes identically and sometimes in modified forms. we engrave (fig. 151) a fine example of the latter from the collection of messrs. tiffany and company, of new york. among our illustrations (see fig. 148) are two plates containing portraits of sir isaac newton and albert dürer. the colors are red, brown, and gold; also a teacup and saucer, most delightfully and richly painted. these are in the possession of g. w. wales, esq., of boston. in fig. 152 is a teapot in rich blue and gold, part of a set belonging to mr. w. c. prime. this has the mark + of bristol, but, as it is soft paste, it is probably worcester. marks of worcester porcelain: [illustration: _worcester crescent (1755)._] [illustration: _used down to 1793._] [illustration: _used by dr. wall._] [illustration: _imitation chinese._] [illustration: _imitation oriental._] [illustration: _imitation oriental._] [illustration: _imitation dresden._] [illustration: _imitation dresden._] [illustration: _imitation dresden._] [illustration: _messrs. flight (1783 to 1788)._] [illustration: _flight and barr (1793 to 1807)._] [illustration: _barr (1793 to 1803)._] [illustration: _barr, flight and barr (1807 to 1818)._] the marks used at the present time at worcester (1876) are as follows: [illustration: _in use since 1852._] [illustration: _in use since 1857._] chamberlain's--worcester.--in 1786 robert and humphrey chamberlain began a porcelain-factory at worcester. robert had learned the business in the old worcester works, and was an accomplished man. some splendidly-decorated porcelain was made by them; and a breakfast-set, made for lord nelson, is quite famous. pieces of it are found in collections. the chamberlains employed the best painters, and paid high wages. their expensive work was made rich with much gold. a dessert-service in the possession of mr. w. c. prime, of new york, shows this, and is brilliant and effective. we engrave one of the plates (fig. 152). the birds are tropical, and fine in color, and the plants are bordered with gold. the chamberlains' factories are now incorporated with the "worcester company," under the charge of mr. binns. the chamberlains' first mark was the name "chamberlain," written with a brush in a running hand. afterward a stamp was used, containing a crown and the names "chamberlain and company," and worcester. then the names simply of chamberlain, worcester. marks of chamberlain porcelain: [illustration] [illustration] [illustration] plymouth--hard porcelain.--the first true or hard-paste porcelain made in england was made by william cookworthy, who, being greatly interested in porcelain-making, established a factory at plymouth about 1760. he seems to have discovered the true kaolin clays in cornwall, the beds from which so much of the english clays are now taken. he took out patents for "a kind of porcelain newly invented, composed of moorstone or growan, and growan clay," found in devon and cornwall. he advertised for painters, and a frenchman named soqui seems to have been very skillful. bone, also, was one of his best painters. the ware made was perfect hard porcelain, but it was much more costly than the ordinary soft porcelain of england, and could not compete with it for price. many of the pieces were warped or crazed in the strong heat necessarily used, and the loss in this way was great. besides this, the good public did not care to pay high for what then had no prestige, and was really no more beautiful than the soft-paste porcelain of england. as the _first_ hard-paste porcelain made in england, and as but little of it was made, it is now valued by china-collectors, and it sells for high prices. some highly-finished dinner and tea services made there, like the nanking blue, are excellent, and are much valued. vases and other pieces painted in colors, with birds and other highly-colored designs, were also produced in the same styles as those made on the continent. figures, also, then much in fashion, were modeled here, like those made at chelsea and elsewhere. cookworthy spent much money, and made none, and he came to his end. at last, in 1774, he sold his interests and patents to champion, of bristol, and the work ceased. the mark used was the sign of the planet jupiter--very nearly the figure _4_. it was somewhat varied. marks used on plymouth porcelain: [illustration: marks used on plymouth porcelain] bristol--hard paste.--the production at bristol grew out of that at plymouth, of which we have given a brief account. richard champion, merchant, of bristol, was a man of much activity and ability. he took up the making of porcelain with eagerness, and is said to have produced both soft and hard china at his factory. the hard paste was used after his purchase of the patents, etc., of the plymouth factory in 1774. besides some very indifferent porcelain, some very beautiful work was made at bristol; and for two or three years there was much activity there. but champion, having no technical knowledge or skill, and but insufficient capital, soon failed, and the work ceased in 1777. he emigrated to south carolina, where he died in 1791. so little of this bristol hard porcelain was made that it now brings great prices. blue and white tea and dessert services, in the style of the chinese, were made there, as were many articles decorated with flowers. walpole mentions, in his list of prices, "a cup and saucer, white, with green festoons of flowers, of bristol porcelain." marryat refers to a fine tea and coffee service made for edmund burke in 1774, who presented it to a mrs. smith, who had entertained him during his election. he says: "the china is rich in gilding, the design elegant, and the execution good." mrs. james, of cambridge, has one or two cups and saucers of blue hard paste marked with the + in gold--not in blue, which was the usual mark of bristol; but there is little doubt that these are true bristol. marks found on bristol porcelain: [illustration: _about 1773._] [illustration: _imitation of oriental._] [illustration] [illustration] [illustration: _the cross is impressed._] [illustration: _crossed swords of dresden._] [illustration: _supposed to be the name of tebo, a modeler._] pinxton, derbyshire--soft paste.--about 1793 to 1794 a small manufactory of porcelain was started at pinxton by john coke and william billingsly. this last had been a practical potter and an excellent painter of flowers at derby. he had some secrets for mixing his paste, which secured great translucency, but it was very tender, and easily damaged or destroyed in the kiln. this peculiar paste made by him at pinxton, afterward at nantgarw or nantgarow, and at swansea, breaks with a granulated fracture, and is quite different in this respect from any other. a favorite decoration was what was termed the "french sprig," composed of forget-me-nots and gold sprigs scattered over the plate. flowers and landscapes also were painted, and the dishes were usually finished with a blue or a gold edge. no marks were used, though a letter p is sometimes attributed to this factory. nantgarw--hard porcelain.--this porcelain-factory in glamorganshire was started in 1813 by the same billingsly. he made a clear and beautiful paste, and his productions, whether made at pinxton, nantgarw, or swansea, are highly valued. the mark was nearly always nantgarw, impressed. swansea.--earthen-ware was made at swansea as early as 1750 in considerable quantities. but it was not till near the end of the century that porcelain was produced there by messrs. haines and company. the porcelain subsequently made (about 1814, and later) is now much prized. about 1820 the swansea works were purchased by mr. rose, and all was concentrated at coalport. both at nantgarw and swansea very free and finely-colored roses appear on the work, probably done by billingsly. but little of either of these factories exists. marks used on swansea porcelain: [illustration] [illustration] [illustration] [illustration] turner (thomas) erected a porcelain-factory at caughley, near bridgnorth, in 1775. the caughley works were commenced in 1751 by mr. browne, of caughley hall, in a small way, for earthen-ware, and reached little distinction until they came into the hands of turner. turner made excellent porcelain, and has the credit of introducing the famous "willow-pattern"--copied from the nanking blue; also the "blue dragon"--into england. the principal marks are as follows. marks of caughley and of turner: [illustration: _used in 1750._] [illustration: _used in 1772._] [illustration: _used by rose in 1799._] [illustration: _various marks._] coalport, in colebrook dale, shropshire.--works were established here by mr. john rose, about 1780 to 1790. the caughley works were subsequently incorporated with these, as were the swansea and nantgarw works. the factory is still in operation at coalport, where fine porcelain is produced. marks used at coalport: [illustration: _about 1787._] herculaneum.--this pottery was established near liverpool in 1790, by richard abbey; about 1796 it went into the hands of messrs. worthington, humble, and holland. porcelain was made here, though earthen-ware was the principal production. on nearly all the porcelain the name "herculaneum" is either printed or stamped. the works ceased wholly about the year 1841, having passed through a number of hands. the site is now occupied by the herculaneum dock, at liverpool. shelton, or new hall--hard paste.--a small factory of porcelain grew up at shelton, out of the wreck of champion's works at bristol. champion appears to have sold his patents and good-will to a partnership of potters about 1777, and champion himself became their superintendent for a time at tunstall. afterward the works were removed to the new hall, at shelton. the work done was hard paste, and much like that made at bristol, the same workmen and processes being employed. at first hard porcelain was made, which was stamped with an "n." after 1810 soft paste was used, and the mark then was "new hall," in a circle. the factory went out of existence in 1825. rockingham.--some admirable porcelain was made at the swinton pottery, under the patronage of the marquis of rockingham, upon whose estate the factory stood. about 1807 the works went into the hands of the two bramelds, who made porcelain of the best description, sparing no pains or cost to bring it to perfection. of course, they could make no money--it is not easy when one gives more than one gets. some of the pieces of "rockingham" rank as high as any made in england. specimens are rare in england, and i know of none in this country. the works ceased in 1842. the mark was a griffin, the rockingham crest: [illustration] spode.