cover illustration] [illustration of boswell and johnson at the mitre] the little tea book compiled by arthur gray _compiler of over the black coffee_ illustrated by george w. hood [illustration of tea kettle] new york the baker & taylor company 33-37 east 17th st., union sq. north copyright, 1903, by the baker & taylor company _published, october, 1903_ the crow press, n.h. thou soft, thou sober, sage, and venerable liquid! thou innocent pretence for bringing the wicked of both sexes together in the morning! thou female tongue-running, smile-soothing, heart-opening, wink-tipping cordial to whose glorious insipidity i owe the happiest moments of my life. --colley cibber. _introducing the little tea book_ after all, tea is _the_ drink! domestically and socially it is the beverage of the world. there may be those who will come forward with _their_ figures to prove that other fruits of the soil-agriculturally and commercially--are more important. perhaps they are right when quoting statistics. but what other product can compare with tea in the high regard in which it has always been held by writers whose standing in literature, and recognized good taste in other walks, cannot be questioned? a glance through this book will show that the spirit of the tea beverage is one of peace, comfort, and refinement. as these qualities are all associated with the ways of women, it is to them, therefore--the real rulers of the world--that tea owes its prestige and vogue. further peeps through these pages prove this to be true; for nearly all the allusions and references to the beverage, by male writers, reveal the womanly influence that tea imparts. but this is not all. the side-lights of history, customs, manners, and modes of living which tea plays in the life of all nations will be found entertaining and instructive. linked with the fine feminine atmosphere which pervades the drinking of the beverage everywhere, a leaf which can combine so much deserves, at least, a little human hearing for its long list of virtues; for its peaceful walks, talks, tales, tattle, frills, and fancies which go to make up this tribute to "the cup that cheers but not inebriates." _the origin of tea_ darma, third son of koyuwo, king of india, a religions high priest from siaka (the author of that eastern paganism about a thousand years before the christian era), coming to china, to teach the way of happiness, lived a most austere life, passing his days in continual mortification, and retiring by night to solitudes, in which he fed only upon the leaves of trees and other vegetable productions. after several years passed in this manner, in fasting and watching, it happened that, contrary to his vows, the pious darma fell asleep! when he awoke, he was so much enraged at himself, that, to prevent the offence to his vows for the future, he got rid of his eyelids and placed them on the ground. on the following day, returning to his accustomed devotions, he beheld, with amazement, springing up from his eyelids, two small shrubs of an unusual appearance, such as he had never before seen, and of whose qualities he was, of course, entirely ignorant. the saint, however, not being wholly devoid of curiosity--or, perhaps, being unusually hungry--was prompted to eat of the leaves, and immediately felt within him a wonderful elevation of mind, and a vehement desire of divine contemplation, with which he acquainted his disciples, who were eager to follow the example of their instructor, and they readily received into common use the fragrant plant which has been the theme of so many poetical and literary pens in succeeding ages. [illustration of dr. johnson's chair] _tea_ by francis saltus saltus from what enchanted eden came thy leaves that hide such subtle spirits of perfume? did eyes preadamite first see the bloom, luscious nepenthe of the soul that grieves? by thee the tired and torpid mind conceives fairer than roses brightening life's gloom, thy protean charm can every form assume and turn december nights to april eves. thy amber-tinted drops bring back to me fantastic shapes of great mongolian towers, emblazoned banners, and the booming gong; i hear the sound of feast and revelry, and smell, far sweeter than the sweetest flowers, the kiosks of pekin, fragrant of oolong! _little cups of chinese and japanese tea_ although the legend credits the pious east indian with the discovery of tea, there is no evidence extant that india is really the birthplace of the plant. since india has no record of date, or facts, on stone or tablet, or ever handed down a single incident of song or story--apart from the legend--as to the origin of tea, one is loath to accept the claim--if claim they assert--of a people who are not above practising the "black art" at every turn of their fancy. certain it is that china, first in many things, knew tea as soon as any nation of the world. the early chinese were not only more progressive than other peoples, but linked with their progress were important researches, and invaluable discoveries, which the civilized world has long ago recognized. then, why not add tea to the list? at any rate, it is easy to believe that the chinese were first in the tea fields, and that undoubtedly the plant was a native of both china and japan when it was slumbering on the slopes of india, unpicked, unsteeped, undrunk, unhonored, and unsung. a celebrated buddhist, st. dengyo daishai, is credited with having introduced tea into japan from china as early as the fourth century. it is likely that he was the first to teach the japanese the use of the herb, for it had long been a favorite beverage in the mountains of the celestial kingdom. the plant, however, is found in so many parts of japan that there can be little doubt but what it is indigenous there as well. the word tea is of chinese origin, being derived from the amoy and swatow reading, "tay," of the same character, which expresses both the ancient name of tea, "t'su," and the more modern one, "cha." japanese tea, "chiya"--pronounced châ. tea was not known in china before the tang dynasty, 618-906 a.d. an infusion of some kind of leaf, however, was used as early as the chow dynasty, 1122-255 b.c., as we learn from the urh-ya, a glossary of terms used in ancient history and poetry. this work, which is classified by subjects, has been assigned as the beginning of the chow dynasty, but belongs more properly to the era of confucius, k'ung kai, 551-479 b.c. although known in japan for more than a thousand years, tea only gradually became the national beverage as late as the fourteenth century. in the first half of the eighth century, 729 a.d., there was a record made of a religious festival, at which the forty-fifth mikado---"sublime gate"--shommei tenno, entertained the buddhist priests with tea, a hitherto unknown beverage from corea, which country was for many years the high-road of chinese culture to japan. after the ninth century, 823 a.d., and for four centuries thereafter, tea fell into disuse, and almost oblivion, among the japanese. the nobility, and buddhist priests, however, continued to drink it as a luxury. during the reign of the eighty-third emperor, 1199-1210 a.d., the cultivation of tea was permanently established in japan. in 1200, the bonze, yei-sei, brought tea seeds from china, which he planted on the mountains in one of the most northern provinces. yei-sei is also credited with introducing the chinese custom of ceremonious tea-drinking. at any rate, he presented tea seeds to mei-ki, the abbot of the monastery of to-gano (to whom the use of tea had been recommended for its stimulating properties), and instructed him in the mystery of its cultivation, treatment, and preparation. mei-ki, who laid out plantations near uzi, was successful as a pupil, and even now the tea-growers of that neighborhood pay tribute to his memory by annually offering at his shrine the first gathered tea-leaves. after that period, the use of tea became more and more in fashion, the monks and their kindred having discovered its property of keeping them awake during long vigils and nocturnal prayers. prom this time on the development and progress of the plant are interwoven with the histories and customs of these countries. _on tea_ the following short poem by edmund waller is believed to be the first one written in praise of the "cup that does not inebriate": venus her myrtle, phoebus has her bays; tea both excels, which she vouchsafes to praise. the best of queens, and best of herbs, we owe to that bold nation, which the way did show to the fair region where the sun doth rise, whose rich productions we so justly prize. the muse's friend, tea does our fancy aid, repress those vapors which the head invade, and keep the palace of the soul serene, tit on her birthday to salute the queen. waller was born in 1605, and died in 1687, aged eighty-two. _some english tea history_ tea was brought into europe by the dutch east india company, in 1610. it was at least forty, and perhaps forty-seven, years later that england woke up to the fascinations of the new drink. dr. johnson puts it at even a later date, for he claims that tea was first introduced into england by lords arlington and ossory, in 1666, and really made its debut into society when the wives of these noblemen gave it its vogue. if dr. johnson's statement is intended to mean that nothing is anything until the red seal of the select says, "thus shall it be," he is right in the year he has selected. if, on the other hand, the doctor had in mind society at large, he is "mixed in his dates," or leaves, for tea was drawn and drunk in london nine years before that date. garway, the founder of garraway's coffee house, claimed the honor of being first to offer tea in leaf and drink for public sale, in 1657. it is pretty safe to fix the entrance of tea into europe even a few years ahead of his announcement, for merchants in those days did not advertise their wares in advance. however, this date is about the beginning of tea time, for in the _mercurius politicius_ of september, 1658, appeared the following advertisement: that excellent and by all physitians approved china drink, called by the chineans, tcha, by other nations, tay, or tea, is sold at the sultana's head, a copphee house, in sweetings rents, by the royal exchange, london. like all new things, when they have fastened on to the public's favor, tea was on everybody's lips and in everybody's mouth. it was lauded to the skies, and was supposed to be good for all the ills of the flesh. it would cure colds and consumption, clear the sight, remove lassitude, purify the liver, improve digestion, create appetite, strengthen the memory, and cure fever and ague. one panegyrist says, while never putting the patient in mind of his disease, it cheers the heart, without disordering the head; strengthens the feet of the old, and settles the heads of the young; cools the brain of the hard drinker, and warms that of the sober student; relieves the sick, and makes the healthy better. epicures drink it for want of an appetite; _bon vivants_, to remove the effects of a surfeit of wine; gluttons, as a remedy for indigestion; politicians, for the vertigo; doctors, for drowsiness; prudes, for the vapors; wits, for the spleen; and beaux to improve their complexions; summing up, by declaring tea to be a treat for the frugal, a regale for the luxurious, a successful agent for the man of business, and a bracer for the idle. poets and verse-makers joined the chorus in praise of tea, in greek and latin. one poet pictures hebe pouring the delightful cup for the goddesses, who, finding it made their beauty brighter and their wit more brilliant, drank so deeply as to disgust jupiter, who had forgotten that he, himself, "drank tea that happy morn, when wise minerva of his brain was born." laureant tate, who wrote a poem on tea in two cantos, described a family jar among the fair deities, because each desired to become the special patroness of the ethereal drink destined to triumph over wine. another versifier exalts it at the expense of its would-be rival, coffee: "in vain would coffee boast an equal good, the crystal stream transcends the flowing mud, tea, even the ills from coffee spring repairs, disclaims its vices and its virtues shares." another despairing enthusiast exclaims: "hail, goddess of the vegetable, hail! to sing thy worth, all words, all numbers, fail!" the new beverage did not have the field all to itself, however, for, while it was generally admitted that tea was fixed, and come to stay. it could not drive good meat and drink away. lovers of the old and conservative customs of the table were not anxious to try the novelty. others shied at it; some flirted with it, in tiny teaspoonfuls; others openly defied and attacked it. among the latter were a number of robust versifiers and physicians. "'twas better for each british virgin, when on roast beef, strong beer and sturgeon, joyous to breakfast they sat round, nor were ashamed to eat a pound." the fleshly school of doctors were only too happy to disagree with their brethren respecting the merits and demerits of the new-fangled drink; and it is hard to say which were most bitter, the friends or the foes of tea. maria theresa's physician, count belchigen, attributed the discovery of a number of new diseases to the debility born of daily tea-drinking. dr. paulli denied that it had either taste or fragrance, owing its reputation entirely to the peculiar vessels and water used by the chinese, so that it was folly to partake of it, unless tea-drinkers could supply themselves with pure water from the vassie and the fragrant tea-pots of gnihing. this sagacious sophist and dogmatizer also discovered that, among other evils, tea-drinking deprived its devotees of the power of expectoration, and entailed sterility; wherefore he hoped europeans would thereafter keep to their natural beverages-wine and ale--and reject coffee, chocolate, and tea, which were all equally bad for them. in spite of the array of old-fashioned doctors, wits, and lovers of the pipe and bottle, who opposed evil effects, sneered at the finely bred men of england being turned into women, and grumbled at the stingy custom of calling for dish-water after dinner, the custom of tea-drinking continued to grow. by 1689 the sale of the leaf had increased sufficiently to make it politic to reduce the duty on it from eight pence on the decoction to five shillings a pound on the leaf. the value of tea at this time may be estimated from a customhouse report of the sale of a quantity of divers sorts and qualities, the worst being equal to that "used in coffee-houses for making single tea," which, being disposed of by "inch of candle," fetched an average of twelve shillings a pound. during the next three years the consumption of tea was greatly increased; but very little seems to have been known about it by those who drank it--if we may judge from the enlightenment received from a pamphlet, given gratis, "up one flight of stairs, at the sign of the anodyne necklace, without temple bar." all it tells us about tea is that it is the leaf of a little shoot growing plentifully in the east indies; that bohea--called by the french "bean tea"--is best of a morning with bread and butter, being of a more nourishing nature than the green which may be used when a meal is not wanted. three or four cups at a sitting are enough; and a little milk or cream renders the beverage smoother and more powerful in blunting the acid humors of the stomach. the satirists believed that tea had a contrary effect upon the acid humors of the mind, making the tea-table the arena for the display of the feminine capacity for backbiting and scandal. listen to swift describe a lady enjoying her evening cups of tea: "surrounded with the noisy clans of prudes, coquettes and harridans. now voices over voices rise, while each to be the loudest vies; they contradict, affirm, dispute, no single tongue one moment mute; all mad to speak, and none to hearken, they set the very lapdog barking; their chattering makes a louder din than fish-wives o'er a cup of gin; far less the rabble roar and rail when drunk with sour election ale." even gentle gay associated soft tea with the temper of women when he pictures doris and melanthe abusing all their bosom friends, while- "through all the room from flowery tea exhales a fragrant fume." but not all the women were tea-drinkers in those days. there was madam drake, the proprietress of one of the three private carriages manchester could boast. few men were as courageous as she in declaring against the tea-table when they were but invited guests. madam drake did not hesitate to make it known when she paid an afternoon's visit that she expected to be offered her customary solace--a tankard of ale and a pipe of tobacco. another female opponent of tea was the _female spectator_, which declared the use of the fluid to be not only expensive, but pernicious; the utter destruction of all economy, the bane of good housewifery, and the source of all idleness. tradesmen especially suffered from the habit. they could not serve their customers because their apprentices were absent during the busiest hours of the day drumming up gossips for their mistresses' tea-tables. this same censor says that the most temperate find themselves obliged to drink wine freely after tea, or supplement their bohea with rum and brandy, the bottle and glass becoming as necessary to the tea-table as the slop-basin. although jonas hanway, the father of the umbrella, was successful in keeping off water, he was not successful in keeping out tea. all he did accomplish in his essay on the subject was to call forth a reply from dr. johnson, who, strange to say, instead of vigorously defending his favorite tipple, rather excuses it as an amiable weakness; confessing that tea is a barren superfluity, fit only to amuse the idle, relax the studious, and dilute the meals of those who cannot take exercise, and will not practise abstinence. his chief argument in tea's favor is that it is drunk in no great quantity even by those who use it most, and as it neither exhilarates the heart nor stimulates the palate, is, after all, but a nominal entertainment, serving as a pretence for assembling people together, for interrupting business, diversifying idleness; admitting that, perhaps, while gratifying the taste, without nourishing the body, it is quite unsuited to the lower classes. it is a singular fact, too, that at that period there was no other really vigorous defender of the beverage. all the best of the other writers did was to praise its pleasing qualities, associations, and social attributes. still, tea grew in popular favor, privately and publicly. the custom had now become so general that every wife looked upon the tea-pot, cups, and caddy to be as much her right by marriage as the wedding-ring itself. fine ladies enjoyed the crowded public entertainments with tea below stairs and ventilators above. citizens, fortunate enough to have leaden roofs to their houses, took their tea and their ease thereon. on sundays, finding the country lanes leading to kensington, hampstead, highgate, islington, and stepney, "to be much pleasanter than the paths of the gospel," the people flocked to those suburban resorts with their wives and children, to take tea under the trees. in one of coleman's plays, a spitalfield's dame defines the acme of elegance as: "drinking tea on summer afternoons at bagnigge wells with china and gilt spoons." london was surrounded with tea-gardens, the most popular being sadlier's wells, merlin's cave, cromwell gardens, jenny's whim, cuper gardens, london spa, and the white conduit house, where they used to take in fifty pounds on a sunday afternoon for sixpenny tea-tickets. one d'archenholz was surprised by the elegance, beauty, and luxury of these resorts, where, steele said, they swallowed gallons of the juice of tea, while their own dock leaves were trodden under foot. the ending of the east india company's monopoly of the trade, coupled with the fact that the legislature recognized that tea had passed out of the catalogue of luxuries into that of necessities, began a new era for the queen of drinks destined to reign over all other beverages. [illustration of woman] _o tea!_ in the drama of the past thou art featured in the cast; (o tea!) and thou hast played thy part with never a change of heart, (o tea!) for 'mid all the ding and dong waits a welcome--soothing song, for fragrant hyson and oolong. . . . a song of peace, through all the years, of fireside fancies, devoid of fears, of mothers' talks and mothers' lays, of grandmothers' comforts--quiet ways. of gossip, perhaps--still and yet- what of johnson? would we forget the pictured cup; those merry times, when round the board, with ready rhymes waller, dryden, and addison--young, grave pope to gay, when cowper sung? sydney smith, too; gentle lamb brew, tennyson, dickens, doctor holmes knew. the cup that cheered, those sober souls, and tiny tea-trays, samovars, and bowls. . . . so here's a toast to the queen of plants, the queen of plants--bohea! good wife, ring for your maiden aunts, we'll all have cups of tea. --arthur gray. _tea terms_ japanese ori-mono-châ . . . folded tea giy-ôku-ro-châ . . . dew drop tea usu-châ . . . light tea koi-châ . . . dark tea tô-bi-dashi-châ . . . sifted tea ban-châ . . . common tea yu-shiyutsu-châ . . . export tea neri-châ . . . brick tea koku-châ . . . black tea ko-châ . . . tea dust broken leaves riyoku-châ . . . green tea chinese bohea . . . "happy establishment" so called after two ranges of hills, fu-kien or fo-kien congou . . . labor named so at amoy from the labor in preparing it. sou chong . . . small kind hyson . . . flourishing spring pe-koe . . . white hair so called because only the youngest leaves are gathered, which still have the delicate down--white hair--on the surface. pou-chong . . . folded tea so called at canton after the manner of picking it. brick tea--prepared in central china from the commonest sorts of tea, by soaking the tea refuse, such as broken leaves, twigs, and dust, in boiling water and then pressing them into moulds. used in siberia and mongolia, where it also serves as a medium of exchange. the mongols place the bricks, when testing the quality, on the head, and try to pull downward over the eyes. they reject the brick as worthless if it breaks or bends. [illustration of japanese woman] _tea leaves_ by john ernest mccann according to henry thomas buckle, the author of "the history of civilization in england," who was the master of eighteen languages, and had a library of 22,000 volumes, with an income of $75,000 a year, at the age of twenty-nine, in 1850 (he died in 1860, at the age of thirty-nine), tea making and drinking were, or are, what wendell phillips would call lost arts. he thought that, when it came to brewing tea, the chinese philosophers were not living in his vicinity. he distinctly wrote that, until he showed her how, no woman of his acquaintance could make a decent cup of tea. he insisted upon a warm cup, and even spoon, and saucer. not that mr. buckle ever sipped tea from a saucer. of course, he was right in insisting upon those above-mentioned things, for tea-things, like a tea-party, should be in sympathy with the tea, not antagonistic to it. still, not always; for, on one memorable occasion, in the little town of boston, the greatest tea-party in history was anything but sympathetic. but let that pass. emperor kien lung wrote, 200 years or more ago, for the benefit of his children, just before he left the flowery kingdom for a flowerier: "set a tea-pot over a slow fire; fill it with cold water; boil it long enough to turn a lobster red; pour it on the quantity of tea in a porcelain vessel; allow it to remain on the leaves until the vapor evaporates, then sip it slowly, and all your sorrows will follow the vapor." he says nothing about milk or sugar. but, to me, tea without sugar is poison, as it is with milk. i can drink one cup of tea, or coffee, with sugar, but without milk, and feel no ill effects; but if i put milk in either tea or coffee, i am as sick as a defeated candidate for the presidency. that little bit of fact is written as a hint to many who are ill without knowing why they are, after drinking tea, or coffee, with milk in it. i don't think that milk was ever intended for coffee or tea. why should it be? who was the first to color tea and coffee with milk? it may have been a mad prince, in the presence of his flatterers and imitators, to be odd; or just to see if his flatterers would adopt the act. the russians sometimes put champagne in their tea; the germans, beer; the irish, whiskey; the new yorker, ice cream; the english, oysters, or clams, if in season; the true bostonian, rose leaves; and the italian and spaniard, onions and garlic. you all know one of the following lines, imperfectly. scarcely one in one hundred quotes them correctly. _i_ never have quoted them as written, off-hand--but lines run out of my head like schoolboys out of school, "when the lessons and tasks are all ended, and school for the day is dismissed." here are the lines: "now stir the fire, and close the shutters fast; let fall the curtains; wheel the sofa round; and while the bubbling and loud-hissing urn throws up a steamly column, and the cups that cheer, but not inebriate, wait on each, to let us welcome peaceful evening in." isn't that a picture? not one superfluous word in it! who knows its author, or when it was written, or can quote the line before or after "the cups that cheer, but not inebriate"? &&or in what poem the lines run down the ages? i tell you? not i. i don't believe in encouraging laziness. if i tell you, you will let it slip from your memory, like a panic-stricken eel through the fingers of a panic-stricken schoolboy; but if you hunt it up, it will be riveted to your memory, like a ballet, and one never forgets when, where, how, why, and from whom, he receives that. what a pity that, in shakespeare's time, there was no tea-table! what a delightful comedy he could, and would, have written around it, placing the scene in his native stratford! what a charming hostess at a tea-table his mother, mary arden (loveliest of womanly names), would have made! any of the ladies of the delightful "cranford" wouldn't be a circumstance to a tea-table scene in a warwickshire comedy, with lovely mary arden shakespeare as the protagonist, if the comedy were from the pen of her delightful boy, will. had tea been known in shakespeare's time, how much more closely he would have brought his sexes, under one roof, instead of sending the more animal of the two off to the boar's head and the mermaid, leaving the ladies to their own verbal devices. shakespeare, being such a delicate, as well as virile, poet, would have taken to tea as naturally as a bee takes to a rose or honeysuckle; for the very word "tea" suggests all that is fragrant, and clean, and spotless: linen, silver, china, toast, butter, a charming room with charming women, charmingly gowned, and peach and plum and apple trees, with the scent of roses, just beyond the open, half-curtained windows, looking down upon, or over, orchard or garden, as the may or june morning breezes suggest eternal youth, as they fill the room with perfume, tenderness, love, optimism, and hope in immortality. coffee suggests taverns, cafés, sailing vessels, yachts, boarding-houses-by-the-river-side, and pessimism. tea suggests optimism. coffee is a tonic; tea, a comfort. coffee is prose; tea is poetry. whoever thinks of taking coffee into a sick-room? who doesn't think of taking in the comforting cup of tea? can the most vivid imagination picture the angels (above the stars) drinking coffee? no. yet, if i were to show them to you over the teacups, you would not be surprised or shocked. would you? not a bit of it. you would say: "that's a very pretty picture. pray, what are they talking about, or of whom are they talking?" why, of their loved ones below, and of the days of their coming above the stars. they know when to look for us, and while the time may seem long to us before the celestial reunion, to them it is short. they do not worry, as we do. we could not match their beautiful serenity if we tried, for they know the folly of wishing to break or change divine laws. what delightful scandals have been born at tea-tables--rose and lavender, and old point lace scandals: surely, no brutal scandals or treasons, as in the tavern. tea-table gossip surely never seriously hurt a reputation. well, name one. no? well, think of the shattered reputations that have fallen around the bottle. men are the worst gossips unhanged, not women. in 1652, tea sold for as high as £10 in the leaf. pepys had his first cup of tea in september, 1660. (see his diary.) the rare recipe for making tea in those days was known only to the elect, and here it is: "to a pint of tea, add the yolks of two fresh eggs; then beat them up with as much fine sugar as is sufficient to sweeten the tea, and stir well together. the water must remain no longer upon the tea than while you can chant the miserere psalm in a leisurely fashion." but i am not indorsing recipes of 250 odd years ago. the above is from the knowledge box of a chinese priest, or a priest from china, called père couplet (don't print it quatrain), in 1667. he gave it to the earl of clarendon, and i extend it to you, if you wish to try it. john milton knew the delights of tea. he drank coffee during the composition of "paradise lost," and tea during the building of "paradise regained." like all good things, animate and inanimate, tea did not become popular without a struggle. it, like the gradual oak, met with many kinds of opposition, from the timid, the prejudiced, and the selfish. all sorts of herbs were put upon the market to offset its popularity; such as onions, sage, marjoram, the arctic bramble, the sloe, goat-weed, mexican goosefoot, speedwell, wild geranium, veronica, wormwood, juniper, saffron, carduus benedictus, trefoil, wood-sorrel, pepper, mace, scurry grass, plantain, and betony. sir hans sloane invented herb tea, and captain cook's companion, dr. solander, invented another tea, but it was no use--tea had come to stay, and a blessing it has been to the world, when moderately used. you don't want to become a tea drunkard, like dr. johnson, nor a coffee fiend, like balzac. be moderate in all things, and you are bound to be happy and live long. moderation in eating, drinking, loving, hating, smoking, talking, acting, fighting, sleeping, walking, lending, borrowing, reading newspapers--in expressing opinions--even in bathing and praying--means long life and happiness. _wit, wisdom, and humor of tea_ tea tempers the spirits and harmonizes the mind, dispels lassitude and relieves fatigue, awakens thought and prevents drowsiness, lightens or refreshes the body, and clears the perceptive faculties.--confucius. thank god for tea! what would the world do without tea?--how did it exist? i am glad i was not born before tea.--sydney smith. "sammy," whispered mr. weller, "if some o' these here people don't want tappin' to-morrow mornin', i ain't your father, and that's wot it is. why this here old lady next me is a drown-in' herself in tea." "be quiet, can't you?" murmured sam. "sam," whispered mr. weller, a moment afterward, in a tone of deep agitation, "mark my words, my boy; if that 'ere secretary feller keeps on for five minutes more, he'll blow himself up with toast and water." "well, let him if he likes," replied sam; "it ain't no bis'ness of yourn." "if this here lasts much longer, sammy," said mr. weller, in the same low voice, "i shall feel it my duty as a human bein' to rise and address the cheer. there's a young 'ooman on the next form but two, as has drank nine breakfast cups and a half; and she's a swellin' wisibly before my wery eyes."--_pickwick papers_. books upon books have been published in relation to the evil effects of tea-drinking, but, for all that, no statistics are at hand to show that their arguments have made teetotalers of tea-drinkers. one of the best things, however, said against tea-drinking is distinctly in its favor to a certain extent. it is from one dr. paulli, who laments that "tea so dries the bodies of the chinese that they can hardly spit." this will find few sympathizers among us. we suggest the quotation to some enterprising tea-dealer to be used in a street-car advertisement. of all methods of making tea, that hit upon by heine's italian landlord was perhaps the most economical. heine lodged in a house at lucca, the first floor of which was occupied by an english family. the latter complained of the cookery of italy in general, and their landlord's in particular. heine declared the landlord brewed the best tea ho had ever tasted in the country, and to convince his doubtful english friends, invited them to take tea with him and his brother. the invitation was accepted. tea-time came, but no tea. when the poet's patience was exhausted, his brother went to the kitchen to expedite matters. there he found his landlord, who, in blissful ignorance of what company the heines had invited, cried: "you can get no tea, for the family on the first floor have not taken tea this evening." the tea that had delighted heine was made from the used leaves of the english party, who found and made their own tea, and thus afforded the landlord an opportunity of obtaining at once praise and profit by this italian method of serving a pot of tea. --_chambers's journal_. [illustration of two women] _fate_ matrons who toss the cup, and see the grounds of fate in grounds of tea. --_churchill_. _tea making and taking in japan and china_ the queen of teas in japan is a fine straw-colored beverage, delicate and subtle in flavor, and as invigorating as a glass of champagne. it is real japan tea, and seldom leaves its native heath for the reason that, while it is peculiarly adaptable to the japanese constitution, it is too stimulating for the finely-tuned and over-sensitive americans, who, by the way, are said to be the largest customers for japan teas of other grades in the world. this particular tea, which looks as harmless as our own importations of the leaf, is a very insidious beverage, as an american lady soon found out after taking some of it late at night. she declared, after drinking a small cup before retiring, she did not close her eyes in sleep for a week. we do not know the name of the brand of tea, and are glad of it; for we live in a section where the women are especially curious. but the drink of the people at large in japan is green tea, although powdered tea is also used, but reserved for special functions and ceremonial occasions. tea, over there, is not made by infusing the leaves with boiling water, as is the case with us; but the boiling water is first carefully cooled in another vessel to 176 degrees fahrenheit. the leaves are also renewed for every infusion. it would be crime against his august majesty, the palate, to use the same leaves more than once--in japan. the preparation of good tea is regarded by the japs as the height of social art, and for that reason it is an important element in the domestic, diplomatic, political, and general life of the country. tea is the beverage--the masterpiece--of every meal, even if it be nothing but boiled rice. every artisan and laborer, going to work, carries with him his rice-box of lacquered wood, a kettle, a tea-caddy, a tea-pot, a cup, and his chop-sticks. milk and sugar are generally eschewed. the japs and the chinese never indulge in either of these ingredients in tea; the use of which, they claim, spoils the delicate aroma. from the highest court circles down to the lowliest and poorest of the emperor's subjects, it is the custom in both japan and china to offer tea to every visitor upon his arrival. not to do this would be an unpardonable breach of national manners. even in the shops, the customer is regaled with a soothing cup before the goods are displayed to him. this does not, however, impose any obligation on the prospective purchaser, but it is, nevertheless, a good stimulant to part with his money. this appears to be a very ancient tradition in china and japan--so ancient that it is continued by the powers that be in paradise and hades, according to a translation called "strange stories from my small library," a classical chinese work published in 1679. the old domestic etiquette of japan never intrusted to a servant the making of tea for a guest. it was made by the master of the house himself; the custom probably growing out of the innate politeness and courtesy of a people who believe that an honored visitor is entitled to the best entertainment possible to give him. as soon as a guest is seated upon his mat, a small tray is set before the master of the house. upon this tray is a tiny tea-pot with a handle at right angles to the spout. other parts of this outfit include a highly artistic tea-kettle filled with hot water, and a requisite number of small cups, set in metal or bamboo trays. these trays are used for handing the cups around, but the guest is not expected to take one. the cups being without handles, and not easy to hold, the visitor must therefore be careful lest he let one slip through his untutored fingers. the tea-pot is drenched with hot water before the tea is put in; then more hot water is poured over the leaves, and soon poured off into the cups. this is repeated several times, but the hot water is never allowed to stand on the grounds over a minute. the japanese all adhere to the general household custom of the country in keeping the necessary tea apparatus in readiness. in the living-room of every house is contained a brazier with live coals, a kettle to boil water, a tray with tea-pot, cups, and a tea-caddy. their neighbors, the chinese, are just as alert; for no matter what hour of the day it may be, they always keep a kettle of boiling water over the hot coals, ready to make and serve the beverage at a moment's notice. no visitor is allowed to leave without being offered a cup of their tea, and they themselves are glad to share in their own hospitality. the chinese use boiling water, and pour it upon the dry tea in each cup. among the better social element is used a cup shaped like a small bowl, with a saucer a little less in diameter than the top of the bowl. this saucer also serves another purpose, and is often used for a cover when the tea is making. after the boiling water is poured upon the tea, it is covered for a couple of minutes, until the leaves have separated and fallen to the bottom of the cup. this process renders the tea clear, delightfully fragrant, and appetizing. a variety of other cups are also used; the most prominent being without handles, one or two sizes larger than the japanese. they are made of the finest china, set in silver trays beautifully wrought, ornate in treatment and design. a complete tea outfit is a part of the outfitting of every _ju-bako_--"picnic-box"--with which every jap is provided when on a journey, making an excursion, or attending a picnic. the japanese are very much given to these out-of-door affairs, which they call _hanami_--"looking at the flowers." no wonder they are fond of these pleasures, for it is a land of lovely landscapes and heaven-sent airs, completely in harmony with the poetic and artistic natures of this splendid people. tea-houses--_châ ya_--which take the place of our cafes and bar rooms, but which, nevertheless, serve a far higher social purpose, are everywhere in evidence, on the high-roads and by-roads, tucked away in templed groves and public resorts of every nature. among the japanese are a number of ceremonial, social, and literary tea-parties which reflect their courtly and chivalrous spirit, and keep alive the traditions of the people more, perhaps, than any other of their functions. the most important of these tea-parties are exclusively for gentlemen, and their forms and ceremonies rank among the most refined usages of polite society. the customs of these gatherings are so peculiarly characteristic of the japanese that few foreign observers have an opportunity of attending them. these are the tea-parties of a semi-literary or aesthetic character, and the ceremonious _châ-no-ya_. in the first prevails the easy and unaffected tone of the well-bred gentleman. in the other are observed the strictest rules of etiquette both in speech and behavior. but the former entertainment is by far the most interesting. the japanese love and taste for fine scenery is shown in the settings and surroundings. to this picturesque outlook, recitals of romance and impromptu poetry add intellectual charm to the tea-party. for these occasions the host selects a tea-house located in well-laid-out grounds and commanding a fine view. in this he lays mats equal to the number of guests. by sliding the partition and removing the front wall the place is transformed into an open hall overlooking the landscape. the room is filled with choice flowers, and the art treasures of the host, which at other times are stored away in the fire-proof vault--"go down"--of his private residence, contribute artistic beauty and decoration to the scene. folding screens and hanging pictures painted by celebrated artists, costly lacquer-ware, bronze, china, and other heirlooms are tastefully distributed about the room. stories told at these tea-parties are called by the japanese names of _châ-banashi_, meaning tea-stories, or _hiti-kuchá_--"one mouth stories," short stories told at one sitting. at times professional story-tellers are employed. of these there are two kinds: story-tellers and "cross-road tradition narrators," both of whom since olden times have been the faithful custodians and disseminators of native folk-lore and tales. these professionals are divided into a number of classes, the most important being the _hanashi-ka_, members of a celebrated company under a well-known manager, who unites them into troops of never less than five or more than seven in number. such companies are often advertised weeks before their arrival in a place by hoisting flags or streamers with the names of the performers thereon. their programme consists of war-stories, traditions, and recitals with musical accompaniment. during the intermission, feats of legerdemain or wrestling fill in the time and give variety to the entertainment. these are the leading professional performers. the other classes, while not held in as high regard by the select, nevertheless have a definite place in japanese amusement circles. one of the latter is the _tsuji-kô-shâku-ji_. this word-swallower does not belong to any company, but is a "free-lance" entertainer. a sort of "has been," he does not, however, rest on his past laurels, but continues to perform whenever he can obtain an audience--on the highways, to passers-by, in public resorts and thoroughfares. although the chinese are not so neat in their public habits as the japs, still their tea-houses and similar resorts are just as numerous and popular as they are in the neighboring country. perhaps the most interesting caterers in china, however, are the coolies, who sell hot water in the rural districts. these itinerants have an ingenious way of announcing their coming by a whistling kettle. this vessel contains a compartment for fire with a funnel going through the top. a coin with a hole is placed so that when the water is boiling a regular steam-whistle is heard. plentiful as tea is in china, however, the poor people there do not consume as good a quality of the leaf as the same class in our own country. especially is this the case in the northern part of china, where most of the inhabitants just live, and that is all. there they are obliged to use the last pickings of tea, commonly known as "brick tea," which is very poor and coarse in quality. it is pressed into bricks about eight by twelve inches in size, and whenever a quantity of it is needed a piece is knocked off and pulverized in a kettle of boiling water. other ingredients, consisting of suit, milk, butter, a little pepper, and vinegar, are added, and this combination constitutes the entire meal of the family. tea in china and japan is the stand-by of every meal--the never-failing and ever-ready refreshment. besides being the courteous offering to the visitor, it serves a high purpose in the home life of these peoples; uniting the family and friends in their domestic life and pleasures at all times and seasons. at home round the brazier and the lamp in winter evenings, at picnic parties and excursions to the shady glen during the fine season, tea is the social connecting medium, the intellectual stimulant and the universal drink of these far-and-away peoples. [illustration of japanese garden] _tea-drinking in other lands_ while tea-drinking outside of japan and china is not attended with any "high-days and holidays," still there are countries where it is just as important element of the daily life of its people as it is in the land of the rising sun. among the burmese a newly-married couple, to insure a happy life, exchange a mixture of tea-leaves steeped in oil. in bokhara, every man carries a small bag of tea about with him. when he is thirsty he hands a certain quantity over to the booth-keeper, who makes the beverage for him. the bokhariot, who is a confirmed tea-slave, finds it just as hard to pass a tea-booth without indulging in the herb as our own inebriates do to go by a corner cafe. his breakfast beverage is _schitschaj_--tea in which bread is soaked and flavored with milk, cream, or mutton fat. during the daytime he drinks green tea with cakes of flour and mutton suet. it is considered a gross breach of manners to cool the hot tea by blowing the breath. this is overcome by supporting the right elbow in the left hand and giving an easy, graceful, circular movement to the cup. the time it takes for each kind of tea to draw is calculated to a second. when the can is emptied it is passed around among the company for each tea-drinker to take up as many leaves as can be held between the thumb and finger; the leaves being considered a special dainty. an english traveller once journeying through asiatic russia was obliged to claim the hospitality of a family of buratsky arabs. at mealtime the mistress of the tent placed a large kettle on the fire, wiped it carefully with a horse's tail, filled it with water, threw in some coarse tea and a little salt. when this was nearly boiled she stirred the mixture with a brass ladle until the liquor became very brown, when she poured it into another vessel. cleaning the kettle as before, the woman set it again on the fire to fry a paste of meal and fresh butter. upon this she poured the tea and some thick cream, stirred it, and after a time the whole. was taken off the fire and set aside to cool. half-pint mugs were handed around and the tea ladled into them: the result, a pasty tea forming meat and drink, satisfying both hunger and thirst. m. vámbéry says: "the picture of a newly encamped caravan in the summer months, on the steppes of central asia, is a truly interesting one. while the camels in the distance, but still in sight, graze greedily, or crush the juicy thistles, the travellers, even to the poorest among them, sit with their tea-cups in their hands and eagerly sip the costly beverage. it is nothing more than a greenish warm water, innocent of sugar, and often decidedly turbid; still, human art has discovered no food, invented no nectar, which is so grateful, so refreshing, in the desert as this unpretending drink. i have still a vivid recollection of its wonderful effects. as i sipped the first drops, a soft fire filled my veins, a fire which enlivened without intoxicating. the later draughts affected both heart and head; the eye became peculiarly bright and began to glow. in such moments i felt an indescribable rapture and sense of comfort. my companions sunk in sleep; i could keep myself awake and dream with open eyes!" tea is the national drink of russia, and as indispensable an ingredient of the table there as bread or meat. it is taken at all hours of the day and night, and in all the griefs of the russian he flies to tea and vodka for mental refuge and consolation. tea is drunk out of tumblers in russia. in the homes of the wealthy these tumblers are held in silver holders like the sockets that hold our soda-water glasses. these holders are decorated, of course, with the russian idea of art. in every russian town tea-houses flourish. in these public resorts a large glass of tea with plenty of sugar in it is served at what would cost, in our money, about two cents. tea with lemon is so general that milk with the drink, over there, is considered a fad. the russians seem to like beverages that bite--set the teeth on edge, as it were. the poor in russia take a lump of sugar in their mouths and let the tea trickle through it. travelling tea-peddlers, equipped with kettles wrapped up in towels to preserve the heat, and a row of glasses in leather pockets, furnish a glass of hot tea at any hour of the day or night. the russian samovar--from the greek "to boil itself"--is a graceful dome-topped brass urn with a cylinder two or three inches in diameter passing through it from top to bottom. the cylinder is filled with live coals, and keeps the water boiling hot. the russian tea-pots are porcelain or earthen. hot water to heat the pot is first put in and then poured out; dry tea is then put in, boiling water poured over it; after which the pot is placed on top of the samovar. we all know about tea-drinking in england. it is not a very picturesque or interesting occasion, at best. to the traditional englishman's mind it means simply a quiet evening at home, attended by the papers, and serious conversations in which the head of the house deals out political and domestic wisdom until ten o'clock. during the day, tea-taking begins with breakfast and rounds up on the fashionable thoroughfares in the afternoon. here one may see the britishers at their best and worst. these places are called "tea-shops," and in them one may acquire the latest hand-shake, the freshest tea and gossip, see the newest modes and millinery, meet and greet the whirl of the world. an interesting study of types, in contrasts and conditions of society, worth the price of a whole chest of choice tea. we are pretty prosaic tea-drinkers in america. is it because there is not enough "touch and go" about the drink, or that we are too busy to settle down to the quiet, comfort, and thoughtful tea-ways of our contemporaries? wait until a few things are settled; when our kitchen queens do not leave us in the "gray of the morning," and all of our daughters have obtained diplomas in the art and science of gastronomy. however made or taken, tea at best or worst is a glorious drink. as a stimulant for the tired traveller and weary worker it is unique in its restful, retiring, soothing, and caressing qualities. _the tea-table_ tho' all unknown to greek and roman song, the paler hyson and the dark souchong, tho' black nor green the warbled praises share of knightly troubadour or gay trouvère, yet deem not thou, an alien quite to numbers, that friend to prattle and that foe to slumbers, which kian-long, imperial poet, praised so high that, cent per cent, its price was raised; which pope himself would sometimes condescend to place commodious at a couplet's end; which the sweet bard of olney did not spurn, who loved the music of the "hissing urn." . . . for the dear comforts of domestic tea are sung too well to stand in need of me by cowper and the bard of rimini; besides, i hold it as a special grace when such a theme is old and commonplace. the cheering lustre of the new-stirr'd fire, the mother's summons to the dozing sire, the whispers audible that oft intrude on the forced silence of the younger brood, the seniors' converse, seldom over new, where quiet dwells and strange events are few, the blooming daughter's ever-ready smile, so full of meaning and so void of guile. and all the little mighty things that cheer the closing day from quiet year to year, i leave to those whom benignant fate or merit destines to the wedded state. . . . 'tis woman still that makes or mars the man. and so it is, the creature can beguile the fairest faces of the readiest smile. the third who comes the hyson to inhale, if not a man, at least appears a male. . . . last of the rout, and dogg'd with public cares, the politician stumbles up the stairs; whose dusky soul nor beauty can illume, nor wine dispel his patriotic gloom. in restless ire from guest to guest he goes, and names us all among our country's foes; swears 'tis a shame that we should drink our tea, 'till wrongs are righted and the nation free, that priests and poets are a venal race, who preach for patronage and rhyme for place; declares that boys and girls should not be cooing. when england's hope is bankruptcy and ruin; that wiser 'twere the coming wrath to fly, and that old women should make haste to die. condensed from a poem published in _fraser's magazine_, january, 1857, and ascribed to hartley coleridge. _ladies, literature, and tea_ in spite of the fact that coffee is just as important a beverage as tea, tea has been sipped more in literature. tea is certainly as much of a social drink as coffee, and more of a domestic, for the reason that the teacup hours are the family hours. as these are the hours when the sexes are thrown together, and as most of the poetry and philosophy of tea-drinking teem with female virtues, vanities, and whimsicalities, the inference is that, without women, tea would be nothing, and without tea, women would be stale, flat, and uninteresting. with them it is a polite, purring, soft, gentle, kind, sympathetic, delicious beverage. in support of this theory, notice what pope, gay, crabbe, cowper, dryden, and others have written on the subject. "the tea-cup times of hood and hoop, and when the patch was worn" --wrote tennyson of the early half of the seventeenth century. what a suggestive couplet, full of the foibles and follies of the times! a picture a la mode of the period when fair dames made their red cheeks cute with eccentric patches. ornamented with high coiffures, powdered hair, robed in satin petticoats and square-cut bodices, they blossomed, according to the old engravings, into most fetching figures. even the beaux of the day affected feminine frills in their many-colored, bell-skirted waistcoats, lace ruffles, patches, and powdered queues. dryden must have succumbed to the charms of women through tea, when he wrote: "and thou, great anna, whom three realms obey, dost sometimes take counsel, and sometimes tay." from the great vogue which tea started grew a taste for china; the more peculiar and striking the design, the more valuable the tea-set. pope in one of his satirical compositions praises the composure of a woman who is "mistress of herself though china fall." even that fine old bachelor, philosopher, and humorist, charles lamb, thought that the subject deserved an essay. in speaking of the ornaments on the tea-cup he says, in "old china": "i like to see my old friends, whom distance cannot diminish, figuring up in the air (so they appear to our optics), yet on terra firma still, for so we must in courtesy interpret that speck of deeper blue which the decorous artist, to prevent absurdity, has made to spring up beneath their sandals. i love the men with women's faces and the women, if possible, with still more womanish expressions. "here is a young and courtly mandarin, handing tea to a lady from a salver--two miles off. see how distance seems to set off respect! and here the same lady, or another--for likeness is identity on tea-cups--is stepping into a little fairy boat, moored on the hither side of this calm garden river, with a dainty, mincing foot, which is in a right angle of incidence (as angles go in our world) that must infallibly land her in the midst of a flowery mead--a furlong off on the other side of the same strange stream!" the _spectator_ and the _tatter_ were also susceptible to the female influence that tea inspired. in both of these journals there are frequent allusions to tea-parties and china. at these gatherings, poets and dilletante literary gentlemen read their verses and essays to the ladies, who criticised their merits. these "literary teas" became so contagious that a burning desire for authorship took possession of the ladies, for among those who made their debut as authors about this time were fanny burney, mrs. alphra behn, mrs. manley, the countess of winchelsea, and a host of others. one of the readers of the _spectator_ wrote as follows: "_mr. spectator:_ your paper is a part of my tea-equipage, and my servant knows my humor so well that, calling for my breakfast this morning (it being past my usual hour), she answered, the _spectator_ was not come in, but that the tea-kettle boiled, and she expected it every minute." crabbe, too, was a devotee of ladies, literature, and tea, for he wrote: "the gentle fair on nervous tea relies, whilst gay good-nature sparkles in her eyes; and inoffensive scandal fluttering round, too rough to tickle and too light to wound." what better proof do we want, therefore, that to women's influence is due the cultivation and retention of the tea habit? without tea, what would become of women, and without women and tea, what would become of our domestic literary men and matinee idols? they would not sit at home or in salons and write and act things. there would be no homes to sit in, no salons or theatres to act in, and dramatic art would receive a blow from which it could not recover in a century, at least. [illustration of woman and cat] in the year 1700, j. roberts, a london publisher, issued a pamphlet of about fifty pages which was made up as follows: poem upon tea in two cantos . . . 34 pages dedication of the poem . . . . . . 6 " preface to the poem . . . . . . . 2 " poem upon the poem . . . . . .. . 1 " introduction to the poem . . . . . 4 " to the author upon the poem . . 1 " postscript . . . . . . . . . .. . 3 " tea-table . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 " the poem--_pièce de résistance_--which is by one nahum tate, who figures on the title-page as "servant to his majesty," is an allegory; and although good in spots is too long and too dry to reproduce here. "the poem upon the poem," "the introduction," and the "tea-table" verses will be found interesting and entertaining. _on our english poetry and this poem upon tea_ see spanish curderon in strength outdone: and see the prize of wit from tasso won: see corneil's skill and decency refin'd; see rapin's art, and molier's fire outshin'd; see dryden's lamp to our admiring view, brought from the tomb to shine and blaze anew! the british laurel by old chaucer worn, still fresh and gay, did dryden's brow adorn; and that its lustre may not fade on thine, wit, fancy, judgment, taste, in thee combine. thy pow'rful genius thus, from censure's frown and envy's blast, in flourishing renown, supports our british muses verdant crown. nor only takes a trusty laureat's care, lest thou the muses garland might'st impair; but, more enrich'd, the chaplet to bequeath, with eastern tea join'd to the laurel-wreath. --r. b. _to the author on his poem upon tea_ let rustick satyr, now no more abuse, in rude unskilful strains, thy tuneful muse; no more let envy lash thy true-bred steed, nor cross thy easy, just, and prudent speed: who dext'rously doth bear or loose the rein, to climb each lofty hill, or scour the plain: with proper weight and force thy courses run; where still thy pegasus has wonders done, come home with strength, and thus the prize has won. but now takes wing, and to the skies aspires; while vanquish'd envy the bold flight admires, and baffled satyr to his den retires. --t. w. _the introduction_ fame sound thy trump, all ranks of mortals call, to share a prize that will enrich 'em all. you that with sacred oracles converse, and clearly wou'd mysterious truths rehearse; on soaring wings of contemplation rise, and fetch discov'ries from above the skies; ethereal tea your notions will resine, till you yourselves become almost divine. you statesmen, who in storms the publick helm wou'd guide with skill, and save a sinking realm, tea, your minerva, shall suggest such sense, such safe and sudden turns of thought dispense, that you, like her ulysses, may advise, and start designs that shall the world surprise. you pleaders, who for conquest at the bar contend as fierce and loud as chiefs in war; would you amaze and charm the list'ning court? first to this spring of eloquence resort: then boldly launch on tully's flowing seas, and grasp the thunder of demosthenes. you artists of the aesculapian tribe, wou'd you, like aesculapius's self, prescribe, cure maladies, and maladies prevent? receive this plant, from your own phoebus sent; whence life's nice lamp in temper is maintain'd, when dim, recruited, when too fierce, restrained. you curious souls, who all our thoughts apply, the hidden works of nature to descry; why veering winds with vari'd motion blow, why seas in settled courses ebb and flow; wou'd you these secrets of her empire know? treat the coy nymph with this celestial dew, like ariadne she'll impart the clue; shall through her winding labyrinths convey, and causes, iculking in their cells, display. you that to isis's bark or cam retreat, wou'd you prove worthy sons of either seat, and all in learning's commonwealth be great? infuse this leaf, and your own streams shall bring more science than the fam'd castalian spring. wou'd you, o musick's sons, your art compleat, and all its ancient miracles repeat, rouse rev'ling monarchs into martial rage, and, when inflam'd, with softer notes as swage; the tedious hours of absent love beguile, charm care asleep, and make affliction smile? carouse in tea, that will your souls inspire; drink phoebus's liquor and command his lyre. sons of appelles, wou'd you draw the face and shape of venus, and with equal grace in some elysian field the figure place? your fancy, warm'd by tea, with wish'd success, shall beauty's queen in all her charms express; with nature's rural pride your landscape fill the shady grotto, and the sunny hill, the laughing meadow, and the talking rill. sons of the muses, would you charm the plains with chearful lays, or sweet condoling strains; or with a sonnet make the vallies ring, to welcome home the goddess of the spring? or wou'd you in sublimer themes engage, and sing of worthies who adorn the age? or, with promethean boldness, wou'd aspire to catch a spark of the celestial fire that crowned the royal conquest, and could raise juverne's boyn above scamander's praise? drink, drink inspiring tea, and boldly draw a hercules, a mars, or a nassau. _the tea-table_ hail, queen of plants, pride of elysian bow'rs! how shall we speak thy complicated pow'rs? thou won'drous panacea to asswage the calentures of youths' fermenting rage, and animate the freezing veins of age. to bacchus when our griefs repair for ease, the remedy proves worse than the disease. where reason we must lose to keep the round, and drinking others health's, our own confound: whilst tea, our sorrows to beguile, sobriety and mirth does reconcile: for to this nectar we the blessing owe, to grow more wise, as we more cheerful grow. whilst fancy does her brightest beams dispense, and decent wit diverts without offense. then in discourse of nature's mystick pow'rs and noblest themes, we pass the well spent hours. whilst all around the virtues' sacred band, and list'ning graces, pleas'd attendants, stand. thus our tea-conversation we employ, where with delight, instruction we enjoy; quaffing, without the waste of time or wealth, the sov'reign drink of pleasure and of health. _dr. johnson's affinity_ dr. samuel johnson drew his own portrait thus: "a hardened and shameless tea-drinker, who for twenty years diluted his meals with the infusion of this fascinating plant; whose kettle had scarcely time to cool; who with tea amused the evening, with tea solaced the midnight, and with tea welcomed the morning." _earliest mention of tea_ according to a magazinist, the first mention of tea by an englishman is to be found in a letter from mr. wickham, an agent of the east india company, written from japan, on the 27th of june, 1615, to mr. eaton, another officer of the company, a resident of macao, asking him to send "a pot of the best chaw." in mr. eaton's accounts of expenditure occurs this item: "three silver porringiys to drink chaw in." _australian tea_ in the interior of australia all the men drink tea. they drink it all day long, and in quantities and at a strength that would seem to be poisonous. on sunday morning the tea-maker starts with a clean pot and a clean record. the pot is hung over the fire with a sufficiency of water in it for the day's brew, and when this has boiled he pours into it enough of the fragrant herb to produce a deep, coffee-colored liquid. on monday, without removing yesterday's tea-leaves, he repeats the process; on tuesday da capo and on wednesday da capo, and so on through the week. toward the close of it the great pot is filled with an acrid mash of tea-leaves, out of which the liquor is squeezed by the pressure of a tin cup. by this time the tea is of the color of rusty iron, incredibly bitter and disagreeable to the uneducated palate. the native calls it "real good old post and rails," the simile being obviously drawn from a stiff and dangerous jump, and regards it as having been brought to perfection. _five-o'clock tea_ there is a fallacy among certain tea-fanciers that the origin of five-o'clock tea was due to hygienic demand. these students of the stomach contend that as a tonic and gentle stimulant, when not taken with meat, it is not to be equalled. with meat or any but light food it is considered harmful. taken between luncheon and dinner it drives away fatigue and acts as a tonic. this is good if true, but it is only a theory, after all. our theory is that five o'clock in the afternoon is the ladies' leisure hour, and that the taking of tea at that time is an escape from _ennui_. _tea in ladies' novels_ what would women novelists do without tea in their books? the novelists of the rougher sex write of "over the coffee and cigars"; or, "around the gay and festive board"; or, "over a bottle of old port"; or, "another bottle of dry and sparkling champagne was cracked"; or, "and the succulent welsh rarebits were washed down with royal mugs of musty ale"; or, "as the storm grew fiercer, the captain ordered all hands to splice the main brace," _i. e._, to take a drink of rum; or, "as he gulped down the last drink of fiery whiskey, he reeled through the tavern door, and his swaying form drifted into the bleak, black night, as a roar of laughter drowned his repentant sobs." but the ladies of the novel confine themselves almost exclusively to tea--rarely allowing their heroes and heroines to indulge in even coffee, though they sometimes treat their heroes to wine; but their heroines rarely get anything from them but oolong. [illustration of old russian samovar] _sydney smith_ one evening when sidney smith was drinking tea with mrs. austin the servant entered the crowded room with a boiling tea-kettle in his hand. it seemed doubtful, nay, impossible, he should make his way among the numerous gossips--but on the first approach of the steaming kettle the crowd receded on all sides, mr. smith among the rest, though carefully watching the progress of the lad to the table. "i declare," said he, addressing mrs. austin, "a man who wishes to make his way in life could do no better than go through the world with a boiling tea-kettle in his hand."--_life of rev. sydney smith_. _dr. johnson again_ the good doctor evidently lived up to his reputation as a tea-drinker at all times and places. cumberland, the dramatist, in his memoirs gives a story illustrative of the doctor's tea-drinking powers: "i remember when sir joshua reynolds, at my home, reminded dr. johnson that he had drunk eleven cups of tea. 'sir,' he replied, 'i did not count your glasses of wine; why should you number my cups of tea?'" at another time a certain lady macleod, after pouring out sixteen cups for him, ventured mildly to ask whether a basin would not save him trouble and be more convenient. "i wonder, madam," he replied, roughly, "why all ladies ask such questions?" "it is to save yourself trouble, not me," was the tactful answer of his hostess. _a cup of tea_ _from st. nicholas, december, 1899_. now grietje from her window sees the leafless poplars lean against a windy sunset sky with streaks of golden green; the still canal is touched with light from that wild, wintry sky, and, dark and gaunt, the windmill flings its bony arms on high. "it's growing late; it's growing cold; i'm all alone," says she; "i'll put the little kettle on, to make a cup of tea!" mild radiance from the porcelain stove reflects on shining tiles; the kettle beams, so red and bright that grietje thinks it smiles; the kettle sings--so soft and low it seems as in a dream- the song that's like a lullaby, the pleasant song of steam: "the summer's gone; the storks are flown; i'm always here, you see, to sing and sing, and shine, and shine, and make a cup of tea!" the blue delft plates and dishes gleam, all ranged upon the shelf; the tall dutch clock tick-ticks away, just talking to itself; the brindled pussy cuddles down, and basks and blinks and purrs; and rosy, sleepy grietje droops that snow-white cap of hers. "i do like winter after all; i'm very glad," says she, "i put--my--little--kettle--on--to make--a cup--of--tea!" --helen gray cone. [illustration of landscape] note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see 46775-h.htm or 46775-h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/46775/46775-h/46775-h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/46775/46775-h.zip) transcriber's note: text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). a carat character is used to denote superscription. a single character following the carat is superscripted (example: m^r). multiple superscripted characters are enclosed by curly brackets (example: m^{rs}). an additional transcriber's note is at the end of the book. contributions from the museum of history and technology paper 14 tea drinking in 18th-century america: its etiquette and equipage by rodris roth [illustration: _an english family at tea._ detail from an oil painting attributed to joseph van aken, about 1720. in collection of victoria and albert museum. crown copyright. (color plate courtesy of the _saturday book_.)] -----------------------------------------------------------------------_tea drinking in 18th-century america: its etiquette and equipage--_ _by rodris roth_ _in 18th-century america, the pleasant practice of taking tea at home was an established social custom with a recognized code of manners and distinctive furnishings. pride was taken in a correct and fashionable tea table whose equipage included much more than teapot, cups, and saucers._ _it was usually the duty of the mistress to make and pour the tea; and it was the duty of the guests to be adept at handling a teacup and saucer and to provide social "chitchat." because of the expense and time involved, the tea party was limited to the upper classes; consequently, such an affair was a status symbol. the cocktail party of the 20th century has, perhaps, replaced the tea party of the 18th century as a social custom, reflecting the contrast between the relaxed atmosphere of yesterday with the hurried pace of today._ the author: _miss roth is assistant curator of cultural history in the united states national museum, smithsonian institution._ --------------------the americans "use much tea," noted the abbé robin during his visit to this country in 1781. "the greatest mark of civility and welcome they can show you, is to invite you to drink it with them."