transcriber's note: inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original document have been preserved. obvious typographical errors have been corrected. italic text is denoted by _underscores_ and bold text by =equal signs=. the symbols in the caption for fig 6. have been approximated by characters from the available character set. chincha plain-weave cloths by l. m. o'neale, e. bacon, c. w. gemmer, r. v. hall, i. w. johnson, c. m. osborne, m. b. ross anthropological records vol. 9, no. 2 anthropological records editors: e. w. gifford, r. f. heizer, r. h. lowie, r. l. olson volume 9, no. 2, pp. 133-156, 1 map, 8 figures in text, plates 1-9 submitted by editors march 8, 1948 issued february, 1949 price, 50 cents university of california press berkeley and los angeles california cambridge university press london, england manufactured in the united states of america foreword the study presented here was one of a series planned by professor lila m. o'neale, associate curator of textiles in the museum of anthropology. the fundamental idea was to make use of the wealth of material in the collections of the museum of anthropology, particularly its pre-columbian peruvian textiles, as source material for study and analysis by advanced students. professor o'neale's sudden death on february 2, 1948, means that, although the paper was completed and in the hands of the board of editors of anthropological records, the final proofreading has not been done by professor o'neale. the board greatly regrets that this outstanding contribution will not be followed by others produced under the direction and guidance of a highly esteemed colleague. contents introduction 133 the material 133 dimensions of the chincha cloths 135 lengths 135 widths 136 yarns 138 textures and weaving techniques 138 stitchery 140 patching and mending 141 pattern 141 color 143 summary 143 plates 145 [illustration: map 1 chincha environs] chincha plain-weave cloths by l. m. o'neale, e. bacon, c. w. gemmer, r. v. hall, i. w. johnson, c. m. osborne, m. b. ross introduction this study of the chincha plain-weave materials in the max uhle collection of the university of california has been part of the work of a senior course in technical analysis. six members of the class, whose names appear as joint authors, are responsible for the data collected and for the initial organization. the material the chincha collection, excavated in 1900 by dr. max uhle during the peruvian expedition financed by mrs. phoebe apperson hearst, is catalogued under two lot prefixes: 4and 16-. specimen numbers with the prefix 4indicate that the precise provenience as to site and grave is known. the cloths in this lot have been previously analyzed and a preliminary report has been published.[1] the cloths in the 16lot, as is explained in the report on the pottery,[2] did not identify perfectly with entries in the collector's field catalogue or their identification was dubious. six chincha sites described in uhle's field catalogue[3] are shown on map 1. the number of cloth specimens representing each of these sites varies from 2 to 52 (table 1). briefly, the time periods indicated by finds forming the basis of this report are as follows. site a (2 specimens). "on the declivities of the valley towards the sea, 5 km. from tambo de mora to the north." late chincha period. site b (3 specimens). la cumbe cemetery; nearly exhausted; the few graves opened were "ordinary ones." late chincha period. site c (37 specimens). in "the higher northern part of the valley." late chincha period. site d, and "near" site d (52 specimens). "chamberlike tombs, which had been dug out in a mound-like older huaca." late chincha period. site e, and "near" site e (20 specimens). "the dry natural terrace ... in front of the ruins of la centinela." several graves at this site held european articles. late chincha period, in part after the spanish conquest. site f (2 specimens). "the natural terraces with slopes directed to the sea north of la cumbe (circa las palmas)."[4] late chincha period. table 1 basic table: sites, periods, and number of specimens in study =================================================== | | no. 4| no. 16| total site | period | specs. | specs. | specs. ---------+--------------+--------+---------+------ a | late chincha | 2 | ... | 2 b | late chincha | 2 | 1 | 3 c | late chincha | ... | 37 | 37 | and inca | | | d | late chincha | 7 | 41 | 48 "near" d | | 4 | ... | 4 e | late chincha | 10 | 9 | 19 | and inca | | | "near" e | | 1 | ... | 1 f | late chincha | 2 | ... | 2 ---------+--------------+--------+---------+------ totals | | 28 | 88 | 116 --------------------------------------------------most of the fabrics described in the literature on ancient peruvian textiles are characterized by beauty of coloring or arresting designs or unusual workmanship--sometimes by all three. these all-cotton chincha specimens have none of the expectable features. first and last they seem to have served utilitarian purposes; for that reason, most of them are comparable to our so-called domestics. the larger ones are probably mantles: the proportions of the largest two-breadth pieces with full dimensions (4-3973d, 59.5 in. by 66 in. and 16-1250, 52 in. by 61 in.) place them in this group; a third specimen (16-1292), also formed of two breadths (intact breadth 35 in. plus fragmentary breadth 28 in.) was probably a mantle 62 inches by 70 inches over all. the smaller specimens suggest scarves (or incomplete mantles), carrying cloths, or kerchiefs (figs. 1, 2). [illustration: fig. 1. diagrams of eleven specimens with length-to-width proportions approximately 1:1, as indicated by diagonal. seams in two-breadth textiles shown as broken lines. largest specimen, 59.5 inches by 66 inches.] [illustration: fig. 2. diagrams of seven rectangular specimens with length-to-width proportions approximately 2:1 as indicated by diagonal. largest specimen, 62 inches by 22.5 inches.] the fact that many of the chincha cloths in the 16lot had apparently been roughly torn to rectangular shapes leads us to believe that the excavator used them to wrap pottery specimens. indeed, the majority seem to have been used even by their makers as wrappings. a number of them have long loose stitches or hanging cordlike threads, which originally may have held several layers together. many of the single breadths have traces of seaming stitches on one or both selvages, indicating that the original wrapping was two or three times its preserved width. a large proportion of the cloths in this group are badly worn and clumsily patched. two, three, and sometimes more pieces of irregular shape applied to the base material and even on top of a first patch are not infrequent (pl. 3,d). the mended fragments do not appear to be either the original sizes or shapes. many of them have been reduced to their present rectangular shape by tearing off tattered (?) edges. one small group of striped textiles in the 16lot is a noteworthy exception to the majority. finely striped cottons similar to the one in plate 5,d must certainly have been made for other than utility cloths, probably for garments. there are four small bags (or pads?) in the chincha 4lot. three of these were formed of small whole cloths sewed together at the sides with running, double running, and whipping stitches respectively. the fourth is made of a piece of an edge-stripe material and has one loomstring end and one side selvage. on this bag the torn edges have been turned in and seamed with a running stitch. ties for one of the bags have been made by plaiting in a 4-strand flat braid the elements consisting of the two loomstrings plus an additional 12-ply cord drawn through the corner of the bag to its center point, thus giving two ends. another of the bags has a draw string formed by a 9-ply cord drawn through the top end with a running stitch. footnotes: [1] l. m. o'neale and a. l. kroeber, textile periods in ancient peru:i, uc-paae, 28:23-56, 1930. [2] a. l. kroeber and w. d. strong, the uhle collections from chincha, uc-paae, 21:1-54, 1924; max uhle (a. l. kroeber, ed.), explorations at chincha, uc-paae, 21:55-94, 1924. [3] max uhle, explorations at chincha, pl. 1, pp. 87-90. [4] ibid., pp. 68, 69. dimensions of the chincha cloths one hundred twelve cloths in the plain-weave group were measured. because some of the specimens could not be placed under tension, the forefinger was drawn along the cloth beside a steel tape to smooth out wrinkles. measurements taken by this method approximate those on a cloth stretched between the bars of a loom. lengths complete dimensions can be taken on eighteen chincha specimens in lots 4and 16-. as figures 1 and 2 show, these dimensions cluster around two sets of proportions: the eleven cloths represented in the diagram in figure 1 are squarish; the seven in figure 2, with a length-to-width proportion of approximately two-to-three to one, are rectangular. four of the squarish cloths are formed of two separately woven breadths of material. all the rectangular cloths are single breadths. measurements of these specimens with complete dimensions are given below under the two classifications. squarish cloths measurements in inches specimen 4-3633b 15.5 by 14 16-1260 19 by 14 4-3890a 23.5 by 26 4-3883a 26.5 by 27 4-4056 27 by 26 16-1253 28.5 by 24 4-4027 29 by 28 4-4022a 40 by 35 (2 breadths) 4-3883b 43.5 by 38.5 (2 breadths) 16-1250 52 by 61 (2 breadths) 4-3973d 59.5 by 66 (2 breadths) rectangular cloths specimen 4-3889c 9.5 by 5 4-4029 10.5 by 4 4-3962 11.5 by 9 4-3882f 13 by 7 4-3710m 18 by 11.5 4-3883d 53.5 by 21 4-4059a 62 by 22.5 from the twenty chincha plain-weave cloths with intact lengths (fig. 4) it is possible to know (1) that the cloths were woven by methods standard among the ancient peruvians; (2) that each breadth represents a separate warping operation which established its ultimate length; (3) that each breadth was made singly on the loom. the evidence for such procedures and the identifying features of the end selvages on peruvian cloths are to be recognized in the continuous thread which forms the warp skein--in contradistinction to cut ends of warps--and in the presence of two or more heavy wefts, the first ones put across the web. the cords binding the end loops of the warp skein to the loom bars hold the first of these loomstring wefts, as they are called, to the bars. the two or more succeeding wefts, which are interlaced with the warps, establish the width of the piece and give it a certain firmness. on the ends of some cloths the strand of cord for loomstrings was long enough to carry across the web only twice. in the majority of our plain-weave cloths it was carried across three times; in over a fifth of the total number of intact ends in the 16lot the loomstring carried across four times. the frequencies of two, three, and four loomstrings at the ends of webs in this group are approximately as 6:32:16. a number of these occurrences are on cloths in which the heavy cord is not long enough to make a complete crossing; the remainder of the breadth is completed with weft of the size used for the regular weaving. [illustration: fig. 3. complete widths of textiles in chincha plain-weave group. separately woven webs of two-breadth cloths indicated by chevrons. narrowest width, 4 inches.] [illustration: fig. 4. complete lengths of textiles in chincha plain-weave group. separately woven webs of two-breadth cloths indicated by chevrons. shortest length, 9.5 inches.] in the chincha 4lot, loomstrings of from 2to 12-ply formed the weft for from two to six courses of weaving. in seven of the twenty-four specimens showing finished ends, the loomstring stopped partway across its course in the web and was there joined to the regular weft yarn. in two the joining was effected by finger knots, in the other by splicing (?). the two specimens (4-3889c and 4-4029) having strong 12-ply loomstrings were small but complete cloths which had been doubled and stitched along the sides to form bags. the loomstrings thus served to reinforce the open mouth of the bag. in eleven specimens the loomstrings had an initial s and final z twist; twelve show the opposite combination. in one specimen (4-4056) the separate plies have an s twist, but the final yarn is untwisted. complete lengths of chincha plain-weave cloths in order from shortest to longest: spec. no. inches 4-3889c 9.5 4-4029 10.5 4-3962 11.5 4-3882f 13 4-3633b 15.5 4-3710m 18 16-1260 19 4-3890a 23.5 4-3882a 26.5 4-4056 27 16-1253 28.5 4-4027 29 4-4022a 40 (× 2) 4-3883b 43.5 (× 2) 16-1250 52 (× 2) 16-1290 53 4-3883d 53.5 4-3973d 59.5 (× 2) 4-4059a 62 16-1292 62 ninety-odd of the measured cloths are incomplete as to length. these preserved lengths fall within arbitrary groupings as follows: from 5 inches to 20 inches in length 29 pieces from 21 inches to 30 inches in length 33 pieces from 31 inches to 40 inches in length 17 pieces from 41 inches to 50 inches in length 7 pieces from 51 inches to 60 inches in length 4 pieces from 61 inches to 70 inches in length 2 pieces widths there are three times as many weavings with complete widths as with complete lengths; 60 as compared to 20. clues to the wrappings or blankets of which these breadths were sections are frequently furnished by traces of stitchery and broken threads on the side selvages. as shown by table 2 and figure 3, the five narrowest complete breadths (group 1) are within a range of 4 to 12 inches. narrow widths can be woven most rapidly on the backstrap loom. complete breadths in group 2 (18 specimens) fall within the range of 14 to 20 inches. these widths, also, can be woven without much effort. seaming together narrow breadths appears to have been preferred to weaving wider ones equal to the two or three which compose some of the rectangular specimens. table 2 frequencies of complete width measurements ======================================+========+===========+======= |width in|number of |total |inches |occurrences|occur | | |rences --------------------------------------+--------+-----------+------ group 1 | | | 4-4029 | 4 | 1 | 4-3889c | 5 | 1 | 4-3882f | 7 | 1 | 4-3962 | 9 | 1 | 4-3710m | 11.5 | 1 | 5 | | | group 2 | | | 4-3633b, 16-1240, -1256, -1260, | | | -1274 | 14 | 5 | 4-3970, -4075d, 16-1274, -1280 (2) | 15.5 | 5 | 16-1240, -1248 | 16 | 2 | 4-4022a (2), 16-1225 | 17.5 | 3 | 4-3883b (2) | 19.5 | 2 | 4-4068b | 20.5 | 1 | 18 | | | group 3 | | | 4-3883d | 21 | 1 | 4-4059a | 22.5 | 1 | 4-4068b, 16-1291 | 23 | 2 | 16-1237, -1238, -1242, -1251, -1253 | 25 | 5 | 4-3890a, -4056 | 26 | 2 | 4-3883a, -4068d, 16-1251, -1265 | 27 | 4 | 4-4023 (2), -4027, 16-1257, -1265, | | | -1271, -1272, -1289 | 28 | 8 | 4-3633a, -4055, 16-1261 | 29 | 3 | 26 | | | group 4 | | | 16-1259 | 30 | 1 | 16-1250, -1294 | 31 | 2 | 4-3973d (2), 16-1283, -1304d | 33 | 4 | 16-1252, -1269b | 34 | 2 | 16-1266, -1292 | 35 | 2 | 16-1286 | 41 | 1 | 12 --------------------------------------+--------+-----------+------group 3, as listed in table 2, comprises breadths falling within a range of 21 inches through 29 inches. these widths reduce weaving speed and bring about problems in manipulation of the loom parts. the twelve widest complete breadths in the chincha lot range from 30 inches to 35 inches with a single specimen measuring 41 inches. for this last piece, and possibly for several of the narrower ones in the same group, a two-bar loom not attached to the weaver's waist seems indicated. complete widths of chincha plain-weave fabrics in order from narrowest to widest: spec. no. inches 4-4029 4 4-3889c 5 4-3882f 7 4-3962 9 4-3710m 11.5 16-1274 13.5 + 14.5 4-3633b 14 16-1256 14 16-1260 14 16-1240 14.5 + 15.5 4-3970 15 16-1280 15 + 15 4-4075d 15.5 16-1248 16 16-1225 16.5 4-4022a 17.5 + 17.5 4-3883b 19 + 19.5 4-4068b 20.5 + 23 4-3883d 21 4-4059a 22.5 16-1291 23 16-1253 24.5 16-1237 25 4-3890a 26 4-4056 26 4-3883a 27 16-1251 27 + 24.5 4-4068d 27.5 16-1265 27.5 4-4027 28 16-1257 28 16-1271 28 16-1272 28 16-1289 28 4-4023 28 + 28.5 16-1261 28.5 4-3633a 29 4-4055 29 16-1259 30 16-1250 30 + 31 16-1294 31 16-1283 33 16-1304b 33 4-3973d 33 + 33 16-1252 33.5 + 33.5 16-1269b 34 16-1266 34.5 16-1292 35 16-1286 41 seventy-odd individually woven breadths of material are incomplete as to width. the arbitrary groupings in which these fall are as follows: under 10 inches in width 3 specimens 11 inches to 20 inches 42 specimens 21 inches to 30 inches 22 specimens 31 inches to 40 inches 7 specimens side selvages strengthened by any one of the several methods we know from commercial weavings are rare in textiles from primitive looms. it is not uncommon, however, to find four or five edge yarns drawn more closely together than are the others in the web. familiarity with these two facts made our discovery of a unique selvage finish a matter of unusual interest. the edges of specimens 16-1228 and 16-1236 have been reinforced by two stitchery techniques. plate 8,i shows the ordinary whipping stitches which form the foundation for the second technique. plate 8,h shows this second line of work to consist of a double strand twined, but always from back to front, with the tops of the whipping stitches. on one of the chincha 4specimens (4-4068a) the half-inch selvage is distinguished from the body of the fabric by the use of warp yarns lighter in color than those appearing in the body of the fabric and by the two-over-one weave of the right-hand selvage in contrast to the one-over-one weave found elsewhere in the fabric. in specimen 4-4027 the edges are strengthened on each side for some six inches of the length by a single heavy 4-ply warp unit. in the chincha 4specimens, where congestion of edge yarns occurs, its extent in from the edge varies from 5 threads (in 3 specimens) to 24 threads (1 specimen); in the majority of these specimens, the congestion ranges from 6 to 12 threads (8 specimens). textures in plate 4,a, c are comparable to those in which maximum congestion occurs. yarns all yarns are initially spun as single plies. in the ancient peruvian textiles, there are evidences of preferences for single-ply yarns or at least the use of them even in fabrics we should consider called for heavier elements. the chincha domestic cloths are good examples. we made yarn analyses on half of the total number of cloths in the study. all but ten of the fifty-seven examined were woven with single-ply warp and weft elements and of these ten, only one coarse cloth had 2-ply warps and wefts; the remaining nine had 2-ply warps crossed by single-ply wefts. the majority of these fabrics classified as "fine" weavings. yarns may be twisted (spun) in two directions. the spirals formed by twisting may extend upward to the left (the s-twist) or to the right (the z-twist). the frequencies of the left and the right twist in yarns are indicative of motor habits, if nothing more. the largest chincha group comprises twenty-nine cloths in which the warp and weft elements have left spirals; a much smaller group (5 specimens) shows yarns with right spirals. two other groups (6 and 3 pieces, respectively) have warps with left spirals crossed by wefts with right spirals and vice versa. the other cloths in which yarns with different twists are combined perhaps may represent the use of odds and ends of yarns. the following combinations were found: 1. single-ply s-twist and z-twist warps crossed by single-ply s-twist wefts (2 specimens) or crossed by single-ply z-twist wefts (1 specimen). 2. single-ply s-twist warps crossed by single-ply s-twist and z-twist wefts (1 fine-texture specimen). yarns are characterized as softor slack-twist, medium-twist, hardor tight-twist, with various intermediate degrees depending upon the angle taken by the spiral in relation to a vertical axis. a 25-degree angle, for example, characterizes a medium-twist yarn tending toward hard-twist. yarns with 30-degree to 45-degree angles of twist are hard-twist yarns. more than half of an unselected sample of twenty yarns fell within the 25-degree to 45-degree range. the remaining seven had angles from 50 degrees to 90 degrees in some sections of their lengths. an idea of the variations in any one weaving element may be gained from plate 4,c and the enlarged section of fabric in plate 7,c. textures and weaving techniques in general, the chincha weavings are smooth and closely woven (pls. 3,b, and 4,b). there appears to have been little or no interest in varying the textures by employing yarns of different weights, although the usual irregularities to be noted in lengths of hand-spun yarns are also evident in these. counts taken on the warps and wefts per inch give a fair indication of the textures, but these are to a degree dependent upon the spinning. [illustration: figure 5. scatter diagram of thread counts per inch. figures indicate number of specimens. symbols: triangle, apex down, unit consists of one warp and one weft element; open square, unit consists of one warp, two weft elements; concentric circles, unit consists of two warps, one weft element; triangle, apex up, unit consists of warp and weft pairs.] several variations of the elemental over-one-under-one plain weave are exemplified by the chincha cloths. included are the following: combinations of pairs of warps or wefts with single yarns of the opposite system, and pairs of warps and wefts as in the two-by-two basket weave. the one hundred and twelve specimens represented in the scatter diagram (fig. 5) fall into groups, according to the variations of the plain weave these are listed below in the order of their frequency: group 1. paired warps crossed by paired wefts: 8 group 2. single warps crossed by paired wefts: 20 the thread counts of 18 in this group are approximately 58 warps by 40 wefts per inch. group 3. single warps crossed by single wefts: 22 thread counts in this group range from 13 warps by 18 wefts to 156 warps by 40 wefts per inch. pl. 5,d shows a fabric with count of 108 warps by 42 wefts per inch. group 4. paired warps crossed by single wefts: 62 thread counts range from 16 warp pairs by 12 wefts to 44 warp pairs by 32 wefts per inch with one specimen having the high count of 80 warp pairs by 28 wefts per inch. in terms of weaving units, whether single yarns or pairs of yarns, 56 of the 112 counts taken fall within a range of 26 to 44 warp units and 24 to 36 weft units. figure 5 shows this concentration within the frame. weaving techniques, other than the basic structural types, are few in number. drawing in colored warps for stripes is a preliminary to the actual interlacing of the elements. the results of this procedure can best be discussed under the heading "pattern." the join is a technical feature that indicates standards of craftsmanship. it is customary in weaving materials with end as well as side selvages to give more or less attention to the closing of the space between the weaving proper and the heading strip. when the warps in the form of a skein had been spread out evenly and bound in place to the end bars, the ancient weavers on two-bar looms first wove a shallow heading strip to secure the warps in their positions and to establish the ultimate width of the fabric, a practice followed by some modern weavers today. then the weaver reversed the loom end for end to begin what became the weaving proper, and continued until the length was complete. difficulties or indifference to appearance very often resulted in a general looseness of texture where standard-size tools had to be removed and the interlacing done more or less by the fingers. plate 2,a, b shows heading strips of different depths, fairly wide join areas in which the wefts are more widely spaced, and above these, the compact texture of the weaving proper. three finely woven cloths, one of them shown in plate 5,d, exemplify warp locking, end-to-end. this technique is known from the earliest periods on the coast in the so-called patchworks from nazca valley graves. it occurs also in middleand late-period textiles.[5] the methods of lengthening the warps by the addition of new ones vary, but one feature is common to all those examined: the supplementary transverse yarns are in effect scaffold or skeleton wefts.[6] in the chincha cloths, the two warps interlock as shown in the reconstruction in plate 5,a. in two chincha plain-weave cloths, as in the nazca patchworks, the warps of two colors meet on the skeleton weft. two specimens in lot 4(3890a and 4056) are poor in quality of craftsmanship. careless weaving resulted in the breaking of several warps, uneven shedding, and puckering in the center of the web. a three-inch difference in the length between the two side edges of specimen 4-4056 was probably due to slanting of the warping stakes (fig. 6). there is also a difference between the widths of the ends of each cloth, in one of them as much as three inches. different weights of yarn are used, their twists ranging from soft-to-medium to crepe. [illustration: =4-4056= fig. 6. diagram of a web showing an irregular shape which may have resulted from careless warping. occurrences of plain-weave variations are indicated by symbols for units: +, one-by-one; =|, one-by-two; ++, two-by-one; and #, two-by-two (27 in. × 26 in. over all).] in specimen 4-3890a the warps were grouped in pairs throughout the breadth of the cloth. in the first eight and one-half inches of the length, the weft is single and for the remaining fifteen and one-half inches the wefts are paired. this results in plain-weave variations of two-by-one, or semibasket weave, and two-by-two, or basket weave. in setting up the loom for specimen 4-4056, twelve inches of the breadth were warped with units of single 2-ply warp yarns (fig. 6, right) and the remaining fourteen inches were set up for units of twin warps (fig. 6, left). several plain-weave variations were found. the weaver introduced single and twin wefts at irregular intervals throughout the length of the cloth. therefore, in the portion where the single warp unit interlaces with single wefts, a simple one-by-one, or plain weave results; where the single warp unit interlaces with twin wefts, a one-by-two, or semibasket weave occurs. in the portion of the breadth where warps are paired, interlacings of two-by-one, or semibasket weave, and two-by-two, or basket weave, occur. owing to the difference in length between the two side edges of specimen 4-4056, the weaver started making adjustments before she had woven half the length of her cloth. in order to restore a working edge at right angles to her warps, she introduced incomplete or fill-in wefts; that is, weft yarns entered on the long side and carried a distance across the web and then turned back in the next shed (pl. 8,a). the largest number of fill-in wefts occurs roughly at a point about a third up from the end. here, seven wefts were introduced, one after the other, all entering from the same side of the web (pl. 5,e). the distance across the web that these various wefts were carried ranges from ten to twenty inches. at each turning point of the weft there is a kelim slit. footnotes: [5] l. m. o'neale and a. l. kroeber, textile periods in ancient peru: i, basic tables at end of plates. [6] l. m. o'neale, textiles of the early nazca period, field mus. nat. hist., anthrop. mem., 2:180, 1937. stitchery three very familiar needle techniques occur on the chincha plain-weave cloths. breadths are seamed together with whipping stitches or running stitches, or are laced together with the antique seam, often called the baseball stitch (pl. 8,d). the effects vary with the depth and tightness of the seaming. some of the whipping stitches are left loose so the two breadths lie flat, their selvages barely touching; other stitches are drawn so tightly that the selvages form a ridge (pl. 5,b). the smallest stitches are taken under two or three warps less than one-eighth inch deep and about one-eighth inch apart. deeper stitches found on the coarse wrappings and one bag (4-3889) range from a quarter-inch to three-eighths of an inch in depth and the same distances apart. the baseball stitch, if well done, can bring the selvages of two breadths together in a flat seam (pl. 5,d). the chincha types range from very loosely drawn to tightly drawn threads. running and double running stitches (pl. 8,b, c), never very carefully executed on the plain-weave specimens, fasten down all the patches, hems, and occasionally the edges of lapped seams in which one breadth is extended conspicuously over another. specimen 16-1229 has such a seam with a six-inch overlap. when running stitches are small, they range from one-eighth to one-quarter inch in length with approximately the same distance between them. many more are from one-quarter to one-half inch long, especially on the numerous patches (pl. 3,d), and the distances between the stitches may be even longer. when running stitches are used for the hems, the cloth edges, including selvages, are turned under twice, just as is our customary procedure. double running stitches on a bag (4-3889c) are about a quarter-inch long. because of the variety of uses to which running stitches are put, they outnumber the other types two to one in the 16lot, being often combined with the whipping and baseball techniques. needleknitting, a decorative stitch which occurs frequently on cahuachi (early nazca) textiles[7] is the edge finish on four of the chincha plain-weave cloths (pl. 5,c). from the side, the stitch resembles a whipping stitch except for its compactness and the fact that the lines of thread are upright, not slanting; from the edge, the stitch resembles a chain (pl. 8,f, g). the chincha variety differs slightly from that on the early nazca textiles: stitches taken straight over the edge alternate with those linked together with the chain effect. patching and mending any form of repair technique in peruvian textiles is rare. many of the materials show wear and occasionally coarse stitches are put through the cloth to draw the edges of a tear together; otherwise there is little to suggest concern with prolonging the life of a garment. in a series of chincha domestic cloths there are eleven patched specimens but not one trace of reweaving as in darning techniques. apparently the unusual number of mended cloths interested the collectors in the field for, although a half dozen fragments appear to have been reduced to their present size, the patched portions have been carefully preserved. fragmentary lengths of these textiles ranged from 14 to 28 inches; widths ranged from 13 to 30 inches. certain generalizations are pertinent to all the mended fragments. there is no evidence of the use of a cutting tool; the edges of the patching pieces were torn or snagged along a thread. if the selvages were somewhat worn, the seamstress did not remove them but made a deep turn to fold the worn part to the underside. much of the patching material was perceptibly worn to begin with; three brown specimens were badly disintegrated. on specimen 16-1259 there are four overlapping layers of patching material in one spot. generally, the worn spot covered by a patch or several patches is an area in which the weaving was poorly done. the patched fabrics are in the mediumand coarse-texture groups with the exception of one fine cloth (16-1224). the repair materials fall within all three texture groups. a third of the patches (11 out of 31) were of striped materials, most of which are of better quality than the base fabric. patches too small to cover the entire worn area are pieced out by overlapping them with a second piece of material. more than a third of the patches were taken from the edges of the breadths, as the stripes indicate. techniques used to fasten down the edges are hemming and whipping. the workmanship is fairly coarse, the lengths of the individual stitches approximately a quarter-inch long. standards were much below those held by the weaver, but this difference is not surprising. threads employed for the patching suggest that the seamstress used odds and ends of weaving yarns. two or more kinds ordinarily appear on a single patch, one of them usually a coarse white cotton thread of fairly loose twist. some threads are used single in the needle, some double. colors are browns, blues, orange, yellow, the last happening to be short lengths of wool. there is no evidence that the seamstress attempted to match the yarn to either the ground or the patch materials. where we start a new length of thread with a knot made at the end, these chincha threads begin with a half-hitch around the first stitch taken through the cloth (16-1238) or with a stitch through the cloth and a knot tied with the short and long sections of the thread (16-1261). plate 3,d shows one of the typical patched cloths. four fabrics are represented: the base material, medium fine; and the three patching fabrics, the lower patch very fine and the upper right and left patches coarse. the most complicated arrangement of patches is found on a specimen (16-1240) composed of two breadths seamed together. the overall measurements of the torn rectangular fragment are 17 inches warpwise by 30 inches weftwise. within this area are nine different pieces of cloth, seven of them covering worn spots or poorly woven areas. footnote: [7] ibid., pl. 53, a-c, p. 210. pattern the only colored decoration on the chincha domestic cloths is in the form of stripes. this section presents an analysis of the types found on thirty-odd specimens. stripes in this sample group either border the edge of the cloth or make an allover pattern. with the exception of four cloths, the stripes are warpwise of the materials; these four have stripes both warpwise and weftwise, and thus may be classified as plaids. edge stripes occur in combination with an allover strip pattern in specimen 16-1287 and in combination with plaid in specimen 4-3973d (pl. 6,f). there are no cloths crossbanded only with colored wefts. apparently there was no preference as to the texture most appropriate for patterning by stripes; both fine and coarse cloths are thus decorated. for example, specimen 16-1225 is very fine (thread count, 102 warps by 42 wefts per in.) and specimen 16-1234 is medium coarse (count, 36 warps by 28 wefts per in.). both cloths are allover striped. edge stripes occur on a relatively fine cloth, specimen 16-1255a (count, 62 warps by 40 wefts per in.), and also on a coarse cloth (count, 28 warps by 24 wefts per in.). five cloths in the chincha lot are allover striped. one (16-1252) has solid blue and brown stripes at irregular intervals. the arrangement contrasts with the regularity of the other allover-striped materials and of the symmetrical plaids. other allover stripes (fig. 8,a; pl. 7,c) have units a quarter-inch wide, brown on a neutral ground. there is both color and texture interest in these specimens. the brown warp units are in pairs, the neutral-color warp units between each two brown units are alternately all single warps and all pairs of warps. as a result, every other neutral-color stripe is appreciably thinner than its neighbor stripes (pl. 7,c). the third allover striped specimen (16-1224) is alternately blue and neutral color, each stripe unit approximately one-sixteenth inch wide (fig. 8,c). specimen 16-1225 has striping in the same colors and to it is seamed a piece with blue on a reddish-orange ground. the blues appear to have been the same, but the cloth, otherwise in good condition, is so badly faded that the photograph does not reveal the stripes in the blue-orange section (pl. 5,d). the fourth allover-stripe pattern is common to two specimens, one of them shown in figure 8,b. the colors blue and tan stand out from a neutral ground. the sequence is blue-blue-tan, blue-blue-tan, and repeat. the stripes measure one-sixteenth inch in width and are about the same distance apart. [illustration: fig. 7. schematic representations of stripings with color changes indicated by symbols. units consisting of pairs of warps represented by pairs of triangles. chevron marks center of bilateral groupings of colors.] the four fragments symmetrically plaided with an identical arrangement of warp and weft stripes (16-1279; 16-1303) probably came from the same cloth despite the different numbers. edge stripes, the most numerous group, vary in width from three-sixteenths inch to one and three-eighths inch. they are simple in construction, eight of the thirteen being symmetrical both in arrangement and count of colored warps. the semblance of balance is marked, also, in those stripes which are not symmetrical. the edge stripes with two exceptions (16-1260, a kerchief, and full breadth 16-1287) border only one of the selvages on the complete widths analyzed for this section. the opposite selvages have hanging threads, remnants of the stitchery which originally seamed two breadths together. the stripes decorated the outside edges of this seamed rectangle. no specimen in the chincha plain-weave group has stripes showing more than three colors, exclusive of the color of the ground material. the ground color is usually neutral and may originally have been white or brown cotton. the most frequently occurring color in the stripes is brown, followed by blue. red and rose occur only twice. in five specimens we found the warps used in pairs. in specimens 16-1224 (fig. 7,a) and 16-1280 (fig. 7,k) the colored warps are paired, the ground is set up with single warps; in 16-1240 (fig. 7,j), the stripe warps and certain sections of the ground warps are paired, the greater portion is set up with single warps. in several specimens the otherwise uniform setup of single colored warps is broken by a warp unit comprising a pair (fig. 7,f), and in two specimens (cf. fig. 7,d) the series of single warps is broken by two pairs of warps in one of the stripes. these units may have been deliberately planned by the weaver, since they are maintained for the entire length of the preserved stripe. all of the chincha striped cloths examined for this study were woven either in the over-one-under-one interlacing or its variation, twin warps crossed by single weft, a technique sometimes designated as the semibasket weave. what textural differences there are between the colored stripes and the ground material are the results of combining the single-warp plain weave with its twin-warp variation. the following tabulation shows the occurrences of these two techniques among the thirteen striped pieces in figure 7: no. of weave of ground material weave in stripes specimens single warps, single wefts same as ground 1 single warps, single wefts single and twin warps, single wefts 2 twin warps, single wefts single warps, single wefts 7 twin warps, single wefts same as ground 1 twin warps, single wefts single and twin warps, single wefts 2 color fifty-odd yarns, samplings from the striped and plain cloths of the chincha lots, were matched against the printed samples in maerz and paul's _dictionary of color_.