--some of the richest and most beautiful english porcelain i have ever seen is marked "spode." a tea-set, in fig. 152 (cup and saucer, and sugar-bowl), is perfect in form, paste, and decoration; the bands are in high colors, and the flowers, which appear black in the engraving, are of a subtile blue. the sugar-bowl on the right, in the same plate (fig. 152), is highly and richly colored. no black-and-white print can give anything of the splendor of color of some pieces of spode i saw in england, or of the piece here figured, which is from mr. prime's collection. there seems to have been no fashion or "rage" for this delightful work in england--just why, it is not easy to explain; consequently, prices have not risen beyond the means of ordinary mortals. the first "'siah spode" worked as an apprentice with mr. whieldon, of fenton, in 1749, at 2_s._ 3_d._ or 2_s._ 6_d._ per week, "if he deserved it." when he became his own man, in 1754, he got 7_s._ 6_d._ per week--quite a different wages-tale from what is now told at worcester. his son, josiah spode, began the porcelain fabric about the year 1800, at stoke, under the firm-name of spode, son, and copeland. he is said to have introduced _bones_ into the paste--now in general use in soft porcelain. in 1833 the works were purchased by alderman w. t. copeland. in 1843 the firm-name was copeland and garrett. afterward, alderman copeland alone was again the proprietor. his mark was two crossed c's, with the name copeland beneath: [illustration] the works are now conducted under the name of w. t. copeland and sons, and the mark is nearly the same, the only difference being that the crossed c's are ornamented. the copelands are noted for the excellence of the style and finish of their higher grades of porcelain, in which they are surpassed by no other english house. one of their specialties is jeweled porcelain, in which jewels are represented by colored enamels with fine effect. we give an example of this in fig. 153, from the collection of messrs. tiffany and company. mr. francis place, a gentleman of yorkshire, made porcelain late in the 1600's or early in the 1700's. a few examples of it only are known to exist, and it probably was made rather as an experiment, and did not reach a commercial circulation. h. and r. daniell, of stoke and shelton, made fine porcelain and stoneware as early as 1826. some of this porcelain is highly praised by chaffers. it is doubtful if we have any of it in the united states. wedgwoods.--the old house of wedgwood, founded by josiah--of whom i speak in another place--is still in active service, and has in these later years produced porcelain of great excellence. minton's works, at stoke-upon-trent, are now very extensive. not only is porcelain made there in great variety, but earthen-ware and tiles largely. the factory was established in 1791, by thomas minton. some of the most elaborate pieces of porcelain-work are now made there. the mark is "minton," stamped on the pieces. [illustration: fig. 153.--_copeland's jeweled porcelain._] among the principal artists in the messrs. mintons' employ is m. solon, formerly of sèvres, who has produced some exquisite vases in _pâte-sur-pâte_--a method which consists in working, upon a dark body or paste, designs in a white or lighter paste. this, being semi-transparent, admits of delicate shading and modeling. this fascinating and finished style of work originated, so far as we know, in france, where some admirable pieces have been made, more perfect even than those by m. solon. the vases by him, which were exhibited in philadelphia in 1876, and which were sold to sir richard wallace for six hundred guineas, have a deep olive-green body, upon which the figures seem floating, as if they had just appeared from the dark, or might at any moment sink into it. the mystery and strength of color no one can fathom or explain, nor can one at all put into words the ineffable satisfaction which one receives from such work as this. it is gratifying to know that two pairs of these vases were bought in this country--one by the philadelphia industrial museum, and one by henry gibson, esq., of that city. the example which we engrave (fig. 154) is from the collection of messrs. tiffany and company, of new york. the ground is a luminous blue, the figures in a delicate white. although m. solon has transferred his labors to england, he must be regarded as the outcome rather of the french than of the english soil. [illustration: fig. 154.--_vase in pâte-sur-pâte, by solon._] another feature of the minton productions is the imitation of _cloisonné_ work, using porcelain instead of metal, and painting on it with colors mixed with opaque enamels, as is practised also in china. we give a fine representation in fig. 155. the technical excellence of the modern english porcelain is very great, but it is not remarkable for originality of design. the tea and dinner services shown at the philadelphia exhibition were great in number, variety, and excellence. we give illustrations of some pieces made by messrs. brown-westhead, moore and company (figs. 156 and 157), which were satisfactory. [illustration: fig. 155.--_bottle, in cloisonné._] messrs. bromfield and son also had some excellent examples of dinner-porcelain. the excellence of the paste and the finish were notable in all of the displays by the many english exhibitors. in such an exhibition one looks, of course, for pieces made specially to catch the eye and excite surprise, which might be called the gymnastics of art; and one is usually gratified. the exhibition was rich with them, and, of course, they demanded attention, and achieved their purpose. [illustration: fig. 156.--_porcelain of brown-westhead, moore and company._] [illustration: fig. 157.--_porcelain of brown-westhead, moore and company._] the largest and most varied exhibition was made by messrs. daniells and son, of london; and they had collected their work from many potters, some of them among the most distinguished of england at the present time. chapter xvi. the porcelains of northern europe. holland and belgium.--oriental trade.--weesp.--marks.--loosdrecht.--amstel, old and new.--marks.--the hague.--marks.--lille.--mark.--tournay. --marks.--sweden.--gustavus adolphus and charles xii.--marieberg.--rörstrand.--marks.--denmark.--copenhagen. --marks.--russia.--peter the great.--catherine ii.--marks.--tver.--gardner.--moscow.--popoff.--gulena. --mark.--poland.--korzec. holland and belgium.--it may be said that long before holland attempted the production of porcelain she had been making faience or earthen-ware, which is now well known under the name of delft, of which i have given a condensed account elsewhere. when one remembers that holland has long winters and cool summers; that her people have not only had to fight their fellow-men, but have had to snatch from the cruel sea a considerable portion of what is now dry land; that she has had to build two hundred miles of broad and strong dikes, and to see that they are always strong and safe; and, added to this, has had to draw forth from the soil and the sea the food to feed her millions--when one remembers these things, one well may wonder that there has grown up there such a love for art as has produced the most interesting school of painters in all the world; that all over this hollow land are well-built cities and most comfortable houses, and that in these houses are probably more fine porcelains and curious clocks, pictures, and tapestries, than in any other land, one wonders still more. the two secrets which help to explain this singular success are these: this necessary warfare with nature has made a hardy, a patient, and a frugal people. not only has this people conquered and subdued the _land_--it has also conquered and subdued the _sea_, and has drawn stores of wealth from both. so it has come to pass that one hundred thousand men were engaged, in the last century, in the fisheries, and a common saw was that "the foundations of amsterdam were laid on herring-bones." but these fisheries created a class of men who were ready to rove the ocean in search of good or gold. her daring navigators soon followed vasco da gama around the cape of good hope, and in due time succeeded to the trade of the east, which she held for over two centuries, and out of which she gained untold wealth; with which she built cities and castles and churches; with which she paid artists; with which she stocked her houses with the finest porcelains of the east. thus, from that early day, a great love for fine porcelain has existed in the "low countries"--what we now know as holland and belgium. at the present time no field bears a better yield for the gleaner who seeks fine examples of old porcelain, and especially of the oriental, than these countries. thousands upon thousands of porcelains were imported into holland after the year 1640, whence they were distributed over europe. but holland could not hold her monopoly of trade; france and england sought to grasp it, too, and england succeeded. during the last century england has steadily drawn the trade of the east to herself, and holland has lost what england has gained. in the many changes consequent upon this, many stores of good porcelain gathered in holland have gradually come to be sold to persons who wanted them more than the dutch did. out of this great trade with the orientals it is easy to see that the dutch should come to be connoisseurs and lovers of porcelain. it is also easy to see that a sufficient interest should spring up there, after the discovery of true porcelain at dresden, to induce persons to attempt the manufacture in holland. this was stimulated during the seven years' war, when the works at meissen (dresden) were closed, and for a time broken up. then in holland, as well as in other countries of europe, there was an opportunity. the love for porcelain had grown great after the discoveries at dresden, and the demand for it was vastly increased. the disturbances in saxony, amounting to prohibition of the manufacture, gave other countries a possible chance to compete with the advantages of saxony, which otherwise were overwhelming. still, in holland no great commercial success was reached. in none of these northern countries has the making of fine porcelain been an assured success. this is owing to many causes, among which we may point to-1. the genius of the people does not impel them. 2. the clay and the wood and the coal are not at their doors. 3. other nations have taken the lead and driven them from the markets of the world, sometimes from their own. in the low countries we may mention as places where the manufacture was attempted--with, however, only a fictile life: weesp, loosdrecht, arnheim, amsterdam, amstel--old and new--the hague, tournay, brussels, luxemburg, lille (now in france). weesp--hard paste.