[1] tea was the social beverage of the 18th century; serving it was a sign of politeness and hospitality, and drinking it was a custom with distinctive manners and specific equipment. most discussions of the commodity have dealt only with its political, historical, or economic importance; however, in order to understand the place tea holds in this country's past, it also is important to consider the beverage in terms of the social life and traditions of the americans. as the abbé robin pointed out, not only was tea an important commodity on this side of the atlantic, but the imbibing of it was an established social practice. an examination of teatime behavior and a consideration of what utensils were used or thought appropriate for tea drinking are of help in reconstructing and interpreting american history as well as in furnishing and re-creating interiors of the period, thus bringing into clearer focus the picture of daily life in 18th-century america. for these reasons, and because the subject has received little attention, the present study has been undertaken. tea had long been known and used in the orient before it was introduced into europe in the early part of the 17th century. at about the same time two other new beverages appeared, chocolate from the americas and coffee from the near east. the presence of these commodities in european markets is indicative of the vigorous exploration and active trade of that century, which also witnessed the successful settlement of colonies in north america. by about mid-17th century the new beverages were being drunk in england, and by the 1690's were being sold in new england. at first chocolate was preferred, but coffee, being somewhat cheaper, soon replaced it and in england gave rise to a number of public places of refreshment known as coffee houses. coffee was, of course, the primary drink of these establishments, but that tea also was available is indicated by an advertisement that appeared in an english newspaper in 1658. one of the earliest advertisements for tea, it announced: that excellent, and by all physitians approved, _china_ drink, called by the _chineans_, _tcha_, by other nations _tay alias tee_, is sold at the _sultaness-head_, a _cophee-house_ in _sweetings_ rents by the royal exchange, london.[2] for a time tea was esteemed mainly for its curative powers, which explains why it was "by all physitians approved." according to an english broadside published in 1660, the numerous contemporary ailments which tea "helpeth" included "the headaches, giddiness, and heaviness." it was also considered "good for colds, dropsies and scurvies and [it] expelleth infection. it prevents and cures agues, surfeits and fevers."[3] by the end of the 17th century, however, tea's medicinal qualities had become secondary to its fashionableness as a unique drink. tea along with the other exotic and novel imports from the orient such as fragile porcelains, lustrous silks, and painted wallpapers had captured the european imagination. though the beverage was served in public pleasure gardens as well as coffee houses during the early 1700's in england, social tea drinking in the home was gradually coming into favor. the coffee houses continued as centers of political, social, and literary influence as well as of commercial life into the first half of the 19th century, for apparently englishmen preferred to drink their coffee in public rather than private houses and among male rather than mixed company. this was in contrast to tea, which was drunk in the home with breakfast or as a morning beverage and socially at afternoon gatherings of both sexes, as we see in the painting _an english family at tea_ (frontispiece). as tea drinking in the home became fashionable, both host and hostess took pride in a well-appointed tea table, for a teapot of silver or fragile blue-and-white oriental porcelain with matching cups and saucers and other equipage added prestige as well as elegance to the teatime ritual. [illustration: figure 1.--_family group_, by gawen hamilton, about 1730. in collection of colonial williamsburg, inc. the tea set, undoubtedly of porcelain, includes cups and saucers, a cream or milk container, and a sugar container with tongs. (_photo courtesy of colonial williamsburg, inc._)] at first the scarcity and expense of the tea, the costly paraphernalia used to serve it, and the leisure considered necessary to consume it, limited the use of this commodity to the upper classes. for these reasons, social tea drinking was, understandably, a prestige custom. one becomes increasingly aware of this when looking at english paintings and prints of the early 18th century, such as _family group_ (fig. 1), painted by gawen hamilton about 1730. family members are portrayed in the familiar setting of their own parlor with its paneled walls and comfortable furnishings. their pet, a small dog, surveys the scene from a resting place on a corner of the carpet. teatime appears to have just begun, for cups are still being passed around and others on the table await filling from the nearby porcelain teapot. it seems reasonable to assume, since the painting is portraiture, that the family is engaged in an activity which, although familiar, is considered suitable to the group's social position and worthy of being recorded in oil. that tea drinking was a status symbol also is indicated by the fact that the artist has used the tea ceremony as the theme of the picture and the tea table as the focal point. eighteenth-century pictures and writings are basic source materials for information about anglo-american tea drinking. (see the chronological list of pictures consulted, on page 90.) a number of the pictures are small-scale group or conversation piece paintings of english origin in which family and friends are assembled at tea, similar to _family group_, and they provide pictorial information on teatime modes and manners. the surroundings in which the partakers of tea are depicted also reveal information about the period and about the gracious living enjoyed in the better homes. paneled walls and comfortable chairs, handsome chests and decorative curtains, objects of ceramic and silver and glass, all were set down on canvas or paper with painstaking care, and sometimes with a certain amount of artistic license. a careful study of these paintings provides an excellent guide for furnishing and reconstructing period rooms and exhibits, even to the small details such as objects on mantels, tables, and chests, thus further documenting data from newspapers, journals, publications, and writings of the same period. in america, as in england, tea had a rather limited use as a social beverage during the early 1700's. judge samuel sewall, the recorder-extraordinary of boston life at the turn of the 17th century, seems to have mentioned tea only once in his copious diary. in the entry for april 15, 1709, sewall wrote that he had attended a meeting at the residence of madam winthrop where the guests "drunk ale, tea, wine."[4] at this time ale and wine, in contrast to tea, were fairly common drinks. since tea and the equipment used to serve it were costly, social tea drinking was restricted to the prosperous and governing classes who could afford the luxury. the portrayal of the rotund silver teapot and other tea-drinking equipment in such an american painting as _susanna truax_ (fig. 2), done by an unknown painter in 1730, indicates that in this country as in england not only was the tea ceremony of social importance but also that a certain amount of prestige was associated with the equipage. and, the very fact that an artist was commissioned for a portrait of this young girl is suggestive of a more than ordinary social status of the sitter and activity depicted. [illustration: figure 2. _susanna truax_, an american painting dated 1730. in collection of edgar william and bernice chrysler garbisch, national gallery of art. on the beige, marble-like table top beside susanna--who wears a dress of red, black, and white stripes--are a fashionable silver teapot and white ceramic cup, saucer, and sugar dish. (_photo courtesy national gallery of art._)] english customs were generally imitated in this country, particularly in the urban centers. of boston, where he visited in 1740, joseph bennett observed that "the ladies here visit, drink tea and indulge every little piece of gentility to the height of the mode and neglect the affairs of their families with as good grace as the finest ladies in london."[5] english modes and manners remained a part of the social behavior after the colonies became an independent nation. visitors to the newly formed united states were apt to remark about such habits as tea drinking, as did brissot de warville in 1788, that "in this, as in their whole manner of living, the americans in general resemble the english."[6] therefore, it is not surprising to find that during the 18th century the serving of tea privately in the morning and socially in the afternoon or early evening was an established custom in many households. the naturalist peter kalm, during his visit to north america in the mid-18th century, noted that tea was a breakfast beverage in both pennsylvania and new york. from the predominantly dutch town of albany in 1749 he wrote that "their breakfast is tea, commonly without milk." at another time, kalm[7] stated: with the tea was eaten bread and butter or buttered bread toasted over the coals so that the butter penetrated the whole slice of bread. in the afternoon about three o'clock tea was drunk again in the same fashion, except that bread and butter was not served with it. this tea-drinking schedule was followed throughout the colonies. in boston the people "take a great deal of tea in the morning," have dinner at two o'clock, and "about five o'clock they take more tea, some wine, madeira [and] punch,"[8] reported the baron cromot du bourg during his visit in 1781. the marquis de chastellux confirms his countryman's statement about teatime, mentioning that the americans take "tea and punch in the afternoon."[9] during the first half of the 18th century the limited amount of tea available at prohibitively high prices restricted its use to a proportionately small segment of the total population of the colonies. about mid-century, however, tea was beginning to be drunk by more and more people, as supplies increased and costs decreased, due in part to the propaganda and merchandising efforts of the east india company. according to peter kalm, tea, chocolate, and coffee had been "wholly unknown" to the swedish population of pennsylvania and the surrounding area before the english arrived, but in 1748 these beverages "at present constitute even the country people's daily breakfast."[10] a similar observation was made a few years later by israel acrelius:[11] tea, coffee, and chocolate are so general as to be found in the most remote cabins, if not for daily use, yet for visitors, mixed with muscovado, or raw sugar. america was becoming a country of tea drinkers. then, in 1767, the townshend act imposed a duty on tea, among other imported commodities. merchants and citizens in opposition to the act urged a boycott of the taxed articles. a virginia woman, in a letter[12] to friends in england, wrote in 1769: ... i have given up the article of tea, but some are not quite so tractable; however if wee can convince the good folks on your side the water of their error, wee may hope to see happier times. in spite of the tax many colonists continued to indulge in tea drinking. by 1773 the general public, according to one philadelphia merchant, "can afford to come at this piece of luxury" while one-third of the population "at a moderate computation, drink tea twice a day."[13] it was at this time, however, that efforts were made to enforce the english tea tax and the result was that most famous of tea parties, the "boston tea party." thereafter, an increasing number of colonists abstained from tea drinking as a patriotic gesture. philip fithian, a tutor at nomini hall, the virginia plantation of col. robert carter, wrote in his journal on sunday, may 29, 1774: after dinner we had a grand & agreeable walk in & through the gardens--there is great plenty of strawberries, some cherries, goose berries &c.--drank coffee at four, they are now too patriotic to use tea. and indeed they were patriotic, for by september the taste of tea almost had been forgotten at nomini hall, as fithian vividly recounted in his journal:[14] something in our palace this evening, very merry happened--mrs. _carter_ made a dish of tea. at coffee, she sent me a dish--& the colonel both ignorant--he smelt, sipt--look'd--at last with great gravity he asks what's this?--do you ask sir--poh!--and out he throws it splash a sacrifice to vulcan. [illustration: figure 3.--_a society of patriotic ladies_ at edenton in north carolina pledging to drink no more tea, 1775, an engraving published by r. sayer and j. bennet, london. in print and photograph division, library of congress. (_photo courtesy of library of congress._)] other colonists, in their own way, also showed their distaste for tea (see fig. 3). shortly before the outbreak of the american revolution there appeared in several newspapers an expression of renouncement in rhyme, "a lady's adieu to her tea-table"[15] (below), which provides a picture of contemporary teatime etiquette and equipage. _a lady's adieu to her tea-table_ _farewell the tea-board with your gaudy attire, ye cups and ye saucers that i did admire; to my cream pot and tongs i now bid adieu; that pleasure's all fled that i once found in you. farewell pretty chest that so lately did shine, with hyson and congo and best double fine; many a sweet moment by you i have sat, hearing girls and old maids to tattle and chat; and the spruce coxcomb laugh at nothing at all, only some silly work that might happen to fall. no more shall my teapot so generous be in filling the cups with this pernicious tea, for i'll fill it with water and drink out the same, before i'll lose liberty that dearest name, because i am taught (and believe it is fact) that our ruin is aimed at in the late act, of imposing a duty on all foreign teas, which detestable stuff we can quit when we please. liberty's the goddess that i do adore, and i'll maintain her right until my last hour, before she shall part i will die in the cause, for i'll never be govern'd by tyranny's laws._ many people gave up tea for the duration of the war and offered various substitute beverages such as coffee and dried raspberry leaves, "a detestable drink" which the americans "had the heroism to find good," remarked a postwar visitor, léon chotteau.[16] although the colonists had banished tea "with enthusiasm," the tea habit was not forgotten. chotteau further noted that "they all drink tea in america as they drink wine in the south of france." tea drinking continued to be an important social custom in the new nation well into the 19th century. the tea ceremony, sometimes simple, sometimes elaborate, was the very core of family life. moreau de st. méry observed in 1795, during his residence in philadelphia, that "the whole family is united at tea, to which friends, acquaintances and even strangers are invited."[17] that teatime hospitality was offered to the newest of acquaintances or "even strangers" is verified by claude blanchard. he wrote of his visit to newport, rhode island, on july 12, 1780, that "in the evening there was an illumination. i entered the house of an inhabitant, who received me very well; i took tea there, which was served by a young lady." and while staying in boston, blanchard mentioned that a new acquaintance "invited us to come in the evening to take tea at his house. we went there; the tea was served by his daughter."[18] in the daily routine of activities when the hour for tea arrived, moreau de st. méry remarked that "the mistress of the house serves it and passes it around."[19] in the words of another late-18th-century diarist, the marquis de barbé-marbois, those present might "seat themselves at a spotless mahogany table, and the eldest daughter of the household or one of the youngest married women makes the tea and gives a cup to each person in the company." _family group_ (fig. 1) provides an illustration of this practice in the early part of the century. during the tea hour social and economic affairs were discussed, gossip exchanged, and, according to barbé-marbois, "when there is no news at all, they repeat old stories."[20] many entries in nancy shippen's journal[21] between 1783 and 1786 indicate that this philadelphian passed many such hours in a similar manner. on march 11, 1785, she wrote: "about 4 in the afternoon d^r cutting came in, & we spent the afternoon in the most agreable chit-chat manner, drank a very good dish of tea together & then separated." part of an undated entry in december 1783 reads: "this afternoon we were honor'd with the company of gen^l washington to tea, m^{rs} & major moore, m^{rs} stewart m^r powel m^r b washington, & two or 3 more." if acquaintances of nancy's own age were present or the company large, the tea hour often extended well into the evening with singing, conversing, dancing, and playing of whist, chess, or cards. of one such occasion she wrote:[21] m^{rs} allen & the miss chews drank tea with me & spent the even'g. there was half a dozen agreable & sensible men that was of the party. the conversation was carried on in the most sprightly, agreable manner, the ladies bearing by far the greatest part--till nine when cards was proposed, & about ten, refreshments were introduced which concluded the evening. obviously, young men and women enjoyed the sociability of teatime, for it provided an ideal occasion to get acquainted. when the marquis de chastellux was in philadelphia during the 1780's he went one afternoon to "take tea with madam shippen," and found musical entertainment to meet with his approval and a relationship between the sexes which had parental sanction. one young miss played on the clavichord, and "miss shippen sang with timidity but a very pretty voice," accompanied for a time by monsieur otto on the harp. dancing followed, noted the marquis, "while mothers and other grave personages conversed in another room."[22] in new york as in philadelphia teatime was an important part of the younger set's social schedule. eliza bowne, writing to her sister in january 1810, reported that "as to news--new york is not so gay as last winter, few balls but a great many tea-parties."[23] the feminine interest and participation in such gatherings of personable young men and attractive young women was expressed by nancy shippen[24] when she wrote in her journal after such a party: "saturday night at 11 o'clock. i had a very large company at tea this evening. the company is but just broke up, i dont know when i spent a more merry even^g. we had music, cards, &c &c." a masculine view of american tea parties was openly voiced by one foreign visitor, prince de broglie, who, upon arrival in america in 1782, "only knew a few words of english, but knew better how to drink excellent tea with even better cream, how to tell a lady she was pretty, and a gentleman he was sensible, by reason whereof i possessed all the elements of social success."[25] similar feelings were expressed by the comte de ségur during his sojourn in america in the late 18th century when, in a letter to his wife in france, he wrote: "my health continues excellent, despite the quantity of tea one must drink with the ladies out of gallantry, and of madeira all day long with the men out of politeness."[26] festive tea parties such as the ones described above are the subject of some of the group portraits or conversation pieces painted about 1730 by the english artist william hogarth. _the assembly at wanstead house_, now in the philadelphia museum of art, illustrates quite an elegant affair taking place in a large, richly decorated, english interior. the artist has filled the canvas with people standing and conversing while a seated group plays cards at a table in the center of the room. to one side near the fireplace a man and two women drinking tea are seated at an ornately carved, square tea table with a matching stand for the hot water kettle. on a dish or circular stand in the center of the table is a squat teapot with matching cups and saucers arranged in parallel rows on either side. tea-drinking guests seem to have been free to sit or stand according to their own pleasure or the number of chairs available, and barbé-marbois noted that at american tea parties "people change seats, some go, others come." the written and visual materials offer little in the way of evidence to suggest that in general men stood and women sat during teatime. in fact, places at the tea table were taken by both sexes, even at formal tea parties such as the one depicted in _the assembly at wanstead house_. a less formal but more usual tea scene is the subject of another hogarth painting, _the wollaston family_, now in the leicester art gallery, england. the afternoon gathering has divided into two groups, one playing cards, the other drinking tea. an atmosphere of ease and comfort surrounds the party. the men and women seated at the card table are discussing the hand just played, while the women seated about the square tea table in front of the fireplace are engaged in conversation. a man listens as he stands and stirs his tea. each drinker holds a saucer with a cup filled from the teapot on a square tile or stand in the center of the table. one woman is returning her cup, turned upside down on the saucer, to the table. more about this particular habit later. the same pleasant social atmosphere seen in english paintings seems to have surrounded teatime in america, as the previously cited entries in nancy shippen's journal book suggest. her entry for january 18, 1784,[27] supplies a description that almost matches _the wollaston family_: "a stormy day, alone till the afternoon; & then was honor'd with the company of m^r jones (a gentleman lately from europe) m^r du ponceau, & m^r hollingsworth at tea--we convers'd on a variety of subjects & play^d at whist, upon the whole spent an agreable even^g." tea was not only a beverage of courtship; it also was associated with marriage. both peter kalm, in 1750, and moreau de st. méry, in the 1790's, report the philadelphia custom of expressing good wishes to a newly married couple by paying them a personal visit soon after the marriage. it was the duty of the bride to serve wine and punch to the callers before noon and tea and wine in the afternoon.[28] no doubt, make-believe teatime and pretend tea drinking were a part of some children's playtime activities. perhaps many a little girl played at serving tea and dreamed of having a tea party of her own, but few were as fortunate as young peggy livingston who, at about the age of five, was allowed to invite "by card ... 20 young misses" to her own "tea party & ball." she "treated them with all good things, & a violin," wrote her grandfather. there were "5 coaches at y^e door at 10 when they departed. i was much amused 2 hours."[29] [illustration: figure 4.--_conversazioni_, by w. h. bunbury, published 1782. in print and photograph division, library of congress.] tea seems to have been the excuse for many a social gathering, large or small, formal or informal. and sometimes an invitation to drink tea meant a rather elegant party. "that is to say," wrote one cosmopolitan observer of the american scene in the 1780's, the marquis de chastellux, "to attend a sort of assembly pretty much like the _conversazioni_ [social gathering] of italy; for tea here, is the substitute for the _rinfresco_ [refreshment]."[30] a view of such an event has been depicted in the english print _conversazioni_ (fig. 4), published in 1782. it is hoped that the stiffly seated and solemn-faced guests became more talkative when the tea arrived. however, this tea party may have been like the ones ferdinand bayard attended in bath, virginia, of which he wrote: "the only thing you hear, while they are taking tea, is the whistling sound made by the lips on edges of the cups. this music is varied by the request made to you to have another cup."[31] at tea parties, cakes, cold pastries, sweetmeats, preserved fruits, and plates of cracked nuts might also be served, according to mrs. anne grant's reminiscences of pre-revolutionary america.[32] peter kalm noted during his new york sojourn in 1749 that "when you paid a visit to any home" a bowl of cracked nuts and one of apples were "set before you, which you ate after drinking tea and even at times while partaking of tea."[33] sometimes wine and punch were served at teatime, and "in summer," observed barbé-marbois, "they add fruit and other things to drink."[34] coffee too might be served. as the frenchman claude blanchard explained:[35] they [the americans] do not take coffee immediately after dinner, but it is served three or four hours afterwards with tea; this coffee is weak and four or five cups are not equal to one of ours; so that they take many of them. the tea, on the contrary, is very strong. this use of tea and coffee is universal in america. dealing with both food and drink at the same time was something of an art. it was also an inconvenience for the uninitiated, and on one occasion ferdinand bayard, a late-18th-century observer of american tea ritual, witnessed another guest who, "after having taken a cup [of tea] in one hand and tartlets in the other, opened his mouth and told the servant to fill it for him with smoked venison!"[36] while foreign visitors recognized that the "greatest mark of courtesy" a host and hostess could offer a guest was a cup of tea, hospitality could be "hot water torture" for foreigners unless they understood the social niceties not only of holding a cup and tartlet, but of declining without offending by turning the cup upside down and placing a spoon upon it. the ceremony of the teaspoon is fully explained by the prince de broglie who, during his visit to philadelphia in 1782, reported the following teatime incident at the home of robert morris:[37] i partook of most excellent tea and i should be even now still drinking it, i believe, if the [french] ambassador had not charitably notified me at the twelfth cup, that i must put my spoon across it when i wished to finish with this sort of warm water. he said to me: it is almost as ill-bred to refuse a cup of tea when it is offered to you, as it would [be] indiscreet for the mistress of the house to propose a fresh one, when the ceremony of the spoon has notified her that we no longer wish to partake of it. bayard reports that one quick-witted foreigner, uninformed as to the teaspoon signal, had had his cup filled again and again until he finally "decided after emptying it to put it into his pocket until the replenishments had been concluded."[38] [illustration: figure 5.--_tea party in the time of george i_, an english painting of about 1725. in collection of colonial williamsburg, inc. the silver equipage includes (left to right) a sugar container and cover, hexagonal tea canister, hot water jug or milk jug, slop bowl, teapot, and (in front) sugar tongs, spoon boat or tray, and spoons. the cups and saucers are chinese export porcelain. (_photo courtesy of colonial williamsburg, inc._)] the gracious art of brewing and serving tea was as much an instrument of sociability as was a bit of music or conversation. this custom received the attention of a number of artists, and it is amazing what careful and detailed treatment they gave to the accessories of tea. we are familiar with the journals, newspaper advertisements, and other writings that provide contemporary reports on this custom, but it is to the artist we turn for a more clearly defined view. the painter saw, arranged, and gave us a visual image--sometimes richly informative, as in _tea party in the time of george i_ (fig. 5)--of the different tea time items and how they were used. the unknown artist of this painting, done about 1725, has carefully illustrated each piece of equipment considered appropriate for the tea ceremony and used for brewing the tea in the cups held with such grace by the gentleman and child. throughout the 18th century the well-equipped tea table would have displayed most of the items seen in this painting: a teapot, slop bowl, container for milk or cream, tea canister, sugar container, tongs, teaspoons, and cups and saucers. these pieces were basic to the tea ceremony and, with the addition of a tea urn which came into use during the latter part of the 18th century, have remained the established tea equipage up to the present day. even a brief investigation of about 20 inventories--itemized lists of the goods and property of deceased persons that were required by law--reveal that in new york between 1742 and 1768 teapots, cups and saucers, teaspoons, and tea canisters were owned by both low and high income groups in both urban and rural areas. the design and ornament of the tea vessels and utensils, of course, differed according to the fashion of the time, and the various items associated with the beverage provide a good index of the stylistic changes in the 18th century. the simple designs and unadorned surfaces of the plump pear-shaped teapot in _tea party in the time of george i_ (fig. 5) and the spherical one seen in the portrait _susanna truax_ (fig. 2) mark these pieces as examples of the late baroque style popular in the early part of the 18th century. about mid-century, teapots of inverted pear-shape, associated with the rococo style, began to appear. a pot of this shape is depicted in the portrait _paul revere_ painted about 1765 by john singleton copley and owned by the museum of fine arts, boston. the fact that a teapot was chosen as an example of revere's craft, from all of the objects he made, indicates that such a vessel was valued as highly by its maker as by its owner. the teapot was a mark of prestige for both craftsman and hostess. apparently the famous silversmith and patriot was still working on the piece, for the nearby tools suggest that the teapot was to have engraved and chased decoration, perhaps of flowers, scrolls, and other motifs typical of the rococo style. the restrained decoration and linear outlines of the teapot illustrated in the print titled _the old maid_ (fig. 14) and the straight sides and oval shape of the teapot belonging to a late 18th-century child's set (fig. 6) of chinese export porcelain are characteristics of the neoclassic style that was fashionable at the end of the century. tea drinkers were extremely conscious of fashion changes and, whenever possible, set their tea tables with stylish equipment in the prevailing fashion. newspaper advertisements, journals, letters, and other written materials indicate that utensils in the "best and newest taste" were available, desired, purchased, and used in this country. [illustration: figure 6.--part of a child's tea set of chinese export porcelain, or "painted china," made about 1790. the painted decoration is of pink roses and rose buds with green leaves; the border is orange, with blue flowers. at one time this set probably included containers for cream or milk and sugar, as did the adult "tea table setts complete." (_usnm 391761; smithsonian photo 45141-b._)] further verification of the types and kinds of equipage used is supplied by archeological investigations of colonial sites. for instance, sherds or fragments of objects dug from or near the site of a dwelling at marlborough, virginia, owned and occupied by john mercer between 1726 and 1768, included a silver teaspoon made about 1735 and two teapot tops--one a pewter lid and the other a staffordshire salt-glaze cover made about 1745--as well as numerous pieces of blue-and-white oriental porcelain cups and saucers (fig. 7). such archeological data provides concrete proof about tea furnishings used in this country. a comparison of sherds from colonial sites with wares used by the english and of english origin indicates that similar types of equipage were to be found upon tea tables in both countries. this also substantiates the already cited american practice of following english modes and manners, a practice brissot de warville noted in 1788 when he wrote that in this country "tea forms, as in england, the basis of the principal parties of pleasures."[39] [illustration: figure 7.--fragments of teacups of chinese export porcelain with blue decoration on white, excavated at the site of john mercer's dwelling at marlborough, virginia, 1726-1768. these sherds, now in the united states national museum, are from cups similar in shape and decoration to the ones depicted in figures 1 and 5. (_usnm 59.1890, 59.1969, 59.1786; smithsonian photo 45141-g._)] tea furnishings, when in use, were to be seen upon rectangular tables with four legs, square-top and circle-top tripods, and pembroke tables. such tables were, of course, used for other purposes, but a sampling of 18th-century boston inventories reveals that in some households all or part of the tea paraphernalia was prominently displayed on the tea table rather than being stored in cupboards or closets. a "japan'd tea table & china" and "a mahog[any] do. & china," both in the "great room," are listed in mrs. hannah pemberton's inventory recorded in boston in 1758. the inventory of joseph blake of boston recorded in 1746 lists a "tea table with a sett of china furniture" in the back room of the house, while in the "closett" in the front room were "6 tea cups & saucers" along with other ceramic wares.[40] the most popular type of tea table apparently was the circular tripod; that is, a circular top supported on a pillar with three feet. this kind of table is seen again and again in the prints and paintings (figs. 1, 2, 9, 14), and is listed in the inventories of the period. these tables, usually of walnut or mahogany, had stationary or tilt tops with plain, scalloped, or carved edges. square or round, tripod or four-legged, the tables were usually placed against the wall of the room until teatime when, in the words of ferdinand bayard, "a mahogany table is brought forward and placed in front of the lady who pours the tea."[41] this practice is depicted in a number of 18th-century pictures, with the tea table well out in the room, often in front of a fireplace, and with seated and standing figures at or near the table (fig. 1). evidence of such furniture placement in american parlors is recorded in a sketch and note nancy shippen received from one of her beaus, who wrote in part:[42] ... this evening i passed before your house and seeing company in the parlour i peep'd through the window and saw a considerable tea company, of which by their situation i could only distinguish four persons. you will see the plan of this company upon the next page. [illustration: figure 8.--a sketch by louis guillaume otto that was enclosed in a letter to nancy shippen of philadelphia about 1780. the sketch indicates the placement of the furniture in the shippen parlor and the location of the tea-party participants. the "explication" accompanying the drawing reads in part: "_a._ old d^r s^{hippen} sitting before the chimney.... _b._ m^r l^{ee} walking up and down, speaking and laughing by intervalls.... _c._ miss n^{ancy} [shippen] before the tea table.... _d._ m^{rs} s^{hippen} lost in sweet meditations. _e. f. g._ some strangers which the spy [mr. otto] could not distinguish. _h._ cyrus [the butler] standing in the middle of the room--half asleep. _i._ m^r o^{tto} standing before the window...." from shippen papers, manuscripts division, library of congress.] in the sketch (fig. 8), a floor plan of the shippen parlor, we can see the sofa against the wall between the windows, while chairs and tea table have been moved out in the room. the table is near the fireplace, where miss shippen served the tea. in the 18th century such an arrangement was first and foremost one of comfort, and perhaps also one of taste. the diary of jacob hiltzheimer indicates that in 1786 the first signs of fall were felt on august 1, for the philadelphian wrote: "this evening it was so cool that we drank tea by the fire."[43] in the south as in the north, tea--or, at the time of the american revolution its patriotic substitute, coffee--was served by the fire as soon as the first winter winds were felt. philip fithian, while at nomini hall in virginia, wrote in his journal on september 19, 1774: "the air is clear, cold & healthful. we drank our coffee at the great house very sociably, round a fine fire, the house and air feels like winter again."[44] [illustration: figure 9.--_the honeymoon_, by john collett, about 1760. in the midst of a domestic scene replete with homey details, the artist has depicted with care the tea table and its furnishing, including a fashionable tea urn symbolically topped with a pair of affectionate birds. (_photo courtesy of frick art reference library._)] table cloths--usually square white ones (as in fig. 9) that showed folds from having been stored in a linen press--were used when tea was served, but it is difficult to say with any certainty if their use depended upon the whim of the hostess, the type of table, or the time of day. a cloth probably was used more often on a table with a plain top than on one with scalloped or carved edges. however, as can be seen in _family group_ (fig. 1) and _an english family at tea_ (frontispiece), it was perfectly acceptable to serve tea on a plain-top table without a cloth. apparently such tables were also used at breakfast or morning tea, because benjamin franklin, in a letter from london dated february 19, 1758, gave the following directions for the use of "six coarse diaper breakfast cloths" which he sent to his wife: "they are to spread on the tea table, for nobody breakfasts here on the naked table, but on the cloth set a large tea board with the cups."[45] some of the 18th-century paintings depicting tea tables with cloths do deal with the morning hours, as indicated by their titles or internal evidence, as in _the honeymoon_ (fig. 9) painted by john collett about 1760. in this scene of domestic confusion and bliss, a tray or teaboard has been placed on the cloth, illustrating franklin's comment about english breakfast habits. cloths may also be seen in pictures in which the time of day cannot be determined. therefore, the use of a cloth at teatime may in truth have depended upon the hostess's whim if not her pocketbook. in addition, trays or teaboards of various sizes and shapes were sometimes used. they were usually circular or rectangular in form, occasionally of shaped or scalloped outline. some trays were supported upon low feet; others had pierced or fretwork galleries or edges to prevent the utensils from slipping off. wood or metal was the usual material, although ceramic trays were also used. at large gatherings a tray was often employed for passing refreshments (fig. 4). "a servant brings in on a silver tray the cups, the sugar bowl, the cream jugs, pats of butter, and smoked meat, which are offered to each individual," explained ferdinand bayard.[46] the principal use of the tray was, of course, to bring the tea equipage to the table. whether placed on a bare or covered table, it arrived with the various pieces such as cups and saucers, spoons, containers for sugar and cream or milk, tongs, bowls, and dishes arranged about the teapot. [illustration: figure 10.--pieces of a tea set of crown-derby porcelain, dating about 1790. the cups and saucers, covered sugar bowl, container for cream or milk, plate and bowls are ornamented with gilt borders and a scattering of blue flowers on a white ground (_usnm 54089-54095; smithsonian photo 45541-a._)] such tea furnishings of ceramic were sold in sets; that is, all pieces being of the same pattern. newspaper advertisements in the 1730's specifically mention "tea setts," and later in the century ceramic imports continue to include "beautiful compleat tea-setts" (fig. 10). in the early 18th century, tea sets of silver were uncommon if not actually unique, though pieces were occasionally made to match existing items, and, in this way, a so-called set similar to the pieces seen in _tea party in the time of george i_ (fig. 5) could be formed. however, by the latter part of the century the wealthier hostesses were able to purchase from among a "most elegant assortment of silver plate ... compleat tea and coffee services, plain and rich engraved."[47] when of metal, tea sets (fig. 11) usually consisted of a teapot, containers for sugar and cream or milk, and possibly a slop bowl, while ceramic sets, such as the one seen in _family group_ (fig. 1), included cups and saucers as well. [illustration: figure 11.--silver tea set consisting of teapot, sugar bowl, container for cream or milk, and waste bowl, made by john mcmullin, of philadelphia, about 1800. matching coffee and hot water pot made by samuel williamson, also of philadelphia. the letter "g," in fashionable script, is engraved on each piece. (_usnm 37809; smithsonian photo 45541._)] while the tea set illustrated in _family group_ appears to have all the basic pieces, it can hardly be considered a "complete" tea set when compared with the following porcelain sets listed in the 1747 inventory of james pemberton of boston: one sett burnt [china] cont[aining] 12 cups } & saucers slop bowl tea pot milk pot } boat [for spoons] tea cannister sugar dish } [£]20 5 handle cups plate for the tea pot & a } wh[i]t[e] tea pot value } one set blue & white do. contg. 12 cups & } saucers slop bowl 2 plates sugr. dish } tea pot 6 handle cups & white tea pot } [£]10 value } in addition, the pemberton inventory lists a silver tea pot and "1 pr. tea tongs & strainer," items that were undoubtedly used with the ceramic sets.[48] tea sets were even available for the youngest hostess, and the "several compleat tea-table sets of children's cream-colored [ceramic] toys" mentioned in a boston advertisement of 1771 no doubt added a note of luxury to make-believe tea parties during playtime.[49] the pieces in children's tea sets, such as the ones pictured from a child's set of chinese export porcelain (fig. 6), usually were like those of regular sets and differed only in size. little miss livingston must have been happy, indeed, when her uncle wrote[50] that he had sent ... a compleat tea-apparatus for her baby [doll]. her doll may now invite her cousins doll to tea, & parade her teatable in form. this must be no small gratification to her. it would be fortunate if happiness were always attainable with equal ease. the pieces of tea equipage could be purchased individually. for instance, teacups and saucers, which are differentiated in advertisements from both coffee and chocolate cups, regularly appear in lists of ceramic wares offered for sale, such as "very handsome setts of blue and white china tea-cups and saucers," or "enamell'd, pencill'd and gilt (fig. 12), red and white, blue and white, enamell'd and scallop'd (fig. 13), teacups and saucers."[51] these adjectives used by 18th-century salesmen usually referred to the types and the colors of the decorations that were painted on the pieces. "enameled" most likely meant that the decorations were painted over the glaze, and "penciled" may have implied motifs painted with a fine black line of pencil-like appearance, while "gilt," "red and white," and "blue and white" were the colors and types of the decoration. blue and white china was, perhaps, the most popular type of teaware, for it regularly appears in newspaper advertisements and inventories and among sherds from colonial sites (fig. 7). [illustration: figure 12.--cup and saucer of chinese export porcelain with scalloped edges and fluting. the painted decoration of black floral design on the side of the cup is touched with gold; the borders are of intersecting black vines and ribbons. (_usnm 284499; smithsonian photo 45141-d._)] [illustration: figure 13.--hand-painted staffordshire creamware teacup excavated at the site of a probable 18th-century and early 19th-century china shop in newburyport, massachusetts. decoration consists of a brown band above a vine border with green leaves and blue berries over orange bellflowers. the spiral fluting on the body and the slight scalloping on the edge of this cup are almost identical with that on the cup held by mrs. calmes in figure 15. (_usnm 397177-b; smithsonian photo 45141-c._)] concerning tea, the abbé robin went so far as to say that "there is not a single person to be found, who does not drink it out of china cups and saucers."[52] however exaggerated the statement may be, it does reflect the popularity and availability of chinese export porcelain in the post-revolutionary period when americans were at last free to engage in direct trade with the orient. porcelain for the american market was made in a wide variety of forms, as well as in complete dinner and tea sets, and was often decorated to special order. handpainted monograms, insignia of various kinds, and patriotic motifs were especially popular. a tea set decorated in this way was sent to dr. david townsend of boston, a member of the society of the cincinnati, by a fellow member of the society, maj. samuel shaw, american consul at canton. in a letter to townsend from canton, china, dated december 20, 1790, shaw wrote: accept, my dear friend, as a mark of my esteem and affection, a tea set of porcelain, ornamented with the cincinnati and your cypher. i hope shortly after its arrival to be with you, and in company with your amiable partner, see whether a little good tea improves or loses any part of its flavor in passing from one hemisphere to the other. appended to the letter was the following inventory,[53] which provides us with a list of the pieces deemed essential for a fashionably set tea table: 2 tea pots & stands sugar bowl & do milk ewer bowl & dish 6 breakfast cups & saucers 12 afternoon do porcelain, however, had long been a part of china-trade cargos to europe and from there to america. the early shipments of tea had included such appropriate vessels for the storage, brewing, and drinking of the herb as tea jars, teapots, and teacups. the latter were small porcelain bowls without handles, a form which the europeans and americans adopted and continued to use throughout the 18th century for tea, in contrast to the deeper and somewhat narrower cups, usually with handles, in which chocolate and coffee were served. even after europeans learned to manufacture porcelain early in the 18th century, the ware continued to be imported from china in large quantities and was called by english-speaking people, "china" from its country of origin. porcelain also was referred to as "india china ware," after the english and continental east india companies, the original traders and importers of the ware. "burnt china" was another term used in the 18th century to differentiate porcelain from pottery. whatever the ware, the teacups and saucers, whether on a tray, the cloth, or a bare table, were usually arranged in an orderly manner about the teapot, generally in rows on a rectangular table or tray and in a circle on a round table or tray. in the english conversation piece painting titled _mr. and mrs. hill in their drawing room_, by arthur devis about 1750, the circular tripod tea table between the couple and in front of the fireplace is set in such a way. the handleless teacups on saucers are neatly arranged in a large semicircle around the rotund teapot in the center that is flanked on one side by a bowl and on the other by a jug for milk or cream and a sugar container. generally, cups and saucers were not piled one upon the other but spread out on the table or tray where they were filled with tea and then passed to each guest. [illustration: figure 14.--_the old maid_, an english cartoon published in 1777. in print and photograph division, library of congress. although the englishwoman apparently is defying established tea etiquette by drinking from a saucer and allowing the cat on the table, her tea furnishings appear to be in proper order. the teapot is on a dish and the teakettle is on its own special stand, a smaller version of the tripod tea table.] pictures show male and female guests holding both cup and saucer or just the cup. an english satirical print, _the old maid_ (fig. 14), published in 1777, was the only illustration found that depicted an individual using a dish for tea, or, to be exact, a saucer. in the 18th century a dish of tea was in reality a cup of tea, for the word "dish" meant a cup or vessel used for drinking as well as a utensil to hold food at meals. a play on this word is evident in the following exchange reported by philip fithian between himself and mrs. carter, the mistress of nomini hall, one october forenoon in 1773: "shall i help you, mr. fithian, to a dish of coffee?--i choose a deep plate, if you please ma'am, & milk."[54] the above suggests that the practice of saucer sipping, while it may have been common among the general public, was frowned upon by polite society. the fact that americans preferred and were "accustomed to eat everything hot" further explains why tea generally was drunk from the cup instead of the saucer. according to peter kalm, "when the english women [that is, of english descent] drank tea, they never poured it out of the cup into the saucer to cool it, but drank it as hot as it came from the teapot."[55] later in the century another naturalist, c. f. volney, also noted that "very hot tea" was "beloved by americans of english descent."[56] from this it would appear that "dish of tea" was an expression rather than a way of drinking tea in the 18th century. on the table a saucer seems always to have been placed under the cup whether the cup was right side up or upside down. [illustration: figure 15.--_mrs. calmes_, by g. frymeier, 1806. in calmes-wright-johnson collection, chicago historical society. the cup and saucer (or bowl), possibly hand-decorated staffordshire ware or chinese export porcelain, are decorated with dark blue bands and dots, wavy brown band, and a pink rose with green foliage. (_photo courtesy of chicago historical society._)] teaspoons, when in use, might be placed on the saucer or left in the cups. the portrait titled _mrs. calmes_ (fig. 15), painted by g. frymeier in 1806, indicates that handling a cup with the spoon in it could be accomplished with a certain amount of grace. teaspoons also were placed in a pile on the table or in a silver "boat for tea spoons," or more often in such ceramic containers as "delph ware ... spoon trays," or blue-and-white or penciled china "spoon boats."[57] [illustration: figure 16.--silver tongs in the rococo style, made by jacob hurd, of boston, about 1750. (_usnm 383530; smithsonian photo 45141._)] tongs were especially suited for lifting the lumps of sugar from their container to the teacup. during the 18th century both arched and scissor type tongs were used. instead of points, the latter had dainty flat grips for holding a lump of sugar (fig. 16). the early arched tongs were round in section, as are the pair illustrated in _tea party in the time of george i_ (fig. 5), while tongs made by arching or bending double a flat strip of silver (fig. 17) date from the second half of the 18th century. these articles of tea equipage, variously known as "tongs," "tea tongs," "spring tea tongs," and "sugar tongs," were usually made of silver, though "ivory and wooden tea-tongs" were advertised in 1763.[58] according to the prints and paintings of the period, tongs were placed in or near the sugar container. teaspoons were also used for sugar, as illustrated in the painting _susanna truax_ (fig. 2). perhaps young miss truax is about to indulge in a custom favored by the dutch population of albany as reported by peter kalm in 1749: "they never put sugar into the cup, but take a small bit of it into their mouths while they drink."[59] [illustration: figure 17.--silver tongs made by william g. forbes, of new york, about 1790. in the united states national museum. the engraved decoration of intersecting lines is typical of the neoclassic style. a variant of this motif appears as the painted border on a porcelain cup and saucer of the same period (fig. 12). (_usnm 59.474; smithsonian photo 45141-a._)] shallow dishes, such as the one seen in the portrait _susanna truax_, and hemispherical bowls were used as containers for sugar. often called "sugar dishes" or just "sugars," they were available in delftware, glass (fig. 18), and silver as well as in blue-and-white, burnt, enameled, and penciled china. some containers were sold with covers, and it has been suggested that the saucer-shaped cover of the hemispherical sugar dish or bowl, fashionable in the first half of the 18th century, also served as a spoon tray. however, in the painting _tea party in the time of george i_ (fig. 5) the cover is leaning against the bowl and the spoons are in an oval spoon tray or boat. another possibility, if the lid was multipurpose, is that it was used as a dish or stand under the teapot to protect the table top. silver sugar boxes, basins, and plated sugar baskets were other forms used to hold sugar,[60] which, in whatever container, was a commodity important to the americans. as moreau de st. méry noted, they "use great quantities in their tea."[61] [illustration: figure 18.--stiegel-type, cobalt-blue glass sugar dish with cover, made about 1770. (_usnm 38922; smithsonian photo 42133-d._)] containers for cream or milk may be seen in many of the 18th-century teatime pictures and are found in the advertisements of the period under a variety of names. there were cream pots of glass and pewter and silver (figs. 19 and 20), jugs of penciled and burnt china, and in the 1770's one could obtain "enameled and plain three footed cream jugs" from mr. henry william stiegel's glass factory at manheim, pennsylvania. there were cream pails, urns, and ewers of silver plate, and plated cream basins "gilt inside."[62] milk pots, used on some tea tables instead of cream containers, were available in silver, pewter, ceramic, and "sprig'd, cut and moulded" glass.[63] although contemporary diarists and observers of american customs seem not to have noticed whether cream was served cold and milk hot, or if tea drinkers were given a choice between cream and milk, the prince de broglie's comment already cited concerning his ability to drink "excellent tea with even better cream" and the predominance of cream over milk containers in 18th-century advertisements would seem to indicate that in this country cream rather than milk was served with tea in the afternoon. [illustration: figure 19.--silver creamer made by myer myers, of new york, about 1750. the fanciful curves of the handle and feet are related to the rococo design of the sugar tongs in figure 16. (_usnm 383553; smithsonian photo 45141-f._)] [illustration: figure 20.--silver creamer made by simeon a. bayley, of new york, about 1790. the only ornamentation is the engraving of the initials "r m" below the pouring lip. (_usnm 383465; smithsonian photo 45141-e._)] while the americans, as the europeans, added cream or milk and sugar to their tea, the use of lemon with the beverage is questionable. nowhere is there any indication that the citrus fruit was served or used with tea in 18th-century america. punch seems to have been the drink with which lemons were associated. often a medium-sized bowl, usually hemispherical in shape, is to be seen on the tea table, and it is most likely a slop bowl or basin. according to advertisements these bowls and basins were available in silver, pewter, and ceramic.[64] before a teacup was replenished, the remaining tea and dregs were emptied into the slop bowl. then the cup might be rinsed with hot water and the rinsing water discarded in the bowl. the slop basin may also have been the receptacle for the mote or foreign particles--then inherent in tea but now extracted by mechanical means--that had to be skimmed off the beverage in the cup. in england this was probably done with a small utensil known to present day collectors as a mote spoon or mote skimmer. although the exact purpose of these spoons remains unsettled, it seems likely that they were used with tea. it has been suggested that the perforated bowl of the spoon was used for skimming foreign particles off the tea in the cup and the tapering spike-end stem to clear the clogged-up strainer of the teapot spout. the almost complete absence of american-made mote spoons suggests that these particular utensils were seldom used here. possibly the "skimmer" advertised in 1727 with other silver tea pieces was such a spoon.[65] no doubt, tea strainers (fig. 21) were also used to insure clear tea. the tea dregs might then be discarded in the slop bowl or left in the strainer and the strainer rested on the bowl. however, only a few contemporary american advertisements and inventories have been found which mention tea strainers.[66] punch strainers, though generally larger in size, seem to have doubled as tea strainers in some households. the 1757 inventory of charles brockwell of boston includes a punch strainer which is listed not with the wine glasses and other pieces associated with punch but with the tea items: "1 small do. [china] milk pot 1 tea pot 6 cups & 3 saucers & 1 punch strainer."[67] presumably, the strainer had last been used for tea. [illustration: figure 21.--silver strainer made by james butler, of boston, about 1750. the handle's pierced pattern of delicate, curled vines distinguishes this otherwise plain strainer. (_usnm 383485; smithsonian photo 44828-j._)] the teapot was, of course, the very center of the social custom of drinking tea; so, it usually was found in the center of the tray or table. at first, only teapots of oriental origin imported with the cargos of tea were available, for the teapot had been unknown to europeans before the introduction of the beverage. however, as tea gained acceptance as a social drink and the demand for equipage increased, local craftsmen were stimulated to produce wares that could compete with the chinese imports. teapots based on chinese models and often decorated with chinese motifs were fashioned in ceramic and silver. no doubt many an 18th-century hostess desired a silver teapot to grace her table and add an elegant air to the tea ceremony. a lottery offering one must have raised many a hope, especially if, as an advertisement of 1727 announced, the "highest prize consists of an eight square tea-pot," as well as "six tea-spoons, skimmer and tongs." by the end of the century "an elegant silver tea-pot with an ornamental lid, resembling a pine-apple" would have been the wish of a fashion-conscious hostess. less expensive than silver, but just as stylish according to the merchants' advertisements were "newest fashion teapots" of pewter or, in the late 18th century, britannia metal teapots. the latest mode in ceramic ware also was to be found upon the tea table. in the mid-18th century it was "english brown china tea-pots of sorts, with a rais'd flower" (probably the ceramic with a deep, rich brown glaze known today as jackfield-type ware), "black," "green and tortois" (a pottery glazed with varigated colors in imitation of tortoise shell), and "enameled stone" teapots. at the time of the american revolution, teaware imports included "egyptian, etruscan, embossed red china, agate, green, black, colliflower, white, and blue and white stone enamelled, striped, fluted, pierced and plain queen's ware tea pots."[68] sometimes the teapot, whether ceramic, pewter, or silver, was placed upon a dish or small, tile-like stand with feet. these teapot stands served as insulation by protecting the surface of the table or tray from the damaging heat of the teapot. stands often were included in tea sets but also were sold individually, such as the "pencil'd china ... tea pot stands," advertised in 1775, and the "teapot stands" of "best london plated ware" imported in 1797.[69] the stands must have been especially useful when silver equipage was set on a bare table top; many of the silver teapots of elliptical shape with a flat base, so popular in the latter part of the 18th century, had matching stands raised on short legs to protect the table from the expanse of hot metal. on occasion the teapot was placed on a spirit lamp or burner to keep the beverage warm. in most instances it was the hot water kettle that sat upon a spirit lamp or burner rather than a teapot. kettles were usually related to the form of contemporary teapots, but differed in having a swing handle on top and a large, rather flat base that could be placed over the flame. advertisements mention teakettles of copper, pewter, brass, and silver, some "with lamps and stands."[70] the actual making of tea was part of the ceremony and was usually done by the hostess at the tea table. this necessitated a ready supply of boiling water close at hand to properly infuse the tea and, as ferdinand bayard reported, it also "weakens the tea or serves to clean up the cups."[71] thus, the kettle and burner on their own individual table or stand were placed within easy reach of the tea table. according to 18th-century pictures the kettle was an important part of the tea setting, but it seldom appeared on the tea table. special stands for kettles generally were made in the same form as the tea tables, though smaller in scale (fig. 14). the square stands often had a slide on which to place the teapot when the hot water was poured into it. both pictures and advertisements reveal that by the 1770's the tea urn was a new form appearing at teatime in place of the hot water kettle. contrary to its name, the tea urn seldom held tea. these large silver or silver-plated vessels, some of which looked like vases with domed covers, usually had two handles on the shoulders and a spout with a tap in the front near the bottom. "ponty pool, japanned, crimson, and gold-striped roman tea urns" imported from europe were among the fashionable teawares advertised at the end of the 18th century.[72] the urn might be placed on a stand of its own near the table or on the tray or table in the midst of the other equipage as it is in the painting titled _the honeymoon_ (fig. 9). wherever placed, it signified the newest mode in teatime furnishings. one baltimorean, o. h. williams, in a letter dated april 12, 1786, to a close friend, enthusiastically explained that "tea & coffee urns plated (mine are but partially plated and are extremely neat) are the genteelest things of the sort used now at any house & tables inferior to the first fortunes."[73] [illustration: figure 22.--the sign of "the tea canister and two sugar loaves" used by a new york grocer and confectioner in the 1770's. other "tea" motifs for shop signs in the 18th century included "the teapot," used by a philadelphia goldsmith in 1757, and "the tea kettle and stand," which marked the shop of a charleston jeweller in 1766.] the tea canister (fig. 22), a storage container for the dry tea leaves, was yet another piece of equipment to be found on the table or tray. ceramic canisters of blue and white, and red and gold, could be purchased to match other tea furnishings of the same ware, and silver tea canisters often were fashioned to harmonize with the silver teapots of the period. individual canisters were produced, as well as canisters in sets of two or three. a set of canisters usually was kept in the box in which it came, a case known as a tea chest or tea caddy, such as the "elegant assortment of tea-caddies, with one, two and three canisters" advertised in 1796.[74] canister tops if dome-shaped were used to measure out the tea and transfer it to the teapot. otherwise, small, short-handled spoons with broad, shallow bowls known as caddy spoons and caddy ladles were used. however handled, the tea could have been any one of the numerous kinds available in the 18th century. although hyson, soughong, and congo, the names inscribed on the canister in figure 22, may have been favored, there were many other types of tea, as the following advertisement from the _boston news-letter_ of september 16, 1736, indicates:[75] to be sold ... at the three sugar loaves, and cannister ... very choice teas, viz: bohea tea from 22 s. to 28 s. per pound, congou tea, 34 s. pekoe tea, 50 s. per pound, green tea from 20 s. to 30 s. per pound, fine imperial tea from 40 s. to 60 s. per pound. in the 18th century tea drinking was an established social custom with a recognized etiquette and distinctive equipage as we know from the pictures and writings of the period. at teatime men and women gathered to pursue leisurely conversations and enjoy the sociability of the home. a study of _an english family at tea_ (frontispiece) will summarize the etiquette and equipage of the ritual-on the floor near the table is a caddy with the top open, showing one canister of a pair. the mistress of the house, seated at the tea table, is measuring out dry tea leaves from the other canister into its lid. members of the family stand or sit about the square tea table while they observe this first step in the ceremony. a maidservant stands ready with the hot water kettle to pour the boiling water over the leaves once they are in the teapot. in the background is the tripod kettle stand with a lamp, where the kettle will be placed until needed to rinse the cups or dilute the tea. not seen in this detail of the painting is the entry of a male servant who is carrying a tall silver pot, which may have contained chocolate or coffee. these two other social beverages of the 18th century were served in cups of a deep cylindrical shape, like the three seen on the end of the table. the shallow, bowl-shaped, handleless teacups and the saucers are arranged in a neat row along one side of the table. the teapot rests on a square tile-like stand or dish that protects the table from the heat. nearby is a bowl to receive tea dregs, a pot for cream or milk, and a sugar bowl. the teatime ritual has begun. ----------------------------------------------------------------------- chronological list of pictures consulted 1700 ca. _portrait group of gentlemen and a child._ believed to be english or dutch. reproduced in ralph edwards, _early conversation pictures from the middle ages to about 1730_, london, 1954, p. 117, no. 73. 1710 ca. _the tea-table._ english. reproduced in _the connoisseur period guides: the stuart period, 1603-1714_, edited by ralph edwards and l. g. g. ramsey, new york, 1957, p. 30. 1720 ca. _a family taking tea._ english. reproduced in edwards, _early conversation pictures_, p. 132, no. 95. _two ladies and a gentleman at tea._ attributed to nicolaas verkolje, dutch. reproduced in edwards, _early conversation pictures_, p. 96, no. 42. _an english family at tea_ (frontispiece). joseph van aken(?). reproduced in percy macquoid and ralph edwards, _the dictionary of english furniture_, revised and enlarged by ralph edwards, london, 1954, vol. 1, p. 10, fig. 16. 1725 ca. _tea party in the time of george i_ (fig. 5). english. reproduced in _antiques_, november 1955, vol. 68, p. vi following p. 460. 1730 ca. _the assembly at wanstead house._ by william hogarth, english. reproduced in edwards, _early conversation pictures_, p. 125, no. 87. _family._ by william hogarth, english. reproduced in r. h. wilenski, _english painting_, london, 1933, pl. 11a. _family group_ (fig. 1). by gawen hamilton, english. reproduced in _antiques_, march 1953, vol. 63, p. 270. _a family party._ by william hogarth, english. reproduced in _english conversation pictures of the eighteenth and early nineteenth century_, edited by g. c. williamson, london, 1931, pl. 10. 1730 _susanna truax_ (fig. 2). american. reproduced in _art in america_, may 1954, vol. 42, p. 101. _the wollaston family._ by william hogarth, english. reproduced in edwards, _early conversation pictures_, p. 126, no. 88. 1731 painting on lobed, square delft tea tray. dutch. reproduced in c. h. de jonge, _oud-nederlandsche majolica en delftsch aardewerk_, amsterdam, 1947, p. 241, fig. 209. 1732 _a tea party at the countess of portland's._ by charles philips, english. reproduced in edwards, _early conversation pictures_, p. 132, no. 94. _thomas wentworth, earl of strafford, with his family._ by gawen hamilton, english. reproduced in edwards, _early conversation pictures_, p. 130, no. 92. 1735 ca. _the western family._ by william hogarth, english. reproduced in sacheverell sitwell, _conversation pieces_, new york, 1937, no. 14. 1736 ca. _the strode family._ by william hogarth, english. reproduced in oliver brackett, _english furniture illustrated_, new york, 1950, p. 168, pl. 140. 1740 ca. _the carter family._ by joseph highmore, english. reproduced in _connoisseur_, christmas 1934, vol. 94, p. xlv (advertisement). 1743 painting on lobed, circular bristol delft tea tray. english. reproduced in f. h. garner, _english delftware_, new york, 1948, pl. 54. 1744 ca. _burkat shudi and his family._ english. reproduced in philip james, _early keyboard instruments from their beginnings to the year 1820_, new york, 1930, pl. 48. 1744 _shortly after marriage_, from _marriage a la mode_ series. by william hogarth, english. reproduced in _masterpieces of english painting_, chicago, 1946, pl. 3. 1745 ca. _the gascoigne family._ by francis hayman, english. reproduced in _apollo_, october 1957, vol. 66, p. vii (advertisement). 1750 ca. _mr. and mrs. hill in their drawing room._ by arthur devis, english. reproduced in _the antique collector_, june 1957, vol. 28, p. 100. 1760 ca. _the honeymoon_ (fig. 9). by john collett, english. photograph courtesy of frick art reference library, new york. 1765 ca. _paul revere._ by john singleton copley, american. reproduced in john marshall phillips, _american silver_, new york, 1949, frontispiece. 1770 ca. _lord willoughby and family._ by john zoffany, english. reproduced in lady victoria manners and dr. g. c. williamson, _john zoffany, r. a._, london, 1920, plate preceding p. 153. _mr. and mrs. garrick at tea._ by john zoffany, english. reproduced in manners and williamson, _john zoffany, r. a._, plate facing p. 142. _sir john hopkins and family._ by john zoffany, english. reproduced in manners and williamson, _john zoffany, r. a._, second plate following p. 18. _the squire's tea._ by benjamin wilson, english. reproduced in _antiques_, october 1951, vol. 60, p. 310. 1775 _a society of patriotic ladies_ (fig. 3). engraving published by r. sayer and j. bennet, london. print and photograph division, library of congress. 1777 _the old maid_ (fig. 14). english. print and photograph division, library of congress. 1780 ca. _the tea party._ by william hamilton, english. reproduced in _art in america_, may 1954, vol. 42, p. 91 (advertisement). 1782 _conversazioni_ (fig. 4). by w. h. bunbury, english. print and photograph division, library of congress. 1785 ca. _the auriol family_ [_in india_]. by john zoffany, english. reproduced in manners and williamson, _john zoffany, r. a._, plate facing p. 110. 