[8] we found yarns corresponding to thirty-two samples representing five of the eight color groups. we found no dyed yarns in these cloths for colors in the yellow-to-green, the blue-to-red, and the purple-to-red groups. only four yarns out of three hundred and fifty matched in a previous study,[9] corresponded to colors in the purple-to-red group and these four matched very dark samples on plate 56. the available evidence indicates either that the ancients had not developed dyestuffs to produce such hues as our fuchsias, magentas, and heliotropes or that they did not favor these colors. over a dozen yarns matched samples on plates 14 and 15 of the orange-to-yellow groups; as many more matched the browns on plate 37. some of the yarns in this series are darker than any of the printed samples on plate 39. the third largest series, approximately twenty, match eight samples in the blue-green-to-blue group. the fewest number represent the green-to-blue-green group. yarns in four cloths are similar to poplar and bottle greens. stripes are in one, two, or three colors (fig. 8). most of the one-color stripes (approximately 10) are blue (37f3, 37i5), one is an orange-red (5k10), and one clay color (14f8). for the two-color stripes we were able to distinguish blue (37f3), golden browns (approximating 15a12), and orange reds (approximating 5k10). in only one of the six two-color examples, however, were the two colors sufficiently clear to match the printed samples. specimen 16-1251 combines brown (15a12) and blue (38c3) stripes. the three-color stripes in the 16-lot were similarly difficult to match with the samples in the dictionary. yarns from the four specimens matched samples as follows: 16-1268: yellow (10c7) and two browns (14l10, 15a12) 16-1277: two yellows (11k8 and one other darker than any in the group) and blue (36f6) 16-1283: yellow (9j5), blue (35d4), and one other color too dull to match any printed sample in the blue group 16-1287: yellows and browns (7c12, 11k6, and 14f6) one three-color specimen in the 4lot (pl. 6,f) has a number of well-preserved portions. the weaving proper is natural-color white cotton with plaiding in dark brown (15c12) and gray similar to adobe (14d7). the wide edge stripe has the same dark brown, a lighter, more golden brown (14d12), and central pinkish stripes which approximate printed samples 3c10 or 3c11. [illustration: fig. 8. diagrams of stripings in chincha plain-weave cloths: a, two-color stripe, blue and natural color cotton; b, two-color stripe, blue and brown on natural-color ground; c, allover stripe of blue on natural-color ground.] footnotes: [8] a. maerz and m. r. paul, a dictionary of color, 1930. [9] l. m. o'neale, textiles of the early nazca period, p. 144. summary analyses of over a hundred plain-weave cloths in the max uhle collection from late-period sites at chincha form the material of this report. the utilitarian character of most of the cloths is conspicuous. a few plain-weave fabrics undoubtedly belong to garments of the better type, although these specimens, too, are without decoration except for stripings. measurements and textures suggest that some weavings may have been mantles or other large wrappings. all the intact ends have the customary peruvian selvages with heavy loomstring wefts. intact single breadths range in widths between 4 inches and 41 inches. the wider breadths suggest that the loom upon which these specimens were woven was not the type ordinarily attached to the weaver's waist. smooth textures and the uniformly good edges indicate that the weaving yarns were of the high quality we have learned to expect in the ancient cloths. thread counts show a wide range, as shown in figure 5. technical features in these plain cloths are the standard ones in most respects. warp locking of the end-to-end variety and a unique finish on a side selvage are the most noteworthy deviations from the norm. perhaps the least expected feature is the patching of weak or worn spots in the cloths. in their present condition, the several repaired examples reveal hard wear subsequent even to the patching. ornamentation in the chincha plain-weave cloths analyzed for this study consists solely of stripes and plaids; an occasional edge finish is as much a strengthening device as a decorative detail. a few cloths are allover striped; a greater number are bordered on one edge with a series of colors, mainly yellow, browns, and blues. the group as a whole represents the many fabrics which must have been woven solely for ordinary wear or use, being used later as grave wrappings. plates explanation of plates (numbers preceded by 4and 16are university of california museum of anthropology specimen-catalogue numbers.) plate 1 chincha doll (4-4116) dressed in scrap of plain-weave material. height overall, 7 inches. head, a knob wrapped with fiber; black human hair folded over top and drawn in at neck with fiber string. body composed of 2 tortoras separated to form legs; all elements wrapped with fiber and with one extra "toe" applied to each foot. arms of wrapped tortora with fingers (3) applied at ends. garment of plain cotton material torn crosswise; fold at one side; lapped seam held with coarse stitches at opposite side; seam across shoulders; no openings for arms. tatters at bottom edge turned to outside and secured with running stitches. length 5¼ inches; breadth 7¼ inches. plate 2 loomstring ends of chincha fabrics, a, b, detail of ends of two webs (16-1304b, 16-1270) to show heading strip (1) and weaving proper (2) comparable in texture; (3) section between them, the join, more loosely woven. width of sections shown, 3.5 inches. plate 3 a, b, c, examples of medium-coarse chincha fabrics (16-1282, 16-1217, 16-1252), fair to good qualities of weaving; d, worn material reinforced by patches held down by running stitches (16-1222). dark section of b, 1.25 inches wide; a and c in proportion; upper patch of d, 9 inches by 6 inches. plate 4 textures of fine fabrics. a, comparable to modern cheesecloth (4-4058b); b, canvaslike (16-1255a); c, open plain weave showing high twist of single-ply yarns (4-3883b). plate 5 a, reconstruction of end-to-end warp locking, shown in d, by methods which make possible the change from monochrome to stripes; b, close-texture, semibasket weave with three heavy loomstring wefts at end selvage, whipped seam (16-1292); c, end selvage reinforced with needleknitting (16-1217) (cf. pl. 8,f, g); d, fine cotton garment material with stripes below monochrome section (16-1225), right-hand striped section faded; e, section of textile (×2) with turn of fill-in straightening wefts indicated by black threads (4-4056) (cf. pl. 8,a). width of b and c, 3 inches. plate 6 a-e, border stripes on chincha cloths (16-1268, 16-1277, 16-1214, 16-1251, 16-1255a), colors, brown and blue; f, section of plaid with border stripe (4-3973d). selvages at left. width of narrowest border stripe, one-fourth inch; others in proportion. plate 7 a, reconstruction of border stripes of fabric in plate 6,e; b, reconstruction of stripe found on several specimens; c, section of fabric (×2) showing variations in plain weave and amount of twist given to weaving elements (16-1240); d, section of fabric (×2) showing two-and-two basket weave varied in appearance by arrangement of colored yarns (4-3962). plate 8 reconstructions, a, fill-in weft to straighten working edge (cf. pl. 5,e); b, plain running stitch; c, double running stitch shown in two colors for clarity; d, seam in saddler's or baseball stitch, also called antique seam; e, seam in whipping stitch: f, g, top and side view of needleknitting type found on chincha edge (pl. 5,c), alternate stitches plain whipping stitches; h, i, two views of reinforced selvage showing strand of twining through tops of whipping stitches. plate 9 weaving and sewing equipment: a-g, undressed thorns, 3.5 to 6 inches long (4-3653); h-o, bunch of fine wooden needles (n shows eye) 4.5 inches long, black and pale color wood (4-3651); p, copper needle (4-4094); q, headed and pointed stick, possibly a warp-lifter (4-3865f); r-w, sticks, some of cane including pointed and headed tools (4-3865a-e, g, h): s, u, weaving swords; t, loom bar; x, weaving sword, 18 inches long. [illustration: plate 1. chincha doll] [illustration: plate 2. loomstring ends] [illustration: plate 3. chincha fabrics] [illustration: plate 4. textures of fine fabrics] [illustration: plate 5. weaving techniques] [illustration: plate 6. pattern: stripes and plaids] [illustration: plate 7. pattern: stripes and variations in plain weaves] [illustration: plate 8. reconstructions of stitches] [illustration: plate 9. weaving and sewing equipment] * * * * * a study of the textile art in its relation to the development of form and ornament by william h. holmes. sixth annual report of the bureau of ethnology to the secretary of the smithsonian institution, 1884-'85, government printing office, washington, 1888, pages 189-252 * * * * * contents. page introduction. 195 form in textile art. 196 relations of form to ornament. 201 color in textile art. 201 textile ornament. 202 development of a geometric system within the art. 202 introduction. 202 relief phenomena. 203 ordinary features. 203 reticulated work. 210 superconstructive features. 211 color phenomena. 215 ordinary features. 215 non-essential constructive features. 226 superconstructive features. 228 adventitious features. 231 geometricity imposed upon adopted elements. 232 extension of textile ornament to other forms of art. 244 illustrations. fig. page. 286. mat or tray with esthetic attributes of form 197 287. tray having decided esthetic attributes of form 198 288. pyriform water vessel 198 289. basket with esthetic characters of form 199 290. basket of eccentric form 200 291. character of surface in the simplest form of weaving 204 292. surface produced by impacting 204 293. surface produced by use of wide fillets 204 294. basket with ribbed surface 205 295. bottle showing obliquely ribbed surface 205 296. tray showing radial ribs 205 297. combination giving herring bone effect 206 298. combination giving triangular figures 206 299. peruvian work basket 206 300. basket of seminole workmanship 207 301. surface effect produced in open twined combination 207 302. surface effect produced in open twined combination 207 303. surface effect produced by impacting in twined combination 208 304. surface effect produced by impacting the web strands in twined combination 208 305. surface effect produced by crossing the web series in open twined work 208 306. tray with open mesh, twined combination 208 307. conical basket, twined combination 209 308. example of primitive reticulated weaving 210 309. simple form of reticulation 211 310. reticulated pattern in cotton cloth 211 311. peruvian embroidery 213 312. basket with pendent ornaments 213 313. basket with pendent ornaments 213 314. tasseled peruvian mantle 214 315. pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors 216 316. pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors 216 317. pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors 216 318. pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors 217 319. base of coiled basket 218 320. coiled basket with geometric ornament 218 321. coiled basket with geometric ornament 219 322. coiled basket with geometric ornament 220 323. coiled basket with geometric ornament 220 324. coiled basket with geometric ornament 221 325. coiled basket with geometric ornament 223 326. coiled tray with geometric ornament 224 327. coiled tray with geometric ornament 225 328. tray with geometric ornament 225 329. tray with geometric ornament 226 330. ornament produced by wrapping the strands 227 331. ornament produced by fixing strands to the surface of the fabric 227 332. basket with feather ornamentation 227 333. basket with feather ornamentation 227 334. piece of cloth showing use of supplementary warp and woof 228 335. piece of cloth showing use of supplementary warp and woof 228 336. example of grass embroidery 230 337. example of feather embroidery 231 338. figures from the penn wampum belt 233 339. figures from a california indian basket 234 340. california indian basket 234 341. figures from a peruvian basket 235 342. figure from a piece of peruvian gobelins 236 343. figures from a peruvian vase 237 344. figure from a circular basket 238 345. figure of a bird from a zuñi shield 239 346. figure of a bird woven in a tray 240 347. figure of a bird woven in a basket 241 348. figures embroidered on a cotton net by the ancient peruvians 242 349. figures of birds embroidered by the ancient peruvians 243 350. conventional design painted upon cotton cloth 243 351. herring bone and checker patterns produced in weaving 246 352. herring bone and checker patterns engraved in clay 246 353. earthen vase with textile ornament 247 354. example of textile ornament painted upon pottery 248 355. textile pattern transferred to pottery through costume 248 356. ceremonial adz with carved ornament of textile character 250 357. figures upon a tapa stamp 251 358. design in stucco exhibiting textile characters 251 textile art in its relation to the development of form and ornament. by william h. holmes. introduction. the textile art is one of the most ancient known, dating back to the very inception of culture. in primitive times it occupied a wide field, embracing the stems of numerous branches of industry now expressed in other materials or relegated to distinct systems of construction. accompanying the gradual narrowing of its sphere there was a steady development with the general increase of intelligence and skill so that with the cultured nations of to-day it takes an important, though unobtrusive, place in the hierarchy of the arts. woven fabrics include all those products of art in which the elements or parts employed in construction are largely filamental and are combined by methods conditioned chiefly by their flexibility. the processes employed are known by such terms as interlacing, plaiting, netting, weaving, sewing, and embroidering. the materials used at first are chiefly filiform vegetal growths, such as twigs, leaves, roots, and grasses, but later on filiform and then fibrous elements from all the kingdoms of nature, as well as numerous artificial preparations, are freely used. these are employed in the single, doubled, doubled and twisted, and plaited conditions, and are combined by the hands alone, by the hands assisted by simple devices, by hand looms, and finally in civilization by machine looms. the products are, first, individual structures or articles, such as shelters, baskets, nets, and garments, or integral parts of these; and, second, "piece" goods, such as are not adapted to use until they are cut and fitted. in earlier stages of art we have to deal almost exclusively with the former class, as the tailor and the house furnisher are evolved with civilization. in their bearing upon art these products are to be studied chiefly with reference to three grand divisions of phenomena, the first of which i shall denominate _constructive_, the second _functional_, and the third _esthetic_. the last class, with which this paper has almost exclusively to deal, is composed mainly of what may be called the superconstructive and superfunctional features of the art and includes three subdivisions of phenomena, connected respectively with (1) form, (2) color, and (3) design. esthetic features of form are, in origin and manifestation, related to both function and construction; color and design, to construction mainly. in the following study separate sections are given to each of these topics. it is fortunate perhaps that in this work i am restricted to the products of rather primitive stages of culture, as i have thus to deal with a limited number of uses, simple processes, and simple shapes. in the advanced stages of art we encounter complex phenomena, processes, and conditions, the accumulation of ages, through which no broad light can fall upon the field of vision. in america there is a vast body of primitive, indigenous art having no parallel in the world. uncontaminated by contact with the complex conditions of civilized art, it offers the best possible facilities for the study of the fundamental principles of esthetic development. the laws of evolution correspond closely in all art, and, if once rightly interpreted in the incipient stage of a single, homogeneous culture, are traceable with comparative ease through all the succeeding stages of civilization. form in textile art. form in the textile art, as in all other useful arts, is fundamentally, although not exclusively, the resultant or expression of function, but at the same time it is further than in other shaping arts from expressing the whole of function. such is the pliability of a large portion of textile products--as, for example, nets, garments, and hangings--that the shapes assumed are variable, and, therefore, when not distended or for some purpose folded or draped, the articles are without esthetic value or interest. the more rigid objects, in common with the individuals of other useful arts, while their shape still accords with their functional office, exhibit attributes of form generally recognized as pleasing to the mind, which are expressed by the terms grace, elegance, symmetry, and the like. such attributes are not separable from functional attributes, but originate and exist conjointly with them. in addition to these features of form we observe others of a more decidedly superfunctional character, added manifestly for the purpose of enhancing the appearance. in very primitive times when a utensil is produced functional ideas predominate, and there is, perhaps, so far as its artificial characters are concerned, a minimum of comeliness. but as the ages pass by essential features are refined and elements of beauty are added and emphasized. in riper culture the growing pressure of esthetic desire leads to the addition of many superficial modifications whose chief office is to please the fancy. in periods of deadened sensibility or even through the incompetence of individual artists in any period, such features may be ill chosen and erroneously applied, interfering with construction and use, and thus violating well founded and generally accepted canons of taste. in respect to primitive works we may distinguish four steps in the acquisition of esthetic features of form, three of which are normal, the fourth abnormal: first, we have that in which functional characters alone are considered, any element of beauty, whether due to the artist's hand or to the accidents of material, construction, or model, being purely adventitious; second, that in which the necessary features of the utensil appear to have experienced the supervision of taste, edges being rounded, curves refined, and symmetry perfected; third, that in which the functionally perfect object, just described, undergoes further variations of contour, adding to variety, unity, &c., thus enhancing beauty without interfering with serviceability; and, fourth, that in which, under abnormal influences, beauty is sought at the sacrifice of functional and constructive perfection. [illustration: fig. 286. mat or tray exhibiting a minimum of esthetic attributes of form. moki work--1/8.] the exact relations of the various classes of forces and phenomena pertaining to this theme may be more fully elucidated by the aid of illustrations. woven mats, in early use by many tribes of men and originating in the attempt to combine leaves, vines, and branches for purposes of comfort, are flat because of function, the degree of flatness depending upon the size of filaments and mode of combination; and in outline they are irregular, square, round, or oval, as a result of many causes and influences, embracing use, construction, material, models, &c. a close approach to symmetry, where not imposed by some of the above mentioned agencies, is probably due to esthetic tendencies on the part of the artist. the esthetic interest attaching to such a shape cannot be great, unless perhaps it be regarded, as all individuals and classes may be regarded, in its possible relations to preceding, associated, and succeeding forms of art. the varied features observed upon the surface, the colors and patterns (fig. 286), pertain to design rather than to form and will receive attention in the proper place. [illustration: fig. 287. tray having decided esthetic attributes of form. obtained from the apache--1/2.] in point of contour the basket tray shown in fig. 287 has a somewhat more decided claim upon esthetic attention than the preceding, as the curves exhibited mark a step of progress in complexity and grace. how much of this is due to intention and how much to technical perfection must remain in doubt. in work so perfect we are wont, however unwarrantably, to recognize the influence of taste. [illustration: fig. 288. pyriform water vessel used by the piute indians--1/8.] a third example--presented in fig. 288--illustrates an advanced stage in the art of basketry and exhibits a highly specialized shape. the forces and influences concerned in its evolution may be analyzed as follows: a primal origin in function and a final adaptation to a special function, the carrying and storing of water; a contour full to give capacity, narrow above for safety, and pointed below that it may be set in sand; curves kept within certain bounds by the limitations of construction; and a goodly share of variety, symmetry, and grace, the result to a certain undetermined extent of the esthetic tendencies of the artist's mind. in regard to the last point there is generally in forms so simple an element of uncertainty; but many examples may be found in which there is positive evidence of the existence of a strong desire on the part of the primitive basketmaker to enhance beauty of form. it will be observed that the textile materials and construction do not lend themselves freely to minuteness in detail or to complexity of outline, especially in those small ways in which beauty is most readily expressed. modifications of a decidedly esthetic character are generally suggested to the primitive mind by some functional, constructive, or accidental feature which may with ease be turned in the new direction. in the vessel presented in fig. 289--the work of alaskan indians--the margin is varied by altering the relations of the three marginal turns of the coil, producing a scalloped effect. this is without reference to use, is uncalled for in construction, and hence is, in all probability, the direct result of esthetic tendencies. other and much more elaborate examples may be found in the basketry of almost all countries. [illustration: fig. 289. vessel with esthetic characters of form. work of the yakama--1/4.] in the pursuit of this class of enrichment there is occasionally noticeable a tendency to overload the subject with extraneous details. this is not apt to occur, however, in the indigenous practice of an art, but comes more frequently from a loss of equilibrium or balance in motives or desires, caused by untoward exotic influence. when, through suggestions derived from contact with civilized art, the savage undertakes to secure all the grace and complexity observed in the works of more cultured peoples, he does so at the expense of construction and adaptability to use. an example of such work is presented in fig. 290, a weak, useless, and wholly vicious piece of basketry. other equally meretricious pieces represent goblets, bottles, and tea pots. they are the work of the indians of the northwest coast and are executed in the neatest possible manner, bearing evidence of the existence of cultivated taste. [illustration: fig. 290. basket made under foreign influence, construction and use being sacrificed to fancied beauty--1/3.] it appears from the preceding analyses that _form_ in this art is not sufficiently sensitive to receive impressions readily from the delicate touch of esthetic fingers; besides, there are peculiar difficulties in the way of detecting traces of the presence and supervision of taste. the inherent morphologic forces of the art are strong and stubborn and tend to produce the precise classes of results that we, at this stage of culture, are inclined to attribute to esthetic influence. if, in the making of a vessel, the demands of use are fully satisfied, if construction is perfect of its kind, if materials are uniformly suitable, and if models are not absolutely bad, it follows that the result must necessarily possess in a high degree those very attributes that all agree are pleasing to the eye. in a primitive water vessel function gives a full outline, as capacity is a prime consideration; convenience of use calls for a narrow neck and a conical base; construction and materials unite to impose certain limitations to curves and their combinations, from which the artist cannot readily free himself. models furnished by nature, as they are usually graceful, do not interfere with the preceding agencies, and all these forces united tend to give symmetry, grace, and the unity that belongs to simplicity. taste which is in a formative state can but fall in with these tendencies of the art, and must be led by them, and led in a measure corresponding to their persistency and universality. if the textile art had been the only one known to man, ideas of the esthetic in shape would have been in a great measure formed through that art. natural forms would have had little to do with it except through models furnished directly to and utilized by the art, for the ideas of primitive men concentrate about that upon which their hands work and upon which their thoughts from necessity dwell with steady attention from generation to generation. relations of form to ornament. it would seem that the esthetic tendencies of the mind, failing to find satisfactory expression in shape, seized upon the non-essential features of the art--markings of the surface and color of filaments--creating a new field in which to labor and expending their energy upon ornament. shape has some direct relations to ornament, and these relations may be classified as follows: first, the contour of the vessel controls its ornament to a large extent, dictating the positions of design and setting its limits; figures are in stripes, zones, rays, circles, ovals, or rectangles--according, in no slight measure, to the character of the spaces afforded by details of contour. secondly, it affects ornament through the reproduction and repetition of features of form, such as handles, for ornamental purposes. thirdly, it is probable that shape influences embellishment through the peculiar bias given by it to the taste and judgment of men prior to or independent of the employment of ornament. color in textile art. color is one of the most constant factors in man's environment, and it is so strongly and persistently forced upon his attention, so useful as a means of identification and distinction, that it necessarily receives a large share of consideration. it is probably one of the foremost objective agencies in the formation and development of the esthetic sense. the natural colors of textile materials are enormously varied and form one of the chief attractions of the products of the art. the great interest taken in color--the great importance attached to it--is attested by the very general use of dyes, by means of which additional variety and brilliancy of effect are secured. color employed in the art is not related to use, excepting, perhaps, in symbolic and superstitious matters; nor is it of consequence in construction, although it derives importance from the manner in which construction causes it to be manifested to the eye. it finds its chief use in the field of design, in making evident to the eye the figures with which objects of art are embellished. color is employed or applied in two distinct ways: it is woven or worked into the fabric by using colored filaments or parts, or it is added to the surface of the completed object by means of pencils, brushes, and dies. its employment in the latter manner is especially convenient when complex ideographic or pictorial subjects are to be executed. textile ornament. development of a geometric system of design within the art. introduction. having made a brief study of form and color in the textile art, i shall now present the great group or family of phenomena whose exclusive office is that of enhancing beauty. it will be necessary, however, to present, besides those features of the art properly expressive of the esthetic culture of the race, all those phenomena that, being present in the art without man's volition, tend to suggest decorative conceptions and give shape to them. i shall show how the latter class of features arise as a necessity of the art, how they gradually come into notice and are seized upon by the esthetic faculty, and how under its guidance they assist in the development of a system of ornament of world wide application. for convenience of treatment esthetic phenomena may be classed as _relieved_ and _flat_. figures or patterns of a relievo nature arise during construction as a result of the intersections and other more complex relations--the bindings--of the warp and woof or of inserted or applied elements. flat or surface features are manifested in color, either in unison with or independent of the relieved details. such is the nature of the textile art that in its ordinary practice certain combinations of both classes of features go on as a necessity of the art and wholly without reference to the desire of the artist or to the effect of resultant patterns upon the eye. the character of such figures depends upon the kind of construction and upon the accidental association of natural colors in construction. at some period of the practice of the art these peculiar, adventitious surface characters began to attract attention and to be cherished for the pleasure they gave; what were at first adventitious features now took on functions peculiar to themselves, for they were found to gratify desires distinct from those cravings that arise directly from physical wants. it is not to be supposed for a moment that the inception of esthetic notions dates from this association of ideas of beauty with textile characters. long before textile objects of a high class were made, ideas of an esthetic nature had been entertained by the mind, as, for example, in connection with personal adornment. the skin had been painted, pendants placed about the neck, and bright feathers set in the hair to enhance attractiveness, and it is not difficult to conceive of the transfer of such ideas from purely personal associations to the embellishment of articles intimately associated with the person. no matter, however, what the period or manner of the association of such ideas with the textile art, that association may be taken as the datum point in the development of a great system of decoration whose distinguishing characters are the result of the geometric textile construction. in amplifying this subject i find it convenient to treat separately the two classes of decorative phenomena--the relieved and the flat--notwithstanding the fact that they are for the most part intimately associated and act together in the accomplishment of a common end. relief phenomena. _ordinary features._--the relieved surface characters of fabrics resulting from construction and available for decoration are more or less distinctly perceptible to the eye and to the touch and are susceptible of unlimited variation in detail and arrangement. such features are familiar to all in the strongly marked ridges of basketry, and much more pleasingly so in the delicate figures of damasks, embroideries, and laces. so long as the figures produced are confined exclusively to the necessary features of unembellished construction, as is the case in very primitive work and in all plain work, the resultant patterns are wholly geometric and by endless repetition of like parts extremely monotonous. in right angled weaving the figures combine in straight lines, which run parallel or cross at uniform distances and angles. in radiate weaving, as in basketry, the radial lines are crossed in an equally formal manner by concentric lines. in other classes of combination there is an almost equal degree of geometricity. when, however, with the growth of intelligence and skill it is found that greater variety of effect can be secured by modifying the essential combinations of parts, and that, too, without interfering with constructive perfection or with use, a new and wide field is opened for the developmental tendencies of textile decoration. moreover, in addition to the facilities afforded by the necessary elements of construction, there are many extraneous resources of which the textile decorator may freely avail himself. the character of these is such that the results, however varied, harmonize thoroughly with indigenous textile forms. to make these points quite clear it will be necessary to analyze somewhat closely the character and scope of textile combination and of the resultant and associated phenomena. we may distinguish two broad classes of constructive phenomena made use of in the expression of relieved enrichment. as indicated above, these are, first, essential or actual constructive features and, second, extra or superconstructive features. first, it is found that in the practice of primitive textile art a variety of methods of combination or bindings of the parts have been evolved and utilized, and we observe that each of these--no matter what the material or what the size and character of the filamental elements--gives rise to distinct classes of surface effects. thus it appears that peoples who happen to discover and use like combinations produce kindred decorative results, while those employing unlike constructions achieve distinct classes of surface embellishment. these constructive peculiarities have a pretty decided effect upon the style of ornament, relieved or colored, and must be carefully considered in the treatment of design; but it is found that each type of combination has a greatly varied capacity of expression, tending to obliterate sharp lines of demarkation between the groups of results. it sometimes even happens that in distinct types of weaving almost identical surface effects are produced. it will not be necessary in this connection to present a full series of the fundamental bindings or orders of combination, as a few will suffice to illustrate the principles involved and to make clear the bearing of this class of phenomena upon decoration. i choose, first, a number of examples from the simplest type of weaving, that in which the web and the woof are merely interlaced, the filaments crossing at right angles or nearly so. in fig. 291 we have the result exhibited in a plain open or reticulated fabric constructed from ordinary untwisted fillets, such as are employed in our splint and cane products. fig. 292 illustrates the surface produced by crowding the horizontal series of the same fabric close together, so that the vertical series is entirely hidden. the surface here exhibits a succession of vertical ribs, an effect totally distinct from that seen in the preceding example. the third variety (fig. 293) differs but slightly from the first. the fillets are wider and are set close together without crowding, giving the surface a checkered appearance. [illustration: fig. 291. surface relief in simplest form of intersection.] [illustration: fig. 292. surface relief produced by horizontal series crowded together.] [illustration: fig. 293. surface relief produced by wide fillets set close together.] the second variety of surface effect is that most frequently seen in the basketry of our western tribes, as it results from the great degree of compactness necessary in vessels intended to contain liquids, semiliquid foods, or pulverized substances. the general surface effect given by closely woven work is illustrated in fig. 294, which represents a large wicker carrying basket obtained from the moki indians. in this instance the ridges, due to a heavy series of radiating warp filaments, are seen in a vertical position. [illustration: fig. 294. basket showing ribbed surface produced by impacting the horizontal or concentric filaments. moki work--1/8.] [illustration: fig. 295. alternation of intersection, producing oblique or spiral ribs. piute work--1/8.] [illustration: fig. 296. radiating ribs