--the first effort was made at weesp, not far from amsterdam, about 1764, during the seven years' war. for a short time, until 1771, fine and white porcelain was made here, but not in great quantities, and the attempt was not a commercial success. the marks were: [illustration] at loosdrecht (hard paste), not far from utrecht, de moll began a small factory in 1772. he made a fine quality of china, closely following the dresden. it had but a short existence. his mark was "m o l.," meaning _manufactur oude loosdrecht_. amstel (_oude_), near amsterdam, made the next essay (1782), and produced good porcelain; but it could not hold its own against that which the english were now sending forth into the markets of the world--patriotism was not equal to cope with cheapness. the mark was the letters a and d combined, in script. at new amstel, nearer to amsterdam, the attempt was also made, which continued through 1808 to 1810, when it too died. the mark here was also in script. marks used at amsterdam: [illustration] [illustration: fig. 158.--_porcelain of the hague._] at the hague, about 1775, both hard and soft porcelain was made, and of great excellence. more was done here than at amsterdam, and the work was of superior quality. some of the painting was excellent--equal to that done at dresden. tea and dinner services of great beauty were made, which are now and then to be bought in europe. the examples shown in fig. 158 are a plate, and cup and saucer, from mr. wales's collection. the mark was a stork holding a fish, the symbol of the town. [illustration] at lille (soft porcelain), sieurs dorez and pelissier, uncle and nephew, were granted privileges for making porcelain as early as 1711, and this with that at st.-cloud were the only factories at that time in europe. but little is known of this ware, except that it resembled that made at st.-cloud, and that it had no distinctive mark. hard porcelain was afterward made there (1784) by one durot, which showed great excellence, the decoration being mostly flowers and gold. these pieces are quite rare. the mark was a crowned dolphin. [illustration] at tournay (doornick) soft-paste porcelain was made in 1750, and a very large business was done at one time, as many as two hundred workmen being employed in 1762. chaffers says this factory is still at work, and that _pâte tendre_ is still made there, which is in close imitation of that once made at sèvres. the mark of the tower is sometimes referred to tournay, and sometimes to the porcelain made at vincennes. it is in doubt. the other mark in gold indicates best; in blue or red, second-best. the marks "to" and "ty" are supposed to be old marks of tournay. the marks used: [illustration] sweden.--that the coldest and most savage country of europe should be rich in anything except men and women is strange. and is it? according to the standards of england or america, we may say, no. and yet travelers tell us that in the towns and on the country estates are houses rich with works of art, and filled with books. so far as these go they indicate wealth and leisure. but the best sign of a prosperous people is not pictures; neither is it books. is it not that more than one-half her people own their lands and raise the food they eat? is it not that the greedy cormorant called "trade" has not shut up most of her people in those bastiles called factories, and thus degraded body and soul to the verge of, if not into, the gulf of pauperism and vice? this helps to explain the general well-being which is still to be found in those northern countries of sweden, norway, and denmark; but it does not _fully_ explain whence came the first flow of wealth and the first gatherings of art into sweden. i believe they came from the great and successful wars of gustavus adolphus and charles xii. by no possibility can war be careful of the rights of man. war is intended to hurt, to exhaust, to consume other nations. war not only takes food and munitions in the conquered country; it takes whatever it wants and can take, whether of necessaries, luxuries, gold, or art. war, we know, enabled the first and great napoleon to enrich his palaces and the museums of paris with the finest works of art found in the countries he overran. war, i do not doubt, brought into sweden the beginnings of those collections which now count many of the fine pictures of guido and raphael, of teniers and douw. frugality and general well-doing have done the rest; so that all through the south of sweden, and less in norway, are to be found delightful houses and cultivated people. but neither sweden nor norway has made art the first business or first glory of life; and well for her that they have not. this is the ornament and finish of the structure, not its body or soul. we do not look, therefore, to find here any such institutions as those of meissen or sèvres. [illustration: fig. 159.--_marieberg porcelain and faience._] at marieberg, near stockholm, in 1759, porcelain of a good quality was made, and continued to be made in a small way for some twenty years. before this, faience or pottery was made there, and at rörstrand, as early as 1727. some good examples were at the exhibition at philadelphia in 1876. of the work of marieberg i know of none in this country, except that in mr. wales's collection, at boston, consisting of some small porcelain custard-cups and a very beautiful faience vase, both of which we have had engraved (fig. 159). the mark used: [illustration: _the three crowns and the letters mb are sometimes followed by the private marks of the painters, as in the above._ ] [illustration: fig. 160.--_porcelain of denmark._] denmark.--porcelain, it is believed, was made at copenhagen as early as 1760; but it did not continue for a long time. few specimens of this early work are believed to exist. a hard-paste factory was begun in 1772, by müller, who, with the aid of the baron von lang, made a company, by which the capital was raised. it did not pay, and in 1775 it became a royal factory, and the government paid its annual deficit. excellent work was made here, the great aim being to equal the production at dresden. it was up-hill work and a costly whim. within a short time (1876) the works are said to have gone into private hands, who are prosecuting the business with vigor and skill. certainly a very creditable display was made by some three or four firms of copenhagen at the philadelphia exhibition in 1876. in faience and terra-cotta they have arrived at great excellence. the greek vase has been there revived, and copied with much precision. seipsius and ruch are mentioned by marryat as the leading painters at the royal works at copenhagen in the last century. our illustration, from mr. wales's collection, is good work, and follows the lead of the dresden painters (fig. 160). in the "manual of marks," by hooper and phillips, are two marks--given here--but the "three wavy lines" is the mark almost universally known. they indicate the waters of the sound and great and little belts. [illustration] russian porcelain--hard paste.--when peter alexeyevitch, called peter the great--that shrewd savage--undertook to make his kingdom a power in europe, he soon saw that he must create among his people wants which then did not exist. in 1697 he made his first pilgrimage to the dock-yards of saardam and the quays of london, to see for himself what those nations did to make themselves rich and strong, feared if not loved. he found ships, trade, factories. he went back to his barbarians, and forced them to build a new port--st. petersburg (1703); set them to work to make dock-yards, to build ships, to organize factories; he forced upon them new wants and new industries. if he did not make them happier, he certainly made them stronger. he organized them, combined them, so that they moved at his own powerful will. his successors, following his example, have made russia the second power of europe. when, in 1716, peter visited paris, he carried back to his capital great store of works of art--not that he cared for works of art, but his savage shrewdness told him these were the things which the growing and grasping nations of western europe valued; and so he would have them, too. but art has had but an imitative life in russia, even to this present time. now, her silversmiths, and at least one artist, a worker of bronze named lanceray, have made such exquisite work, and shown it at the philadelphia exhibition in 1876, that one begins to believe that art in this savage russia may not forever be content to copy what some one else has done. as to porcelain, russia has not done much, but yet something. the government of russia, inspired, like the rest, after the success at dresden, with the desire to produce fine works, at once made efforts to secure the services of accomplished men to establish a porcelain-manufactory. this appears to have been done in the year 1744, by the empress elizabeth petrovna, when good porcelain was produced, probably in small amount. in 1765, however, the empress catherine ii., with her accustomed restless energy, threw herself into the competition. she enlarged the works and secured whatever was possible of artists and workmen, and produced some of the finest porcelains of europe. the clays used appear to have been wholly russian, and her market was mostly with the rich nobility of her own kingdom. still the china-fanciers of all europe, then even more eager than now, purchased the russian work; and it is found in good collections, though but little of it is offered for sale. m. demmin quotes from a russian work of 1773: "il existe une fabrique de porcelaine, située sur la néva, route de schlüsselburg, à quatorze versts de pétersbourg. elle fabrique des porcelaines tellement belles et fines, qu'elles ne le cèdent en rien à la porcelaine de saxe, soit pour la blancheur et la finesse de l'émail, soit pour la beauté du décor. sa blancheur est même supérieure à celle de meissen. le directeur, l'inspecteur, tous les maîtres et ouvriers sont à la solde de la cour," etc. the porcelain has a fine glaze, the paste being hard and slightly bluish; the decorations usually highly finished in the styles prevailing at dresden. [illustration: fig. 161.--_russian porcelain._] the piece shown in fig. 161 is a teapot, of superior glaze and finish, from mr. wales's collection; the handle and spout are peculiar, finishing, as they do, with the neck and head of a bird, ending at the base of the spout in a small wing-decoration. the paste, the glaze, and the painting of the teapot and the cup and saucer are excellent. the russian marks most used are: [illustration: _a mark in blue, supposed to be an early one._] [illustration: _the empress catherine ii.'s mark (1762 to 1796)._] [illustration: _the emperor paul's mark (1796 to 1801)._] [illustration: _the emperor alexander i.'s mark (1801 to 1825)._] [illustration: _the emperor nicholas's mark (1825 to 1855)._] [illustration: _the mark now is a crown, with the letter a in script, alexander ii._] tver.--about 1787 an englishman named gardner made some porcelain at tver, of which so little is to be obtained that it is hardly known in collections. his mark seems to have been [illustration: symbol], the monogram in russian letters of a. gardner, and sometimes the full name in russian characters. moscow.