1786 _dr. johnson takes tea at boswell's house._ by thomas rowlandson, english. reproduced in charles cooper, _the english table in history and literature_, london, 1929, plate facing p. 150. 1790 ca. _black monday or the departure for school._ engraved by j. jones after bigg, english. reproduced in _antiques_, september 1953, vol. 64, p. 163 (advertisement). 1792 _tea at the pantheon._ by edward edwards, english. reproduced in william harrison ukers, _the romance of tea_, new york, 1936, plate facing p. 214. 1806 _mrs. calmes_ (fig. 15). by g. frymeier, american. reproduced in _antiques_, november 1950, vol. 58, p. 392. ----------------------------------------------------------------------- footnotes footnote 1: claude c. robin, _new travels through north america: in a series of letters ... in the year 1781_, boston, 1784, p. 23. footnote 2: _mercurius politicus_, september 23-30, 1658. footnote 3: edward wenham, "tea and tea things in england," _antiques_, october 1948, vol. 54, p. 264. footnote 4: samuel sewall, _diary of samuel sewall, 1674-1729_, reprinted in _collections of the massachusetts historical society_, 1879, ser. 5, vol. 6, p. 253. footnote 5: john marshall phillips, _american silver_, new york, 1949, p. 76. footnote 6: jacques pierre brissot de warville, _new travels in the united states of america performed in 1788_, london, 1794, p. 80. footnote 7: peter kalm, _the america of 1750. peter kalm's travels in north america_, edited and translated by adolph b. benson, new york, 1937, vol. 1, p. 346, vol. 2, p. 605. footnote 8: baron cromot du bourg, "journal de mon séjour en amérique," _magazine of american history_ (1880-1881), quoted in charles h. sherrill, _french memories of eighteenth-century america_, new york, 1915, p. 155. footnote 9: marquis de chastellux, _voyages de m. le marquis de chastellux dans l'amérique septentrionale_, paris, 1788, quoted in sherrill, _op. cit._ (footnote 8), p. 190. footnote 10: kalm, _op. cit._ (footnote 7), vol. 1, p. 195. footnote 11: israel acrelius, _a history of new sweden; or, the settlements on the river delaware_, translated and edited by william m. reynolds, philadelphia, 1874, p. 158. footnote 12: letter from m. jacquelin, york, virginia, to john norton, london, august 14, 1769. in, _john norton and sons, merchants of london and virginia, being the papers from their counting house for the years 1750 to 1795_, edited by frances norton mason, richmond, 1937, p. 103. footnote 13: letter from gilbert barkly to directors of the east india company, may 26, 1773. _tea leaves: being a collection of letters and documents ..._, edited by francis s. drake, boston, 1884, p. 200. footnote 14: philip vickers fithian, _journal and letters of philip vickers fithian, 1773-1774; a plantation tutor of the old dominion_, edited by hunter dickinson farish, williamsburg, 1957, pp. 110, 195-196. footnote 15: r. t. h. halsey and charles o. cornelius, _a handbook of the american wing_, new york, 1924, pp. 111-112. footnote 16: léon chotteau, _les français en amérique_, paris, 1876, quoted in sherrill, _op. cit._ (footnote 8), p. 96. footnote 17: médéric louis elie moreau de saint-méry, _moreau de st. méry's american journey_, translated and edited by kenneth roberts and anna m. roberts, garden city, 1947, p. 266. footnote 18: claude blanchard, _the journal of claude blanchard, commissary of the french auxiliary army sent to the united states during the american revolution, 1780-1783_, translated by william duane and edited by thomas balch, albany, 1876, pp. 41, 49. footnote 19: moreau de saint-méry, _op. cit._ (footnote 17), p. 266. footnote 20: françois, marquis de barbé-marbois, _our revolutionary forefathers. the letters of françois, marquis de barbé-marbois during his residence in the united states as secretary of the french legation 1779-1785_, translated and edited by eugene parker chase, new york, 1929, p. 123. footnote 21: nancy shippen, _nancy shippen, her journal book_, edited by ethel armes, philadelphia, 1935, pp. 167, 229, 243. footnote 22: chastellux, _op. cit._ (footnote 9), quoted in sherrill, _op. cit._ (footnote 8), p. 40. footnote 23: eliza southgate bowne, _a girl's life eighty years ago. selections from the letters of eliza southgate bowne_, edited by clarence cook, new york, 1887, p. 207. footnote 24: shippen, _op. cit._ (footnote 21), p. 167. footnote 25: prince de broglie, "journal du voyage," _mélanges de la société des bibliophiles français_, paris, 1903, quoted in sherrill, _op. cit._ (footnote 8), p. 13. footnote 26: comte de ségur, _mémoires, ou souvenires et anecdotes_, paris, 1826, quoted in sherrill, _op. cit._ (footnote 8), p. 78. footnote 27: shippen, _op. cit._ (footnote 21), p. 175. footnote 28: kalm, _op. cit._ (footnote 7), vol. 2, p. 677; moreau de saint-méry, _op. cit._ (footnote 17), p. 286. footnote 29: shippen, _op. cit._ (footnote 21), p. 248. footnote 30: françois jean, marquis de chastellux, _travels in north america in the years 1780-81-82_, new york, 1827, p. 114. footnote 31: ferdinand marie bayard, _travels of a frenchman in maryland and virginia, with a description of philadelphia and baltimore in 1791_, translated and edited by ben c. mccary, ann arbor, 1950, p. 48. footnote 32: mrs. anne grant, _memoirs of an american lady, with sketches of manners and scenery in america, as they existed previous to the revolution_, new york, 1846, p. 54. footnote 33: kalm, _op. cit._ (footnote 7), vol. 2, p. 611. footnote 34: barbé-marbois, _op. cit._ (footnote 20), p. 123. footnote 35: blanchard, _op. cit._ (footnote 18), p. 78. footnote 36: ferdinand m. bayard, _voyage dans l'intérieur des etats-unis_, paris, 1797, quoted in sherrill, _op. cit._ (footnote 8), p. 93. footnote 37: claude victor marie, prince de broglie, "narrative of the prince de broglie," translated by e. w. balch in _magazine of american history_, april 1877, vol. i, p. 233. footnote 38: bayard, _op. cit._ (footnote 36), quoted in sherrill, _op. cit._ (footnote 8), p. 93. footnote 39: brissot de warville, _op. cit._ (footnote 6), p. 129. footnote 40: suffolk county [massachusetts] probate court record books (hereinafter cited as suffolk county record books), vol. 53, p. 444, inventory of mrs. hannah pemberton, boston, june 22, 1758; vol. 39, p. 185, inventory of joseph blake, boston, september 18, 1746. among other inventories in suffolk county record books listing tea tables with tea equipment thereon were those of sendal williams, boston, march 13, 1747 (vol. 43, p. 407); revd. dr. benja. colman, boston, september 1, 1747 (vol. 40, p. 266); mr. nathl. cunningham, february 6, 1748 (vol. 42, p. 156); joseph snelling, boston, december 8, 1748 (vol. 42, p. 60); eliza. chaunay, boston, may 28, 1757 (vol. 52, p. 382); gillam tailer, boston, october 18, 1757 (vol. 52, p. 817); jon. skimmer, boston, october 30, 1778 (vol. 77, p. 565). footnote 41: bayard, _op. cit._ (footnote 31), p. 47. footnote 42: letter from [louis guillaume] otto [to nancy shippen], undated, shippen papers, box 6, manuscripts division, library of congress. the letter is dated about 1780 by ethel armes, _op. cit._ (footnote 21), p. 8. footnote 43: jacob hiltzheimer, _extracts from the diary of jacob hiltzheimer of philadelphia, 1765-1798_, edited by jacob cox parsons, philadelphia, 1893, p. 94. footnote 44: fithian, _op. cit._ (footnote 14), p. 193. footnote 45: benjamin franklin, letter to mrs. deborah franklin, dated february 19, 1758, london. _the writings of benjamin franklin_, edited by albert henry smyth, new york, 1905, vol. 3, p. 432. footnote 46: bayard, _op. cit._ (footnote 36), quoted in sherrill, _op. cit._ (footnote 8), p. 93. footnote 47: _boston gazette_, april 25, 1737; _boston news-letter_, june 24, 1762; _the new-york gazette_, january 8, 1799. these and other newspaper references have been taken variously from the following sources: george francis dow, _the arts and crafts in new england, 1704-1775_, topsfield, massachusetts, 1927; rita susswein gottesman, _the arts and crafts in new york, 1726-1776_, new york, 1938, and _the arts and crafts in new york, 1777-1799_, new york, 1954; and alfred coxe prime, _the arts and crafts in philadelphia, maryland, and south carolina, 1721-1785_, topsfield, massachusetts, 1929. footnote 48: suffolk county record books, vol. 39, p. 499, inventory of james pemberton, boston, april 8, 1747. footnote 49: _boston news-letter_, november 28, 1771. footnote 50: shippen, _op. cit._ (footnote 21), p. 215. footnote 51: _boston news-letter_, october 4, 1750; _maryland journal_, november 20, 1781. footnote 52: robin, _op. cit._ (footnote 1), p. 23. footnote 53: w. stephen thomas, "major samuel shaw and the cincinnati porcelain," _antiques_, may 1935, vol. 27, p. 178. the letter and tea set are exhibited at deerfield, massachusetts, by the heritage foundation. footnote 54: fithian, _op. cit._ (footnote 14), p. 133. footnote 55: kalm, _op. cit._ (footnote 7), vol. 1, p. 191. footnote 56: c. f. volney, _tableau du climat et du sol des etats-unis_, paris, 1803, quoted in sherrill, _op. cit._ (footnote 8), p. 95. footnote 57: _boston news-letter_, march 24, 1774, november 18, 1742, and april 4, 1771; _new-york journal_, august 3, 1775. footnote 58: _new-york gazette_, april 3, 1727; _boston gazette_, june 4, 1759; _boston news-letter_, january 9, 1772; _maryland gazette_, may 13, 1773; _pennsylvania journal_, december 15, 1763. footnote 59: kalm, _op. cit._ (footnote 7), vol. 1, p. 347. footnote 60: _boston news-letter_, april 4, 1771, november 18, 1742, and january 9, 1772; _new-york gazette_, february 14, 1757; _pennsylvania gazette_, january 25, 1759; _rivington's new york gazeteer_, january 13, 1774; _new-york journal_, august 3, 1775; _boston gazette_, september 11, 1758; _new-york daily advertiser_, january 21, 1797. footnote 61: moreau de saint-méry, _op. cit._ (footnote 17), p. 38. footnote 62: _new-york gazette_, february 14, 1757; _boston gazette_, may 14, 1764; _maryland gazette_, january 4, 1759; _new-york journal_, august 3, 1775; _pennsylvania gazette_, july 6, 1772, and october 31, 1781; _boston news-letter_, april 4, 1771, and january 9, 1772; _new-york daily advertiser_, january 21, 1797. footnote 63: _new-york mercury_, october 30, 1758; _pennsylvania journal_, april 25, 1765; _boston news-letter_, january 17, 1745; _new-york gazette_, december 6, 1771. footnote 64: _pennsylvania gazette_, january 25, 1759; _pennsylvania journal_, april 25, 1765; _independent journal_ [new york], july 23, 1785. footnote 65: _new-york gazette_, april 3, 1727. footnote 66: _maryland gazette_, january 4, 1759; _pennsylvania chronicle_, january 29, 1770; suffolk county record books, vol. 52, p. 324, inventory of john procter, may 13, 1757. footnote 67: suffolk county record books, vol. 52, p. 327, inventory of revd. charles brockwell, may 13, 1757. footnote 68: quotations variously from _new-york gazette_, april 3, 1727, august 2, 1762; _commercial advertiser_ [new york], oct. 10, 1797; _boston gazette_, july 26, 1756; _new-york daily advertiser_, may 7, 1793; _boston news-letter_, october 18, 1750; _pennsylvania evening post_, july 11, 1776. footnote 69: _new-york journal_, august 3, 1775; _new-york daily advertiser_, january 21, 1797. footnote 70: _pennsylvania packet_, may 29, 1775; _american weekly mercury_ [philadelphia], january 1736; _boston gazette_, may 3, 1751, and september 11, 1758; _pennsylvania journal_, august 1, 1771. footnote 71: bayard, _op. cit._ (footnote 36), quoted in sherrill, _op. cit._ (footnote 8), p. 92. footnote 72: _new-york daily advertiser_, may 7, 1793. footnote 73: letter from o[tho] holland williams to dr. philip thomas, april 12, 1786, williams papers, vol. 4, letter no. 320. manuscript, maryland historical society, baltimore, maryland. footnote 74: _boston news-letter_, april 4, 1771; _pennsylvania gazette_, october 31, 1781; _minerva, & mercantile evening advertiser_ [new york], august 4, 1796. footnote 75: _boston news-letter_, september 16, 1736. ----------------------------------------------------------------------- for sale by the superintendent of documents, u.s. government printing office washington 25, d.c.--price 40 cents u.s. government printing office, 1961 --------------------transcriber's note: 1. the footnotes, originally printed at the bottom of pages, were moved to the back of the book. 2. spacing within some citations was made more consistent. except for that, and the cases mentioned below, this book retains the spelling and punctuation of the original: a. the title "comte de ségur" was mentioned twice, once spelled "segur." this was changed "ségur" for consistency. the book of tea by kakuzo okakura i. the cup of humanity tea began as a medicine and grew into a beverage. in china, in the eighth century, it entered the realm of poetry as one of the polite amusements. the fifteenth century saw japan ennoble it into a religion of aestheticism--teaism. teaism is a cult founded on the adoration of the beautiful among the sordid facts of everyday existence. it inculcates purity and harmony, the mystery of mutual charity, the romanticism of the social order. it is essentially a worship of the imperfect, as it is a tender attempt to accomplish something possible in this impossible thing we know as life. the philosophy of tea is not mere aestheticism in the ordinary acceptance of the term, for it expresses conjointly with ethics and religion our whole point of view about man and nature. it is hygiene, for it enforces cleanliness; it is economics, for it shows comfort in simplicity rather than in the complex and costly; it is moral geometry, inasmuch as it defines our sense of proportion to the universe. it represents the true spirit of eastern democracy by making all its votaries aristocrats in taste. the long isolation of japan from the rest of the world, so conducive to introspection, has been highly favourable to the development of teaism. our home and habits, costume and cuisine, porcelain, lacquer, painting--our very literature--all have been subject to its influence. no student of japanese culture could ever ignore its presence. it has permeated the elegance of noble boudoirs, and entered the abode of the humble. our peasants have learned to arrange flowers, our meanest labourer to offer his salutation to the rocks and waters. in our common parlance we speak of the man "with no tea" in him, when he is insusceptible to the serio-comic interests of the personal drama. again we stigmatise the untamed aesthete who, regardless of the mundane tragedy, runs riot in the springtide of emancipated emotions, as one "with too much tea" in him. the outsider may indeed wonder at this seeming much ado about nothing. what a tempest in a tea-cup! he will say. but when we consider how small after all the cup of human enjoyment is, how soon overflowed with tears, how easily drained to the dregs in our quenchless thirst for infinity, we shall not blame ourselves for making so much of the tea-cup. mankind has done worse. in the worship of bacchus, we have sacrificed too freely; and we have even transfigured the gory image of mars. why not consecrate ourselves to the queen of the camelias, and revel in the warm stream of sympathy that flows from her altar? in the liquid amber within the ivory-porcelain, the initiated may touch the sweet reticence of confucius, the piquancy of laotse, and the ethereal aroma of sakyamuni himself. those who cannot feel the littleness of great things in themselves are apt to overlook the greatness of little things in others. the average westerner, in his sleek complacency, will see in the tea ceremony but another instance of the thousand and one oddities which constitute the quaintness and childishness of the east to him. he was wont to regard japan as barbarous while she indulged in the gentle arts of peace: he calls her civilised since she began to commit wholesale slaughter on manchurian battlefields. much comment has been given lately to the code of the samurai,--the art of death which makes our soldiers exult in self-sacrifice; but scarcely any attention has been drawn to teaism, which represents so much of our art of life. fain would we remain barbarians, if our claim to civilisation were to be based on the gruesome glory of war. fain would we await the time when due respect shall be paid to our art and ideals. when will the west understand, or try to understand, the east? we asiatics are often appalled by the curious web of facts and fancies which has been woven concerning us. we are pictured as living on the perfume of the lotus, if not on mice and cockroaches. it is either impotent fanaticism or else abject voluptuousness. indian spirituality has been derided as ignorance, chinese sobriety as stupidity, japanese patriotism as the result of fatalism. it has been said that we are less sensible to pain and wounds on account of the callousness of our nervous organisation! why not amuse yourselves at our expense? asia returns the compliment. there would be further food for merriment if you were to know all that we have imagined and written about you. all the glamour of the perspective is there, all the unconscious homage of wonder, all the silent resentment of the new and undefined. you have been loaded with virtues too refined to be envied, and accused of crimes too picturesque to be condemned. our writers in the past--the wise men who knew--informed us that you had bushy tails somewhere hidden in your garments, and often dined off a fricassee of newborn babes! nay, we had something worse against you: we used to think you the most impracticable people on the earth, for you were said to preach what you never practiced. such misconceptions are fast vanishing amongst us. commerce has forced the european tongues on many an eastern port. asiatic youths are flocking to western colleges for the equipment of modern education. our insight does not penetrate your culture deeply, but at least we are willing to learn. some of my compatriots have adopted too much of your customs and too much of your etiquette, in the delusion that the acquisition of stiff collars and tall silk hats comprised the attainment of your civilisation. pathetic and deplorable as such affectations are, they evince our willingness to approach the west on our knees. unfortunately the western attitude is unfavourable to the understanding of the east. the christian missionary goes to impart, but not to receive. your information is based on the meagre translations of our immense literature, if not on the unreliable anecdotes of passing travellers. it is rarely that the chivalrous pen of a lafcadio hearn or that of the author of "the web of indian life" enlivens the oriental darkness with the torch of our own sentiments. perhaps i betray my own ignorance of the tea cult by being so outspoken. its very spirit of politeness exacts that you say what you are expected to say, and no more. but i am not to be a polite teaist. so much harm has been done already by the mutual misunderstanding of the new world and the old, that one need not apologise for contributing his tithe to the furtherance of a better understanding. the beginning of the twentieth century would have been spared the spectacle of sanguinary warfare if russia had condescended to know japan better. what dire consequences to humanity lie in the contemptuous ignoring of eastern problems! european imperialism, which does not disdain to raise the absurd cry of the yellow peril, fails to realise that asia may also awaken to the cruel sense of the white disaster. you may laugh at us for having "too much tea," but may we not suspect that you of the west have "no tea" in your constitution? let us stop the continents from hurling epigrams at each other, and be sadder if not wiser by the mutual gain of half a hemisphere. we have developed along different lines, but there is no reason why one should not supplement the other. you have gained expansion at the cost of restlessness; we have created a harmony which is weak against aggression. will you believe it?--the east is better off in some respects than the west! strangely enough humanity has so far met in the tea-cup. it is the only asiatic ceremonial which commands universal esteem. the white man has scoffed at our religion and our morals, but has accepted the brown beverage without hesitation. the afternoon tea is now an important function in western society. in the delicate clatter of trays and saucers, in the soft rustle of feminine hospitality, in the common catechism about cream and sugar, we know that the worship of tea is established beyond question. the philosophic resignation of the guest to the fate awaiting him in the dubious decoction proclaims that in this single instance the oriental spirit reigns supreme. the earliest record of tea in european writing is said to be found in the statement of an arabian traveller, that after the year 879 the main sources of revenue in canton were the duties on salt and tea. marco polo records the deposition of a chinese minister of finance in 1285 for his arbitrary augmentation of the tea-taxes. it was at the period of the great discoveries that the european people began to know more about the extreme orient. at the end of the sixteenth century the hollanders brought the news that a pleasant drink was made in the east from the leaves of a bush. the travellers giovanni batista ramusio (1559), l. almeida (1576), maffeno (1588), tareira (1610), also mentioned tea. in the last-named year ships of the dutch east india company brought the first tea into europe. it was known in france in 1636, and reached russia in 1638. england welcomed it in 1650 and spoke of it as "that excellent and by all physicians approved china drink, called by the chineans tcha, and by other nations tay, alias tee." like all good things of the world, the propaganda of tea met with opposition. heretics like henry saville (1678) denounced drinking it as a filthy custom. jonas hanway (essay on tea, 1756) said that men seemed to lose their stature and comeliness, women their beauty through the use of tea. its cost at the start (about fifteen or sixteen shillings a pound) forbade popular consumption, and made it "regalia for high treatments and entertainments, presents being made thereof to princes and grandees." yet in spite of such drawbacks tea-drinking spread with marvelous rapidity. the coffee-houses of london in the early half of the eighteenth century became, in fact, tea-houses, the resort of wits like addison and steele, who beguiled themselves over their "dish of tea." the beverage soon became a necessity of life--a taxable matter. we are reminded in this connection what an important part it plays in modern history. colonial america resigned herself to oppression until human endurance gave way before the heavy duties laid on tea. american independence dates from the throwing of tea-chests into boston harbour. there is a subtle charm in the taste of tea which makes it irresistible and capable of idealisation. western humourists were not slow to mingle the fragrance of their thought with its aroma. it has not the arrogance of wine, the self-consciousness of coffee, nor the simpering innocence of cocoa. already in 1711, says the spectator: "i would therefore in a particular manner recommend these my speculations to all well-regulated families that set apart an hour every morning for tea, bread and butter; and would earnestly advise them for their good to order this paper to be punctually served up and to be looked upon as a part of the tea-equipage." samuel johnson draws his own portrait as "a hardened and shameless tea drinker, who for twenty years diluted his meals with only the infusion of the fascinating plant; who with tea amused the evening, with tea solaced the midnight, and with tea welcomed the morning." charles lamb, a professed devotee, sounded the true note of teaism when he wrote that the greatest pleasure he knew was to do a good action by stealth, and to have it found out by accident. for teaism is the art of concealing beauty that you may discover it, of suggesting what you dare not reveal. it is the noble secret of laughing at yourself, calmly yet thoroughly, and is thus humour itself,--the smile of philosophy. all genuine humourists may in this sense be called tea-philosophers, thackeray, for instance, and of course, shakespeare. the poets of the decadence (when was not the world in decadence?), in their protests against materialism, have, to a certain extent, also opened the way to teaism. perhaps nowadays it is our demure contemplation of the imperfect that the west and the east can meet in mutual consolation. the taoists relate that at the great beginning of the no-beginning, spirit and matter met in mortal combat. at last the yellow emperor, the sun of heaven, triumphed over shuhyung, the demon of darkness and earth. the titan, in his death agony, struck his head against the solar vault and shivered the blue dome of jade into fragments. the stars lost their nests, the moon wandered aimlessly among the wild chasms of the night. in despair the yellow emperor sought far and wide for the repairer of the heavens. he had not to search in vain. out of the eastern sea rose a queen, the divine niuka, horn-crowned and dragon-tailed, resplendent in her armor of fire. she welded the five-coloured rainbow in her magic cauldron and rebuilt the chinese sky. but it is told that niuka forgot to fill two tiny crevices in the blue firmament. thus began the dualism of love--two souls rolling through space and never at rest until they join together to complete the universe. everyone has to build anew his sky of hope and peace. the heaven of modern humanity is indeed shattered in the cyclopean struggle for wealth and power. the world is groping in the shadow of egotism and vulgarity. knowledge is bought through a bad conscience, benevolence practiced for the sake of utility. the east and the west, like two dragons tossed in a sea of ferment, in vain strive to regain the jewel of life. we need a niuka again to repair the grand devastation; we await the great avatar. meanwhile, let us have a sip of tea. the afternoon glow is brightening the bamboos, the fountains are bubbling with delight, the soughing of the pines is heard in our kettle. let us dream of evanescence, and linger in the beautiful foolishness of things. ii. the schools of tea. tea is a work of art and needs a master hand to bring out its noblest qualities. we have good and bad tea, as we have good and bad paintings--generally the latter. there is no single recipe for making the perfect tea, as there are no rules for producing a titian or a sesson. each preparation of the leaves has its individuality, its special affinity with water and heat, its own method of telling a story. the truly beautiful must always be in it. how much do we not suffer through the constant failure of society to recognise this simple and fundamental law of art and life; lichilai, a sung poet, has sadly remarked that there were three most deplorable things in the world: the spoiling of fine youths through false education, the degradation of fine art through vulgar admiration, and the utter waste of fine tea through incompetent manipulation. like art, tea has its periods and its schools. its evolution may be roughly divided into three main stages: the boiled tea, the whipped tea, and the steeped tea. we moderns belong to the last school. these several methods of appreciating the beverage are indicative of the spirit of the age in which they prevailed. for life is an expression, our unconscious actions the constant betrayal of our innermost thought. confucius said that "man hideth not." perhaps we reveal ourselves too much in small things because we have so little of the great to conceal. the tiny incidents of daily routine are as much a commentary of racial ideals as the highest flight of philosophy or poetry. even as the difference in favorite vintage marks the separate idiosyncrasies of different periods and nationalities of europe, so the tea-ideals characterise the various moods of oriental culture. the cake-tea which was boiled, the powdered-tea which was whipped, the leaf-tea which was steeped, mark the distinct emotional impulses of the tang, the sung, and the ming dynasties of china. if we were inclined to borrow the much-abused terminology of art-classification, we might designate them respectively, the classic, the romantic, and the naturalistic schools of tea. the tea-plant, a native of southern china, was known from very early times to chinese botany and medicine. it is alluded to in the classics under the various names of tou, tseh, chung, kha, and ming, and was highly prized for possessing the virtues of relieving fatigue, delighting the soul, strengthening the will, and repairing the eyesight. it was not only administered as an internal dose, but often applied externally in form of paste to alleviate rheumatic pains. the taoists claimed it as an important ingredient of the elixir of immortality. the buddhists used it extensively to prevent drowsiness during their long hours of meditation. by the fourth and fifth centuries tea became a favourite beverage among the inhabitants of the yangtse-kiang valley. it was about this time that modern ideograph cha was coined, evidently a corruption of the classic tou. the poets of the southern dynasties have left some fragments of their fervent adoration of the "froth of the liquid jade." then emperors used to bestow some rare preparation of the leaves on their high ministers as a reward for eminent services. yet the method of drinking tea at this stage was primitive in the extreme. the leaves were steamed, crushed in a mortar, made into a cake, and boiled together with rice, ginger, salt, orange peel, spices, milk, and sometimes with onions! the custom obtains at the present day among the thibetans and various mongolian tribes, who make a curious syrup of these ingredients. the use of lemon slices by the russians, who learned to take tea from the chinese caravansaries, points to the survival of the ancient method. it needed the genius of the tang dynasty to emancipate tea from its crude state and lead to its final idealization. with luwuh in the middle of the eighth century we have our first apostle of tea. he was born in an age when buddhism, taoism, and confucianism were seeking mutual synthesis. the pantheistic symbolism of the time was urging one to mirror the universal in the particular. luwuh, a poet, saw in the tea-service the same harmony and order which reigned through all things. in his celebrated work, the "chaking" (the holy scripture of tea) he formulated the code of tea. he has since been worshipped as the tutelary god of the chinese tea merchants. the "chaking" consists of three volumes and ten chapters. in the first chapter luwuh treats of the nature of the tea-plant, in the second of the implements for gathering the leaves, in the third of the selection of the leaves. according to him the best quality of the leaves must have "creases like the leathern boot of tartar horsemen, curl like the dewlap of a mighty bullock, unfold like a mist rising out of a ravine, gleam like a lake touched by a zephyr, and be wet and soft like fine earth newly swept by rain." the fourth chapter is devoted to the enumeration and description of the twenty-four members of the tea-equipage, beginning with the tripod brazier and ending with the bamboo cabinet for containing all these utensils. here we notice luwuh's predilection for taoist symbolism. also it is interesting to observe in this connection the influence of tea on chinese ceramics. the celestial porcelain, as is well known, had its origin in an attempt to reproduce the exquisite shade of jade, resulting, in the tang dynasty, in the blue glaze of the south, and the white glaze of the north. luwuh considered the blue as the ideal colour for the tea-cup, as it lent additional greenness to the beverage, whereas the white made it look pinkish and distasteful. it was because he used cake-tea. later on, when the tea masters of sung took to the powdered tea, they preferred heavy bowls of blue-black and dark brown. the mings, with their steeped tea, rejoiced in light ware of white porcelain. in the fifth chapter luwuh describes the method of making tea. he eliminates all ingredients except salt. he dwells also on the much-discussed question of the choice of water and the degree of boiling it. according to him, the mountain spring is the best, the river water and the spring water come next in the order of excellence. there are three stages of boiling: the first boil is when the little bubbles like the eye of fishes swim on the surface; the second boil is when the bubbles are like crystal beads rolling in a fountain; the third boil is when the billows surge wildly in the kettle. the cake-tea is roasted before the fire until it becomes soft like a baby's arm and is shredded into powder between pieces of fine paper. salt is put in the first boil, the tea in the second. at the third boil, a dipperful of cold water is poured into the kettle to settle the tea and revive the "youth of the water." then the beverage was poured into cups and drunk. o nectar! the filmy leaflet hung like scaly clouds in a serene sky or floated like waterlilies on emerald streams. it was of such a beverage that lotung, a tang poet, wrote: "the first cup moistens my lips and throat, the second cup breaks my loneliness, the third cup searches my barren entrail but to find therein some five thousand volumes of odd ideographs. the fourth cup raises a slight perspiration,--all the wrong of life passes away through my pores. at the fifth cup i am purified; the sixth cup calls me to the realms of the immortals. the seventh cup--ah, but i could take no more! i only feel the breath of cool wind that rises in my sleeves. where is horaisan? let me ride on this sweet breeze and waft away thither." the remaining chapters of the "chaking" treat of the vulgarity of the ordinary methods of tea-drinking, a historical summary of illustrious tea-drinkers, the famous tea plantations of china, the possible variations of the tea-service and illustrations of the tea-utensils. the last is unfortunately lost. the appearance of the "chaking" must have created considerable sensation at the time. luwuh was befriended by the emperor taisung (763-779), and his fame attracted many followers. some exquisites were said to have been able to detect the tea made by luwuh from that of his disciples. one mandarin has his name immortalised by his failure to appreciate the tea of this great master. in the sung dynasty the whipped tea came into fashion and created the second school of tea. the leaves were ground to fine powder in a small stone mill, and the preparation was whipped in hot water by a delicate whisk made of split bamboo. the new process led to some change in the tea-equipage of luwuh, as well as in the choice of leaves. salt was discarded forever. the enthusiasm of the sung people for tea knew no bounds. epicures vied with each other in discovering new varieties, and regular tournaments were held to decide their superiority. the emperor kiasung (1101-1124), who was too great an artist to be a well-behaved monarch, lavished his treasures on the attainment of rare species. he himself wrote a dissertation on the twenty kinds of tea, among which he prizes the "white tea" as of the rarest and finest quality. the tea-ideal of the sungs differed from the tangs even as their notion of life differed. they sought to actualize what their predecessors tried to symbolise. to the neo-confucian mind the cosmic law was not reflected in the phenomenal world, but the phenomenal world was the cosmic law itself. aeons were but moments--nirvana always within grasp. the taoist conception that immortality lay in the eternal change permeated all their modes of thought. it was the process, not the deed, which was interesting. it was the completing, not the completion, which was really vital. man came thus at once face to face with nature. a new meaning grew into the art of life. the tea began to be not a poetical pastime, but one of the methods of self-realisation. wangyucheng eulogised tea as "flooding his soul like a direct appeal, that its delicate bitterness reminded him of the aftertaste of a good counsel." sotumpa wrote of the strength of the immaculate purity in tea which defied corruption as a truly virtuous man. among the buddhists, the southern zen sect, which incorporated so much of taoist doctrines, formulated an elaborate ritual of tea. the monks gathered before the image of bodhi dharma and drank tea out of a single bowl with the profound formality of a holy sacrament. it was this zen ritual which finally developed into the tea-ceremony of japan in the fifteenth century. unfortunately the sudden outburst of the mongol tribes in the thirteenth century which resulted in the devastation and conquest of china under the barbaric rule of the yuen emperors, destroyed all the fruits of sung culture. the native dynasty of the mings which attempted re-nationalisation in the middle of the fifteenth century was harassed by internal troubles, and china again fell under the alien rule of the manchus in the seventeenth century. manners and customs changed to leave no vestige of the former times. the powdered tea is entirely forgotten. we find a ming commentator at loss to recall the shape of the tea whisk mentioned in one of the sung classics. tea is now taken by steeping the leaves in hot water in a bowl or cup. the reason why the western world is innocent of the older method of drinking tea is explained by the fact that europe knew it only at the close of the ming dynasty. to the latter-day chinese tea is a delicious beverage, but not an ideal. the long woes of his country have robbed him of the zest for the meaning of life. he has become modern, that is to say, old and disenchanted. he has lost that sublime faith in illusions which constitutes the eternal youth and vigour of the poets and ancients. he is an eclectic and politely accepts the traditions of the universe. he toys with nature, but does not condescend to conquer or worship her. his leaf-tea is often wonderful with its flower-like aroma, but the romance of the tang and sung ceremonials are not to be found in his cup. japan, which followed closely on the footsteps of chinese civilisation, has known the tea in all its three stages. as early as the year 729 we read of the emperor shomu giving tea to one hundred monks at his palace in nara. the leaves were probably imported by our ambassadors to the tang court and prepared in the way then in fashion. in 801 the monk saicho brought back some seeds and planted them in yeisan. many tea-gardens are heard of in succeeding centuries, as well as the delight of the aristocracy and priesthood in the beverage. the sung tea reached us in 1191 with the return of yeisai-zenji, who went there to study the southern zen school. the new seeds which he carried home were successfully planted in three places, one of which, the uji district near kioto, bears still the name of producing the best tea in the world. the southern zen spread with marvelous rapidity, and with it the tea-ritual and the tea-ideal of the sung. by the fifteenth century, under the patronage of the shogun, ashikaga-voshinasa, the tea ceremony is fully constituted and made into an independent and secular performance. since then teaism is fully established in japan. the use of the steeped tea of the later china is comparatively recent among us, being only known since the middle of the seventeenth century. it has replaced the powdered tea in ordinary consumption, though the latter still continues to hold its place as the tea of teas. it is in the japanese tea ceremony that we see the culmination of tea-ideals. our successful resistance of the mongol invasion in 1281 had enabled us to carry on the sung movement so disastrously cut off in china itself through the nomadic inroad. tea with us became more than an idealisation of the form of drinking; it is a religion of the art of life. the beverage grew to be an excuse for the worship of purity and refinement, a sacred function at which the host and guest joined to produce for that occasion the utmost beatitude of the mundane. the tea-room was an oasis in the dreary waste of existence where weary travellers could meet to drink from the common spring of art-appreciation. the ceremony was an improvised drama whose plot was woven about the tea, the flowers, and the paintings. not a colour to disturb the tone of the room, not a sound to mar the rhythm of things, not a gesture to obtrude on the harmony, not a word to break the unity of the surroundings, all movements to be performed simply and naturally--such were the aims of the tea-ceremony. and strangely enough it was often successful. a subtle philosophy lay behind it all. teaism was taoism in disguise. iii. taoism and zennism the connection of zennism with tea is proverbial. we have already remarked that the tea-ceremony was a development of the zen ritual. the name of laotse, the founder of taoism, is also intimately associated with the history of tea. it is written in the chinese school manual concerning the origin of habits and customs that the ceremony of offering tea to a guest began with kwanyin, a well-known disciple of laotse, who first at the gate of the han pass presented to the "old philosopher" a cup of the golden elixir. we shall not stop to discuss the authenticity of such tales, which are valuable, however, as confirming the early use of the beverage by the taoists. our interest in taoism and zennism here lies mainly in those ideas regarding life and art which are so embodied in what we call teaism. it is to be regretted that as yet there appears to be no adequate presentation of the taoists and zen doctrines in any foreign language, though we have had several laudable attempts. translation is always a treason, and as a ming author observes, can at its best be only the reverse side of a brocade,--all the threads are there, but not the subtlety of colour or design. but, after all, what great doctrine is there which is easy to expound? the ancient sages never put their teachings in systematic form. they spoke in paradoxes, for they were afraid of uttering half-truths. they began by talking like fools and ended by making their hearers wise. laotse himself, with his quaint humour, says, "if people of inferior intelligence hear of the tao, they laugh immensely. it would not be the tao unless they laughed at it." the tao literally means a path. it has been severally translated as the way, the absolute, the law, nature, supreme reason, the mode. these renderings are not incorrect, for the use of the term by the taoists differs according to the subject-matter of the inquiry. laotse himself spoke of it thus: "there is a thing which is all-containing, which was born before the existence of heaven and earth. how silent! how solitary! it stands alone and changes not. it revolves without danger to itself and is the mother of the universe. i do not know its name and so call it the path. with reluctance i call it the infinite. infinity is the fleeting, the fleeting is the vanishing, the vanishing is the reverting." the tao is in the passage rather than the path. it is the spirit of cosmic change,--the eternal growth which returns upon itself to produce new forms. it recoils upon itself like the dragon, the beloved symbol of the taoists. it folds and unfolds as do the clouds. the tao might be spoken of as the great transition. subjectively it is the mood of the universe. its absolute is the relative. it should be remembered in the first place that taoism, like its legitimate successor zennism, represents the individualistic trend of the southern chinese mind in contra-distinction to the communism of northern china which expressed itself in confucianism. the middle kingdom is as vast as europe and has a differentiation of idiosyncrasies marked by the two great river systems which traverse it. the yangtse-kiang and hoang-ho are respectively the mediterranean and the baltic. even to-day, in spite of centuries of unification, the southern celestial differs in his thoughts and beliefs from his northern brother as a member of the latin race differs from the teuton. in ancient days, when communication was even more difficult than at present, and especially during the feudal period, this difference in thought was most pronounced. the art and poetry of the one breathes an atmosphere entirely distinct from that of the other. in laotse and his followers and in kutsugen, the forerunner of the yangtse-kiang nature-poets, we find an idealism quite inconsistent with the prosaic ethical notions of their contemporary northern writers. laotse lived five centuries before the christian era. the germ of taoist speculation may be found long before the advent of laotse, surnamed the long-eared. the archaic records of china, especially the book of changes, foreshadow his thought. but the great respect paid to the laws and customs of that classic period of chinese civilisation which culminated with the establishment of the chow dynasty in the sixteenth century b.c., kept the development of individualism in check for a long while, so that it was not until after the disintegration of the chow dynasty and the establishment of innumerable independent kingdoms that it was able to blossom forth in the luxuriance of free-thought. laotse and soshi (chuangtse) were both southerners and the greatest exponents of the new school. on the other hand, confucius with his numerous disciples aimed at retaining ancestral conventions. taoism cannot be understood without some knowledge of confucianism and vice versa. we have said that the taoist absolute was the relative. in ethics the taoist railed at the laws and the moral codes of society, for to them right and wrong were but relative terms. definition is always limitation--the "fixed" and "unchangeless" are but terms expressive of a stoppage of growth. said kuzugen,--"the sages move the world." our standards of morality are begotten of the past needs of society, but is society to remain always the same? the observance of communal traditions involves a constant sacrifice of the individual to the state. education, in order to keep up the mighty delusion, encourages a species of ignorance. people are not taught to be really virtuous, but to behave properly. we are wicked because we are frightfully self-conscious. we nurse a conscience because we are afraid to tell the truth to others; we take refuge in pride because we are afraid to tell the truth to ourselves. how can one be serious with the world when the world itself is so ridiculous! the spirit of barter is everywhere. honour and chastity! behold the complacent salesman retailing the good and true. one can even buy a so-called religion, which is really but common morality sanctified with flowers and music. rob the church of her accessories and what remains behind? yet the trusts thrive marvelously, for the prices are absurdly cheap,--a prayer for a ticket to heaven, a diploma for an honourable citizenship. hide yourself under a bushel quickly, for if your real usefulness were known to the world you would soon be knocked down to the highest bidder by the public auctioneer. why do men and women like to advertise themselves so much? is it not but an instinct derived from the days of slavery? the virility of the idea lies not less in its power of breaking through contemporary thought than in its capacity for dominating subsequent movements. taoism was an active power during the shin dynasty, that epoch of chinese unification from which we derive the name china. it would be interesting had we time to note its influence on contemporary thinkers, the mathematicians, writers on law and war, the mystics and alchemists and the later nature-poets of the yangtse-kiang. we should not even ignore those speculators on reality who doubted whether a white horse was real because he was white, or because he was solid, nor the conversationalists of the six dynasties who, like the zen philosophers, revelled in discussions concerning the pure and the abstract. above all we should pay homage to taoism for what it has done toward the formation of the celestial character, giving to it a certain capacity for reserve and refinement as "warm as jade." chinese history is full of instances in which the votaries of taoism, princes and hermits alike, followed with varied and interesting results the teachings of their creed. the tale will not be without its quota of instruction and amusement. it will be rich in anecdotes, allegories, and aphorisms. we would fain be on speaking terms with the delightful emperor who never died because he had never lived. we may ride the wind with liehtse and find it absolutely quiet because we ourselves are the wind, or dwell in mid-air with the aged one of the hoang-ho, who lived betwixt heaven and earth because he was subject to neither the one nor the other. even in that grotesque apology for taoism which we find in china at the present day, we can revel in a wealth of imagery impossible to find in any other cult. but the chief contribution of taoism to asiatic life has been in the realm of aesthetics. chinese historians have always spoken of taoism as the "art of being in the world," for it deals with the present--ourselves. it is in us that god meets with nature, and yesterday parts from to-morrow. the present is the moving infinity, the legitimate sphere of the relative. relativity seeks adjustment; adjustment is art. the art of life lies in a constant readjustment to our surroundings. taoism accepts the mundane as it is and, unlike the confucians or the buddhists, tries to find beauty in our world of woe and worry. the sung allegory of the three vinegar tasters explains admirably the trend of the three doctrines. sakyamuni, confucius, and laotse once stood before a jar of vinegar--the emblem of life--and each dipped in his finger to taste the brew. the matter-of-fact confucius found it sour, the buddha called it bitter, and laotse pronounced it sweet. the taoists claimed that the comedy of life could be made more interesting if everyone would preserve the unities. to keep the proportion of things and give place to others without losing one's own position was the secret of success in the mundane drama. we must know the whole play in order to properly act our parts; the conception of totality must never be lost in that of the individual. this laotse illustrates by his favourite metaphor of the vacuum. he claimed that only in vacuum lay the truly essential. the reality of a room, for instance, was to be found in the vacant space enclosed by the roof and the walls, not in the roof and walls themselves. the usefulness of a water pitcher dwelt in the emptiness where water might be put, not in the form of the pitcher or the material of which it was made. vacuum is all potent because all containing. in vacuum alone motion becomes possible. one who could make of himself a vacuum into which others might freely enter would become master of all situations. the whole can always dominate the part. these taoists' ideas have greatly influenced all our theories of action, even to those of fencing and wrestling. jiu-jitsu, the japanese art of self-defence, owes its name to a passage in the tao-teking. in jiu-jitsu one seeks to draw out and exhaust the enemy's strength by non-resistance, vacuum, while conserving one's own strength for victory in the final struggle. in art the importance of the same principle is illustrated by the value of suggestion. in leaving something unsaid the beholder is given a chance to complete the idea and thus a great masterpiece irresistibly rivets your attention until you seem to become actually a part of it. a vacuum is there for you to enter and fill up the full measure of your aesthetic emotion. he who had made himself master of the art of living was the real man of the taoist. at birth he enters the realm of dreams only to awaken to reality at death. he tempers his own brightness in order to merge himself into the obscurity of others. he is "reluctant, as one who crosses a stream in winter; hesitating as one who fears the neighbourhood; respectful, like a guest; trembling, like ice that is about to melt; unassuming, like a piece of wood not yet carved; vacant, like a valley; formless, like troubled waters." to him the three jewels of life were pity, economy, and modesty. if now we turn our attention to zennism we shall find that it emphasises the teachings of taoism. zen is a name derived from the sanscrit word dhyana, which signifies meditation. it claims that through consecrated meditation may be attained supreme self-realisation. meditation is one of the six ways through which buddhahood may be reached, and the zen sectarians affirm that sakyamuni laid special stress on this method in his later teachings, handing down the rules to his chief disciple kashiapa. according to their tradition kashiapa, the first zen patriarch, imparted the secret to ananda, who in turn passed it on to successive patriarchs until it reached bodhi-dharma, the twenty-eighth. bodhi-dharma came to northern china in the early half of the sixth century and was the first patriarch of chinese zen. there is much uncertainty about the history of these patriarchs and their doctrines. in its philosophical aspect early zennism seems to have affinity on one hand to the indian negativism of nagarjuna and on the other to the gnan philosophy formulated by sancharacharya. the first teaching of zen as we know it at the present day must be attributed to the sixth chinese patriarch yeno(637-713), founder of southern zen, so-called from the fact of its predominance in southern china. he is closely followed by the great baso(died 788) who made of zen a living influence in celestial life. hiakujo(719-814) the pupil of baso, first instituted the zen monastery and established a ritual and regulations for its government. in the discussions of the zen school after the time of baso we find the play of the yangtse-kiang mind causing an accession of native modes of thought in contrast to the former indian idealism. whatever sectarian pride may assert to the contrary one cannot help being impressed by the similarity of southern zen to the teachings of laotse and the taoist conversationalists. in the tao-teking we already find allusions to the importance of self-concentration and the need of properly regulating the breath--essential points in the practice of zen meditation. some of the best commentaries on the book of laotse have been written by zen scholars. zennism, like taoism, is the worship of relativity. one master defines zen as the art of feeling the polar star in the southern sky. truth can be reached only through the comprehension of opposites. again, zennism, like taoism, is a strong advocate of individualism. nothing is real except that which concerns the working of our own minds. yeno, the sixth patriarch, once saw two monks watching the flag of a pagoda fluttering in the wind. one said "it is the wind that moves," the other said "it is the flag that moves"; but yeno explained to them that the real movement was neither of the wind nor the flag, but of something within their own minds. hiakujo was walking in the forest with a disciple when a hare scurried off at their approach. "why does the hare fly from you?" asked hiakujo. "because he is afraid of me," was the answer. "no," said the master, "it is because you have murderous instinct." the dialogue recalls that of soshi (chaungtse), the taoist. one day soshi was walking on the bank of a river with a friend. "how delightfully the fishes are enjoying themselves in the water!" exclaimed soshi. his friend spake to him thus: "you are not a fish; how do you know that the fishes are enjoying themselves?" "you are not myself," returned soshi; "how do you know that i do not know that the fishes are enjoying themselves?" zen was often opposed to the precepts of orthodox buddhism even as taoism was opposed to confucianism. to the transcendental insight of the zen, words were but an incumbrance to thought; the whole sway of buddhist scriptures only commentaries on personal speculation. the followers of zen aimed at direct communion with the inner nature of things, regarding their outward accessories only as impediments to a clear perception of truth. it was this love of the abstract that led the zen to prefer black and white sketches to the elaborately coloured paintings of the classic buddhist school. some of the zen even became iconoclastic as a result of their endeavor to recognise the buddha in themselves rather than through images and symbolism. we find tankawosho breaking up a wooden statue of buddha on a wintry day to make a fire. "what sacrilege!" said the horror-stricken bystander. "i wish to get the shali out of the ashes," calmly rejoined the zen. "but you certainly will not get shali from this image!" was the angry retort, to which tanka replied, "if i do not, this is certainly not a buddha and i am committing no sacrilege." then he turned to warm himself over the kindling fire. a special contribution of zen to eastern thought was its recognition of the mundane as of equal importance with the spiritual. it held that in the great relation of things there was no distinction of small and great, an atom possessing equal possibilities with the universe. the seeker for perfection must discover in his own life the reflection of the inner light. the organisation of the zen monastery was very significant of this point of view. to every member, except the abbot, was assigned some special work in the caretaking of the monastery, and curiously enough, to the novices was committed the lighter duties, while to the most respected and advanced monks were given the more irksome and menial tasks. such services formed a part of the zen discipline and every least action must be done absolutely perfectly. thus many a weighty discussion ensued while weeding the garden, paring a turnip, or serving tea. the whole ideal of teaism is a result of this zen conception of greatness in the smallest incidents of life. taoism furnished the basis for aesthetic ideals, zennism made them practical. iv. the tea-room to european architects brought up on the traditions of stone and brick construction, our japanese method of building with wood and bamboo seems scarcely worthy to be ranked as architecture. it is but quite recently that a competent student of western architecture has recognised and paid tribute to the remarkable perfection of our great temples. such being the case as regards our classic architecture, we could hardly expect the outsider to appreciate the subtle beauty of the tea-room, its principles of construction and decoration being entirely different from those of the west. the tea-room (the sukiya) does not pretend to be other than a mere cottage--a straw hut, as we call it. the original ideographs for sukiya mean the abode of fancy. latterly the various tea-masters substituted various chinese characters according to their conception of the tea-room, and the term sukiya may signify the abode of vacancy or the abode of the unsymmetrical. it is an abode of fancy inasmuch as it is an ephemeral structure built to house a poetic impulse. it is an abode of vacancy inasmuch as it is devoid of ornamentation except for what may be placed in it to satisfy some aesthetic need of the moment. it is an abode of the unsymmetrical inasmuch as it is consecrated to the worship of the imperfect, purposely leaving some thing unfinished for the play of the imagination to complete. the ideals of teaism have since the sixteenth century influenced our architecture to such degree that the ordinary japanese interior of the present day, on account of the extreme simplicity and chasteness of its scheme of decoration, appears to foreigners almost barren. the first independent tea-room was the creation of senno-soyeki, commonly known by his later name of rikiu, the greatest of all tea-masters, who, in the sixteenth century, under the patronage of taiko-hideyoshi, instituted and brought to a high state of perfection the formalities of the tea-ceremony. the proportions of the tea-room had been previously determined by jowo--a famous tea-master of the fifteenth century. the early tea-room consisted merely of a portion of the ordinary drawing-room partitioned off by screens for the purpose of the tea-gathering. the portion partitioned off was called the kakoi (enclosure), a name still applied to those tea-rooms which are built into a house and are not independent constructions. the sukiya consists of the tea-room proper, designed to accommodate not more than five persons, a number suggestive of the saying "more than the graces and less than the muses," an anteroom (midsuya) where the tea utensils are washed and arranged before being brought in, a portico (machiai) in which the guests wait until they receive the summons to enter the tea-room, and a garden path (the roji) which connects the machiai with the tea-room. the tea-room is unimpressive in appearance. it is smaller than the smallest of japanese houses, while the materials used in its construction are intended to give the suggestion of refined poverty. yet we must remember that all this is the result of profound artistic forethought, and that the details have been worked out with care perhaps even greater than that expended on the building of the richest palaces and temples. a good tea-room is more costly than an ordinary mansion, for the selection of its materials, as well as its workmanship, requires immense care and precision. indeed, the carpenters employed by the tea-masters form a distinct and highly honoured class among artisans, their work being no less delicate than that of the makers of lacquer cabinets. the tea-room is not only different from any production of western architecture, but also contrasts strongly with the classical architecture of japan itself. our ancient noble edifices, whether secular or ecclesiastical, were not to be despised even as regards their mere size. the few that have been spared in the disastrous conflagrations of centuries are still capable of aweing us by the grandeur and richness of their decoration. huge pillars of wood from two to three feet in diameter and from thirty to forty feet high, supported, by a complicated network of brackets, the enormous beams which groaned under the weight of the tile-covered roofs. the material and mode of construction, though weak against fire, proved itself strong against earthquakes, and was well suited to the climatic conditions of the country. in the golden hall of horiuji and the pagoda of yakushiji, we have noteworthy examples of the durability of our wooden architecture. these buildings have practically stood intact for nearly twelve centuries. the interior of the old temples and palaces was profusely decorated. in the hoodo temple at uji, dating from the tenth century, we can still see the elaborate canopy and gilded baldachinos, many-coloured and inlaid with mirrors and mother-of-pearl, as well as remains of the paintings and sculpture which formerly covered the walls. later, at nikko and in the nijo castle in kyoto, we see structural beauty sacrificed to a wealth of ornamentation which in colour and exquisite detail equals the utmost gorgeousness of arabian or moorish effort. the simplicity and purism of the tea-room resulted from emulation of the zen monastery. a zen monastery differs from those of other buddhist sects inasmuch as it is meant only to be a dwelling place for the monks. its chapel is not a place of worship or pilgrimage, but a college room where the students congregate for discussion and the practice of meditation. the room is bare except for a central alcove in which, behind the altar, is a statue of bodhi dharma, the founder of the sect, or of sakyamuni attended by kashiapa and ananda, the two earliest zen patriarchs. on the altar, flowers and incense are offered up in the memory of the great contributions which these sages made to zen. we have already said that it was the ritual instituted by the zen monks of successively drinking tea out of a bowl before the image of bodhi dharma, which laid the foundations of the tea-ceremony. we might add here that the altar of the zen chapel was the prototype of the tokonoma,--the place of honour in a japanese room where paintings and flowers are placed for the edification of the guests. all our great tea-masters were students of zen and attempted to introduce the spirit of zennism into the actualities of life. thus the room, like the other equipments of the tea-ceremony, reflects many of the zen doctrines. the size of the orthodox tea-room, which is four mats and a half, or ten feet square, is determined by a passage in the sutra of vikramadytia. in that interesting work, vikramadytia welcomes the saint manjushiri and eighty-four thousand disciples of buddha in a room of this size,--an allegory based on the theory of the non-existence of space to the truly enlightened. again the roji, the garden path which leads from the machiai to the tea-room, signified the first stage of meditation,--the passage into self-illumination. the roji was intended to break connection with the outside world, and produce a fresh sensation conducive to the full enjoyment of aestheticism in the tea-room itself. one who has trodden this garden path cannot fail to remember how his spirit, as he walked in the twilight of evergreens over the regular irregularities of the stepping stones, beneath which lay dried pine needles, and passed beside the moss-covered granite lanterns, became uplifted above ordinary thoughts. one may be in the midst of a city, and yet feel as if he were in the forest far away from the dust and din of civilisation. great was the ingenuity displayed by the tea-masters in producing these effects of serenity and purity. the nature of the sensations to be aroused in passing through the roji differed with different tea-masters. some, like rikiu, aimed at utter loneliness, and claimed the secret of making a roji was contained in the ancient ditty: "i look beyond; flowers are not, nor tinted leaves. on the sea beach a solitary cottage stands in the waning light of an autumn eve." others, like kobori-enshiu, sought for a different effect. enshiu said the idea of the garden path was to be found in the following verses: "a cluster of summer trees, a bit of the sea, a pale evening moon." it is not difficult to gather his meaning. he wished to create the attitude of a newly awakened soul still lingering amid shadowy dreams of the past, yet bathing in the sweet unconsciousness of a mellow spiritual light, and yearning for the freedom that lay in the expanse beyond. thus prepared the guest will silently approach the sanctuary, and, if a samurai, will leave his sword on the rack beneath the eaves, the tea-room being preeminently the house of peace. then he will bend low and creep into the room through a small door not more than three feet in height. this proceeding was incumbent on all guests,--high and low alike,--and was intended to inculcate humility. the order of precedence having been mutually agreed upon while resting in the machiai, the guests one by one will enter noiselessly and take their seats, first making obeisance to the picture or flower arrangement on the tokonoma. the host will not enter the room until all the guests have seated themselves and quiet reigns with nothing to break the silence save the note of the boiling water in the iron kettle. the kettle sings well, for pieces of iron are so arranged in the bottom as to produce a peculiar melody in which one may hear the echoes of a cataract muffled by clouds, of a distant sea breaking among the rocks, a rainstorm sweeping through a bamboo forest, or of the soughing of pines on some faraway hill. even in the daytime the light in the room is subdued, for the low eaves of the slanting roof admit but few of the sun's rays. everything is sober in tint from the ceiling to the floor; the guests themselves have carefully chosen garments of unobtrusive colors. the mellowness of age is over all, everything suggestive of recent acquirement being tabooed save only the one note of contrast furnished by the bamboo dipper and the linen napkin, both immaculately white and new. however faded the tea-room and the tea-equipage may seem, everything is absolutely clean. not a particle of dust will be found in the darkest corner, for if any exists the host is not a tea-master. one of the first requisites of a tea-master is the knowledge of how to sweep, clean, and wash, for there is an art in cleaning and dusting. a piece of antique metal work must not be attacked with the unscrupulous zeal of the dutch housewife. dripping water from a flower vase need not be wiped away, for it may be suggestive of dew and coolness. in this connection there is a story of rikiu which well illustrates the ideas of cleanliness entertained by the tea-masters. rikiu was watching his son shoan as he swept and watered the garden path. "not clean enough," said rikiu, when shoan had finished his task, and bade him try again. after a weary hour the son turned to rikiu: "father, there is nothing more to be done. the steps have been washed for the third time, the stone lanterns and the trees are well sprinkled with water, moss and lichens are shining with a fresh verdure; not a twig, not a leaf have i left on the ground." "young fool," chided the tea-master, "that is not the way a garden path should be swept." saying this, rikiu stepped into the garden, shook a tree and scattered over the garden gold and crimson leaves, scraps of the brocade of autumn! what rikiu demanded was not cleanliness alone, but the beautiful and the natural also. the name, abode of fancy, implies a structure created to meet some individual artistic requirement. the tea-room is made for the tea master, not the tea-master for the tea-room. it is not intended for posterity and is therefore ephemeral. the idea that everyone should have a house of his own is based on an ancient custom of the japanese race, shinto superstition ordaining that every dwelling should be evacuated on the death of its chief occupant. perhaps there may have been some unrealized sanitary reason for this practice. another early custom was that a newly built house should be provided for each couple that married. it is on account of such customs that we find the imperial capitals so frequently removed from one site to another in ancient days. the rebuilding, every twenty years, of ise temple, the supreme shrine of the sun-goddess, is an example of one of these ancient rites which still obtain at the present day. the observance of these customs was only possible with some form of construction as that furnished by our system of wooden architecture, easily pulled down, easily built up. a more lasting style, employing brick and stone, would have rendered migrations impracticable, as indeed they became when the more stable and massive wooden construction of china was adopted by us after the nara period. with the predominance of zen individualism in the fifteenth century, however, the old idea became imbued with a deeper significance as conceived in connection with the tea-room. zennism, with the buddhist theory of evanescence and its demands for the mastery of spirit over matter, recognized the house only as a temporary refuge for the body. the body itself was but as a hut in the wilderness, a flimsy shelter made by tying together the grasses that grew around,--when these ceased to be bound together they again became