as seen in flat work viewed from above. moki work--1/4.] it will be observed, however, that the ridges do not necessarily take the direction of the warp filaments, for, with a different alternation of the horizontal series--the woof--we get oblique ridges, as shown in the partly finished bottle illustrated in fig. 295. they are, however, not so pronounced as in the preceding case. the peculiar effect of radiate and concentric weaving upon the ribs is well shown in fig. 296. by changes in the order of intersection, without changing the type of combination, we reach a series of results quite unlike the preceding; so distinct, indeed, that, abstracted from constructive relationships, there would be little suggestion of correlation. in the example given in fig. 297 the series of filaments interlace, not by passing over and under alternate strands, as in the preceding set of examples, but by extending over and under a number of the opposing series at each step and in such order as to give wide horizontal ridges ribbed diagonally. [illustration: fig. 297. diagonal combination, giving herring bone effect.] [illustration: fig. 298. elaboration of diagonal combination, giving triangular figures.] this example is from an ancient work basket obtained at ancon, peru, and shown in fig. 299. the surface features are in strong relief, giving a pronounced herring bone effect. [illustration: fig. 299. peruvian work basket of reeds, with strongly relieved ridges.] slight changes in the succession of parts enable the workman to produce a great variety of decorative patterns, an example of which is shown in fig. 298. a good illustration is also seen in fig. 286, and another piece, said to be of seminole workmanship, is given in fig. 300. these and similar relieved results are fruitful sources of primitive decorative motives. they are employed not only within the art itself, but in many other arts less liberally supplied with suggestions of embellishment. [illustration: fig. 300. effects produced by varying the order of intersection. seminole work--1/8.] taking a second type of combination, we have a family of resultant patterns in the main distinguishable from the preceding. [illustration: fig. 301. surface effect in open twined combination.] [illustration: fig. 302. surface effect of twined, lattice combination in basketry of the clallam indians of washington territory--1/8.] fig. 301 illustrates the simplest form of what dr. o.t. mason has called the twined combination, a favorite one with many of our native tribes. the strands of the woof series are arranged in twos and in weaving are twisted half around at each intersection, inclosing the opposing fillets. the resulting open work has much the appearance of ordinary netting, and when of pliable materials and distended or strained over an earthen or gourd vessel the pattern exhibited is strikingly suggestive of decoration. the result of this combination upon a lattice foundation of rigid materials is well shown in the large basket presented in fig. 302. other variants of this type are given in the three succeeding figures. [illustration: fig. 303. surface effect in impacted work of twined combination.] the result seen in fig. 303 is obtained by impacting the horizontal or twined series of threads. the surface is nearly identical with that of the closely impacted example of the preceding type (fig. 292). the peculiarities are more marked when colors are used. when the doubled and twisted series of strands are placed far apart and the opposing series are laid side by side a pleasing result is given, as shown in fig. 304 and in the body of the conical basket illustrated in fig. 307. [illustration: fig. 304. surface effect obtained by placing the warp strands close together and the woof cables far apart.] [illustration: fig. 305. surface effect obtained by crossing the warp series in open twined work.] in fig. 305 we have a peculiar diagonally crossed arrangement of the untwisted series of filaments, giving a lattice work effect. [illustration: fig. 306. decorative effects produced by variations in the radiate or warp series in an open work tray. klamath work--1/4.] fig. 306 serves to show how readily this style of weaving lends itself to the production of decorative modification, especially in the direction of the concentric zonal arrangement so universal in vessel-making arts. the examples given serve to indicate the unlimited decorative resources possessed by the art without employing any but legitimate constructive elements, and it will be seen that still wider results can be obtained by combining two or more varieties or styles of binding in the construction and the embellishment of a single object or in the same piece of fabric. a good, though very simple, illustration of this is shown in the tray or mat presented in fig. 286. in this case a border, varying from the center portion in appearance, is obtained by changing one series of the filaments from a multiple to a single arrangement. [illustration: fig. 307. conical basket of the klamath indians of oregon, showing peculiar twined effect and an open work border--1/8.] the conical basket shown in fig. 307 serves to illustrate the same point. in this case a rudely worked, though effective, border is secured by changing the angle of the upright series near the top and combining them by plaiting, and in such a way as to leave a border of open work. now the two types of construction, the interlaced and the twined, some primitive phases of which have been reviewed and illustrated, as they are carried forward in the technical progress of the art, exhibit many new features of combination and resultant surface character, but the elaboration is in all cases along lines peculiar to these types of weaving. other types of combination of web and woof, all tapestry, and all braiding, netting, knitting, crochet, and needle work exhibit characters peculiar to themselves, developing distinct groups of relieved results; yet all are analogous in principle to those already illustrated and unite in carrying forward the same great geometric system of combination. _reticulated work._--a few paragraphs may be added here in regard to reticulated fabrics of all classes of combination, as they exhibit more than usually interesting relievo phenomena and have a decided bearing upon the growth of ornament. in all the primitive weaving with which we are acquainted definite reticulated patterns are produced by variations in the spacings and other relations of the warp and woof; and the same is true in all the higher forms of the art. the production of reticulated work is the especial function of netting, knitting, crocheting, and certain varieties of needlework, and a great diversity of relieved results are produced, no figure being too complex and no form too pronounced to be undertaken by ambitious workmen. in the following figures we have illustrations of the peculiar class of primitive experiments that, after the lapse of ages, lead up to marvelous results, the highest of which may be found in the exquisite laces of cultured peoples. the americans had only taken the first steps in this peculiar art, but the results are on this account of especial interest in the history of the art. an example of simple reticulated hand weaving is shown in fig. 308. it is the work of the mound builders and is taken from an impression upon an ancient piece of pottery obtained in tennessee. [illustration: fig. 308. incipient stage of reticulated ornament. fabric of the mound builders.] fig. 309 illustrates a bit of ancient peruvian work executed on a frame or in a rude loom, a checker pattern being produced by arranging the warp and woof now close together and now wide apart. open work of this class is sometimes completed by after processes, certain threads or filaments being drawn out or introduced, by which means the figures are emphasized and varied. in fig. 310 we have a second peruvian example in which the woof threads have been omitted for the space of an inch, and across this interval the loose warp has been plaited and drawn together, producing a lattice-like band. [illustration: fig. 309. simple form of ornamental reticulation. ancient peruvian work.] [illustration: fig. 310. reticulated pattern in cotton cloth. work of the ancient peruvians.] in a similar way four other bands of narrow open work are introduced, two above and two below the wide band. these are produced by leaving the warp threads free for a short space and drawing alternate pairs across each other and fixing them so by means of a woof thread, as shown in the cut. examples of netting in which decorative features have been worked are found among the textile products of many american tribes and occur as well in several groups of ancient fabrics, but in most cases where designs of importance or complexity are desired parts are introduced to facilitate the work. _superconstructive features._--these features, so important in the decoration of fabrics, are the result of devices by which a construction already capable of fulfilling the duties imposed by function has added to it parts intended to enhance beauty and which may or may not be of advantage to the fabric. they constitute one of the most widely used and effective resources of the textile decorator, and are added by sewing or stitching, inserting, drawing, cutting, applying, appending, &c. they add enormously to the capacity for producing relievo effects and make it possible even to render natural forms in the round. notwithstanding this fact--the most important section of this class of features--embroidery is treated to better advantage under color phenomena, as color is very generally associated with the designs. [illustration: fig. 311. open work design embroidered upon a net-like fabric. from a grave at ancon, peru.] one example of lace-like embroidery may be given in this place. it is probably among the best examples of monochrome embroidery america has produced. in design and in method of realization it is identical with the rich, colored embroideries of the ancient peruvians, being worked upon a net foundation, as shown in fig. 311. the broad band of figures employs bird forms in connection with running geometric designs, and still more highly conventional bird forms are seen in the narrow band. appended ornaments are not amenable to the geometric laws of fabrication to the extent observed in other classes of ornament. they are, however, attached in ways consistent with the textile system, and are counted and spaced with great care, producing designs of a more or less pronounced geometric character. the work is a kind of embroidery, the parts employed being of the nature of pendants. these include numberless articles derived from nature and art. it will suffice to present a few examples already at hand. [illustration: fig. 312. basket with pendent buckskin strands tipped with bits of tin. apache indians--1/8.] fig. 312 illustrates a large, well made basket, the work of the apache indians. it serves to indicate the method of employing tassels and clustered pendants, which in this case consist of buckskin strings tipped with conical bits of tin. the checker pattern is in color. [illustration: fig. 313. basket with pendants of beads and bits of shell, work of the northwest coast indians.--1/4.] fig. 313 illustrates the use of other varieties of pendants. a feather decked basket made by the northwest coast indians is embellished with pendent ornaments consisting of strings of beads tipped with bits of bright shell. the importance of this class of work in higher forms of textiles may be illustrated by an example from peru. it is probable that american art has produced few examples of tasseled work more wonderful than that of which a fragment is shown in fig. 314. it is a fringed mantle, three feet in length and nearly the same in depth, obtained from an ancient tomb. the body is made up of separately woven bands, upon which disk-like and semilunar figures representing human faces are stitched, covering the surface in horizontal rows. to the center of these rosette-like parts clusters of tassels of varying sizes are attached. the fringe, which is twenty inches deep, is composed entirely of long strings of tassels, the larger tassels supporting clusters of smaller ones. there are upwards of three thousand tassels, the round heads of which are in many cases woven in colors, ridges, and nodes to represent the human features. the general color of the garment, which is of fine, silky wool, is a rich crimson. the illustration can convey only a hint of the complexity and beauty of the original. [illustration: fig. 314. tassel ornamentation from an ancient peruvian mantle.] we have now seen how varied and how striking are the surface characters of fabrics as expressed by the third dimension, by variation from a flat, featureless surface, and how all, essential and ornamental, are governed by the laws of geometric combination. we shall now see how these are related to color phenomena. color phenomena. _ordinary features._--in describing the constructive characters of fabrics and the attendant surface phenomena, i called attention to the fact that a greater part of the design manifested is enforced and supplemented by color, which gives new meaning to every feature. color elements are present in the art from its very inception, and many simple patterns appear as accidents of textile aggregation long before the weaver or the possessor recognizes them as pleasing to the eye. when, finally, they are so recognized and a desire for greater elaboration springs up, the textile construction lends itself readily to the new office and under the esthetic forces brings about wonderful results without interfering in the least with the technical perfection of the articles embellished. but color is not confined to the mere emphasizing of figures already expressed in relief. it is capable of advancing alone into new fields, producing patterns and designs complex in arrangement and varied in hue, and that, too, without altering the simple, monotonous succession of relievo characters. in color, as in relieved design, each species of constructive combination gives rise to more or less distinct groups of decorative results, which often become the distinguishing characteristics of the work of different peoples and the progenitors of long lines of distinctions in national decorative conceptions. in addition to this apparently limitless capacity for expression, lovers of textile illumination have the whole series of extraordinary resources furnished by expedients not essential to ordinary construction, the character and scope of which have been dwelt upon to some extent in the preceding section. i have already spoken of color in a general way, as to its necessary presence in art, its artificial application to fabrics and fabric materials, its symbolic characters, and its importance to esthetic progress. my object in this section is to indicate the part it takes in textile design, its methods of expression, the processes by which it advances in elaboration, and the part it takes in all geometric decoration. it will be necessary, in the first place, to examine briefly the normal tendencies of color combination while still under the direct domination of constructive elaboration. in the way of illustration, let us take first a series of filaments, say in the natural color of the material, and pass through them in the simplest interlaced style a second series having a distinct color. a very simple geometric pattern is produced, as shown in fig. 315. it is a sort of checker, an emphasized presentation of the relievo pattern shown in fig. 291, the figures running horizontally, vertically, and diagonally. had these filaments been accidentally associated in construction, the results might have been the same, but it is unnecessary to indicate in detail the possibilities of adventitious color combinations. so far as they exhibit system at all it is identical with the relievo elaboration. [illustration: fig. 315. pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors.] [illustration: fig. 316. pattern produced by modifying the alternation of fillets.] [illustration: fig. 317. isolated figures produced by modifying the order of intersection.] assuming that the idea of developing these figures into something more elaborate and striking is already conceived, let us study the processes and tendencies of growth. a very slight degree of ingenuity will enable the workman to vary the relation of the parts, producing a succession of results such, perhaps, as indicated in fig. 316. in this example we have rows of isolated squares in white which may be turned hither and thither at pleasure, within certain angles, but they result in nothing more than monotonous successions of squares. [illustration: fig. 318. pattern produced by simple alternations of light and dark fillets. basketry of the indians of british guiana.] additional facility of expression is obtained by employing dark strands in the vertical series also, and large, isolated areas of solid color may be produced by changing the order of intersection, certain of the fillets being carried over two or more of the opposing series and in contiguous spaces at one step, as seen in fig. 317. with these elementary resources the weaver has very considerable powers of expression, as will be seen in fig. 318, which is taken from a basket made by south american indians, and in fig. 341, where human figures are delineated. the patterns in such cases are all rigidly geometric and exhibit stepped outlines of a pronounced kind. with impacting and increased refinement of fillets the stepped character is in a considerable measure lost sight of and realistic, graphic representation is to a greater extent within the workman's reach. it is probable, however, that the idea of weaving complex ideographic characters would not occur to the primitive mind at a very early date, and a long period of progress would elapse before delineative subjects would be attempted. i do not need to follow this style of combination into the more refined kinds of work and into loom products, but may add that through all, until perverted by ulterior influences, the characteristic geometricity and monotonous repetition are allpervading. * * * * * for the purpose of looking still more closely into the tendencies of normal textile decorative development i shall present a series of indian baskets, choosing mainly from the closely woven or impacted varieties because they are so well represented in our collections and at the same time are so very generally embellished with designs in color; besides, they are probably among the most simple and primitive textile products known. i have already shown that several types of combination when closely impacted produce very similar surface characters and encourage the same general style of decoration. in nearly all, the color features are confined to one series of fillets--those of the woof--the other, the warp, being completely hidden from view. in the preceding series the warp and woof were almost equally concerned in the expression of design. here but one is used, and in consequence there is much freedom of expression, as the artist carries the colored filaments back and forth or inserts new ones at will. still it will be seen that in doing this he is by no means free; he must follow the straight and narrow pathway laid down by the warp and woof, and, do what he may, he arrives at purely geometric results. [illustration: fig. 319. base of coiled basket showing the method of building by dual coiling. the base or warp coil is composed of untwisted fiber and is formed by adding to the free end as the coiling goes on. the woof or binding filament, as it is coiled, is caught into the upper surface of the preceding turn--1/8.] [illustration: fig. 320. coiled basket with simple geometric ornament. work of the northwest coast indians--1/8.] i will now present the examples, which for the sake of uniformity are in all cases of the coiled ware. if a basket is made with no other idea than that of use the surface is apt to be pretty uniform in color, the natural color of the woof fillets. if decoration is desired a colored fillet is introduced, which, for the time, takes the place and does the duty of the ordinary strand. fig. 319 serves to show the construction and surface appearance of the base of a coil made vessel still quite free from any color decoration. now, if it is desired to begin a design, the plain wrapping thread is dropped and a colored fillet is inserted and the coiling continues. carried once around the vessel we have an encircling line of dark color corresponding to the lower line of the ornament seen in fig. 320. if the artist is content with a single line of color he sets the end of the dark thread and takes up the light colored one previously dropped and continues the coiling. if further elaboration is desired it is easily accomplished. in the example given the workman has taken up the dark fillet again and carried it a few times around the next turn of the warp coil; then it has been dropped and the white thread taken up, and again, in turn, another dark thread has been introduced and coiled for a few turns, and so on until four encircling rows of dark, alternating rectangles have been produced. desiring to introduce a meandered design he has taken the upper series of rectangles as bases and adding colored filaments at the proper time has carried oblique lines, one to the right and the other to the left, across the six succeeding ridges of the warp coil. the pairs of stepped lines meeting above were joined in rectangles like those below, and the decoration was closed by a border line at the top. the vessel was then completed in the light colored material. in this ornament all forms are bounded by two classes of lines, vertical and horizontal (or, viewed from above or below, radial and encircling), the lines of the warp and the woof. oblique bands of color are made up of series of rectangles, giving stepped outlines. although these figures are purely geometric, it is not impossible that in their position and grouping they preserve a trace of some imitative conception modified to this shape by the forces of the art. they serve quite as well, however, to illustrate simple mechanical elaboration as if entirely free from suspicion of associated ideas. [illustration: fig. 321. coiled basket with encircling bands of ornament in white, red, and black, upon a yellowish ground. obtained from the indians of the tule river, california--1/8.] in fig. 321 i present a superb piece of work executed by the indians of the tule river, california. it is woven in the closely impacted, coiled style. the ornament is arranged in horizontal zones and consists of a series of diamond shaped figures in white with red centers and black frames set side by side. the processes of substitution where changes of color are required are the same as in the preceding case and the forms of figures and the disposition of designs are the same, being governed by the same forces. [illustration: fig. 322. coiled basket with ornament arranged in zigzag rays. obtained from the pima indians of arizona--1/8.] another choice piece, from the pima indians of arizona, is given in fig. 322. the lines of the ornament adhere exclusively to the directions imposed by the warp and the woof, the stripes of black color ascending with the turns of the fillet for a short distance, then for a time following the horizontal ridges, and again ascending, the complete result being a series of zigzag rays set very close together. these rays take an oblique turn to the left, and the dark figures at the angles, from the necessities of construction, form rows at right angles to these. a few supplementary rays are added toward the margin to fill out the widening spaces. another striking example of the domination of technique over design is illustrated in fig. 323. [illustration: fig. 323. coiled basket with two bands of meandered ornament. obtained from the pima indians of arizona--1/4.] two strongly marked, fret-like meanders encircle the vessel, the elements of which are ruled exclusively by the warp and woof, by the radiate and the concentric lines of construction. this is the work of the pima indians of arizona. [illustration: fig. 324. coiled basket with geometric ornament composed of triangular figures. obtained from the mccloud river indians, california--1/8.] i shall close the series with a very handsome example of indian basketry and of basketry ornamentation (fig. 324). the conical shape is highly pleasing and the design is thoroughly satisfactory and, like all the others, is applied in a way indicative of a refined sense of the decorative requirements of the utensil. the design is wholly geometric, and, although varied in appearance, is composed almost exclusively of dark triangular figures upon a light ground. the general grouping is in three horizontal or encircling bands agreeing with or following the foundation coil. details are governed by the horizontal and the oblique structure lines. the vertical construction lines have no direct part in the conformation of the design excepting in so far as they impose a stepped character upon all oblique outlines. these studies could be carried through all the types of primitive textile combination, but such a work seems unnecessary, for in all cases the elaboration in design, relieved and colored, is along similar lines, is governed by the same class of forces, and reaches closely corresponding results. * * * * * we have observed throughout the series of examples presented a decided tendency toward banded or zonal arrangement of the ornamentation. now each of these bands is made up of a number of units, uniform in shape and in size and joined or linked together in various suitable and consistent ways. in contemplating them we are led to inquire into the nature of the forces concerned in the accomplishment of such results. the question arises as to exactly how much of the segregating and aggregating forces or tendencies belongs to the technique of the art and how much to the direct esthetic supervision of the human agent, questions as to ideographic influence being for the present omitted. this is a difficult problem to deal with, and i shall not attempt more here than to point out the apparent teachings of the examples studied. the desires of the mind constitute the motive power, the force that gives rise to all progress in art; the appreciation of beauty and the desire to increase it are the cause of all progress in purely decorative elaboration. it appears, however, that there is in the mind no preconceived idea of what that elaboration should be. the mind is a growing thing and is led forward along the pathways laid out by environment. seeking in art gratification of an esthetic kind it follows the lead of technique along the channels opened by such of the useful arts as offer suggestions of embellishment. the results reached vary with the arts and are important in proportion to the facilities furnished by the arts. as i have already amply shown, the textile art possesses vast advantages over all other arts in this respect, as it is first in the field, of widest application, full of suggestions of embellishment, and inexorably fixed in its methods of expression. the mind in its primitive, mobile condition is as clay in the grasp of technique. a close analysis of the forces and the influences inherent in the art will be instructive. for the sake of simplicity i exclude from consideration all but purely mechanical or non-ideographic elements. it will be observed that order, uniformity, symmetry, are among the first lessons of the textile art. from the very beginning the workman finds it necessary to direct his attention to these considerations in the preparation of his material as well as in the building of his utensils. if parts employed in construction are multiple they must be uniform, and to reach definite results (presupposing always a demand for such results), either in form or ornament, there must be a constant counting of numbers and adjusting to spaces. the most fundamental and constant elements embodied in textile art and available for the expression of embellishment are the minute steps of the intersections or bindings; the most necessary and constant combination of these elements is in continuous lines or in rows of isolated figures; the most necessary and constant directions for these combinations are with the web and the woof, or with their complementaries, the diagonals. if large areas are covered certain separation or aggregation of the elements into larger units is called for, as otherwise absolute sameness would result. such separation or aggregation conforms to the construction lines of the fabric, as any other arrangement would be unnatural and difficult of accomplishment. when the elements or units combine in continuous zones, bands, or rays they are placed side by side in simple juxtaposition or are united in various ways, always following the guide lines of construction through simple and complex convolutions. whatever is done is at the suggestion of technique; whatever is done takes a form and arrangement imposed by technique. results are like in like techniques and are unlike in unlike techniques; they therefore vary with the art and with its variations in time and character. all those agencies pertaining to man that might be supposed important in this connection--the muscles of the hand and of the eye, the cell structure of the brain, together with all preconceived ideas of the beautiful--are all but impotent in the presence of technique, and, so far as forms of expression go, submit completely to its dictates. ideas of the beautiful in linear geometric forms are actually formed by technique, and taste in selecting as the most beautiful certain ornaments produced in art is but choosing between products that in their evolution gave it its character and powers, precisely as the animal selects its favorite foods from among the products that throughout its history constitute its sustenance and shape its appetites. * * * * * now, as primitive peoples advance from savagery to barbarism there comes a time in the history of all kinds of textile products at which the natural technical progress of decorative elaboration is interfered with by forces from without the art. this occurs when ideas, symbolic or otherwise, come to be associated with the purely geometric figures, tending to arrest or modify their development, or, again, it occurs when the artist seeks to substitute mythologic subjects for the geometric units. this period cannot be always well defined, as the first steps in this direction are so thoroughly subordinated to the textile forces. between what may be regarded as purely technical, geometric ornament and ornament recognizably delineative, we find in each group of advanced textile products a series of forms of mixed or uncertain pedigree. these must receive slight attention here. [illustration: fig. 325. coiled basket ornamented with devices probably very highly conventionalized mythological subjects. obtained from the apache--1/8.] fig. 325 represents a large and handsome basket obtained from the apache. it will be seen that the outline of the figures comprising the principal zone of ornament departs somewhat from the four ruling directions of the textile combination. this was accomplished by increasing the width of the steps in the outline as the dark rays progressed, resulting in curved outlines of eccentric character. this eccentricity, coupled with the very unusual character of the details at the outer extremities of the figures, leads to the surmise that each part of the design is a conventional representation of some life form, a bird, an insect, or perhaps a man. by the free introduction of such elements textile ornament loses its pristine geometric purity and becomes in a measure degraded. in the more advanced stages of pueblo art the ornament of nearly all the textiles is pervaded by ideographic characters, generally rude suggestions of life forms, borrowed, perhaps, from mythologic art. this is true of much of the coiled basketry of the moki indians. true, many examples occur in which the ancient or indigenous geometric style is preserved, but the majority appear to be more or less modified. in many cases nothing can be learned from a study of the designs themselves, as the particular style of construction is not adapted to realistic expression, and, at best, resemblances to natural forms are very remote. two examples are given in figs. 326 and 327. i shall expect, however, when the art of these peoples is better known, to learn to what particular mythic concept these mixed or impure geometric devices refer. [illustration: fig. 326. coiled tray with geometric devices probably modified by ideographic association. moki work--1/4.] the same is true of other varieties of pueblo basketry, notably the common decorated wickerware, two specimens of which are given in figs. 328 and 329. this ware is of the interlaced style, with radially arranged web filaments. its geometric characters are easily distinguished from those of the coiled ware. many examples exhibit purely conventional elaboration, the figures being arranged in rays, zones, checkers, and the like. it is to be expected, however, that the normal ornament of this class of products should be greatly interfered with through attempts to introduce extraneous elements, for the peoples have advanced to a stage of culture at which it is usual to attempt the introduction of mythologic representations into all art. further consideration of this subject will be necessary in the next section of this paper. [illustration: fig. 327. coiled tray with geometric devices, probably modified by ideographic association. moki work--1/4.] [illustration: fig. 328. tray of interlaced style of weaving, showing geometric ornament, probably modified by ideographic association. moki work--1/4.] the processes of pure geometric elaboration with which this section is mainly concerned can be studied to best advantage in more primitive forms of art. [illustration: fig. 329. tray of interlaced style of weaving, showing geometric ornament, probably modified by ideographic association. moki work--1/4.] _non-essential constructive features._--now, all the varied effects of color and design described in the preceding paragraphs are obtained without seriously modifying the simple necessary construction, without resorting to the multiple extraordinary devices within easy reach. the development and utilization of the latter class of resources must now receive attention. in the preceding examples, when it was desired to begin a figure in color the normal ground filament was dropped out and a colored one set into its place and made to fill its office while it remained; but we find that in many classes of work the colored elements were added to the essential parts, not substituted for them, although they are usually of use in perfecting the fabric by adding to serviceability as well as to beauty. this is illustrated, for example, by the doubling of one series or of both warp and woof, by the introduction of pile, by wrapping filaments with strands of other colors, or by twisting in feathers. savage nations in all parts of the world are acquainted with devices of this class and employ them with great freedom. the effects produced often correspond closely to needlework, and the materials employed are often identical in both varieties of execution. the following examples will serve to illustrate my meaning. the effect seen in fig. 330 is observed in a small hand wallet obtained in mexico. the fillets employed appear to be wide, flattened straws of varied colors. in order to avoid the monotony of a plain checker certain of the light fillets are wrapped with thin fillets of dark tint in such a way that when woven the dark color appears in small squares placed diagonally with the fundamental checkers. additional effects are produced by covering certain portions of the filaments with straws of distinct color, all being woven in with the fabric. by other devices certain parts of the fillets are made to stand out from the surface in sharp points and in ridges, forming geometric figures, either normal or added elements being employed. another device is shown in fig. 331. here a pattern is secured by carrying dark fillets back and forth over the light colored fabric, catching them down at regular intervals during the process of weaving. again, feathers and other embellishing media are woven in with the woof. two interesting baskets procured from the indians of the northwest coast are shown in figs. 332 and 333. feathers of brilliant hues are fixed to and woven in with certain of the woof strands, which are treated, in the execution of patterns, just as are ordinary colored threads, care being taken not to destroy the beauty of the feathers in the process. the richly colored feathers lying smoothly in one direction are made to represent various figures necessarily geometric. this simple work is much surpassed, however, by the marvelous feather ornamentation of the mexicans and peruvians, of which glowing accounts are given by historians and of which a few meager traces are found in tombs. much of the feather work of all nations is of the nature of embroidery and will receive attention further on. a very clever device practiced by the northwest coast tribes consists in the use of two woof strands of contrasting colors, one or the other being made to appear on the surface, as the pattern demands. [illustration: fig. 330. ornament produced by wrapping certain light fillets with darker ones before weaving. mexican work.] [illustration: fig. 331. ornamental effect secured by weaving in series of dark fillets, forming a superficial device. work of the klamath indians.] [illustration: fig. 332. baskets ornamented with feather work. northwest coast tribes--1/4.] [illustration: fig. 333. baskets ornamented with feather work. northwest coast tribes--1/4.] an example from a higher grade of art will be of value in this connection. the ancient peruvians resorted to many clever devices for purposes of enrichment. an illustration of the use of extra-constructional means to secure desired ends are given in figs. 334 and 335. threads constituting a supplemental warp and woof are carried across the under side of a common piece of fabric, that they may be brought up and woven in here and there to produce figures of contrasting color upon the right side. fig. 334 shows the right side of the cloth, with the secondary series appearing in the border and central figure only. fig. 335 illustrates the opposite side and shows the loose hanging, unused portions of the auxiliary series. in such work, when the figures are numerous and occupy a large part of the surface, the fabric is really a double one, having a dual warp and woof. examples could be multiplied indefinitely, but it will readily be seen from what has been presented that the results of these extraordinary means cannot differ greatly from those legitimately produced by the fundamental filaments alone. [illustration fig. 334. piece of cotton cloth showing the use of a supplementary web and woof. ancient peru.] [illustration fig. 335. piece of cotton cloth showing the use of a supplementary web and woof. ancient peru.] _superconstructive features._--in reviewing the superconstructive decorative features in the preceding section i classified them somewhat closely by method of execution or application to the fabric, as stitched, inserted, drawn, cut, applied, and appended. it will be seen that, although these devices are to a great extent of the nature of needlework, all cannot be classed under this head. before needles came into use the decorative features were inserted and attached in a variety of ways. in open work nothing was needed but the end of the fillet or part inserted; again, in close work, perforations were made as in leather work, and the threads were inserted as are the waxed ends of the shoemaker. the importance of this class of decorative devices to primitive peoples will be apparent if we but call to mind the work of our own indian tribes. what a vast deal of attention is paid to those classes of embroideries in which beads, feathers, quills, shells, seeds, teeth, &c., are employed, and to the multitude of novel applications of tassels, fringes, and tinkling pendants. the taste for these things is universal and their relation to the development of esthetic ideas is doubtless very intimate. needlework arose in the earliest stages of art and at first was employed in joining parts, such as leaves, skins, and tissues, for various useful purposes, and afterwards in attaching ornaments. in time the attaching media, as exposed in stitches, loops, knots, and the like, being of bright colors, were themselves utilized as embellishment, and margins and apertures were beautified by various bindings and borders, and finally patterns were worked in contrasting colors upon the surfaces of the cloths and other materials of like nature or use. no other art so constantly and decidedly suggested embellishment and called for the exercise of taste. it was the natural habitat for decoration. it was the field in which technique and taste were most frequently called upon to work hand in hand. with the growth of culture the art was expanded and perfected, its wonderful capacity for expression leading from mere bindings to pretentious borders, to patterns, to the introduction of ideographs, to the representation of symbols and mythologic subjects, and from these to the delineation of nature, the presentation of historical and purely pictorial scenes. and now a few words in regard to the character of the work and its bearing upon the geometric system of decoration. as purely constructive ornamentation has already been presented, i will first take up that class of superconstructive work most nearly related to it. in some varieties of basketry certain bindings of the warp and woof are actually left imperfect, with the idea of completing the construction by subsequent processes, the intersections being gone over stitch by stitch and lashed together, the embroidery threads passing in regular order through the openings of the mesh. this process is extremely convenient to the decorator, as changes from one color to another are made without interfering with construction, and the result is of a closely similar character to that reached by working the colors in with warp and woof. in a very close fabric this method cannot be employed, but like results are reached by passing the added filaments beneath the protruding parts of the bindings and, stitch by stitch, covering up the plain fabric, working bright patterns. fig. 336 is intended to show how this is done. the foundation is of twined work and the decorating fillets are passed under by lifting, with or without a needle. this process is extensively practiced by our west coast tribes, and the results are extremely pleasing. the materials most used are quills and bright colored straws, the foundation fabric being of bark or of rushes. the results in such work are generally geometric, in a way corresponding more or less closely with the ground work combination. [illustration: fig. 336. grass embroidery upon the surface of closely impacted, twined basketry. work of the northwest coast indians.] a large class of embroideries are applied by like processes, but without reference to the construction of the foundation fabric, as they are also applied to felt and leather. again, artificially prepared perforations are used, through which the fillets are passed. the results are much less uniformly geometric than where the fabric is followed; yet the mere adding of the figures, stitch by stitch or part by part, is sufficient to impart a large share of geometricity, as may be seen in the buckskin bead work and in the dentalium and quill work of the indians. feather embroidery was carried to a high degree of perfection by our ancient aborigines, and the results were perhaps the most brilliant of all these wonderful decorations. i have already shown how feathers are woven in with the warp and woof, and may now give a single illustration of the application of feather work to the surfaces of fabrics. among the beautiful articles recovered from the tombs of ancon, peru, are some much decayed specimens of feather work. in our example delicate feathers of red, blue, and yellow hues are applied to the surface of a coarse cotton fabric by first carefully tying them together in rows at regular distances and afterwards stitching them down, as shown in fig. 337. the same method is practiced by modern peoples in many parts of the world. other decorative materials are applied in similar ways by attachment to cords or fillets which are afterwards stitched down. in all this work the geometricity is entirely or nearly uniform with that of the foundation fabrics. other classes of decoration, drawn work, appliqué, and the like, are not of great importance in aboriginal art and need no additional attention here, as they have but slight bearing upon the development of design. [illustration: fig. 337. feather embroidery of the ancient peruvians, showing the method of attaching the feathers.] attached or appended ornaments constitute a most important part of decorative resource. they are less subject to the laws of geometricity, being fixed to surfaces and margins without close reference to the web and woof. they include fringes, tassels, and the multitude of appendable objects, natural and artificial, with which primitive races bedeck their garments and utensils. a somewhat detailed study of this class of ornament is given at the end of the preceding section. _adventitious features._--ornament is applied to the surfaces of fabrics by painting and by stamping. these methods of decoration were employed in very early times and probably originated in other branches of art. if the surface features of the textile upon which a design is painted are strongly pronounced, the figures produced with the brush or pencil will tend to follow them, giving a decidedly geometric result. if the surface is smooth the hand is free to follow its natural tendencies, and the results will be analogous in character to designs painted upon pottery, rocks, or skins. in primitive times both the texture of the textiles and the habits of the decorator, acquired in textile work, tended towards the geometric style of delineation, and we find that in work in which the fabric lines are not followed at all the designs are still geometric, and geometric in the same way as are similar designs woven in with the fabric. illustrations of this are given in the next section. * * * * * i have dwelt at sufficient length upon the character and the tendencies of the peculiar system of embellishment that arises within textile art as the necessary outgrowth of technique, and now proceed to explain the relations of this system to associated art. in the strong forward tendency of the textile system of decoration it has made two conquests of especial importance. in the first place it has subdued and assimilated all those elements of ornament that have happened to enter its realm from without, and in the second place it has imposed its habits and customs upon the decorative systems of all arts with which the textile art has come in contact. geometricity imposed upon adopted elements of design. at a very early stage of culture most peoples manifest decided artistic tendencies, which are revealed in attempts to depict various devices, life forms, and fancies upon the skin and upon the surfaces of utensils, garments, and other articles and objects. the figures are very often decorative in effect and may be of a trivial nature, but very generally such art is serious and pertains to events or superstitions. the devices employed may be purely conventional or geometric, containing no graphic element whatever; but life forms afford the most natural and satisfactory means of recording, conveying, and symbolizing ideas, and hence preponderate largely. such forms, on account of their intimate relations with the philosophy of the people, are freely embodied in every art suitable to their employment. as already seen, the peculiar character of textile construction places great difficulties in the way of introducing unsymmetric and complex figures like those of natural objects into fabrics. the idea of so employing them may originally have been suggested by the application of designs in color to the woven surfaces or by resemblances between the simpler conventional life form derivatives and the geometric figures indigenous to the art. at any rate, the idea of introducing life forms into the texture was suggested, and in the course of time a great deal of skill was shown in their delineation, the bolder workmen venturing to employ a wide range of graphic subjects. now, if we examine these woven forms with reference to the modifications brought about by the textile surveillance, we find that the figures, as introduced in the cloth, do not at all correspond with those executed by ordinary graphic methods, either in degree of elaboration or in truthfulness of expression. they have a style of their own. each delineative element upon entering the textile realm is forced into those peculiar conventional outlines imposed by the geometric construction, the character of which has already been dwelt upon at considerable length. we find, however, that the degree of convention is not uniform throughout all fabrics, but that it varies with the refinement of the threads or filaments, the compactness of the mesh, the character of the combination, the graphic skill of the artist, and the tendencies of his mind; yet we observe that through all there is still exhibited a distinct and peculiar geometricity. so pronounced is this technical bias that delineations of a particular creature--as, for example, a bird--executed by distant and unrelated peoples, are reduced in corresponding styles of fabric to almost identical shapes. this conventionalizing force is further illustrated by the tendency in textile representation to blot out differences of time and culture, so that when a civilized artisan, capable of realistic pictorial delineation of a high order, introduces a figure into a certain form of coarse fabric he arrives at a result almost identical with that reached by the savage using the same, who has no graphic language beyond the rudest outline. a number of examples may be given illustrating this remarkable power of textile combination over ornament. i select three in which the human figure is presented. one is chosen from iroquoian art, one from digger indian art, and one from the art of the incas--peoples unequal in grade of culture, isolated geographically, and racially distinct. i have selected specimens in which the parts employed give features of corresponding size, so that comparisons are easily instituted. the example shown in fig. 338 illustrates a construction peculiar to the wampum belts of the iroquois and their neighbors, and quite unlike ordinary weaving. it is taken from the middle portion of what is known as the penn wampum belt. the horizontal series of strands consists of narrow strips of buckskin, through which the opposing series of threads are sewed, holding in place the rows of cylindrical shell beads. purple beads are employed to develop the figures in a ground of white beads. if the maker of this belt had been required to execute in chalk a drawing depicting brotherly love the results would have been very different. [illustration: fig. 338. figures from the penn wampum belt, showing the conventional form imposed in bead work.] my second illustration (fig. 339) is drawn from a superb example of the basketry of the yokut indians of california. the two figures form part of a spirally radiating band of ornament, which is shown to good advantage in the small cut. fig. 340. it is of the coiled style of construction. the design is worked in four colors and the effect is quiet and rich. [illustration: fig. 339. conventional figures from a california indian basket.] [illustration: fig. 340. basket made by the yokut indians of california.] turning southward from california and passing through many strange lands we find ourselves in peru, and among a class of remains that bespeak a high grade of culture. the inhabitants of ancon were wonderfully skilled in the textile art, and thousands of handsome examples have been obtained from their ancient tombs. among these relics are many neat little workbaskets woven from rushes. one of these, now in the national museum, is encircled by a decorated belt in which are represented seven human figures woven in black filaments upon a brown ground. the base and rim of the basket are woven in the intertwined combination, but in the decorated belt the style is changed to the plain right angled interlacing, for the reason, no doubt, that this combination was better suited to the development of the intended design. besides the fundamental series of fillets the weaver resorted to unusual devices in order to secure certain desired results. in the first place the black horizontal series of filaments does not alternate in the simplest way with the brown series, but, where a wide space of the dark color is called for, several of the brown strands are passed over at one step, as in the head and body, and in the wider interspaces the dark strands pass under two or more of the opposing strands. in this way broad areas of color are obtained. it will be observed, however, that the construction is weakened by this modification, and that to remedy the defect two additional extra constructive series of fillets are added. these are of much lighter weight than the main series, that they may not obscure the pattern. over the dark series they run vertically and over the light obliquely. [illustration: fig. 341. conventional human figures from an ancient peruvian basket.] it will be seen that the result, notwithstanding all this modification of procedure, is still remarkably like that of the preceding examples, the figures corresponding closely in kind and degree of geometricity. the fact is that in this coarse work refinement of drawing is absolutely unattainable. it appears that the sharply pronounced steps exhibited in the outlines are due to the great width of the fillets used. with the finer threads employed by most nations of moderate culture the stepped effect need not obtrude itself, for smooth outlines and graceful curves are easily attainable; yet, as a rule, even the finer fabrics continue to exhibit in their decorations the pronounced geometric character seen in ruder forms. i present a striking example of this in fig. 342, a superb piece of incarian gobelins, in which a gaily costumed personage is worked upon a dark red ground dotted with symbols and strange devices. the work is executed in brilliant colors and in great detail. but with all the facility afforded for the expression of minutely modulated form the straight lines and sharp angles are still present. the traditions of the art were favorable to great geometricity, and the tendencies of the warp and woof and the shape of the spaces to be filled were decidedly in that direction. [illustration: fig. 342. human figure in peruvian gobelins, showing characteristic textile convention. from chromolithographs published by reiss and stübel in the necropolis of ancon.] [illustration: fig. 343. human figures from a peruvian vase, done in free hand, graphic style.] in order that the full force of my remarks may be appreciable to the eye of the reader, i give an additional illustration (fig. 343). the two figures here shown, although i am not able to say positively that the work is pre-columbian, were executed by a native artist of about the same stage of culture as was the work of the textile design. these figures are executed in color upon the smooth surface of an earthen vase and illustrate perfectly the peculiar characters of free hand, graphic delineation. place this and the last figure side by side and we see how vastly different is the work of two artists of equal capacity when executed in the two methods. this figure should also be compared with the embroidered figures shown in fig. 348. the tendencies to uniformity in textile ornament here illustrated may be observed the world over. every element entering the art must undergo a similar metamorphosis; hence the remarkable power of this almost universally practiced art upon the whole body of decorative design. [illustration: fig. 344. human figure modified by execution in concentric interlaced style of weaving--1/3.] that the range of results produced by varying styles of weaving and of woven objects may be appreciated, i present some additional examples. coiled wares, for instance, present decorative phenomena strikingly at variance with those in which there is a rectangular disposition of parts. instead of the two or more interlacing series of parallel fillets exhibited in the latter style, we have one radiate and one concentric series. the effect of this arrangement upon the introduced human figure is very striking, as will be seen by reference to fig. 344, which represents a large tray obtained from the moki indians. the figure probably represents one of the mythologic personages of the moki pantheon or some otherwise important priestly functionary, wearing the characteristic headdress of the ceremony in which the plaque was to be used. the work is executed in wicker, stained in such bright tints as were considered appropriate to the various features of the costume. referring in detail to the shape and arrangement of the parts of the figure, it is apparent that many of the remarkable features are due to constructive peculiarities. the round face, for example, does not refer to the sun or the moon, but results from the concentric weaving. the oblique eyes have no reference to a mongolian origin, as they only follow the direction of the ray upon which they are woven, and the headdress does not refer to the rainbow or the aurora because it is arched, but is arched because the construction forced it into this shape. the proportion of the figure is not so very bad because the moki artist did not know better, but because the surface of the tray did not afford room to project the body and limbs. [illustration: fig. 345. figure of a bird painted upon a zuñi shield, free hand delineation.] now, it may be further observed that had the figure been placed at one side of the center, extending only from the border to the middle of the tray, an entirely different result would have been reached; but this is better illustrated in a series of bird delineations presented in the following figures. with many tribes the bird is an object of superstitious interest and is introduced freely into all art products suitable for its delineation. it is drawn upon walls, skins, pottery, and various utensils and weapons, especially those directly connected with ceremonies in which the mythical bird is an important factor. the bird form was probably in familiar use long before it was employed in the decoration of basketry. in fig. 345 i present an ordinary graphic representation. it is copied from a zuñi shield and is the device of an order or the totem of a clan. the style is quite conventional, as a result of the various constraints surrounding its production. but what a strange metamorphosis takes place when it is presented in the basketmaker's language. observe the conventional pattern shown upon the surface of a moki tray (fig. 346). we have difficulty in recognizing the bird at all, although the conception is identical with the preceding. the positions of the head and legs and the expanded wings and tail correspond as closely as possible, but delineation is hampered by technique. the peculiar construction barely permits the presentation of a recognizable life form, and permits it in a particular way, which will be understood by a comparison with the treatment of the human figure in fig. 344. in that case the interlaced combination gives relievo results, characterized by wide, radiating ribs and narrow, inconspicuous, concentric lines, which cross the ribs in long steps. the power of expression lies almost wholly with the concentric series, and detail must in a great measure follow the concentric lines. in the present case (fig. 346) this is reversed and lines employed in expressing forms are radiate. [illustration: fig. 346. figure of a bird executed in a coiled moki tray, textile delineation.] the precise effect of this difference of construction upon a particular feature may be shown by the introduction of another illustration. in fig. 347 we have a bird woven in a basket of the interlaced style. we see with what ease the long sharp bill and the slender tongue (shown by a red filament between the two dark mandibles) are expressed. in the other case the construction is such that the bill, if extended in the normal direction, is broad and square at the end, and the tongue, instead of lying between the mandibles, must run across the bill, totally at variance with the truth; in this case the tongue is so represented, the light vertical band seen in the cut being a yellow stripe. it will be seen that the two representations are very unlike each other, not because of differences in the conception and not wholly on account of the style of weaving, but rather because the artist chose to extend one across the whole surface of the utensil and to confine the other to one side of the center. [illustration: fig. 347. figure of a bird woven in interlaced wicker at one side of the center.] it is clear, therefore, from the preceding observations that the convention of woven life forms varies with the kind of weaving, with the shape of the object, with the position upon the object, and with the shape of the space occupied, as well as with the inherited style of treatment and with the capacity of the artist concerned. these varied forces and influences unite in the metamorphosis of all the incoming elements of textile embellishment. it will be of interest to examine somewhat closely the modifications produced in pictorial motives introduced through superstructural and adventitious agencies. we are accustomed, at this age of the world, to see needlework employed successfully in the delineation of graphic forms and observe that even the indian, under the tutelage of the european, reproduces in a more or less realistic way the forms of vegetal and animal life. as a result we find it difficult to realize the simplicity and conservatism of primitive art. the intention of the primitive artist was generally not to depict nature, but to express an idea or decorate a space, and there was no strong reason why the figures should not submit to the conventionalizing tendencies of the art. i have already shown that embroidered designs, although not from necessity confined to geometric outlines, tend to take a purely geometric character from the fabric upon which they are executed, as well as from the mechanical processes of stitching. this is well shown in fig. 348, a fine specimen given by wiener in his work pérou et bolive. [illustration: fig. 348. embroidery upon a cotton net in which the textile combinations are followed step by step. ancient peruvian work.] a life form worked upon a net does not differ essentially from the same subject woven in with the web and woof. the reason is found in the fact that in embroidery the workman was accustomed from the first to follow the geometric combination of the foundation fabric step by step, and later in life delination he pursued the same method. it would seem natural, however, that when the foundation fabric does not exhibit well marked geometric characters, as in compactly woven canvas, the needlework would assume free hand characters and follow the curves and irregularities of the natural object depicted; but such is not the case in purely aboriginal work. an example of embroidery obtained from an ancient grave at ancon, peru, is shown in fig. 349. a piece of brown cotton canvas is embellished with a border of bird figures in bright colored wool thread. the lines of the figures do not obey the web and woof strictly, as the lines are difficult to follow, but the geometric character is as perfectly preserved as if the design were woven in the goods. [illustration: fig. 349. embroidery in which the foundation fabric is not followed accurately, but which exhibits the full textile geometricity. ancient peruvian work.] [illustration: fig. 350. design painted in color upon a woven surface, exhibiting the full degree of geometric convention. ancient peruvian work. copied from the necropolis of ancon.] so habit and association carry the geometric system into adventitious decoration. when the ancient peruvian executed a design in color upon a woven surface (fig. 350), using a pencil or brush, the result was hardly less subject to textile restraint. as a matter of course, since there are two distinct styles of decorative design--the textile and the free hand--there exist intermediate forms partaking of the character of both; but it is nevertheless clear that the textile system transforms or greatly modifies all nature motives associated with it, whether introduced into the fabric or applied to its surface. in countries where the textile art is unimportant and the textile system of decoration does not obtrude itself, free hand methods may prevail to such an extent that the geometric influence is but little felt. the haidah indians, for example, paint designs with great freedom and skill, and those applied to woven surfaces are identical with those executed upon skins, wood, and stone, but this art is doubtless much modified by the means and methods of europeans. our studies should be confined wholly to pure indigenous art. extension of textile ornament to other forms of art. i have now dwelt at sufficient length upon the character of the textile system of ornament and have laid especial stress upon the manner in which it is interwoven with the technical constitution of the art. i have illustrated the remarkable power of the art by which decorative elements from without, coming once within the magic influence, are seized upon and remodeled in accordance with the laws of textile combination. pursuing the investigation still further it is found that the dominion of the textile system is not limited to the art, but extends to other arts. like a strong race of men it is not to be confined to its own original habitat, but spreads to other realms, stamping its own habits and character upon whatever happens to come within its reach. its influence is felt throughout the whole range of those arts with which the esthetic sense of man seeks to associate ideas of beauty. it is necessary, before closing this paper, to examine briefly the character and extent of this influence and to describe in some detail the agencies through which the results are accomplished. first and most important are the results of direct transmission. house building, or architecture as it is called in the higher stages, is in primitive times to a great extent textile; as culture develops, other materials and other systems of construction are employed, and the resultant forms vary accordingly; but textile characters are especially strong and persistent in the matter of ornament, and survive all changes, howsoever complete. in a similar way other branches of art differentiated in material and function from the parent art inherit many characters of form and ornament conceived in the textile stage. it may be difficult to say with reference to any particular example of design that it had a textile origin, for there may be multiple origins to the same or to closely corresponding forms; but we may assert in a general way of the great body of geometric ornament that it owes something--if not its inspiration, its modes of expression--to the teachings of the textile system. this appears reasonable when we consider that the weaver's art, as a medium of esthetic ideas, had precedence in time over nearly all competitors. being first in the field it stood ready on the birth of new forms of art, whether directly related or not, to impose its characters upon them. what claim can architecture, sculpture, or ceramics have upon the decorative conceptions of the digger indians, or even upon those of the zuñi or moki? the former have no architecture, sculpture, or ceramics; but their system of decoration, as we have seen, is highly developed. the pueblo tribes at their best have barely reached the stage at which esthetic ideas are associated with building; yet classic art has not produced a set of geometric motives more chaste or varied. these examples of the development of high forms of decoration during the very early stages of the arts are not isolated. others are observed in other countries, and it is probable that if we could lift the veil and peer into the far prehistoric stages of the world's greatest cultures the same condition and order would be revealed. it is no doubt true that all of the shaping arts in the fullness of their development have given rise to decorative features peculiar to themselves; for construction, whether in stone, clay, wood, or metal, in their rigid conditions, exhibits characters unknown before, many of which tend to give rise to ornament. but this ornament is generally only applicable to the art in which it develops, and is not transferable by natural processes--as of a parent to its offspring--as are the esthetic features of the weaver's art. besides the direct transmission of characters and forms as suggested in a preceding paragraph, there are many less direct but still efficacious methods of transfer by means of which various arts acquire textile decorative features, as will be seen by the following illustrations. japanese art is celebrated for its exquisite decorative design. upon superb works of porcelain we have skillful representations of subjects taken from nature and from mythology, which are set with perfect taste upon fields or within borders of elaborate geometric design. if we should ask how such motives came to be employed in ceramic decoration, the answer would be given that they were selected and employed because they were regarded as fitting and beautiful by a race of decorators whose taste is well nigh infallible. but this explanation, however satisfactory as applied to individual examples of modern art, is not at all applicable to primitive art, for the mind of man was not primarily conscious of the beauty or fitness of decorative elements, nor did he think of using them independently of the art to which they were indigenous. now the ceramic art gives rise to comparatively few elements of decoration, and must therefore acquire the great body of its decorative motives from other arts by some process not primarily dependent upon the exercise of judgment or taste, and yet not by direct inheritance, as the techniques of the two arts are wholly distinct. textile and fictile arts are, in their earlier stages, to a large extent, vessel making arts, the one being functionally the offshoot of the other. the textile art is the parent, and, as i have already shown, develops within itself a geometric system of ornament. the fictile art is the offshoot and has within itself no predilection for decoration. it is dependent and plastic. its forms are to a great extent modeled and molded within the textile shapes and acquire automatically some of the decorative surface characters of the mold. this is the beginning of the transfer, and as time goes on other methods are suggested by which elements indigenous to the one art are transferred to the other. thus we explain the occurrence, the constant recurrence of certain primary decorative motives in primitive ceramics. the herring bone, the checker, the guilloche, and the like are greatly the heritage of the textile art. two forms derived from textile surfaces are illustrated in figs. 351 and 352. in the first example shown, herring bone patterns appear as the result of textile combination, and in the second a triangular checker is produced in the same way. in fig. 352 we see the result of copying these patterns in incised lines upon soft clay. [illustration: fig. 351. herring bone and checker patterns produced in textile combinations.] [illustration: fig. 352. herring bone and checker figures in fictile forms transferred from the textile.] again, the ancient potter, who was in the habit of modeling his wares within baskets, seems to have conceived the idea of building his vessels by coiling just as he built his baskets. the surface exhibits coiled ridges like basketry, as shown in fig. 353, and the textile character was further imposed upon the clay by marking these coils with the thumb and with implements to give the effect of the transverse series of filaments, and the geometric color patterns of the basketry were reproduced in incised lines. when these peoples came to paint their wares it was natural that the colored patterns native to the basketry should also be reproduced, and many more or less literal transfers by copying are to be found. a fine example of these painted textile designs is shown in fig. 354. it is executed in a masterly style upon a handsome vase of the white ware of ancient tusayan. not only are the details reproduced with all their geometric exactness, but the arrangement of the designs upon the vessel is the same as in the textile original. nine-tenths of the more archaic, pueblo, ceramic, ornamental designs are traceable to the textile art, and all show the influence of textile convention. [illustration: fig. 353. earthen vase built by coiling, exhibiting decorative characters derived from basketry.] [illustration: fig. 354. ceramic ornament copied literally from a textile original.] another peculiar class of transfers of a somewhat more indirect nature may be noticed. all the more advanced american nations were very fond of modeling the human form in clay, a large percentage of vessels having some trace of the human form or physiognomy. now, in many cases the costume of the personage represented in the clay is also imitated, and generally in color, the details of the fabrics receiving their full share of attention. such an example, from a sepulcher at ancon, is shown in fig. 355. here the poncho or mantle thrown across the shoulders falls down upon the body in front and behind and the stripes and conventional fishes are accurately reproduced. in this way both style and matter of the textile decoration are introduced into the ceramic art. [illustration: fig. 355. textile patterns transferred to pottery through the copying of costume. from the necropolis of ancon, by reiss and stübel, pl. 94.] it will be seen by these illustrations that there are many natural methods, automatic or semiautomatic in character, by which the one art receives aid from the other; that in the beginning of the transfer of textile ornament to fictile forms the process is purely mechanical, and that it is continued automatically without any very decided exercise of judgment or taste. as a result, these borrowed