--in 1830 some porcelain was made at moscow by a. popoff, a piece of which is in the south kensington museum, marked with his name in russian characters. there seems also to have been porcelain made at moscow by m. gulena, of which little is known. his mark was the initial letters of fabrica gospodina, and his own name, in russian characters. [illustration] poland.--at korzec, in poland, in 1803, a frenchman named mérault, from sèvres, made porcelain for a few years, probably in small quantity; and a mark upon some pieces of his is a triangle containing an eye. chapter xvii. pottery and porcelain in the united states. the first porcelain made here.--bonnin and morris.--franklin institute.--william ellis tucker.--tucker and hemphill.--thomas tucker.--general tyndale.--porcelain of t. c. smith and sons.--early advertisements.--josiah wedgwood.--lord sheffield's report.--alexander hamilton's report.--history of norwich.--samuel dennis, new haven.--isaac hanford, hartford.--gallatin's report.--the "washington pitchers."--lyman and fenton, vermont.--rouse and turner, new jersey.--potteries at trenton.--in ohio.--the centennial exhibition. doubts have been expressed whether porcelain was made in the united states as early as 1770; though there was no question as to the existence of the true china-clays, and that wedgwood and other potters in england knew of them and had used them. more, they were fearful that they would be put to use in this country, to the injury of their trade. the investigations of charles henry hart, esq., of philadelphia, seem to remove the doubt as to the making of porcelain in that city as early as 1769 or 1770. looking over the newspapers, he finds, under date of december 29, 1769, an advertisement as follows: "new china-ware.--notwithstanding the various difficulties and disadvantages which usually attend the introduction of any important manufacture into a new country, the proprietors of the china-works now erecting in southwark have the pleasure to acquaint the public that they have proved to a certainty that the clays of america are productive of as good porcelain as any heretofore manufactured at the famous factory in bow, near london," etc. subsequently other advertisements appeared for apprentices, etc., signed by g. bonnin and g. a. morris. this would seem conclusive. mr. hart also states that some specimens of the work then made are deposited in the franklin institute of his city. it is not likely that the work reached a commercial success, or that it was long continued. subsequently porcelain was made and decorated in that city by messrs. tucker and hemphill, as will clearly appear from the following communications. mr. thomas tucker prepared for the historical society of pennsylvania, in 1868, this brief statement: "william ellis tucker, my brother, was the first to make porcelain in the united states. my father, benjamin tucker, had a china-store in market street, in the city of philadelphia, in the year 1816. he built a kiln for william in the yard back of the store, where he painted in the white china, and burnt it on in the kiln, which gave him a taste for that kind of work. "after that he commenced experimenting with the different kinds of clays, to see if he could not make the ware. he succeeded in making a very good opaque ware, called 'queen's-ware.' he then commenced experimenting with feldspar and kaolin to make porcelain, and, after much labor, he succeeded in making a few small articles of very good porcelain. he then obtained the old water-works at the northwest corner of schuylkill front and chestnut streets, where he erected a large glazing-kiln, enameling-kiln, mills, etc. "he burnt kiln after kiln, with very poor success. the glazing would crack and the body would blister; and, besides, we discovered that we had a man who placed the ware in the kiln, who was employed by some interested parties in england to impede our success. "most of the handles were found in the bottom of the seggars[17] after the kiln was burnt. we could not account for it until a deaf-and-dumb man in our employment detected him running his knife around each handle as he placed them in the kiln. "at another time every piece of china had to be broken before it could be taken out of the seggar. we always washed the round o's--the article in which the china was placed in the kiln--with silex, but this man had washed them with feldspar, which, of course, melted, and fastened every article to the bottom; but william discharged him, and we got over that difficulty. "in the year 1827 my brother received a silver medal from the franklin institute of pennsylvania, and in 1831 received one from the institute in new york. in 1828 i commenced to learn the different branches of the business. "on the 22d of august, 1832, my brother william died. some time before, he connected himself with the late judge hemphill. they purchased the property at the southwest corner of schuylkill sixth and chestnut streets, where they built a large store-house and factory, which they filled with porcelain. after the death of my brother, judge hemphill and myself continued the working of porcelain for some years, until he sold out his interest to a company of eastern gentlemen; but, being unfortunate in their other operations, they were not able to give the porcelain attention. in the year 1837 i undertook to carry it on alone, and did so for about one year, making a large quantity of very fine porcelain, many pieces of which i still have. "the gilding and painting are now as perfect as when first done." mr. tucker presented at this time a piece of the work, which is now in the collection at philadelphia. in addition to this i give a communication from general hector tyndale, which adds confirmation to the above: "about the years 1760 to 1770 potteries were established in the united states--notably at philadelphia--of which few records now remain. but they attracted the attention of the english potters, as may be seen by a letter from josiah wedgwood (page 367, meteyard's 'life of wedgwood,' london, 1865), wherein he expressed apprehension of the effect of these upon british 'trade and prosperity.' "porcelain-works, to which mr. elliott alludes, were established in philadelphia (corner of schuylkill sixth and chestnut streets) about the year 1830, judge hemphill being among the most prominent of the founders of them. the wares made were of very good, and, in some respects, of excellent qualities. the products were white and decorated table and tea services, and decorative wares. the 'body' was very good, being hard, dense, tough, and translucent, quite vitreous, with sharp and clear ring, and withstanding great and rapid changes of temperature. in appearance it somewhat resembled the french (limoges) porcelain of that day, and, in durability and use, that of berlin, and quite equal to either. the glaze was good, and well adapted to receive colors. the forms were copies of the french and english of the time, and these were almost always bad. the ornamentation was generally poorly copied from the english or french, or, if original, was decidedly worse. english, french, and german artisans were imported, but whatever skill these may have had was soon lost, owing perhaps to the want of comparative and competitive productions, and also to the want of taste among the general buyers and the public. so far as ornament was concerned, and a knowledge of æsthetic rules or a prevailing _sense_ of beauty and fitness were involved, this attempt at manufacture was premature. these works continued, with a diminishing success, for several years; and the founders, who lost much money in the establishment, deserve much credit for their serious and wellnigh successful effort. "at present there are porcelain-works near new york--at greenpoint, and perhaps elsewhere--making very good and enduring wares, of excellent 'body' and glaze, but of coarse and inartistic form and ornament." the porcelain-factory last spoken of is that of t. c. smith and sons, which, at the centennial exhibition, made a creditable display. through the courtesy of mr. prime, editor of the "hand-book of the new york museum of art," i am able to give some extracts essential to this brief history: "when delft pottery began to be used for table and household purposes in england, it is probable that small quantities found their way to this country, but neither crockery nor porcelain took the place of pewter and wood on american tables, and the importations increased but slowly with the increase of population and wealth. wooden trenchers, pewter dishes, mugs, water-pitchers, etc., continued in general use until the present century. by an examination of early newspapers we are enabled to learn much of the character of the table-furniture which dealers advertised for sale, and these were probably alike in all parts of the country. we find pewter always prominent. in the _new haven gazette_ of september 30, 1784, a druggist advertises wedgwood mortars and pestles. in the same paper, october 21st, a dealer advertises 'blue and white stone-ware, consisting of butter-pots, jars, and cans;' also 'quart, pint, and half-pint water-flasks; matted ditto; spaw ditto; bristol ditto.' in the same paper, november 25th, a dealer advertises 'queen's-ware in small crates, well assorted,' which had been imported direct to new haven; and, december 2d, he advertises 'english china cups and saucers.' on november 4, 1784, the same dealer advertised 'a large assortment of coarse stone-ware in crates, large round bottles holding nearly two quarts, in small, convenient hampers, and quart, pint, and half-pint flasks,' with a discount to those who buy large quantities. this last advertisement may refer to wares made in america. in 1785 we find advertised 'nottingham, queen's, china, and glass ware.' 