resolved into the original waste. in the tea-room fugitiveness is suggested in the thatched roof, frailty in the slender pillars, lightness in the bamboo support, apparent carelessness in the use of commonplace materials. the eternal is to be found only in the spirit which, embodied in these simple surroundings, beautifies them with the subtle light of its refinement. that the tea-room should be built to suit some individual taste is an enforcement of the principle of vitality in art. art, to be fully appreciated, must be true to contemporaneous life. it is not that we should ignore the claims of posterity, but that we should seek to enjoy the present more. it is not that we should disregard the creations of the past, but that we should try to assimilate them into our consciousness. slavish conformity to traditions and formulas fetters the expression of individuality in architecture. we can but weep over the senseless imitations of european buildings which one beholds in modern japan. we marvel why, among the most progressive western nations, architecture should be so devoid of originality, so replete with repetitions of obsolete styles. perhaps we are passing through an age of democratisation in art, while awaiting the rise of some princely master who shall establish a new dynasty. would that we loved the ancients more and copied them less! it has been said that the greeks were great because they never drew from the antique. the term, abode of vacancy, besides conveying the taoist theory of the all-containing, involves the conception of a continued need of change in decorative motives. the tea-room is absolutely empty, except for what may be placed there temporarily to satisfy some aesthetic mood. some special art object is brought in for the occasion, and everything else is selected and arranged to enhance the beauty of the principal theme. one cannot listen to different pieces of music at the same time, a real comprehension of the beautiful being possible only through concentration upon some central motive. thus it will be seen that the system of decoration in our tea-rooms is opposed to that which obtains in the west, where the interior of a house is often converted into a museum. to a japanese, accustomed to simplicity of ornamentation and frequent change of decorative method, a western interior permanently filled with a vast array of pictures, statuary, and bric-a-brac gives the impression of mere vulgar display of riches. it calls for a mighty wealth of appreciation to enjoy the constant sight of even a masterpiece, and limitless indeed must be the capacity for artistic feeling in those who can exist day after day in the midst of such confusion of color and form as is to be often seen in the homes of europe and america. the "abode of the unsymmetrical" suggests another phase of our decorative scheme. the absence of symmetry in japanese art objects has been often commented on by western critics. this, also, is a result of a working out through zennism of taoist ideals. confucianism, with its deep-seated idea of dualism, and northern buddhism with its worship of a trinity, were in no way opposed to the expression of symmetry. as a matter of fact, if we study the ancient bronzes of china or the religious arts of the tang dynasty and the nara period, we shall recognize a constant striving after symmetry. the decoration of our classical interiors was decidedly regular in its arrangement. the taoist and zen conception of perfection, however, was different. the dynamic nature of their philosophy laid more stress upon the process through which perfection was sought than upon perfection itself. true beauty could be discovered only by one who mentally completed the incomplete. the virility of life and art lay in its possibilities for growth. in the tea-room it is left for each guest in imagination to complete the total effect in relation to himself. since zennism has become the prevailing mode of thought, the art of the extreme orient has purposefully avoided the symmetrical as expressing not only completion, but repetition. uniformity of design was considered fatal to the freshness of imagination. thus, landscapes, birds, and flowers became the favorite subjects for depiction rather than the human figure, the latter being present in the person of the beholder himself. we are often too much in evidence as it is, and in spite of our vanity even self-regard is apt to become monotonous. in the tea-room the fear of repetition is a constant presence. the various objects for the decoration of a room should be so selected that no colour or design shall be repeated. if you have a living flower, a painting of flowers is not allowable. if you are using a round kettle, the water pitcher should be angular. a cup with a black glaze should not be associated with a tea-caddy of black lacquer. in placing a vase of an incense burner on the tokonoma, care should be taken not to put it in the exact centre, lest it divide the space into equal halves. the pillar of the tokonoma should be of a different kind of wood from the other pillars, in order to break any suggestion of monotony in the room. here again the japanese method of interior decoration differs from that of the occident, where we see objects arrayed symmetrically on mantelpieces and elsewhere. in western houses we are often confronted with what appears to us useless reiteration. we find it trying to talk to a man while his full-length portrait stares at us from behind his back. we wonder which is real, he of the picture or he who talks, and feel a curious conviction that one of them must be fraud. many a time have we sat at a festive board contemplating, with a secret shock to our digestion, the representation of abundance on the dining-room walls. why these pictured victims of chase and sport, the elaborate carvings of fishes and fruit? why the display of family plates, reminding us of those who have dined and are dead? the simplicity of the tea-room and its freedom from vulgarity make it truly a sanctuary from the vexations of the outer world. there and there alone one can consecrate himself to undisturbed adoration of the beautiful. in the sixteenth century the tea-room afforded a welcome respite from labour to the fierce warriors and statesmen engaged in the unification and reconstruction of japan. in the seventeenth century, after the strict formalism of the tokugawa rule had been developed, it offered the only opportunity possible for the free communion of artistic spirits. before a great work of art there was no distinction between daimyo, samurai, and commoner. nowadays industrialism is making true refinement more and more difficult all the world over. do we not need the tea-room more than ever? v. art appreciation have you heard the taoist tale of the taming of the harp? once in the hoary ages in the ravine of lungmen stood a kiri tree, a veritable king of the forest. it reared its head to talk to the stars; its roots struck deep into the earth, mingling their bronzed coils with those of the silver dragon that slept beneath. and it came to pass that a mighty wizard made of this tree a wondrous harp, whose stubborn spirit should be tamed but by the greatest of musicians. for long the instrument was treasured by the emperor of china, but all in vain were the efforts of those who in turn tried to draw melody from its strings. in response to their utmost strivings there came from the harp but harsh notes of disdain, ill-according with the songs they fain would sing. the harp refused to recognise a master. at last came peiwoh, the prince of harpists. with tender hand he caressed the harp as one might seek to soothe an unruly horse, and softly touched the chords. he sang of nature and the seasons, of high mountains and flowing waters, and all the memories of the tree awoke! once more the sweet breath of spring played amidst its branches. the young cataracts, as they danced down the ravine, laughed to the budding flowers. anon were heard the dreamy voices of summer with its myriad insects, the gentle pattering of rain, the wail of the cuckoo. hark! a tiger roars,--the valley answers again. it is autumn; in the desert night, sharp like a sword gleams the moon upon the frosted grass. now winter reigns, and through the snow-filled air swirl flocks of swans and rattling hailstones beat upon the boughs with fierce delight. then peiwoh changed the key and sang of love. the forest swayed like an ardent swain deep lost in thought. on high, like a haughty maiden, swept a cloud bright and fair; but passing, trailed long shadows on the ground, black like despair. again the mode was changed; peiwoh sang of war, of clashing steel and trampling steeds. and in the harp arose the tempest of lungmen, the dragon rode the lightning, the thundering avalanche crashed through the hills. in ecstasy the celestial monarch asked peiwoh wherein lay the secret of his victory. "sire," he replied, "others have failed because they sang but of themselves. i left the harp to choose its theme, and knew not truly whether the harp had been peiwoh or peiwoh were the harp." this story well illustrates the mystery of art appreciation. the masterpiece is a symphony played upon our finest feelings. true art is peiwoh, and we the harp of lungmen. at the magic touch of the beautiful the secret chords of our being are awakened, we vibrate and thrill in response to its call. mind speaks to mind. we listen to the unspoken, we gaze upon the unseen. the master calls forth notes we know not of. memories long forgotten all come back to us with a new significance. hopes stifled by fear, yearnings that we dare not recognise, stand forth in new glory. our mind is the canvas on which the artists lay their colour; their pigments are our emotions; their chiaroscuro the light of joy, the shadow of sadness. the masterpiece is of ourselves, as we are of the masterpiece. the sympathetic communion of minds necessary for art appreciation must be based on mutual concession. the spectator must cultivate the proper attitude for receiving the message, as the artist must know how to impart it. the tea-master, kobori-enshiu, himself a daimyo, has left to us these memorable words: "approach a great painting as thou wouldst approach a great prince." in order to understand a masterpiece, you must lay yourself low before it and await with bated breath its least utterance. an eminent sung critic once made a charming confession. said he: "in my young days i praised the master whose pictures i liked, but as my judgement matured i praised myself for liking what the masters had chosen to have me like." it is to be deplored that so few of us really take pains to study the moods of the masters. in our stubborn ignorance we refuse to render them this simple courtesy, and thus often miss the rich repast of beauty spread before our very eyes. a master has always something to offer, while we go hungry solely because of our own lack of appreciation. to the sympathetic a masterpiece becomes a living reality towards which we feel drawn in bonds of comradeship. the masters are immortal, for their loves and fears live in us over and over again. it is rather the soul than the hand, the man than the technique, which appeals to us,--the more human the call the deeper is our response. it is because of this secret understanding between the master and ourselves that in poetry or romance we suffer and rejoice with the hero and heroine. chikamatsu, our japanese shakespeare, has laid down as one of the first principles of dramatic composition the importance of taking the audience into the confidence of the author. several of his pupils submitted plays for his approval, but only one of the pieces appealed to him. it was a play somewhat resembling the comedy of errors, in which twin brethren suffer through mistaken identity. "this," said chikamatsu, "has the proper spirit of the drama, for it takes the audience into consideration. the public is permitted to know more than the actors. it knows where the mistake lies, and pities the poor figures on the board who innocently rush to their fate." the great masters both of the east and the west never forgot the value of suggestion as a means for taking the spectator into their confidence. who can contemplate a masterpiece without being awed by the immense vista of thought presented to our consideration? how familiar and sympathetic are they all; how cold in contrast the modern commonplaces! in the former we feel the warm outpouring of a man's heart; in the latter only a formal salute. engrossed in his technique, the modern rarely rises above himself. like the musicians who vainly invoked the lungmen harp, he sings only of himself. his works may be nearer science, but are further from humanity. we have an old saying in japan that a woman cannot love a man who is truly vain, for their is no crevice in his heart for love to enter and fill up. in art vanity is equally fatal to sympathetic feeling, whether on the part of the artist or the public. nothing is more hallowing than the union of kindred spirits in art. at the moment of meeting, the art lover transcends himself. at once he is and is not. he catches a glimpse of infinity, but words cannot voice his delight, for the eye has no tongue. freed from the fetters of matter, his spirit moves in the rhythm of things. it is thus that art becomes akin to religion and ennobles mankind. it is this which makes a masterpiece something sacred. in the old days the veneration in which the japanese held the work of the great artist was intense. the tea-masters guarded their treasures with religious secrecy, and it was often necessary to open a whole series of boxes, one within another, before reaching the shrine itself--the silken wrapping within whose soft folds lay the holy of holies. rarely was the object exposed to view, and then only to the initiated. at the time when teaism was in the ascendency the taiko's generals would be better satisfied with the present of a rare work of art than a large grant of territory as a reward of victory. many of our favourite dramas are based on the loss and recovery of a noted masterpiece. for instance, in one play the palace of lord hosokawa, in which was preserved the celebrated painting of dharuma by sesson, suddenly takes fire through the negligence of the samurai in charge. resolved at all hazards to rescue the precious painting, he rushes into the burning building and seizes the kakemono, only to find all means of exit cut off by the flames. thinking only of the picture, he slashes open his body with his sword, wraps his torn sleeve about the sesson and plunges it into the gaping wound. the fire is at last extinguished. among the smoking embers is found a half-consumed corpse, within which reposes the treasure uninjured by the fire. horrible as such tales are, they illustrate the great value that we set upon a masterpiece, as well as the devotion of a trusted samurai. we must remember, however, that art is of value only to the extent that it speaks to us. it might be a universal language if we ourselves were universal in our sympathies. our finite nature, the power of tradition and conventionality, as well as our hereditary instincts, restrict the scope of our capacity for artistic enjoyment. our very individuality establishes in one sense a limit to our understanding; and our aesthetic personality seeks its own affinities in the creations of the past. it is true that with cultivation our sense of art appreciation broadens, and we become able to enjoy many hitherto unrecognised expressions of beauty. but, after all, we see only our own image in the universe,--our particular idiosyncracies dictate the mode of our perceptions. the tea-masters collected only objects which fell strictly within the measure of their individual appreciation. one is reminded in this connection of a story concerning kobori-enshiu. enshiu was complimented by his disciples on the admirable taste he had displayed in the choice of his collection. said they, "each piece is such that no one could help admiring. it shows that you had better taste than had rikiu, for his collection could only be appreciated by one beholder in a thousand." sorrowfully enshiu replied: "this only proves how commonplace i am. the great rikiu dared to love only those objects which personally appealed to him, whereas i unconsciously cater to the taste of the majority. verily, rikiu was one in a thousand among tea-masters." it is much to be regretted that so much of the apparent enthusiasm for art at the present day has no foundation in real feeling. in this democratic age of ours men clamour for what is popularly considered the best, regardless of their feelings. they want the costly, not the refined; the fashionable, not the beautiful. to the masses, contemplation of illustrated periodicals, the worthy product of their own industrialism, would give more digestible food for artistic enjoyment than the early italians or the ashikaga masters, whom they pretend to admire. the name of the artist is more important to them than the quality of the work. as a chinese critic complained many centuries ago, "people criticise a picture by their ear." it is this lack of genuine appreciation that is responsible for the pseudo-classic horrors that to-day greet us wherever we turn. another common mistake is that of confusing art with archaeology. the veneration born of antiquity is one of the best traits in the human character, and fain would we have it cultivated to a greater extent. the old masters are rightly to be honoured for opening the path to future enlightenment. the mere fact that they have passed unscathed through centuries of criticism and come down to us still covered with glory commands our respect. but we should be foolish indeed if we valued their achievement simply on the score of age. yet we allow our historical sympathy to override our aesthetic discrimination. we offer flowers of approbation when the artist is safely laid in his grave. the nineteenth century, pregnant with the theory of evolution, has moreover created in us the habit of losing sight of the individual in the species. a collector is anxious to acquire specimens to illustrate a period or a school, and forgets that a single masterpiece can teach us more than any number of the mediocre products of a given period or school. we classify too much and enjoy too little. the sacrifice of the aesthetic to the so-called scientific method of exhibition has been the bane of many museums. the claims of contemporary art cannot be ignored in any vital scheme of life. the art of to-day is that which really belongs to us: it is our own reflection. in condemning it we but condemn ourselves. we say that the present age possesses no art:--who is responsible for this? it is indeed a shame that despite all our rhapsodies about the ancients we pay so little attention to our own possibilities. struggling artists, weary souls lingering in the shadow of cold disdain! in our self-centered century, what inspiration do we offer them? the past may well look with pity at the poverty of our civilisation; the future will laugh at the barrenness of our art. we are destroying the beautiful in life. would that some great wizard might from the stem of society shape a mighty harp whose strings would resound to the touch of genius. vi. flowers in the trembling grey of a spring dawn, when the birds were whispering in mysterious cadence among the trees, have you not felt that they were talking to their mates about the flowers? surely with mankind the appreciation of flowers must have been coeval with the poetry of love. where better than in a flower, sweet in its unconsciousness, fragrant because of its silence, can we image the unfolding of a virgin soul? the primeval man in offering the first garland to his maiden thereby transcended the brute. he became human in thus rising above the crude necessities of nature. he entered the realm of art when he perceived the subtle use of the useless. in joy or sadness, flowers are our constant friends. we eat, drink, sing, dance, and flirt with them. we wed and christen with flowers. we dare not die without them. we have worshipped with the lily, we have meditated with the lotus, we have charged in battle array with the rose and the chrysanthemum. we have even attempted to speak in the language of flowers. how could we live without them? it frightens one to conceive of a world bereft of their presence. what solace do they not bring to the bedside of the sick, what a light of bliss to the darkness of weary spirits? their serene tenderness restores to us our waning confidence in the universe even as the intent gaze of a beautiful child recalls our lost hopes. when we are laid low in the dust it is they who linger in sorrow over our graves. sad as it is, we cannot conceal the fact that in spite of our companionship with flowers we have not risen very far above the brute. scratch the sheepskin and the wolf within us will soon show his teeth. it has been said that a man at ten is an animal, at twenty a lunatic, at thirty a failure, at forty a fraud, and at fifty a criminal. perhaps he becomes a criminal because he has never ceased to be an animal. nothing is real to us but hunger, nothing sacred except our own desires. shrine after shrine has crumbled before our eyes; but one altar is forever preserved, that whereon we burn incense to the supreme idol,--ourselves. our god is great, and money is his prophet! we devastate nature in order to make sacrifice to him. we boast that we have conquered matter and forget that it is matter that has enslaved us. what atrocities do we not perpetrate in the name of culture and refinement! tell me, gentle flowers, teardrops of the stars, standing in the garden, nodding your heads to the bees as they sing of the dews and the sunbeams, are you aware of the fearful doom that awaits you? dream on, sway and frolic while you may in the gentle breezes of summer. to-morrow a ruthless hand will close around your throats. you will be wrenched, torn asunder limb by limb, and borne away from your quiet homes. the wretch, she may be passing fair. she may say how lovely you are while her fingers are still moist with your blood. tell me, will this be kindness? it may be your fate to be imprisoned in the hair of one whom you know to be heartless or to be thrust into the buttonhole of one who would not dare to look you in the face were you a man. it may even be your lot to be confined in some narrow vessel with only stagnant water to quench the maddening thirst that warns of ebbing life. flowers, if you were in the land of the mikado, you might some time meet a dread personage armed with scissors and a tiny saw. he would call himself a master of flowers. he would claim the rights of a doctor and you would instinctively hate him, for you know a doctor always seeks to prolong the troubles of his victims. he would cut, bend, and twist you into those impossible positions which he thinks it proper that you should assume. he would contort your muscles and dislocate your bones like any osteopath. he would burn you with red-hot coals to stop your bleeding, and thrust wires into you to assist your circulation. he would diet you with salt, vinegar, alum, and sometimes, vitriol. boiling water would be poured on your feet when you seemed ready to faint. it would be his boast that he could keep life within you for two or more weeks longer than would have been possible without his treatment. would you not have preferred to have been killed at once when you were first captured? what were the crimes you must have committed during your past incarnation to warrant such punishment in this? the wanton waste of flowers among western communities is even more appalling than the way they are treated by eastern flower masters. the number of flowers cut daily to adorn the ballrooms and banquet-tables of europe and america, to be thrown away on the morrow, must be something enormous; if strung together they might garland a continent. beside this utter carelessness of life, the guilt of the flower-master becomes insignificant. he, at least, respects the economy of nature, selects his victims with careful foresight, and after death does honour to their remains. in the west the display of flowers seems to be a part of the pageantry of wealth,--the fancy of a moment. whither do they all go, these flowers, when the revelry is over? nothing is more pitiful than to see a faded flower remorselessly flung upon a dung heap. why were the flowers born so beautiful and yet so hapless? insects can sting, and even the meekest of beasts will fight when brought to bay. the birds whose plumage is sought to deck some bonnet can fly from its pursuer, the furred animal whose coat you covet for your own may hide at your approach. alas! the only flower known to have wings is the butterfly; all others stand helpless before the destroyer. if they shriek in their death agony their cry never reaches our hardened ears. we are ever brutal to those who love and serve us in silence, but the time may come when, for our cruelty, we shall be deserted by these best friends of ours. have you not noticed that the wild flowers are becoming scarcer every year? it may be that their wise men have told them to depart till man becomes more human. perhaps they have migrated to heaven. much may be said in favor of him who cultivates plants. the man of the pot is far more humane than he of the scissors. we watch with delight his concern about water and sunshine, his feuds with parasites, his horror of frosts, his anxiety when the buds come slowly, his rapture when the leaves attain their lustre. in the east the art of floriculture is a very ancient one, and the loves of a poet and his favorite plant have often been recorded in story and song. with the development of ceramics during the tang and sung dynasties we hear of wonderful receptacles made to hold plants, not pots, but jewelled palaces. a special attendant was detailed to wait upon each flower and to wash its leaves with soft brushes made of rabbit hair. it has been written ["pingtse", by yuenchunlang] that the peony should be bathed by a handsome maiden in full costume, that a winter-plum should be watered by a pale, slender monk. in japan, one of the most popular of the no-dances, the hachinoki, composed during the ashikaga period, is based upon the story of an impoverished knight, who, on a freezing night, in lack of fuel for a fire, cuts his cherished plants in order to entertain a wandering friar. the friar is in reality no other than hojo-tokiyori, the haroun-al-raschid of our tales, and the sacrifice is not without its reward. this opera never fails to draw tears from a tokio audience even to-day. great precautions were taken for the preservation of delicate blossoms. emperor huensung, of the tang dynasty, hung tiny golden bells on the branches in his garden to keep off the birds. he it was who went off in the springtime with his court musicians to gladden the flowers with soft music. a quaint tablet, which tradition ascribes to yoshitsune, the hero of our arthurian legends, is still extant in one of the japanese monasteries [sumadera, near kobe]. it is a notice put up for the protection of a certain wonderful plum-tree, and appeals to us with the grim humour of a warlike age. after referring to the beauty of the blossoms, the inscription says: "whoever cuts a single branch of this tree shall forfeit a finger therefor." would that such laws could be enforced nowadays against those who wantonly destroy flowers and mutilate objects of art! yet even in the case of pot flowers we are inclined to suspect the selfishness of man. why take the plants from their homes and ask them to bloom mid strange surroundings? is it not like asking the birds to sing and mate cooped up in cages? who knows but that the orchids feel stifled by the artificial heat in your conservatories and hopelessly long for a glimpse of their own southern skies? the ideal lover of flowers is he who visits them in their native haunts, like taoyuenming [all celebrated chinese poets and philosophers], who sat before a broken bamboo fence in converse with the wild chrysanthemum, or linwosing, losing himself amid mysterious fragrance as he wandered in the twilight among the plum-blossoms of the western lake. 'tis said that chowmushih slept in a boat so that his dreams might mingle with those of the lotus. it was the same spirit which moved the empress komio, one of our most renowned nara sovereigns, as she sang: "if i pluck thee, my hand will defile thee, o flower! standing in the meadows as thou art, i offer thee to the buddhas of the past, of the present, of the future." however, let us not be too sentimental. let us be less luxurious but more magnificent. said laotse: "heaven and earth are pitiless." said kobodaishi: "flow, flow, flow, flow, the current of life is ever onward. die, die, die, die, death comes to all." destruction faces us wherever we turn. destruction below and above, destruction behind and before. change is the only eternal,--why not as welcome death as life? they are but counterparts one of the other,--the night and day of brahma. through the disintegration of the old, re-creation becomes possible. we have worshipped death, the relentless goddess of mercy, under many different names. it was the shadow of the all-devouring that the gheburs greeted in the fire. it is the icy purism of the sword-soul before which shinto-japan prostrates herself even to-day. the mystic fire consumes our weakness, the sacred sword cleaves the bondage of desire. from our ashes springs the phoenix of celestial hope, out of the freedom comes a higher realisation of manhood. why not destroy flowers if thereby we can evolve new forms ennobling the world idea? we only ask them to join in our sacrifice to the beautiful. we shall atone for the deed by consecrating ourselves to purity and simplicity. thus reasoned the tea-masters when they established the cult of flowers. anyone acquainted with the ways of our teaand flower-masters must have noticed the religious veneration with which they regard flowers. they do not cull at random, but carefully select each branch or spray with an eye to the artistic composition they have in mind. they would be ashamed should they chance to cut more than were absolutely necessary. it may be remarked in this connection that they always associate the leaves, if there be any, with the flower, for the object is to present the whole beauty of plant life. in this respect, as in many others, their method differs from that pursued in western countries. here we are apt to see only the flower stems, heads as it were, without body, stuck promiscuously into a vase. when a tea-master has arranged a flower to his satisfaction he will place it on the tokonoma, the place of honour in a japanese room. nothing else will be placed near it which might interfere with its effect, not even a painting, unless there be some special aesthetic reason for the combination. it rests there like an enthroned prince, and the guests or disciples on entering the room will salute it with a profound bow before making their addresses to the host. drawings from masterpieces are made and published for the edification of amateurs. the amount of literature on the subject is quite voluminous. when the flower fades, the master tenderly consigns it to the river or carefully buries it in the ground. monuments are sometimes erected to their memory. the birth of the art of flower arrangement seems to be simultaneous with that of teaism in the fifteenth century. our legends ascribe the first flower arrangement to those early buddhist saints who gathered the flowers strewn by the storm and, in their infinite solicitude for all living things, placed them in vessels of water. it is said that soami, the great painter and connoisseur of the court of ashikaga-yoshimasa, was one of the earliest adepts at it. juko, the tea-master, was one of his pupils, as was also senno, the founder of the house of ikenobo, a family as illustrious in the annals of flowers as was that of the kanos in painting. with the perfecting of the tea-ritual under rikiu, in the latter part of the sixteenth century, flower arrangement also attains its full growth. rikiu and his successors, the celebrated oda-wuraka, furuka-oribe, koyetsu, kobori-enshiu, katagiri-sekishiu, vied with each other in forming new combinations. we must remember, however, that the flower-worship of the tea-masters formed only a part of their aesthetic ritual, and was not a distinct religion by itself. a flower arrangement, like the other works of art in the tea-room, was subordinated to the total scheme of decoration. thus sekishiu ordained that white plum blossoms should not be made use of when snow lay in the garden. "noisy" flowers were relentlessly banished from the tea-room. a flower arrangement by a tea-master loses its significance if removed from the place for which it was originally intended, for its lines and proportions have been specially worked out with a view to its surroundings. the adoration of the flower for its own sake begins with the rise of "flower-masters," toward the middle of the seventeenth century. it now becomes independent of the tea-room and knows no law save that the vase imposes on it. new conceptions and methods of execution now become possible, and many were the principles and schools resulting therefrom. a writer in the middle of the last century said he could count over one hundred different schools of flower arrangement. broadly speaking, these divide themselves into two main branches, the formalistic and the naturalesque. the formalistic schools, led by the ikenobos, aimed at a classic idealism corresponding to that of the kano-academicians. we possess records of arrangements by the early masters of the school which almost reproduce the flower paintings of sansetsu and tsunenobu. the naturalesque school, on the other hand, accepted nature as its model, only imposing such modifications of form as conduced to the expression of artistic unity. thus we recognise in its works the same impulses which formed the ukiyoe and shijo schools of painting. it would be interesting, had we time, to enter more fully than it is now possible into the laws of composition and detail formulated by the various flower-masters of this period, showing, as they would, the fundamental theories which governed tokugawa decoration. we find them referring to the leading principle (heaven), the subordinate principle (earth), the reconciling principle (man), and any flower arrangement which did not embody these principles was considered barren and dead. they also dwelt much on the importance of treating a flower in its three different aspects, the formal, the semi-formal, and the informal. the first might be said to represent flowers in the stately costume of the ballroom, the second in the easy elegance of afternoon dress, the third in the charming deshabille of the boudoir. our personal sympathies are with the flower-arrangements of the tea-master rather than with those of the flower-master. the former is art in its proper setting and appeals to us on account of its true intimacy with life. we should like to call this school the natural in contradistinction to the naturalesque and formalistic schools. the tea-master deems his duty ended with the selection of the flowers, and leaves them to tell their own story. entering a tea-room in late winter, you may see a slender spray of wild cherries in combination with a budding camellia; it is an echo of departing winter coupled with the prophecy of spring. again, if you go into a noon-tea on some irritatingly hot summer day, you may discover in the darkened coolness of the tokonoma a single lily in a hanging vase; dripping with dew, it seems to smile at the foolishness of life. a solo of flowers is interesting, but in a concerto with painting and sculpture the combination becomes entrancing. sekishiu once placed some water-plants in a flat receptacle to suggest the vegetation of lakes and marshes, and on the wall above he hung a painting by soami of wild ducks flying in the air. shoha, another tea-master, combined a poem on the beauty of solitude by the sea with a bronze incense burner in the form of a fisherman's hut and some wild flowers of the beach. one of the guests has recorded that he felt in the whole composition the breath of waning autumn. flower stories are endless. we shall recount but one more. in the sixteenth century the morning-glory was as yet a rare plant with us. rikiu had an entire garden planted with it, which he cultivated with assiduous care. the fame of his convulvuli reached the ear of the taiko, and he expressed a desire to see them, in consequence of which rikiu invited him to a morning tea at his house. on the appointed day taiko walked through the garden, but nowhere could he see any vestige of the convulvulus. the ground had been leveled and strewn with fine pebbles and sand. with sullen anger the despot entered the tea-room, but a sight waited him there which completely restored his humour. on the tokonoma, in a rare bronze of sung workmanship, lay a single morning-glory--the queen of the whole garden! in such instances we see the full significance of the flower sacrifice. perhaps the flowers appreciate the full significance of it. they are not cowards, like men. some flowers glory in death--certainly the japanese cherry blossoms do, as they freely surrender themselves to the winds. anyone who has stood before the fragrant avalanche at yoshino or arashiyama must have realized this. for a moment they hover like bejewelled clouds and dance above the crystal streams; then, as they sail away on the laughing waters, they seem to say: "farewell, o spring! we are on to eternity." vii. tea-masters in religion the future is behind us. in art the present is the eternal. the tea-masters held that real appreciation of art is only possible to those who make of it a living influence. thus they sought to regulate their daily life by the high standard of refinement which obtained in the tea-room. in all circumstances serenity of mind should be maintained, and conversation should be conducted as never to mar the harmony of the surroundings. the cut and color of the dress, the poise of the body, and the manner of walking could all be made expressions of artistic personality. these were matters not to be lightly ignored, for until one has made himself beautiful he has no right to approach beauty. thus the tea-master strove to be something more than the artist,--art itself. it was the zen of aestheticism. perfection is everywhere if we only choose to recognise it. rikiu loved to quote an old poem which says: "to those who long only for flowers, fain would i show the full-blown spring which abides in the toiling buds of snow-covered hills." manifold indeed have been the contributions of the tea-masters to art. they completely revolutionised the classical architecture and interior decorations, and established the new style which we have described in the chapter of the tea-room, a style to whose influence even the palaces and monasteries built after the sixteenth century have all been subject. the many-sided kobori-enshiu has left notable examples of his genius in the imperial villa of katsura, the castles of nagoya and nijo, and the monastery of kohoan. all the celebrated gardens of japan were laid out by the tea-masters. our pottery would probably never have attained its high quality of excellence if the tea-masters had not lent it to their inspiration, the manufacture of the utensils used in the tea-ceremony calling forth the utmost expenditure of ingenuity on the parts of our ceramists. the seven kilns of enshiu are well known to all students of japanese pottery. many of our textile fabrics bear the names of tea-masters who conceived their color or design. it is impossible, indeed, to find any department of art in which the tea-masters have not left marks of their genius. in painting and lacquer it seems almost superfluous to mention the immense services they have rendered. one of the greatest schools of painting owes its origin to the tea-master honnami-koyetsu, famed also as a lacquer artist and potter. beside his works, the splendid creation of his grandson, koho, and of his grand-nephews, korin and kenzan, almost fall into the shade. the whole korin school, as it is generally designated, is an expression of teaism. in the broad lines of this school we seem to find the vitality of nature herself. great as has been the influence of the tea-masters in the field of art, it is as nothing compared to that which they have exerted on the conduct of life. not only in the usages of polite society, but also in the arrangement of all our domestic details, do we feel the presence of the tea-masters. many of our delicate dishes, as well as our way of serving food, are their inventions. they have taught us to dress only in garments of sober colors. they have instructed us in the proper spirit in which to approach flowers. they have given emphasis to our natural love of simplicity, and shown us the beauty of humility. in fact, through their teachings tea has entered the life of the people. those of us who know not the secret of properly regulating our own existence on this tumultuous sea of foolish troubles which we call life are constantly in a state of misery while vainly trying to appear happy and contented. we stagger in the attempt to keep our moral equilibrium, and see forerunners of the tempest in every cloud that floats on the horizon. yet there is joy and beauty in the roll of billows as they sweep outward toward eternity. why not enter into their spirit, or, like liehtse, ride upon the hurricane itself? he only who has lived with the beautiful can die beautifully. the last moments of the great tea-masters were as full of exquisite refinement as had been their lives. seeking always to be in harmony with the great rhythm of the universe, they were ever prepared to enter the unknown. the "last tea of rikiu" will stand forth forever as the acme of tragic grandeur. long had been the friendship between rikiu and the taiko-hideyoshi, and high the estimation in which the great warrior held the tea-master. but the friendship of a despot is ever a dangerous honour. it was an age rife with treachery, and men trusted not even their nearest kin. rikiu was no servile courtier, and had often dared to differ in argument with his fierce patron. taking advantage of the coldness which had for some time existed between the taiko and rikiu, the enemies of the latter accused him of being implicated in a conspiracy to poison the despot. it was whispered to hideyoshi that the fatal potion was to be administered to him with a cup of the green beverage prepared by the tea-master. with hideyoshi suspicion was sufficient ground for instant execution, and there was no appeal from the will of the angry ruler. one privilege alone was granted to the condemned--the honor of dying by his own hand. on the day destined for his self-immolation, rikiu invited his chief disciples to a last tea-ceremony. mournfully at the appointed time the guests met at the portico. as they look into the garden path the trees seem to shudder, and in the rustling of their leaves are heard the whispers of homeless ghosts. like solemn sentinels before the gates of hades stand the grey stone lanterns. a wave of rare incense is wafted from the tea-room; it is the summons which bids the guests to enter. one by one they advance and take their places. in the tokonoma hangs a kakemon,--a wonderful writing by an ancient monk dealing with the evanescence of all earthly things. the singing kettle, as it boils over the brazier, sounds like some cicada pouring forth his woes to departing summer. soon the host enters the room. each in turn is served with tea, and each in turn silently drains his cup, the host last of all. according to established etiquette, the chief guest now asks permission to examine the tea-equipage. rikiu places the various articles before them, with the kakemono. after all have expressed admiration of their beauty, rikiu presents one of them to each of the assembled company as a souvenir. the bowl alone he keeps. "never again shall this cup, polluted by the lips of misfortune, be used by man." he speaks, and breaks the vessel into fragments. the ceremony is over; the guests with difficulty restraining their tears, take their last farewell and leave the room. one only, the nearest and dearest, is requested to remain and witness the end. rikiu then removes his tea-gown and carefully folds it upon the mat, thereby disclosing the immaculate white death robe which it had hitherto concealed. tenderly he gazes on the shining blade of the fatal dagger, and in exquisite verse thus addresses it: "welcome to thee, o sword of eternity! through buddha and through dharuma alike thou hast cleft thy way." with a smile upon his face rikiu passed forth into the unknown. a treatise on foreign teas, _abstracted_ from an ingenious work, lately published, entitled _an essay on the nerves_; illustrating their efficient, formal, material, and final causes; with the manner of the liquids being corrupted by corrosive acids, and stagnated by obtuse alkalies: in which are observations on mineral waters, coffee, chocolate, _&c._ and an investigation of the nature and preparation of foreign teas, with their pernicious effects in debilitating the nervous system: interspersed with the author's remarks, arising from an analysis of such preparations as may be most beneficially substituted for india tea. this selection, containing the sentiments of the many eminent physical professors who have written on foreign teas, is designed to shew, by the most forcible arguments and distinguished authorities, the extreme danger to which the public are exposed from the continual use of an article so pernicious and destructive to the constitution. [price six-pence.] dr. solander's sanative english tea. universally approved and recommended by the most eminent physicians, in preference to foreign tea, as the most pleasing and powerful restorative, in all nervous disorders, hitherto discovered. our first aliment at breakfast, being designed to recruit the waste of the body from the night's insensible perspiration; an inquiry is important, whether india tea, which the faculty unanimously concur in pronouncing a species of slow poison, that unnerves and wears the substance of the solids, is adequate to such a purpose--if it be not--the inquiry is further necessary to find out a proper substitute. if an apozem professionally approved and recommended for its nutritive qualities, as a general aliment, has claim to public attention, certainly dr. solander's tea, so sanctioned, is the most proper morning and afternoon's beverage. prepared for the proprietor by an eminent botanist. sold wholesale and retail by the proprietor's agent, mr. t. golding, at his warehouse for patent medicines, no. 42, cornhill, london; and retail by mr. f. newbery, no. 45, st. paul's church-yard; messrs. bailey's, cockspur-street; mr. w. bacon, no. 150, oxford-street; mr. overton, no. 47, new bond-street; and by mr. j. fuller, south side of covent garden. also by the venders of patent medicines in most cities and towns, in england, ireland, and scotland. sold in packets at 2s. 9d. and in canisters at 10s. 6d. each, duty included. liberal allowance for exportation, to country venders, and to schools. the native and exotic plants which chiefly compose dr. solander's tea, being gathered and dried with peculiar attention, to the preserving of their sanative virtues, must render them far more efficacious than many similar preparations, which by being reduced to powder, must have those qualities destroyed they might otherwise possess. a packet of this tea at 2s. 9d. is sufficient to breakfast one person a month. advertisement to the foreign teas. having, in the preceding enquiry, traced, from the system of the nerves, that on their state the health of the constitution chiefly depends, our immediate concern is next to ascertain what kind of food we either adopt from choice, custom, or necessity, is the most likely to destroy the economy of the nerves. and as foreign teas have long been censured as being the cause of many disorders which arise from the nerves being disarranged or debilitated, an impartial enquiry is here made into the nature, preparation, and effects, of these teas. by this investigation it will appear, that teas imported from china and india are the most injurious of any beverage that can possibly be taken as a general and constant aliment. but, not prematurely to anticipate any part of the following subject, the reader is most respectfully referred to the following pages for further evidence. introduction. as two of the four meals that form our daily subsistence are chiefly composed of tea, an enquiry into what kind is the most salutary must be as necessary as it may prove interesting and beneficial; for, on the choice of proper or improper tea must greatly depend the health or disease of the public in general. to this may be attributed the constitution being either preserved from that innumerable train of afflictions, which arise from too great a relaxation of the nervous system by acute distempers, misfortunes, &c. or being so debilitated by excessive drinking of india tea, as to render it alone the prey of melancholy, palsies, epilepsies, night-mares, swoonings, flatulencies, low spirits, hysteric and hypochondriacal affections. for tea that is pernicious is not only poison to those who, from any cause of corporal debility or mental affliction, are liable to the above diseases;--but it is also too frequently found to render the most healthy victims of these alarming complaints. and as nervous disorders are the most complicated in their distressing circumstances, the greater care should be taken to avoid such aliments as produce them, as well as to choose those which are the most proper for their relief and prevention. those who are now suffering from the inconsiderate use of improper tea, what pitiable objects of distress and disease do they not represent for the caution of those who may timely preserve themselves? nervous disorders are the most formidable, by being the most numerous in their attacks upon the human frame. every moment, comparatively speaking, produces some new distress of mind or body. the imagination cannot avoid the horrors of its own creation, while the memory is harrassed with the shadows of departed pleasures, which serve but to encrease the pain of existing torments. all the endearments of life are vanished to the poor wretch who sees himself surrounded by the spectres of dismay, terror, despondency, and melancholy. and such is but the thousandth part of the afflictions that are to be avoided or produced by the choice of the prevailing beverage of tea. not only the innumerable train of nervous afflictions, but all those disorders that arise from an improper temperature of the fluids, may be produced from the action, corrosion, and stimulation of pernicious teas. in proportion to the state of the fluids, in particular constitutions, they may either prove too relaxing or astringent, too condensing or attenuating, and too acrid or viscid; for india teas, that to some constitutions are very diluting, may produce in others contrary effects: therefore such should be chosen as possess a combination of quality that may render them, as nearly as possible, to a general specific. but this cannot be well expected where one single ingredient is used, and that is distinguished for its particular qualities, which, if wholesome, can only be such to those whose fluids are so, by nature or circumstances, as to require such a particular assistant; for to every other state of the fluids they must be pernicious. it is consequently evident, that if teas imported from india have any virtues, they cannot be such as to render them worthy of being universally adopted as a general aliment. if wholesome to a few, they must be pernicious to the rest of mankind, with whose constitutions they have no congeniality, medicinal or alimentary virtue. supposing they may possess some physical properties, like all other medicines, they can only benefit such disorders as nature particularly formed them to relieve. those who have been advocates for their positive virtues have, in this instance, but more confirmed the impropriety of adopting them as a general morning and evening beverage. this only explains more evidently the cause of so many being injured, where one is benefited, by drinking constantly india tea. there cannot possibly be stated a more self-evident proposition than where any simple or combined matter is adopted for a particular purpose, it must, in every opposite instance, prove injurious. in proportion, therefore, to such particular qualities, they are the more improper to be generally and indiscriminately adopted. this observation, although it may be applied to every art or science, is still more applicable to physic. thus is it found that no medicine can be safely taken as a constant and general aliment. even those who, at first, might find it beneficial in their respective complaints, have too frequently found the constant use of it afterwards hurtful to the constitution it had before relieved. it may be deduced, from the above considerations, that india teas, however physically beneficial, to allow them all their best of praise, must be as an aliment generally injurious. instead of preserving health, they sow innumerable disorders, which can only be cured by substituting a beverage from such salutary native or exotic herbs as are formed for the particular afflictions the former have so pitiably brought upon the too greater part of mankind. as almost every disorder to which the human frame is liable may be retarded in its cure, if not confirmed in the constitution, by the power of secretion being weakened, india teas are the most dangerous that can be possibly used as a general beverage. by too much dilating the canals, the concussive force of the sides is increased, which destroys the oscillatory motion, and thus are the secretions altered and disturbed; and as the action of medicines consists in removing impediments to the equal motion of the fluids, the greater care should be taken to abstain from all food or drink that may increase those impediments. that india teas not only increase but occasion such evils is evident, from their having been experienced to relax the tone and reduce the consistence of the solids. as the powers of secretion depend upon the just equilibrium of force between the solids and the liquids, the latter must, in the above instance, make a greater _impetus_ upon one part than another, from which proceeds that morbid state so justly and emphatically termed disease. thus, according to the learned boerhaave, to heal is to take away the disease from the body; that is, to remove and expel the causes which hinder the equal motion or transflux. medicines, he says, are those mechanical instruments by which an artist may remove the causes of the balance being destroyed, and thus re-instate the lost equilibrium of solids and liquids. he therefore concludes, that a medicine supposes a flowing of the humours or liquids; that it operates mechanically; that it acts only mediately; that its good or bad effects depend entirely on the bulk, motion, and figure of the acting particles, and that the destruction of the balance must be deduced from the solids. so that, as it has been found that the solids are wasted and impaired by the constant use of india tea, the chief cause of disease, in general, may be attributed to such a pernicious custom; even the properties which he ascribes to medicines are in direct opposition to what have been found to be the prevailing effects of teas imported into europe. it is consequently evident, that the drinking of this injurious tea being not only, in its operation, productive of disease in its general sense, but also repugnant to the salutary operation of medicine, it is the most dangerous beverage that can be generally taken; for it appears, from the above consideration, that its pernicious effects are not confined to any system of disorders; it is found inimical to the first principles of health, and therefore may be justly dreaded as capable of being the source of disease indefinitely understood. having thus stated, as an introduction to this essay on teas, the general tendency of those imported from india, under the titles of green, souchong, and bohea, to injure the constitution, the following pages will be particularly devoted to the consideration of the nature, preparation, and manner of using, and the effects of such foreign teas. essay on teas. there is, perhaps, no subject on which there has been more declamation, for and against its properties and effects, than those of teas imported into this country by the companies trading from the different maritime nations of europe to china and india. nor has there been a controversy in which the health of the community has been so materially concerned, that has afforded so little direction of moment to those who would wish to ascertain the truth of such teas being either beneficial, injurious, or innocent in their effects. amidst a mass of declamatory assertion so little intelligence is to be gained, that those who have had the greatest interest in being informed of the real qualities of teas, have most abandoned the enquiry before they obtained the least knowledge of what they sought. either perplexed with abstruse science, or dissatisfied with assertion equally unfounded and unsupported, thousands have discontinued the research, and committed themselves to fatal experience. thus have too many acquired a knowledge of the detrimental qualities of teas, by the ruin of their constitution. to avoid therefore such an inconvenience, the greatest care will be taken to prevent an indiscriminate reference to authors, whose sentiments can neither sanction adduced arguments or illustrate technical allusions. the enquiry will be made with some reference to science, but more to convince by demonstration than to confound by abstruse perplexities. so that, while empty declamation is avoided, the principles of truth are meant to be investigated by reason and experience. with this view, the nature of green, souchong, and bohea teas is first considered. to judge of the nature of these herbs with equal candour and propriety, it may be necessary to consider their qualities in relation to what are ascribed them, and what have been discovered by their analysis, and what have resulted from experience. the virtues that have been ascribed to them are chiefly, being a greatful diluent in health, and salutary in sickness, by attenuating viscid juices, promoting natural excretions, exciting appetite, and proving particularly serviceable in fevers, immoderate sleepiness, and head-aches after a debauch. it is also added to the list of their ascribed virtues, that there is no plant yet known, the infusions of which pass more freely from the body, or more speedily excite the spirits. to a person of any physical knowledge, these qualities will either appear contradictory in themselves, or rather ultimately injurious, than absolutely beneficial. as the full examination of these assumed qualities, by the rules of science, would require a volume, instead of a few pages, which the limits of this essay will afford, the enquiry must be made as perspicuous as the necessity of brevity will admit. allowing they are diluting in health, their constant use may so attenuate the liquids as to destroy their natural force and tensity. but boerhaave says, there is no proper diluent but water; it is therefore evident it is the water, and not the tea, which is the diluting medium. with respect to its being an attenuative of viscid humours, it can never possess this virtue from being a diluent, for an attenuant acts _specially_ on the particles, by diminishing their bulk, while the diluent acts upon the whole mass of the fluid. the general body of the liquid may be diluted while the viscid humours remain unresolved. indeed, the operation of an attenuant is not easily known; for many are surprised that a slight inflammation should be so difficult to dissipate. but their surprise would cease, were they to consider, that medicines act more generally upon the whole body than abstractedly upon the part affected. suppose to attenuate some coagulated blood, six grains of volatile salt were given, how small a proportion must come to the part diseased, when these grains, by the laws of circulation, will mix with the entire mass of blood, consisting at least of thirty pounds! teas being said to promote natural excretions, can be no recommendation of what is generally used; for this constant effect must render them too copious, and thus, according to all physical experience, the blood must be thickened in the greater vessels, which frequently terminates in an atrophy. the appetite being excited by the drinking of tea, is more a proof of its attrition of the solids than any stimulus to a wholesome desire of food. this quality accounts for the acrimonious effects too many have experienced by its use. many have not only had their blood impoverished, but corrupted by the constant drinking of these teas. whether it arises from any positive acrimonious salt it naturally possesses, or from any acquired corrosiveness from its mode of drying, is not here necessary to enquire: it is only requisite to state that a pernicious effect is too fatally experienced by those who are unfortunately its slaves. how india tea can be serviceable in fevers is not easy to be understood; for, if it has that effect upon the nerves to excite watchfulness, it must greatly tend to increase, instead of diminish feverish symptoms. dr. buchan attributes even one cause of the palsy to drinking much tea or coffee, &c. and, in a note, he subjoins: "many people imagine that tea has no tendency to hurt the nerves, and that drinking the same quantity of warm water would be equally pernicious. this, however, seems to be a mistake, many persons drinking three or four cups of warm milk and water daily, without feeling any bad consequences; yet the same quantity of tea will make their hands shake for twenty-four hours. that tea affects the nerves is likewise evident from its preventing sleep, occasioning giddiness, dimness of the sight, sickness, &c." with regard to india teas possessing the quality of exciting the spirits, this, like every other stimulus, either by constant use loses its effect, or unnerves the system it is meant to strengthen. the nerves through which the animal spirits circulate being, like the strings of a violin or harpsichord, too frequently braced, lose, at last, their natural tensity, and thus render the human frame one system of debility. having thus, as briefly as possible, stated that even their ascribed virtues are either derogatory to all physical principle, or else destructive to the constitution, from their constant use, the nature of india teas is next considered, with respect to what appears to be their chief component parts, from analyzation. teas have been found to consist principally of narcotic salts, some astringent oil, and earth. these being found in greater quantities in bohea than in green teas, those who have very sensible and elastic nerves must be seized with a greater tremor after drinking the former than the latter. the continual and regular influx of the nervous juices is stopped by their component fibres being contracted from the roughness and restringency of such decoctions. the force of the heat, or the brain's propulsion of its nervous juice, being inferior to the resistance of the whole ramified fibres thus encreased by the sudden contraction and unequal motion, the flow of the animal spirits must be greatly impeded and disordered. in fact, the influx suffers a suspension, until the fibres, by relaxing again, admit their empty tubes to receive their appropriated liquids. thus even green tea must, especially if taken strong and often, stop the natural circulation of humours, and produce the attendant defects of depression of spirits, deficiency of secretion, loss of appetite, decrease of strength, waste of body, and, finally, a total want of effective vigour in all the animal functions. but, as above observed, bohea tea possessing in greater quantity the pernicious ingredients, the vessels are thrown into momentary spasms and convulsive vibrations, by the relaxing power of the narcotic salts, and the contracting force of the astringent oil and earth. and here it must be noticed, that oil mixed with salt is rendered astringent: thus all vegetables, where a mixture of both prevails, are reckoned stimulating. the narcotic power of the salt is derived from its hindering the flux of the animal spirits through the nerves. the stomach and bowels being weakened by the above causes, windy complaints or flatulencies are consequently produced. this caused dr. whytt, in his advice to patients afflicted with such diseases, to desire they would abstain from india tea, as one of the flatulent aliments chiefly to be avoided. if the slightest external motion alone produces the following changes in the body, what effects may not be ascribed to the constant use of teas, which we find, as before stated, operate internally? a person in perfect health, having his nostrils only touched with a feather, cannot avoid his body being so convulsed as to produce what is commonly called sneezing. but if the number of muscles agitated, the force and straining of the body by sneezing, are considered; the slightness of the cause must excite no little astonishment; for this action is occasioned by the muscles of the scapula, abdomen, diaphragm, thorax, lungs, &c. and if the sneezing continues, an universal explosion of the liquids ensues: tears, mucus, saliva, and urine, are excreted. thus, without any moist, cold, hot, dry, sulphur, salt, or any other internal or external application, an involuntary motion of all the solids and fluids is produced by a feather touching, in the slightest manner, the inside of our nostrils. but boerhaave relates further, "that if sneezing continues a long time, as it will by taking one hundredth part of a grain of euphorbium up the nose, grievous and continued convulsions will arise, head-aches, involuntary excretions of urine, &c., vomitings, febrile heats, and other dreadful symptoms; and, at last, death itself will ensue." it is therefore evident that the slightest bodies produce the greatest changes in the human frame. such is the power of certain particles upon the nerves, that the stomach will be thrown into convulsions that almost threaten an inversion, by taking only four ounces of a wine in which so small a portion of glass of antimony as one scruple is infused in eight pounds of the former. and what is still more remarkable is, that the glass of antimony remains not only undissolved, but, comparatively speaking, undiminished in its weight. these being a few of the fatal afflictions which experience shews to be frequently the consequence of drinking india teas, its injurious nature is too evident to require any further investigation of either their ascribed or positive qualities. the next subject to be considered, relative to india teas, is their preparation. among the different authors of any consequence that have written on the culture, preparation, and virtues of foreign teas, may be ranked kampfer, postlethwaite, dr. cunningham, priestley, lemery, franchus, meister, and sigesbeck; as the limits of this treatise will not permit a detail of observations from the whole of these writers, remarks can only be selected from the most principal of them. most of the above, and many other, authors agree that the leaves are spread upon iron plates, and thus dried with several little furnaces contained in one room. this mode of preparation must greatly tend to deprive the shrub of its native juices, and to contract a rust from the iron on which it is dried. this may probably be the cause of vitriol turning tea into an inky blackness. we therefore do not think with boerhaave, that the preparers employ green vitriol for improving the colour of the finer green teas. it may however be concluded, from the colour of bohea, souchong, and such as are called black teas, that they may be thus tinctured, by the means of vitriol, after they have been dried upon the iron plates in the furnace room; and this may likewise particularly cause that astringent quality which is more experienced in all the black than any of the green teas. according to sigesbeck, the colours of these teas are artificial; so that if these pernicious arts are used even to give the tea a particular colour, there is no difficulty in ascribing the cause of their injurious effects. that the native virtues of these teas are liable to considerable perversion is evident from the manner in which meister relates they are prepared. he says the leaves are put into a hot kettle just emptied of boiling water, and that they are kept in this closely covered until they are cold, when they are strewed upon the hot plates above mentioned for drying. it is easy to conceive how the virtues of a leaf, however salutary by nature, must be destroyed by such a process. being thus put into a steaming kettle, and suffered to remain there until they are cold, must cause the greatest part of their virtues to evaporate, and the leaves to imbibe an unwholesome taint from the effluvia of the steaming metal. it cannot, therefore, be ascertained whether teas that are imported in europe, after such a mutating preparation, have the least remains of their original odour or flavour, no more than they have of their qualities; but, on the contrary, it seems impossible but that the original nature of this shrub is entirely destroyed by an artificial preparation. some falsely suppose that this species of management is only to soften such of the leaves as are grown too dry, and are therefore liable to break in the curling; but this will evidently appear not the cause, when it is considered that the greater part of the teas must dry in such a hot climate while they are gathering: and as they are particularly anxious to send them in as curious a curled state as possible, such teas must be thus moistened again, in order to curl them afterwards in that perfect manner which is performed on the iron plates of the furnace. the opinion, therefore, of teas deriving their green colour from being dried upon copper being founded on a misrepresentation of the manner in which they are really prepared, a few observations upon the subject are indispensibly necessary. for those who have always understood that the detrimental qualities of foreign teas were the consequence of their being dried upon copper, may perhaps imagine they cannot be so pernicious if they were dried upon iron; but this opinion cannot be entertained by any persons who have the least knowledge of the manner in which the vegetable acid will corrode iron. those who are acquainted with culinary processes must know in what manner the acid of onions will operate upon any steel instrument; it corrodes a knife so as to turn the onions black with the particles eaten away from the edge and the face of the blade. to avoid this unwholsome and unseemly inconvenience, a wooden instrument is generally used in all instances where onions form a part of the cookery appendages. it is consequently evident, that although iron utensils are now greatly used instead of copper, yet many injurious effects may happen from their being liable to be corroded by the acid of several vegetables. and if the nitrous acid of the air will corrode iron so as to cause rust, when it will not produce the proportionate effect upon copper, it is a demonstration that iron is the most liable to such a corruption. the corrosions of copper are undoubtedly pernicious; but the damage that tea would derive from its being dried upon sheets of this metal would not operate so injuriously to those who drink it as it does now by lying dried upon iron. for the latter bring more liable to the power of the mineral, vegetable, or animal acid, must impart more particles of its reduced calax to the tea than copper would. and, in order to shew how susceptible of corrosion iron is, the following instance is farther adduced: in ireland, where some persons practise the art of tanning leather with fern, which possesses a very strong acid, particular care is taken to avoid using any iron vessels in the tannage, lest the colour of the leather should be blackened by the corroding particle of the metal. as it is the peculiar property of iron or steely particles, even in their most perfect state, to operate as too great an astringent for an aliment that is taken twice a day constantly, tea, when dried upon it, must be rendered proportionably pernicious. but admitting that the popular opinion of their being dried upon copper was just, the teas must be rendered proportionably injurious to the quantity of copperas or crude vitriol they imbibe from their acidity corroding the metal. preparations of steel, that are, in many instances, considered as most salutary, yet in all pulmonary disorders the most eminent physicians have deemed them exceedingly dangerous. and in a country, like great britain, holland, and other places, where a cloudy atmosphere, caused from their marshy soil or watery situation, renders most of the inhabitants subject to complaints of the lungs, foreign teas, contaminated by these iron corrosions, must be particularly detrimental. it is therefore, from these considerations, evident, that foreign teas, by being dried upon iron, have their bad qualities so increased as to render them the most pernicious of any morning and evening liquid that has yet been taken.