decorations are generally quite as consistent and appropriate as if developed within the art itself. later in the course of progress the potter escapes in a measure from this narrow groove and elaborates his designs with more freedom, being governed still to a certain extent by the laws of instinctive and automatic procedure. when, finally, intellect assumes to carry on the work independently of these laws, decoration tends to become debased. turning to other branches of art, what traces do we find of the transfer to them of textile features? take, for example, sculpture. in the wood carving of the polynesians we observe a most elaborate system of decoration, more or less geometric in character. we do not need to look a second time to discover a striking likeness to the textile system, and we ask, is it also derived from a textile source? in the first place let us seek within the art a reason for the peculiar forms. in carving wood and in tracing figures upon it with pointed tools the tendency would certainly be towards straight lines and formal combinations; but in this work there would be a lack of uniformity in execution and of persistency in narrow lines of combination, such as result from the constant necessity of counting and spacing in the textile art. in the presentation of natural forms curved lines are called for, and there is nothing inherent in the carver's art to forbid the turning of such lines with the graver or knife. graphic art would be realistic to an extent regulated by the skill and habits of the artist. but, in reality, the geometric character of this work is very pronounced, and we turn naturally toward the textile art to ask whether in some way that art has not exercised an influence. the textile arts of these peoples are highly developed and were doubtless so in a degree from very early times, and must have had a close relation with the various arts, and especially so in the matter of ornament. specific examples may be cited showing the intimacy of wood carving to textilia. bows, spears, arrows, &c. are bound with textile materials to increase their strength. knives and other weapons are covered with textile sheaths and handles of certain utensils are lashed on with twisted cords. in ceremonial objects these textile features are elaborated for ornament and the characteristic features of this ornament are transferred to associated surfaces of wood and stone by the graver. a most instructive illustration is seen in the ceremonial adzes so numerous in museums (fig. 356). the cords used primarily in attaching the haft are, after loss of function, elaborately plaited and interwoven until they become an important feature and assume the character of decoration. the heavy wooden handles are elaborately carved, and the suggestions of figures given by the interlaced cords are carried out in such detail that at a little distance it is impossible to say where the real textile surface ceases and the sculptured portion begins. all things considered, i regard it as highly probable that much of the geometric character exhibited in polynesian decoration is due to textile dominance. that these peoples are in the habit of employing textile designs in non-textile arts is shown in articles of costume, such as the tapa cloths, made from the bark of the mulberry tree, which are painted or stamped in elaborate geometric patterns. this transfer is also a perfectly natural one, as the ornament is applied to articles having functions identical with the woven stuffs in which the patterns originate, and, besides, the transfer is accomplished by means of stamps themselves textile. fig. 357 illustrates the construction of these stamps and indicates just how the textile character is acquired. [illustration: fig. 356. ceremonial adz, with carved ornament imitating textile wrapping. polynesian work.] textile materials are very generally associated with the human figure in art, and thus sculpture, which deals chiefly with the human form, becomes familiar with geometric motives and acquires them. through sculpture these motives enter architecture. but textile decoration pervades architecture before the sculptor's chisel begins to carve ornament in stone and before architecture has developed of itself the rudiments of a system of surface embellishment. textile art in mats, covers, shelters, and draperies is intimately associated with floors and walls of houses, and the textile devices are in time transferred to the stone and plaster. the wall of an ancient pueblo estufa, or ceremonial chamber, built in the pre-esthetic period of architecture, antedating, in stage of culture, the first known step in egyptian art, is encircled by a band of painted figures, borrowed, like those of the pottery, from a textile source. the doorway or rather entrance to the rude hovel of a navajo indian is closed by a blanket of native make, unsurpassed in execution and exhibiting conventional designs of a high order. [illustration: fig. 357. portion of a tapa stamp, showing its subtextile character. a palm leaf is cut to the desired shape and the patterns are sewed in or stitched on.] [illustration: fig. 358. design in stucco, exhibiting textile characters.] the ancient "hall of the arabesques" at chimu, peru, is decorated in elaborate designs that could only have arisen in the textile art (fig. 358), and other equally striking examples are to be found in other american countries. the classic surface decorations known and used in oriental countries from time immemorial prevailed in indigenous american architecture at a stage of culture lower than any known stage of classic art. it may appear that i have advocated too strongly the claims of the textile art to the parentage of geometric ornament and that the conclusions reached are not entirely satisfactory, but i have endeavored so to present the varied phenomena of the art that the student may readily reach deductions of his own. a correspondingly careful study of other branches of art will probably enable us finally to form a just estimate of the relative importance of the forces and tendencies concerned in the evolution of decoration. * * * * * index alaskan indians, illustration of ornamentation by 199 ancon, peru, examples of ornamentation from graves at 212, 230, 231, 236, 243, 248 apache, illustrations of ornamentation by 198, 213, 223 british guiana indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 217 chimu, peru, ornamentation of "hall of arabesques" at 251, 252 clallam indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 207 color in textile art 201, 202 color phenomena in textile ornament 215-232 form in textile art and its relation to ornament, with illustrations from indian work 196-201 geometric design, relations of, to textile ornament 202-244 holmes, w. h. paper by, on textile art in its relation to the development of form and ornament 189-252 klamath indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 208, 209, 227 mccloud river indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 221 moki, illustrations of ornamentation by 197, 205, 224, 225, 226, 238, 240 northwest coast indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 213, 218, 227, 230 penn wampum belt 233 peruvians, ancient, illustrations of ornamentation by 211, 212, 214, 228, 230, 231, 235, 236, 237, 242, 243, 248 pima indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 220 piute indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 198, 205 polynesian ornamentation, illustrations of 249, 250 seminole indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 207 textile art in its relation to the development of form and ornament, paper by w. h. holmes on 189-252 tule river indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 219 tusayan ornament, illustrations of 247, 248 wiener, cited 242 yokut indians, illustrations of ornamentation by 233, 234 zuñi, illustrations of ornamentation by 239 * * * * * textiles and clothing by kate heintz watson graduate armour institute of technology formerly instructor in domestic art lewis institute lecturer university of chicago [illustration: american school of home economics seal] chicago american school of home economics 1907 copyright 1906, 1907, by home economics association the library of home economics a complete home-study course on the new profession of home-making and art of right living; the practical application of the most recent advances in the arts and sciences to home and health prepared by teachers of recognized authority for home-makers, mothers, teachers, physicians, nurses, dietitians, professional house managers, and all interested in home, health, economy and children twelve volumes nearly three thousand pages, one thousand illustrations tested by use in correspondence instruction revised and supplemented [illustration: american school of home economics seal] chicago american school of home economics 1907 copyright, 1907 by home economics association entered at stationers' hall, london _all rights reserved._ authors isabel bevier, ph. m. professor of household science, university of illinois. author u. s. government bulletins, "development of the home economics movement in america," etc. alice peloubet norton, m. a. assistant professor of home economics, school of eduction, university of chicago; director of the chautauqua school of domestic science. s. maria elliott instructor in home economics, simmons college; formerly instructor school of housekeeping, boston. anna barrows director chautauqua school of cookery; lecturer teachers' college, columbia university, and simmons college; formerly editor "american kitchen magazine;" author "home science cook book." alfred cleveland cotton, a. m., m. d. professor diseases of children, rush medical college, university of chicago; visiting physician presbyterian hospital, chicago; author of "diseases of children." bertha m. terrill, a. b. professor in home economics in hartford school of pedagogy; author of u. s. government bulletins. kate heintz watson formerly instructor in domestic economy, lewis institute; lecturer university of chicago. marion foster washburne editor "the mothers' magazine;" lecturer chicago froebel association; author "everyday essays," "family secrets," etc. margaret e. dodd graduate massachusetts institute of technology; teacher of science, woodard institute. amy elizabeth pope with the panama canal commission; formerly instructor in practical and theoretical nursing, training school for nurses, presbyterian hospital, new york city. maurice le bosquet, s. b. director american school of home economics; member american public health association and american chemical society. contributors and editors ellen h. richards author "cost of food," "cost of living," "cost of shelter," "food materials and their adulteration," etc., etc.; chairman lake placid conference on home economics. mary hinman abel author of u. s. government bulletins, "practical sanitary and economic cooking," "sale food," etc. thomas d. wood, m. d. professor of physical education, columbia university. h. m. lufkin, m. d. professor of physical diagnosis and clinical medicine, university of minnesota. otto folin, ph. d. special investigator, mclean hospital, waverly, mass. t. mitchell prudden, m. d., ll. d. author "dust and its dangers," "the story of the bacteria," "drinking water and ice supplies," etc. frank chouteau brown architect, boston, mass.; author of "the five orders of architecture," "letters and lettering." mrs. melvil dewey secretary lake placid conference on home economics. helen louise johnson professor of home economics, james millikan university, decatur. frank w. allin, m. d. instructor rush medical college, university of chicago. managing editor maurice le bosquet, s. b. director american school of home economics. board of trustees of the american school of home economics mrs. arthur courtenay neville president of the board. miss maria parloa founder of the first cooking school in boston; author of "home economics," "young housekeeper," u. s. government bulletins, etc. mrs. mary hinman abel co-worker in the "new england kitchen," and the "rumford food laboratory;" author of u. s. government bulletins, "practical sanitary and economic cooking," etc. miss alice ravenhill special commissioner sent by the british government to report on the schools of home economics in the united states; fellow of the royal sanitary institute, london. mrs. ellen m. henrotin honorary president general federation of woman's clubs. mrs. frederic w. schoff president national congress of mothers. mrs. linda hull larned past president national household economics association; author of "hostess of to-day." mrs. walter mcnab miller chairman of the pure food committee of the general federation of woman's clubs. mrs. j. a. kimberly vice president of national household economics association. mrs. john hoodless government superintendent of domestic science for the province of ontario; founder ontario normal school of domestic science, now the macdonald institute. [illustration: dress making in mexico] contents primitive methods 3 weaving 14 fibers 29 cotton 29 wool 37 flax 43 silk 53 modern methods 59 weaving 69 weaves 72 bleaching and dyeing 78 printing 81 finishing 83 cotton goods 85 linens 86 woolens and worsteds 88 silks 90 names of fabrics 94 bibliography on textiles 103 hand sewing 107 ornamental stitches 114 hems 123 tucks and seams 128 plackets 135 sewing on bands 138 fastenings 141 patching 149 darning 155 mitering embroidery, joining lace 158 machine sewing 162 dressmaking 167 patterns 171 making seven-gored skirt 172 making shirt waists 182 lined waist 186 sleeves 194 collars 198 seamless yokes 200 pressing 201 construction and ornament in dress 203 ornament of textiles 212 color 214 children's clothes 216 care of clothing 219 cleaning 221 repairing 225 bibliography on sewing and dressmaking 229 references: history of costume; ornament and design 234 program for supplemental study 236 index 241 [illustration: "the thread of life" spinning with the distaff and spindle. from a painting.] textiles and clothing [sidenote: origin of textile arts] spinning and weaving are among the earliest arts. in the twisting of fibers, hairs, grasses, and sinews by rolling them between the thumb and fingers, palms of the hands, or palms and naked thigh, we have the original of the spinning wheel and the steam-driven cotton spindle; in the roughest plaiting we have the first hint of the finest woven cloth. the need of securing things or otherwise strengthening them then led to binding, fastening, and sewing. the wattle-work hut with its roof of interlaced boughs, the skins sewn by fine needles with entrails or sinews, the matted twigs, grasses, and rushes are all the crude beginnings of an art which tells of the settled life of to-day. [sidenote: primitive methods] nothing is definitely known of the origin of these arts; all is conjecture. they doubtless had their beginning long before mention is made of them in history, but these crafts--spinning and weaving--modified and complicated by inventions and, in modern times transferred largely from man to machine, were distinctively woman's employment. the very primitive type of spinning, where no spindle was used, was to fasten the strands of goats' hair or wool to a stone which was twirled round until the yarn was sufficiently twisted when it was wound upon the stone and the process repeated over and over. [illustration: italian woman spinning flax spindle and distaff. from hull house museum. (in this series of pictures the spinners and weavers are in native costume.)] [illustration: russian spinning flax held on frame, leaving both hands free to manage the thread and spindle. from hull house museum.] [sidenote: spinning with the spindle] the next method of twisting yarn was with the spindle, a straight stick eight to twelve inches long on which the thread was wound after twisting. at first it had a cleft or split in the top in which the thread was fixed; later a hook of bone was added to the upper end. the spindle is yet used by the north american indians, the italians, and in the orient. the bunch of wool or flax fibers is held in the left hand; with the right hand the fibers are drawn out several inches and the end fastened securely in the slit or hook on the top of the spindle. a whirling motion is given to the spindle on the thigh or any convenient part of the body; the spindle is then dropped, twisting the yarn, which is wound on the upper part of the spindle. another bunch of fibers is drawn out, the spindle is given another twirl, the yarn is wound on the spindle, and so on. [sidenote: spindle whorl] a spindle containing a quantity of yarn was found to rotate more easily, steadily and continue longer than an empty one, hence the next improvement was the addition of a _whorl_ at the bottom of the spindle. these whorls are discs of wood, stone, clay, or metal which keep the spindle steady and promote its rotation. the process in effect is precisely the same as the spinning done by our grandmothers, only the spinning wheel did the twisting and reduced the time required for the operation. [illustration: spinning with crude wheel and distaff distaff thrust into the belt.] [illustration: "gossip" in the olden times] [illustration: colonial wool wheel the large wheel revolved by hand thus turning the spindle and twisting the yarn, which is then wound on the spindle; intermittent in action.] [illustration: colonial flax wheel worked by a foot treddle; distaff on the frame of the wheel; "fliers" on the spindle, continuous in action; capacity seven times that of hand spindle.] [illustration: dutch wheel spinner sits in front of the wheel spinning flax at hull house.] [sidenote: distaff] later the distaff was used for holding the bunch of wool, flax, or other fibers. it was a short stick on one end of which was loosely wound the raw material. the other end of the distaff was held in the hand, under the arm or thrust in the girdle of the spinner. when held thus, one hand was left free for drawing out the fibers. [illustration: graphic diagram showing time during which different methods of spinning has been used.] [sidenote: wheel spinning] on the small spinning wheel the distaff was placed in the end of the wheel bench in front of the "fillers"; this left both hands free to manage the spindle and to draw out the threads of the fibers. [illustration: syrian spinning spinner sits on the floor, wheel turned by a crank; spindle held in place by two mutton joints which contain enough oil for lubrication. at hull house.] the flax spinning wheel, worked by means of a treadle, was invented in the early part of the sixteenth century and was a great improvement upon the distaff and spindle. this it will be seen was a comparatively modern invention. the rude wheel used by the natives of japan and india may have been the progenitor of the european wheel, as about this time intercourse between the east and europe increased. these wheels were used for spinning flax, wool, and afterwards cotton, until hargreaves' invention superseded it. weaving someone has said that "weaving is the climax of textile industry." it is an art practiced by all savage tribes and doubtless was known before the dawn of history. the art is but a development of mat-making and basketry, using threads formed or made by spinning in place of coarser filaments. [illustration: pueblo woman working heddle in weaving a belt] [illustration: a navajo belt weaver] [illustration: zuni woman weaving ceremonial belt] [illustration: primitive heddles] [sidenote: the heddle] in the beginning of the art the warp threads were stretched between convenient objects on the ground or from horizontal supports. at first the woof or filling threads were woven back and forth between the warp threads as in darning. an improvement was the device called the "heald" or "heddle," by means of which alternate warp threads could be drawn away from the others, making an opening through which the filling thread could be passed quickly. one form of the heddle was simply a straight stick having loops of cord or sinew through which certain of the warp threads were run. another form was a slotted frame having openings or "eyes" in the slats. this was carved from one piece of wood or other material or made from many. alternate warp threads passed through the eyes and the slots. by raising or lowering the heddle frame, an opening was formed through which the filling thread, wound on a rude shuttle, was thrown. the next movement of the heddle frame crossed the threads over the filling and made a new opening for the return of the shuttle. at first the filling thread was wound on a stick making a primitive bobbin. later the shuttle to hold the bobbin was devised. [illustration: navajo loom one on the earliest types of looms. at hull house.] [illustration: simple colonial loom] [sidenote: the reed] before the "reed" was invented, the filling threads were drawn evenly into place by means of a rude comb and driven home by sword-shaped piece of wood or "batten." the reed accomplished all this at one time. [illustration: a japanese loom.] [illustration: a four harness hand loom weaving linen in the mountains of virginia. (photograph by c. r. dodge).] [illustration: typical colonial hand loom two harnesses in use; weaving wool at hull house.] [illustration: diagram of a hand loom _a_--warp beam; _b_--cloth beam; _dd_--lees rods; _h_--harness; _t_--treddle.] [sidenote: definition of a loom] it is probable that the european looms were derived from those of india as they seem to be made on the same principle. from crude beginnings, the hand loom of our grandmothers' time developed. a loom has been defined as a mechanism which affects the following necessary movements: 1. the lifting of the healds to form an opening, or shed, or race for the shuttle to pass through. 2. the throwing of the weft or filling by means of a shuttle. 3. the beating up of the weft left in the shed by the shuttle to the cloth already formed. this thread may be adjusted by means of the batten, needle, comb, or any separate device like the reed. 4 & 5. the winding up or taking up of the cloth as it is woven and the letting off of the warp as the cloth is taken up. [illustration: swedish hand loom norwegian woman weaving linen at hull house.] [illustration: diagram of the working parts of a loom. _s_--shuttle for carrying the woof; _r_--reed for beating up the woof; _h_--frame holding heddles, with pullies (_p_) making the harness; _t_--treddles for moving the harness.] [sidenote: colonial loom] no essential changes have been made since our grandmothers made cloth a hundred years ago. the "harnesses" move part of the warp now up, now down, and the shuttle carries the weft from side to side to be driven home by the reeds to the woven cloth. our grandmothers did all the work with swift movements of hands and feet. the modern weaver has her loom harnessed to the electric dynamo and moves her fingers only to keep the threads in order. if she wishes to weave a pattern in the cloth, no longer does she pick up threads of warp now here, now there, according to the designs. it is all worked out for her on the loom. each thread with almost human intelligence settles automatically into its appointed place, and the weaver is only a machine tender. [illustration: fly shuttle hand loom. the pulling of the reed automatically throws the shuttle back and forth and works the harness, making a shed at the proper time.] [sidenote: primitive fabrics] no textiles of primitive people were ever woven in "pieces" or "bolts" of yards and yards in length to be cut into garments. the cloth was made of the size and shape to serve the particular purpose for which it was designed. the mat, robe, or blanket had tribal outlines and proportions and was made according to the materials and the use of common forms that prevailed among the tribes. the designs were always conventional and sometimes monotonous. the decoration never interfered with its use. "the first beauty of the savage woman was uniformity which belonged to the texture and shape of the product." the uniformity in textile, basketry, or pottery, after acquiring a family trait, was never lost sight of. their designs were suggested by the natural objects with which they were familiar. [illustration: picking cotton. from department of agriculture bulletin, "the cotton plant."] fibers both the animal and vegetable kingdoms furnish the materials for clothing as well as for all the textiles used in the home. the fleece of sheep, the hair of the goat and camel, silk, furs, and skins are the chief animal products. the principal vegetable fibers are cotton, flax, ramie, jute, and hemp. [sidenote: chief fibers] cotton linen, wool, and silk have heretofore formed the foundation of all textiles and are the principal fibers used for clothing materials. ramie or china grass and pineapple fibers are sometimes used as adulterants in the manufacture of silk. when woven alone, they give soft silky textiles of great strength and beauty. cotton [illustration: production of cotton] cotton is now our chief vegetable fiber, the yearly crop being over six billion pounds, of which the united states raises three-fourths. texas is the largest producer, followed by georgia, alabama, and mississippi. the remainder of the world supply comes chiefly from india, egypt, russia, and brazil. the hindoos were the first ancient people to make extensive use of the cotton fiber. not until the invention of the cotton gin by eli whitney in 1794 did the cotton begin to reach its present importance. only four or five pounds of the fiber could be separated by hand from the seed by a week's labor. the modern saw gins turn out over five thousand pounds daily. [sidenote: native home] cotton is the white downy covering of the seed of several special of cotton of cotton plant. it is a native of many parts of the world, being found by columbus growing in the west indies and on the main land, by cortez in mexico, and pizarro in peru. [illustration: cotton fiber attached to seed] [sidenote: sea island cotton] the value of cotton depends upon the strength, and evenness of the fiber. in ordinary cotton the individual fiber is about an inch in length. the sea island cotton grown chiefly on the islands off the coast of georgia, carolina, and florida is the most valuable variety, having a fine fiber, one and one-half to two inches in length. some of the egyptian cotton belongs to this species. sea island cotton is used chiefly for fine laces, thread and knit goods and for the finest lawns and muslins. [sidenote: upland cotton] the short fiber or upland cotton is the most common and useful variety. it is grown in georgia, north and south carolina and alabama. texas cotton is similar to upland, but sometimes is harsh with shorter fiber. gulf cotton occupies a position between upland and sea island cotton. [illustration: upland cotton plant with fully developed boles from bulletin no. 31, georgia experiment station.] [illustration: cotton bole fully developed from year book of the department of agriculture, 1903.] [illustration: bole opened, cotton ready for picking year book of 1903.] the brazilian and peruvian cotton yields a long staple and is sometimes used to adulterate silk and other fibers. some varieties of this cotton are harsh and wooly and are prized for use in mixing with wool. [sidenote: nankin cotton] the nankin cotton grown in china and india and in the southwestern part of louisiana is characterized by its yellow color. it is used in weaving cloth of various kinds in the "fireside industries" which have become popular in the united states and england. [illustration: cotton fibers _a a_--unripe fibers; _b b_--half-ripe fibers; _c c_--ripe fibers.] [sidenote: spinning qualities] very fine yarn can be spun from cotton because of the spiral character of the fibers. this twist of the fibers is peculiar to cotton, being present in no other animal or vegetable fiber. on account of this twist, cotton cloths are much more elastic in character than those woven from linen, the fibers of which are stiff and straight. after the removal of the seed, no other fiber is so free from impurities--5 per cent is the loss sustained by cleaning and bleaching. in its natural condition, cotton will not dye readily because of a waxy substance on the surface of the fibers. this must be removed by washing. [sidenote: picking and ginning] cotton should be picked only when it is fully ripe when the pods are fully burst and the fibers expanded. the unripe fiber is glassy, does not attain its full strength and resists the dye. after picking, the cotton is sent to the ginning factory to have the seed removed. it is then pressed into bales by hydraulic presses, five hundred pounds being the standard bale in the united states. [illustration: cotton bales] [sidenote: physical characteristics] purified bleached cotton is nearly pure cellulose. it resists the action of alkalis well, but is harmed by hot, strong acids, or if acid is allowed to dry on the fabric. it is not harmed by high temperature, and so may be ironed with a hot iron. [illustration: wool fiber and substitutes 1. south american wool; 2. noil from the same; 3. tangled waste; 4. waste combed out; 5. lap waste; 6. shoddy.] wool [sidenote: character of fiber] wool is the most important animal fiber. strictly speaking the name applies only to the hairy covering of sheep, but the hair of certain goats and of camels is generally classified under the same terms. the wool fiber is distinguished by its scale-like surface which gives it its felting and spinning properties. hair as distinguished from wool has little or no scaly structure being in general a smooth filament with no felting properties and spinning only with great difficulty. fur is the undergrowth found on most fur-bearing animals and has in a modified way the scaly structure and felting properties of wool. [illustration: microscopic appearance of wool fibers] [sidenote: value for clothing] the great value of wool as a fiber lies in the fact that it is strong, elastic, soft, very susceptible to dye stuffs and being woven, furnishes a great number of air spaces, rendering clothing made from it very warm and light. [sidenote: quality of wool] climate, breed, and food influence the quality of the wool. where the pasturage is barren and rocky, the wool is apt to be coarse. [illustration: merino rams the variety of sheep giving the finest wool.] [sidenote: varieties of sheep] there are supposed to be about thirty distinct varieties of sheep, nearly half of which are natives of asia, one-third of africa, and only four coming from europe, and two from america. wool is divided into two general classes--long and short staple, according to the average length of fiber. the long fiber wool is commonly carded, combed and spun into _worsted_ yarn. the short fiber is usually carded and spun into woolen yarn. the short fiber obtained in combing long staple wool is called "noil." it is used for woolens. [sidenote: goat wools] alpaca, vicuna and llama wools are obtained from animals which are native to the mountains of peru and chile. the angora goat, originally from asia minor, furnishes the mohair of commerce. this fiber does not resemble the hairs of common goats in any respect. it is a very beautiful fiber of silky luster, which constitutes its chief value. [illustration: angora goats] [sidenote: fur] the fur of beavers and rabbits can be and is used in manufacture, either spun into yarn or made into felt. the fibers of both animals enter largely into the manufacture of felt hats. [sidenote: sorting wool] the fleece of sheep after being sheared is divided into different parts or _sorted_, according to the quality of the wool, the best wool coming from the sides of the animal. [illustration: wool fibers _a_--medium wool; _b_--camel's hair; _c_--diseased fiber; _d_--merino wool; _e_--mohair.] [sidenote: scouring wool] as it comes from the sheep, the wool contains many substances besides the wool fiber which must be removed before dyeing or spinning. this cleansing is called _scouring_. before scouring, the wool is usually dusted by machines to remove all loose dirt. the scouring must be done by the mildest means possible in order to preserve the natural fluffiness and brilliancy of the fiber. the chief impurity is the wool grease or "yolk" which is secreted by the skin glands to lubricate the fiber and prevent it from matting. [illustration: one method of wool sorting 1--the best grade; 2--lowest grade; 3--fair; 4--medium grade.] [sidenote: scouring agents] in the scouring of wool, soap is the principal agent. soft soap made from caustic potash is generally used as it is less harmful than ordinary hard soda soap. potassium carbonate--"pearl ash"--is often used in connection with the soap. if the water for scouring is hard, it is softened with pearl ash. the temperature of wash water is never allowed to go above 120â° f. the scoured wool weighs from a little over a half to one-third or less of the weight of the fleece. [sidenote: hydroscopic moisture] wool has the remarkable property of absorbing up to 30 per cent or more of its weight of water and yet not feel perceptibly damp to the touch. this is called "hydroscopic moisture." to this property wool owes its superiority as a textile for underclothing. [illustration: wool sorting] the thoroughly cleansed fiber is made up chiefly of the chemical substance keratin, being similar in composition to horn and feathers. in burning it gives off a characteristic disagreeable odor. it is a substance very weakly acid in its nature, for which reason it combines readily with many dyes. wool resists the action of acids very well, but is much harmed by the alkalis, being dissolved completely by a warm solution of caustic soda. high temperature harms wool. flax next to wool and cotton, flax is used most largely in our textile manufactures. the linen fiber consists of the bast cells of certain species of flax grown in europe, africa, and the united states. all bast fibers are obtained near the outer surface of the plant stems. the pith and woody tissues are of no value. the flax plant is an annual and to obtain the best fibers it must be gathered before it is fully ripe. to obtain seed from which the best quality of linseed oil can be made it is usually necessary to sacrifice the quality of the fibers to some extent. [illustration: flax] [sidenote: treatment of flax] unlike cotton, flax is contaminated by impurities from which it must be freed before it can be woven into cloth. the first process to which the freshly pulled flax is submitted is that of "rippling" or the removal of the seed capsules. retting, next in order, is the most important operation. this is done to remove the substances which bind the bast fibers to each other and to remove the fiber from the central woody portion of the stem. this consists of steeping the stalks in water. [illustration: a field of flax in minnesota the flax must be pulled up by the roots to give fibres with tapered ends. (photograph of c. r. dodge).] [sidenote: retting] (1) cold water retting, either running or stagnant water. (2) dew retting. (3) warm water retting. [illustration: retting tank _a_--inlet; _b_--undisturbed water; _c_--bundles of flax.] cold water retting in running water is practiced in belgium. retting in stagnant water is the method usually employed in ireland and russia. the retting in stagnant water is more rapidly done, but there is danger of over-retting on account of the organic matter retained in the water which favors fermentation. in this case the fiber is weakened. [illustration: retting flax in the river lys, belgium from the government bulletin, "flax for seed and fiber."] in dew retting, the flax is spread on the field and exposed to the action of the weather for several weeks without any previous steeping. this method of retting is practiced in germany and russia. warm water retting and chemical retting have met with limited success. when the retting is complete, the flax is set up in sheaves to dry. the next operations consist of "breaking," "scutching," and "hackling" and are now done by machinery. [illustration: fibers of flax] breaking removes the woody center from the retted and dried flax by being passed through a series of fluted rollers. the particles of woody matter adhering to the fibers are detached by scutching. [sidenote: hackling] hackling or combing still further separates the fibers into their finest filaments--"line" and "tow." the "flax line" is the long and valuable fiber; the tow, the short coarse tangled fiber which is spun and used for weaving coarse linen. [illustration: flax a, unthrashed straw; b, retted; c, cleaned or scutched; d, hackled or dressed. (photograph of c. r. dodge).] [illustration: hackling flax by hand the "tow" is seen at the left and a bunch of "flax line" on the bench. (photograph of c. r. dodge, special agent u. s. department of agriculture.)] [sidenote: characteristics of linen] when freed from all impurities the chief physical characteristics of flax are its snowy whiteness, silky luster and great tenacity. the individual fibers may be from ten to twelve inches in length; they are much greater in diameter than cotton. it is less pliant and elastic than cotton and bleaches and dyes less readily. linen cloth is a better conductor of heat than cotton and clothing made from it is cooler. when pure, it is, like cotton, nearly pure cellulose. [sidenote: ramie] besides the linen, there is a great number of bast fibers fit for textile purposes, some superior, some inferior. india alone has over three