'nottingham ware' had long been a popular name in england for brown potteries, originally made at nottingham, and the name continued in use here until a very recent date. "bricks and ruder forms of pottery were made in new england in the eighteenth, and possibly in the seventeenth, century. investigations in progress may elicit information now wanting on this subject. josiah wedgwood, in a letter written in 1765, speaks of a pottery then projected in the carolinas of whose work he had great apprehensions, and seems to desire some government interference to prevent the colonies from making their own pottery and thus injuring the home business. before the end of the eighteenth century many potteries were established in various parts of the country, but, so far as is now known, no articles were produced except the ordinary coarser kinds of household utensils. "'a brief examination of lord sheffield's observations on the commerce of the united states,' by matthew carey, was printed in successive numbers of the _american museum_, in 1791, and was collected in a volume, printed the same year at philadelphia, with a supplementary note on 'the present state of american manufactures,' etc. on pages 126 and 127 he has the following observations: 'manufactures of glass, of earthen-ware, and of stone, mixed with clay, are all in an infant state. from the quantity and variety of the materials which must have been deposited by nature in so extensive a region as the united states, from the abundance of fuel which they contain, from the expense of importation, and loss by fracture, which falls on glass and earthen wares, from the simplicity of many of these manufactures, and from the great consumption of them, impressions of surprise at this state of them, and a firm persuasion that they will receive the early attention of foreign or american capitalists, are at one produced. coarse tiles, and bricks of an excellent quality, potter's wares, all in quantities beyond the home consumption, a few ordinary vessels and utensils of stone mixed with clay, some mustard and snuff bottles, a few flasks or flagons, a small quantity of sheet-glass and of vessels for family use, generally of the inferior kinds, are all that are now made.' "hamilton's return of exports of the united states from august, 1789, to september, 1790, printed in the appendix to carey's book, gives, for earthen and glass ware, nineteen hundred and ninety dollars. "in miss caulkins's 'history of norwich,' chapter xlix., it is stated that in 1796 'a pottery for the manufacture of stone-ware was established at bean hill, which continued in operation far into the present century, seldom, however, employing more than four or five hands.' in morse's 'gazetteer,' 1797, we read, under norwich, that the inhabitants manufacture 'stone and earthen ware.' in the _norwich_ (connecticut) _gazette_, september 15, 1796, we find this advertisement of a pottery, which appears to have been in operation by a mr. lathrop prior to 1796, and is, without doubt, the one referred to by miss caulkins and dr. morse: "'c. potts & son, informs the public, that they have lately established a manufactory of earthen ware at the shop formerly improved by mr. charles lathrop, where all kinds of said ware is made and sold, either in large or small quantities, and warranted good.' "a memorial of samuel dennis, dated new haven, october 9, 1789, to the general assembly of connecticut, shows 'that he is acquainted with the potter's business, and is about to erect a stone-pottery; and there is in this country a plenty of clay which he presumes of the same kind with that from which the queen's-ware of staffordshire is usually made; and that he wishes to erect a pottery for the purpose of manufacturing the finer kinds of ware usually made in staffordshire, particularly the queen's-ware,' and he asks the aid of the state in founding the works. his memorial was negatived, and it does not appear whether he went on with his project. "isaac hanford, of hartford, connecticut, took out a patent, january 20, 1800, for a new method of making bricks, tiles, and pottery-ware in general, and of discharging the moulds. nothing further is known of his work; but coarse pottery has, from the beginning of the century, been made in hartford. prior to 1800 a pottery was in existence at stonington, connecticut, managed by adam states, who was succeeded in the business, after 1804, by his sons, adam and joseph. they made jugs, butter-pots, jars of all sizes, and some small wares with handles, uniformly of soft pottery, usually gray in color, with salt-glaze. contemporary with this was a pottery at norwalk, connecticut, which made red wares of soft pottery in many forms. we learn from a lady, whose memory extends back to 1804, that it made jars and pots of all sizes, teapots, mugs, and large milk-pans, then in common use among the farmers in connecticut, glazed with a lead-glaze, the color deep red with flashes of black, probably caused by smoke in the firing. other potteries produced wares similar to the stonington and norwalk. "from a report of the secretary of the treasury (mr. gallatin), made in 1810, it appears that the exports of 'coarse earthen-ware' exceeded the imports. in this report the secretary says that progress has been made in the manufacture of 'queen's and other earthen ware,' and that 'a sufficient quantity of the coarser species of pottery was made everywhere. four manufactories of a finer kind had lately been established which made ware resembling that of staffordshire.' dr. dwight, in his 'travels' (1822), after quoting the above, states that he had gained access to the reports from massachusetts and connecticut, upon which the secretary's report had been founded, and gives among the manufactures of connecticut for the year, potteries, twelve; 'value of earthen and stone ware, thirty thousand seven hundred and forty dollars;' and for massachusetts, 'earthen-ware, eighteen thousand seven hundred dollars.' "before the end of the last century direct trade had been established between the united states and china, and oriental porcelain began to make its appearance in america. the english trade increased rapidly in the early part of the present century, and english manufacturers had begun to decorate pottery with american subjects for the american market. porcelain seems to have been decorated at lowestoft with american designs, for special orders, before 1800. "from 1810 to 1830 great quantities of english pottery, especially blue and white wares, were imported. much of this was decorated with american views, buildings, landscapes, and pictures of public events, the principal exporters in england being j. and r. clews, of cobridge, and the ridgways, of shelton." [illustration: fig. 162.--_the "washington pitchers."_] the "washington pitchers" were made at this period by the english potters, and were shipped here and sold in great numbers. they are now much prized, but are not uncommon. few of them have any merit as works of art, being intended only to please the patriotic sentiment of the country. the smaller one of our illustration (fig. 162) contains the best picture of washington of any i have seen painted upon porcelain, and is really an excellent engraving after stuart's great picture. it is said to have been made in england, by order of a philadelphia dealer, in 1801. both of these pitchers are in the historical society of philadelphia. the larger one is more patriotic and less artistic. around the portrait are entwined the names of new hampshire, massachusetts, rhode island, connecticut, new york, new jersey, pennsylvania, delaware, maryland, virginia, north carolina, south carolina, georgia, vermont, kentucky--fifteen states, and fifteen stars. on the front is the eagle, and the patriotic latin, _e pluribus unum_. also the name of the owner, james taylor, m. d. on the other side, in an oval, is some poetry, made in england for our use, as follows: "as he tills your rich glebe the old peasant shall tell, while his bosom with liberty glows, how your warren expired, how montgomery fell, and how washington humbled your foes." the _intentions_ of the poet we may accept as good, even if slightly mercenary. one more brief extract will complete this history: "in 1847 a factory was established in bennington, vermont, by messrs. lyman and fenton, and continued in operation till about 1860. pottery was made in various forms, with good enamel; bisque or parian wares were produced, and soft-paste porcelain of good quality, well decorated. so far as is at present known, this was the first american factory which has attempted to make figures of men and animals. a peculiar enamel seems to have been patented by mr. fenton, of this firm, which was used on some of the pottery. the impressed mark on pottery of this class was arranged in a circle, 'lyman, fenton and co., fenton's enamel, patented 1849, bennington, vermont.' "some time prior to 1829 a factory was established in jersey city, new jersey, by persons not now known (said to be french), which made porcelain. no mark was used, but we are indebted to messrs. rouse and turner, the present proprietors, for fragments of the porcelain made prior to 1829, which is hard paste of fair quality. the enterprise was not successful, and in 1829 david henderson and co. bought the works, and carried them on under the name of the american pottery company. they made white and brown potteries, decorating the former with prints, and the latter with colored enamels and raised work; and also a translucent pottery, which is apparently a natural soft-paste porcelain. their mark was 'american pottery company, jersey city, new jersey,' in a circle, stamped in the paste. they executed work for druggists and other dealers in new york, printing labels on their jars, boxes, etc. a favorite pattern was a brown pottery pitcher, the handle a hound, the surface covered with a raised representation of a hunt. it was made in various sizes, and is still produced, with a changed form of the same decoration. in 1855 messrs. rouse and turner became proprietors of the factory, and have since carried it on with much success, producing granite, rockingham, and stone wares, plain and decorated, for table and general use. they use clay obtained from woodbridge, new jersey, and another clay from bath, south carolina; and occasionally a clay from glen cove, long island, which contains silex. their stone-wares are made by the mixing of certain clays, without the addition of other substances. they use no mark on their fabrics. "important works are now in operation at baltimore, maryland, and at trenton, new jersey, making varieties of pottery, plain and decorated, and stone-wares of excellent quality." at the exhibition at philadelphia good exhibitions were made by messrs. otto and brewer, mercer pottery company, james moses and isaac davis, of trenton; also by laughlin brothers, of east liverpool, ohio. some twenty firms, mostly from trenton, were collected in the southeast corner of the main building, where they made a creditable display of what is known as the "white granite" ware, so useful and so detestable; thick, that it may resist the hostility of the milesian maiden, clumsy because of that, without color or decoration of any kind, and cheap: can we expect or demand much? looking more carefully, we found in otto and brewer's exhibit a modeler named broome, who had made some base-ball players which were full of life and spirit; also some unglazed vases which had excellence of form and precision of modeling and decoration, showing that good things may be done here. in fig. 163 we show one of the parian vases designed by broome, who only needs encouragement to develop into excellence. james moses, too, had some white-and-gold work which was good. isaac davis, one of these granite-potters, had ventured to turn his cups with a sense of good form, and with a thin lip from which one might drink without being reminded of the horse-trough; he must beware lest it should not pay! [illustration: fig. 163.