----to return from whence we began this short digression. it is remarkable that no satisfactory account has yet been given in what the bohea differs from the green tea. dr. cunningham, physician to the english settlement at cimsan, and kampfer assert, that the bohea is the leaves of the first collection. this, however, being contrary to the general report of all travellers, that none of the first produce is brought to europe, must be discredited; for these are all preserved for the princes, to whom they are sold, even in china, at an immense price. another proof is, that the boheas are brought here in the most considerable quantities, at a price greatly inferior to what even the second, third, and fourth crops are sold for in china. this not only evinces how inferior in quality the black tea must be, but also how little they are valued among those who must be acquainted with their properties. although the european dealers divide the green teas chiefly into three sorts, and the boheas into five, yet it is unknown from what province they are brought, of what crop they are the produce, and to which of the chinese sorts they belong. added to their abuse of preparation may be that of their package. it is impossible but to know that their bad qualities must be considerably augmented by being so closely packed, for such a length of time, in such slight wooden chests, lined with a composition of wood and lead. considerable quantities are likewise damaged by salt water and other causes, which, by the management of the tea dealers, are mostly mixed, and sold under different denominations. how the tea must be affected by the corrosion of the lead and tin by the marine acid, those of the least chemical knowledge will easily determine. to what danger must, therefore, the constitution of those who are in the constant habit of drinking such an empoisoned drug be exposed, may easily be imagined. surely, when all these circumstances are considered respecting the pernicious mode of preparation, and particularly the poisonous qualities they are also liable to contract from the nature of their package, every person must be convinced to what a loss of health, if not of life, the constant use of such teas must expose them. such evidence of their deleterious tendency is almost sufficient to alarm mankind against so prevailing an evil, without any further arguments; but as health is too precious not to require every possible proof that can persuade us to avoid what so immediately threatens our existence, the following arguments and testimonies of the bad qualities of foreign teas must not be omitted. previous, however, to an investigation of their effects, it may be necessary to say a few words respecting the manner of using. foreign tea, as before observed, being taken as two principal meals of our daily aliment, is undoubtedly one great reason of the constitution of the people having suffered an entire change in its system. that vigour, spirits, and longevity, which characterised us in the last century, is totally subverted; disease, dismay, and debility, now lead us prematurely to the grave, where we end an existence too deplorable to excite the least desire for a longer continuance. dr. priestley states, very justly, in his medical essays, that it is curious to observe the revolution which hath taken place, within this century, in the constitutions of the inhabitants of europe. inflammatory diseases more rarely occur, and in general are much less rapid and violent in their progress than formerly; nor do they admit of the same antiphlogistic method of cure which was practised with success a hundred years ago. the experienced sydenham makes forty ounces of blood the mean quantity to be drawn in the acute rheumatism; whereas this disease, as it now appears in the london hospitals, will not bear above half that evacuation. vernal intermittents are frequently cured by a vomit and the bark, without venã¦section, which is a proof that, at present, they are accompanied with fewer symptoms of inflammation than they were wont to be. this advantageous change, however, is more than counterbalanced by the introduction of a numerous class of nervous aliments, in a greater measure, unknown to our ancestors, but which now prevail universally, and are complicated with almost every other distemper. the bodies of men are enfeebled and enervated; and it is not uncommon to observe very high degrees of irritability under the external appearance of great strength and robustness. the hypochondriac, palsies, cachexies, dropsies, and all those diseases which arise from laxity and debility, are, in our days, endemic every where; and the hysterics, which used to be peculiar to the women, as the name itself indicates, now attacks both sexes indiscriminately. it is evident that so great a revolution could not be effected without the concurrence of many causes; but amongst these, i apprehend, the present general use of tea holds the first and principal rank. the second cause may perhaps be allotted to excess in spirituous liquors. this pernicious custom owes its rise to the former, which, by the lowness and depression of spirits it occasions, renders it almost necessary to have recourse to what is cordial and exhilarating; and hence proceeds those odious and disgraceful habits of intemperance with which too many of the softer sex of every degree are now, alas! chargeable. these are the sentiments of a character distinguished for his elaborate researches and judicious discoveries in almost every branch of liberal science. it may therefore be safely concluded, that the general manner of using india tea morning and evening has been, and is, the principal cause of the greater part of the diseases with which the natives of europe are now afflicted. when it is considered that the first meal which is taken to recruit the body, after the loss it sustains from the insensible perspiration of the preceding night, and to prepare it for the avocations of the succeeding day, is india tea, who can be surprised that nature should rapidly become the victim of disease? thus, instead of being supported by nutritious aliment, its nerves are enfeebled, its spirits diminished, and all its functions enveloped with the gloom of melancholy. even in the afternoon, when nature is exhausted by care and fatigue, we fly for refreshment to tea, which, instead of bracing, still further relaxes the unnerved system. such are the evil effects of the imprudent manner in which this pernicious drug is so constantly and universally used. but how must these evils appear in their extent, when the following view is taken of india teas, with regard to their variety of injurious effects. in all the physical experiments that have been made upon india teas, there is, perhaps, none that shews its acid astringency more than one tried by the above writer, dr. priestley. endeavouring to trace the differences and ascertain the astringency and bitterness of vegetables reciprocally bear to each other, he imagined he had found they were distinct and separate properties, by the following experiment: taking two pieces of calf-skin just stripped from the calf, he immerged them in cold infusions of green and bohea tea; at the expiration of a week he found they were hard and curled up, and that there was no sensible difference between them. he therefore concluded, that this experiment afforded a striking proof of india tea differently affecting a dead and a living fibre; this he considered as the greatest effect of a medicine. but, with deference to so distinguished an author, i cannot but attribute this astringency of the skin to the particular properties of india tea; for all physical as well as medical experience proves that vegetable produce afford some that are astringent, and others that are relaxant, of the dead as well as the living fibre. oak bark is equally astringent, and hardens the fibres of the hide, as well as it braces the living nerve of our bodies; therefore the effect produced by the india tea upon the dead skin only proves, what we have before related, that an infusion of it has a peculiar effect, which, being too frequently applied to the nerves, destroys their tensity by their fine fibres being either broken or relaxed by overbracing. were any astringent to be constantly taken, it must ultimately produce more or less such an effect; so that while the above experiment of the learned philosopher demonstrates that india tea has the power of astringing the dead as well as the living fibres, it does not prove that astringency bitterness are separate qualities. on the contrary, bitterness seems to be the characteristic taste of all that has the tendency to contract whatever is the subject of its application. thus galls, bark, rhubarb, camomile tea, &c. &c. are all bitter and astringent. it is, therefore, the immoderate use of such an astringent that ultimately relaxes and debilitates: like the too frequent bracing of a drum, or any other stringed musical instrument, destroys its tensity, the body is unnerved by the overstretching of its fibres. although we sometimes differ with the celebrated doctor in part of the conclusion he has drawn from his experiment, yet the following sentiments so perfectly coincide with all our observations upon india teas, that we are happy to have the opportunity of corroborating our own with the sentiments of so eminent a philosopher. he says, from his experiments, "it appears that green and bohea teas are equally bitter, strike precisely the same black tinge with green vitriol, and are alike astringent on the simple fibre. from this exact similarity in so many circumstances, one should be led to suppose that there would be no sensible diversity in their operation on the living body; but the fact is otherwise: green tea is much more sedative and relaxant than bohea; and the finer the species of tea, the more debilitating and pernicious are its effects, as i have frequently observed in others, and experienced in myself. this seems to be a proof that the mischiefs ascribed to this oriental vegetable do not arise from the warm vehicle by which it is conveyed into the stomach, but chiefly from its own peculiar qualities." dr. hugh smith, in his treatise on the action of the muscles, justly says, that an infusion of india tea not only diminishes, but destroys the bodily functions. _thea infusum, nervo musculove ranã¦ admotum, vires motices minuit perdit._ newman, in his chemistry, says, when fresh gathered, teas are said to be narcotic, and to disorder the senses; the chinese, therefore, cautiously abstain from their use until they have been kept twelve months. the reason attributed for bohea tea being less injurious than green is, being more hastily dried, the pernicious qualities more copiously evaporate. "tea," says dr. hugh smith, in his dissertation upon the nerves, "is very hurtful both to the stomach and nerves. phrensies, deliriums, vigilation, idiotism, apoplexies, and other disorders of the brain, are all produced by the nerves being thus disarranged and debilitated. if the digestive faculty of the stomach be weakened, the body, failing of recruiting juices, must tend to emaciation, and the whole frame be rendered one system of distress and infirmity. the nerves, being thus deprived of a sufficiency of their animal spirits, must become languid, and leave every sense void of the first means of conveying to the mind the only enjoyments of our temporal existence. "but if there be any class of persons to whom india tea is more particularly hurtful than to any other, it is that which includes the studious and sedentary, and especially those who are enfeebled with gout, stone, and rheumatism; age, accident, or avocation, cause many persons to be unfortunately ranked amongst those of the latter description. these, from their intensity of thought, want of exercise, injurious position of body, respiration of unwholesome air, and a variety of other causes, have not only their animal spirits exhausted, but their liquids corrupted from the loss of a necessary circulation. with these evils india tea operates as an absolute poison. indeed, it frequently renders those incurable, who might, by other means, have been relieved. "when a view is taken of the dismal effects produced by india teas, the mind seems to be bewildered in searching for the cause of using so generally a drug that is so universally destructive. it chiefly originated in a fundamental mistake of physical principles. about the time that india tea was introduced to europe, a grievous error crept into the practice of medical professors; they falsely imagined that health could not be more promoted than by increasing the fluidity of the blood. this opinion once established, it is no wonder that mankind, with one accord, adopted the infusion of india tea, which was then a novelty to europe, as the best means of obtaining the above effect. by the advice of bentikoe chiefly was the pernicious custom of drinking warm liquors, night and day, established. to this man, and the introduction of india tea, may be ascribed that revolution in the health of europeans which has happened since the last century. the present age, therefore, have great cause to lament, in what they suffer in nervous complaints, that their forefathers did not attend more to the scientific and judicious advice of the illustrious duncan, boerhaave, and the whole school of leyden, who proscribed this error. although they could not entirely prevent this physical abuse, yet their zealous endeavours did, in some degree, at first impede its progress; but, however, so powerful did novelty plead in favour of india teas, that, at last, general custom and prejudice bore away every barrier that had been erected by these learned and experienced physicians. this error, instead of diminishing, has increased: most valetudinarians are now of opinion that a thick blood is the sole cause of their complaints; with this impression they adopt what they call the diluent beverage of india teas. it can scarcely be imagined how many disorders this practice produces; it may be justly termed the box of pandora, without even hope remaining at the bottom." tissot says, "they are the prolific sources of hypochondriac melancholy, which both adds strength to and is one of the worst of disorders." he adds, "with regard to studious men, who are naturally weak and feeble, such warm beverages are more hurtful to them than to others; for they are not troubled with an over thick, but, on the contrary, too thin a blood. you are all aware," continues he, "respectable auditors, that the density of the blood is as the motion of the solids; the fibres of the learned are relaxed, their motions are slow, and their blood, of consequence, thin. bleed a ploughman and a doctor at the same time; from the first there will flow a thick blood, resembling inflammatory blood, almost solid, and of a deep red; the blood of the latter will be either of a faint red, or without any colour, soft, gelatinous, and will almost entirely turn them to water. your blood, therefore, men of learning, should not be dissolved, but brought to a consistence; and you should in general be moderate in the article of drinking, and cautiously avoid warm spirituous liquors. "amongst the favorite beverages of the learned," the same tissot observes, "is the infusion of that famous leaf, so well known by the name of india tea, which, to our great detriment, has every year, for these two centuries past, been constantly imported from china and japan. this most pernicious gift first destroys the strength of the stomach, and if it be not soon laid aside, equally destroys that of the viscera, the blood, the nerves, and of the whole body; so that malignant and all chronical disorders will appear to increase, especially nervous disorders, in proportion as the use of india tea becomes common; and you may easily form a judgment, from the diseases that prevail in every country, whether the inhabitants are lovers of tea or the contrary. how happy would it be for europe, if, by unanimous consent, the importation of this infamous leaf was prohibited, which is endued only with a corrosive force derived from the acrimony of a gum with which it is pregnant." having thus considered the dismal and too frequently fatal consequences of the nerves being affected, it is presumed this part of the essay cannot be more interestingly concluded than by a summary of the distinct symptomatic effects attending, more or less, complaints of the nerves; and although the following symptoms are alarming with regard to their number and variety, yet the reader may be assured there is not one specified but what is either the immediate or ultimate effect of a nervous affection, and which is too frequently the consequence of the violent astringency of foreign tea taken injudiciously as a constant aliment:--a faintness, succeeded with a delusive vision of motes, mists, and clouds, falling backwards and forwards before the distempered sight--a yawning, gaping, stretching out of the arms, twitching of the nerves, sneezing, drowsiness, and contraction of the breast--dulness, debility, distress, and dismay, with a great sense of weariness--a wan complexion, a languid eye, a loathing stomach, and an uncertain appetite, which, if not immediately satisfied, is irremediably lost--heartburning, bilious vomitings, belchings, pains in the pit of the stomach, and shortness of breath--dizziness, inveterate pains in the temples and other parts of the head, a tingling noise in the ear, a throbbing of the brain, especially of the temporal arteries--symptoms of asthma, tickling coughs, visible inflations, and unusual scents affecting the olfactory nerves--sometimes costive and sometimes relaxed--sudden flushings of heat, and suffusions of countenance--in the night, alternate sweats and shiverings, especially down the back, which seems to feel as if water was poured down that part of the body--a ptyalism, or discharge of phlegm from the glands of the throat, which generally attends all the symptoms--troublesome pains between the shoulders, pains attended with hot sensations, cramps and convulsive motions of the muscles, or a few of their fibres--sudden startings of the tendons of the legs and arms--copious and frequent discharges of pale and limpid urine--vertigoes, long faintings, and cold, moist, clammy sweat about the temples and forehead--wandering pains in the sides, back, knees, ancles, arms, wrists, and somewhat resembling rheumatic pains--the head generally warm, while the rest of the body is cold or chilly--obstinate watchinqs, disturbed sleep, frightful dreams, the night mare, startings when awake, and the mind filled with the most terrific apprehensions--tremors of the limbs, and palpitations of the heart--a very variable and irregular pulse--periodical pains in the head--a sense of suffocation, frequent sighings, and shedding of tears--convulsive spasms of the muscles, tendons, nerves of the back, loins, arms, hands, and a general convulsion of the stomach, bowels, throat, legs, and indeed almost every other part of the body--a quick apprehension, forgetful, unsettled, and constant to nothing but inconstancy--a wandering and delirious imagination, groundless fears, and an exquisite sense of his sufferings--a gradually sinking into a nervous atrophy or consumption--a perpetual alarm of approaching death--sometimes cheerful, and sometimes melancholy--without present enjoyment or future expectation of any thing but increasing misery and debility.--if these symptoms are inconsiderately suffered to continue, they soon terminate in palsy, hip, madness, epilepsy, apoplexy, or in some mortal disease, as the black jaundice, dropsy, consumption, &c. having ascertained, from this enquiry, the injurious properties of india tea, it may naturally be expected that i should propose some article that might prove more beneficial. with this requisition i shall most readily comply, although i may expose myself to the invidious censure of having directed all my efforts to establish the celebrity of whatever article i may recommend. but being convinced, that, by publishing the virtue of a tea that i have investigated from physical analysis and particular observation, i may essentially serve the public, i am content to suffer the obloquy, provided it is productive of a general benefit. having, as before observed, examined, with the greatest attention, the nature of most articles that have been offered as morning and afternoon beverage, there are two which claim most particularly the preference of all others that are sold under the denomination of tea: these are, 1st, that which was discovered by that eminent botanist sir hans sloane; and the other, by a botanist and physician equally celebrated, dr. solander. i therefore, without considering in what manner the interest of the proprietors of these teas may be individually affected, propose two articles, in order to shew that my partiality or opinion of the virtues of the one could not prejudice me so far as to prevent my allowing due praise to any other possessing qualities deserving approbation. i am happy to state that, from my analysis of that invented by sir hans sloane, called british tea, i found it possesses most singular virtues for relieving many nervous complaints; but, from the same trials and experiments made on that invented by dr. solander, i have been convinced that, although the qualities of the former are exceedingly salutary, they are not so general in their restoration and nutritious effects as the latter. being thus convinced of the extraordinary properties of dr. solander's tea, i have been induced to state, in a treatise upon their nature, preparation, and effects, reasons founded on chemical analysis, physical efficiency, and experimental observation, in support of their most eminent virtues. after every trial i have made of coffee, chocolate[1], and most other preparations that have been, and are at present, offered to the public as a substitute for tea, none seem to claim the preference so eminently as that invented by dr. solander. from their analysis, i find their virtues are of the most corrective and balsamic kind; they strengthen the tone of the stomach, not by astringing the solids, but by lubricating the vessels, sheathing the acrids, and attenuating the liquids. [1] "_coffee.--in bilious habits it is very hurtful._" dr. carr's med. epist. p. 25. "_coffee.--i cannot advise it to those of hardness of breathing._" ibid. p. 29. "_coffee, according to paule, a danish physician, enervates men and renders them incapable of generation, which injurious tendency is certainly attributed to it by the turks. from its immoderate use they account for the decrease of population in their provinces, that were so numerously peopled before this berry was introduced among them. mr. boyle mentions an instance of a person to whom coffee always proved an emetic. he also says that he has known great drinking of it produce the palsy._ "_chocolate is too gross for many weak stomachs, and exceedingly injurious to those liable to phlegm and viscid humours._" saunders's nat. & art. direct. for health. "_chocolate overloads the stomach, and renders the juices too slow in their circulation._" smith on the nerves. in this manner they restore the equilibrium of the oscillatory motions, which establish the tone of the nervous system. this being strengthened, the animal spirits are enabled to dispense their reviving influence to the sensitive, digestive, and intellectual powers. and these being thus restored to their vigour of operation, a simple and moderate portion of food is rendered the most nutritious, and the body is consequently established in the enjoyment of health and happiness. the above virtues of the sanative tea are not here asserted as a declamatory panegyric, but as the result of a physical analysis of their nature, and a serious examination into their mode of operating as a restorative and constant aliment. without presuming their qualities to be an unlimited remedy for all complaints, the nature of the preparation of this tea is compared with the causes and effects of nervous disorders: from this comparison their relative virtue to such diseases are most clearly evinced: and thus is this invaluable discovery proved to be the most effectual remedy for all those complaints caused by drinking foreign teas, that was ever yet or may be hereafter invented. in proposing to the public any simple or compound, for the preserving, increasing, or restoring health, the first object should be to explain its nature. this is the principal test by which its merits can be known, or mankind rationally induced to try its virtues. and as this sanative tea is offered as a substitute for what is generally used as two fourths of our aliment, and which, from the preceding enquiry, has been found the principal cause of our present infirmities, the greater necessity there is for a candid investigation of its nature. impressed with the above conviction, it is fairly stated that the nature of this sanative tea is not from any combination of the animal or mineral kingdom, but a collection of the most salutary native and exotic herbs that are produced in the vegetable empire of nature. these have not been collected by the fanatic devotees of occult qualities, but by the scientific researches and personal experience of a character that is equally and justly admired for his philosophical, medical, and botanical knowledge. the discoverer, dr. solander, of this tea, inquired into the virtues of each native and exotic herb of which it is composed, not only by abstract reasoning upon its relative qualities, but by the more immediate evidence of his senses: by submitting each vegetable to his taste and smell, he derived the most certain physical proof of its qualities. thus he knew the particular virtues of each, and what salutary effects they must, from their preparation as a compound, produce when applied as a relief for the innumerable diseases caused by drinking foreign teas. not confining himself to _english plants_, he studied and examined the virtues of _exotics_, among which he discovered some that possess virtues he had not found in those of his own country: by adopting these, he has increased the salutary effects of his invaluable tea. from reading hippocrates, discorides, and galen, he found the ancients derived all their knowledge of plants by their taste and smell. with these examples before him, and his own propensity to study, joined to his penetrating judgement, it is no wonder he should have so well succeeded. thus he recurred to the original mode of inquiry, which first established and raised the eminence of physic; neglecting that delusive principle of aristotle's philosophy, which has since taught too many physicians to express the virtue of medicines by hot, cold, moist, and dry, without deriving the least information from their senses dr. solander, aided by chemical analysis, distinguished the virtue by the taste or odour of every plant. by this means their specific juices he found tasted either earthy, mucilaginous, sweet, bitter, aromatic, fetid, acrid, or corrosive. from this experience he found the observation of some botanists to be true, "that there is no virtue yet known in plants but what depends on the taste or smell, and may be known by them."[2] with this infallible means of pursuing his enquiry, he formed a tea composed of herbs that are in their nature astringent, balsamic, aromatic, cephalic, and diaphoretic. these virtues combined may be said to form one of the most incomparable specifics, as a nutritive and restoring aliment, that has been discovered. [2] _floyer, malpighus, epew, harvey, willis, lower, needham, glisson, &c._ in the astringent, the acid fixing upon the more earthly parts, the nutritious oil is more easily separated, which renders them also pectoral, cleaning, and diuretic. this part of the tea is in its nature particularly serviceable in all cases where vulnerary medicines are requisite. they particularly amend the acid in the nervous juice, and thus restore the equal motion of the spirits, which were obstructed or retarded by spasms or convulsions. by the volatile oil and volatile pungent salt, obstructions are opened, and the motions of the languid blood increased to a healthy degree of circulation. they resolve coagulated phlegm in the stomach, preserve the fluidity of the juices, and promote digestion, by assisting the bile in its operation. and with regard to their balsamic and aromatic nature, these qualities warm the stomach and expel wind, by rarefying the flatuous exhalations from chyle in the prima viã¦. these, by their sweetness, allay the sharpness of rheums, and lenify their acrimony. being filled with an oily salt, they open the passage of the lungs and kidnies. by opening the pores, they extraordinarily discuss outward tumours, and attenuate the internal coagulation. all these virtues may be said to be derived from the union of their balsamic oil and volatile salt. by a second class of aromatics, with which dr. solander composed this sanative tea, is such as have a bitter astringency joined to their volatile oil and salt. these united qualities correct acids in the stomach, cleanse the lungs, and open obstructions in the glands caused by coagulated serum; and the saline pungent oil altering the acids in the glands of the brain, by correcting and attenuating its lympha and succus nervosus, produces the same effect; for the lympha and nervous juice are, like other glandulous humours, liable to acidity and stagnation; therefore these aromatics, by exciting their motion and correcting their acidities, render the liquids of the nerves more volatile, and are therefore justly termed cephalics. and as it is the property of volatiles to ascend, the reason is evident of the brain being assisted by their salutary qualities. these aromatics likewise evacuate serum from the blood, promote its circulation, and attenuate the coagulations of chyle, lympha, and succus nervosus. and here, it is proper to add, that all aromatics, by rarefying the blood, are cordial. there being aromatic astringents in this tea, its infusion strengthens the fibres and membranes of the stomach, and all the nervous system, in such a manner as not to destroy their tensity by that too great contraction caused by the foreign teas; and, having no acid in their astringency, the blood is preserved from too great a rarefaction, which would otherwise happen from the pungency of their oily qualities. these also excite the appetite, by stimulating the natural progress of the chyle, and thus prevent its too rapid fermentation of its spirituous parts into windy flatulencies. for the same reason vinegar is taken with hot meats and herbs. having mentioned vinegar, it may not be improper to state this vegetable acid is the best antidote against the poison of any acrid herbs. that part of the tea which has a mucilaginous taste is inwardly cooler than oil, although it be different in nature. such herbs defend the throat from the sharpness of rheums, the stomach from corrosive humours of disease or acrimonious medicines; the ureters from sharp, choleric, or acid urine, and lubricate the passage for the stony gravel. their crude parts cool the heat of scorbutic blood, lessen its violent motion, and sheathe its acrid saline particles. by their different mucilaginous principles they produce the following various salutary effects: the earthy repel and cool outward inflammations. the watery, which is thick and gummose, stop fluxes and correct sharp humours. those of an oily odour alleviate pains. those of a pungent acrid dissolve tartareous concretions in the kidnies. from these and a variety of other salutary properties, it is evident the general nature of dr. solander's tea is such as to correct acrid humours, promote the secretions, restore the equilibrium between the fluids and solids, and finally to brace every part of the relaxed nervous system. the body being thus relieved from obstructions, its circulations restored, the digestive faculties invigorated, and the spirits re-animated, the debilitated constitution is reinstated in all its enjoyments of health and hilarity. it may be therefore observed, that the principle of this tea is to nourish as a general aliment, while it renovates the human constitution, without having recourse to the nauseous portions of galenical preparation, or the hazardous trial of chalybeate waters. as this tea is particularly salutary in all cases where mineral waters are generally recommended, it is very proper the public should be cautioned against the danger which too frequently attends the constant drinking of them. chalybeate waters, it must be acknowledged, have effected very extraordinary cures in certain cases. but when so great an author as helmont says, that such waters are fatal to all those who are afflicted with peripneumonic complaints, it is surely necessary they should be resorted to with the greatest caution; and even in complaints where they may be serviceable, it is necessary to observe whether they really possess those chalybeate qualities for which they are commended. those who have written upon their virtues assert, and with seeming propriety, that where they deposit an ochreous sediment, they are certainly dispossessed of their steely virtues; for ochre being no other than the calx of iron, such a residue evinces the evaporation of the more eminent properties of the chalybeate, by the phlogiston of the mineral escaping by its extreme volatility. every metal deprived of this igneous principle is immediately reduced to a calx, and thus deprived of its splendour, fusibility, and other properties, until restored again by the readmission of its phlogiston. calcined lead having lost this inflammable quality, is reduced to a red calx or mineral earth, which, if fluxed with any igneous body, such as oil, pitch, wax, fat, wood, bone, or mineral oil or bitumen, the fiery principle is resorbed, and the lead restored to its essential qualities; from these physical observations the reader may be convinced of those mineral waters as afford such a sediment being in a state of decomposition. they are thus deprived of one of the four elements or principles of which they are all more or less composed. every analysis of mineral waters in their perfect state has demonstrated that they possess a fixed air, a volatile alkali, a volatile vitriolic acid, and the phlogiston. if, therefore, either of these essential qualities is evaporated or corrupted, the water, being in a state of decomposition, must lose the virtues of a medicinal chalybeate. it is only necessary to add a few further remarks, in order to shew in what particular complaints chalybeates, even in their most perfect state, are pernicious. by this means many of the diseased will be guarded against a fatal error: and as the prejudice in favour of such applications is so universally prevalent, it is hoped a few pages allotted to this subject will be deemed a most essential service to a deluded community. by removing such a pernicious partiality, the health, if not the lives of thousands, may be saved, to the great enjoyment of themselves and their relatives. dr. knight says very justly, "that the explication of the manner of the operation of chalybeate medicines in human bodies is grounded upon false principles, and not matters of fact; to wit, that all chalybeate preparations, in a liquid form, owe their medicinal efficacy to the metal dissolved, whether in an aqueous or spirituous menstruum, retaining its metallic texture." to avoid entering into the whole detail of this interesting argument, it is only here stated in support of the above assertion, that as mineral waters are impregnated with a combination of sulphurs, salts, and earth, their virtues cannot be properly ascribed, as they have been, to the metals which they contain. it might be further proved, that iron cannot possibly enter the blood, retaining its essential qualities; for metals in general, except mercury, are suspended in liquids in _solutis principiis_, or principles disengaged, which are thus deprived of their metallic properties. iron, entering the body as a volatile vitriolic acid, cannot act by its specific gravity as mercury does; it therefore acts _per accidens_, and not _per se_. but admitting that waters, however impregnated with iron, are efficacious in checking all diarrhoea and other profuse evacuations, by closing the relaxed vessels, and incrassating the fluids, yet as they prove sometimes so astringent as to stop the natural secretions, the consequences are frequently cramps, dangerous convulsions, which often end in fevers, inflammations, and mortifications, their indiscriminate use should be most cautiously avoided. chalybeates, thus contracting the least pervious glands, should not be taken in acute inflammations, or in any complaints that are attended with a quick and strong pulse, a plethora, or extravasation of humours. they are equally dangerous in all nervous contractions, or where the blood is got into the arteriolã¦, or capillary vessels. thus, instead of acting like the sanative tea, which softens, smoothes, and unbends the two constringed fibres, the vitriolic salts of this mineral water but more contract the fibrillã¦, by operating like so many wedges, which ultimately tear, rend, or divide the tender filaments. it must, however, be admitted that mineral waters are very beneficial in cachexies, scurvies, jaundice, hypochondriacal and hysterical affections. having paid this tribute to their virtues, it is evident that what is above stated respecting their pernicious effects has been dictated by candour, and with no illiberal disposition to deny their absolute virtues[3]. these few remarks have only been made in order to warn the community against a prevailing and indiscriminate use which might otherwise, in many complaints, prove at least fatal to their health, if not to their existence. and as the tea discovered by dr. solander possesses all the virtues of the chalybeate, without its dangerous principles, it was an immediate duty not only to warn but direct the public in their adoption of an aliment so essential to their health, and consequently temporal happiness. [3] _waters drank at their source are efficacious in many complaints that are not accompanied with inflammatory symptoms; but if they are drank after a long or short conveyance, their effects must be proportionably injurious instead of beneficial._ preparation. as the native and exotic herbs of this tea are dried in a pure air, without any artificial means of preparation to improve their colour or increase their natural astringency, they must be free from those deleterious, corrosive, and violent contractive effects with which we have observed the general and indiscriminate use of foreign teas and mineral waters are attended. in the first part of this essay, it was stated that foreign teas were dried upon iron, and thus produced those astringent effects we have seen to characterize chalybeate waters. it is therefore evident, that the simple preparation of these salutary herbs being free from what renders teas and mineral waters in many cases pernicious, must leave their qualities pure and unadulterated, according to the intent and principle of nature in their production. they are, therefore, found particularly free from those injurious properties which render green tea so destructive to emaciated constitutions. instead of being, like the above foreign tea, hurtful to those worn down by a long fever, or such as have weak and delicate stomachs, their qualities are in such complaints essentially nutritious and restorative. that stimulating roughness, which foreign teas imbibe from their iron preparation, is not to be found in the sanative tea discovered by dr. solander; the latter is therefore very beneficial where the mucous coat of the bowels is very thin, or the ramification of the nerves numerous, extensive, and exquisitely sensible of impression. the cholic, gripes, or painful prickings of the nervous coat by the india teas, are allayed by the drinking of the sanative tea, from its tepid and lubricating nature not being perverted by any corrosive preparation. to thin and meagre bodies, which are greatly affected by green and bohea teas, the above is a most restorative aliment. the atrophy and diabetes, so frequently caused by the foreign teas, are, from the herbs of dr. solander's tea possessing their natural nutritious qualities uncontaminated by metallic preparation, often cured by using it as a morning and evening beverage; and the depression of spirits occasioned by green and bohea, and which induces many of its drinkers to take sal volatile, or spirits of hartshorn, is avoided by the sanative tea; for the latter is found one of the greatest and most salutary exhilarators of the nervous system. and thus those who drink it as a constant aliment, are saved from the dangers that attend rendering the blood too thin by the use of the above volatile alkalies, or drams, which are too frequently taken to avoid that lowness of spirits caused by the great, sudden, and violent contraction of the nervous fibrillã¦. as the inconveniencies of the foreign teas arise from the metallic properties derived from their preparation, the advantages of the sanative tea are evidently seen to arise from the preparation being such as leaves every herb possessed of its natural and essential quality. this clearly evincing the superiority of dr. solander's tea to every herbal beverage, it only remains to proceed to the two remaining enquiries respecting the mode of using and the effects of this salutary combination of vegetables. the next subject, therefore, of investigation is the manner of using. as the time of drinking this tea is morning and evening, it is necessary to enquire whether its qualities are such as are calculated to suit the temporary necessities of nature at those periods. from what has been observed respecting foreign teas, it is evident that their properties are diametrically opposite to those which nature at such times requires. when the body is exhausted by insensible perspiration, the most requisite aliment is that which can equally restore the loss of the solids and the languid flow of the animal spirits. what is then taken ought therefore to be neither too heavy for the state of the unbraced system; nor too volatile, to afford a sufficient quantity of nutritive juices to the whole animal economy. nor should the aliment be so stimulating as to disorder instead of re-establishing the equalized motion of the yet perturbed state of the animal spirits. what is then given should have the power of sedating the nervous fluids, while it disseminates through the viscera the elements of nutrition. these being the requisite properties of what is taken as a breakfast, it remains to consider whether those of the sanative tea are adequate to such indispensible purposes. in the preceding part of this enquiry, it has been found that the principal qualities of this tea are moderately astringent, balsamic, and aromatic; it is therefore evident, that, from a combination of these eminent medical principles, this tea must operate as a sedator of perturbation, a renovator of exhausted solids, and an exhilarator of nervous depression. it may therefore be used as a morning beverage with the greatest advantage, for the preservation and re-establishment of health; for never were the qualities of any aliment so particularly adapted to the necessities of the body at any stated period as those of the sanative tea are at the time of breakfast. without loading the exhausted viscera, they afford it a sufficiency of balsamic and nutritive aliment; nor does the sanative tea, by sedating the fluttering spirits, destroy their vigour; but, on the contrary, by calming their motion, they contribute more active energy by promoting their equalized progress; and thus is the animal economy restored to the proper use and enjoyment of its functions. and in proportion as the spirits are restored to an equilibrium of motion and fluidity, the relaxed tone of the nerves is recovered, and the whole functions of man rendered capable of exercise and enjoyment. the above being stated as the advantages attending the use of the sanative tea in the morning, it is next expedient to consider what benefit is derived from the use of it in the afternoon. at this time the body is in a very different state of temperature from that of the morning. by the toil, care, study, or amusement of the former part of the day, the solids are wasted, and the fluids in a state of ferment and evaporation. added to this, the aliment which is taken at dinner time so exhausts the animal warmth, as to leave the whole body in a state of refrigeration. what is therefore taken in this situation should be neither relaxing, constipating, nor heating; it should possess a genial warmth, a cordial assistant, and a restorative nutriment. the first should be such as to supply the deficiency of warmth which the body feels by the act of digestion, without inflaming the blood, or too greatly increasing the pulse. the second, or cordial assistant, should rather increase the powers of the body than those of the heart; for the force of the heart may be increased to the detriment of health. this is evident from a weakness of the body being the consequence of the force of the heart being increased in an inflammatory fever. and with regard to what is taken in the afternoon requiring a restorative nutriment, it is necessary that it should be light, pure, and wholesome, lest its solidity and heaviness should oppress the bowels at a time when their tone is relaxed by recent fatigue and digestion. these qualities being the most proper to produce fresh animal spirits, are the most fit to be taken when a new accession of them is necessary. it has been observed those are the most robust whose serum resembles most the white of an egg. it has therefore been most rationally concluded, that the origin of the animal spirits is from aliments capable of being changed into a similar substance, but so attenuated by incalation as to concrete by fire. for this reason the greatest support of the spirits is afforded by light and nourishing meats and drinks, which in taste and smell are even agreeable to infants. all cordials and aromatics are consequently the most proper for such purposes, and at such times, when heavier foods would impress, instead of recruiting, the exhausted solids and fluids. it is therefore boerhaave recommends such aromatics, for the reviving and recruiting the animal spirits, as have the most pleasing taste and smell. agreeably to this opinion, dr. solander employed his researches to form an afternoon beverage of such herbs as should possess all the above cardiac and balsamic qualities. the use of the sanative tea between dinner and supper operates as the most reviving and wholesome aliment that can, at such a time, be possibly taken. an enquiry having been made into the nature, preparation, and manner of using the sanative tea, there only remains to conclude this second part of the essay with the consideration of its effects. from the view that has been taken of the nature, preparation, and manner of using, the salutary effects are most clearly and easily to be ascertained. as the basis of this tea is the combined principle of the most balsamic oils, nutritious salts, and animating sulphurs, which the vegetable world produces, their effects must be proportionably salutary. and as their combination is such as to correct the pernicious qualities of each other, their conjoint effect must be the most wholesome that can possibly be administered for the health of human nature. as every simple, however specific in certain cases, possesses qualities that are pernicious in other respects, it has been the first principle of physical enquiry not only to find the basis of a medicine, but to form compounds or ingredients that corrected the injurious tendency of each other. with this scientific principle dr. solander having composed his sanative tea, has rendered it the most general specific in its effects of any medicinal aliment. this tea affording a compound oil, which is formed of the most aromatic vegetables the earth affords, it is no wonder its effects, like honey, should approach so near a general specific. the invaluable oils, uniting with the sulphurs of the sanative tea, recruit, soften, and lubricate the juices, diminish the too great elasticity, dryness, and crispness of the nervous fibres, and afford the exhausted liquids fresh supplies. their effects are consequently exceedingly restorative in all cases, where the force of the fibres and the vessels are too strong, the circulation too rapid, and the blood too attenuated or diminished; as it prevents the too quick action of the solids, and the too rapid motion of the blood, the body is nourished, and the mind prepared for the refreshment of sleep when the approach of night invites to repose. in spitting of blood its effects are particularly beneficial. the oil being easily detached from the earth of the plant is, in such cases, exceedingly nutritive, and, by its checking the stimulation, and sheathing the acrimony of the humours, the blood is replenished with the most healing and balsamic virtues. in pleurisies, ulcers, and abscesses of the lungs, hectic fevers, dry coughs, night sweats, and difficulty of breathing, the balsamic oil and sulphur of this tea is most salutary. the dropsical, phlegmatic, corpulent, cathetic, and all such as are in their stamina relaxed, will find the greatest relief in its constant use; and to those who are emaciated, either from hereditary or acquired disease, it is particularly beneficial. in seasons when experience informs us that the blood requires cleansing and attenuating, this tea will be of considerable service to the healthy as well as the diseased. by these means the constitution will be preserved and restored from all those chronic and acute afflictions, which are the consequences of acrimonious humours and foulness of blood. as this tea produces the effects of cleansing the stomach, promoting digestion, diluting the chyle, and invigorating the whole viscera, it should be constantly drank by those who live freely. unlike most medicinal applications, this tea requires no previous preparation of the body. such are its nature and progression of effects, that it first renders the body in a state suitable to receive succeeding benefits; nor is it dangerous, like mineral waters, to which persons afflicted with nervous complaints generally resort. persons suffering acute or inflammatory diseases, or who have their vessels too greatly constringed, need not be under the apprehensions of suffering scirrhuses, or even death, which is the confluence of drinking, in such cases, mineral waters; but, on the contrary, they may expect to receive, from the use of the sanative tea, the most beneficial effects, not only in the above, but also in the gout and rheumatism, from its moderate use producing a gentle perspiration. to account for the variety of salutary effects that this valuable discovery produces, we shall now proceed to consider its operation as a medicine and an aliment, which will afford the most convincing and conclusive arguments that can be possibly adduced in favour of its sanative qualities. to consider its medicinal properties or effects, it is necessary to state in what manner it acts first upon the solids, next upon the fluids, and lastly, how it operates upon both together; for on these three principles the power and quality of a medicine solely depend. in acting upon the solids, it either alters their texture and cohesion, or, by diluting the canals, change the figure of the sides. but a medicine acting upon fluids only either alters their properties, or brings them out of the body. all medicines, however, act as well upon the solids as the fluids; for the latter can scarcely be altered without in some degree affecting the former. as all medicines derive the greatest qualities from their filling, evacuating, or altering the smallest parts, the sanative tea possesses the most restorative properties from its action upon the smallest nervous vessels, and not in the arteries, veins, glands, lymphatic and adipose vessels. thus, as all augmentation and accretion of the greater depend on the extension of the smallest lateral vessels, which are nervous tubuli, the nutrition and restitution of what is wasted must be considerably derived from the constant use of this beverage morning and evening. from this the medicinal effects of the tea upon the solids are found to be consistent with the first of physical principles; for the nutrition of the solids, which is made by the application of any part to the place of a wasted part, is always effected in the smallest canals, of which the greater consist. and as every salutary change of the fluids is made in the smallest vessels, the sanative tea possessing the power of conveying nutrition into the most minute channels of the body, the liquids must derive from it the greatest renovation. from this combined effect upon the solids and liquids, the strength of the greater vessels is increased, and thus is the whole aggregate body invigorated; for every artery derives its energy from its sides, which are composed of the minutest vessels. to enter into a complete detail of its medicinal principles, would require a volume itself; we must therefore avoid any further enquiry of its effects as a physical remedy, in order to leave a few lines for its consideration as an aliment. the qualities of an aliment chiefly depend on their nature affording that nourishment which is proper to the time of taking and the state of the body. indeed, without their possessing these relative properties, either meats or drinks are injurious instead of beneficial. for this reason physical necessity, more than tyrant custom, has caused a thinner aliment to be taken in the morning and evening than what forms the meals of dinner and supper. this necessity arises from the state of the body being in the morning just recovering its spirits from a comparative state of relaxation and imbecility, and in the afternoon from the stomach being enfeebled by recent digestion. that the body, immediately after sleep, is in a relaxed state, may be perceived by the perturbation the spirits experience from any surprise or violent action instantly succeeding. fits and faintings have frequently been the consequence of persons of quick sensibilities being wakened. in such a state of relative debility, gross and solid food must oppress the spirits, and thus render the body incapable of deriving nourishment from such an untimely aliment. but if what is taken is light, pure, and apt for producing chyle, the stomach being capable of digesting it, must turn it to the most wholesome nutrition. to attain this end, foreign teas, from their lightness, have been universally adopted; but, as we have found, from their nature, how ill adapted they are to be given when the nerves are already too weak to bear their violent astringency, such should be used as are possessed of the most nutrition, without a tendency to irritate the relaxed fibrillã¦. when the stomach is enfeebled by recent digestion in the afternoon, to take then another meal of solid aliment must evidently tend to depress the digestive powers, and thus prevent the body from having that nourishment it might receive from a lighter aliment. the sanative tea being found, from the preceding enquiries, to possess the most active, subtle, penetrating, and balsamic compound oils, salts, and sulphurs, which pervade, without irritation, the minutest canals, must afford that species of aliment which the body in a morning and afternoon requires. while it attenuates, it restores the tone and substance of the juices, strengthens the solids, invigorates every natural function, and thus affords the means of enjoying all the comfort that a healthy body and a happy mind can bestow. the end. dr. solander's sanative english tea. universally approved and recommended by the most eminent physicians, in preference to foreign tea, as the most pleasing and powerful restorative, in all nervous disorders, hitherto discovered. our first aliment at breakfast, being designed to recruit the waste of the body from the night's insensible perspiration; an inquiry is important, whether india tea, which the faculty unanimously concur in pronouncing a species of slow poison, that unnerves and wears the substance of the solids, is adequate to such a purpose--if it be not--the inquiry is further necessary to find out a proper substitute. if an apozem professionally approved and recommended for its nutritive qualities, as a general aliment, has claim to public attention, certainly dr. solander's tea, so sanctioned, is the most proper morning and afternoon's beverage. prepared for the proprietor by an eminent botanist. sold wholesale and retail by the proprietor's agent, mr. t. golding, at his warehouse for patent medicines, no. 42, cornhill, london; and retail by mr. f. newbery, no. 45, st. paul's church-yard; mess. bailey's, cockspur-street; mr. w. bacon, no. 150, oxford-street; mr. overton, no. 47, new bond-street; and by mr. j. fuller, covent-garden, near the hummums. also, by the venders of patent medicines in every city and town, in england, ireland and scotland. sold in packets at 2s. 9d. and in cannisters at 10s. 6d. each, duty included. liberal allowance for exportation, to country venders and to schools. the native and exotic plants which chiefly compose dr. solander's tea, being gathered and dried with peculiar attention, to the preserving of their sanative virtues, must render them far more efficacious than many similar preparations, which by being reduced to powder, must have those qualities destroyed they might otherwise possess. a packet of this tea at 2s. 9d. is sufficient to breakfast one person a month. direction for making dr. solander's tea. two or three tea-spoonfuls of this tea being put into a tea-pot, or a covered bason, pour boiling water upon it, and let it remain a short time in a state of infusion.--after using milk and sugar agreeably to the taste, drink it moderately warm. a few tea-cups full are sufficient for breakfast, tea in the afternoon, or any other time a person may think proper. * * * * * the native and exotic plants which chiefly compose this tea, being gathered and dried with peculiar attention to the preserving their sanative virtues, must render them far more efficacious than many similar preparations, which, by being reduced to powder, must have those qualities destroyed they might otherwise possess. * * * * * a caution. the high estimation in which dr. solander's tea is held, by the first circles of fashion, as a general beverage--the many cures it has effected--and the pleasantness of its flavor having induced several unprincipled persons to prepare and vend a base and spurious preparation under a similar title; the proprietor, in justice to the known efficacy of this tea, and to secure his property from further depredations, has thought proper to have an engraved copper-plate affixed to the canisters and packets of the genuine and original preparation of dr. solander's sanative english tea. this plate being entered at stationer's hall as the act directs, aug. 20, 1791, will subject such persons as imitate the same to a consequent prosecution. the public are therefore cautioned from purchasing any article but what is distinguished by the said plate, and to observe thereon the words specified as above, of its being entered according to act of parliament. dr. solander's tea. this celebrated tea is peculiarly efficacious in most inward wasting, loss of appetite, hysterical disorders and indigestion, depression of spirits, trembling or shaking of the hands or limbs, obstinate coughs, shortness of breath, and consumptive habits; it purifies the blood, eases the most violent pains of the head and stomach, and is a wonderful assuager of the excruciating pains of the gout and rheumatism, by promoting gentle perspiration. by the nobility and gentry this tea is much admired as a fashionable breakfast; being pleasant to the taste and smell, gently astringing the fibres of the stomach, and giving them that proper tensity, which is requisite to a good digestion; and nothing can be better adapted to help and nourish the constitution after late hours, or making too free with wine. this sanative tea is highly esteemed in the east and west indies, being unlike india tea, which the faculty unanimously concur in pronouncing a species of slow poison that unnerves and wears the substance of the solids; on the contrary, this nourishes and invigorates the nervous system, acts as a general restorative cordial, upon debilitated constitutions, and is a sovereign remedy in bilious complaints contracted in hot climates. in the measles and small pox, nothing need be given but a plenty of this tea; drank warm at night it promotes refreshing rest, and, as such, is a regular afternoon's beverage with many aged and infirm persons. being of peculiar service to children, and such who are weakly, many parents, and others, having the care and education of females, exclude the use of any other than this salubrious tea. by the studious and sedentary, this celebrated tea is justly considered as a mental panacea, from its sovereign efficacy in removing complaints of the head, invigorating the mind, improving the memory, and enlivening the imagination. the proofs of efficacy of dr. solander's tea, being so numerous, would far exceed the limitation of a pamphlet; the public are therefore required to accept the following abridged list of cures as specimens: case i. _to the proprietor of dr._ solander's tea. having long languished under a severe depression of spirits, an almost continual cough, and to all appearance, a confirmed consumption, being afflicted with violent pains in my head and breast, together with a total lassitude of body and limbs.