hundred plants that are fiber yielding. one-third of these furnish useful fibers for cordage and fabrics. the next in importance to linen is ramie or rhea, and china grass. china grass comes from a different plant but is about the same as ramie. the staple is longer and finer than linen. the great strength of yarn made from it is due to length of the staple. the variety and great value of the ramie fibers has long been recognized, but difficulties attending the separation and degumming of the fibers have prevented its employment in the manufactures to any great extent. the native chinese split and scrape the plant stems, steeping them in water. the common retting process used for flax is not effective on account of the large amount of gummy matter, and although easy to bleach it is difficult to dye in full bright shades without injuring the luster of the fibers. [sidenote: jute and hemp] jute and hemp belong to the lower order of bast fibers. the fiber is large and is unfit for any but the coarsest kind of fabrics. jute is mainly cultivated in bengal. the fiber is separated from the plant by retting, beating, etc. [illustration: jute growing in louisiana. from culture of hemp and jute, report of u. s. department of agriculture.] [illustration: drying hemp in kentucky from "culture of hemp and jute."] [sidenote: olona] olona, the textile fiber of hawaii, is found to have promising qualities. this plant resembles ramie and belongs to the nettle family also, but it is without the troublesome resin of the ramie. the fiber is fine, light, strong, and durable. the philippines are rich in fiber producing plants. the manila hemp is the most prominent, of which coarse cloth is woven, besides the valuable cordage. the sisal hemp, pineapple, yucca, and a number of fiber plants growing in the southern part of the united states are worthy of note. these fiber industries are conducted in a rude way, the fiber being cleaned by hand, except the pineapple. silk the silk fiber is the most perfect as well as the most beautiful of all fibers. it is nearly faultless, fine and continuous, often measuring from 1000 to 4000 feet long, without a scale, joint, or a blemish, though not of the same diameter or fineness throughout its entire length, as it becomes finer as the interior of the cocoon is approached. silk differs from all other vegetable or animal fibers by being devoid of all cellular structure. [sidenote: where produced] southern europe leads in the silk worm culture--italy, southern france, and turkey, with china and india. several species of moths, natives of india, china, and japan, produce the wild silk. the most important of the "wild silks" are the tussah. silk plush and the coarser varieties of buff colored fabrics are made of this silk. while manufacturers do not favor the wild silk, the coarse uneven weave and softness make it a favorite with artists and it is being used for interior decoration as well as for clothing. [sidenote: silk worm] the silk of commerce begins with an egg no bigger than a mustard seed, out of which comes a diminutive caterpillar, which is kept in a frame and fed upon mulberry leaves. when the caterpillars are full grown, they climb upon twigs placed for them and begin to spin or make the cocoon. the silk comes from two little orifices in the head in the form of a glutinous gum which hardens into a fine elastic fiber. with a motion of the head somewhat like the figure eight, the silk worm throws this thread around the body from head to tail until at last it is entirely enveloped. the body grows smaller and the thread grows finer until at last it has spun out most of the substance of the body and the task is done. if left to itself, when the time came, the moth would eat its way out of the cocoon and ruin the fiber. a few of the best cocoons are saved for a new supply of caterpillars; the remainder are baked at a low heat which destroys the worm but preserves the silk. this now becomes the cocoon of commerce. [sidenote: reeling silk] next the cocoons go to the reelers who wind the filaments into the silk yarn that makes the raw material of our mills. the cocoons are thrown into warm water mixed with soap in order to dissolve the gum. the outer or coarser covering is brushed off down to the real silk and the end of the thread found. four or five cocoons are wound together, the sticky fibers clinging to each other as they pass through the various guides and are wound as a single thread on the reels. the silk is dried and tied into hanks or skeins. as the thread unwinds from the cocoon, it becomes smaller, so other threads must be added. [illustration: silk:--caterpillar, cocoon, chrysalis, moth] [sidenote: organize and tram] at the mill the raw silk goes to the "throwster" who twists the silk threads ready for the loom. these threads are of two kinds--"organize" or warp and "tram" or filling. the warp runs the long way of woven fabric or parallel with the selvage and it must be strong, elastic, and not easily parted by rubbing. to prepare the warp, two threads of raw silk are slightly twisted. twist is always put into yarn of any kind to increase its strength. these threads are united and twisted together and this makes a strong thread capable of withstanding any reasonable strain in the loom and it will not roughen. for the woof or tram which is carried across the woven cloth on the shuttle, the thread should be as loose and fluffy as possible. several threads are put together, subjected to only a very slight twist--just enough to hold the threads together so they will lie evenly in the finished fabric. [sidenote: boiling off] after the yarn leaves the spinners it is again run off on reels to be taken to the dye house. first the yarn is boiled off in soapy water to remove the remaining gum. now the silk takes on its luster. before it was dull like cotton. the silk is now finer and harder and is known as "souple." [sidenote: loading silk] the silk fiber has a remarkable property of absorbing certain metallic salts, still retaining much of its luster. this process is known as "loading" or "weighting," and gives increased body and weight to the silk. silk without weighting is known as "pure dye," of which there is little made, as such goods take too much silk. [illustration: reeling silk] for the weighting of white or light colored silk goods, tin crystals (stanous chloride) are used and for dark shades and black, iron salts and tannin. by this means the original weight of the fiber may be increased three or four hundred per cent. this result is not attained, however, except through the weakening of the fiber. [sidenote: action of common salt] common salt has a very curious action on weighted silk. it slowly weakens the fiber. a silk dress may be ruined by being splashed with salt water at the seashore. most often holes appear after a dress comes back from the cleaners; these he may not be to blame for, as salt is abundant in nearly all the bodily secretions,--tears, perspiration, urine. [sidenote: artificial silk] artificial silk is made by dissolving cellulose obtained from cotton. it is lacking in strength and water spoils all kinds manufactured at present. [sidenote: characteristics of silk] silk, like wool, has the property of absorbing considerable moisture without becoming perceptibly damp. like wool and all the animal fibers, it is harmed by alkalis. the important physical properties of silk are its beautiful luster, strength, elasticity and the readiness with which it takes dyes. silk combines well with other fibers, animal and vegetable. [sidenote: value of raw fibers] a comparison of the relative value of textile fibers may be seen from the following approximate prices: cotton--$.07 to $.14 per pound; loss in cleaning and bleaching 5 per cent. flax--$.12 to $.30 per pound; loss in cleaning and bleaching about 20 per cent. wool--$.15 to $.30 per pound; loss in scouring 20 to 60 per cent. raw silk--$7.00 to $10.00 per pound; loss in "boiling off" about 30 per cent which is made up and much more by "loading." modern methods all the complex processes and machinery of the textile industry are but developments of the old-time methods of the home. brief outlines only will be given here for the processes are most intricate in detail. spinning the spinning of cotton yarn (thread) is typical of all the fibers. the stages may be divided into-1. opening and picking. 2. carding. 3. combing. 4. drawing. 5. spinning. [sidenote: picking and carding] the picking and carding have for their object the removal of all foreign substances with as little damage to the fiber as possible. the foreign substances in cotton are sand, dirt, pieces of leaves, seed, husk, etc., which have become mixed with the fiber during the process of growing, ginning and transportation. [sidenote: cleaning] the cotton bales are opened and thrown into the automatic feeder which carries up a layer of cotton on a spiked apron from which it is removed by a rapidly revolving "doffer" underneath which is a screen which catches some of the dirt. it is next fed between rolls in front of a rapidly revolving blunt-edged knife which throws out more of the dirt through a screen. there is a suction of air through the screen which helps remove the foreign substances. the cotton passes through several of such machines, being formed into a soft web or "lap" which is wound into a roll. [sidenote: carding] the carding machine further cleans the fibers and lays them in a general parallel position. from this machine the web is formed into "sliver," a loose rope of cotton fiber about two inches in diameter. this is received in circular cans. [illustration: cotton opener and picker the cotton from the bale is thrown into _a_, carried by the spiked aprons _b_ and _c_, evened by _e_, removed from the apron by _f_ (some of the dirt falls through the screen into box _g_) is beaten by the revolving "knife," _n p_, more dirt being removed through screen _n_, then goes through the flue _c_ to the next machine.] [sidenote: combing] the combing is omitted for short fiber cotton, but is used in worsted spinning and with long staple cotton to remove the short fibers. cotton to be used for making yarn suitable for hosiery, underwear, sewing thread, lace, and for very fine cotton fabrics is carded. in drawing, from six to sixteen "slivers" are run together and the fibers drawn out in several stages until the soft rope is about an eighth of an inch in diameter, called "roving." this tends to get rid of any unevenness and makes the fibers all parallel. from this machine the roving is wound on a bobbin ready for the spinning frame. [illustration: cotton card the roll of webbing _a_ is beaten and transferred to the cylinder _h h_, carded by the spiked belt _e_, removed by the "doffer" and formed into a "sliver" which runs into the can _m_.] [sidenote: spinning] the spinning frame may have a hundred spindles or more, each one of which is drawing out its supply of "roving" to the required size of yarn and giving it the twist necessary to bind the fibers together. the yarn to be used for the warp is given a harder twist so that it may be strong enough to stand the strain in weaving. the yarn for filling is usually left soft. [illustration: cotton comb, used for long staple] [illustration: receiving the "sliver" at the back of the drawing frame.] [illustration: drawing frame drawing the roving finer.] [illustration: a fly spinning frame the spools of roving above are being drawn out, given the twist by the fliers, and wound on bobbins below.] [illustration: mule drawing and spinning frame always used for wool. part of the machine moves away from the frame, thus drawing out the thread, which is then twisted.] [illustration: modern ring spinning frame for cotton. sixty-eight spindles gives the largest production.] [illustration: a plain power loom weaving linen] the yarn for warp is now usually given a coating or "sizing" of starch and gums so that the thread may not become unwound and break during weaving. the process of spinning is much the same for flax and for wool, although somewhat differently constructed machines must be used. flax is usually spun wet. weaving [sidenote: modern loom] the modern power driven loom is a wonderful piece of machinery. the principle of its operation is essentially the same as the hand loom, but it is almost perfectly automatic in its action, a man or woman being able to tend from ten to fifteen looms weaving plain cotton goods. [sidenote: warping] the yarn coming from the spinning frame is sometimes dyed before weaving. the warp is formed by winding as many threads as the width of the fabric is to contain on a slowly revolving drum, called a "beam," in the same relative position in which they are to appear in the finished cloth. from its position on the beam at the back of the loom, each thread is brought through its particular loop or eye with the heddle, then passes through its own slot in the reed, and down to the roller or "cloth beam" that is to take up the woven cloth. this is called "drawing in the warp." if there is a piece of cloth coming from the loom, the work is very simple, for the ends of the new warp are tied to the ends remaining from the warp that has been woven out. the shuttle with its bobbin, containing the yarn of the filling, is much the same as is used in the hand looms, except for form and size, which varies according to the requirements and size of the warp being used. at first only one shuttle was used, but in 1760 robert kay invented a mechanism by which several shuttles containing different grades or colors of yarn might be used. each throw of the shuttle across the width of the goods is called a "pick." [sidenote: the harness] in making a cloth with plain weave, that is, with every thread interlacing with every other, as in darning, only two harnesses are required, but the modern loom may have up to about twenty-four harnesses so that an infinite variety of weaves may be obtained. various cams and levers move the harness frame and so raise or lower the threads required for the design. [sidenote: jacquard loom] the jacquard loom is arranged on a different principle. in this loom, all kinds of fancy weaves may be obtained as in table linen, tapestries and carpets. each warp thread is supplied with a separate hook and by means of perforated card the desired threads are raised or depressed at each throw of the shuttle. the cards are worked out by the designer. a set of a thousand or more cards may be required to produce the desired design. jacquard looms are sometimes to be seen at fairs and expositions weaving handkerchiefs with some picture design. [illustration: jacquard hand loom weaving ingrain carpet at hull house.] weaves the great variety of weaves found in the textiles of to-day are modifications of a few fundamental weaves invented in the earliest times. the chief fundamental weaves are: (1) plain weave. (2) twills. (3) sateen. to which may be added the derivatives-(4) rib weave. (5) basket weave. [illustration: diagram of fancy knit goods] these do not include the many fancy weaves, too numerous to classify, and the open work weaves, made in the leno loom, in which some of the threads are crossed. knit goods are made by the interlooping of a single thread, by hand or on circular knitting machines and lace by an analogous process, using several systems of threads. felt is made up of matted fibers of fur and wool and has no thread structure. [illustration: weave diagrams] [sidenote: plain weave] the plain weave is the most common, nearly all light weight goods being thus woven. in plain weaving, each thread of both warp and filling passes alternately over and under the threads at right angles. this makes a comparatively open cloth, requiring the smallest amount of yarn for the surface covered. this weave is used in nearly all cotton goods, as in muslins, sheetings, calicoes, ginghams, and thin woolen goods. even in the plain weave variety is obtained by having some of the threads larger than others, either in warp or filling or both, thus producing stripes and checked effects. [illustration: sections of weaves _a_--plain weave; _b_--prunella twill; _c_--cassimere twill; _d_--swansdown twill.] [sidenote: twills] after the plain weave the twill is the most common, being much used for dress goods, suitings, etc., as well as some of the thicker cottons. in this weave the intersections of the threads produce characteristic lines diagonally across the fabric, most often at an angle of 45â°. the twill may be hardly visible or very pronounced. the simplest twills are the so-called "doeskin" and "prunella." in the doeskin the filling threads pass over one and under two of the warp threads and in the prunella twill over two and under one. the most common twill is the cassimere twill in which both the warp and filling run over two and under two of the threads at right angles. [illustration: diagram of rib and basket weave and double cloth] [sidenote: uneven twills] a twill made by running both warp and filling under one and over three threads is called a swansdown twill and the reverse is known as the crow weave. in these the diagonal twilled effect is much more marked. various twills are often combined with each other and with plain weave, making a great variety of texture. numerous uneven twills are made, two over and three under, etc., etc. [sidenote: sateen weave] in the sateen weave, nearly all of either the warp or the filling threads are on the surface, the object being to produce a smooth surface fabric like sateen. with this weave it is possible to use a cotton warp and silk filling, having most of the silk appear on the surface of the fabric. [illustration: textile design _a_--on cross-section paper; _b_--graphic diagram.] [sidenote: rib and basket weaves] the rib and basket weaves are derivatives of the plain weave, two or more threads replacing the single strand. in the rib weave, either the warp or the filling threads run double or more, thus making a corded effect. in the basket weave, both warp and filling are run double or treble, giving a coarse texture. this weave is sometimes called the panama weave. [sidenote: double cloth] in the thicker fabrics like men's suitings and overcoatings, there may be a double series of warp threads, only one series appearing on the face of the goods, and in the still thicker fabrics, there may be a double set of both warp and filling threads, making double cloth, the two sides of which may be entirely different in color and design. [sidenote: velvet] in weaving plush, velvet and velveteen, loops are made in the filling or warp threads which are afterwards cut, producing the pile. bleaching, dyeing, printing, finishing when the cloth comes from the loom it is by no means ready for the market. nearly all kinds are washed and pressed and in some classes of goods the finishing process is very elaborate. bleaching and dyeing the fiber may be dyed in a loose or unspun state, as is customary with wool; after it has been spun and is in the form of yarn, as in the case of silk and linen; and when it has been woven to form cloth, as is most commonly the case with cotton. [sidenote: madder bleach] the bleaching of cotton involves a number of steps, the most thorough process being called the "madder bleach," in which the cloth is (1) wet out, (2) boiled with lime water, (3) rinsed, (4) treated with acid, (5) rinsed, (6) boiled with soap and alkali, (7) rinsed, (8) treated with bleaching powder solution, (9) rinsed, (10) treated with acid, (11) finally rinsed again. all this is done by machines and hundreds of yards go through the process at a time. the product is a pure white cloth suitable for dyeing light shades and for white goods. when cloth is to be dyed a dark shade the treatment is less elaborate. [sidenote: singeing and shearing] if the cloth is to be printed for calicoes, before bleaching it is singed by passing through gas flames or over a red hot plate and then sheared in a shearing machine constructed somewhat on the principle of the lawn mower, the cloth being run close to the rapidly revolving knives. although cotton is usually dyed in the piece, it may be dyed in the form of yarn, as for ginghams, and sometimes before being woven, in the loose state. [sidenote: mordant colors] cotton is more difficult to dye than wool or silk. although there are now what are called "direct" cotton colors, the usual process is to first treat the cotton goods with a "mordant"--various salts of aluminum, chromium, iron, tin and copper, fixing these on the fiber by means of tannin or alkali. the mordanted cloth is then entered into the dye bath and boiled for an hour or longer, until the desired shade is obtained or the dye bath exhausted. the salts of aluminum are used as mordants for the lighter shades, the salts of chromium for the medium shades, and iron for the dark shades. in general, chromium mordants give the fastest dyes. [sidenote: aniline dyes] the discovery of the so-called aniline dyes has greatly increased the variety of colors available. although some of the first aniline dyes to be made were not fast to washing or to light and they thus received a bad reputation, they are now to be obtained which compare favorably in fastness with the natural dye stuffs such as cochineal, madder, etc., provided sufficient time and care are given to dyeing. the chief trouble is that in the endeavor to furnish cheap goods, processes are hurried and results are unsatisfactory. [sidenote: home dyeing] home dyeing is practically confined to the use of direct aniline colors. these are put up in small quantities and sold in many places. directions for their use are given on the packages. the chief precautions are to have the goods perfectly clean and thoroughly wet before entering into the dye bath (this is by no means as easy as one might think), and to keep the goods in motion while dyeing so as to prevent unevenness of shade. wool and silk dyes cannot be used for cotton and linen, nor the reverse. of course cloth already colored cannot be dyed a lighter shade of the same color and the original shade must be very light to enable one to change the color, say from red to blue, etc. the original color always modifies that of the dye somewhat and it is best to experiment first with a small portion of the dye and cloth. rather dark shades are apt to be most successful. [sidenote: natural dyestuffs] indigo for blue, madder for turkey red, logwood with fustic for black, cutch or gambia for browns on cotton are about all the natural dyestuffs which are used to any extent commercially at the present time. the artificial product alizerin, the active principle of madder, has about superseded the natural dyestuff, and artificial indigo is gaining on the natural product. linen is bleached and dyed in much the same manner as cotton, although the process is more difficult. the process of bleaching weakens linen more than cotton. [sidenote: dyeing woolen and silk] woolen and silk may be dyed directly with a great variety of dyes without the addition of a mordant, although they are often mordanted. both must be well washed or scoured before dyeing. when white or delicate shades on woolen or silk are desired they are bleached. the bleaching is usually done with sulphurous acid gas, the cloth or yarn being exposed in a damp condition to the fumes of burning sulphur. were it not for the expense, hydrogen peroxide would be the ideal bleaching agent for the animal fibers. printing a great variety of colored designs are produced on the loom by using different colored warp and filling yarns and different weaves, but in all these the designs are easily made only in somewhat rectangular patterns. [sidenote: block and machine printing] print goods have doubtless evolved from the decoration of fabrics with the brush. block printing was first used, the design being engraved in relief on blocks of wood. these are dipped in the colored paste, spread thinly, and applied to successive portions of the cloth by hand. these blocks are now replaced in the printing machine by engraved copper rolls, the design being such that it is repeated once or a number of times in each revolution of the cylinder. there is a printing roll for each color of the design. sometimes both the background and the design are printed on the cloth, but the more common process is for the design only to be printed on the cloth which may be dyed afterwards. in the paste of the printed design there is some chemical which prevents the portions printed from taking the dye, consequently these remain white or a different color. this is called the "resist" process. another process is to first dye the cloth and then print on some chemical which, when the calico is steamed, discharges the color. this is called the "discharge" process. sometimes this weakens the goods in the places where the color has been discharged. [sidenote: fixing the print] the color paste used for printing contains both the dye and the mordant. after the calico has been printed it is steamed to develop and fix the color, washed, sometimes very slightly bleached, to clear the whites, and usually given a sizing of starch or gum, and then pressed and dried by passing over slowly revolving, steam-heated drums. in general print goods are not so fast to washing and to light as those that have been dyed in the regular way, although the better grades are reasonably fast. prints are sometimes made in imitation of the more costly gingham or other goods in which the color design is made in the weaving. it is easy to detect the imitation as the design of printed fabrics does not penetrate to the back of the cloth. [sidenote: warp printing] sometimes the warps are printed before the cloth is woven, thus giving very pretty indefinite designs, especially in silk. finishing [sidenote: burling and mending] the finishing of woolen and worsted goods has much to do with their appearance. no cloth comes from the loom in a perfect condition, therefore inspection is the first process. loose threads and knots are carefully cut off by the "burler" and imperfections in the weaving rectified by the "menders." the goods may now be singed and sheared. [sidenote: fulling] [sidenote: flocks] woolens, and sometimes worsteds, are next "fulled" or felted by being run round and round in a machine while moistened with soap. the friction of the cloth on itself produces some heat which, with the moisture and soap, causes the goods to shrink in length and width while increasing in thickness. during this process, "flocks" are often added, especially for smooth finished woolen goods. these flocks are fine fibers of wool obtained from the shearing machine or made by cutting up old woolen cloth. they are felted with the fibers of the goods and add weight and firmness. [sidenote: raising the nap] after the fulling, the goods is washed to remove the soap, dyed, if desired, and often "speck dyed" with a special dye which colors the bits of burs, remaining in the cloth, but not the wool. the next process is the "gigging" which raises the nap. the cloth is run close to rapidly revolving "teazels" and also may be run through a napping machine. it may be sheared again and then steamed and pressed. this is but a brief outline; there are generally more processes. woolen cloth coming from the loom may be so treated in the finishing room as to produce fabrics entirely different in appearance. one of the chief objects of the finishing is to give to the cloth as fine an appearance as possible to attract the buyer. much of the fine finish disappears through wear, especially with inferior goods made from poor materials. the wearing quality of the goods is primarily dependent upon the strength and quality of the fibers of which it is made, so that the yarn of the filling and the warp should be examined when selecting materials. in general hard twisted yarn will give the better wearing cloth. fabrics the present day shops offer such a great variety of fabrics that only a few of the most important can be mentioned here. cotton goods cotton is cool and heavy, is a non-conductor of heat, crushes easily, but like all vegetable fibers it may be laundered without injury to the fibers. cotton does not take the darker dyes as well as animal fibers and for this reason it does not combine satisfactorily with wool. as an adulterant it wears shabby and loses its brightness. it is only when cotton does not pretend to be anything else that it is our most useful and durable textile. the readiness with which cotton takes the lighter dyes and improved methods of ginning, spinning, and weaving have made cotton goods superior to any other for summer use. [sidenote: muslin] muslin, calico, and gingham must always head the list of cotton goods. muslin is coarse and fine, bleached, unbleached, and half bleached, twilled or plain weave. under the head of muslin brought to a high degree of perfection in weave and finish will be found dimity, mull, indian lawn, organdie, swiss, and madras, and a host of others equally beautiful. madras muslin has a thin transparent ground with a heavily raised pattern woven of a soft, thick thread unlike the ground work. waste is used for the pattern. organdie muslin is soft, opaque, white, or colored, with raised dots of pattern and plain weave. dimity has a fine cord running with the selvage. gingham is a smooth, close cotton usually woven in checks or stripes. the yarn is dyed before being woven, making the cloth alike on both sides, and the weave is either plain or twilled. ginghams are also woven of silk and cotton mixed or of silk and ramie. cretonne, chintz, dress linings, crape, velveteen, and lace are made of cotton. flannelette, which is woven to imitate flannel, is soft and light and is preferred by many who find woolen irritating. it does not shrink as woolen does and is made in beautiful, soft colors and the best grades do not fade. for nightdresses, underwear, and sheets, during cold weather this inexpensive fabric is unequaled. among the heavier cotton fabrics may be mentioned denim and ticking which are now printed in beautiful designs and colors and used for interior decoration as well as for clothing and bedding. the great variety of fibers, the many different ways of preparing each for manufacture, the differences in the preparatory processes in spinning, weaving, or in any of the later processes of finishing produce the varied appearance of the finished product in cotton as in other fabrics. linens linen is one of the oldest textiles; it was used by the early egyptians for the priests' garments and for the wrappings of mummies. many housekeepers think that there is no material for sheets and pillow cases comparable to linen, but it is not an ideal dressing for beds, for in spite of its heavier body, it wrinkles and musses much more readily than good cotton. for table service, however, for the toilet, and for minor ornamental purposes linen has no equal. its smoothness of texture, its brilliancy which laundering increases, its wearing qualities, its exquisite freshness, make it the one fabric fit for the table. [sidenote: table linen] table linen is woven plain and figured, checked and diapered. in the figured or damask cloth the patterns stand out distinctly. this is due to the play of light and shade on the horizontal and vertical lines. in some lights the pattern is scarcely noticeable. when buying a cloth, let it be between the observer and the light, for in this position the pattern will show to the best advantage. there is a certain amount of shade on all horizontal lines or of shadow cast by them, while the vertical lines are illuminated, thus although the warp and woof threads are of the same color, the pattern seems to stand out from the background. linen should not be adulterated. it should be for use and not for show, for use brightens and whitens it. linen adulterated with cotton becomes fuzzy through wear because of the much shorter cotton fibers. the tendency can often be seen by rolling the goods between the thumb and fingers. crash of different widths and quality furnishes tea towels, "huck," damask and other weaves come in various widths and may be purchased by the yard. russia crash is best for kitchen towels. woolens and worsteds [sidenote: standard goods] the many grades of wool with the great variety of weaves and finish make an almost infinite variety of woolen and worsted fabrics. new goods are constantly being put upon the market, or old goods with new names. standard goods, such as serges, cashmere, henrietta cloth, and covert cloth, are always to be found in the shops. these are all twilled goods. the serges are woven of combed wool and are harsh, tough, springy, worsted fabrics of medium and heavy weight, with a distinct twill, rather smooth surface, and plainer back. there are also loosely woven serges. cashmere and henrietta cloth have a fine, irregular twill--the finest made. they are woven with silk, wool, and cotton warp, but the latter gives an inferior textile. [sidenote: tweeds] tweeds and homespuns are names given to coarse cloth of which the wool is spun by hand and woven on hand looms. these goods vary according to the locality in which they are made. the wool is mixed without regard to color, the yarn being spun and twisted in the most primitive manner, giving the cloth an uneven, unfinished appearance. these are among the best wearing cloths on the market and are especially suitable for suits that will receive hard wear. scotland and ireland are famous for their tweeds and homespuns and what are known as the "cottage industries" have been recently revived in those countries as the products of their hand looms have become deservedly popular abroad. [sidenote: harris tweeds] the "harris tweeds," made on the island of lewis and harris, north of scotland, are in the old style by the "crofters." after weaving the goods are "waulked"--milled or felted--with the bare feet, accompanied by singing the waulking song and beating time with the feet. the dyeing is done in pots in the old-fashioned way and until recently the dyestuffs were obtained from mosses, lichens, heather, broom, and other plants. now, however, some of the best aniline dyes are being used. a peculiar characteristic of the harris tweed is the peat smoke smell caused by the fabric being woven in the crofters' cottages, where there is always a strong odor of peat "reek" from the peat which is burned for fuel. the ordinary so-called harris tweeds sold in this country are made on the southern border of scotland, in factories, and are but imitations of the real harris tweeds. the light colored tweeds--natural color of wool--come from the island of st. kilda. this island stands out in mid ocean, barren and wild, devoid of plants or shrubs of any kind for making dyes. the crofters content themselves without dyestuffs. the industry is maintained by nobility to help the islanders and the fabrics are fashionable and high priced. covert cloth is a twilled woven cloth of great beauty and durability. it is rather heavy, of hard finish and is used for jackets and winter suits. to this list of woolen goods may be added the crape cloth with crinkled, rough surface, nun's veiling, flannel which is woven in a variety of ways, broadcloth, wool canvas, and poplins. this list includes only a few of the fabrics manufactured, but these are always to be found on the market, are always good in color and are the best of all wool textiles for wear. [sidenote: mohair] [sidenote: alpaca] mohair is a material made from the hair of the angora goat, woven with silk, wool, worsted, or cotton warp. it is a dust-shedding material, does not shrink, and bears hard wear well. alpaca, on account of its softness, elasticity, and exemption from shaggy defects, combines admirably with cotton in the manufacture of fine goods, which attains almost the glossy brightness of silk. the yarn is used for weaving alpaca linings and light coatings for warm climates. silks many silks can be washed without injury to the fibers, but they cannot be boiled without destroying the luster. silks may be had in various widths and endless variety of weaves. many are reversible. [sidenote: loading silk] silks are adulterated with cotton and ramie fibers. the chemicals used in "loading" or "dynamiting" to give the weight lost by cleaning or removing the gum from the raw silk give to the cheaper grades the stiff, harsh feeling and cause the splitting and cracking of the silk, hence the quality of the fiber should be considered when selecting a silk, not the weight. taffeta is often heavily loaded. foulard and surah are twilled silks. corded silks are woven with a cord running from selvage to selvage. to this class belong the grosgrains, ottoman, faille francaise--a silk resembling grosgrain, but softer and brighter. irish poplins and bengalines have wool for the filling instead of silk. [sidenote: wash silks] great improvement has been made in the manufacture of wash silks. they are fine in color and have a glossy surface. pongee is a beautiful, durable silk in different shades of natural color. it is woven in different widths. this silk is especially valuable for underwear. the first cost is greater, but it outwears muslin or linen. it is also used for children's garments and for outside wraps. for many purposes, no better textile can be found. crepe de chine is an incomparable textile possessing as much softness as strength. it is always supple, never creases, launders well, and comes in the most beautiful soft shades as well as in black and dark colors. satin is distinguished by its glossy, lustrous surface, obtained in the weaving. [sidenote: piled fabrics] piled fabrics are