--_parian vase._] laughlin brothers, of ohio, had a good show of the same kind of wares, and they had also a decorated dinner-set which was good. they had more than this, in that they promised us something. they are using feldspars, kaolins, clays, silexes, from various parts of the united states, and believe we have the best and the greatest variety to be found in any country; but besides these a new clay or mineral, as they think, has been found in missouri, which promises to be of infinite value. it is cheap, is easily ground and mixed, and imparts to the body a creamy softness and a beauty which add much to the production. that this is true was shown in some of the cups made with it. moreover, as mr. laughlin states, several of the best porcelain-makers of europe are seriously contemplating the propriety of establishing themselves on this shore of the sea, and putting to use these kaolinic treasures. and why not? with cheap clays, cheap fuels, cheap foods, may we not begin to supply ourselves, if not some of the rest of the world, with the finest productions of the potter's wheel? and it would seem a good thing for us to do. appendix. books upon pottery and porcelain. the following synopsis of works on "pottery and porcelain," for which we are indebted to mr. g. w. wales, will be found useful and interesting: general historical treatises.--jacquemart, "history of the ceramic art"--a descriptive philosophical study of the pottery of all ages and nations, profusely illustrated in aquatint and woodcut, and containing one thousand marks and monograms; semper, "der stil in den künsten," in the second volume treats of ceramics, and is a well-illustrated, comprehensive, and useful hand-book; mareschal, "la faïence populaire au 18me siècle," has one hundred and twelve colored plates, mostly of french and delft porcelain; maze, "recherches sur la céramique" is illustrated by photographs, and has a list of marks and monograms; burty, "chefs-d'oeuvre des arts industriels," gives a popular account of ceramics, well illustrated (there is a translation by chaffers); stallknecht's papers on "artistic pottery and porcelain" give also an account of the articles in the vienna exposition of 1875; treadwell's "manual" is a brief popular work; hall, "bric-à-brac hunter." one of the best works in english is marryat's "history," well illustrated, in colors. so also is graesse's "guide de l'amateur," a very complete collection, in fac-simile, of marks and monograms. chaffers's "keramic gallery," besides historical notices and descriptions, gives several hundred photographs of rare and curious specimens of these arts. besides these works, devoted especially to ceramics, it will be well to refer to the following, selected out of many books treating generally of the arts of the middle ages, most of them illustrated in the best style, in which may be found chapters or short treatises on pottery and porcelain, with admirable illustrations adapted for use as designs for decoration: sommerard's "arts au moyen âge," plates; villemin, "monumens français;" lenoir, "musée des monumens français;" lacroix, "arts of the middle ages;" louandre, "arts somptuaires;" "instrumenta ecclesiastica;" racinet, "l'ornement polychrome;" jones, "grammar of ornament;" bedford, "treasury of ornamental art;" newbery, "gleanings from ornamental art;" chenavard, "album de l'ornamentiste;" "tradesman's book of ornamental designs;" wyatt, "industrial arts of the nineteenth century;" durand, "recueil et parallèles des edifices de tout genre;" south kensington museum, "industrial arts;" "photographs from the british museum;" labarte, "arts industriels au moyen âge;" zahn, "ornamentmalerei." manufacture.--the following books treat more particularly of the processes of manufacture of pottery and porcelain, only incidentally touching the artistic history. they are mostly in french, viz.: brongniart, "traité des arts céramiques," two volumes of text and one of plates. this is well illustrated, and cited by all writers on the subject as high authority. figuier, in the first volume of the "merveilles de l'industrie," which treats both sides of the subject, is very fully illustrated as regards both the manufacture and the art-history of glass, pottery, and porcelain. other briefer treatises are those by guillery, bastenaire-daudenart, boyer, and a treatise on pottery (paris, 1772), in volume ii. of the "description des arts et métiers." in english: tomlinson's "brief history," from the "encyclopædia britannica;" and arnoux, in volume iii. of bevans's "british manufacturing industries." see also turgau, "les grandes usines de france," for history of the sèvres porcelain; denistoun, "dukes of urbino," volume iii., page 382, for an account of the manufacture of maiolica in the duchy of urbino; rosina, "memoria sulle stoviglie," on manufacture of utensils and analysis of clays in the lombardo-venetian territory. the following books give some practical instructions on painting, enameling, etc.: tilton, "designs and instructions for decorating pottery;" snell, "practical instructions;" "art recreations;" gessart, "art of enameling;" sutherland, "practical guide;" reboulleau. marks and monograms.--chaffers's "marks and monograms," which contains also an historical essay on english pottery, with illustrations; also his "collector's hand-book"--a concisely-arranged volume of fac-similes of marks, a supplement to the work just named; mareschal, "iconographie de la faïence"--a dictionary of ceramic artists and marks, with colored illustrations of the different styles; hooper and phillips, "manual"--a dictionary of easy reference; demmin, "guide de l'amateur de faïences" (two volumes)--a comprehensive, illustrated work of high authority; bohn's "guide to knowledge of pottery and porcelain," containing also a priced catalogue of the bernal collection, and an essay; maze, "recherches," illustrated by photographs; meteyard's "wedgwood hand-book"--a thorough history of this exquisite ware. see also a work by the same author, for admirable photographs of wedgwood's principal works, and fortnum's "catalogue of maiolica." the following books treat of the history of pottery and porcelain of different countries and periods: england.--for a sketch of the art of pottery in england, see the introductory chapters of volume i. of eliza meteyard's "life of josiah wedgwood;" her "wedgwood hand-book," which gives marks, monograms, priced catalogues, and a glossary of technical terms. the same author has recently (1876) published "wedgwood and his works," admirably illustrated with photographs of his more important works; also "wedgwood memorial," likewise beautifully illustrated. prefixed to chaffers's "marks and monograms" is an essay on the vasa fictilia of england;" jewitt's "life of wedgwood" contains also a "history of the early potteries of staffordshire," well illustrated; haslem's "old derby china," illustrated in color, gives a full account of this ware and of the principal workmen, with marks and price-lists; binns's "century of potting in worcester" gives in an appendix a sketch of celtic, roman, and mediæval pottery in worcestershire. see also "wedgwood, an address by w. e. gladstone" (1863); boyer, "traité sur l'origine, les progrès et l'état actuel des manufactures de porcelaine et de faïence en angleterre"--one of the excellent roret manuals of arts and trades. france.--mareschal, "faïence populaire au 18me siècle," with one hundred and twelve finely-colored plates, mostly of french and delft ware (paris, 1872); pottier, "histoire de la faïence de rouen" (1870), two volumes, quarto--an elaborate and finely-illustrated treatise; pouy, "les faïences d'origine picarde" (1872), with colored plates and marks; forestié, "les anciennes faienceries de montauban," and other places in the department of tarn-et-garonne. on the pottery of the gauls, see du cleuzion, "poterie gauloise." a publication by the arundel society gives fine photographs of twenty examples of "henri-deux ware" from the south kensington museum. italy, germany, spain, etc.--on "maiolica," see the history by passeri, treating of the products of pesaro and urbino, and of the works of giorgio da gubbio. on "maiolica and italian faience," see the splendidly-illustrated works by delange and sauzay, "monographe de l'oeuvre de bernard palissy" (paris, 1872); and the "recueil de faïences italiennes" of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries (paris, 1869), by delanges, darcel, and bornemann. fortnum's "maiolica;" also his "catalogue of maiolica, hispano-moresco, persian, damascus, and rhodian wares in the south kensington museum," finely illustrated in color, and giving marks and monograms; "centennial exposition catalogue of the castellani collection;" beckwith's "majolica and fayence" (new york, 1877) is a concise and useful general treatise on ceramics, containing much information in small space, with numerous photo-engraved illustrations; drake's "notes on venetian ceramics;" riaño, "catalogue of art objects of spanish production in the south kensington museum;" de jorio, "galleria de' vasi, real museo borbonico;" "le secret des vraies porcelaines de la chine et de saxe" (1752); robinson, "catalogue of the soulages collection." asselineau, "meubles et objets divers du moyen âge" gives specimens of palissy and flemish ware. lazari, "notizie della raccolta correr di venezia." oriental and savage races.--alabaster, "chinese art objects in south kensington museum;" audsley and bowes, "keramic art," now in course of publication, splendidly illustrated with colored plates by racinet; jarves, "glimpse at the art of japan;" schweinfurth, "artes africanæ;" hartt, "manufacture of pottery among savage races." on the _cloisonné_ enamels of china, see appendix to julien's "industries de l'empire chinois." on "chinese porcelain decoration," consult "owen jones's examples of chinese ornament," giving one hundred fine colored plates, from examples at south kensington. tiles.--nichols's "examples of decorative tiles, in fac-simile, chiefly in original size;" chapter entitled "céramique," by riocreux and jacquemart, in volume iv. of lacroix's "moyen âge et la renaissance," which contains a bibliography of ceramics. ancient pottery.