--i was so weak and emaciated that all my friends and acquaintance apprehended, i could not survive many weeks. in that unhappy condition, an eminent physician recommended me to your sanative english tea, in the use of which i persevered for several weeks, with the happiest effect, and am now perfectly cured by that salutary and invaluable medicine. happy in the opportunity of contributing my endeavours to alleviate the distresses of humanity, i hereby authorise you to publish my case, with my earnest recommendation of your sanative tea, to all persons afflicted with nervous and other consumptive disorders, and am, sir, your humble servant, nicholas sandys. n.b. my near relation samuel sandys, esq. no. 61, berner-street, and many of my friends, will testify to the truth of the above. case ii. mrs. jones, of hammersmith, was for several years afflicted with a bilious and nervous complaint, being recommended by a friend, who (in an obstinate cough attended with spitting of blood) had experienced the peculiar efficacy of dr. solander's tea, was at last persuaded to make trial of it, when in a few months she was perfectly restored to health and spirits, by the use of this celebrated tea. case iii. mr. bryant, no. 7, king-street, bethnal-green, for twenty years was violently afflicted with a nervous disorder, but by the constant drinking the sanative english tea is now enjoying a good state of health. case iv. capt. r. smith, of liverpool, after a severe nervous fever, was very much afflicted with violent pains in his breast, attended with a continual cough and excruciating head-ache, which entirely deprived him of rest, and reduced him to a mere skeleton; being persuaded to drink dr. solander's tea, was recovered to health and strength by that salubrious panacea. case v. _to the proprietor of dr._ solander's tea. for some years past i had been violently afflicted with a slow nervous fever attended by a continual head-ache, a total loss of appetite, and a very bad digestion, by which i was reduced to a deplorable state of languor and dejection of spirits. after being attended by many doctors, and taking a variety of medicines, my husband, mr. john tod, hearing from several persons with whom he was acquainted, of the wonderful effects your excellent tea had done in nervous disorders, in various families with whom, in his extensive acquaintance, he was well known, urged me much to drink the tea; which i began in the morning for breakfast, and in a few days i found myself much better, and was much pleased with so grateful a remedy. i continued it for some time; and i do assure you i am now entirely recovered, and enjoy a perfect state of health, without any medical assistance whatever. i am therefore prompted to send you this, in gratitude for the benefit i have received, requesting you will make what use of it you think proper, as it may be of the same benefit to others. i am, sir, your very humble servant, frances tod. rum and brandy warehouse, no. 8, little carter-lane, doctor's commons, feb. 20, 1790 case vi. _to the proprietor of the sanative tea._ when i arrived in england some time ago, i was distressed with a severe depression of the spirits, a very violent cough, and as all my friends thought in a declining consumptive habit of body; my brother hearing the efficacy of your sanative tea much praised, bought me a cannister, and begged i would use it according to the directions given with it, which i did, and had a tea-pot of it standing at my bed-side every night, (for as i was very restless and very feverish) drinking it at intervals, and likewise in the morning; before it was all out i was entirely recovered, and have at this time good spirits, good appetite, and good health. i therefore recommend it much. i am, sir, &c. mary mullarky. no. 11, york-street, london-road, sept. 29, 1792 case vii. _to the proprietor of dr._ solander's _sanative tea_. a near relation of mine being afflicted with a violent nervous disorder, owing to a fright which happened to her in her lying-in, so much so, as nearly to deprive her of reason; her intellects were for some time, very much impaired, and she was reduced to a state of despondency; she was attended by many eminent physicians, and took many of her apothecary's draughts, &c. but without success, until she was persuaded to try your sanative tea, by several of her acquaintances, who had proved its good qualities, which she made use of six weeks, and in which time she found herself perfectly recovered from such alarming disorder. in justice to so valuable and elegant a medicine, i cannot omit giving you this information, that it may be published for the benefit of the community at large, being fully persuaded of its excellent qualities. i am, sir, &c. richard andrews. no. 20, cross-street, surry, oct. 16, 1792. case viii. _to the proprietor of the_ sanative tea. for a long time i was frequently afflicted with a nervous disorder in my head and stomach, was exceedingly ill and low spirited, and often confined to my bed; i had a variety of things prescribed for me by gentlemen of the faculty, but without effect, my disorder still returning; till your sanative tea was recommended to me: i resolved to try it, and it so much pleased me in taste and satisfaction of drinking, that i made it my constant morning and evening tea, and continued it for some time, and quickly found my health better, my spirits good, and have now entirely got rid, by its means, of all my illness, and am in good health; therefore i am glad to send this information, in justice to the virtues of the sanative tea, recommending it to every one who may be afflicted with any such dreadful complaints i laboured under. i remain, sir, your humble servant, mary smyth, mistress of the school. blackfriars school, near ludgate-hill, nov. 16, 1792. case ix. _to the proprietor of dr. solander's_ sanative tea. about twelve months ago, my daughter was afflicted with violent pains in her stomach, occasioned as was supposed, by drinking strong green tea for breakfast, without eating therewith--i had the assistance of several gentlemen of the faculty, but to no purpose; as her complaint grew worse almost daily; and it was the general opinion that she was in a decline. anxious for the safety of my child, i tried many advertised medicines without success; till seeing in the county chronicle the many cures performed by your sanative tea, i wrote to a friend in london to procure me some of it; he readily acquiesced, and sent me a few packets of the tea as a present: in a short time her complaint was much abated, and continuing the use of it a few weeks, she was restored to perfect health:--in justice to the merits of your tea, you have my consent to make whatever use you please of this token of acknowledgement. i remain, sir, your obliged humble servant, fred. blakeley. barsford, near needham, suffolk, march 10, 1793. case x. _to the proprietor of dr. solander's_ sanative tea. having been afflicted with obstructions, attended with a continual cough and violent pains in my head and breast--i applied to many physicians and apothecaries, without finding relief, till i drank your sanative tea, which has entirely cured me. i think it my duty to send you this acknowledgement, in justice to you and the public at large. i am, sir, &c. ann royal. no. 63, st. john street, near the green-walk, christ-church, surry, march 18, 1793. case xi. _to the proprietor of the_ sanative tea. being much afflicted with a slow fever, very nervous, and much subject to fits, a violent oppression at my stomach, and total loss of appetite; i was continually taking physic of various descriptions, but found no relief. having heard your sanative tea highly praised, i resolved to try it, and found myself in a short time much better. i have continued drinking it ever since, and at present enjoy so perfect a state of health, that i cannot sufficiently express my gratitude for the benefit i have experienced. i therefore send you this, recommending it much to every person so afflicted with illness as i was, giving you full liberty to make this known as you may think proper. i am, &c. catharine clover. ormond-place, queen-square, bloomsbury, march 24, 1793. case xii. _to the proprietor of the_ english sanative tea. having had recourse to several medicines and prescriptions, for internal weakness and indigestion, without the desired effect, i was advised to make trial of your sanative tea, as a medicine. i accordingly furnished myself with two parcels, and found it very agreeable and pleasant; and in a short time i had the satisfaction of feeling the good effects of this pleasing and salutary medicine; and to confirm the services received from it, i am determined, for the future, to drink it instead of foreign teas, because i think it more grateful than any thing yet presented to the public as a stomatic; therefore in justice to your valuable discovery for the public good, you are welcome to communicate this information to the world at large; with the sincerest wishes for the general use of your excellent tea. i am, sir, &c. richard edwards. no. 37, baldwin's-gardens, holborn, june 13, 1793 case xiii. _to the proprietor of the_ sanative tea. being very much afflicted with a violent head-ache for a great many years, i some time ago heard a great praise of the sanative tea; i tried it and thought it did me good, and by continuing the use of it, it has entirely taken away my old head-ache, and i find myself much better, and am now quite well. indeed it has done me more good than i could expect, as the head-ache is particularly our family complaint. i likewise recommended it to my brother, james robertson, of bradfield, essex, and it has had the same good effects on him. also my sister, mrs. shibley, of battle-bridge, has experienced its salutary effects; therefore in justice to so excellent a thing, i send you this, hoping others troubled with a constitutional head-ache, will make use of it. i am, sir, your obedient servant, ratcliff robertson. no. 10, great shire-lane, temple-bar, june 26, 1793 case xiv. _to the proprietor of the_ sanative tea. about two years ago, i was attacked with a nervous disorder in my head, which violently afflicted my whole frame. i had no rest, and oftentimes, for want of sleep, at intervals, lost my senses--being much troubled with frights and startings, the disorder increased, till most of my friends expected i should soon die. i took many things without benefit, till an acquaintance recommended me to use the sanative tea. i began to drink it in the night, being always very thirsty; i thought in two or three nights that i was easier; i therefore continued it, and not only drank it in the night, but used it constantly, and left off drinking india tea. i gradually got better, and am now quite recovered, having got rid of head-ache, startings, &c. i therefore wish to recommend it for its excellence to all my sex; and beg you will accept of this, hoping it may be useful. i am, sir, your humble servant, mary shaw. no. 24, cross-street, st. george's-fields, july 10, 1793. case xv. _to the proprietor of dr. solander's tea_. induced by a friend of mine to make use of your tea, as an excellent medicine for the loss of appetite, bad digestion, and great relaxation of the whole frame, with which i had been afflicted a long time, i have found more relief from it, than from any other medicine i have yet had recourse to, and am convinced it has qualities superior to any thing of the kind; and considering it as worthy of public attention, i give you my approbation of the services it has done me. i am, your humble servant, john middleton, pencil-maker. no. 11, turnagain-lane, snow-hill, july 19, 1793. case xvi. _to the proprietor of dr._ solander's tea. hearing of the virtues of your tea, in nervous complaints and indigestions, and being among my friends much persuaded to try it, i soon found, by drinking it for breakfast, the good effects arising from it; your sanative tea having operated entirely to my wish, from its pleasing as well as its medicinal qualities. i continued to use it, at least once a day, and as a means of disclosing its virtues shall continue to recommend it in the circle of my acquaintance. your humble servant, peter capper. no. 14, lambeth-walk, aug. 8, 1793. case xvii. _to the proprietor of the english sanative_ tea. a servant of mine having been in a continual state of pain, from what the doctors deemed a rheumatic complaint, for the space of eight months, and appearing to be of a consumptive habit of body, attended with a total depression of spirits, a perpetual cough, and extreme weakness of limbs; which threatened her dissolution. hearing frequently of the surprising efficacy of your sanative tea, i bought some for her, and the happy effects it has produced, urges me strongly to speak in its great praise; therefore, i send you this, hoping her case may be of service to make the virtues of your sanative tea, universally known. i am, sir, &c. joseph swallow. no. 3, clarence-place, st. george's, southwark, aug. 20, 1793. case xviii. _to the proprietor of the_ sanative tea. being afflicted with a nervous head-ache, and trembling of the hands, lowness of spirits, and bad appetite, a friend of mine wished very much i would drink the sanative english tea; which upon drinking, instead of other tea for breakfast, i found myself much better, and am now quite well; my hands being perfectly steady, which is of great advantage to me, i being a writing stationer; besides my appetite is good, and i feel myself in every respect so well, that i am persuaded i do good to the community, in begging you will make this publicly known. yours, &c. j. clarke no. 16, newcastle-court, butcher-row, temple-bar, sept. 6, 1793. case xix. _to the proprietor of dr._ solander's sanative tea. for many years i had been violently afflicted with acute pains in my head, a nervous disorder, and lowness of spirits, and took many medicines from apothecaries, but found no benefit; till lately a friend speaking very much in praise of the sanative tea; it induced me to drink it, instead of other tea; and i have found it so happily relieved me, that i am induced to send you this, to recommend it for such complaints, to all nervous people. i am, &c. rosannah wynne. no. 62, south audley-street, grosvenor-square, sept. 10, 1793. case xx. _to the proprietor of the._ sanative tea. i cannot with-hold my praise of your sanative tea, having received so much benefit by its efficacy; for having been a long time oppressed with a severe head-ache, and low spirits, and little or no appetite, i was recommended to drink your tea, which, to my great surprise, very soon restored me to health; i therefore wish this to be made public for the good of others. alice mason. no. 18, upper ground, blackfriars-bridge, sept. 18, 1793. case xxi. _to the proprietor of the sanative tea._ mrs. hayden being much affected with an oppression at her stomach, very low spirits, and other complaints attending a nervous disorder, for a long time past, after taking various prescriptions of her doctors, without effect, she was persuaded to try your sanative tea, which proved most salutary, and she is now perfectly restored to health; and takes this method to recommend it to ladies troubled with the same complaints. i am, sir, your obedient servant, robert hayden, sadler. knightsbridge, sept. 19, 1793. case xxii. _to the proprietor of dr. solander's_ tea. i was a considerable time much afflicted with a nervous fever and depression of spirits, till hearing of the efficacy of your sanative tea, in similar complaints, induced me to make trial of it--by which, in a few weeks, i was restored to perfect health. i am, sir, your humble servant, r. jones. aldersgate-street, nov. 27, 1793. case xxiii. _to the proprietor of the sanative tea._ my mother having been afflicted, for some time past, with a nervous complaint and a bad head-ache, she took several medicines without effect; till a lady of her acquaintance, recommended to her your sanative tea, and advised her to drink it, instead of green or bohea tea; which advice she followed; and as it relieved her of those complaints, i send you this, in order that the good qualities of this tea may be known to those afflicted with similar complaints. i am, sir, your obedient servant, george quin, hydrometer-maker. no. 12, london-road, sept. 19, 1793. case xxiv. _to the proprietor of the_ sanative tea. some time ago being recommended to drink your sanative tea for a troublesome head-ache, and a nervous disorder in my stomach, i am so pleased with its good qualities, and efficacy, in removing those complaints, that i am induced to recommend it as a restorative in such cases. i am, &c. wm. filby. no. 3, pilgrim-street, ludgate-hill, oct. 1, 1793. case xxv. _to the proprietor of the_ sanative tea. my business obliging me for many years to be concerned in spirituous liquors, and under the unavoidable necessity of drinking too much, i have suffered greatly from the ill effects of the same; till recommended to drink your sanative tea, which after a little time did me so much good, that i am induced to wish that every person would drink the tea who have suffered the same infirmities from the too frequent use of spirituous liquors. i therefore send you this, in hopes others may be benefited as i have been. i am, sir, &c. joseph wells. guy earl of warwick, upper ground, blackfriars-road, oct. 7, 1793. case xxvi. _to the proprietor of the sanative tea._ about six weeks ago, i was attacked with a violent sore throat, and fever, being attended by my apothecary, and taking a number of medicines which he sent me, a physician was advised to be called in, but nothing they prescribed did me any good, and the doctor gave me up as entirely lost. i was then pressed by a relation to drink a quantity of the sanative tea, which i immediately did, and continued thro' the night; i found, after a long sleep, that i was much better: i therefore continued it for a day or two afterwards, and i was still better and better; and in the space of three weeks, i found myself restored to perfect health. i therefore recommend it strongly to all who may be attacked in the same manner, and am most assuredly convinced that the sanative tea contains many efficacious and excellent properties, from the great benefit i have so astonishingly experienced by it. i am, sir, &c. samuel robinson. no. 15, clifford's-inn, oct. 8, 1793. case xxvii. _to the proprietor of dr. solander's_ tea. your sanative tea being recommended to me for a nervous disorder and a consumptive habit of body, with which i was afflicted a considerable time, i accordingly gave it a trial, and found myself in a short time so much better, that i continued to drink it regularly, and am now in exceeding good health. in gratitude to so excellent a remedy, i send you this acknowledgement, and am, sir, your humble servant, john lamb. clifford's-inn, oct. 12, 1793. case xxviii. _to the proprietor of dr. solander's_ tea. for some years past, i have been afflicted with a nervous disorder, attended with a bad head-ache, and violent spasms in the stomach. i was for a long time attended by an apothecary, and took much medicine, till taking to drink the sanative tea, which i had heard was sold in cornhill, it did me much good, and so pleased me in taste, that i continued the use of it, and am now quite well. you may as you think fit, make use of this my poor praise. i am, sir, your humble servant, john wannock. no. 2, fountain-court, cateaton-street, oct. 14, 1793. case xxix. _to the proprietor of the sanative english_ tea. i was suddenly seized with a violent fever, and attended by a physician; but grew worse. my friends, on enquiry the next day, found me very bad; and so i remained the whole of that night; in the morning a neighboring gentlewoman stepped in, made me some of your sanative tea; which as she afterwards informed me, i drank greedily, and asked for more, which was given me. i then fell into a pleasing sleep, and on waking found myself so refreshed and well, that i am determined to drink it constantly. in gratitude for the benefit i have experienced from your tea, you may depend upon my recommendation and custom. i am, sir, your most humble servant, george brown. white lion-street, pentonville, islington, oct. 16, 1793. case xxx. _to the proprietor of dr._ solander's tea. being afflicted with a violent head-ache, a considerable time, till hearing of the sanative tea having cured many persons of that complaint, i was induced to make trial of it, and accordingly sent for some, which i liked so well, that i continued to drink it every morning for breakfast; and i declare, since drinking that tea and leaving off green tea, i have been entirely freed from my former complaint--if therefore this my acknowledgement of its efficacy should induce any of my sex, who are so liable to that, so general a disorder, i don't doubt of its doing them as much service as i have experienced. i am, sir, your humble servant, e. mackrill. no. 1, basing-lane, nov. 21, 1793. case xxxi. _to the proprietor of the english tea._ it is with the utmost pleasure i inform you, that my sister who has lingered these eight months under a decline of the most alarming kind, is now perfectly restored to health by drinking frequently and regularly your sanative english tea. i am, sir, your respectful servant, t. i. upton, watch-maker. no. 8, bell-yard, temple-bar. dec. 15, 1793. case xxxii. _to the proprietor of dr. solander's tea._ it is the duty of every individual member of society, whose health may be renovated by the use of any medicine, freely to communicate its efficacy for the public good, in order that it may be better-known and disseminated amongst his fellow-creatures.--being from the nature of my profession (my inclination perhaps also conducing that way) necessarily accustomed to a sedentary life, i became the unhappy victim of all those horrible maladies incident to a debility of the nervous system, augmented by inattention to myself, accompanied with a depression of spirits, verging to an almost absolute despondency. a gentleman, whose goodness and philanthropy eminently characterise him, recommended to me dr. solander's tea, and happily by the use of it i have experienced the most unspeakable relief, and my health is completely re-established, my nerves have assumed their natural tone, and my animal spirits that hilarity they formerly possessed. with all the fervor of gratitude for the salutary effects of this incomparable tea, i sincerely recommend its use to those who may be afflicted in the same way. i am, sir, &c. butler fitzgerald. attorney at law and solicitor in chancery. dec. 27, 1793. case xxxiii. _to the proprietor of the sanative_ tea. i was for some time supposed to be in a decline, and medicine had no effect, till seeing an advertisement of a cure, performed by your sanative tea, in a case similar to my own, i made trial of it, and received so much benefit from its use, that i take this opportunity to acknowledge its merit in having restored me to perfect health. i am, sir, your humble servant, benjamin baker. clifford's inn coffee-house, jan. 3, 1794. case xxxiv. _to the proprietor of dr. solander's tea._ two of my children being very ill, i was recommended to try dr. solander's tea, which in a short time did them so much good, that i am induced to send you this, believing it to be a most excellent remedy for many disorders. i am, sir, your most obedient servant, e. allen. no. 13, cross-street, hatton-garden, feb. 2, 1794. case xxxv. _to the proprietor of the sanative english tea._ having been for a long time troubled with a bad cough, violent cold, a poor appetite, and in a very low nervous way; i took much physic, but found no relief; till several of my acquaintance speaking greatly in praise of the sanative tea, and recommending it particularly, i drank it for some time, and finding it do me so much good, i continued the use of it, and am now perfectly restored to health. i therefore send you this acknowledgment of its efficacy. i am, sir, your most obedient servant, john wheeler. no. 7, lamb's conduit-passage, red lion-square, feb. 18, 1794. case xxxvi. _to the proprietor of dr._ solander's tea. one of my daughters being lately very ill with an intermitting head-ache, a nervous fever, and seemingly in a decline, at the particular desire of a friend, i was induced to buy some of the sanative tea, which she continued to drink for some time, and i am happy in this opportunity to acknowledge that it has perfectly recovered her. i am, sir, your obliged humble servant, james gent. no. 14, watling-street, may 2, 1794. case xxxvii. _to the proprietor of the sanative english_ tea. being much afflicted with violent pains in my stomach and bowels, attended with a loss of appetite, i was recommended to try your english tea, which, by the time i had taken three packets, restored me to perfect health. i therefore send you this as a testimony of its virtues. and am, sir, your humble servant, w. jordan. the corner of harpur-street, red lion-square, may 8, 1794. case xxxviii. _to the proprietor of the english tea._ i was a long time afflicted with a nervous disorder, attended with such lowness of spirits, that at times rendered me incapable of business--by the advice of a friend i made trial of your tea, which entirely removed my complaint, and i now enjoy a good state of health. i remain, sir, your humble servant, wm. faircloth. no. 50, little russell-street, near duke-street, bloomsbury, may 12, 1794. case xxxix. _to the proprietor of dr._ solander's tea. having been a considerable time afflicted with a nervous head-ache, attended with violent pains in my stomach, for which i took several medicines without experiencing any beneficial effect; being tired of such, i bought some of your sanative tea, which by using a short time, i experienced such a material change in my complaint, as induced me to continue it, and am now free from my former pains and nervous affections. i remain sir, your obedient servant, richard loveday. no. 105, bermondsey-street, may 20, 1794. case xl. _to the proprietor of dr. solander's sanative_ tea. my wife being much afflicted with a nervous complaint, a bad appetite, and depression of spirits, she was recommended to drink the english tea, which in a short time restored her to health--i therefore send you this acknowledgment of its merit. i am, sir, your obedient servant, r. clarke. no. 9, ward's place, islington, june 18, 1974. case xli. _to the proprietor of dr._ solander's tea. having heard your sanative tea spoke of with much praise, and it being recommended to me by a friend who had experienced its efficacy in eruptions of the skin--i was induced to make trial of it to my daughter who had frequently been troubled with a similar complaint, and am happy to inform you, that she has received much benefit from its use, and make no doubt that in a short time it will have the desired effect so long wished for. and am, sir, your humble servant, john roberts. prospect-place, newington, surry, june 30, 1794. case xlii. _to the proprietor of the english tea._ being in the liquor trade and liable to live irregular, i contracted a violent pain and trembling of my limbs, which often rendered me incapable of attending to business. by taking your tea at night and for breakfast, it has entirely removed my complaint. i therefore send you this as a testimony of its good qualities. i remain, sir, &c. james raverty. no. 12, cross-street, hatton-garden, july 28, 1794. case xliii. _to the proprietor of dr. solander's tea._ i was a considerable time afflicted with a consumptive cough and inward wasting which induced me to have recourse to many gentlemen of the faculty, without receiving any benefit from their advice or medicine. at last i was recommended to try your sanative tea, and am happy to inform you, that a few packets of it entirely removed my cough, and at present find myself in as good a state of health as ever i enjoyed. i am, sir, &c. thomas gallant. no. 10, peter-lane, west smithfield, aug. 4, 1794. case xliv. _to the proprietor of the sanative tea._ i have been for ten years very much afflicted with a rheumatic gout for which i have taken much medicine without being relieved; fortunately, i was advised last march to try dr. solander's tea; the first two packets i took, greatly eased my pains; and the three next parcels cured me. since the pains not returning, you have my authority to make this public for the good of society. i remain, sir, &c. james johnston. lambeth-butts, 12th august, 1794. case xlv. _to the proprietor of dr. solander's_ sanative tea. having for a long time suffered greatly with a severe bilious complaint, i was persuaded to make trial of your sanative tea, from which i have experienced such good effects as induces me to recommend it to such who are afflicted with a similar disorder. i am, &c. rachael james. aug. 12, no. 2, cloysters, near smithfield. case xlvi. _to the proprietor of dr._ solander's tea. i should not think i discharged my duty to the public, were i to conceal for a moment the great benefit i have received from solander's tea, as well as two of my children, who were weakly for some months, after the measles. my own case was violent trembling of my hands, attended with lowness of spirits, for which i took various prescriptions from many eminent of the faculty, without any visible benefit, till by the advice of one of them, i took to drink your tea, which in a few weeks entirely cured me. finding it so efficacious, and withal so pleasant to the taste, i gave it to my children to drink, who i am happy to say are perfectly recovered. i remain, sir, &c. wm. hoskins croydon, aug. 13, 1794. case xlvii. _to the proprietor of the english sanative tea._ being long afflicted with a nervous complaint, and great depression of spirits, i was advised to try the sanative tea, from which i received so much benefit, as induces my recommending it as a pleasant and comfortable remedy. i am, sir, &c. arabella devroax. no. 49, gloucester-street, queen-square, bloomsbury, aug. 13, 1794. case xlviii. _to the proprietor of the sanative tea._ in justice to your sanative tea, i approve of its utility in nervous hysterical disorders and lowness of spirits, having seen its good effect in cases under my own inspection. i also approve of it for children in the measles. i am, sir, your humble servant, &c. james fell, surgeon and apothecary. no. 36, pratt's place, camden town, st. pancras, aug. 14, 1794. case xlix. _to the proprietor of dr._ solander's tea. having been for several years troubled with violent nervous head-aches, i had recourse to many remedies without effect, till i tried the sanative tea, a few packets of which effectually cured me. i remain, sir, &c. m. lawson. no. 7, new compton-street, aug. 16, 1794. case l. _to the proprietor of dr. solander's sanative tea._ in gratitude for the benefit i have received from your tea, i acknowledge its having recovered me from a bilious and nervous disorder with which i was afflicted. i am, sir, &c. ann martin. pitt-street, blackfriars, aug. 18, 1794. case li. _to the proprietor of dr. solander's_ tea. i was for some years attacked with a violent cough, which threatened a consumption, for which i tried several medicines in vain, till i used your sanative tea, which has effectually cured me. i am, sir, &c. catharine browne. blewit's-buildings, fetter-lane, aug. 25, 1794. case lii. _to the proprietor of dr. solander's sanative english tea._ having been much troubled with a nervous disorder, attended with a sick head-ache, particularly after breakfast and tea: i was strongly advised to try your english tea, which by persevering in its use, has recovered me from my complaints. i remain, sir, your's, &c. f. marshall. duke's-row, somers town, sept. 27, 1794. case liii. _to the proprietor of dr. solander's_ english tea. being long afflicted with a slow nervous complaint, that brought on such a debility of my frame as rendered me incapable of my business; i was persuaded by a friend to the use of the sanative tea, and purchased two packets, from which i found great relief, and by continuing its use, am perfectly restored to health and strength. i am, sir, &c. h. i. dobson. no. 62, kingsland-road, oct. 16, 1794. case liv. _to the proprietor of dr. solander's tea._ your sanative tea having cured me of a violent bilious complaint with which i had been afflicted above six months, induces me to send you this acknowledgement of its efficacy. i am, sir, &c. wm. lane. hackney terrace, oct. 27, 1794. case lv. _to the proprietor of dr. solander's sanative tea._ being for some time past afflicted with a weakness at my stomach, attended with a violent pain in my head, i was recommended to make trial of your sanative tea, which has removed my complaints, and i would wish to recommend it to others for the same disorder. i remain, sir, your humble servant, h. meirick. shore-place, hackney, dec. 3, 1794. case lvi. _to the proprietor of dr. solander's sanative_ english tea. my daughter being afflicted with violent pains in her head and stomach, i purchased some of your tea, which has entirely relieved her from her complaints. i am, sir, &c. james bennett. bagnigge marsh, opposite the bull, dec. 10, 1794. case lvii. _to the proprietor of dr. solander's_ tea. being greatly troubled with a weakness of stomach, indigestion and loss of appetite, i was strongly recommended to try the sanative tea, which has had so good an effect in restoring me to health, that i wish to be the means of promoting the more general use of it in all complaints of that nature. i am, sir, &c. l. fegan. no. 2, union-row, london road, st. george's fields, dec. 30, 1794. case lviii. _to the proprietor of the_ english tea. sir, my daughter being in a poor state of health, in consequence of a weak and bilious stomach, i was advised to try your sanative tea, which produced so good an effect, that i take this opportunity of acknowledging it, and am, sir, your humble servant, james jarvis. no. 21, chapman-street, new road, st. george's in the east, feb. 18, 1795. case lix. _to the proprietor of dr._ solander's sanative tea. sir, being greatly afflicted with a violent head ach and lowness of spirits, i was recommended to the use of dr. solander's tea, which effectually cured me, i am, sir, your obedient servant, evan evans. no. 7, winsay-row, st. george's-fields, march 29, 1795. case lx. _to the proprietor of dr._ solander's tea. sir, the considerable benefit i have received from your sanative tea in a nervous disorder, with which i was afflicted, induces me to send you this acknowledgement of it's merit, and am sir, your very humble servant, john richardson. church-street, mile end, april 3, 1795. case lxi. _to the proprietor of dr._ solander's english tea. sir, your sanative english tea, as a corrector of a weak and bilious stomach, attended with loss of appetite, with which i was long afflicted, has proved so peculiarly efficacious, that i wish it was more generally known by such as are troubled with that too common and cruel complaint, i am, sir, your most humble servant, richard cox. no. 8, paradise-street, finsbury-square, april 12, 1795. case lxii. _to the proprietor of dr._ solander's tea. sir, being troubled with a depression of spirits in consequence of a bilious complaint and indigestion, in justice to the merits of your tea in removing the phlegm from my stomach, and enlivening my spirits, i send you this acknowledgment of its virtues. i am, sir, your humble servant, robert gribble. portland place, walworth, july 4, 1795 case lxiii. _to the proprietor of dr.._ solander's tea. sir, after a long and severe illness my brother was afflicted with a nervous complaint, attended with lowness of spirits; being advised to drink your celebrated tea, he has experienced so much benefit from its use, that it is but justice to acknowledge its efficacy. i am, sir, your most humble servant, james gilbert. charles street, whitechapel. case lxiv. _to the proprietor of the_ english tea. sir, i was a considerable time much afflicted with a bilious complaint and very nervous, till fortunately hearing of the many cures performed by your sanative tea, in similar complaints, induced me to make trial of it, and to persevere in its use. i now find myself so perfectly restored to health, that i shall embrace every opportunity to recommend it in the circle of my acquaintance. i am, sir, your obedient servant, william marsh. seward street, old street road. july 20, 1795. case lxv. _to the proprietor of the_ sanative tea. sir, i have the satisfaction to inform you, that i have just cause to approve your sanative tea, from its having cured me of a severe nervous head-ache, after the unsuccessful prescriptions of several of the faculty. i am, sir, your most obliged servant, barbary starr. no. 6, golden lane, barbican. august 17, 1795. case lxvi. _to the proprietor of the_ sanative tea. sir, a friend of mine having drank your sanative tea, and approved it, i was induced to try it, and have experienced its efficacy in a bilious complaint, i am, sir, your humble servant, allan wilson. corn chandler, &c. tottenham court road, may 15, 1795 case lxvii. _to the proprietor of dr._ solander's english tea. sir, in the course of my practice i have had several opportunities to observe the sanative efficacy of your english tea, in nervous and bilious cases; i also approve of its use in hysterical disorders and lowness of spirits, and shall recommend for such. i am, sir, your humble servant, thomas langford, apothecary. strand, near exeter change, october 16, 1795. case lxviii. _to the proprietor of the_ sanative tea. sir, from the benefit i have experienced in drinking your sanative tea for a bilious complaint, bordering on the jaundice, i send you this acknowledgment of its merit. i am, sir, your obedient servant, charles warwick. no. 17, baker's buildings, old bethlem, nov. 25, 1795. case lxix. _to the proprietor of the_ english tea. sir, my apothecary, mr. thomas langford, of the strand, having prescribed my drinking dr. solander's tea for a nervous fever and head-ache with which i was afflicted, i persevered in its use some time, and am now happily restored to health by that pleasant remedy. i am sir, your humble servant, c. richardson. no. 9, mount row, opposite the paragon, deptford road, nov. 14, 1795. case lxx. _to the proprietor of dr._ solander's tea. sir, i approve of your english tea as a general beverage, particularly in nervous hysterical cases, and for children in the measles and small-pox, and shall recommend for such in the course of my practice. i am, sir, your humble servant, o. fairclough, surgeon, &c. beaumont street, portland place, jan. 25, 1796. t. golding, wholesale agent to the proprietor of this tea, respectfully informs the nobility, gentry, and the public in general, that for convenience of the country, it is appointed to be sold by _mr._ and by one principal vender of medicines in every other city and town in england, ireland, and scotland. the native and exotic plants which chiefly compose this tea, being gathered and dried with peculiar attention to the preserving their sanative virtues, must render them far more efficacious than many similar preparations, which, by being reduced to powder, must have those qualities destroyed they might otherwise possess. * * * * * _a caution._ the high estimation in which dr. solander's tea is held, by the first circles of fashion, as a general beverage--the many cures it has effected--and the pleasantness of its flavour having induced several unprincipled persons to prepare and vend a base and spurious preparation under a similar title; the proprietor, in justice to the known efficacy of this tea, and to secure his property from further depredations, has thought proper to have an engraved copper-plate affixed to the canisters and packets of the genuine and original preparation of dr. solander's sanative english tea. this plate being entered at stationer's hall as the act directs, august 20, 1794, will subject such persons as imitate the same to a consequent prosecution. the public are therefore cautioned from purchasing any article but what is distinguished by the said plate, and to observe thereon the words specified as above, of its being entered according to act of parliament. directions for making dr. solander's tea. two or three tea-spoonfuls of this tea being put into a tea-pot, or a covered bason, pour boiling water upon it, and let it remain a short time in a state of infusion.--after using milk and sugar, agreeably to the taste, drink it moderately warm. a few tea-cups full are sufficient for breakfast, tea in the afternoon, or any other time a person may think proper. contents. in the introduction. 1 health or disease, greatly depend on the choice of salutary or unwholesome tea. 2 dreadful afflictions of nervous disorders caused by foreign tea. 3 the manner of india tea affecting the constitution. * * * * * in the essay on teas. 1 foreign teas frequently cause an atrophy or consumption. 2 the acrimonious effects of foreign teas explained. 3 foreign teas not only impoverish, but corrupt the blood. 4 palsy caused by drinking foreign teas. 5 narcotic salts in foreign teas, very injurious. 6 foreign teas a chief cause of all windy complaints. 7 opinions of different celebrated authors on foreign teas. * * * * * in the manner of using. 1 the use of foreign teas has entirely changed the constitution of the europeans, within the last century. 2 dr. priestley's physical experiment on foreign teas. 3 dr. hugh smith's opinion of their injurious effects. 4 tissot's opinion of their pernicious qualities. 5 symptomatic effects and diseases caused by using them. 6 sir hans sloane's british and dr. solander's english tea considered. 7 effects of coffee and chocolate. 8 virtues of dr. solander's sanative tea, proved by physical analization. 9 aromatic nature of the sanative tea. 10 the sanative manner of its acting on the constitution. 11 dr. solander's tea superior to chalybrates, in all nervous complaints. * * * * * in the preparation of the sanative tea. 1 how the natural and nutritious qualities of the respective plants are preserved, &c. &c. * * * * * manner of using the sanative tea. 1 the qualities of the plants peculiarly adapted to the time of using them, so as to prove the most salutary of any morning or evening beverage whatever. the whole concludes with a brief physical demonstration of their beneficial and restorative effects on the constitutions of all ages who use them instead of foreign teas. * * * * * the native and exotic plants which chiefly compose dr. solander's tea, being gathered and dried with peculiar attention, to the preserving of their sanative virtues, must render them far more efficacious than many similar preparations, which by being reduced to powder, must have those qualities destroyed they might otherwise possess. a packet of dr. solander's tea at 2s. 9d. is sufficient to breakfast one person a month. [illustration: sorting tea in china. _frontispiece._] tea and tea drinking. [illustration] by arthur reade, author of "study and stimulants" london: sampson low, marston, searle, & rivington crown buildings, 188, fleet street. 1884. [_all rights reserved._] london: printed by gilbert and rivington, limited, st. john's square. contents. chapter i. page introduction of tea 1 chapter ii. the cultivation of tea 18 chapter iii. tea-meetings 32 chapter iv. how to make tea 49 chapter v. tea and physical endurance 66 chapter vi. tea as a stimulant 79 chapter vii. the friends and the foes of tea 105 chapter viii. tea as a source of revenue 134 list of illustrations. page sorting tea in china _frontispiece_ a tea plantation 25 watering a tea plantation 41 gathering tea-leaves 57 pressing tea-leaves 73 pressing bags of tea 89 drying tea-leaves 108 sifting tea 125 tea-tasting in china 137 preface. the question of the influence of tea, as well as that of alcohol and tobacco, has occupied the attention of the author for some time. apart from its physiological aspect, the subject of tea-drinking is extremely interesting; and in the following pages an attempt has been made to describe its introduction into england, to review the evidence of its friends and foes, and to discuss its influence on mind and health. an account is also given of the origin of tea-meetings, and of the methods of making tea in various countries. although the book does not claim to be a complete history of tea, yet a very wide range of authors has been consulted to furnish the numerous details which illustrate the usages, the benefits, and the evils (real or imaginary) which surround the habit of tea-drinking. chapter i. introduction of tea. introduced by the east india company--mrs. pepys making her first cup of tea--virtues of tea--thomas garway's advertisement--waller's birthday ode--tea a rarity in country homes--introduced into the quaker school--extension of tea-drinking--the social tea-table a national delight--england the largest consumer of tea. "i sent for a cup of tee--a china drink--of which i had never drank before," writes pepys in his diary of the 25th of september, 1660. it appears, however, that it came into england in 1610; but at ten guineas a pound it could scarcely be expected to make headway. a rather large consignment was, however, received in 1657; this fell into the hands of a thriving london merchant, mr. thomas garway, who established a house for selling the prepared beverage. another writer states that tea was introduced by the east india company early in 1571. though it may not be possible to fix the exact date, one fact is clear, that it was a costly beverage. not until 1667 did it find its way into pepys' own house. "home," he says, "and there find my wife making of tea, a drink which mr. pelling, the potticary, tells her is good for her cold and defluxions." commenting upon this entry, charles knight said, "mrs. pepys making her first cup of tea is a subject to be painted. how carefully she metes out the grains of the precious drug which mr. pelling, the potticary, has sold her at an enormous price--a crown an ounce at the very least; she has tasted the liquor once before, but then there was sugar in the infusion--a beverage only for the highest. if tea should become fashionable, it will cost in their housekeeping as much as their claret. however, pepys says the price is coming down, and he produces the handbill of thomas garway, in exchange alley, which the lady peruses with great satisfaction." this handbill is an extraordinary production. it is entitled "an exact description of the growth, quality, and virtues of the leaf tea, by thomas garway, in exchange alley, near the royal exchange in london, tobacconist, and seller and retailer of tea and coffee." it sets forth that- "tea is generally brought from china, and groweth there upon little shrubs and bushes. the branches whereof are well garnished with white flowers that are yellow within, of the lightness and fashion of sweet-brier, but in smell unlike, bearing thin green leaves about the bigness of scordium, myrtle, or sumack; and is judged to be a kind of sumack. this plant hath been reported to grow wild only, but doth not; for they plant it in the gardens, about four foot distance, and it groweth about four foot high; and of the seeds they maintain and increase their stock. of this leaf there are divers sorts (though all one shape); some much better than others, the upper leaves excelling the others in fineness, a property almost in all plants; which leaves they gather every day, and drying them in the shade or in iron pans, over a gentle fire, till the humidity be exhausted, then put close up in leaden pots, preserve them for their drink tea, which is used at meals and upon all visits and entertainments in private families, and in the palaces of grandees; and it is averred by a padre of macao, native of japan, that the best tea ought to be gathered but by virgins, who are destined for this work. the particular virtues are these; it maketh the body active and lusty; it helpeth the head ache, giddiness and heaviness thereof; it removeth the obstructiveness of the spleen; it is very good against the stone and gravel, cleaning the kidneys and ureters, being drank with virgin's honey, instead of sugar; it taketh away the difficulty of breathing, opening obstructions; it is good against tipitude, distillations, and cleareth the sight; it removeth lassitude and cleanseth and purifieth acrid humours and a hot liver; it is good against crudities, strengthening the weakness of the ventricle, or stomach, causing good appetite and digestion, and particularly for men of corpulent body, and such as are great eaters of flesh; it vanquisheth heavy dreams, easeth the frame and strengtheneth the memory; it overcometh superfluous sleep, and prevents sleepiness in general, a draught of the infusion being taken; so that, without trouble, whole nights may be spent in study without hurt to the body, in that it moderately healeth and bindeth the mouth of the stomach." other remarkable properties are attributed to the chinese herb; but the extracts we have given sufficiently indicate the efforts made to arrest attention and to induce people to buy tea. as a further inducement, this enterprising dealer assures his readers that whereas tea "hath been sold in the leaf for six pounds, and sometimes for ten pounds the poundweight, the said thomas hath ten to sell from sixteen to fifty shillings in the pound." this clever puff had the desired effect; for, according to the diurnal of thomas rugge, "there were at this time (1659) a turkish drink, to be souled almost in every street, called coffee, and another kind of drink called tea; and also a drink called chocolate, which was a very hearty drink." it was advertised in the public journals. the _mercurius politicus_, of the 30th of september, 1658, sets forth: "that excellent, and by all physicians approved, china drink, called by the chineans teha, by other nations tay, alias tee, is sold at the 'sultaness head' coffee-house, in sweeting's rents, by the royal exchange, london." it was sold also at "jonathan's" coffee-house, in exchange alley. in her "bold strike for a wife" mrs. centlivre laid one of her scenes at "jonathan's." while the business goes on she makes the coffee boys cry, "fresh coffee, gentlemen! fresh coffee! bohea tea, gentlemen!" but the most famous house for tea was garway's, or, as it appears in "old and new london," "garraway's coffee-house," which was swept away a few years ago in the "march of improvement." for two centuries, however, it had been one of the most celebrated coffee-houses in the city. defoe mentions it as being frequented about noon by people of quality who had business in the city, and "the more considerable and wealthy citizens;" but it was also the resort of speculators. here the south sea bubblers met, as well as the lovers of good tea. dean swift, in his ballad on the south sea bubble, calls 'change alley "a narrow sound, though deep as hell;" and describes the wreckers watching for the shipwrecked dead on "garraway's cliffs." but the influence of royalty did more than anything else to make tea-drinking fashionable. "in 1662," remarks mr. montgomery martin, in a treatise on the 'past and present state of the tea trade,' published in 1832, "charles ii. married the princess catherine of portugal, who, it was said, was fond of tea, having been accustomed to it in her own country, hence it became fashionable in england." edmund waller, in a birthday ode on her majesty, ascribes the introduction of the herb to the queen, in the following lines:- "venus her myrtle, phoebe has his bays; tea both excels, which she vouchsafes to praise. the best of queens and best of herbes we owe, to that bold nation which the way did show to the fair region, where the sun does rise, whose rich productions we so justly prize. the muse's friend, tea, does our fancy aid, repress those vapours which the head invade, and keeps that palace of the soul serene, fit on her birthday to salute the queen." waller is believed to have been the first poet to write in praise of tea, and no doubt his poem did much to promote its use among the rich. in lord clarendon's diary, 10th of february, 1688, occurs the following entry:-"le père couplet supped with me; he is a man of very good conversation. after supper we had tea, which he said was as good as any he had drank in china. the chinese, who came over with him and mr. fraser, supped likewise with us." in the _tatler_, of the 10th of october, 1710, appears the following advertisement:- "mr. favy's 16_s._ bohea tea, not much inferior in goodness to the best foreign bohee tea, is sold by himself only at the 'bell,' in gracechurch street. note.--the best foreign bohee is worth 30_s._ a pound; so that what is sold at 20_s._ or 21_s._ must either be faulty tea, or mixed with a proportionate quantity of damaged green or bohee, the worst of which will remain black after infusion." tea continued a fashionable drink. dr. alex. carlyle, in his "autobiography," describing the fashionable mode of living at harrowgate in 1763, wrote:--"the ladies gave afternoon's tea and coffee in their turn, which coming but once in four or six weeks amounted to a trifle." probably the ladies did not drink so much as their servants, who are reported to have cared more for tea than for ale. in 1755 a visitor from italy wrote:--"even the common maid-servants must have their tea twice a day in all the parade of quality; they make it their bargain at first; this very article amounts to as much as the wages of servants in italy." this demand was a serious tax upon the purses of the rich; for at that time tea was still excessively dear. according to read's _weekly journal, or british gazetteer_, of the 27th of april, 1734, the prices were as follows:- green tea 9_s._ to 12_s._ per lb. congon 10_s._ " 12_s._ " bohea 10_s._ " 12_s._ " pekoe 14_s._ " 16_s._ " imperial 9_s._ " 12_s._ " hyson 20_s._ " 25_s._ " gradually, however, the prices came down as the consumption increased. in 1740 a grocer, who had a shop at the east corner of chancery lane, advertised the finest caper at 24_s._ a pound; fine green, 18_s._; hyson, 16_s._; and bohea, 7_s._ the latter quality was no doubt used in the "tea-gardens" which at that time had become popular institutions in and around london. the "mary-le-bon gardens" were opened every sunday evening, when "genteel company were admitted to walk gratis, and were accommodated with coffee, tea, cakes, &c." the quality of the cakes was an important feature at such gardens: "mr. trusler's daughter begs leave to inform the nobility and gentry that she intends to make fruit tarts during the fruit season; and hopes to give equal satisfaction as with the rich cakes and almond cheesecakes. the fruit will always be fresh gathered, having great quantities in the garden; and none but loaf-sugar used, and the finest epping butter." in one respect the "good old times" were better than these. gone are the "fruit tarts," the "rich cakes," and the fragrant cup of tea from the suburban "tea-gardens," which rarely supply refreshment either for man or beast. at any rate, it is a misnomer to call them "tea-gardens." we think "beer-gardens" would more accurately indicate their character. some day, probably, the landlords of "public-houses" and of "tea-gardens," will endeavour to meet the wants and tastes of all persons. at present they utterly ignore the existence of a large class, not necessarily teetotalers, to whom a cup of tea is more cheering than a glass of grog after a long walk from the city. among the most famous tea-houses is twining's in the strand. it was founded, mr. e. walford says, "about the year 1710, by the great-great-grandfather of the present partners, mr. thomas twining, whose portrait, painted by hogarth, 'kitcat-size,' hangs in the back parlour of the establishment. the house, or houses--for they really are two, though made one practically by internal communication--stand between the strand and the east side of devereux court. the original depôt for the sale of the then scarce and fashionable beverage, tea, stood at the south-west angle of the present premises, on the site of what had been 'tom's coffee-house,' directly opposite the 'grecian.' a peep into the old books of the firm shows that in the reign of queen anne tea was sold by the few houses then in the trade at various prices between twenty and thirty shillings per pound, and that ladies of fashion used to flock to messrs. twining's house in devereux court, in order to sip the enlivening beverage in their small china cups, for which they paid their shillings, much as now-a-days they sit in their carriages eating ices at the door of gunter's in berkeley square on hot days. the bank was gradually engrafted on the old business, after it had been carried on for more than a century from sire to son, and may be said as a separate institution to date from the commercial panic of 1825." although tea was extensively used in london and some of the principal cities, it did not become popular in country houses. "for instance, at whitby," writes the historian of that town, "tea was very little used a century ago, most of the old men being very much against it; but after the death of the old people it soon came into general use." old habits die hard. the stronger beverage of english ale had been so long in use that the old folks could not be induced to relinquish it for a foreign herb. a striking instance of the force of habit is related by dr. aikin, in his history of manchester (1795). "about 1720," he says, "there were not above three or four carriages kept in the town. one of these belonged to madame ----, in salford. this respectable old lady was of a social disposition, and could not bring herself to conform to the new-fashioned beverage of tea and coffee; whenever, therefore, she made her afternoon's visit, her friends presented her with a tankard of ale and a pipe of tobacco. a little before this period a country gentleman had married the daughter of a citizen of london; she had been used to tea, and in compliment to her it was introduced by some of her neighbours; but the usual afternoon's entertainment at gentlemen's houses at that time was wet and dry sweetmeats, different sorts of cake, and gingerbread, apples, or other fruits of the season, and a variety of home-made wines." at that time it was the custom for the apprentices to live with their employers, whose fare was far from liberal; but "somewhat before 1760," remarks dr. aikin, "a considerable manufacturer allotted a back parlour with a fire for the use of his apprentices, and gave them tea twice a day. his fees, in consequence, rose higher than had before been known, from 250_l._ to 300_l._, and he had three or four apprentices at a time." tea was evidently a costly beverage, for "water pottage" appears to have been the usual dish provided for apprentices. those who could afford it, however, drank the chinese herb. there are many references to tea in "the private journal and literary remains of john byrom," a famous manchester worthy; and these clearly indicate that in the middle of the eighteenth century tea was very generally provided for visitors. but in some towns the older people were much opposed to tea. the prejudice against it was, however, gradually overcome; the young took kindly to it, and the women, especially, found it an agreeable substitute for alcoholic drinks. not until 1860 was tea introduced into the quaker school at ackworth, where john bright received a portion of his early education. when a boy the great orator was unable to endure the spartan system of training in force there, and after twelve months' experience he was removed to a private school. for breakfast both boys and girls had porridge poured on bread; for dinner little meat, but plenty of pudding. for a third meal no provision seems to have been made. mr. henry thompson, the historian of the school, thus describes the circumstances under which tea was introduced into the school:- "in the autumn of 1860, thomas pumphrey's health having been in a failing condition for some months, he was requested to take a long holiday for the purpose of recruiting it, if possible. on his return, after a three months' absence, learning that the conduct of the children had been everything that he could desire, he devised for them a treat, which was so effectively managed that we believe it is looked upon by those who had the pleasure of participating in it as one of the most delightful occasions of their school-days. he invited the whole family--boys, girls, and teachers--to an evening tea-party. the only room in the establishment in which he could receive so large a concourse of guests was the meeting-house. in response to his kind proposal, willing helpers flew to his aid. the room where all were wont to meet for worship, and rarely for any other purpose, was by nimble and willing fingers transformed, in a few days, into a festive hall, whose walls and pillars were draped with evergreen festoons and half concealed by bosky bowers, amidst whose foliage stuffed birds perched and wild animals crouched. amidst the verdant decorations might also be seen emblazoned the names of great patrons of the school and of the five superintendents who for more than eighty years had guided its internal economy. they who witnessed the scene tell us of two wonderful piles of ornamentation which were erected at the entrances to the minister's gallery--the one symbolic of the activities of the physical, the other of the intellectual, moral, and religious life, as its good superintendent would have them to be.... the village having been requisitioned for cups and saucers for this great multitude, the whole school sat down to a genuine, social, english tea table for the first time in its history." there can be no doubt that milk is better than tea for the young, but tea now forms part of the dietary at almost every school, and we question whether there is a house in england where tea is unknown. dr. edward smith, writing in 1874, said,- "no one who has lived for half a century can have failed to note the wonderful extension of tea-drinking habits in england, from the time when tea was a coveted and almost unattainable luxury to the labourer's wife, to its use morning, noon, and night by all classes. the caricature of hogarth, in which a lady and gentleman approach in a very dainty manner, each holding an oriental tea-cup of infantile size, implies more than a satire upon the porcelain-purchasing habits of the day, and shows that the use of tea was not only the fashion of a select few, but the quantity of the beverage consumed was as small as the tea-cups." in another chapter we have given some interesting statistics showing the extent of the consumption of this wonderful beverage, which has exercised such an influence for good in this country. "a curious and not uninstructive work might be written," dr. sigmond said in 1839, "upon the singular benefits which have accrued to this country from the preference we have given to the beverage obtained from the tea-plant; above all, those that might be derived from the rich treasures of the vegetable kingdom. it would prove that our national importance has been intimately connected with it, and that much of our present greatness and even the happiness of our social system springs from this unsuspected source. it would show us that our mighty empire in the east, that our maritime superiority, and that our progressive advancement in the arts and the sciences have materially depended upon it. great indeed are the blessings which have been diffused amongst immense masses of mankind by the cultivation of a shrub whose delicate leaf, passing through a variety of hands, forms an incentive to industry, contributes to health, to national riches, and to domestic happiness. the social tea-table is like the fireside of our country, a national delight; and if it be the scene of domestic converse and agreeable relaxation, it should likewise bid us remember that everything connected with the growth and preparation of this favourite herb should awaken a higher feeling--that of admiration, love, and gratitude to him who 'saw everything that he had made, and behold it was very good.'" tea is the national drink of china and japan; and so far back as 1834 professor johnston, in his "chemistry of common life," estimated that it was consumed by no less than five hundred millions of men, or more than one-third of the whole human race! excluding china, england appears to be the largest consumer of tea, as shown in the following table compiled by mr. mulhall, and printed in his "dictionary of statistics:"- _consumption of luxuries per inhabitant per year._ +--------------------------+-------------------+ | | ounces. | | +---------+---------+ | | coffee. | tea. | +--------------------------+---------+---------+ | united kingdom | 15 | 72 | | france | 52 | 1 | | germany | 83 | 1 | | russia | 3 | 7 | | austria | 35 | 1 | | italy | 18 | 1 | | spain | 4 | 1 | | belgium and holland | 175 | 8 | | denmark | 76 | 8 | | sweden and norway | 88 | 2 | | united states | 115 | 21 | +--------------------------+-------------------+ chapter ii. the cultivation of tea. description of the tea-plant--indigenous to china--introduced into india--work in a tea-garden--tea-gatherers in china--a chinese tea-ballad--how tea is cured--how the value of tea is determined. the tea-plant formerly occupied a place of honour in every gentleman's green-house; but as it requires much care, and possesses little beauty, it is now rarely seen. linnæus, the swedish naturalist, was greatly pleased at a specimen presented to him in 1763, but was unable to keep it alive. dr. edward smith describes the plant as being closely allied to the camellias; but states that the leaf is more pointed, is lance-shaped, and not so thick and hard as that of the camellia. dr. king chambers suggests the spending of an afternoon at a classified collection of living economic plants; such, for instance, as that at the botanical gardens, regent's park. it is much pleasanter, he points out, to think of tea as connected with the pretty little camellia it comes from, than with blue paper packets, and the despised "grounds" which for ever after acquire an interest in our minds. the tea-plant, although cultivated in various parts of the east, is probably indigenous to china; but is now grown extensively in india. in consequence of the poorness of the quality of the tea imported by the east india company, and the necessity of avoiding an entire dependence upon china, the bengal government appointed in 1834 a committee for the purpose of submitting a plan for the introduction and cultivation of the tea-plant; and a visit to the frontier station of upper assam ended in a determination on the part of government to cultivate tea in that region.[1] in 1840 the "assam company" was formed, and it is claimed for them that they possess the largest tea plantation in the world. some idea of the progress of tea cultivation in india may be gathered from the following official figures. in 1850 there was one tea-estate, that of the assam company, with 1,876 acres under cultivation, yielding 216,000 lbs. in 1870 there were 295 proprietors of tea-estates, with 31,303 acres under cultivation, yielding 6,251,143 lbs. in 1872-73 the area of land held by tea-planters covered 804,582 acres, of which about 75,000 were under cultivation, yielding 14,670,171 lbs. of tea, the average yield per acre being 208 lbs. every year thousands of acres are being brought under cultivation, and in a short time it seems likely that we shall be independent of china for our supplies of tea. in the year 1879-80 the exports of indian tea to great britain rose to 40,000,000 lbs., and in the following year to 42,000,000 lbs. in ceylon, also, a proportionate increase is taking place. the plant appears to be a native of the island. in percival's "account of ceylon," published in 1805, occurs the following paragraph:-"the tea-plant has been discovered native in the forests of ceylon. it grows spontaneously in the neighbourhood of trincomalee and other northern parts of ceylon.... i have in my possession a letter from an officer in the 80th regiment, in which he states that he found the real tea-plant in the woods of ceylon of a quality equal to any that ever grew in china." a large quantity of tea is now imported from this island, and new plantations, it is reported, are being made every month; day by day more of the primeval forest goes down before the axe of the pioneer, and before another quarter of a century has passed it is anticipated that the teas of our indian empire will become the most valuable of its products. the cultivation of tea in india, and the processes to which it is subjected after the leaf is gathered, differ from those of china. according to dr. jameson, the great difficulty of the indian tea-planter arises from the wonderful fertility of the soil and the strength of the tea-plant. as soon as the plants "flush" the leaf must be plucked, or it deteriorates to such an extent as to become valueless, and at the next "flush" the plant will be found bare of the young leaves. the delay of even a single day may be fatal. the leaf when plucked must be roasted forthwith, or it ferments and becomes valueless, as is also the case in china. there, however, the tea-harvest occurs only four or five times a year, but in india once a fortnight during some seven months of the year. the number of work-people required on a tea-farm may be estimated from the figures given by dr. rhind, who says that to manufacture eighty pounds of black tea per day twenty-five tea-gatherers are requisite, and ten driers and sorters; to produce ninety-two pounds of green tea, thirty gatherers and sixteen driers and sorters. from "a tea-planter's life in assam" we take the following account of work in a tea-garden:- "after the soil has been deep-hoed and is quite ready, transplanting from the nursery begins; few men sow the seed at stake. the nursery is made and carefully planted with seed on the first piece of ground that is cleared, so that by the time the remainder of the garden is ready to be planted out the seed has developed into a small plant, with strength enough to stand being transplanted. holes are prepared at equal distances, into which the young plants are carefully transferred. the greatest caution is exercised in both taking them up and putting them in their new places, that the root shall be neither bent up nor injured in any way. for this work women and children are employed, as it is light, but requires a gentle hand to pat down the earth around the young plant. it speedily accommodates itself to its new circumstances, and thrives wonderfully if the weather is at all propitious. a succession of hot days with no rain has a most disastrous effect on transplants; their heads droop and but a small percentage will be saved, which means that most of the work will have to be done over again. once started, plenty of cultivation is the only thing required to keep the plant healthy, and it is left undisturbed for a couple of years to increase in size and strength. at the end of the second year, when the cold season has sent the sap down, the pruning knife dispossesses it of its long, straggling top shoots, and reduces it to a height of four feet; every plant is cut to the same level. the third year enables the planter to pluck lightly his first small crop. year succeeds year, and the crop increases until the eighth or ninth year, when the garden arrives at maturity and yields as much as ever it will. during the rains the gong is beaten at five o'clock every morning, and again at six, thus allowing an hour for those who wish to have something to eat before commencing the labours of the day. in the cold weather the time for turning out is not so early; even the eastern sun is lazier, and there is not so much work to get through. few of the coolies take anything to eat until eleven o'clock, when they are rung in. the leaf plucked by the women is collected and weighed, and most of the men have finished their allotted day's work by this time, so they retire to their huts to eat the morning meal and to pass the remainder of the day in a luxury of idleness. for the ensuing two or three hours there is perfect rest, except for the unfortunate coolies engaged in the tea-house; their work cannot be left, and as fast as the leaf is ready it must be fired off, else it would be completely ruined. at two o'clock the women are turned out again to pluck, and those men who have not finished their hoeing have to return to complete their task. about six o'clock the gong sounds again, the leaf is brought in, weighed, and spread, and outdoor work is over for the day. no change can be made in the tea-house work, which goes on steadily, and if there has been much leaf brought in the day before, firing will very frequently last from daybreak until well into the night, or small hours of the morning." at present, however, the greater proportion of tea consumed in england comes from china and japan, which produce no less than 325,000,000 lbs. annually, against 52,000,000 lbs. by india. [illustration: a tea plantation.] india may be the tea-country of the future, but china still supplies nearly all the world. millions of acres are devoted to its cultivation, and the late dr. wells williams states that the management of this great branch of industry exhibits some of the best features of chinese country life. it is only over a portion of each farm that the plant is grown, and its cultivation requires but little attention, compared with rice and vegetables. the most delicate kinds are looked after and cured by priests in their secluded temples among the hills; these have often many acolytes, who aid in preparing small lots to be sold at a high price. but the same authority tells us that the work of picking the leaves, in the first instance, is such a delicate operation that it cannot be intrusted to women. female labour is paid so badly that they cannot afford to exercise the gentleness which characterizes their general movements; and when they come upon the scene of operations they make the best of their short harvest. the second gathering takes place when the foliage is fullest. this season is looked forward to by women and children in the tea-districts as their working time. they run in crowds to the middle-men, who have bargained for the leaves on the plants, or apply to farmers who need help. "they strip the twigs in the most summary manner," remarks dr. williams, "and fill their baskets with healthy leaves, as they pick out the sticks and yellow leaves, for they are paid in this manner: fifteen pounds is a good day's work, and fourpence is a day's wages. the time for picking lasts only ten or twelve days. there are curing houses, where families who grow and pick their own leaves bring them for sale at the market rate. the sorting employs many hands, for it is an important point in connection with the purity of the various descriptions, and much care is taken by dealers, in maintaining the quality of their lots, to have them cured carefully as well as sorted properly." like hop-picking in this country, tea-picking is very tedious work, but its monotony is relieved by singing during the live-long day. the songs of the hop-pickers are not generally characterized by loftiness of tone or purity of sentiment, but travellers in china speak highly of the songs of the tea-pickers. for instance, dr. williams quotes in his book on "the middle kingdom" a ballad of the tea-picker, which he considers one of the best of chinese ballads, if regard be had to the character of the sentiment and metaphors. one or two verses will give an idea of this charming ballad,- "where thousand hills the vale enclose, our little hut is there, and on the sloping sides around the tea grows everywhere, and i must rise at early dawn, as busy as can be, to get my daily labour done, and pluck the leafy tea. "the pretty birds upon the boughs sing songs so sweet to hear, and the sky is so delicious now, half drowsy and half clear; while bending o'er her work each maid will prattle of her woe, and we talk till our hearts are sorely hurt and tears unstinted flow." the method of curing is thus described:- "when the leaves are brought in to the curers they are thinly spread on shallow trays to dry off all moisture by two or three hours' exposure. meanwhile the roasting-pans are heating, and when properly warmed some handfuls of leaves are thrown on them, and rapidly moved and shaken up for four or five minutes. the leaves make a slight crackling noise, become moist and flaccid as the juice is expelled, and give off even a sensible vapour. the whole is then poured out upon the rolling-table, when each workman takes up a handful and makes it into a manageable ball, which he rolls back and forth on the rattan table to get rid of the sap and moisture as the leaves are twisted. this operation chafes the hands even with great precaution. the balls are opened and shaken out, and then passed on to other workmen, who go through the same operation till they reach the head-man, who examines the leaves, to see if they have become curled. when properly done, and cooled, they are returned to the iron pans, under which a low charcoal fire is burning in the brickwork which supports them, and there kept in motion by the hand. if they need another rolling on the table it is now given them. an hour or more is spent in this manipulation, when they are dried to a dull-green colour, and can be put away for sifting and sorting. this colour becomes brighter after the exposure in sifting the cured leaves through sieves of various sizes; they are also winnowed to separate the dust, and afterwards sorted into the various descriptions of green tea. finally, the finer kinds are again fired three or four times, and the coarser kinds, as twankay, hyson, and hyson-skin, once. the others furnish the young hyson, gunpowder, imperial, &c. tea cured in this way is called _luh cha_, or 'green tea,' by the chinese, while the other, or black tea, is termed _hung cha_, or 'red tea,' each name being taken from the tint of the infusion. after the fresh leaves are allowed to lie exposed to the air on the bamboo trays over night or several hours, they are thrown into the air and tossed about and patted till they become soft; a heap is made of these wilted leaves, and left to lie for an hour or more, when they have become moist and dark in colour. they are then thrown on the hot pans for five minutes and rolled on the rattan table, previous to exposure out of doors for three or four hours on sieves, during which time they are turned over and opened out. after this they get a second roasting and rolling, to give them their final curl. when the charcoal fire is ready, a basket, shaped something like an hour-glass, is placed end-wise over it, having a sieve in the middle, on which the leaves are thinly spread. when dried five minutes in this way they undergo another rolling, and are then thrown into a heap, until all the lot has passed over the fire. when this firing is finished, the leaves are opened out and are again thinly spread on the sieve in the basket for a few minutes, which finishes the drying and rolling for most of the heap, and makes the leaves a uniform black. they are now replaced in the basket in greater mass, and pushed against its sides by the hands, in order to allow the heat to come up through the sieve and the vapour to escape; a basket over all retains the heat, but the contents are turned over until perfectly dry and the leaves become uniformly dark." when this process is completed, every nerve is strained to put the tea into the market quickly, "and in the best possible condition; for, although it is said that the chinese do not drink it until it is a year old, the value of new tea is superior to that of old; and the longer the duration of a voyage in which a great mass of tea is packed up in a closed hold, the greater the probability that the process of fermentation will be set up. hence has arisen the great strife to bring the first cargo of the season to england, and the fastest and most skilfully commanded ships are engaged in the trade, both for the profit and honour of success." dr. e. smith, an authority upon the subject, showed that the value of tea is determined in the market by its flavour and body; by the aromatic qualities of its essential oil and the chemical elements of the leaf, rather than by the chemical composition of its juices. delicacy and fulness of flavour, with a certain body, are the required characteristics of the market. the same authority tells us that the tea-taster prepares his samples from a uniform and very small quantity, viz. the weight of a new sixpence, and infuses it for five minutes with about four ounces of water in a covered pottery vessel; and in order to prevent injury to his health by repeated tasting, does not swallow the fluid. he must have naturally a sensitive and refined taste, should be always in good health, and able to estimate flavour with the same minuteness at all times. [illustration] footnote: [1] russia, also, has become impressed with the importance of growing its own tea; but the efforts of its agriculturists appear to have been unsuccessful. samples of the produce of the tea-plants which have been acclimatized in georgia were lately exhibited in the hall of the agricultural society of the caucasus at tiflis, and appear to have excited considerable interest. the local journals, however, admit that the samples proved to be rather poor in flavour, and that their aroma resembled that of chinese teas of very inferior quality. it is pleaded, however, that these specimens were grown by a planter of little experience in the chinese methods of cultivation and preparation, and hopes are entertained of ultimate success.