rich, thick materials made of silk, wool, mohair, and cotton, comprising the velvets, velveteens, plushes, corduroys, and wilton and velvet carpets. the soft, raised pile is first woven in loops--brussels carpet is a good example--and the loops are cut. the back of the goods is plain. [sidenote: velvet] velvet has always and justly been regarded as the most beautiful of textiles. no matter how fashions change in regard to other materials, velvet never loses its vogue. for robes and cloaks, for mantles and jackets, for hats and bonnets, for trimming and decoration, velvet has been popular for a greater period than the life of any living mortal, but never before has it been so cheap, so varied and so beautiful as it is now. one can in the passing throng of pedestrians on any crowded street see the use and abuse of this noble material. there is scarcely an article of dress into whose composition it does not enter and it is worn upon all occasions. many things have brought about this result. the tendency of fashion is towards the decorative and picturesque and in these qualities velvet excels all other fabrics. silk waste and thread are cheaper than ever before so that velvet costs much less than formerly. the men behind the looms have evolved more designs and novelties in the making of velvet than has ever been known and colors beautiful in themselves are seemingly enhanced when applied to velvet. [sidenote: velveteen] all that has been said in favor of velvet applies equally as well to the best velveteen,--in fact it is a textile of even greater value and beauty than velvet. the best grades are not cheap, but they wear better than silk velvet, are fine and silky, excellent in color and sheen, launder well, and do not press-mark as does silk velvet. velveteen takes the dye so beautifully and finishes so well that it has taken rank with our best standard fabrics. it is made entirely of cotton. it varies in width but is always wider than velvet. [sidenote: widths of fabrics] a knowledge of the various widths of textiles is important in buying. transparent fabrics are usually wider than heavier goods made of the same fiber. muslin is wider than calico or ordinary print, and thin silk fabrics such as mull and chiffon are wider than velvet. in wool dress goods various distinct widths are known as single--thirty and thirty-six inches--double fold (forty-five and fifty-four inches), etc. silk, velvet, and velveteen are single width. the velvet ranges from eighteen to twenty-four inches in width and velveteen twenty-seven. bodice linings vary from thirty-five to thirty-eight inches; skirt linings come in both single and double fold. household linen including bedding varies in width from one yard to two and one-fourth and two and one-half yards for sheeting and from thirty-eight to fifty-four inches for pillow case muslin. table linen is woven in both square and circular cloths of various sizes, and napkins vary in width from the small sizes to a yard square. no fixed widths can be given for any textile as width often changes with the weave. names of fabrics textiles usually take their names from the country, city, port, or province from whence they originated; from the names of the makers; and methods of weaving, dyeing, ornamentation, etc. the fixing of localities, methods, etc., is oftentimes guesswork. the textiles of to-day bearing the same name as those of the middle ages have nothing in common. buckram was originally made in and called from bokkara. in the middle ages it was costly, fine, and beautiful, used for church vestments, veils for covering lecterns, cathedral flags, and in the 16th century for the lining of velvet gowns. the coarse, heavy, plain-woven linen or cotton material known as buckram today is used for stiffening, etc. [sidenote: fustian] fustian, a kind of corduroy or velveteen, was originally woven at fustat on the nile. the warp was stout linen, the woof of cotton so twilled and cut that it gave a low thick pile. chaucer's knight in the fourteenth century wore fustian. in the fifteenth century naples was famous for the weaving of fustians. a cloth made in france at a town called mustrevilliers was known as "mustyrd devells." [sidenote: damask] china is supposed to be the first country to weave patterned silks. india, persia, syria, and byzantine greece followed. those were known as "diaspron" or diaper, a name given them at constantinople. in the twelfth century, the city of damascus, long famed for her beautiful textiles, outstripped all other places for beauty of design and gave the damascen or damask, so we have in modern times all fabrics whether of silk, cotton, wool, or linen, curiously woven and designed, known as damask, and diaper, which means pattern, is almost forgotten, or only a part of the elaborate design on damask. bandekin, a costly cloth, took its name from bagdad. dorneck an inferior damask woven of silk, wool, linen, thread and gold, was made in flanders at the city of dorneck. [sidenote: muslin] from the asiatic city mosul came the muslin used then as it is now throughout the world. so skilled were its weavers that the threads were of hair-like fineness. this was known as the invisible muslin, the weaving of which has become a lost art. to this beautiful cloth were given many fanciful and poetic names. it was woven with strips of gold and silver. [sidenote: calico] calico derives its name from the city of calicut in india. the city is scarcely known to-day; it was the first indian city visited by europeans. in the thirteenth century arras was famous for its areste or tapestry, "the noblest of the weaving arts"; in it there is nothing mechanical. mechanical weaving repeats the pattern on the cloth within comparatively narrow limits and the number of colors is in most cases limited to four or five. silks and cottons are distinguished through their colors and shades. tarsus was a purple silk. other cities gave their name to various shades, according as they were dyed at antioch, alexandria, or at naples. watered or moire silk takes its name from the finish. from "canabis," the latin name for hemp or flax, we have the word "canvas" to mean any texture woven of hempen thread. to this list of fabrics might be added many others of cotton, linen, wool, and silk with new names, closely resembling the old materials, having greater or less merit. the following lists of fabrics and terms may be helpful for reference: art linen--with round, hard twisted threads. "albert cloth"--named for england's prince, is a reversible all-wool material each side of different colors and so finished that no lining is required. it is used chiefly for overcoats and better known as "golf cloth," "plaid back," etc. armure--a cloth woven in miniature imitation of feudal metal armor plates, heraldic devices, diamonds, birdseye, and seeded effects. astrakhan--a woolen or silk material with a long and closely curled pile in imitation of the fur from which it is named. backed-cloth worsteds or other fabrics which are woven with an extra layer of warp or other filling underneath the face, usually for increased weight and bulk. batiste--the french word for lawn, fine white cotton or linen fabric. sometimes printed. batting or padding, cotton or wool prepared in sheets for quilting or interlining. beaver--similar to kersey, but with a longer nap, soft, thick nap inside. bedford cord--a closely woven woolen or cotton cloth having a raised corded surface similar to pique, used for women's suits. bonde--a loosely woven fabric with a curly, hairy surface, usually made with a jersey or stockinet body. bourette--an effect of weaving produced by fancy yarns showing in lumps at intervals over the face of the cloth; used for women's and children's suits. beverteen--a heavy cotton cloth used for men's hunting garments. broadcloth--a fine woolen cloth with a glossy finished surface, the better grades being woven with a twilled back. it takes its name from its width. it is used for men's and women's wear. buckram--a coarse, heavy, plain-woven linen or cotton material used for stiffening. buckskin--a stout doe skin with a more defined twill. butternut--the coarse brown twilled homespun cloth woven of wool prior to the civil war--colored brown with dye from the butternut or walnut tree; used for men's wear and for decorative purposes. cambric--fine white linen, also made in cotton in imitation. camel's hair--a beautiful, soft, silky fabric, usually woven like cheviot of hair of camel and goat. canvas--a linen, cotton, silk, or wool cloth of different weaves and widths, used for many purposes--clothing, as a background for embroidery, hangings, spreads, etc. canton flannel--a stout, twilled cotton cloth with a nap on one or both sides, used for clothing and decorative purposes. cassimere--a general term for all-wool fabrics woven either plain or twilled, coarse or fine, of woolen yarn. the pattern is always woven plain and distinct and the cloth is never napped. castor beaver--a heavy, milled, face-finished, all-wool cloth lighter in weight than ordinary beaver. chinchilla--a thick, heavy, double woven fabric with a long napped surface curled up into little tufs in imitation of chinchilla fur; used for coats. clan tartan--the plaids of the various highland clans of scotland. clay--a name given to serges, worsteds, and diagonals woven after a process of j. & p. clay of haddersfield, england. coating--those woolen and worsted fabrics most especially adapted to men's dress and overcoats. corduroy--a thick cotton pile material, corded or ribbed on the surface; used for men's, women's and children's wear. corkscrew-worsted goods--so-called from its fancied resemblance to the twists of the corkscrew. cotton worsted--all cotton or part cotton worsted-wove cloth. cottonade--stout cotton cloth in imitation of woolen or worsted; used for men's trousers. covert--a twill-woven cloth sometimes with full face, sometimes sheared to imitate whipcord. crape cloth--a stout worsted fabric with surface in imitation of silk crape, used for dress coats. crash--a strong, course linen cloth of different widths, used for towels, suits, table linen, hangings, bed spreads; in fact, there is no end to the uses to which this textile can be adapted. cravenette--cloths treated and finished before weaving by an improved process which renders them rainproof. a secret process owned by the cravenette company and by priestly & company of england and the united states. crepe--a light weight silk, silk and wool, or all wool or cotton cloth of irregular weave. diagonal--a worsted cloth with prominent diagonal ridges. doeskin--a compact twilled woolen, soft and pliable. drap d'alma--a fine, close, flat-ribbed, twilled fabric of wool or silk and wool, finished on but one side. drap d'ete--a fine, light worsted fabric woven in longitudinal cords. drilling--general term for various cotton stuffs used for lining men's wear, and general purposes. empress cloth--a heavy dress goods with napped or corded surface, named for the empress eugenia; sometimes called electrol cloth or beretz. etamine--a light woolen cloth similar to batiste and nun's cloth, used for women's and children's wear. faille francaise--a soft, lustrous silk of wider cord than grosgrain, but narrower than ottoman. farmer satin--a lining of cotton chain or warp and wool filling, finished with a high lustre, also called italian cloth. flannel--a soft, light weight woolen fabric of which the yarn is but lightly twisted, plain weave or twilled; used for clothing etc. flannelette--a half cotton or all cotton flannel-like fabric. frieze--a thick, shaggy, heavy nap woolen overcoat cloth. gingham was first manufactured in gonghamp in france and was known as madras gingham. seersucker gingham was originally a thin linen fabric made in the east indies. zephyr gingham is a soft fine variety of scotch and french ginghams, are superior qualities, heavier in weight. fur beaver--a long napped cloth imitation fur. grass cloth--a fine, smooth, linen woven in checks of blue and white, red and white, etc., used for dish towels; also a thin dress material of ramie and cotton, etc. grenadine--a thick silk gauze, either plain with a solid design or pattern upon it or combined in stripes with other weaves, as satin, moire, etc. grosgrain--a close-woven, finely ribbed or corded silk with but little lustre. haircloth--a cloth woven of horse hair, from which it takes its name, for weft with cotton or linen warp; used for facings, linings, furniture cover, etc. holland--a stout, plain-wove, unbleached, linen cloth used for linings, window shades, etc. homespun--a cloth woven on hand looms or made in imitation of such cloth for both men's and women's wear. hop-sacking--a plain woven canvas dress fabric of wool. huchaback--a corruption of huckster-back, meaning originally pedler's ware--toweling made of all linen, linen and cotton, cotton and wool, either by the yard or as separate towels; the part wool huck always separate towels. irish linen--full bleached, fine, plain woven linen used for shirts, collars, cuffs, etc., of different widths. jersey cloth--woolen stockinette. kaikai--a thin japanese silk. kersey--a heavy, closely woven cloth with a smooth face and glossy finish. kerseymere--a fine, twilled, woolen cloth of peculiar texture, one thread of warp and two of wool being always above. khaki--a light, yellow-brown colored cotton cloth used for army service in hot countries. ladies' cloth--a fine, wide, wool flannel, slightly napped, similar to broadcloth. lusterine--a thin, twilled, cotton lining finished with high lustre in imitation of silk. marseilles--a sort of figured pique, used for women's and children's clothes and for men's coats. matelasse--a silk and wool or all wool brocade, usually for coats. melton--a stout woolen cloth, fulled, sheared, and finished without a nap; like kersey, but without a gloss. merino--a thin woolen fabric made of the fine wool of the marion sheep, generally used for women's and children's wear, vestings, and underclothing. mohair--a shiny fabric of great durability, made from the wool of the angora goat; used for both men's and women's clothing. moire--the water effect produced on silk, moreen, and like fabrics. the finest watered silks are known as moire antique. moreen is a woolen or mixed fabric to which the same process has been applied. moleskin--a medium heavy twilled cotton cloth, napped inside; used for men's wear and ornamental purposes. muslin--a cotton fabric of various classes and names; bleached and unbleached, half bleached, cambric, book muslin, long cloth, mull, organdie, lawns, etc.; used for all purposes. nankeen--a peculiar fabric of a pale dull yellow or orange color, woven out of the fibrous tissue which lies between the outer and sap-wood of a tree or shrub that grows in the east indies and especially in china. the name is derived from the city of nankin. an imitation is made out of cotton, colored with annato. the genuine nankeen is never more than eighteen or twenty inches wide and is used for light summer clothing. overcoating--fabrics woven especially for overcoats--covert, kersey, melton, beaver, frieze, vicuna, whipcord, cheviot, chinchilla, etc., made of both wool and worsted. pique--a heavy cotton cloth having a surface that is corded or having a raised lozenge pattern; used for women's and children's suits, men's vests, etc. prunella--lasting cloth. sateen--a close twilled cotton fabric, soft and glossy, used for lining. satin--a silk fabric having a high lustre on its face. satinet--a cheap clothing material similar to cassimere, made with a cotton warp and a filling of short, inferior, shoddy wool which is mixed with enough long wool to enable it to be spun and woven in a way to bring that filling to the surface of the cloth; afterwards fulled, sheared, and the pattern printed on the face. serge--a lining of cotton or linen warp and a wool or mohair filling, woven three-leaf twill. serge--a fine, diagonal, twilled, worsted--both all worsted and with a worsted warp and woolen filling; used for men's and women's suits. shetlands--very shaggy overcoatings, named from the shetland pony, the coat of which it is supposed to imitate in appearance. shoddy--waste thrown off in spinning--shredded rags, and bits of cloth manipulated into new cloth. sicilian--a mohair fabric. silesia--a light, close-woven, fine twilled cotton fabric used for dress linings, etc. stockinet--a plain, elastic texture made on a knitting frame, used for underwear, etc. surah--a twilled silk similar to serge; first made in surat, india. tricot--a double-twill cloth having both a warp and filling effect. tweed--much like homespun in appearance, both being either twilled or plain. they are made from rough worsted yarn spun at home. in tweed the yarn is harder twisted, giving a more distinct twill. it is generally more compact, less rough, and better finished than homespun. uniform cloth--cloth suitable for uniforms, usually a stout, fulled, woolen cloth, similar to kersey. venetian--a cloth milled and cropped bare in finish. vicuna--a soft twilled cloth similar to cheviot, made of the andes vicuna, hence its name. whipcord--a worsted cloth having a small, prominent twill. yacht cloth--a flannel heavier than ordinary serge or flannel. * * * * * cord--the general term is applied to any fabric in which the lines run in the same direction as the selvage. count--in spinning, the number given to any thread or yarn, except silk, to indicate its relative fineness, based on the number of yards required to weigh one pound. felt--a cloth of wool, hair, fur, etc., not woven, but felted together; used for hats, slippers, boot tops, etc. flock--finely divided woolen waste used in finishing cheap woolens. kemps--fibers or hair like structure that sometimes come in wool, always in goat hair. they do not take the dye. mercerized--a term applied to cotton fabrics of which the yarn is chemically treated with a strong solution of caustic soda, giving the appearance of silk, more or less permanent; named after mercer, discoverer of the process. mill ends--trade term referring to short lengths, seconds, damaged pieces, etc., of cloth, embroideries, etc., that accumulate in mills and shops and are usually sold at a nominal price. narrow cloth--trade term for fabrics less than 29 inches wide. wider cloths are called broad cloths. oil-boiled--trade term for colors so treated to insure permanence. oiled silk--the plain silk boiled in oil. silk boiled in oil and dried, becoming translucent and waterproof; used as a perspiration guard. pepper-and-salt--a black and white or grayish mixture, effected in weaving. rubber cloth--usually cotton sheeting or drilling with a coating of rubber on one side; used as a protective cloth for various purposes. shepherd check--tiny checks, usually black and white. twilled--woven in such a manner as to produce lines or ribs diagonally or across the surface of the fabric. woolens--name of fabrics or carded wool, usually soft woven. worsteds--fabrics made of combed wool, usually hard woven. the combing is the process of arranging the fibers of wool, mohair, cotton, linen, into a parallel condition, preparatory to spinning into a smooth, even and regular yarn. the perfected application of the combing principle. bibliography on textiles historical and art arts and crafts essays $1.00 morris, crane, et al. postage .10 colonial days in old new england 1.25 alice morse earle. postage .12 the primitive family 1.25 starcke. postage .12 man before metals 1.75 joly. postage .14 origin of inventions 1.50 mason. postage .16 woman's share in primitive culture 1.75 mason. postage .16 textiles--the lesser arts 1.00 william morris. postage .10 industrial evolution of the united states 1.25 carroll d. wright. postage .16 technical books through a special arrangement with the american school of correspondence we are able to lend or sell to our students some of their textile books, which are technical though simple. price 50 cents per part, postage 4c. textile chemistry and dyeing. 4 parts. part i. textile fibers. part ii. bleaching. part iii. mordants and natural dyes. part vi. artificial dyestuffs. cotton fiber. cotton spinning. 5 parts. weaving. 3 parts. textile design. 5 parts. woolen and worsted spinning. 4 parts. woolen and worsted finishing. 4 parts. textile fibers $3.50 mathews. postage .16 textile fabrics .90 rock. postage .08 dyeing of textile fabrics 1.75 hummell. postage .12 bleaching and calico printing 4.00 duerr. postage .14 _note._--books may be ordered through the school or may be borrowed by members for one week. send postage with request. u. s. government publication _free_ of the department of agriculture, washington, d. c.: flax for seed and fiber, farmers' bulletin no. 27. cotton seed and its products, farmers' bulletin no. 36. raising sheep, farmers' bulletin no. 96. the angora goat, farmers' bulletin no. 137. silk worm culture, farmers' bulletin no. 165. essential steps in securing an early crop of cotton, farmers' bulletin no. 217. the cotton seed industry, reprint no. 239. the hemp industry in u. s., reprint no. 254. improvement of cotton by seed selection, reprint no. 279. the growing of long-staple upland cotton, reprint no. 314. principal commercial plant fibers, reprint no. 321. _for sale_ by the superintendent of documents, washington, d. c. send coin or money order,--stamps not accepted: sheep and wool, report no. 66, office of the secretary. price 5c. the cotton plant: its history, botany, chemistry, enemies, and uses. bulletin no. 33. office of experiment stations. price 60c. cotton culture in egypt. bulletin no. 42. price 5c. office of fiber investigations. uncultivated bast fibers. report no. 6. price 10c. cultivation of ramie. report no. 7. price 10c. culture of hemp and jute. report no. 8. price 10c. flax culture for seed and fiber. report no. 10. price 10c. test questions the following questions constitute the "written recitation" which the regular members of the a. s. h. e. answer in writing and send in for the correction and comment of the instructor. they are intended to emphasize and fix in the memory the most important points in the lesson. textiles and clothing part i read carefully. place your name and address on the first sheet of the test. use a light grade of paper and write on one side of the sheet only. leave space between the answers for the notes of the instructor. _answer every question fully._ read the lesson paper a number of times before attempting to answer the question. 1. give a brief outline of the craft of spinning, primitive and modern. 2. outline the same for weaving. 3. describe the hand loom. 4. describe the cotton fiber. what kinds are there? 5. who invented the cotton gin and how did this invention affect the cotton industry? 6. give the chief characteristics of wool. name the wool and fur bearing animals. how does wool differ from hair? 7. trace briefly the preparation of wool from the fleece to the finished product. 8. describe flax and outline the method for the preparation of the fibers. what is the name of the manufactured product of flax? 9. name some other bast fibers and their products? 10. how do the textile fibers compare in the raw state in condition and price? 11. give a brief description of silk from the egg to the woven cloth. 12. (a) what is the chief constituent of the vegetable fibers? (b) how does their affinity for dyestuffs compare with wool and silk? (c) how do the alkalies affect wool? 13. describe the principal weaves and give examples of each. 14. (a) how are cotton and flax bleached? (b) what is a mordant? (c) how should material be prepared for dyeing? (d) state what you know about old time methods of dyeing. 15. how are print goods made? name some printed fabrics. 16. define woolens and worsteds. 17. describe the finishing of woolen and worsted cloths. 18. what is noil; shoddy; felt; flocks? 19. with what dress goods have you had experience, and with what results? 20. what factors determine the use of fabrics? 21. of what value is the study of textiles? what have you gained by the study of this lesson? _note._--after completing the test sign your full name. [illustration: embroidered initials _w_ and _l_--sewed on initials; _b_--satin stitch in wreath of feather stitches; _c_--outline and seed work; _d_--chain and french knots; _h_--cross stitch; _l_--chain; _h_--at the right, and the cross stitch _h_ are made over canvas and the canvas threads drawn.] textiles and clothing part ii hand sewing good sewing, good pressing, well finished ends and corners, lightness of touch which holds the work without apparently touching it, thus giving to the finished garment a fresh look--all these are important considerations. [sidenote: kinds of sewing] the sewing done on wool, silk, and dresses of all kinds differs from that on underwear and white work. muslin underwear requires frequent washing and ironing, hence the first essential is durability; close, small stitches, all raw edges carefully turned and stitched securely. seams that are to come close to the body should lie perfectly flat. a round seam would wear out sooner by coming into frequent contact with the washboard and iron, besides irritating the skin. in dressmaking, unless the stitching is used for ornamental purposes, it should never show on the outside. periods of beautiful and dignified costume have been periods of fine needlework--one art leading to and helping on the production of the other. [sidenote: plain stitches] stitches may be divided into plain and ornamental. the plain stitches are the (1) basting, (2) running, (3) the running and back stitch, (4) half back stitch, (5) back stitch, (6) overhand or whipping stitch, (7) overcast, (8) hemming, and (9) blind or slip stitch. [sidenote: ornamental stitches] the ornamental stitches most frequently used are (1) outline, (2) chain, (3) cat or herringbone, (4) blanket or loop, (5) feather, coral or briar, (6) hemstitching, (7) french knots, (8) button hole, and (9) cross stitch. excepting the cross stitch, these are all variations of the plain and button hole stitches. the plain stitches may be used for ornamental purposes. the basting stitch is known as queen anne darned work. the back stitch, known as "seed work," is used in embroidering letters and monograms. the overhand stitch is used as an ornamental stitch for joining selvages and in hemming. the chain stitch, besides being ornamental, makes one of the best darning stitches, reproducing the stitch in knitting. the cat stitch is also useful in binding down open seams for flannel hems, patching, etc. [sidenote: basting] (1) basting proper is used only in the preparation of work to hold the stuff and lining, or any two or more parts of the work together while it is being stitched, none being left in the finished garment. it is also used as a guide for sewing, feather stitching, etc. [sidenote: tacking] the slanting basting stitch or "tacking" is used in dressmaking for holding linings. the needle is pointed towards the worker. even basting is used for holding several thicknesses of cloth and if the garment is to be fitted, the stitches should be placed rather close. uneven basting is used for hems and seams to be machine stitched. several short stitches with one long one are used to baste crape and wiry fabrics, for this method holds them better than stitches of equal length. [illustration: basting stitches _a_--even; _b_--uneven; _c_--for wiry fabrics; _d_--tacking; _e_--overcasting; _f_--double or tailor overcasting.] [sidenote: fastening the thread] all basting should be fastened at start with a knot or knot and back stitch and finished with two or three back stitches. the length of thread may be broken or cut from the spool, but should always be cut from the work. breaking weakens the fastening and biting off soils delicate work with the moisture from the breath, to say nothing of the injury to the teeth. basting for large work should usually be done with the goods lying flat on the sewing table. [sidenote: drawing basting threads] for ordinary work, basting threads should be cut every few inches and drawn out. in velvet, every alternate stitch should be cut and drawn out on the right side with the pile of the goods. in the basting for velvet where the slanting stitch is used, only one end of the stitch touches the line of the seam--the rest is on the outside of the seam. silk thread should be used to baste velvet and gauze; the thread should be used for basting. [illustration: position of the hands in running] [sidenote: running stitch] (2) running is closely related to basting. it is not used for any seams that have to bear great strain, but for joining seams in this material, gathering, tucking, making cords, etc. the stitches are usually of equal length on both sides. take one stitch in the seam and hold the goods between the thumb and first finger of each hand, as shown in the illustration, with the back of the thimble on the eye of the needle. then, with as free wrist motion as possible, run or shake the needle through the material. the motion of the hand should come from the elbow joint. gathering, gauging, casing, etc., are used for drawing up the fullness of skirts, ruffles, flounces, etc., into a given space. the running stitch is used for these. [sidenote: gathering] for gathering, the cloth is held in the same manner as for running. the needle, ordinarily, need not be taken out of the work, the stitches being pushed back over the eye as they are made; but for running long skirt seams in delicate material which would crinkle at the line of sewing and roughen the seam, the needle should be drawn through and the line of sewing smoothed on the thread at each needleful of stitches. [sidenote: stroking] never use a double thread for gathering, as it is apt to knot, but put in two lines of gathering threads--one a full one-eighth of an inch below the other--and slip the stitches along the needle as described above. this method is a saving of time in the end. when the gathering threads are in, remove the needle, place a pin vertically close to the last stitch, and wind the thread around it a few times in the form of a figure eight. use a coarse needle for stroking. hold the work between the thumb and fingers of the left hand with the thumb on the gathering threads. to place the gathers, put the point of the needle _under_ the lower gathering thread and press the plait or gather under the thumb, drawing the needle down, or simply pressing on the needle. care must be taken not to scratch or tear the material. continue entirely across the gathers, putting the needle under each stitch and holding the plait firmly between the thumb and finger: turn the material and stroke the _upper_ edge of the gathers. [sidenote: gauging] the gauging stitch is usually longer on the face than on the back, draws the material up into distinct plaits, making it easy to dispose of the fullness neatly, regularly and securely by overhanding the top edge of each plait to the bottom edge of the band. the right side of the skirt and the right side of the belt are placed against each other and each gather oversewed to the belt. the space into which the material is to be gathered determines the length of the long stitch. the succeeding rows of stitches should be _directly_ under those of the first. [sidenote: running and back stitch] (3) the running and back stitch is made by taking a few running stitches, drawing out the needle and making a back stitch over the last running stitch to strengthen the seam. care must be taken not to hold the side next the worker too full and not to miss the under material, but to take the stitches even on both sides. [sidenote: half back stitch] (4) the half-back stitch is made by taking one stitch and placing the needle half way back, then bringing it out twice the length of the stitch and placing the needle half way back each time from where the last stitch ended. the appearance on the right side will be of regular space as in the running stitch. [sidenote: back stitch] (5) the back stitch is made by placing the needle back to the last stitch, bringing it out once the length of the last stitch, then placing the needle back into the last stitch, and so on, making the stitches follow each other without any space between. this is used in all places that are to bear great strain. [illustration: plain stitches _a_--running; _b_--running and back; _c_--half back; _d_--back stitch.] [sidenote: whipping stitch] (6) overhanding, oversewing, whipping, top sewing are one and the same--small stitches taken over edges, to join folded edges or selvages, for sewing bands on gathers, sewing lace and insertion, and for sewing carpet strips together. the pieces for an overhand seam should be pinned carefully, placing the pins at right angles to the edge. the folded edges or selvages are placed together, the right side of the goods being in. do not use a knot to begin sewing, but leave the knot end of the thread and sew it in with the first stitches, carrying the thread on top of the seam. to finish off the seam, overhand back over the last few stitches. [sidenote: position in overhanding] in sewing this seam, the goods should be held between the thumb and first finger of the left hand parallel with the chest, not over the end of finger. point the needle towards the left shoulder, thus giving a slanting stitch. care should be taken not to pucker or draw the seam. when the seam is finished, it should be opened and pressed flat. [sidenote: overcasting] (7) overcasting is a slanting stitch used to keep raw edges from ravelling. this stitch, like oversewing, may be worked from right to left or from left to right. the hem stitch and blind or slip stitch will be considered under hems. ornamental stitches never use a knot in any embroidery, but start by running a few stitches along the line which is to be covered. [sidenote: outline stitch] (1) the outline stitch is the simplest of all embroidery stitches. take a long stitch on the surface, with the needle pointing towards the chest in the line to be covered, and a short back stitch on the under side of the material. the effect of the under or wrong side of the material is exactly that of an ordinary back stitch. the beauty of this stitch depends upon its regularity and in always keeping the thread on the same side of the needle. [illustration: ornamental stitches _a_--outline; _b_--chain; _c_--cat; _c'_--catch; _d_--single feather; _e_--double feather; _f_--tripple feather; _g_--modified feather; _h_--double feather with knots; _i_--french knots and outline; _j_--herring bone; _k_--fancy feather; _l_--cat stitch with french knots.] [sidenote: chain stitch] (2) the chain stitch when perfectly done should look like the stitch made by a single-thread machine. this stitch is made by taking the thread toward the worker, and before the needle is drawn out of the cloth the thread is held by the thumb under the point of the needle, as in a buttonhole, making a loop. the needle is inserted in the last loop for the next stitch. the chain stitch is used in modern embroidery as an outline and for darning, but in old embroidery, the outline and chain stitches were used for filling as well. they are found in persian, indian, and italian renaissance work. like the feather stitch, the chain stitch is worked towards the worker. [sidenote: cat stitch] (3) the cat stitch or herringbone stitch is an alternate slanting back stitch, the needle being placed first to the right and then to the left. this stitch must be worked evenly to be effective. it is used to finish flannel seams and hems, fasten down linings, opened seams, and canvas facings and featherbone, in millinery--in fact, this stitch is one of the most useful in sewing. the _catch_ stitch is a variation of the cat stitch. instead of pointing the needle towards the chest, the stitch is taken parallel with the chest. it is used for about the same purposes as the cat stitch. as with the outline stitch, the cat stitch is worked _from_ the worker. [sidenote: loop stitch] (4) blanket or loop stitch, used to ornament the edge of blankets, etc., and for finishing the edge of stockinet or web material, is worked from left to right, the edge of the material being held towards the worker. start with three or four running stitches along the edge so the line of stitching will cover them. insert the needle the desired width from the edge, draw it towards you down over the thread, being careful not to draw the thread too tightly over the edge of the flannel. fasten the thread by taking running stitches under the last blanket stitch on the wrong side. [illustration: _hem stitching_ _a_--position of needle; _a'_--finished hem stitch; _b_--ladder stitch; _c_--example of drawn work finished with loop and cat stitches.] [sidenote: feather stitch] (5) single, double, and triple feather or coral stitches may be made very ornamental and are used in all kinds of sewing and on all materials. they are always made towards the worker, the stitches being taken alternately to the right and left of the line of the design. the thread should always be carried under the needle as in a buttonhole stitch. the design may be varied by taking the stitches diagonally or straight, by making them close or separated, etc. [sidenote: hem stitch] (6) hemstitching is used for ornament in making hems and tucks. the first step in hemstitching is the drawing of threads. rubbing the cloth along the line of threads to be drawn will make the drawing easier if the cloth is sized. after the threads are drawn, the hem is turned and basted even with the lowest edge of the drawn space. insert the needle into the edge of the hem and