--birch's "history of ancient pottery" treats of assyrian, egyptian, greek, roman, etruscan, celtic, teutonic, and scandinavian pottery, and is fully illustrated. it contains also a list of the principal collections of ancient pottery. one of the best works is millingen's "ancient unedited monuments," giving excellent colored illustrations of painted greek vases. other valuable works are those of inghirami, "pitture di vasi etrusche," four volumes quarto, with fine outlines of greek vase-decoration, some in color; a very beautifully-illustrated work (in color) is that of the count of syracuse, "notizia dei vasi dipinti rinvenuti a cuma;" see also lucien bonaparte's "museum étrusque;" donati, "della maniera d'interpretare le pitture ne' vasi fittili antichi;" "description of the ancient terra-cottas in the british museum," illustrated by line-engravings; stackelberg, "die gräber der hellenen," giving plates of urns, vases, bass-reliefs, etc.; dumont, "inscriptions céramiques de grèce;" fabroni, "vasi fittili aretini;" kramer, "ueber den styl und die herkunft der bemalten griechischen thongefässe;" de sanctis, "vasi antichi della collezione hamilton," with outline illustrations; g. gerhard, "vases grecs relatifs aux mystères," outline illustrations; gerhard, "etruskische und kampanische vasenbilder" (berlin, 1843), with finely-colored illustrations of vases; gerhard, "auserlesene griechische vasenbilder" (berlin, 1856), two volumes text, two volumes plates, quarto, also admirably illustrated; fitzwilliam museum at cambridge, part iii., "fictile vases;" schliemann, "trojanische alterthümer;" "british museum catalogue of greek and etruscan vases," with outlines; "catalogue of the st. petersburg imperial collection of vases in the ermitage," with sixteen plates of outlines; inghirami, "etrusco museo chinsino," copperplate outlines; "engravings of ancient vases in the collection of sir william hamilton" (naples, 1791), three volumes folio. on egyptian pottery consult wilkinson's "ancient egyptians;" and the splendid illustrated volumes of champollion, lepsius, and belzoni, for illustrations from the monuments. biography.--jouveaux, "histoire de trois potiers celèbres," biographical sketches of palissy, wedgwood, and böttger; "lessons from noble lives" (palissy); see c. c. perkins's "tuscan sculptors," volume i., for a chapter on "luca della robbia," also in vasari; vasari, volume xiii., page 72, "vita di battista franco." for a list of books of reference on "ceramics," see chaffers's "marks and monograms." index. a page abbey, richard, potter, 312 abderrahman iii., 83 african pottery, 65 alabastron, 47 _a la corne_, 146 alchemists, the, 230 alcora porcelain, 287 alexander severus, emperor, 172 alhambra, the, 83 ---vase of the, 84 amateur painters, 298 amatorii, 104 american pottery, 23 amphora, 18, 40, 46 amstel porcelain, 321 andreoli, maestro giorgio, 113 andrews, w. l., 185 antonibon, potter, 281 apostle mugs, 75 arabic pottery, 90 arabs of spain, the, 72, 81 arcesilaus, cup of, 51 archaic man, 14 ---style, 41 arezzo, 27 art in decoration, 236 ---japanese, 225 ---oriental, character of, 190, 206 aryballos, 35, 46 aspasia, house of, 45, 58 assyrians, glazed ware of, 70 athenian prize-vase, 49 augustus ii., elector of saxony, 231 avery, s.p., 92. 189, 195, 200, 210, 216, 222 aztec civilization, 21 b baireuth, 75 baldassini, painter, 279 balearic islands, 95 bamboo, wedgwood's, 168 banko ware, 225 barberini vase, 171 barbizôt, m., 149 barlow, s. l. m., 270, 296 basalt, wedgwood's, 168, 171 bavarian porcelain, 249 beauvais pottery, 141 beccheroni, painter, 279 beckford, mr., 195 belgium, 319 bellarmine, cardinal, 76 bellarmins, 76 belleek, 149 belmont, a., 270 bennington potteries, 339 bentley, mr., 167 berlin porcelain, 242 bernal sale, the, 131, 141, 240, 244, 247, 250, 251, 295, 298 betts, f. j., 76 billingsly, potter, 310 binns, r. w., potter, 289, 306 birch, mr., 41, 70 bloor, potter, 297 blue, celestial, 181, 193 ---cobalt, 190 ---dragon decoration, 311 ---japanese, 218 bonnin, potter, 331 boston museum of arts, 86 böttger, j., 231 boucher, painter, 261 bow and chelsea, confusion between, 292 ---porcelain, 290 bramelds, the, potters, 313 breslau, pottery monument in, 80 brianchon, m., 149 bricks, glazed, 70 bristol porcelain, 309 british museum, 211 broeck, village of, 159 bromfield and son, potters, 317 brongniart, alexandre, 41, 270 bronze age, 16 brown-westhead, moore and co., potters, 317 brunswick porcelain, 249 bryant, mr., 30 buen retiro porcelain, 286 burke, edmund, 309 burlingame, mrs. anson, 182, 184, 186, 189 c caistre, 26 calle, raffaelle del, 104 calpis, 46 cameos, wedgwood's, 168 campanienne vase, 49 cantheros, 46 capo di monte porcelain, 282 carl theodor, elector palatine, 249 castel-durante, 116 catherine ii. of russia, 166 caughley porcelain, 311 caulkins's history of norwich, 336 _céladon_, the color, 195 celestial-blue porcelain, 181, 193 centennial exhibition, 22, 25, 63, 130, 227, 340 ceramicus, the, 32 cesnola collection, 24 chaffers, g. w., 136, 161, 235, 290, 299, 302 chamberlain, potter, 307 champion, potter, 309 chantilly porcelain, 257 chapelet, m., 149 charles, duke of brunswick, 250 charles iv., king, 283 charlotte, queen, 166 charlottenburg, 244 cheap work, 164 chelsea porcelain, 293 china, egg-shell, 197, 220 ---mandarin, 221 chinese porcelain, 175 classification of greek pottery, 41 clay figures, 63 clays, american, 340 ---cornwall, 308 clerissy, antoine, 146 cleuziou, m., 27 cloisonné work, 221, 316 coalport porcelain, 312 coblentz, 77 coffee-pots, 158 coke, potter, 310 collections of pottery, 53 collinot, m., 149 colors, chemical, 266 connecticut potteries, early, 338 conrad, 139 content, the god of, 176 cooking animal, man a, 14 cookworthy, potter, 308 copelands, the, potters, 313 copenhagen porcelain, 326 corean porcelain, 210 cornwall clays, 308 cortez, 20 cotyle, 46 counterfeit chinese porcelain, 300 counterfeit maiolica, 119 ---porcelain, 227 couthon, 51 couverte, 69 cozzi, potter, 280 crackle, 197, 219 craft, painter, 291 crater, 47 cruche, 47 crusades, effects of, 96 cup of arcesilaus, 51 ---of samos, 26 custode, pierre, 139 cyathos, 46 cylix, 47 cyrenaica, 37 cyrene, 51 d damascus pottery, 89 daniell, h. and r., potters, 314 daniell, thomas, painter, 166 daniells and son, potters, 318 danish pottery, 67 dark ages, the, 96 decadence style, 41 deck, m., 152 decoration, early, 18, 23 ---japanese, 215 ---sèvres, 260 ---symbolic, 186 delft, 97, 153 della robbia, andrea, 101 ---luca, 93, 99 demmin, m., 41, 126, 155, 328 denmark, porcelain of, 326 dennis, potter, 336 derby porcelain, 297 dinner-service, remarkable, 166 dinner-services, delft, 157 diogenes, tub of, 62 dixwell, j. j., 62 doccia porcelain, 277 dog of fo, the, 187 doulton stone-ware, 77 dragon, the, 188 dresden figure-pieces, 235 ---porcelain, 230 dress, greek, 56 drinking-cups, inscriptions on, 27 druggists' pots, 117 duesbury, potter, 294, 297 dutch pottery, 153 ---trade with japan, 223 dwight, dr., 337 e earthen-ware, 97 ---english, 161 edgeworth, maria, 162 egg-shell china, 197 egyptian art, 33 ---red ware, 65 ---tombs, porcelain in, 179, 203 ---water-colors, 63 ---glazed ware of, 70 elers, messrs., 162 elizabethan ware, 162 elizabeth petrovna, empress, 328 enamel, 69 enameling, 197 _en camaïeu_, 146 england, porcelains of, 288 ---want of invention in, 293 english pottery, 67, 161 engobe, 52, 73, 98 entrecolles, père d', 205 etruscan vases, 37, 62 exhibition, philadelphia, 22, 25, 63 f factories, japanese porcelain, 227 faenza, 117 faience, 97, 117 ---d'oiron, 131 faience, japanese, 223 figuier, m., 28 figures, porcelain, 283, 291, 308, 339 figurines attributed to palissy, 129 fine style, the, 41 fischer, potter, 247 flandre, grès de, 73 flaxman, 168 fleur-de-lis mark, 283, 286 flight and barr, potters, 306 florentine porcelain, 274 flowers, porcelain, 258 fong-hoang, the, 187 fontana family, 108 ---orazio, 104, 109 foresi, dr., 274 fortnum, mr., 88 france, porcelain of, 253 franco, battista, 104 frankenthal porcelain, 249 franks, a. w., 195, 201, 207 frederick the great, 231 free-trade fanaticism, 211 french faience, 138 french sprig decoration, 310 fulham pottery, 162 fürstenburg porcelain, 249 furstler, painter, 246 g gallatin, secretary, 337 gallic pottery, 28 gardner, potter, 330 german pottery, 28, 74 ---glazed pottery, 78 ---tribes, the, 78 ---work, lack of taste in, 163 gibson, henry, mr., 316 ginori, factory of, 112 ---the, 277 gioanetti, potter, 281 giorgio, maestro, 113 giustiniani, factory of, 112 gladstone, mr., 173 glaze, definition of, 69 ---value of, 72 glazed bricks, 70 ---pottery, 78, 81 glazes in porcelain, 195 gouffier, claude, 135 grains-of-rice cups, 197 granada, 83 graybeards, 76 greek dress, 56 ---fret, 18, 47 ---house, the, 30, 54 ---man, the, 60 ---pottery, classification of, 41 ---vase, the, 29 ---vases, varnish of, 71 ---woman, the, 54 greenpoint porcelain, 334 grès de flandre, 73 grinnell, mrs. r. m., 100 gubbio maiolica, 112, 113 gulena, 330 h haarlem, 154 hague, porcelain of the, 322 haguenau pottery, 148 haines and co., potters, 311 hanford, potter, 337 hangest, madame hélène de, 133 hannong, potter, 148, 249 hart, charles henry, 331 hartford pottery, 337 haviland, messrs, 150 heard, mr., 194 henderson and co., potters, 340 henri-deux ware, 131, 136 henry iii. of france, 124 herculaneum, 59 ---porcelain, 312 herend porcelain, 247 hetairai, the, 57 hewelcke, potter, 280 hirschvogel, 80 hispano-moresque ware, 86 hizen, porcelains of, 228 höchst porcelain, 248 hoe, robert, jr., 191, 210 holland, 319 holland, importation of porcelain to, 219 homer's heroes, palaces of, 30 höroldt, 234 house, the greek, 30, 54 huguenots, 123 hungarian porcelain, 247 hydria, 47 i idols, mexican, 20 italian maiolicas at the philadelphia exhibition, 121 italian porcelain, 274 ---renaissance, 96 ives, mrs. moses, 146 j japanese art, 214, 225 ---figures, 64 ---porcelain, 210 jasper, wedgwood's, 168 jewels in decoration, 267 jewett, mr., 173 johnson, dr., 295 julia mammæa, 172 k kaga ware, 223, 228 kalpis, 47 kändler, 234 kantharos, 46 kaolin, 78, 178, 205, 232, 234 katosiro-ouyi-mon, 210 kauffmann, angelica, 238 kelebe, 46 kensington museum, 211 keramicus, the, 32 king-te-chin, city of, 180, 203 kioto ware, 225, 228 korzic porcelain, 330 kotyle, 47 krater, 47 kruche, 47 kyathos, 47 kylin, the, 188 kylix, 47 l lacquer, japanese, 220 lacustrine dwellings, 15 lafon, m., 151 lake-dwellers, 15 lambeth pottery, 162 lamprecht, painter, 246 lanceray, bronze-founder, 328 lang, baron von, 327 laughlin brothers, potters, 342 laurin, m., 149 layard, 70 leighton, frederick, 88, 94, 224 lekythos, 47, 50 lille porcelain, 323 limoges porcelain, 258 ---pottery, 150 lindencher, m., 151 lindus pottery, 89 longbeards, 76 louis philippe, 269 louis xiv, 143, 261 lowestoft porcelain, 299 luson, potter, 299 lustres, 83, 114, 116 lyman and fenton, potters, 339 lyons, mr., 269 m madrid porcelain, 286 maiolica, 87, 95, 97 majorca, 87 malaga, 85 man, the greek, 60 mandarin china, 221 marcolini, count, 241 marco polo, 179, 204 maria theresa, 245 marks, alcora, 287 ---amstel, 322 ---berlin, 245 ---bow, 292 ---bristol, 310 ---capo di monte, 286 ---caughley, 311 ---chamberlain's, 308 ---chantilly, 257 ---chelsea, 297 ---chinese, 207 ---clignancourt, 255 ---copeland, 314 ---copenhagen, 327 ---on delft, 160 ---derby, 299 ---dresden, 241 ---frankenthal, 249 ---fulda, 252 ---fürstenburg, 250 ---höchst, 248 ---japanese symbolic, 215 ---kronenburg, 251 ---lille, 323 ---limbach, 252 ---limoges, 258 ---ludwigsburg, 251 ---maiolica, 119 ---marieberg, 326 ---marseilles, 256 ---moscow, 330 ---nantgarw, 310 ---new hall, 312 ---niderviller, 257 ---nove, 282 ---nymphenburg, 251 ---nyon, 252 ---orleans, 256 ---paris, 257 ---plymouth, 309 ---porcelain, 325 ---rockingham, 313 ---russian, 329 ---sceaux-penthièvre, 257 ---sèvres, 272 ---st.