--_manchester examiner_, april 23, 1884. chapter iii. tea-meetings. the teetotalers and tea--extravagance of ladies--joseph livesey--reformed drunkards as water-carriers--one thousand two hundred persons at one tea-party--how they brewed their tea--how the anti-corn-law league reached the people--singing the praises of tea--tea-drinking contests--"tea-fights"--hints on tea-meeting fare--tea as a revolutionary agent. how did tea-meetings originate? according to a writer in the _newcastle chronicle_, the teetotalers were the first to introduce these popular social gatherings. "originally started as a medium of raising funds," he says, "they were conducted in a very different style from that so widely adopted at the present day. our friends knew of no such thing as a contract for the supply of the viands at so much a head, and they had no experience to teach them how many square yards of bread a pound of butter could be made to cover. our wives and sweethearts then undertook the purveying and management of our tea-parties. each took a table accommodating from sixteen to twenty persons, and presided in person. and, oh! what hearty, jolly, comfortable gatherings we used to have in the old music hall in blackett street, amidst the abundance of singing hinnies, hot wigs, and spice loaf, served up in tempting display, tea of the finest flavour served in the best china from the most elegant of teapots, accompanied with the brightest of spoons, the thickest of cream, and the blandest of smiles! it is much to be regretted that this excess of gratification should have produced an evil which ultimately changed the character of these pleasant assemblies. a spirit of rivalry among the ladies as to who should have the richest and most elegantly-furnished table became so prevalent that their lords and masters were obliged to protest against the excessive expenditure; and thus the ladies, not being allowed to have their own way, declined to take any further share in the work. this was a great misfortune, as the proceeds considerably augmented the resources of the temperance society." no such fate met these popular gatherings in other towns. they were conducted on a scale of great magnitude, especially in the birthplace of the temperance movement in england, the town of preston. here lives joseph livesey, the patriarch of the movement, now in his ninety-first year. the third tea-party of the preston temperance society in 1833, at christmas, is thus described:- "the range of rooms was most elegantly fitted up for the occasion. the walls were all covered with white cambric, ornamented with rosettes of various colours, and elegantly interspersed with a variety of evergreens. the windows, fifty-six in number, were also festooned and ornamented with considerable taste. the tables, 630 feet in length, were covered with white cambric. at the upper and lower ends of each side-room were mottoes in large characters, 'temperance, sobriety, peace, plenty,' and at the centre of the room connecting the others was displayed in similar characters the motto, 'happiness.' the tables were divided and numbered, and eighty sets of brilliant tea-requisites, to accommodate parties of ten persons each, were placed upon the table, with two candles to each party. a boiler, also capable of containing 200 gallons, was set up in mr. halliburton's yard, to heat water for the occasion, and was managed admirably by those reformed characters. about forty men, principally reformed drunkards, were busily engaged as waiters, water-carriers, &c.; those who waited at the tables wore white aprons, with 'temperance' printed on the front. the tables were loaded with provisions, and plenty seemed to smile upon the guest. a thousand tickets were printed and sold at 6_d._ and 1_s._ each, but the whole company admitted is supposed to be about 1200; 820 sat down at once, and the rest were served afterwards. the pleasure and enjoyment which beamed from every countenance would baffle every attempt at description, and the contrast betwixt this company and those where intoxicating liquors are used is an unanswerable argument in favour of temperance associations." a tea-party at liverpool, in 1836, was attended by a greater number, and the account shows very clearly that the early temperance gatherings will contrast favourably with the large blue ribbon meetings held at the present time:- "the great room where tea was provided was fitted up in a style of elegance surpassing anything we could have imagined. the platform and the orchestra for the band were most tastefully decorated. the beams and walls of the building were richly ornamented with evergreens and appropriate mottoes. the tables were laid out with tea-equipages interspersed with flower-pots filled with roses. when the parties sat down, in number about 2500, a most imposing sight presented itself. wealth, beauty, and intelligence were present; and great numbers of reformed characters respectably clad, with their smiling partners, added no little interest to the scene, which was beyond the power of language to describe." in 1837 the _isle of man temperance guardian_ reported a tea-meeting at leeds, at which nearly 700 persons sat down; another at bury, where "500 of both sexes sat down." a tea-party at exeter is thus described:--"the arrangements were very judicious, and nearly 400 made merry with the 'cup that cheers, but not inebriates,' among whom were numbers of highly respectable ladies and citizens of exeter. this novel feature presented a most interesting and gratifying sight, from the spirit of cordiality and good-feeling which pervaded it, and cannot but have the most beneficial effect upon society." for the benefit of societies which had not adopted this new and successful method of reaching the public, the secretary of the bristol society gave the following account of a christmas tea-party:--"the tables were provided with tea-services, milk, sugar, cakes and bread and butter, and one waiter appointed to each, who was furnished with a bright, clean tea-kettle, while the tea, which was previously made, stood in a corner of the room in large barrels, with a tap in each, from which each waiter drew his supply as required, and filled the cups when empty, without noise, confusion, or delay." the following receipt for tea-making was given in the _preston temperance advocate_, of july, 1836:- "at the tea-parties in birmingham they made the tea in large tins, about a yard square, and a foot deep, each one containing as much as will serve about 250 persons. the tea is tied loosely in bags, about 1/4lb. in each. at the top there is an aperture, into which the boiling water is conveyed by a pipe from the boiler, and at one corner there is a tap, from which the tea when brewed is drawn out. it may be either sweetened or milked, or both, if thought best, while in the tins. being thus made, it can be carried in teapots, or jugs, where those cannot be had. capital tea was made at the last festival by this plan." considering the high price of tea and of bread at that time, it is scarcely credible that a charge of 9_d._ per head for men and women, and of 6_d._ for "youths under fourteen," was found sufficient to defray the cost, as well as to benefit the funds of the temperance society. the value of such gatherings to the temperance movement it is impossible to estimate. weaned from the use of fiery beverages, the reformed drunkard needed a substitute which would be at once harmless, as well as stimulating. in tea he found exactly what he wanted. he needed, moreover, company of an elevating kind; and in the tea-party he found the craving for the companionship of men and women fully satisfied. it was by this agency chiefly that the converts to teetotalism were kept together and instructed in the principles of total abstinence from all intoxicating liquors; and we are not surprised that the consumption of drink fell off largely in consequence. dr. j. h. curtis, writing in 1836, contended that the introduction of tea and coffee into general use had done much towards reducing the consumption of intoxicating drinks; and, although the expenditure upon intoxicating drinks still remains a formidable amount, there can be no doubt that the general use of tea has lessened the consumption of alcohol. these gatherings continue very popular, but do not draw such large numbers as in the early days of the movement; but it is open to question whether the time spent upon them might not be more profitably employed. a writer in the _band of hope chronicle_ (january, 1882) calls attention to this aspect of tea-meetings:--"there should be," he contends, "moderation even in tea-drinking, and when we hear of four or five hours at a stretch being spent over this process at public gatherings, as it seems the good folks do in some parts of the isle of man, one cannot but feel there is need for improvement. what would be thought if the time were occupied with the consumption of stronger beverages than tea. there would be little prospect of orderliness in the after-proceedings then; so, anyhow, the tea-drinkers have the best of it even when they are at their worst." the example of the teetotalers was followed by other reformers. the _preston temperance advocate_, of october, 1837, says:--"a tea-party was held at salford, in honour of the return of joseph brotherton, esq., m.p., for this town, to which he was invited. it was attended by 1050 persons, nearly 900 of whom were ladies, and the spectacle presented to the eye by such an assemblage was one of the most pleasing which i have ever witnessed." the anti-corn-law league also adopted similar means of bringing their friends and subscribers together. "on the 23rd of november, 1842," writes mr. archibald prentice, the historian of the movement, "the first of a series of deeply-interesting _soirées_ in yorkshire, in furtherance of the great object of corn-law repeal, was celebrated in the saloon, beautifully decorated for the occasion, of the philosophical hall, huddersfield. the occasion, says the _leeds mercury_, was one of high importance, not only for the dignity and benevolence of the object contemplated, but for the enthusiastic spirit manifested by the assembly of both sexes, of the first respectability, extensive in number, and intelligent and influential in its character. more than 600 persons sat down to tea, and more than double that number would have been present had it been possible to provide accommodation." mr. prentice records many other tea-meetings attended by 600 and 800 persons. "in manchester," writes mr. henry ashworth, "a number of ladies took up the corn-law question, and held an anti-corn-law tea-party, which was attended by 830 persons." [illustration: watering a tea-plantation.] a hymn was specially composed for use at temperance gatherings, its purport being to show the superiority of tea-meetings over public-house meetings. it consisted of eight verses, and was printed in the _moral reformer_ of february, 1833. one verse will give an idea of its character:- "pure, refined, domestic bliss, social meetings such as this, banish sorrow, cares dismiss, and cheer all our lives." total abstinence has not yet found much favour among artists, who too often paint the fleeting pleasures of the wine-cup rather than the enduring pleasures of temperance; but in mr. collingwood banks we have an artist who can sing the praises of a cup of tea as well as paint the charms of a fireside tea-table. to him we are indebted for the following song, which ought speedily to become popular among temperance societies:- "the cup for me. "let others sing the praise of wine, let others deem its joys divine, its fleeting bliss shall ne'er be mine, give me a cup of tea! the cup that soothes each aching pain, restores the sick to health again, steals not from heart, steals not from brain, a friend when others flee. "when sorrow frowns, what power can cheer, or chase away the falling tear without the vile effects of beer, like pekoe or bohea? what makes the old man young and strong, like hyson, congou, or souchong, which leave the burthen of his song a welcome cup of tea. "then hail the grave celestial band, with planning mind, and planting hand, and let us bless that golden land so far across the sea; whose hills and vales give fertile birth to that fair shrub of priceless worth, which yields each son of mother earth a fragrant cup of tea." another hymn in praise of tea was used in cornwall, and often sung at tea-meetings by the rev. j. g. hartley, a minister of the united methodist free churches. the lines possess little poetical merit, but are worth quoting on account of the pleasure with which they have been received by tens of thousands of people, and of their influence in unlocking the pockets of the people when the box went round. "when vanish'd spirits intertwine, and social sympathies combine, what of such friendship is a sign? a cup of tea, a cup of tea. "when dulness seizes on the mind, and thought no liberty can find, what can the captive powers unbind? a cup of tea, a cup of tea. "if one has given another pain, and distant coldness both maintain, what helps to make them friends again? a cup of tea, a cup of tea. "and if discourse be sluggish growing, whate'er the cause to which 'tis owing, what's sure to set the tongue a-going? a cup of tea, a cup of tea. "if things of use or decoration require a friendly consultation, what greatly aids the conversation? a cup of tea, a cup of tea. "and lastly let us not forget the occasion upon which we're met, what helps to move a chapel-debt? a cup of tea, a cup of tea." "it has served us many a good turn," writes mr. hartley, "and has helped to clear many a chapel-debt." it would be difficult, no doubt, in our day to cite a single case of a tea-party attended by 500 persons; but if large gatherings are fewer, small ones are more frequent. every chapel, every church, every day-school, every sunday-school, every religious association has at least four tea-parties a year: and thus not only is a very large amount of tea consumed, but a very large number of people are brought under good influences. in rural districts the christmas tea-party is the event of the year. it is attended by all the lads and lasses in the neighbourhood; by the milkmaids and the ploughmen, who make sad havoc with the cake. wonderful, also, is the amount of tea consumed. in fact a tea-drinking contest takes place at these annual reunions. at any rate he is the hero of the table who can drink the most. we have referred to the decreasing popularity of tea-meetings, and believe that one way of reviving the interest in these festivals would be to provide better refreshments, as well as a greater variety. from the land's end to john o'groats, the bill of fare is limited to currant-cake and bread and butter of the cheapest kind. in some cases, where the charge is a shilling per head, beef and sandwiches are provided. an announcement of "a knife and fork tea" at a primitive methodist chapel never fails to secure a good attendance of the members and friends. in lancashire such meetings are not unfrequently called "tea-fights," probably on account of the scramble for sandwiches which characterizes the proceedings. but neither cake nor sandwich is sufficient to tempt all who are interested in these social entertainments. the promoters would do well to follow the example of the vegetarian society, and provide more fruit and substantial bread, both white and brown. in summer all the fruits in season should be placed upon the tables, and in winter stewed fruits. the following hints on "tea-meeting fare," written by the late mr. r. n. sheldrick, who was an active missionary agent of the vegetarian society, may prove of service to all who cater for tea-meetings:- "1. provide good tea, pure, fresh-ground coffee, cocoa, &c. let the making of these decoctions be superintended by an experienced friend; serve up nice and hot, but without milk or sugar, leaving these to be added or not, according to individual tastes. "2. procure a plentiful supply of good whole-meal wheaten (brown) bread, some white bread, some currant-cake--home-baked if possible, without dripping or lard; two or three varieties of reading biscuits, such as osborne, tea, picnic, arrowroot, &c. "3. purchase from the nearest market sufficient lettuce, kale, celery, cress, and other fresh salads according to season; also provide a liberal supply of figs, muscatels, almonds, nuts, oranges, apples, pears, plums, cherries, strawberries, peaches, or such other fruit as may be in season. "4. take care, whatever arrangement be adopted, not to let these things be hidden away until the latter part of the feast. fruits should have the place of honour. the plates or baskets of fruit should have convenient positions along the tables with the bread and butter, biscuits, &c. "5. place the arrangements under the control of a well-selected committee of ladies, who will see that the tables are tastefully laid out, and that everybody is supplied. let there be also, if possible, a profusion of fresh-cut flowers." tea, it is true, has not yet worked a complete revolution in the habits of the people, but it has done much to lessen intemperance. dr. sigmond, writing nearly half a century ago, referred to its influences for good: "tea has in most instances," he said, "been substituted for fermented or spirituous liquors, and the consequence has been a general improvement in the health and in the morals of a vast number of persons. the tone, the strength, and the vigour of the human body are increased by it; there is a greater capability of enduring fatigue; the mind is rendered more susceptible of the innocent pleasures of life, and of acquiring information. whole classes of the community have been rendered sober, careful, and provident. the wasted time that followed upon intemperance kept individuals poor, who are now thriving in the world and exhibiting the results of honest industry. men have become healthier, happier, and better for the exchange they have made. they have given up a debasing habit for an innocent one. the individuals who were outcasts, miserable, abandoned, have become independent and a blessing to society. their wives and their children hail them on their return home from their daily labours with their prayers and fondest affections, instead of shunning their presence, fearful of some barbarity, or some outrage against their better feelings; cheerfulness and animation follow upon their slumbers, instead of the wretchedness and remorse which the wakening drunkard ever experiences." this picture, it will be observed, is a little over-coloured; but, in the main, it will be granted that tea and other similar beverages have done a good deal to displace spirituous and fermented liquors. the use of tea has certainly resulted in great benefit to the health and morals of the people. chapter iv. how to make tea. the siamese method of making tea--a three-legged teapot--advice of a chinese poet--how tea should be made--how abernethy made tea for his guests--the "bubbling and loud-hissing urn"--tate's description of a tea-table--the tea of public institutions--rev. dr. lansdell on russian tea--the art of tea-making described--the kind of water to be used. the chinese method of making tea--invalids' tea--words to nurses, by miss nightingale. the mode of preparation of tea for the table has always given rise to discussion. different nations have different methods. in siam one method was thus described in a book entitled "relation of the voyage to siam by six jesuits," which was published in 1685. "in the east they prepare tea in this manner: when the water is well boiled, they pour it upon the tea, which they have put into an earthen pot, proportionally to what they intend to take (the ordinary proportion is as much as one can take up with the finger and thumb for a pint of water); then they cover the pot until the leaves are sunk to the bottom of it, and afterwards serve it about in china dishes to be drunk as hot as can be, without sugar, or else with a little sugar-candy in the mouth; and upon that tea more boiling water may be poured, and so it may be made to serve twice. these people drink of it several times a day, but do not think it wholesome to take it fasting." in "recreative science" (vol. i., 1821) there appears a very curious note relating to the translation of a chinese poem. the editor says,--"kien lung, the emperor of the celestial empire, which is in the vernacular china, was also a poet, and he has been good enough to give us a receipt also--would that all didactic poetry meddled with what its author understood. the poet kien did, and he has left the following recipe how to make tea, which, for the benefit of the ladies who study the domestic cookery, is inserted: 'set an old three-legged teapot over a slow fire; fill it with water of melted snow; boil it just as long as is necessary to turn fish white or lobsters red; pour it on the leaves of choice, in a cup of youe. let it remain till the vapour subsides into a thin mist, floating on the surface. drink this precious liquor at your leisure, and thus drive away the five causes of sorrow.'" poets, as everybody knows, are allowed a good deal of licence, and tea-maids may be pardoned if they are sceptical of the value of the advice of the chinese poet. how, then, should tea be made? first and foremost, remarks dr. joseph pope, it should be remembered that tea is an infusion, not an extract. an old verse runs thus:- "the fragrant shrub in china grows, the leaves are all we see, and these, when water o'er them flows, make what we call our tea." dr. pope lays emphasis on the word _flows_; it does not say _soak_. there is, he contends, an instantaneous graciousness, a momentary flavour that must be caught if we would rightly enjoy tea. assuredly dr. abernethy, the celebrated surgeon, must be credited with the possession of this "instantaneous graciousness." "abernethy," said dr. carlyon, in his "early years and late reflections," "never drank tea himself, but he frequently asked a few friends to come and take tea at his rooms. upon such occasions, as i infer from what i myself witnessed, his custom was to walk about the room and talk most agreeably upon such topics as he thought likely to interest his company, which did not often consist of more than two or three persons. as soon as the tea-table was set in order, and the boiling water ready for making the infusion, the fragrant herb was taken, not from an ordinary tea-caddy, but from a packet consisting of several envelopes curiously put together, in the centre of which was the tea. of this he used at first as much as would make a good cup for each of the party; and to meet fresh demands i observed that he invariably put an additional tea-spoonful into the teapot; the excellence of the beverage thus prepared insuring him custom. he had likewise a singular knack of supplying each cup with sugar from a considerable distance, by a jerk of the hand, which discharged it from the sugar-tongs into the cup with unerring certainty, as he continued his walk around the table, scarcely seeming to stop whilst he performed these and the other requisite evolutions of the entertainment." if every woman had treated her guests in the same manner, there would have been little outcry against tea. the innovation of a "bubbling and loud-hissing urn" was strongly condemned by dr. sigmond, who, writing in 1839, after quoting cowper, remarked: "thus sang one of our most admired poets, who was feelingly alive to the charms of social life; but, alas! for the domestic happiness of many of our family circles, this meal has lost its character, and many of those innovations which despotic fashion has introduced have changed one of the most agreeable of our daily enjoyments. it is indeed a question amongst the devotees to the tea-table, whether the bubbling urn has been practically an improvement upon our habits; it has driven from us the old national kettle, once the pride of the fireside. the urn may be fairly called the offspring of indolence; it has deprived us, too, of many of those felicitous opportunities of which the gallant forefathers of the present race availed themselves to render them amiable in the eyes of the fair sex, when presiding over the distribution "of the soumblo, the imperial tea, names not unknown, and sanative bohea." the consequence of this injudicious change is, that one great enjoyment is lost to the tea-drinker--that which consists in having the tea infused in water actually hot, and securing an equal temperature when a fresh supply is required. such, too, is what those who have preceded us would have called the degeneracy of the period in which we live, that now the tea-making is carried on in the housekeeper's room, or in the kitchen- "for monstrous novelty, and strange disguise, we sacrifice our tea, till household joys and comforts cease." what, he asks, can be more delightful than those social days described by tate, the poet-laureate? "when in discourse of nature's mystic powers and noblest themes we pass the well-spent hours, whilst all around the virtues--sacred band, and listening graces, pleased attendants stand. thus our tea-conversations we employ. where, with delight, instructions we enjoy, quaffing, without the waste of time or wealth, the sovereign drink of pleasure and of health." fortunately for the lovers of the teapot and the kettle, a change in the fashion of making tea is taking place, the "loud-hissing urn" being now confined almost exclusively to a public tea-party and the coffee tavern. the quality of tea and coffee supplied by the latter institution has long been considered _the_ blot upon an otherwise excellent movement. not too severely did the _daily telegraph_ speak a short time ago against the atrocious stuff supplied under the name of tea in public institutions. the editor said,- "the very look of it is no longer encouraging. it is either a pale, half-chilled, unsatisfactory beverage, or it contains a dark black-brown settlement from over-boiled tea-leaves. the consumption of tea, no doubt, in england is enormous, and we boast to foreigners that we are fond of our tea; the fashion of tea-drinking, owing mainly to our example, has extended to france, once extremely heretical on the point; and yet where is the foreigner to find a good cup of tea in england? at the railway stations? very rarely. at the restaurants? scarcely ever. and at the newly-started tea and coffee palaces, which are to promote sobriety, the great and crying complaint is that the tea and coffee are so poor that the best-intentioned people are forced back to the dangerous public-house, in order to obtain a little stimulant, for it is idle to deny that both tea and coffee are stimulating to the constitution. everywhere a great reform in tea is required. once on a time no confectioner, railway-station, or refreshment-house could rival the home-made brew, made under the eye of the mistress of the household, with the kettle on the hob and the ingredients at hand; but now that the good old custom of tea-making is considered unladylike, and the manufacture has been handed over to the servants, the great charm of the beverage has virtually departed. no one can conscientiously say that they like english tea as at present administered, for the very good reason that it is no longer prepared scientifically. the english fashion of drinking tea would be laughed to scorn by the educated chinaman or the accomplished russian. indeed, it is surprising in how few houses a good cup of tea can be obtained now that it has become unfashionable for the mistress of the establishment, not only to preside over her own tea-table, but to have complete sway over that most necessary article, a kettle of boiling water. the chinese never dream of stewing their tea, as we too often do in england. they do not drown it with milk or cream, or alter its taste with sugar, but lightly pour boiling water on a small portion of the leaves. it is then instantly poured off again, by which the chinaman obtains only the more volatile and stimulating portion of its principle. the most delicious of all tea, however, can be tasted in russia--supposed to import the best of the chinese leaves, as it imports the best of french champagne." [illustration: gathering tea-leaves.] according to the rev. dr. lansdell, however, the russians do not pay extravagantly for their tea, "when crossing the pacific," he says, "i fell in with a tea-merchant homeward bound from china, and from him i gathered that three-fourths of the russian trade is done in medium and common teas, such as are sold in london in bond from 1_s._ 2_d._ down to 8_d._ per english pound, exclusive of the home duty. the remaining fourth of their trade includes some of the very best teas grown in the ning chou districts--teas which the russians will have at any price, and for which in a bad year they may have to pay as much as 3_s._ a pound in china, though in ordinary years they cost from 2_s._ upwards. the flowery pekoe, or blossom tea, costs also about 3_s._ in china." but dr. lansdell heard of some kind of yellow tea which cost as much as five guineas a pound, the emperor of china being supposed to enjoy its monopoly; but a friend of the doctor told him that he did not think it distinguishable from that sold at 5_s._ a pound. the excellence of the russian tea is attributed, in part, to the fact that it is carried overland. "whilst travelling eastwards," says dr. lansdell, "we had frequently met caravans or carts carrying tea. these caravans sometimes reach to upwards of 100 horses; and as they go at walking pace, and when they come to a river are taken over by ferry, it is not matter for surprise that merchandise should be three months in coming from irkutsk to moscow." whatever the cause, all travellers eulogize the russians as tea-makers. dr. sigmond, for instance, says,- "my own experience of the excellence of tea in russia arose out of a curious incident, which occurred to me during a hasty visit i made to that highly-interesting country. previous to this adventure, i had been in the habit of taking coffee as my ordinary beverage, and was by no means satisfied with it. i had no idea of the prevailing habit of tea-drinking, previous to my arrival, at moscow. in the course of the afternoon i left my hotel alone, obtaining from my servant a card, with the name of the street, la rue de demetrius, written upon it. i wandered about that magnificent citadel, the kremlin, until dark, and i found myself at some distance from the point from which i started, and i endeavoured to return to it, and asked several persons the way to my street, of which they all appeared ignorant. i therefore got into one of the drotzskies, and intimated to my cossack driver that i should be enabled to point out my own street. although we could not understand each other, we did our mutual signs; and with the greatest cheerfulness and good-nature this man drove me through every street, but i could nowhere recognize my hotel. he therefore drove me to his humble abode in the environs; he infused the finest tea that i had ever seen in a peculiarly-shaped saucepan, set it on a stove, and this, when nearly boiled, he poured out; and a more delicious beverage, nor one more acceptable after a hard day's fatigue and anxiety, i have not tasted." other travellers refer to the excellence of tea in russia. if we could have an improvement in the quality of tea made in england, we feel sure that a decrease in the consumption of intoxicating drinks would result. some reform has already taken place at railway-stations. for the reduction of the price of a cup of tea from sixpence to fourpence on the great northern railway the public are indebted to the hon. reginald capel, chairman of the refreshment-rooms and hotels' committee of that company. on the midland railway, also, a reduction in the price of non-intoxicating beverages has been made. at the present time the coffee taverns stand most in need of reform. with the object of inducing our tea-makers to reform their methods of tea-making, we quote some important recommendations of leading physicians. dr. king chambers, in his valuable manual of "diet in health and disease," remarks that the uses of tea are (1) to give an agreeable flavour to warm water required as a drink; (2) to soothe the nervous system when it is in an uncomfortable state from hunger, fatigue, or mental excitement. the best tea therefore is, he contends, that which is pleasantest to the taste of the educated consumer, and which contains most of the characteristic sedative principles. as dr. poore has pointed out, tannic acid, which is one of the dangers as well as one of the pleasures of tea, is largely present in the common teas used by the poor. "the rich man," he says, "who wishes to avoid an excess of tannic acid in the 'cup that cheers,' does not allow the water to stand on the tea for more than five, or at most eight minutes, and the resulting beverage is aromatic, not too astringent, and wholesome. the poor man or poor woman allows the tea to simmer on the hob for indefinite periods, with the result that a highly astringent and unwholesome beverage is obtained. there can be no doubt that the habit of drinking excessive quantities of strong astringent tea is a not uncommon cause of that atonic dyspepsia, which seems to be the rule rather than the exception among poor women of the class of sempstresses." the late dr. edward smith devoted considerable attention to this subject, and we cannot do better than quote his observations:--"the aim should be to extract all the aroma and dried juices containing theine, with only so much of the substance of the leaf as may give fulness, or, as it is called, _body_ to the infusion. if the former be defective, the respiratory action of the tea and the agreeableness of the flavour will be lessened, whilst if the latter be in excess there will be a degree of bitterness which will mash the aromatic flavour. as the theine is without flavour, its presence or absence cannot be determined by the taste of the tea. all agree, therefore, that the tea should be cooked in water, and that the water should be at the boiling-point when used; but there is not an agreement as to the duration of the infusing process. if the tea be scented or artificially flavoured, the aroma may be extracted in two minutes, but the proper aromatic oil of the tea requires at least five minutes for its removal. if flavour is to be considered, it is clear that an inferior tea should not be infused so long as a fine tea. "the kind of water is believed to have great influence over the process; soft water is preferred. the chinese direction is, 'take it from a running stream; that from mill-springs is the best, river-water is the next, and well-water is the worst;' that is to say, take water well mixed with air. hence avoid hard water, but prefer tap-water or running water to well-water. it is the practice of a good housewife in the country to send to a brook for water to make tea, whilst she will use the well water for drinking." the mode of making tea in china is to put the tea into a cup, to pour hot water upon it, and then to drink the infusion off the leaves. while wandering over the tea-districts of china, mr. fortune only once met with sugar and a tea-spoon. "the merchant invited us to drink tea," writes the rev. dr. lansdell, who recently visited the mongolian frontier at maimatchin, "and told us that the chinese use this beverage without sugar or milk three times a day; namely, at rising, at noon, and at seven in the evening. they have substantial meals at nine in the morning and four in the afternoon." dr. king chambers considers tea most refreshing to the dyspeptic if made in the russian fashion, with a slice of lemon on which a little sugar-candy has been sprinkled, instead of milk or cream. one small cup of an evening is enough. he also gives the following receipt for making invalids' tea:-"pour into a small china or earthenware teapot a cup of quite boiling water, empty it out, and while it is still hot and steaming put in the tea and enough boiling water to wet it thoroughly, and set it close to the fire to steam three or four minutes. then pour in the quantity of water required, boiling from the kettle, and it is ready for use." miss nightingale offers a word of advice to nurses upon the amount of tea which should be given. "a great deal too much against tea is," she remarks, "said by wise people, and a great deal too much of it is given to the sick by foolish people. when you see the natural and almost universal craving in english sick for their tea, you cannot but feel that nature knows what she is about. but a little tea or coffee restores them quite as much as a great deal; and a great deal of tea, and especially of coffee, impairs the little power of digestion they have; yet a nurse, because she sees how one or two cups of tea or coffee restore her patient, thinks three or four cups will do twice as much. this is not the case at all: it is, however, certain that there is nothing yet discovered which is a substitute to the english patient for his cup of tea." chapter v. tea and physical endurance. tea and dry bread _versus_ porter and beefsteak--tea for soldiers--opinion of professor parkes--tea _versus_ spirits--tea and tel-el-kebir--lord wolseley's testimony--pegs and teapots--temperance in the navy--drinking the health of her majesty in a bowl of tea--cycling and tea-drinking--mountain-climbing--tea in the harvest-field--cold tea as a summer drink. tea is not only a valuable stimulant to the mind, but is the most beneficial drink to those engaged in fatiguing work. dr. jackson, whom buckle quotes as an authority, testified in 1845, that even for those who have to go through great fatigues a breakfast of tea and dry bread is more strengthening than one of beefsteak and porter. "i have been," says dr. inman, "a careful reader of all those accounts which tell of endurance of prolonged fatigue, and have been touched with the almost unanimous evidence in favour of vegetable diet and tea as a beverage, that i have determined in every instance where long nursing, as of a fever patient, is required, to recommend nothing stronger than tea for the watcher." in the army, as well as in the hospital, tea is slowly, but surely, supplanting the use of grog. "as an article of diet for soldiers," remarked professor parkes, "tea is most useful. the hot infusion, like that of coffee, is potent both against heat and cold; is most useful in great fatigue, especially in hot climates, and also has a great purifying effect on water. tea is so light, is so easily carried and the infusion is so readily made, that it should form the drink _par excellence_ of the soldier on service. there is also a belief that it lessens the susceptibility to malaria, but the evidence on this point is imperfect." admiral inglefield, writing in january, 1881, strongly commended the use of tea and coffee as heat producers. "during this almost arctic weather, and in the midst of these almost arctic surroundings, permit me as an old arctic officer to plead for a short hearing in behalf of those whose lives may still be in jeopardy for want of some practical experience how to take care of themselves. among the working classes there is an all-prevailing idea that nothing is so effectual to keep out cold as a raw nip of spirits, and this delusion is to their minds justified, because they find the "raw nip" setting the heart, and blood in more rapid motion; and heat being generated while the influence remains, a sensation of warmth is the natural result, but after a short space reaction sets in, and a slower circulation must ensue. in the evidence given before the last arctic committee, of which i was a member, all the witnesses were unanimous in the opinion that spirits taken to keep out cold was a fallacy, and that nothing was more effectual than a good fatty diet, and hot tea or coffee as a drink. seamen who journeyed with me up the shores of wellington channel, in the arctic regions, after one day's experience of rum-drinking, came to the conclusion that tea, which was the only beverage i used, was much preferable, and they quickly derived great advantage from its use while undergoing hard work and considerable cold. if cabmen, watchmen, railway servants, and those who from the nature of their duties are compelled to expose themselves during this inclement weather could be persuaded to give up entirely the use of spirituous liquors and use hot tea or coffee for a beverage, i can promise that they would be better fortified to withstand the cold, they would experience more lasting comfort, and there would be more shillings to take to their homes on a saturday night; happily, also, the trial of temperance for a time, to meet the present emergency, might become with some the habit of a life." the soldiers who captured tel-el-kebir drank nothing but tea. it was served out to them three times a day. the correspondent of the _daily news_ (12th of september, 1882) wrote, "sir garnet wolseley having ordered that the troops under his command should be allowed daily a triple allowance of tea, extra supplies of that article are being sent out from the commissariat stores to ismailia. it is stated that the extra issue of tea is very acceptable to the men, who find a decoction of the mild stimulant in their canteen-bottles the most refreshing and invigorating beverage they can carry with them on the march." lord wolseley having been asked for his temperance testimony, replied in an interesting letter, in which he strongly commended the use of tea. "once during my military career," he says, "it fell to my lot to lead a brigade through a desert country for a distance of over 600 miles. i fed the men as well as i could, but no one, _officer_ or _private_, had anything stronger than tea to drink during the expedition. the men had peculiarly hard work to do, and they did it well, and without a murmur. we seemed to have left crime and sickness behind us with the 'grog,' for the conduct of all was most exemplary, and no one was ever ill. i have always attributed much of our success upon that occasion to the fact that no form of intoxicating liquor formed any portion of the daily ration." evidence from other quarters shows very conclusively that soldiers would rather drink tea than grog. in an account of the return march through the khyber pass, the rev. gelson gregson states that they were very kindly and hospitably received by the medical officer in charge, "who had a good brew of tea ready, with cheese and biscuits, much more sensible than another medico, who came round with a brandy-bottle as soon as we got in. every one enjoyed the tea, and did not even call for a peg. i believe," he adds, "that pegs would soon go out of fashion if teapots were only oftener introduced." tea, unfortunately, requires some trouble to make; but doubtless this difficulty is in a fair way of being removed by the pressure from without. total abstinence is increasing greatly both in the army and navy. miss weston, whose labours amongst the blue jackets are well known, claims that one man out of every six is a teetotaler; and the _hong kong telegraph_ recently gave an account of a tea-meeting held with the men of h.m.s. _orontes_ and their successors in the port, at which between 300 and 400 sat down in the temperance hall. mr. james francis, organizing agent of the royal naval temperance society, having asked admiral willes to say a few words, his excellency advanced to the top of the room and said, "soldiers, sailors, and marines, i am going to ask you to drink the health, in a flowing bowl of tea, of her gracious majesty, the queen, and in so doing i take the opportunity of bidding the marines and sailors going home on the 20th farewell. i wish them a pleasant passage and a happy meeting with their friends. i invite those lately come out to support by example those who are going away. i consider this an excellent institution. drunkenness is the cause of nearly all the crimes in the navy, and i dare say also in the army. i ask you to drink the health of the queen, and give her majesty three cheers." the toast was duly drunk in sparkling bohea, three rounds of cheers being given for her majesty and "one more" for the gallant admiral. mr. haly, r.n., then proposed "the health of his excellency, the governor," the toast receiving like treatment. mr. chisham, r.n., next proposed "the health of miss agnes weston," and said that no words of his could make her dearer than she already was to the british sailor. the toast was duly honoured, as was also that of mr. francis. the use of tea among cricketers, scullers, pedestrians, cyclists, and others is also becoming more general; for instance, mr. wynter blyth, medical officer of health for marylebone, says, "i have studied the diets recorded as in use, and find that those who have done long journeys successfully have used that class of diet which science has shown most suitable for muscular exertion--viz. one of a highly nitrogenized character: plenty of meat, eggs, and milk, with bread, but not much butter, and no alcohol. i have cycled for over fifty miles, taking frequent draughts of beer, and in these circumstances, although there has been no alcoholic effect, it has caused great physical depression. the experience of others is the same. however much it may stimulate for a little while, a period of well-marked depression follows. i attribute this in part to the salts of potash which some beers contain, in part to injurious bitters, and in part to the alcohol. my own experience as to the best drink when on the road is most decidedly in favour of tea. tea appears to rouse both the nervous and muscular system, with, so far as i can discover, no after-depressing effect." [illustration: pressing the tea-leaves.] the use of alcohol is almost invariably condemned in the various handbooks on training; but the use of tea is always commended. mr. c. j. michôd, late hon. sec. of the london athletic club, in his "guide to athletic training," considers tea preferable for training purposes, as it possesses less heating properties, and is more digestible. the greatest pedestrian of our time, mr. edward payson weston, finds in tea and rest the most effective restoratives. lately he walked 5000 miles in 100 days, and after each day's work, lectured on "tea _versus_ beer." even the publicans on the roads, he says, used to meet him with cups of tea and basins of milk. a norwich physician, dr. beverley, testified to the value of tea in mountain-climbing. "the hardest physical work i have done," he says, "has been mountain-climbing in switzerland, and on such occasions after a breakfast, of which coffee and milk and bread formed the chief articles of food, it was my custom to fill my flask with an infusion of cold tea, made over-night from a stock kept for the purpose in my knapsack, and this i invariably found to be the most refreshing drink for such purposes. this is confirmed by all experienced in alpine ascents, who know only too well that the man who has recourse to his flask of brandy or sherry seldom gains the mountain-top." in the harvest-field, also, tea is being substituted for beer. at a conference of the members of the newbury chamber of agriculture, held in july, 1878, mr. t. bland garland maintained that nothing can be more unsuitable as a thirst-quenching beverage during hard work in hot weather than beer, and stated that in 1871 he determined to supply no more beer to his labourers under any circumstances. he had agreed as an alternative, to pay the men 18_s._ instead of 14_s._, and the women 9_s._ instead of 7_s._; but reflecting that the people would probably find it impossible to supply themselves with a suitable substitute for the beer, and would, in a measure, be driven to the public-house, he determined to supply them with tea. he thus describes his method of brewing tea,- "i purchased a common flat-bottomed 8-1/2-gallon iron boiler, with a lid, long spout, and tap; this is taken in a cart to the field, with a few bricks to form a temporary fireplace, a few sticks for the fire, some tea in 7-oz. packets, and sugar in 4-lb. packets. the first thing in the morning a woman lights the fire, boils the water, the bailiff puts on the 7 ozs. of tea in a small bag, to boil for ten to fifteen minutes, then removes it and puts in 4 lbs. of sugar; if skim milk can be spared, two to four quarts are added, but this is not a necessity, although desirable. all the labourers are then at liberty to take as much as they like at all times of the day, beginning at breakfast-time, and ending when they leave off work at night. if the field is large, they send large cans to the boiler for it; so soon as the quantity in the boiler is reduced to two gallons, it is drawn off in a pail for consumption, whilst another boilerful is being prepared. the knowledge that they have at their disposal as much good tea as they choose to drink during every minute of the day materially lessens their thirst. the cost of tea in my case is as follows:- s. d. 7 ozs. of tea 1 0 4 lbs. of sugar 1 2 skim milk about 0 2 --- 2 4 or 8-1/2 gallons of tea, at 3-1/2_d._ per gallon. i had twenty-eight men and women employed in hay-making this year, and the consumption was,- gals. generally, 2 boilers full per day 17 occasionally, 2-1/2 " " 21-1/4 on one day, 3 " " 25-1/2 my calculation is, that they drink on the average two-thirds of a gallon each per day, at a cost of 2_d._ thus i pay them, in lieu of beer, 8_d._ per day in money, and 2_d._ in tea, or 10_d._ in all. but if the change involved a much larger expenditure than the cost of the beer, employers would be amply remunerated in the better and larger amount of work done, the better disposition of their labourers, the decrease of pauperism, and the general well-being of the people." mr. garland, having benefited so much by the substitution of tea for beer, was naturally anxious that other farmers should follow his example, and urged them to "let the additional wages be given to the full value of the beer; let the tea be good, and made with care in the field, not sent out from the house, or there will not be enough; be sure that it is always within the reach of every labourer, without stint. see to this yourself: trust it to no one; beer has many friends. be firm in carrying out the change, and it will be a source of great satisfaction to you and to your labourers, with very little trouble and at no extra expense." the late sir philip rose testified that the men on his farm "were in better condition at the conclusion of the day, less stupid and sullen, and certainly much better fitted the next morning to resume their labours, than with the old system of beer." it would be easy to multiply extracts, but enough has been said to prove the benefit of tea over alcohol, whether in marching or fighting, cricketing or sculling, cycling or mowing. we may add that cold tea is considered by many writers on the subject one of the most refreshing and satisfactory summer drinks, provided it be not spoiled by the addition of milk and sugar. it ought to be made early in the day, and left to stand in a stone jar until thoroughly cool, and should then be flavoured, in the russian fashion, with slices of fresh lemon. chapter vi. tea as a stimulant. rum-punch and poets--alcohol as a stimulant--the king of the tea-drinkers--dr. johnson's teapot--jonas hanway's attack--eloquence inspired by tea-drinking--a delightful tea-story--an absent-minded poet--george dyer's breakfast-party--an empty cupboard--hazlitt a prodigious tea-drinker--barry cornwall disgusted with hazlitt's teetotal principles--wordsworth's love of sugar in his tea--testimony of other authors--tea as a tonic--tea denounced--tea at st. stephen's--lord palmerston, mr. gladstone, and m. clemenceau quoted--hartley coleridge's poem on tea. when james hogg, the "ettrick shepherd," visited keswick, he invited southey to his inn. the invitation was heartily accepted. southey stayed half an hour, but showed no disposition to imbibe. "i was," says hogg, "a grieved as well as an astonished man when i found that he refused all participation in my beverage of rum-punch. for a poet to refuse his glass was to me a phenomenon, and i confess i doubted in my own mind, and doubt to this day if perfect sobriety and transcendent poetical genius can exist together; in scotland i am sure they cannot." no doubt; but, since burns and hogg have passed away, a new generation has arisen. the poet, the essayist, the historian, and the journalist no longer write under the influence of alcohol. as mr. george r. sims says, the idea that drink quickly excites the brain is exploded. healthier stimulants have taken its place. it cannot be denied that some good work has been done under the influence of tea. look at dr. johnson, for instance. that fine old tory is worthy of the title of the king of the tea-drinkers. he loved tea quite as much as porson loved gin. tea was johnson's only stimulant. he drank it in bed, he drank it with his friends, and he drank it while compiling his dictionary. one of his friends thus describes his mode of life: "about twelve o'clock i commonly visited him, and frequently found him in bed, or declaiming over his tea, which he drank very plentifully. he generally had a levee of morning visitors, chiefly men of letters. he declaimed all the morning, then went to dinner at a tavern, where he commonly stayed late, and then drank his tea at some friend's house, over which he loitered a great while, but seldom took supper." at his house in gough square, off fleet street, he frequently drank tea with his dependants, some of whom were blind, and some were deaf. boswell has left us a graphic picture of these interesting gatherings:--"we went home to his house to tea. mrs. williams made it with sufficient dexterity, notwithstanding her blindness," though he describes her putting her fingers into the cups to feel if they were full; but then it was johnson's favourite beverage, and he adds, "i willingly drank cup after cup, as if it had been the heliconian spring. there was a pretty large circle there, and the great doctor was in very good humour, lively and ready to talk upon all sorts of subjects." mr. f. sherlock, a fertile writer on the temperance question, claims dr. johnson as a teetotaler, and has placed him in his gallery of "illustrious abstainers." if the learned doctor was an abstainer from alcoholic drinks, he made up for his abstinence from wine by indulging to excess in the milder and less dangerous stimulant of tea. if he did not write his dictionary by the aid of the chinese drink, his teapot was never far away from his writing-table. "i suppose," said boswell, "that no person ever enjoyed with more relish the infusion of that fragrant leaf than johnson. the quantities which he drank at all hours were so great, that his nerves must have been uncommonly strong not to have been extremely relaxed by such an intemperate use of it; but he assured me he never felt the least inconvenience from it." johnson's indulgence did not escape the notice of jonas hanway, who was so alarmed for the safety of the nation that he wrote an essay on "tea and its pernicious consequences," pronouncing it the ruin of the nation, and of every one who drank it. johnson replied to the attack, and described himself as a "hardened and shameless tea-drinker, whose kettle has scarcely time to cool; who with tea amuses the evening, with tea solaces the midnight, and with tea welcomes the morning." johnson's defence did not, however, silence, his critics. sir john hawkins characterized tea-drinking as unmanly, and, like john wesley, almost gave it the colour of a crime. the worthy lexicographer, it must be confessed, was a thirsty soul, for his teapot held at least two quarts. but mr. philip gilbert hamerton writes of a clergyman whose tea-drinking indulgences exceeded those of johnson. this self-denying christian, who "from the most conscientious motives denied himself ale and wine, found a fountain of consolation in the teapot. his usual allowance was sixteen cups, all of heroic strength, and the effect upon his brain seems to have been altogether favourable, for his sermons were both long and eloquent." dr. gordon stables offered prizes for original anecdotes about this delightful and healthful beverage, but he laments that he obtained none worthy of printer's ink, and has come to the conclusion that tea is not the drink of his beloved country; that, had he offered prizes for anecdotes about whisky-drinking, "scotia, my auld, respected mither, would have shown out in a different light." no doubt; scotland has long been famous for rigid orthodoxy, combined with a love of whisky; but mr. stables must have forgotten the delightful tea-story told by barry cornwall about george dyer. dyer seems to have been as absent-minded as bowles,[2] the poet. barry cornwall says,- "poor george dyer--whom lamb has celebrated--formed one subject of conversation this evening. he invited some one--i think it was llanos, the author of 'esteban' and 'sandoval'--to breakfast with him one day in clifford's inn. dyer, of course, forgot all about the matter very speedily after giving the invitation; and when llanos went at the appointed hour, he found nothing but little dyer, and his books, and his dust--the work of years--at home. george, however, was anything but inhospitable, as far as his means or ideas went; and on being told that llanos had come to breakfast, proceeded to investigate his cupboard. he found the remnant of a threepenny loaf, two cups and saucers, a little glazed teapot, and a spoonful of milk. they sat down, and (dyer putting the hot water into the teapot) commenced breakfast. llanos attacked the stale crust, which lazarillo de tomes himself would have despised, and waited with much good-humour and patience for his tea. at last, out it came. dyer, who was half blind, kept pouring out--nothing but hot water from the teapot, until llanos, who thought a man might be guilty of too much abstinence, inquired if dyer had not forgot _the tea_. 'god bless me!' replied dyer, 'and so i have.' he began immediately to remedy his error, and emptied the contents of a piece of brown paper into the teapot, deluged it with water, and sat down with a look of complete satisfaction. 'how very odd it was that i should make such a mistake!' said dyer. however, he now determined to make amends, and filled llanos' cup again. llanos thought the tea had a strange colour, but not having dread of aqua tofana before his eyes, he thrust his spoon in and tasted. it was _ginger_! seeing that it was in vain to expect commonplaces from the little absentee, llanos continued cutting and crumbling a little bread into his plate for a short time, and then departed. he went straight to a coffee-house in the neighbourhood, and was just finishing a capital breakfast when dyer came in, to read the paper, or to inquire after some one who frequented the coffee-house. he recognized llanos, and asked him how he did; but felt no surprise at seeing him devouring a second breakfast. he had totally forgotten all the occurrences of the morning." hazlitt, like dr. johnson, was a prodigious tea-drinker, and his peculiar habits and manners were minutely photographed by his friends. his failings were, no doubt, greatly exaggerated, but we believe ourselves on safe ground in quoting patmore's account of his friend's devotion to the teapot:- "hazlitt usually rose at from one to two o'clock in the day--scarcely ever before twelve; and if he had no work in hand, he would sit over his breakfast (of excessively strong black tea, and a toasted french roll) till four or five in the afternoon--silent, motionless, and self-absorbed, as a turk over his opium-pouch; for tea served him precisely in this capacity. it was the only stimulant he ever took, and at the same time the only luxury; the delicate state of his digestive organs prevented him from tasting any fermented liquors. he never touched any but _black_ tea, and was very particular about the quality of that, always using the most expensive that could be got; and he used, when living alone, to consume nearly a pound in a week. a cup of hazlitt's tea (if you happened to come in for the first brewage of it) was a peculiar thing; i have never tasted anything like it. he always made it himself, half filling the teapot with tea, pouring the boiling water on it, and then almost immediately pouring it out, using with it a great quantity of sugar and cream. to judge from its occasional effect upon myself, i should say that the quantity hazlitt drank of this tea produced ultimately a most injurious effect upon him, and in all probability hastened his death, which took place from disease of the digestive organs. but its _immediate_ effect was agreeable, even to a degree of fascination; and not feeling any subsequent reaction from it, he persevered in its use to the last, notwithstanding two or three attacks, similar to that which terminated his life." from barry cornwall, also, we have similar testimony concerning hazlitt's indulgence. proctor was as much disgusted with hazlitt's spare diet as llano's was with dyer's, and wrote,- "i saw a great deal of hazlitt during the last twelve or thirteen years of his stormy, anxious, uncomfortable life. in 1819 he resided in a small house in york street, westminster, where i visited him, and where milton had formerly dwelt; afterwards he moved from lodging to lodging, and finally went to live at no. 6, frith street, soho, where he fell ill and died. i went to visit him very often during his late _breakfasts_ (when he drank tea of an astounding strength), not unfrequently also at the fives court, and at other persons' houses; and once i dined with him. this (an unparalleled occurrence) was in york street, when some friend had sent him a couple of dorking fowls, of which he suddenly invited me to partake. i went, expecting the usual sort of dinner; but it was limited solely to the fowls and bread. he drank nothing but water, and there was nothing but water to drink. he offered to send for some porter for me, but, being out of health at the time, i declined, and escaped soon after dinner to a coffee-house, where i strengthened myself with a few glasses of wine." [illustration: pressing bags of tea.] proctor would have fared little better had he visited the lake poets; for, according to miss mitford, "the wordsworths have no regular meals, but go to the cupboard when hungry, and eat what they want." wordsworth, by the way, appears to have liked his tea well sweetened; for, when he visited charles lamb, at his lodgings in enfield, _one_ of the extra "teas" in the week's bill was charged sixpence. on lamb's inquiry what this meant, the reply was, that "the elderly gentleman"--meaning wordsworth--"had taken such a quantity of sugar in his tea." proctor, on the other hand, seems to have had a deep-rooted antipathy to tea, and to have found a wife who shared his feelings. writing to his "lady-love," he said, "will your friend give me some blanc-mange? but no, i don't like blanc-mange. i hate nothing but _green tea_, and my enemies, and insincerity, and affectation, and undue pretence. it is partly, i believe, because you have none of these that i love you so much." no; he liked something stronger than tea, and wrote of "brains made clear by the irresistible strength of beer." but some of the sweetest poems, the brightest novels, and the finest essays have been written without the aid of either wine or beer. shelley's beverage, for instance, consisted of copious and frequent draughts of cold water, but tea was always grateful. bulwer lytton's breakfast consisted of dry toast and a cup of cold tea, or hot tea impatiently tossed into a tumbler half full of cold water. de quincey said that he usually drank tea from eight o'clock at night to four in the morning. kant's breakfast consisted of a cup of tea and a pipe of tobacco, and on these he worked eight hours. motley, the historian, usually rose before seven, and, with the aid of a cup of tea or coffee, wrote until the family breakfast-hour. that revolutionary poet, victor hugo, drinks tea, but fortifies it with a drop of rum. more than three hours a day at the work of literary production is generally considered destructive; but a case is known to the author in which a well-known writer has been engaged in literary composition from seven to ten hours a day for at least ten years. the work he has accomplished in every department of literature during this period is truly astonishing: and its quality is admittedly high. yet his only stimulant is tea. he is practically a life abstainer, and has never used tobacco. after a spell of work extending over three hours, a cup of tea and a break of half an hour have enabled him to resume his work and to continue writing far into the night. tea is becoming the favourite stimulant of brain-workers; and although de quincey drank laudanum for some time, he was enthusiastic in his praise of tea. he said,- "for tea, though ridiculed by those who are naturally coarse in their nervous sensibilities, or are become so from wine-drinking, and are not susceptible of influence from so refined a stimulant, will always be a favourite beverage of the intellectual; and, for my part, i would have joined dr. johnson in a _bellum internecinum_ against jonas hanway, or any other impious person who should have presumed to disparage it. but here, to save myself the trouble of too much verbal description, i will introduce a painter, and give him directions for the rest of the picture.... paint me, then, a room seventeen feet by twelve, and not more than seven and a half feet high, ... and near the fire paint me a tea-table; and (as it is clear that no creature can come to see one on such a stormy night), place only two cups and saucers on the tea-tray; and if you know how to paint such a thing, symbolically or otherwise, paint me an eternal teapot--eternal _à parte ante_ and _à parte post_; for i usually drink tea from eight o'clock at night to four in the morning. and as it is very unpleasant to make tea, or to pour it out for oneself, paint me a lovely young woman sitting at the table." but even a "lovely young woman" would have failed to satisfy the tastes of the historian buckle, who was a most fastidious tea-drinker. "no woman," he declared, "could make tea until he had taught her." the great thing, he believed, was to have the cups and even the spoons warmed. commenting upon the confession of william cullen bryant, that he never took coffee or tea, william howitt said,--"i regularly take both, find the greatest refreshment in both, and never experienced any deleterious effects from either, except in one instance, when by mistake i took a cup of tea strong enough for ten men. on the contrary, tea is to me a wonderful refresher and reviver. after long-continued exertion, as in the great pedestrian journeys that i formerly made, tea would always, in a manner almost miraculous, banish all my fatigue and diffuse through my whole frame comfort and exhilaration, without any subsequent evil effect. i am quite well aware that this is not the experience of many others--my wife among the number--on whose nervous system tea acts mischievously, producing inordinate wakefulness, and, its continuous use, indigestion. yet," he wisely adds, "this is one of the things that people should learn and act upon, namely, to take such things as suit them, and avoid such as do not." this is, as a rule, the safest course to pursue, and it is adopted by all sensible persons. to that brilliant historian, mr. justin mccarthy, m.p., tea is not only the most useful stimulant, but the best defence against headache. "i have," he writes, "always been a liberal drinker of tea. i have found it of immense benefit in keeping off headache, my only malady. probably tea-drinking, even if not immoderate, does some hurt to the nerves; but i have never been able to satisfy myself that this is so in my case. certainly, few men have worked harder and suffered less from ill-health than myself." another famous man of letters testifies to the value of tea: "the only sure brain-stimulants with me," writes professor dowden, "are plenty of fresh air and tea; but each of these in large quantities produces a kind of intoxication; the intoxication of a great amount of air causing wakefulness, with a delightful confusion of spirits, without the capacity of steady thought; tea intoxication unsettles and enfeebles my will; but then a great dose of tea often does get good work out of me (though i may pay for it afterwards), while alcohol renders all mental work impossible." "tea is my favourite tonic when i am tired or languid," confesses mr. george r. sims, "and always has a stimulating effect." and the rev. john clifford, an able and scholarly baptist minister, testifies that tea has enabled him to accomplish some very hard work. he says,- "for at least a quarter of a century i have attempted to solve the problem how to get the maximum of power out of a somewhat feeble body, and retain the maximum of health; but having been a total abstainer for nearly twenty-eight years, i have no experience of the relation of alcoholics and narcotics to the solution of the problem. in preparing for a succession of examinations (b.a., m.a., ll.d., and b.sc.) at the london university, whilst i had to discharge the duties of a london pastorate, i drank tea somewhat copiously, on an average thrice a day. i worked twelve and sometimes fourteen hours a day over extended periods, preached regularly to the same congregation thrice a week, directed the affairs of an aggressive church, conducted several classes for young men, and at the same time matriculated in the first class, took a first class b.a., was bracketed first at the m.a., took honours at the ll.b. and at the b.sc. in three subjects; and i found that on tea i could work longer, with a clearer head, and with more sustained intensity, than on any other beverage. but i am convinced that good as tea-drinking is for prolonged mental strain, it was very prejudicial to me, and has permanently lowered the digestive force. raisins (as suggested by sir w. gull) and grapes i have found in more recent years a most convenient and effective method of reinforcing mental strength whilst at work; but the wisest course is to keep as robust health as possible, by horse exercise, or daily walks in the early morning, and before retiring to rest, by the use of dumb-bells and the gymnastic bat." harriet martineau strongly condemned the use of alcohol by brain-workers, and said that her stimulants were fresh air and cold water; but this remarkable old maid dearly loved a cup of tea. maclise sketched her sitting by the fireside, her feet on the fender, steadying with one hand a pan on the fire, teapot, cup and saucer and milk-jug on the table by her side, and her cat nestling on her shoulder. miss ellen terry also finds tea the best stimulant. in reply to the question, "what do you drink?" put to her by a chicago reporter, she stated that her favourite beverage was tea. she takes tea after every meal, and also the first thing in the morning. professor everett, of belfast, on the other hand, says that he has frequently suffered more from nervous excitability due to tea or coffee, than from any other kind of stimulant. mr. philip gilbert hamerton, the artist, confesses that at one time he did himself harm by drinking tea, but has given up coffee as well as tea. the rev. henry solly, who has laboured for many years among workingmen, has abstained from tea and coffee during the last fifteen years, as they caused nervous excitement, prostration, sleeplessness, and great inequality of spirits. he hardly likes, however, denouncing the use of tea, as it seems to him the only refuge (except coffee, which to some constitutions is more injurious) for those persons who, though of a nervous and excitable temperament, cannot persuade themselves to give up all stimulants, and yet desire to discountenance the use of alcohol. but he is quite sure that it causes or promotes many nervous diseases, particularly neuralgia, and not seldom leads to that "sinking" and depression which is so frequent a cause of resort being had to "nips" in the shape of glasses of wine or spirits. mr. solly is not alone in his unwillingness to denounce the use of tea, because, whatever maybe said against tea-drinking, its objectors cannot but admit that it is the least harmful of stimulants.[3] what is there to take its place? "once," remarks dr. inman, of liverpool, "i was an unbeliever in tea, and during the many days of solitary misery which i had to endure in consequence of the delicacy of children and their absence with mamma at the seaside, i tried to do without it. hot water and cold, milk and cream, soda water and brandy, water and nothing at all, were tried in succession to sweep those cobwebs from the brain, which a dinner and a consequent snooze left behind them. it was all in vain--i was good for nothing, and the evenings intended to be devoted to work were passed in smoking, gossip, or novel-reading. i took to tea, and all was changed; and now i fully believe that a good dinner, 'forty winks,' and a cup of strong tea afterwards will enable a man to 'get through' no end of work, especially of a mental kind." replying to the argument that as the lower animals do without tea and coffee, so ought we, dr. poore emphasizes the fact that we are _not_ lower animals; that we have _minds_, as well as _bodies_; and that since these substances have the property in common of enabling us to forget our worries and fatigues, to make light of misfortunes, and generally to bear "the stings and arrows of outrageous fortune," let us accept them, make rational use of them, and be thankful. the super-dietetic-purists, who caution us against "those poisonous liquids, milk, water, and tea," have furnished mr. george r. sims with a congenial topic for his facile pen. from "the drinker's dirge" we quote the following lines:- "in trying from all things our lips to debar, hasn't science just gallop'd his hobby too far? let the nervous go thirsting, they shan't frighten me with this nonsense concerning milk, water, and tea." turning from literature to politics, we find that lord palmerston resorted to tea to refresh him during the midnight hours he spent at st. stephen's. mr. gladstone confessed a short time ago at cannes, that he drank more tea between midnight and four in the morning than any other member of the house of commons; and strange to say, the strongest tea, although taken immediately before going to bed, never interferes with his sleep. m. clemenceau, the leader of the french radicals, is also reported to have owned himself an intemperate bibber of tea. both wondered how, before tea was imported into europe, our forefathers got on without it.[4] it was remarked that manners had become more polite and nations more humane since the introduction of the chinese beverage, on hearing which mr. gladstone exclaimed, "oh! there were great and admirable characters in the middle ages." although sir charles dilke grows wine, he never drinks it, finding in tea a better stimulant. at one time cobden was an abstainer from intoxicating drinks, which he declared useless for sustaining strength; "for the more work i have had to do, the more i have resorted to the pump and the teapot." the hero of the anti-corn-law league felt more at home drinking tea than dining with great people. the formalities of dinner parties were extremely irksome to him. "i have been obliged," he says, "to mount a white cravat at these dinner-parties much against my will, but i found a black stock was quite out of character." in another letter he writes, "i assure you i would rather find myself taking tea with you than dining with lords and ladies." but as the leader of a great movement, he found it necessary to sacrifice personal tastes and to endure the afflictions of dinner-parties, for the sake of securing the support of the aristocracy. turning to the literature of the subject, it is interesting to learn that hartley coleridge was in his youth fond of tea. in _blackwood's magazine_ (vol. 55, 1857) appears "an unpublished poem," by hartley coleridge, with the following note by the editor: "this early production of the late hartley coleridge may not be without interest, as it describes a state of social manners which is already passing away, in a style of composition which belongs in some measure to the past." the poem commences thus:- "though all unknown to greek and roman song, the paler hyson and the dark souchong, though black, not green, the warbled praises share of knightly troubadour or gay _trouvère_. yet deem not thou, an alien quite to numbers, that friend to prattle, and that foe to slumbers, which kian-long, imperial poet praised so high that cent. per cent. its price was raised; which pope himself would sometimes condescend to plead commodious at a couplet's end; which the sweet bard of olney did not spurn, who loved the music of the 'hissing urn,' let her who bade me write, exact the muse, inspire my genius and my tea infuse, so shall my verse the hovering sylphs delight, and critic gnomes relinquish half their spite, clear, warm and flowing as my liquid theme, as sweet as sugar and as smooth as cream." happy would it have been for the young poet if he had remained a tea-drinker, and had never known the taste of alcohol. but cowper is the poet of the tea-table. he it is whom the amateur reporters love to quote, or, rather, misquote, when they describe the friends at a tea-party, "partaking of the cup that cheers, but not inebriates." what the poet really said is found in book the fourth of the "task." "now stir the fire, and close the shutters fast, let fall the curtains, wheel the sofa round, and while the bubbling and loud-hissing urn throws up a steamy column, and the cups that cheer, but not inebriate, wait on each, so let us welcome peaceful evening in." footnotes: [2] "bowles was in the habit of daily riding through a country turnpike-gate, and one day he presented his twopence to the gatekeeper as usual. 'what is that for, sir?' he asked. 'for my horse, of course.' 'but, sir, you have no horse.' 'dear me!' exclaimed the astonished poet; 'am i walking?' mrs. moore also told me that bowles gave her a bible as a birthday present. she asked him to write her name in it; he did so, inscribing it to her as a gift--_from the author_. 'i never,' said he, 'had but one watch, and i lost it the very first day i wore it.' mrs. bowles whispered to me, 'and if he got another to-day, he would lose it as quickly.' i met not long ago, near salisbury, a gentleman farmer who had been one of his parishioners, and cherished an affectionate remembrance of the good parson. he told me one story of him that is worth recording: one day he had a dinner-party; the guests were kept waiting for the host; his wife went upstairs to see by what mischance he was delayed. she found him in a sad 'taking,' hunting everywhere for a silk stocking. after a minute search mrs. bowles found that he had put _the two stockings on one leg_! once when his own house was pointed out to him, he could not by any possibility call to mind who lived there."--_hall_, "_book of memories of great men and women of the age_." [3] "with reference to the tea-drinking, of course there was such a thing as excess and indigestion--but nobody ever heard of a man kicking his wife to death because he had drunk tea; and no wife ever complained of her home being made unhappy through her husband drinking tea. there was not a judge on the bench who had not borne witness to the fact that drunkenness was an incentive to crime. when the judges began to admit that tea-drinking was increasing the criminal statistics of the country, then mr. ford could come forward with his amusing statement."--_rev. dr. chadwick_, speech at the diocesan synod at armagh, october 24, 1883. [4] "as tea did not come into england until 1610, and coffee until 1652, beer or wine was taken at all meals. the queen would only take beer regularly. her maids of honour breakfasted, or rather dined, off meat and beer. single and double beers were on all tables. in the year 1570 the scholars of trinity college, cambridge, consumed 2250 barrels of beer, as appears from the state papers of the time. two tuns of wine a month were accredited to the suite of mary queen of scots during her confinement in england."--"_the england of shakespeare_," by e. goadby. chapter vii. the friends and the foes of tea. a learned dutchman's opinion of tea--two hundred cups a day recommended--tea the universal panacea--tea-merchants greedy as hell--degeneracy of the race through tea-drinking--appeal to women--tea a slow poison--experiment upon a dog--john wesley's attack upon tea--why he preached against it--dr. lettsom's thesis--accuses tea of leading to intemperance--the essential principle of tea--the value of experiments upon animals--tea-drinking among women--the anti-teapot society--the benefits of tea-drinking--dr. richardson's condemnation--the dean of bangor as a joker--life without stimulants--dr. poore's description of the good and bad effects of tea-drinking--injurious to children--a properly controlled appetite the safest guide. like tobacco, tea received on its introduction very different treatment by different people. it was extravagantly praised by some, and extravagantly denounced by others. "some ascribe such sovereign virtues to this exotic," remarks one author, "as if 'twas able to eradicate or prevent the spring of all diseases.... others, on the contrary, are equally severe in their censures, and impute the most pernicious consequences to it, accounting it no better than a slow but efficacious poison, and a seminary of diseases." a learned dutchman pronounced it the infallible cure for bad health, and declared that "if mankind could be induced to drink a sufficient quantity of it, the innumerable ills to which man is subject would not only be diminished, but entirely unknown." he went so far as to express his conviction that 200 cups daily would not be too much. it is scarcely surprising, therefore, to find the dutch east india company liberally rewarding this eloquent apostle of the new drink. scarcely less enthusiastic was the professor of physic in a german university, who declared tea "the defence against the enemies of health; the universal panacea which has long been sought for." this opinion, indeed, prevailed very extensively in the east. the following notice is copied from the "relation of the voyage to siam by six jesuits, in 1685:"--"it is a civility amongst them to present betel and tea to all that visit them. their own country supplies them with betel and areca, but they have their tea from china and japan. all the orientals have a particular esteem for it, because of the great virtues they find to be in it. their physicians say that it is a sovereign medicine against the stone and pains of the head, that it allays vapours, that it cheers the mind, and strengthens the stomach. in all kinds of fevers they take it stronger than commonly, when they begin to feel the heat of the fit, and then the patient covers himself up to sweat, and it hath been very often found that this sweat wholly drives away the fever." a similar belief in the virtues of opium existed until very recently in the minds of the people of the fen counties. [illustration: drying the tea-leaves.] the enemies of tea appear to have been quite as active as its friends. a german physician declared it a cause of dropsy and diabetes, and the introducer of foreign diseases, and he charged the merchants with "inexpressible frauds, calling them greedy as hell, the vilest of usurers, who lie in wait for men's purses and lives." according to mr. mattieu williams, drunkenness serves one useful purpose; for it helps to get rid of the surplus population. a french physician held similar views of the use of tea and coffee; for, writing at the close of the seventeenth century, he expressed his belief, "that they are permitted by god's providence for the lessening the number of mankind by shortening life, as a kind of silent plague." coming down to more recent times, the most remarkable production against tea appeared in 1722. the mind of the author seems to have been seriously disturbed at the prospect of the deterioration of the race, which would inevitably follow indulgence in tea. his treatise, which is addressed to ladies, is entitled "an essay on the nature, use, and abuse of tea, in a letter to a lady; with an account of its mechanical operation. london: printed by j. bettenham for james lacy at the ship, between the two temple gates, fleet street, 1722. price 1_s._" this book contains some curious information about the diseases liable to follow the use of tea. the author begins:- "madam,--an earnest desire, which all ages have shown, to serve your sex will, i hope, be sufficient warrant for my troubling you with these papers. to be assisting towards the preservation of that form and beauty with which god has adorned you, is certainly a work not less pious than pleasant; for while we indulge ourselves in our greatest pleasure (which is to serve your sex), would also show our love and gratitude to the almighty being, whose form you so nearly represent, and to whom we are so much indebted for the blessing we received when he gave man so agreeable an helpmate. though the value which we ought to set on this blessing is a sufficient motive to us to endeavour by all means to dissuade you from anything which may be to your detriment, yet there are other motives which oblige us to have a more particular regard to the health of your sex. for when by any means you ignore your constitutions and impair your healths, though you yourselves suffer too severely for it, yet the tragedy does not end here, for the calamity is entailed on succeeding ages, perhaps to the third and fourth generations." the author then notes the fact that lycurgus thought the spartan women not in the least unworthy of his care and direction, and proceeds to remark:- "if this lawgiver lived in these our days, what a mean opinion, what a little hope, would he have of the next age, when the women of this age fell so very short of that regularity and healthy way of living, which he looked on as necessary for the preservation of a state! with what an uneasiness would he have seen the many errors which we daily commit!--errors which are introduced by luxury, suffered through ignorance, and supported by being fashionable. he would soon have condemned the exorbitant use of tea, and upon the first observing its ill effects would certainly have prohibited the importation of it. but the present age has other considerations: tea pays too great a duty, and supports too many coaches, not to be preferred to the health of the public. tea has too great interest to be prohibited, and i wish reason itself may be sufficient to dissuade the world from the use of it. i must confess i have so little hope from these papers, that though (to me and some others, who have had the perusal of them) they seem just and satisfactory, yet i should never have presented them to the public, had not i thought it an indispensable duty to acquaint the world with the many disorders which may possibly arise from its too frequent use." this worthy benefactor of his species contends that tea is a slow but sure poison, and that it is "not less destructive to the animal economy than opium, or some other drugs which we have at present learned to avoid with more caution." he does not deny that tea is "useful as physic," but lays down the following propositions, which he endeavours to prove. first, that tea may attenuate the blood to any degree necessary to the production of any disease, which may arise from too thin a state of the blood. secondly, that tea may depauper the blood, or waste the spirits, to any degree necessary to produce any disease, which may arise from too poor a blood. third, that tea may bring on any degree whatsoever of a plethora necessary to the production of any disease, which may arise from a plethoric state of body. from an experiment upon a dog the author concludes that "tea abounds with a lixiviate salt, by whose assistance it attenuates the blood." the author draws some terrible pictures of the evils of tea-drinking, but does not presume to dictate how his readers should act. "whether or not we ought to abandon the use of what may possibly be of so vast injury to us, i leave to every reasonable man to judge, having myself done the duty of a man and christian in warning them of what dangers they may fall into." on the other hand, thomas frost, m.d., wrote a "discourse on tea, with plain and useful rules for gouty people," in 1750. in this he contended that,- "a moderate use of tea of a due strength seems better adapted to the fair sex than men, for they, naturally being of a more lax and delicate make, are more liable to a fulness of blood and juices; as also because they have less exercise or head-labours, than which nothing braces better, or gives the fibres a greater springiness; and because they are less accustomed to drink wine, whose astringency corrugates the fibres, and enables the vessels to act with greater briskness and force, so in some measure answers the end of the labour." he holds that tea in a dietetic point of view seems in general not only harmless, but very useful, but considers it impossible to say "beforehand with what healthy persons tea will disagree, till they have used it; where it disagrees, it should immediately be left off, for there is no altering or compelling a constitution. however, where it agrees, it excels all other vegetables, foreign or domestic, for preventing sleepiness, drowsiness, or dulness, and taking off weariness or fatigue, raising the spirits safely, corroborating the memory, strengthening the judgment, quickening the invention, &c.; but then it should be drank moderately, and in the afternoon chiefly, and not made too habitual." john wesley, a few years later, attacked the use of tea. in 1748 he published a small tract, "letter to a friend concerning tea," in which he accused tea of impairing digestion, unstringing the nerves, involving great and useless expense, and in his own case, and that of others, inducing symptoms of paralysis. but, in the first instance, he preached against tea, not because he thought it injurious, but because he wanted money. the whole of the london methodists were at that time very poor. the rev. l. tyerman, in his "life and times of the rev. john wesley," says,- "the number of members in the london society on the 12th of april, 1746, was 1939, and the amount of their quarterly contributions 113_l._ 9_s._, upon an average fourteenpence per member. considering the high price of money, and that nearly the whole of the london methodists were extremely poor, the amount subscribed was highly creditable. wesley also believed its use to be injurious. he tells us that when he first went to oxford, with an exceedingly good constitution, and being otherwise in health, he was somewhat surprised at certain symptoms of a paralytic disorder. his hand shook, especially after breakfast; but he soon observed that if for two or three days he intermitted drinking tea, the shaking ceased. upon inquiry, he found tea had the same effect upon others, and particularly on persons whose nerves were weak. this led him to lessen the quantity he took, and to drink it weaker; but still for above six and twenty years he was more or less subject to the same disorder. in july, 1746, he began to observe that abundance of the people of london were similarly affected; some of them having their nerves unstrung, and their bodily strength decayed. he asked them if they were hard drinkers; they replied, 'no, indeed, we drink scarce anything but a little tea morning and night!' ... having set the example (of abstinence from tea) wesley recommended the same abstinence to a few of his preachers; and a week later to above a hundred of his people, whom he believed to be strong in faith, all of whom, with two or three exceptions, resolved by the grace of god to make the trial without delay. in a short time he proposed it to the whole society. objections rose in abundance. some said, 'tea is not unwholesome at all.' to these he replied that many eminent physicians had declared it was, and that, if frequently used by those of weak nerves, it is no other than a slow poison. others said, 'tea is not unwholesome to me; why then should i leave it off?' wesley answered, 'to give an example to those to whom it is undeniably prejudicial, and to have the more wherewith to feed the hungry, and to clothe the naked.' others said, 'it helps my health, nothing else will agree with me.' to such wesley's caustic reply was, 'i suppose your body is much of the same kind with that of your grandmother, and do you think nothing else agreed with her, or with any of her progenitors? what poor, puling, sickly things must all the english then have been till within these hundred years! besides, if, in fact, nothing else will agree with you--if tea has already weakened your stomach, and impaired your digestion to such a degree, it has hurt you more than you are aware. you have need to abhor it as deadly poison, and to renounce it from this very hour.' what was the result of wesley's attempt to form a _tea_-total society? we can hardly tell, except that he himself abstained from tea for the next twelve years, until dr. fothergill ordered him to resume its use. charles wesley began to abstain, but how long his abstinence lasted we are not informed. about 100 of the london methodists followed the example of their leader; and, besides these, a large number of others began to be _temperate_ and to use less than they had previously." "this was, to say the least," adds mr. tyerman, "an amusing episode in wesley's laborious life. all must give him credit for the best and most benevolent intentions, and it is right to add that, ten days after his proposal was submitted to the london society, he had collected among his friends thirty pounds for a lending stock, and that this was soon made up to fifty, by means of which, before the year was ended, above 250 destitute persons had received acceptable relief." the most noteworthy opponent after wesley was jonas hanway, who, in 1756, wrote a bulky volume under the title of "a journal of eight days' journey from portsmouth to kingston-upon-thames, to which is added an essay on tea, considered as pernicious to health, obstructing industry, and impoverishing the nation." the effects of tea-drinking formed the subject of dr. lettsom's inaugural thesis, when he sought the medical doctorate of the university of leyden in 1767. he accused tea of inducing "excess in spirituous liquors, by reason of the weakness and debility of the system brought on by the daily habit of drinking tea, seeking a temporary relief in some cordial; of producing in some excruciating pains about the stomach, involuntary trembling and fluttering of the nerves, destruction of half your teeth at the age of twenty, without any hopes of getting new ones, depression, loss of memory, tremblings and symptoms of paralysis; and of bringing on a gradual debility and impoverished condition of the entire system." tea contains an active principle called _theine_, which, according to dr. sinclair, was discovered so recently as 1827. adopting one of the methods of the opponents of tobacco, the enemies of tea conclude it to be a deadly poison from its effect upon animals. a new york dentist is reported to have boiled down a pound of young hyson tea from a quart to half a pint, ten drops of which killed a rabbit three months old; and when boiled down to one gill, eight drops killed a cat of the same age in a few minutes. "think of it!" exclaims an opponent of tea, "most persons who drink tea use not less than a pound in three months, and yet a pound of hyson tea contains poison enough to kill, according to the above experiment, more than 17,000 rabbits, or nearly 200 a day! and if boiled down to a gill, it contains poison enough to kill 10,860 cats in the same space of time! how can any one in his senses believe that any human being can take poison enough into the stomach in one day to kill 185 rabbits and not suffer from it?--or that the uses of this poison can be continued from day to day without injury to health and life?"[5] the americans appear the most energetic in their opposition to tea. an organization called the "american health and temperance association" was formed in 1879 against tobacco, tea, and coffee; and, according to one of its publications, has a membership of more than 10,000. it believes that more harm is done at the present time by tobacco, tea, and coffee, than by all forms of alcoholic drinks combined, and "the tee-total pledge of the association requires abstinence from alcohol, tobacco, tea, coffee, opium, and all other narcotics and stimulants." the "good health publishing company," at battle creek, also issues tracts on the "evil effects of the use of tea and coffee," in which it is contended that these beverages waste vital force, and injure digestion and the nervous system; and that they irritate the temper, and encourage gossip and scandal.[6] a new york magazine, the _herald of health_, is equally unsparing in its attacks on tea-drinking:--"the habit of tea-drinking among women is one of the worst with which the hygienic physician has to contend. very few women, comparatively, among civilized peoples are free from this vice--for vice it is--and as pronounced in its effects as either whisky or tobacco.... it is a common custom among women who do hard manual labour to depend upon their cup of tea, when they are tired, to rest them, as they say, and thus the wearied nerves are lulled to sleep and the warning voice of nature hushed, that the work may be done and the system taxed to the utmost that it is able to bear without complete exhaustion. is it any wonder that women once broken down are so hard to restore to health again? "on women and children its worst consequences fall. to the use of tea may be traced directly most of the prostrating nervous headaches with which so many women are afflicted; also most of the neuralgic and nervous affections. of course children inherit the tendency to these and similar conditions, and many a puny, emaciated nervous little one is so because its mother was a tea-drunkard, and its whole system has been narcotized from the time its being began." in england the opposition against tea has never taken an organized form, but a good deal has been said and written on the question. in 1863 or 1864 an anti-teapot society was formed, but not against tea-drinking. it published a quarterly magazine called the _anti-teapot review_. a correspondent of _notes and queries_ stated that it was no enthusiastic wish to convert tea-topers into anything else that called this body into existence; it was rather a desire to oppose and to cast scorn on the narrowness of mind that seems to be encouraged in circles which, by no very violent figure of speech, may be described around a teapot. in other words, he says, the a. t. s. was a combination against modern pharisaism, and he quotes the following extract from no. 1 of the _review_, may, 1864, as proving his point:- "many persons either do not, or pretend not to, know what teapotism is. in consequence of this ignorance or affectation we shall, in a few words, try to describe the leading features of the male and female teapot. teapotism is a magnificent profession, but a very sorry practice! it professes a large-hearted liberality, unbounded piety, and the enunciation of true principles; but its practice is that of a narrow-minded clique, who condemn all who go not with them. its piety consists in hero-worship and the circulation of illiterate tracts, calculated to attract the strong and to confound the weak; it is bounded on the north by the platform and meeting-house, and on the south by scandal, hassocks and tea, whence the name of teapots, &c." the article ends with the assurance that "the society will go on as it began: it will remain strictly private, enforce the same rules, and show that it is the enemy, not of tea, but of teapots." the _review_ professed to be edited by members of the universities, and written only by members of the anti-teapot society of europe. the qualifications for membership were, to read the rules, to fill up the form of admission to be had in english, french, german, dutch, and other languages; to be nominated and seconded by any two officers; "the latter (_sic_) wholesome rule was introduced so that inquisitive people might be prevented from joining the society out of sheer curiosity." the society appears to have made no converts, and had but a very short existence. tea-parties have always been popular institutions among dissenting bodies, and it is therefore not surprising to find ministers taking part in meetings advocating a reduction of the tea duties. in 1848 the rev. dr. hume, attending a meeting in liverpool for this purpose, warmly defended tea, on the ground of health, and quoted with great satisfaction the evidence of dr. sigmond, given before the committee of the house of commons. asked what had been the result of the medical inquiries into the effect of tea upon the human frame, doctor sigmond replied, "i think it is of great importance in the prevention of skin disease, in comparison with any fluid we have been in the habit of drinking in former years, and also in removing glandular affections. i think scrofula has very much diminished in this country since tea has been so largely used. to those classes of society who are not of labouring habits, but who are of sedentary habits, and exercise the mind a good deal, tea is of great importance." on the other hand, a famous physician of our time takes an entirely opposite view of the question. at the sanitary congress last year dr. richardson delivered an address on "felicity as a sanitary research," and charged tea with being a promoter of infelicity. "as a rule," he says, "all agents which stimulate--that is to say, relax--the arterial tension, and so allow the blood a freer course through the organs, promote for a time felicity, but in the reaction leave depression. the alkaloid in tea, theine, has this effect. it causes a short and slight felicity. it causes in a large number of persons a long and severe and even painful sadness. there are many who never knew a day of felicity, owing to this one destroying cause. in our poorer districts, amongst the poor women of our industrial populations, our spinning, our stocking-weaving women, the misery incident to their lot is often doubled by this one agent." the dean of bangor is the latest clerical opponent of tea-drinking. speaking at a meeting held to further the establishment of courses of instruction in practical cookery in the elementary schools, he said that if he had his own way there would be much less tea-drinking among people of all classes. oatmeal and milk produced strong, hearty, good-tempered men and women; whereas excessive tea-drinking created a generation of nervous, discontented people, who were for ever complaining of the existing order of the universe, scolding their neighbours, and sighing after the impossible. good cooking would, he firmly believed, enable them to take far higher and more correct views of existence. in fact, he suspected that too much tea-drinking, by destroying the calmness of the nerves, was acting as a dangerous revolutionary force among us. tea-drinking, renewed three or four times a day, made men and women feel weak, and the result was that the tea-kettle went before the gin-bottle, and the physical and nervous weakness, that had its origin in the bad cookery of an ignorant wife, ended in ruin, intemperance, and disease. [illustration: sifting tea.] the worthy dean's denunciation of tea-drinking formed the subject of numerous leading articles in the press, followed by letters from correspondents, several of whom referred to the difficulty of finding any satisfactory substitute for the fragrant and refreshing beverage which, during the present century; has come to be regarded almost as a necessary of life in english homes, both rich and poor. one gentleman pathetically describes his feelings on being presented one afternoon in a drawing-room, where he had been in the habit of being served with "at least three cups of supernatural tea," with "a glass brimful of a dim, opaque, greyish-white liquid," which turned out to be cold barley-water. admitting that tea-drinking leads to indigestion, the _st. james's gazette_ points out that "tea-drinking is still, in itself, better than drunkenness; and there is always a chance that the first factor in the fatal series may not lead to the second, nor the second to the third. what numbers of persons of both sexes every one must know who drink tea three times a day--morning, afternoon, and evening--without ever getting drunk at all! every one, again, must have met with cases in which men have brought themselves to utter grief through the abuse of spirituous liquors; but who ever heard of a man ruining himself or his family through excessive indulgence in tea? the confirmed tea-drinker never commits murder in his cups--never even goes home in a frantic condition to beat his wife. it is certain, on the other hand, that tea drunk in immoderate quantities does not good, but harm; and it is very desirable that, both in drinking and eating, people should on all occasions be temperate. it is difficult, however, to get through existence without stimulants of some kind; and tea is probably as little injurious as any yet discovered. 'life without stimulants,' as a modern philosopher has remarked, 'would be a dreary waste.'" reviewing the discussion, the _lancet_ doubted whether the abuse of tea-drinking is prevalent in the country, and maintained that hard-worked minds and fatigued bodies are the better for some gentle stimulant that rouses into activity the nerves, and which ministers to animal life and comfort. the editor concluded that the worthy dean's "conclusions are drawn from insufficient premises, which in their turn can scarcely be regarded as scientific truths." the latest medical contribution to the literature of the question is a lecture on "coffee and tea," by dr. poore, vice-chairman of the council of the parkes museum, given at the parkes museum on the 6th of december, 1883. he thus describes the good and bad effects of these luxuries:- "the peculiar effects of tea and coffee are due to the alkaloid. these effects are of a _refreshing_ character. the circulation of the blood is increased; the elimination of co_{2} by the lungs is heightened. the reflex excitability of the nerve centres is roused, thereby increasing the impressionability of the consumer, and great wakefulness results; it also excites the peristalsis of the intestines. tea and coffee, then, are stimulants; they rouse the tissues to increased action, make us insensible to fatigue, and enable us to do more work than we otherwise could. the differences between these stimulants and alcoholic stimulants are worth noticing. tea and coffee keep us awake and attentive; and those who have taken either for the purposes of midnight study, will know how under their influence the receptive powers of the brain seem to be at its maximum. they cause no mental 'elevation,' and do not rouse the imaginative faculties as a glass of wine seems to do. they enable a man to work, and often rob him of sleep, and do not, like a glass of wine, tend to increase the power of sleep after the work has been accomplished. the tannic acid in tea is doubtless one of the causes why it is as a drink so attractive. it is slightly astringent, and clean in the mouth, and does not 'cloy the palate,' an expression for which i can find no scientific equivalent; tannic acid is also one of the dangers and drawbacks of tea. it is largely present in the common teas used by the poor.... excessive tea-drinkers are more common than excessive coffee-drinkers, because the heavier coffee more easily produces satiety than the lighter tea; and it is not possible for ordinary stomachs to tolerate more than a certain amount of coffee, even when pure, and only a very small amount of the thick, sweet, adulterated stuff which too often passes for coffee in this country.... tea is more of a pure beverage than coffee, has less dietetic value, and is less stimulating; it is more capable of being used as a pure luxury (it is indeed the tobacco of women), but its great astringency is one reason which makes its excessive use highly undesirable." the question of the action of tea, as well as of tobacco and other stimulants, has occupied the attention of professor mantegazza, an italian physiologist of high repute. this eminent scholar places tea amongst the nervous foods; and his enthusiasm for it is unbounded. he credits it with the power of dispelling weariness and lessening the annoyances of life. he considers it the greatest friend to the man of letters, enabling him to work without fatigue; an aid to conversation, rendering it pleasant and easy. his own experience of tea is, that it revives drooping intellectual activity; and he regards it the best stimulus to exertion. "without its aid," he says, "i should be idle." his general conclusions are that it is beneficial to adults, but injurious to children; and he pronounces it one of the greatest blessings of providence. whatever may be urged in favour of tea, it is undeniable that excess is injurious, and that children would be better without it. it contains no strength, and therefore ought to be forbidden to the young. in an inquiry into the sickly condition of the children in many of the cotton factories of lancashire, dr. ferguson, of bolton, found that children between thirteen and sixteen years of age, who had been brought up on tea or coffee, increased in weight only about four pounds a year, while those fed on milk increased at the rate of about fifteen pounds a year. for this evil the blame rests entirely upon the mothers, who exceed the bounds of moderation in the use of tea. though doctors differ widely in their views of the action of tea, they all agree that few things are more certain to produce "flatulence in the overworked female" than this beverage. their views are shared by other authorities. miss barnett, speaking at the national health society's exhibition last year, said, "i am constantly preaching against tea, as it is taken by the vast majority of the working women of england. they drink it at every meal, and suffer from indigestion before they come to middle age. they try to get the blackest fluid out of the tea, and in doing so draw out the tannin, which, though it has its virtues, acts upon the coats of the stomach and produces indigestion by middle life." but the argument that tea shortens the life of every man who drinks it is absurd. "it is said," remarked wm. howitt, "that mithridates could live and flourish on poisons, and, if it is true that tea or coffee is a poison, so do most of us. wm. hutton, the shrewd and humorous author of the histories of birmingham and derby, and also of a life of himself, scarcely inferior to that of franklin in lessons of life-wisdom, said that he had been told that coffee was a slow poison, and he added that he had found it very slow, for he had drunk it more than sixty years without any ill effect. my experience of tea, as well as coffee," added howitt, "has been the same." howitt's experience is the experience of tens of thousands of people. the moral in this, as in other matters, is that people must judge for themselves whether tea is injurious or beneficial. as dr. poore candidly admits, "a properly controlled appetite, or instinct, is as safe a guide in the matters of diet as a physiologist or a moralist." footnotes: [5] "it is not safe, in regard to the action of a drug on animals, to conclude that its effect will be the same on men. for instance, belladonna, which is a deadly poison for men, does not hurt rabbits."--_professor rolleston._ [6] there may be some truth in this statement. "i do not remember any mention of tea in wycherley, but in congreve's 'double dealer' (act 1, scene 1, p. 175 a), the scene is laid at lord touchwood's house; and when careless inquires what has become of the ladies, just after dinner, mellefont replies, "why, they are at the end of the gallery, retired to tea and scandal, according to their ancient custom.""--_buckle, common-place book._ chapter viii. tea as a source of revenue. tea heavily taxed--how it was adulterated in the "good old times"--efforts to secure a reduction in the duty--why crime and ignorance prevail--mr. disraeli's proposal to reduce the duty on tea, opposed by mr. gladstone--mr. gladstone's legislation--the chancellor of the exchequer memorialized to reduce the duty on indian tea--the annual expenditure on tea--professor leoni levi's estimate of its consumption by the working classes. tea had not been in use many years before the government discovered in it a valuable means of replenishing the national exchequer. accordingly they passed a law, in 1660, imposing a duty of eightpence per gallon on all tea made and sold in coffee-houses, which were visited twice daily by officers. it would occupy too much space to describe subsequent legislation, but the subject appears at times to have been almost as perplexing as the liquor traffic to the various governments. the tea duties have, however, always been excessively heavy, and it is therefore not surprising that a great deal of smuggling was carried on in the "good old times," and that deceptions were practised to a very large extent by unscrupulous tea-dealers. parliament at last interfered. in the reign of george ii. an act of parliament recites that "several ill-disposed persons do frequently fabricate, dye, or manufacture very great quantities of sloe-leaves, liquorice-leaves, and the leaves of tea that have before been used, or the leaves of other trees, shrubs, or plants, in imitation of tea, and do likewise mix, colour, stain and dye such leaves with terra japonica, sugar, molasses, clay, logwood and with other ingredients, and do sell and vend the same as real tea, to the prejudice of the health of his majesty's subjects, the diminution of his revenue, and to the ruin of the fair trader." the act then declares, "that the dealer in and seller of such sophisticated teas shall forfeit the sum of ten pounds for every pound-weight." in a report of the committee of the house of commons, in 1783, it is stated that "the quantity of fictitious tea annually manufactured from sloe, liquorice, and ash-tree leaves, in different parts of england, to be mixed with genuine teas, is computed at four millions of pounds, and that at a time when the whole quantity of genuine tea sold by the east india company did not exceed more than six millions of pounds annually." the act does not seem, however, to have done much to check the evil, for in the year 1828 the existence of several tea manufactories was disclosed, the penalties for defrauding the revenue amounting in one case to 840_l._ it is impossible to estimate the amount of smuggled tea consumed, but the official accounts indicate a large consumption. [illustration: tea-tasting in china.] it appears that from 1710 to 1810 not fewer than 750,219,016 lbs. of tea were sold at the east india company's sales, the value of which was 129,804,595_l._ the duty alone amounted to 104,856,858_l._ in 1828 the revenue amounted to 3,302,252_l._ the exclusive right of trading in tea, so long enjoyed by the east india company, terminated on the 22nd of april, 1834, when an alteration was made in the method of collecting the dues. under the old system a tax was levied on the value of the tea; but under the new it was levied upon the weight and quality, the duties ranging from 1_s._ 6_d._ on bohea, and 3_s._ on pekoe and other kinds.[7] the transfer did not, however, secure the approval of the tea-dealers, who continued to petition parliament for a reduction of the duty. a society was formed at liverpool with this object in view, and in 1846 its officers published a letter addressed to sir robert peel, contending that, as tea was an object of the first importance to the labouring classes, "the duty on it should be such in amount and principle as to induce the greatest consumption." the memorialists argued:- "that the duties have been imposed without any reference to the encouragement of its consumption; that the quantity required by the public for their wants and comforts has never entered into the consideration of the legislature; that all they have looked to has been to get a certain amount of revenue from tea, treating it, important as it is to the people's sustenance and well-being, as a subject unworthy of consideration, _per se_, and for their benefit; that it has been taxed from time to time, heavier and heavier, as its consumption increased; so that, looking at the changes which have taken place in these duties, it would appear as if their object had been to check, if not altogether destroy, the use of tea amongst us, as though it were a poisonous or noxious thing, a species of opium, which, on moral and political grounds, ought to be prohibited. the memorialists found, by a return to an order of the house of commons, dated the 11th of february, 1845, that in 1784 the tax was 12-1/2 per cent.; in 1795 it was raised to 20 per cent.; in 1797 to 20 per cent. under 2_s._ 6_d._ per lb., and 30 per cent. at and above that price; in 1798 to 20 and 35 per cent. respectively; in 1800 to 20 and 40 per cent.; in 1801 to 20 and 50 per cent.; in 1803 to 65 and 95 per cent.; in 1806 to 96 per cent. on all prices; and in 1819 to 96 per cent. under 2_s._ per lb., and 100 per cent. at and above that price, continuing to the termination of the company's charter. in 1834, the trade being thrown open, the duty was attempted to be levied according to a scale which was supposed to mark quality, being 1_s._ 6_d._ per lb. on the lowest tea, 2_s._ 2_d._ per lb. on the middle, and 3_s._ per lb. on the finest kinds. this scale was also constructed on the principle of taxing as near as may be the article with an average duty of 100 per cent., but was abandoned in 1836, and succeeded by a uniform duty of 2_s._ 1_d._ per lb. until 1840, when the additional 5 per cent. imposed on all customs duties brought it up to 2_s._ 2-1/4_d._ per lb." in the following year, 1846, a towns' meeting was held at liverpool for the purpose of "taking into consideration the measures which should be adopted to procure as speedily as possible a material reduction of the present duty on tea." a resolution was passed declaring the duty of 2_s._ 2_d._ exorbitant, impolitic, and oppressive. in supporting a resolution that a reduction of duty would remove inducements to intemperance and thereby diminish crime, an employer of labour felt assured that if the legislature would cheapen tea, coffee, sugar, and soap, it would give the means of prolonging lives instead of shortening them, and keep a man at his own fireside instead of his going to the tavern, with the ten thousand evils in its train. the speaker, however, caused considerable amusement when he expressed the opinion that if the irish population could get tea at a cheap rate, they would, to a considerable extent, abandon whisky. put a cup of tea and a glass of whisky side by side, we venture to say that ninety-nine out of every hundred irishmen would prefer the whisky. "an irishman," says dr. pope, "was requested by a lady to do some work for her, which he performed to her complete satisfaction. 'pat,' she said, 'i'll treat you.' 'heaven bless your honour, ma'am,' says pat. 'what would you prefer? a pint of porter or a tumbler of grog?' 'well, ma'am,' says pat, 'i don't wish to be troublesome, but i'll take the one awhilst you're making the other.'" this is, we fear, a type of the average irishman, whose love of whisky is the greatest blot upon his character. notwithstanding the great outcries against the government duty, the consumption of tea steadily increased, and in 1844 the duty alone amounted to 4,524,193_l._ there were, it must be admitted, some inequalities in the system of taxation. the question attracted the notice of mr. leitch ritchie (then editor of _chambers's journal_), who suggested that the moral reform and social improvement for which the present age is remarkable have had their basis in--tea. but if great britain is so large a consumer of tea, why, he asks, "do crime and ignorance still prevail amongst the body of the people? because," he answers, "the poorer classes still drink bad tea, imitation tea, or no tea at all. the tea that is now in bond at tenpence pays a duty of two shillings and a penny, while the tea that is sold in bond at several shillings pays no more. thus the poor are charged at least three times more, according to value, than the rich." an illustration of this anomaly was given by a speaker at a second meeting held at liverpool in 1848, for the purpose of securing a reduction in the duties. "tea," says the speaker, "must be considered in a two-fold light, not merely as an article of luxury to some, but as an article of necessity to all classes of her majesty's subjects. but do all classes procure this necessity on equal terms? no; for though it is in general use with the peer as well as the peasant, we yet find the same duties levied on teas of the lowest as on teas of the highest description." it was urged by those who defended the policy of the government that tea was a stimulant, and that therefore it was injurious. "we admit the fact," said the rev. dr. hume, "but we strenuously deny the inference. a stimulant is not necessarily injurious, though the more violent always are. heat is a stimulant, and so is water in particular circumstances; food is a stimulant; the light of heaven is a stimulant, whether in animal or in vegetable nature, and so is the beaming countenance and kindling heart of a sympathetic friend." neither meetings nor memorials, however, seemed to have any influence with the government; but in 1852 mr. disraeli proposed to reduce the duty on tea to 1_s._ 10_d._, and ultimately to 1_s._, the reduction to be spread over six years. this reduction, with other reductions of the dues on shipping and the malt tax, would have involved a loss of more than 3,000,000_l._, to supply which, he proposed, among other things, to impose the income tax on industrial incomes over 100_l._ his proposals were, however, strongly opposed by mr. gladstone, and rejected by a large majority. when, however, mr. gladstone returned to power, in 1853, he proposed the very same reductions which he had when out of office rejected. he proposed to reduce the duty to 1_s._ 10_d._ during the following year, and by 3_d._ a year until the limit of 1_s._ was reached. including reduction of other taxes, the loss to the revenue would have amounted to 5,315,000_l._, which he proposed to meet by renewing the income tax for seven years, extending the stamp duties, and increasing the duty on spirits; but owing to the crimean war the proposed reduction was not effected. the expenses of this war were so heavy, amounting to 70,000,000_l._, that the duty on tea was increased 3_d._ a pound. when the war was over, mr. gladstone desired that the added duties on tea, sugar, and other necessaries of life, should be taken off; but on the 6th of march, 1857, "the chancellor of the exchequer, sir george lewis, announced a modification of the budget resolutions so far as the tea duties were concerned, and proposed that the amount of the tax, which he had arranged for three years, should be applicable for one year only. mr. gladstone moved an amendment to the effect that after april 5, 1857, the duty should be 1_s._ 3_d._, and after the 5th of april, 1858, 1_s._ the amendment was negatived by 187 to 125, and the chancellor of the exchequer's resolution, fixing the duty at 1_s._ 5_d._ was carried." in 1865 the duty was reduced to 6_d._ under mr. gladstone's government, and at this figure it remains. but the attention of the chancellor of the exchequer has recently been called to the disadvantage under which the indian tea-industry is placed by the imposition of the english customs duty of 6_d._ per lb. on all tea imports, and the object of the memorialists was to induce him to consider the expediency of abolishing or modifying this duty when framing his financial budget. it was pointed out that the indian tea-industry is greatly in want of such relief, as evidenced by recent calcutta reports showing the market value of the shares of the joint-stock tea companies. out of a total of 116 companies forty-six only gave any dividend on the crop of 1882, and of these forty-six only twenty paid over five per cent. of the seventy which gave no dividend not a few have paid nothing for several years, and many are struggling on under the incubus of borrowed capital, with the hope of improvement in the markets, the cause of this depression being directly traceable to the heavy fall in prices during the last few years. the opinion was expressed that if the trade could be relieved of the present heavy tax of from 50 to 100 per cent. on the value, it might be fairly assumed that a reduction of, say, 4_d._ per lb. to the consumer would lead to a large increase in the consumption, and leave a return of the remaining 2_d._ per lb. more to the producer, which would in many cases prove a working profit to gardens now being carried on at a loss. reference was also made to the argument, of which doubtless the chancellor of the exchequer is aware, that inasmuch as the average value of indian teas is higher than that of china teas, the present duty weighs more heavily on the latter, and consequently that its abolition would deprive the indian importer of a certain amount of protection; but at the same time the opinion was expressed that a general reduction of prices to the consumer all round would induce on the part of the public a more general preference for the superior quality of the indian produce, and that the increased demand for it thereby engendered would more than counterbalance any loss of protection which might be sustained. as will be seen from the following table of the duties, the consumers of tea contribute very largely to the revenue of the country:- £. 1874 3,248,446 1875 3,568,634 1876 3,706,831 1877 3,723,147 1878 4,002,211 1879 4,162,221 1880 3,698,338 1881 3,865,720 1882 3,974,481 1883 4,230,341 --------- 38,180,376 the annual expenditure on tea amounts to about 11,000,000_l._ large as this amount appears, it sinks into insignificance when compared with the expenditure upon intoxicating drinks. during the last year it amounted to no less than 125,477,275_l._ there are few who would regret to see this formidable amount reduced to a fourth of its present dimensions; and no one surely will deny that if everybody drank tea, instead of alcoholic drinks, a great reform in the habits of the people would take place. drunkenness, and its attendant evil, pauperism, would cease; plenty would take the place of poverty, joy for sadness, health for sickness; and happiness would reign throughout the land. reference has already been made to the fact that england stands next to china as the greatest tea-drinking nation; and it appears that the working classes consume the largest proportion of tea imported. professor leoni levi compiled in 1873 an elaborate estimate of the amount of taxation falling on the working classes of the united kingdom; and in his report he shows that from consumption of tea alone they contributed 2,200,000_l._ to the revenue, as against 900,000_l._ by the middle and upper classes. at the present time, however, the working classes contribute over 3,000,000_l._ as their proportion of the duty upon tea. a clearer light is thrown upon their contributions to the national exchequer by the following table showing the proportion for every pound of taxes paid from each item:- +---------------------------------++----------------------------------+ | as falling on the working || as falling on the middle and | | classes. || upper classes. | +---------------------------------++----------------------------------+ | _s._ _d._ || _s._ _d._ | | spirits 7 5 || local taxes, land, | | malt 3 0 || houses, &c. 7 0 | | tobacco 3 0 || stamps 3 3 | | local taxes and houses 2 9 || income-tax 3 0 | | tea 1 5 || spirits 1 10 | | sugar 1 0 || malt 0 9 | | licences 0 9 || tobacco 0 9 | | other taxes 0 8 || sugar and tea 1 0 | | || land and houses 0 10 | | || wine 0 7 | | || other taxes 1 0 | | ------- || ------- | | total £1 0 0 || total £1 0 0 | +---------------------------------++----------------------------------+ the professor classes tea as a necessary, but confesses that it is difficult to define whether certain articles in daily use are necessaries or luxuries. many articles, he points out, such as white bread, tea, sugar, which not long ago were considered luxuries, are now, with the improved condition of the people, regarded as absolute necessaries. he refers, in particular, to the effect of indirect taxes in greatly enhancing the cost of the taxed article to the consumer. "the wholesale import price of tea, for example, may be 1_s._ a pound, and upon this there is 6_d._ duty. but immediately as it passes from the importer to the dealer, and from the dealer to the retailer, the whole price, duty paid, is charged first with ten, and then with thirty per cent. to meet expenses and profits of trade, whereby the retail price is increased probably from 2_s._ to 3_s._ 6_d._ or 4_s._ per lb. this trading, therefore, constitutes so much extra tax, and it is a tax which the working classes pay to the middle and higher classes, through whose hands such articles pass." whether we shall ever have a free breakfast-table, it is impossible to say; but if the tax on tea were abolished, it is obvious that it would be necessary to impose some other tax, probably even more objectionable. footnote: [7] _hyson_ means before rain, or flourishing spring; therefore it is often called "young hyson." "hyson skin" is composed of the refuse of other kinds, the native term being "tea-skins." refuse of still coarser descriptions is called "tea-bones." _bohea_ is the name of the hills in the region where it is gathered. _pekoe_, or _poco_, means "white hair," or the down of tender leaves; _powchong_, "folded plant;" _souchong_, "small plant." _twankay_ is the name of a river in the region where it is bought. _congo_, from a term signifying "labour," for the care required in its preparation.--"_notes and queries_," _third series_, vi. p. 264. index. abernethy, dr., 51. ackworth school, 13. aikin, dr., 12. alcohol and endurance, 72, 75. alcohol and genius, 80, 91, 94. ale, use of, 12, 73, 101. american health and temperance association, 118. animals, experiments upon, 111, 117. anti-corn-law league, 40, 102. anti-teapot society, 120. apprentices, 13. arctic weather, 67. artists and temperance, 42. assam tea, 19, 20, 22. _band of hope chronicle_, 39. banks, collingwood, 42. barnett, miss, 132. beer-gardens, 10. beer, use of, 12, 73, 101. betel, 107. beverley, dr., 74. _blackwood's magazine_, 102. blue ribbon meetings, 35. blyth, dr. wynter, 72. boswell, 81, 82. botanical gardens, 19. bowles, 84. bright, john, 13. brotherton, joseph, 39. bryant, william cullen, 93. buckle, 66, 93, 119. burns, 80. byrom, john, 13. cakes and tea, 9. camellia, the, 18. capel, hon. reginald, 60. carlyle, dr. alexander, 8. carlyon, dr., 52. catherine, princess, 6. centlivre, mrs., 5. ceylon tea, 21. chadwick, rev. dr., 99. chambers, dr. king, 18, 60, 63. _chambers's journal_, 143. chapel-debts, 44. charles ii., 6. china, use of tea in, 17, 50, 58, 59, 63. chinese ballads, 27. chocolate, 5. christmas tea-parties, 36, 45. clarendon, lord, 7. clemenceau, m., 101. clifford, rev. dr., 95. cobden, 101. coffee, 5, 97, 98, 133. coffee taverns, 55. coleridge, hartley, 102. converted drunkards as water-carriers, 35. cornwall, barry, 84. couplet, le père, 7. cowper, 53, 103. crimean war, 145. curing tea, 28. curtis, dr. j. h., 38. cycling, 72. _daily news_, 69. _daily telegraph_, 55. dean of bangor, 124. defoe, 5. de quincey, 91, 92. "dictionary of statistics," 17. dilke, sir charles, 101. dinner-parties, 102. disraeli, mr., 144. diurnal of thomas rugge, 4. "doctors differ," 132. dowden, professor, 95. drunkards, converted, 35. drunkenness, uses of, 108. dutch physician, advice of a, 106. dyer, george, 84. dyspepsia, cause of, 61. east india company, 2, 19, 106, 136. epping butter, 9. everett, professor, 97. favy's, mr., tea, 7. ferguson, dr., 132. fortune, mr., 63. francis, james, 71. garland, t. bland, 75. garway, thomas, 2, 3, 4, 5. genius, 80. gladstone, mr., 100, 145, 146. goadby, e., 101. good health publishing company, 118. gout, 112. great northern railway, 60. "grecian," the, 11. gregson, gelson, 70. gunter's, 11. habit, force of, 12. hamerton, philip gilbert, 83, 97. hanway, jonas, 82, 116. harrowgate, mode of living at, 8. hartley, rev. j. g., 43. harvest-field, tea in, 1, 75. hawkins, sir john, 83. hazlitt, 86. headache, 94. healths, drinking, 71. _herald of health_, 119. hogarth, 15. hogg, james, 79. _hong-kong telegraph_, 71. hop-pickers, 27. howitt, william, 93, 133. hume, rev. dr., 144. hutton, william, 133. hymns, tea-meeting, 41, 42, 43. indian tea, 19, 24, 147. inglefield, dr., 67. inman, dr., 66, 99. intoxicating drink, 149. invalids' tea, 63. isle of man, tea-drinking in, 1, 39. _isle of man temperance guardian_, 36. jackson, dr., 66. jameson, dr., 22. johnson, dr., 80, 83. jonathan's coffee-house, 5. journalist, the, 80. kant, 91. kettle, the national, 53. knight, charles, 2. ladies, extravagance of, 33. lamb, charles, 88. _lancet_, the, 129. lansdell, rev. dr., 57, 58, 63. _leeds mercury_, 40. lettsom, dr., 116. levi, leoni, 149. lewis, sir george, 145. linnæus, 18. liquor traffic, 135. literary composition, 92. livesey, joseph, 34. london athletic club, 74. lung, kien, 50. lytton, bulwer, 91. maclise, 97. malaria, 67. manchester, use of tea in, 12. mantegazza, 131. martin, montgomery, 6. martineau, harriet, 97. mary-le-bon gardens, 9. mccarthy, justin, m.p., 94. michôd, c. j., 74. midland railway, 60. mitford, miss, 88. _moral reformer_, 41. motley, 91. mountain-climbing, 74. mulhall, 17. national health society, 132. nervous excitability, 97. newbury chamber of agriculture, 75. nightingale, miss, 64. _notes and queries_, 120, 139. palmerston, lord, 100. parkes, professor, 67. parliament petitioned, 139. patmore, 86. pedestrianism, 72, 94. peel, sir robert, 139. pepys, 1, 2. percival's "account of ceylon," 21. poets, fare of, 88. poets, licence of, 51. poore, dr., 61, 100, 129, 133. poorson, dr., 80. pope, dr. joseph, 51, 142. prentice, archibald, 40. _preston temperance advocate_, 37, 39. preston temperance society, 34. priests as tea-gatherers, 25. public-houses, 10. quaker school, 13. queen, the, 71. race, deterioration of the, 109. railway stations, tea at, 56, 60. read's _weekly journal_, 8. "recreative science," 50. rhind, dr., 22. ritchie, leitch, 143. rolleston, professor, 118. rose, sir philip, 78. royalty, influence of, 6. rugge, thomas, 4. rum-punch, 80. russia, tea in, 19, 56, 57, 59. scandal, 119. scotland, 84. servants, use of tea by, 8. sheldrick, r. n., 46. sherlock, f., 81. siam, tea in, 50. sigmond, dr., 47, 53, 59. sims, g. r., 80, 95, 100. sinclair, dr., 117. smith, dr. edward, 15, 18, 30, 61. soldiers, tea for, 67, 68, 69, 70. solly, rev. henry, 97. south sea bubblers, 6. southey, 79. spirits, value of, 68. _st. james's gazette_, 128. stables, dr. gordon, 83. stimulants, necessity of, 129. swift, dean, 6. tea a cause of intemperance, 116. tea a poison, 111, 117. tea adulterated, 135. tea and cake, 9. tea as a revolutionary agent, 47. tea as a stimulant, 79. tea, benefits of, 3, 16, 47, 70, 99, 102, 106, 130, 131. tea, cold, 78. tea, consumption of, 16. tea, cultivation of, 18, 19, 22. tea, evils of, 61, 82, 98, 107, 111, 114. tea-farms, 22, 25. tea-fights, 45. tea for invalids, 64. tea-gardens, 9. tea in the harvest-field, 75. tea-meeting fare, 45, 46. tea-meeting hymns, 41, 42, 43. tea-meetings, 33. tea, methods of curing, 28. tea, methods of making, 37, 49, 58. teapots, 33, 53. tea, price of, 4, 11, 58. tea-tasting, 31. tea, taxation of, 135, 142, 148, 151. tea unnecessary, 99. tea _versus_ beer, 74, 128. tel-el-kebir, 69. terry, miss ellen, 97. thompson, henry, 14. toasts, 7. "tom's coffee-house," 11. trusler's, mr., daughter, 9. twining, thomas, 10. tyerman, rev. l., 113. urn, tea, condemned, 53. vegetarian society, 46. walford, e., 10. waller, edmund, 6. wesley, john, 83, 113. weston, edward payson, 74. weston, miss, 71. whisky, 142. whitby, 11. willes, admiral, 71. williams, dr. wells, 25. williams, mattieu, 108. williams, mrs., 81. wolseley, sir garnet, 69. women, employment of, 23, 26, 27. women, tea injurious to, 61, 109, 119, 120, 132. wordsworth, 88. brown and polson's corn flour _for the nursery_. in ordinary cases the only suitable food for young infants is milk. so soon, however, as some solid addition to the liquid food becomes desirable, there is nothing better for the purpose than brown and polson's corn flour. its principal function is to supply heat. it also contributes to the formation of fat, so essential to life at all stages, but especially to the earlier. * * * * * brown and polson's corn flour _for the family table_. in the hands of an accomplished cook there is no known limit to the variety of delicate and palatable dishes which may be produced from brown and polson's corn flour. it is equally susceptible of plain and simple treatment for ordinary domestic purposes, and one of its chief recommendations is the facility with which it may be prepared. boiled with milk, and with or without the addition of sugar and flavouring, it may be ready for the table within fifteen minutes; or, poured into a mould and cooled, it becomes in the course of an hour a blanc-mange, which, served with fresh or preserved fruit, will be acceptable at any meal. add sultanas, raisins, marmalade, or jam of any kind, and in about the same time it is made into an excellent baked pudding. to which may be added:--take care to boil with milk, when so required, for _not less than eight minutes_. * * * * * brown and polson's corn flour _for the sick room_. the properties of brown and polson's corn flour are identical with those of arrowroot, and it is in every respect equal to the costliest qualities of that article. the uses of arrowroot in the sick-room are not only matter of tradition, but of every-day experience, and there can be but few persons who are not acquainted with its uses as an important ally to medical treatment. brown and polson's corn flour claims to serve the same purposes, with at least equal acceptance and at considerably less cost, and therefore offers the facility of freer use to a larger public. it has received from medical and scientific authorities the highest testimonials to its purity and serviceableness; it is largely used in hydropathic and other institutions throughout the kingdom, and its export to all foreign parts has long given it a world-wide reputation. geo. lampard, of 44, bishopsgate street, and _13, king william street, e.c._, sends free by post samples and price list of very choice teas and coffees. established 160 years. * * * * * transcriber's notes minor punctuation errors repaired. italic text is denoted by _underscores_ p37 where those cannot be bad. replaced with where those cannot be had. 