-cloud, 254 ---strasbourg, 256 ---swansea, 311 ---symbolic, 200 ---the hague, 323 ---tournay, 324 ---turin, 281 ---turner, 311 ---valenciennes, 256 ---of vezzi and cozzi, 280 ---vienna, 247 ---vincennes, 271 ---weesp, 321 ---worcester, 306 ---zurich, 252 marryat, mr., 155, 174, 301 marseilles pottery, 148 massachusetts potteries, early, 338 matthews, mr., 270 mayence porcelain, 248 medicean porcelain, 274 medici, lorenzo de', 195, 204 ---the, 275 meissen porcelain, 230 melchior, painter, 249 menecy-villeroy porcelain, 255 meteyard, miss, 168, 172 metropolitan museum of art, 24, 120, 384 mexican pottery, 20, 66 mezza-maiolica, 98 mintons, the, potters, 314 mitchell, dr., 270 monument of pottery, 80 moorish pottery, 72 moors in spain, 82 morris, potter, 331 moscow porcelain, 330 mosque of omar, 89 mounds, western, 22 moustiers pottery, 146 müller, potter, 327 murrhine vases, ancient, 204 musée céramique at sèvres, 270 museum of arts, boston, 86, 120 n _nacre_, 149 nanking-blue porcelain, 181 nanking tower, 177 nantgarw porcelain, 310 naples, pottery from, 64 napoleon i., 324 nelson, lord, 307 nevers faience, 139 new hall porcelain, 312 new jersey potteries, early, 340 niderviller porcelain, 257 nigg, painter, 246 nimrúd, palace at, 70 northern europe, porcelains of, 319 norwalk pottery, 337 norwich pottery, 336 nottingham ware, 335 nove porcelain, 281 nymphenburg porcelain, 250 o oenochoe, 47 olery, maître, 146 olpe, 46 omar, mosque of, 89 onyx, wedgwood's, 168 oporto porcelain, 287 oriental art, character of, 190, 206, 236 ornaments of delft-ware, 158 owari porcelain, 228 oxybaphon, 46 p painters, amateur, 298 ---at worcester, 304 palaces of homer's heroes, 30 palissy, bernard, 123 panathenaic festival, 149 _pâte dure_, 233, 253 _pâte tendre_, 233, 253 _pâte-sur-pâte_, 315 peabody museum, 22 peach decoration, japanese, 225 pelice, 45 pellipario family, 109 pepys's diary, 158, 161 perger, painter, 246 pericles, 58 persian pottery, 90 peruvian pottery, 22 pesaro, 98 peter the great, 327 ---the hermit, 96 pe-tun-tse, 178, 205, 233 phallus, 23 pharmaceutical emblems, 118 phiale, 46 philadelphia art school, 211 ---exhibition, 22, 25, 63, 130, 227, 340 ---industrial museum, 316 ---porcelain, 331 piccolpasso, book of, 116 pindar, 40 pinxton porcelain, 310 pipe clay, 134 pithos, 62 pizarro, 22 place, francis, potter, 314 plumbiferous glaze, 98, 161 plymouth porcelain, 308 poland, porcelain of, 330 pompadour, madame de, 258 pompeii, 59 popoff, potter, 330 porcelain biscuit, wedgwood's, 168 porcelain, _céladon_, 195 ---of central europe, 229 ---of china, 175 ---chrysanthemo-pæonienne, 182 ---colors of, 180, 194 ---discovery of, 178 ---earliest european, 230 ---in egyptian tombs, 179, 203 ---of england, 288 ---famille-rose, 185 ---famille-vert, 184 ---flowers, 258 ---of france, 253 ---imperial yellow, 195 ---importation of chinese, 204 ---japanese, 210, 227 ---manufacture, sites of, 202 ---manufacture in china, 201 ---mode of making in china, 205 ---of northern europe, 319 ---painting, 196 ---origin of word, 203 ---of southern europe, 274 ---styles of japanese, 214 ---tower at nanking, 177 ---of the united states, 331 ---variegated-leaved, 219 ---varieties of chinese, 181 portland vase, 171 portuguese trade with japan, 222 potteries, greek, 53 potter's art, antiquity of, 13 ---wheel, 19, 34 pottery, chinese, 178 ---monument of, 80 pottier, m. andré, 132 pottle-pot, 77 poutai, chinese god, 64, 176 prices of henri-deux ware, 136 ---of wedgwood ware, 174 prime, william c., 76, 89, 92, 100, 282, 244, 285, 287, 296, 306, 307, 334 prizes for victors, 48 prize vase, athenian, 49 prochoos, 46 protestant persecutions in france, 123 pruyn, j. v. l., 270, 300, 302 q queen elizabeth's housekeeping, 161 queen's ware, wedgwood's, 166 r raffaelle ware, 106 reindeer age, 15 reticulated cups, 197 rhode island, rouen pottery in, 146 rhodian pottery, 87 rhyton, 47 ringler, potter, 249 ritter, 99 robinson, mr. j. c., 133 rockingham porcelain, 312 rockwell, mrs., 218 roman pottery, 124, 27, 161 rörstrand, 325 rose, john, potter, 312 rose, painter, 300 rothschild, baron, 267, 276 rouen pottery, 142, 255 rouse and turner, potters, 340 roux, maître, 146 rovigo, francisco xanto avelli da, 104, 108 ruch, painter, 327 ruel, durand, m., 149 russia, porcelain of, 327 s saladin, porcelain sent by, 204 salt-glaze, 73, 162 salzmann, mr., 89 samian ware, 25 samos, cup of, 26 sappho, 57 sarcophagus of pottery, 80 sarreguemines pottery, 149 satsuma ware, 224, 228 saxon porcelain, 230 sceaux-penthièvre, 257 ---marks, 257 school education, 163 ségange, m. broc de, 139 seipsius, painter, 327 sèvres marks, 273 ---porcelain, 258 sgraffiato ware, 119 sheffield, lord, 335 shelton porcelain, 312 simplicity, greek, 265 six-mark porcelain, 192 skyphos, 46 slip, 98 smith and sons, potters, 334 socrates, 61 solon, painter, 315 spanish pottery, 64 spode, josiah, potter, 313 ---porcelain, 313 sprimont, potter, 293 staffordshire potteries, 174 stamnos, 45 stanniferous glaze, 72, 83, 93, 98 states, potter, 337 st.-cloud porcelain, 254 steel, daniel, 166 steen, jan, 155 stenzel, 245 stoke-upon-trent, 162 stone age, 15 stone-ware, 161 stonington pottery, 337 st. petersburg, 327 strasbourg pottery, 148 stratford-le-bow, 290 swansea porcelain, 311 sweden, porcelain of, 324 symbolic animals, chinese, 187 ---colors, chinese, 188 ---marks, 200 t table-furniture, early american, 334 taiping rebels, 178, 181 tea and teapots, 158 tea-services, delft, 157 terra-cotta, wedgwood's, 167 terraglia faience, 281 _terre de pipe_, 73, 134 tiffany and co., 306, 316 tiles, dutch, 160 ---moorish, 83 ---persian or arabic, 92 toltecs, 21 tombs, egyptian, 71 ---relics from, 31 tournay porcelain, 323 trenton potteries, 341 treviso porcelain, 281 tripods, 70 tschirnhaus, 231 tucker and hemphill, potters, 332 tuppi, painter, 279 turin porcelain, 281 turkey, porcelain sold in, 246, 299, 303 turkish pottery, 65 turner, thomas, potter, 311 turquoise-blue porcelain, 193 tver porcelain, 330 tyg, 162 u unglazed pottery, 63 united states, pottery and porcelain of the, 331 urban viii., pope, 172 urbino, 102 v valencia, 86 van der meer, 155 vandervelde, william, 155 variegated-leaved porcelain, 219 varnish, 69 varsanni, painter, 246 vase, alhambra, 84 ---etruscan, 62 ---great numbers of, 53 ---greek, 29 ---pictures on, 61 ---sèvres, 263 venice porcelain, 279 vermont potteries, early, 339 vezzi, potter, 279 vienna exposition, 181 ---porcelain, 245 vincennes porcelain, 259 violins, delft, 157 virginia clays, 290 w wales, george w., 90, 94, 146, 185, 238, 269, 285, 296, 302, 306, 326 wall, dr., 303 wallace, sir richard, 112, 315 washington pitchers, 338 watcombe pottery, 67 water-coolers, 63 wech, painter, 246 wedgwood, josiah, 163, 333 wedgwoods, the, potters, 314 wedgwood ware, prices of, 174 weesp porcelain, 321 wegeley, mr., 242 wheel, potter's, 19 wilkinson, sir gardiner, 70 williams, h. d., 220 willow-pattern, 311 woman, the greek, 54 worcester porcelain, 303 wyman, miss, 185 x xantippe, 61 xanto, 104, 108 z zeuxis, 44 the end. * * * * * appletons american cyclopædia. new revised edition. _entirely rewritten by the ablest writers on every subject. printed from new type, and illustrated with several thousand engravings and maps._ the work originally published under the title of the new american cyclopædia was completed in 1863, since which time the wide circulation which it has attained in all parts of the united states, and the signal developments which have taken place in every branch of science, literature, and art, have induced the editors and publishers to submit it to an exact and 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is published monthly in a large octavo, handsomely printed on clear type, and, when the subjects admit, fully illustrated. each number contains 128 pages. terms: $5.00 per annum, or fifty cents per number. postage free to all subscribers in the united states. the art journal: _an international gallery of engravings_, by distinguished artists of europe and america; with illustrated papers in the various branches of art. the art journal is a quarto monthly publication, superbly illustrated and printed, and specially devoted to the world of art--painting, sculpture, architecture, decoration, engraving, etching, enameling, and designing in all its branches--having in view the double purpose of supplying a complete illustrated record of progress in the arts, and of affording a means for the cultivation of art-taste among the people. each number is richly and abundantly illustrated on both steel and wood, and no pains are spared to render this "art journal" the most valuable publication of the kind in the world. it contains the steel plates and illustrations of the london art journal, a publication of world-wide fame (the exclusive right of which, for canada and the united states, has been purchased by the publishers); with _extensive additions devoted principally to american art and american topics_. _published monthly. sold only by subscription._ price, 75 cents per number; $9.00 per annum, postage prepaid. subscriptions received by the publishers, or their agents. agencies: 22 hawley st., boston; 922 chestnut st., philadelphia; 22 post-office avenue, baltimore; 53 ninth st., pittsburg; 100 state st., albany; 42 state st., rochester; 103 state st, chicago; 30 w. 4th st., cincinnati; 305 locust st., st. louis; 20 st. charles st., new orleans; 230 sutter st., san francisco. _d. appleton & co., publishers, 549 & 551 broadway, n. y._ * * * footnotes: [1] _see_ demmin, "guide," etc., p. 130. [2] "la poterie gauloise, description de la collection charvet," par henri du cleuziou, paris, 1872. [3] birch's "history of ancient pottery." [4] "guide de l'amateur de faïences et porcelaines." [5] "traité des arts céramiques." [6] published at nevers in 1863. [7] demmin says that mm. jauffret et mouton are at work there still. [8] earthen-ware. [9] "histoire de la porcelaine chinoise." [10] marryat, "pottery and porcelain." [11] jacquemart. [12] from a chinese dictionary quoted by jacquemart. [13] this mandarin porcelain mr. a. w. franks, the latest writer on the subject, believes was made in china; and thus he differs from jacquemart. [14] the crown thus becomes three shillings and sixpence sterling. [15] "marks and monographs of pottery and porcelain," g. w. chaffers. [16] bohn's catalogue. [17] an article made of fire-clay, to place the china in when being burnt. * * * * * typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber: and and that time=> and that time {pg 7} louis phillippe=> louis philippe, {pg 269} 