material, taking up a cluster of threads bring the thread under the needle to form a buttonhole stitch or make a simple stitch in the edge of the fold. the number of threads drawn and the number in a cluster must be determined by the coarseness or fineness of the material, the greater number being drawn and taken in fine material. there are several methods of hemstitching, but the results are about the same. [illustration: embroidery stitches eyelet embroidery, embroidery button hole, flat satin stitch.] [sidenote: french knots] (7) french knots are used in connection with other stitches for borders enclosed in outline and chain stitches, in initials, centers of flowers, and as a filling-in stitch. the simplest method is of taking a small back stitch, bringing the thread from the _eye_ of the needle under the point from right to left and drawing the needle perpendicularly from the cloth. place the needle back of the knot and bring the point out in the place where the next knot is to be made. the size of the thread will determine the size of the knot. [sidenote: embroidery buttonhole] (8) the embroidery buttonhole stitch has many possibilities and many variations. it is worked from left to right instead of from right to left as in a buttonhole. the thread from the work is carried under the point of the needle from left to right, just the reverse of the buttonhole. this stitch is used on flannel and in embroidery of all kinds; it may be padded or worked flat and the stitches may be taken a distance apart or near together. [sidenote: cross stitch] (9) the cross stitch is worked on linen, scrim, canvas, or any open-meshed material. if done on a flat, smooth surface, it will be necessary to work over canvas, afterwards drawing out the canvas threads. the canvas should be well basted on the material, the warp threads of the canvas lying _perfectly straight_ on a line with the warp threads of the material on which the pattern is worked. the stitches should always run the same way. if the first ground stitches are made from left to right, from bottom towards the top, the cross stitches should be made from right to left from the top towards the bottom. all the ground stitches run one way and the cross stitches in the opposite way. this stitch is used for marking table linen, underwear, and embroidery designs. when marking linen and unlined work, make the under side very neat by running the thread under the stitches already made, instead of taking a long stitch when beginning in another part of the letter or design. [sidenote: satin stitch] (10) the satin stitch is an over and over stitch and is used on materials of all kinds for marking linen, etc. the _padding_ is the first step and should be done in long even stitches placed closely and over one another in the center. the size and proportions of the figure or letters determine the size of the thread. fine thread gives the best results. the outline should be run twice; this keeps the edge firm. an even darning or basting stitches, chain stitches or outline stitch may be used if the space is not too small. the padding may be worked in an embroidery hoop to keep it smooth and even. scallops may be padded in the same way or worked flat. [illustration: embroidery button hole and blanket stitches scallops outlined and padded.] in large figures the stitches are laid closely and exactly parallel the entire length of the form. they may be straight across or at an angle, but the one slant must be maintained throughout. in small curved figures, the stitches may be placed more closely at the inner edge and spread slightly at the outer edge. in flat work where the leaf or petal is large, two or three stitches taken in the cloth, back of the face stitch, holds them even and prevents misplacement in laundering. (all embroidery should be ironed on the wrong side.) [illustration: arrow head, double arrow head and crow's foot.] [sidenote: eyelet embroidery] eyelet embroidery is a simple over and over stitch forming a smooth, round edge. like satin stitch, all outlines are run with an even darning stitch, except the very small eyelet holes, made with a stiletto. long or oval openings must be cut through the center. [sidenote: shadow embroidery] shadow embroidery is worked on the wrong side of thin material, using the cat stitch. the outline of the design only shows on the right side, the body of the design being seen dimly through the material. [sidenote: arrow heads] the arrow head and crow's foot are ornamental fastenings used in fine tailoring as endings for seams, tucks, plaits, and at corners. they are made as shown in the illustration. mercerized cotton, linen, or any of the embroidery silks can be used for these stitches, in all sizes and colors, or they can be worked with ordinary thread, cotton or linen, sewing silk, or twist. cotton thread wears better than linen. hems [sidenote: folding hems] a hem is a fold of goods twice folded to protect a raw edge. the first turn or fold of the hem is the most important. it should be straight and even, _folded to a thread_, for upon it depends the beauty of the hem. the hem should always be turned towards the worker and creased firmly, but never pleated along the fold. first crease the narrow fold, then crease the second fold the desired width, marking by a measure and baste not too near the edge. the first fold _along_ the _woof_ threads should be at least one-fourth of an inch in width, as the woof threads give or stretch more than the warp threads; otherwise it will not lie flat. [sidenote: sewing hems] in sewing the hem, the needle should take up only the edge to be hemmed down and just enough to hold on the cloth or lining. in white work the stitches should be fine, showing as little as possible. [sidenote: bias hem] all bias and curved edges should have the first fold basted. in cloth or silk this first basting thread should match the material and not be taken out. [sidenote: faced hem] a facing or faced hem is also used as a protection to the edge of a garment. a true bias or fitted facing should be used for a facing if the edges of the garment are curved. an extension hem is one in which the whole width of the hem is used. [illustration: hemming _a_--shows method of cutting to do away with a clumsey corner.] [sidenote: slip-stitching] slip-stitching or invisible hemming is done on silk, wool, and thick material. the hem is pressed with an iron, a stitch as fine as possible is taken on the surface of the cloth and the needle slipped under and through the first fold, drawing the thread lightly. the needle and thread used in this stitch must be very fine. [illustration: mitered corners method of folding and cutting.] [illustration: rolled hem and whipped gathers _a_--rolled hem gathered; _b_--whipped roll; _c_--double whipped; _d_--roll hemmed; _e_--gathers sewed to band.] [sidenote: rolled hem] rolled hem and whipped gathers are made with the wrong side of the material next the worker. make a tiny roll of the edge towards the worker, using the left thumb and index finger, rolling an inch at a time (and no more) before hemming. make fine, even stitches in the roll and goods. keep the hem perfectly round, firm and not too large. this hem is adapted only to fine material and the edge across the warp is the more easily rolled. [sidenote: whipped gathers] to gather, whip the rolled hem without hemming, making overcasting stitches towards you, even and not too fine. use coarser thread than for hemming. this gathering thread is used to hold down the edge as well as for drawing up the gathers and it not to be taken out, as is the ordinary gathering thread. it should _not_ catch in the roll. have the thread the length of the plain space to which it is to be sewed and regulate the gathers as you do the gathering. after the edge is rolled, whipped and gathered, it is sewed to the garment by the little scallops or raised parts made by the whipping. this is used only for making ruffles or gathering on very fine hand work. [sidenote: french hem] the french hem is used for table linen. fold as in an ordinary hem, then fold the hem back on the right side and overhand the edge formed, taking fine stitches. press the hem flat from the right side. [sidenote: flannel hems] flannel hems should _not_ be twice folded, for there will be a ridge instead of a flat surface after the garment has been laundered, owing to the felting properties of the wool. hems on flannel should not be stitched by hand or machine, but cat stitched on the wrong side and finished on the right side with any ornamental stitch. hems in infants' clothing may be turned on the right side and made ornamental by feather stitching. no selvage should ever be used on a hem. the selvage is more closely woven and will draw or pucker in laundrying. tucks tucks are folds made on thin material for ornament, to shorten or to provide for lengthening a garment. if done by hand, a card measure is preferable to a tape measure for marking the space and width of the tucks. the folds should be creased to a thread, basted and sewed with a running stitch showing but little on the face, or stitched on the machine. fine thread should be used. seams a seam is the line of sewing that joins material; it may be plain or ornamental. the most important are the overhand, felled, french, slot, lapped, flannel, and beaded. the overhand seam is described under the overhand stitch. [sidenote: felled seam] a fell is a seam hemmed down to the goods to protect the raw edge. it is usually made in night dresses, drawers, corset covers, etc. baste with the piece farthest from the worker extended one-eighth of an inch beyond the other and sewed _with the grain_ of the goods, beginning at the widest part of any bias. press the seam with the nail on the right side, turn the wide edge down flat to cover the raw edge and line of sewing, and hem flat either by hand or machine. care should be taken to keep the seam flat on the right as well as on the wrong side. if the felling is done with the machine hemmer, the wide edge must be on the opposite side. the seam may be basted with both edges even if preferred, cutting off one edge after stitching. [illustration: seams _a_--full; _b_--french screen.] [illustration: beaded and taped seams _a_--tape basted on one edge, and the other edge turned and stitched; _b_--beading whipped to the folded edges; _a_--stitched hem; _b_--hem finished with feather stitching.] [sidenote: french seam] a french seam is sewed twice--first on the right side as near the raw edge as possible. cut off all frayed edges, turn the material by folding _on the seam_ or line of sewing, so the seam is folded inside and the second sewing is on the wrong side below the raw edges. this is not a good seam for underwear worn next the body, as it leaves a ridge on the wrong side, but it is useful for skirts of thin material, etc. it is more easily made than a fell. [sidenote: beaded seam] beaded seams used for fine white work have a line of beading overhanded between gores, hems, or gathers. the hem along the seam should be folded on the right side, leaving a perfectly flat surface to iron on the wrong side, and finished with an ornamental stitch covering the hem. [sidenote: slot seams] the slot seam, used in cloth dresses and jackets, requires exact basting with silk or very fine thread with small, even stitches. if a coarse thread is used, the material will be badly marked. after basting, press the seam open as if it had been stitched, and baste the strap or under strip of the dress material (which has been cut perfectly straight and even) over the wrong side of the seam, having the center of the seam on the center of the strap. stitch any width desired beyond the center through the three thicknesses. this will hold the seam in position. now remove the bastings from the seam and the slot effect is complete. if desired, there may be a double row of stitching, an extra row on the edge of the fold or plait. these seams may be finished at the bottom with arrow heads or stitched designs. the lines of machine stitching should not end without some ornament to _appear_ to hold the plait. [illustration: slot seam finished with arrow head] [illustration: flannel seams and hems finished with various ornamental stitches.] [sidenote: lapped seam] in the lapped seam the edges are folded each within the other or one over the other so that both sides are alike. if made of heavy material, the raw edges are left unturned; in muslin or linen the edges are inturned, lapped, basted and the hem stitched on both edges or hemmed down on both sides by hand. [illustration: plackets _a_--made by folding a wide hem over a narrow one; _b_--tape faced sewing for the purpose of a gusset. method of folding the tape shown.] [sidenote: flannel seams] flannel seams should be stitched, opened and pressed _flat_, either on the right or wrong side of the garment. if on the right side, taffeta ribbon should be basted over the seam, so that the raw edges of flannel will not show, and cat stitched or buttonhole stitched on both sides of the ribbon, or any fancy stitch--not too long--may be used. this is the dorothy seam. for the seam on the wrong side, the edges should be cat stitched with fine thread. any ornamental stitch may be used on the right side of the seam. always press flannel seams and hems before finishing. flannel should never be hem stitched. plackets a placket is an opening in a garment allowing it to be put on. the simplest placket is made by cutting a slit and folding a wide hem over a narrow one turned on the face of the goods; this makes a pleat below the vent. there should be a double line of stitching across the bottom of the hem to strengthen the placket. [sidenote: tape faced placket] the tape faced placket is stronger and may be used in children's drawers, etc., in place of a gusset to strengthen the end of the opening. a single piece of tape folded back as for a loop is stitched along all edges, making an opening without a lap. this offers as much resistance as a gusset and is more quickly done. [illustration: faced placket _a_--wrong side, opened, showing tape; _b_--right side showing on-set piece; _aa_ and _bb_ the same ends of the tape; 1-2 method of folding and cutting end of on-set piece.] [sidenote: faced placket] in a third kind of placket, the opening is faced with a continuous piece of tape on both sides and finished with a piece of material on the outside. see illustration. this makes a strong and simple placket. when a tape cannot be used, a hem or facing may be made on the under side of the opening and a facing on the upper side, over which the on-set piece is stitched. the on-set piece and facing may be cut from one piece, but the fitting is more troublesome. in figured goods, the piece set on should match the pattern exactly. [illustration: skirt placket with lap] a simple placket for underwear is made from a single strip of the goods put on like an extension hem. on drawers it may be turned in at the buttonhole end, but not stitched down except at the band. the placket of a skirt should have an underlap extending well below the opening. sewing on bands [sidenote: gathering] divide the top of unhemmed edge of the garment in halves and mark with a cross stitch, notch or pin. gather from the placket to the middle of the front gore, if a skirt, apron, or dress. take a new thread and gather the remainder. put in a second gathering thread one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch below the first. two gathering threads are better than one and they should be longer than the length of space to be gathered. stroke or lay the gathers above and below the threads. divide the band and pin the middle to the center of the garment, placing the right side of the band on the wrong side of the garment. pin in the middle and at each end, secure the gathering threads by winding around the pin, adjust the gathers, and baste between the gathering threads. stitch just below the line of basting. fold the band over on the right side, press, baste over the line of stitching, press again, then stitch on the right side after having turned in both ends and over-sewed. turn the _top_ of the band over on the right side one-eighth or one-fourth of an inch and stitch securely. this upper fold keeps the edge from wearing and stretching and is a stay for children's skirts and drawers where button holes are used and serves as a finish for the top of the band. [illustration: finishes _a_--bias facing; _b_--band on gathers; _c_--corded edge.] for flannel, pleating or gathers may be used to put fullness into a band. two rows of gathering threads should be used and the stitches should not be too fine. the band should be made of cotton or at least lined with it to avoid clumsiness and prevent shrinking. ruffles are set in hems, etc., in the same manner. [illustration: draw tape finish for under skirt] [sidenote: drawing tapes] in finishing the top of an underskirt, many like to dispense with the placket and fitted band. this may be done by using drawing tapes at the back. the upper edge is faced with a piece of material which should be bias in front to accommodate it to the curve, but may be straight across the back. work a button hole at each side of the back, insert a tape through one button hole and draw it over an inch beyond the opposite one and fasten securely by two lines of stitching across the tape. a second tape is put through the other button hole and fastened in the same way. by pulling the tape on each side the fullness may be adjusted. [sidenote: bias facings] all facings around curves, such as arm holes and neck, should be a true bias which is cut by holding the warp threads diagonally across the woof threads. these strips for facings, pipings, ruffles, etc., should be cut exactly even in width. all bands, ruffles, etc., of serge, twilled, or diagonal materials should be cut _across_ the twill and not with it, in order to have the ruffle hang well. fastenings the standard fastenings are buttons and button holes, hooks and eyes or hand made loops, lacings through rings and eyelet holes, loops over buttons, and fancy frogs, clasps, studs, ball and socket, "notta-hooks," etc. [sidenote: making button holes] button holes should be carefully measured and marked before cutting. they should be a little longer than the diameter of the button for flat buttons and one and one-quarter the diameter for round buttons. having decided upon the distance apart they are to be placed, cut a marker from a piece of cardboard and measure off the space, marking with pins, french chalk, pencil, or thread. the distance from the edge (one-fourth inch), as well as the length of the button hole may also be marked with the card. the scissors should be sharp, the hand must be steady, and the cut should be made with one firm slash, not with two or three jerks. great care must be taken that each button hole is of the same length. the goods should be cut to a thread, for it is impossible to make a neat buttonhole if it is improperly cut. in cutting a round end buttonhole for thick goods, a punch may be used for the end, after which the remainder of the buttonhole is cut directly on a line with the center of the circle. the same marker may be used to mark the position for the buttons. all markings for buttons and buttonholes, or for hooks and eyes, should be made at one time. [sidenote: overcasting buttonholes] after cutting, the button holes are overcast. this should always be done directly after cutting, especially if the goods ravels easily, otherwise it will be impossible to work a neat buttonhole. overcasting should be done with very fine thread (no. 150 for white goods), split silk for wool and silk. three overcast stitches on each side are sufficient for an ordinary size buttonhole. a very good plan to follow in cutting a buttonhole in heavy material or material that frays easily is to chalk the position and length of the buttonhole, then stitch a row of machine stitching each side of this mark, the two rows being a little more than one-eighth of an inch apart. this holds all the thicknesses together and the buttonhole may then be cut easily. it also serves as a guide in working the buttonhole stitches. [illustration: buttons, button holes, eyelets, loops] the buttonholing is begun at the inner side of the slit. always place the knot on the outside of the garment a short distance to the right of the buttonhole, leaving a long stitch underneath which can be cut off when the buttonhole is finished. a buttonhole should be completed with one thread if possible as it is difficult to mend the thread securely and neatly. letter d for twist is usually employed. [sidenote: making buttonholes] insert the needle in the edge of the material and when half way through, take the two threads at the eye of the needle, bringing them towards you at the right and under the point of the needle, and draw the thread from you, making the purl or loop stitch directly on the edge of the buttonhole. the stitches should be about the width of the needle apart to allow for the purl. be careful to complete each stitch with a uniform movement so that the line will be perfectly straight and not wavy. the stitches are placed more closely together in the rounded end of the buttonhole where the chief wear comes. [sidenote: staying] many workers, particularly tailors, always "stay" or "bar" around a buttonhole before working. this may be done with several threads of twist or with a cord so that the worked edge of the buttonhole will be firm and distinct. tailors usually use a cord as this makes the edges heavier. it is always well to stay buttonholes in heavy material as it strengthens them very much and improves their appearance. [sidenote: bar tack] when the buttonhole has been worked all around, the end is completed with a bar tack made by taking two or three stitches across the end of the buttonhole, drawing the edges closer together. this bar is covered with buttonhole stitches worked close together. the thread is fastened securely on the wrong side. [sidenote: large buttonholes] after very large buttonholes are finished, their straight edges should be closely basted together by an over and over stitch and then pressed under a damp cloth. before they are dry, a bodkin or stiletto should be pushed vigorously up through each eyelet until that opening becomes perfectly round and the stitches on its edges are regular and distinct. when the basting is removed, the buttonhole will be symmetrical in appearance. buttonholes which are to bear a strain are cut in the direction of the pull, but sometimes they are cut in the opposite direction, as for a shirt waist. such a buttonhole may be completed with a bar tack on each end. [sidenote: sewing on buttons] ordinary buttons should never be sewed down tightly, but the thread should be loose so that it may be wound around at the end, thus protecting the holding threads from wear. the shank prevents the buttonhole from being crowded out of shape. loose sewing can most easily be done by placing a pin or needle across the top of the button and sewing over it. if a button is much concaved, the pin may be placed underneath. the pin is removed before winding. in sewing on a four-hole button, the stitches should be made symmetrically, either parallel or crossed, but not both. if parallel or in a two-holed button the stitches should run in the line of the buttonhole. the thread should always be fastened at the beginning and at the end of the work. place the knot upon the outside of the garment where it may be cut off when the button is sewed securely. the knot is sometimes placed under the button. [sidenote: cloak buttons] in sewing buttons on a cloak or coat an extra strip of canvas or silesia over the canvas interlining should be placed the entire length of the buttoning for strength. this should be applied before the work on the garment is too far advanced and if cut sufficiently wide, will allow any slight alteration. the sewing should go through the canvas facing and stay, but not through the under side or facing of the material. in sewing buttons on bodices a tape should be sewed over the front basting for a stay. if sufficient material has not been allowed for a lap, this should be added, as a lap is necessary under the opening of such buttonholes. buttons may be sewed through lining having a small button on the wrong side. this method prevents the cloth from tearing and makes an ornamental finish as well as a substantial one. buttons which are supplied with wire shanks should be sewed down firmly as the shank already provided permits the buttons to set up well from the material. they should be placed in such a position that the wire shank will run parallel with the buttonhole and not cross it. [sidenote: hooks and eyes] the position for hooks and eyes should be marked before sewing on. the simplest, though least desirable, method of sewing-on these fastenings is to place the eye at the edge of the seam or facing and the hook sufficiently far back from the opposite side to give a lap. a much preferable method is to baste a bias strip of crinoline along the positions to be occupied by the hooks and eyes; this gives strength to the finish. sufficient material should be allowed for folding over the shanks after the hooks and eyes have been sewed on, or they may be covered with silk ribbon, slipping the edge under the beak of each hook and then catstitched in position. the hooks and eyes are sewed securely through the crinoline and one thickness, but the stitches should not show on the outside. over and over stitches are taken through the small rings in the line of the full and again on each bar of the eye and on the shank of the hook so that they may be held in position securely. in many cases, it is advisable to have an underlap of the material. this should be slip-stitched in position on the garment after the eyes have been sewed in place. [illustration: hooks and eyes sewed on tape, shanks covered with taffeta tape and with fold of the goods.] [sidenote: eyelets] eyelet holes are made with a stiletto which forces the threads aside, but does not cut them. the edge is finished with over and over stitches placed closely together, or with a buttonhole stitch making the purl on the outer edge of the stitches. loops are made by buttonholing very closely over several foundation threads, making the purl on the outside edge. the needle may be run under the loop eye first if preferred. patching [sidenote: underset patch] with the underset patch have the part to be patched pressed smooth, baste the patch on the wrong side of the garment before cutting out the worn place. (if the garment or article to be mended is worn or faded and shrunken by laundering, boil the piece in soap, soda and water to fade the patch, if of cotton or linen.) after basting, cut away all the worn cloth, making a square or oblong hole. cut to a thread. cut each corner, diagonally, one-eighth or one-quarter of an inch, turn all four edges of the garment towards the wrong side. begin at the center of one side and hem all around the square, taking slanting even stitches, not too close together. remove the basting, trim the edges of the patch, press the patch on the wrong side and catch stitch to the garment. this shows less on the right side and does not make a hard line as if the patch were turned back on the edge. if the cloth has a pattern or stripe, match it perfectly, having the warp threads of both running the same way. cut both hole and patch square. an oval or round patch is unworkmanlike and does not wear well. keep the corners square and hem down well. the object of pressing is to keep both garment and patch flat and even. flannel patches should be cat-stitched on the right side. no flannel edges should ever be inturned. [illustration: underset patch, right side, edge turned and hemmed to patch] [illustration: wrong side of patch, cat stitched] [illustration: wrong side of patch in table cloth--raw edge overcast] [sidenote: onset patch] the onset patch is used on lined garments and linings. the patch should be rectangular and larger than the worn place. fold the four edges on the wrong side of the patch, place the patch with its wrong side on the right side of the garment directly over the center of the hole. this will bring the folded edges of the patch between the two pieces of cloth and both right sides towards the worker. do not baste, but pin carefully. after the garment has been folded back until there are two folded edges side by side, overhand the seam with even slanting stitches. see that the corners are well sewed, that warp and woof threads run in the same direction, that pattern and stripes match. [illustration: linen patch; cross stitch initial] [illustration: right side of flannel patch edge cat stitched but not turned, back cat stitched in the same way.] the worn part of the garment under the patch is cut away, leaving one-fourth of an inch on the three sides. cut the corners diagonally and turn back the edge quarter of an inch, overcast and press. if this patch is sewed on a lining, the worn part is not cut away. if this patch is used to repair skirts near the band, only three sides are oversewed, the upper edge should be gathered into the band. a large patch is less conspicuous than a small one. [sidenote: patch for trowsers] an onset patch may be used for the seats of trousers by shaping the patch like the pieces on the seats of bicycle trousers and stitching on the machine. heavy cloth will need no inturned edges. the same precautions are necessary regarding warp and woof, pattern, etc. darning [sidenote: thread for darning] darning is usually done with a running stitch, with or without a piece of net or cloth underset. thread for darning should be as near as possible the size of the threads in the garment. whenever it can be done, a warp thread of the garment should be used. no sewing silk is fine enough to use without separating the thread and using one of the strands. never use the thread as it is, as it is too hard twisted. cotton and linen thread of the finest quality, untwisted, should be used for darning stockings and underwear. linen may be darned with linen or mercerized cotton. cotton is preferable. a long slender needle with a large eye should be used. darning should never be commenced with a knot, nor finished with a back stitch. [sidenote: bias darn] a bias or diagonal cut and a three-cornered tear are the most difficult to repair. if the place is badly pulled and frayed, a piece of the same material should be basted on the wrong side of the material and darned in even stitches. always darning _parallel_ with the warp threads and the woof threads. in the diagonal tear, as the threads are cut diagonally, to prevent drawing apart, the darning threads must cross each other. the stitches around any darn should not end in a stiff even line; this makes a hard edge which does not wear and is unsightly, and uncomfortable if on underwear. [sidenote: darning a three cornered tear] the three-cornered tear may be darned in two ways. begin by darning diagonally through the center, darning back and forth towards the end of the tear until one-half has been finished; then begin at the center and work in the opposite direction. at the corner, the stitches should form the shape of a fan. the other method, which is the stronger, is done by darning a square in the angle, first with the warp threads, then with the woof threads and finishing each end across the tear. stocking darning may be done on the right side. begin by picking up the stitches and drawing the edges together. this should always be done in any kind of stocking darning, but not so close as to make a wrinkle. [illustration: stockinet darning over net interlaced stitches and chain stitches.] in knees and heels of stockings, or knitted underwear, a piece of net large enough to extend beyond the thin part should be basted carefully; then darn down the outer edges of the net and finally the hole or thin place. this makes a strong, neat piece of mending. if the hole is large, the net may be covered with the chain stitch, thus imitating the knitting stitch. this should be done on the right side of the garment. if the hole is to be filled in with the interlaced stitches, draw the edges together, darn beyond the thin places lengthwise of the knitted garment, making each line of stitches longer until the center of the hole is reached, then decrease in the same manner, making a diamond in shape. darn across the hole in the same way, taking up every alternate stitch as in weaving. leave a tiny loop at the end of each row of darning, so that the threads will not draw. [sidenote: machine darning] darning, satisfactory for some purposes, may be done quickly on a double thread sewing machine. it is best done in an embroidery ring, first drawing the edges together. loosen the tension on the presser foot, use fine thread with light tension. sew back and forth, first along the warp threads and then at right angles along the woof threads. the machine will be sewing backwards part of the time, but if the pressure is light, there will be no difficulty. for large holes, paper may be placed underneath. mitering embroidery or lace the mitering of lace or embroidery is often necessary in making collars and in finishing corners. before applying, plan carefully and select a scallop or portion of the embroidery which will produce the best effects when finished. this can be accomplished by folding the embroidery over at various portions of the pattern until a suitable point is found. fold over at right angles and mark along the line to be mitered. the triangle may now be cut, but an extra width must always be allowed for the seam, as there is frequently a slight unevenness and one side may have to be held a little full or stretched to make a perfect match. the mitered seam is over-sewed. [illustration: mitering and joining embroidery _a_--finished with a stitched seam; _b_--edge hemmed down and cloth cut away underneath; _c_--joined with lapped seam.] after the corner is properly made, cut away the cloth of the embroidery, allowing only enough for an inturned seam on the edge. this seam may be stitched on the machine on both edges, or oversewed to the goods, or the embroidery may be securely sewed on the plain part, after which the underlying cloth may be cut away. this will make an almost perfect corner. lace may be matched and mitered in a similar way. matching and joining lace in joining lace, avoid a seam if possible. select portions of the design that will match, placing one pattern of the same design over the other. cut away a portion of the thick part of the pattern underneath and hem the edges and inner part of the design down with fine thread. smyrna or torchon lace is more difficult to hem or join when very open or very fine. a small, felled seam is better than lapping and trying to match the pattern. embroidery can be matched in the same way. never let two heavy designs lap over each other. the one on the wrong side should be cut out and the edge sewed securely to the upper part of the design. [illustration: insertion with mitred corner, taped and faced; embroidery rolled whipped and gathered] the plain material above the embroidery can be joined by a lapped seam, turning first the right side and then the wrong side and hemming on both sides of the seam. machine sewing the sewing machine has taken away much of the drudgery of home sewing, but its use does not lessen the need of skill in hand work. no machine can finish ends of belts, collars, sew on trimmings, fastenings, and like work and the finish has much to do with the general appearance of a garment. [sidenote: types of machines] all the prominent makes of sewing machines were invented in the decade following howe's patent in 1846. the two chief types of machines are the lock stitch, using double thread, and the chain or loop stitch, using a single thread. whatever the make of machine it should be run in accordance with the rules accompanying it. the worker should familiarize herself with the directions for setting and threading the needle, winding the bobbin, regulating the tension and the stitch and all other technicalities of the particular machine she has to operate. agencies of the various machines usually have skilled workers to give instruction to beginners. while it is not always an economy of time to use the attachments for hemming, tucking, etc., unless much work is to be done, it is worth while to know how to use them if desired. as much or more skill is required for neat machine work as for hand sewing. results will not be satisfactory without careful basting. [sidenote: care of the machine] the machine should be kept well oiled, free from dust and gum and it should he run evenly. in case it becomes "gummed" a drop of kerosene on the parts that have been oiled will cut the gum. remove the shuttle and run the machine rapidly for a moment, then wipe off all the kerosene and oil the machine carefully with good machine oil--only the best should be used. a machine should always be wiped thoroughly before any work is placed upon it. [sidenote: needles and thread] as in hand sewing, needles and thread should be selected with care. a blunt or bent needle should never be used, it should have a fine sharp point and the eye should be sufficiently large to carry the thread easily. the needle and thread should be suitable for the material to be sewed. glazed thread should never be used in a machine. the best quality of thread and silk should be purchased but only enough for immediate use, as it loses strength with age, chiefly because of the action of the dyes and chemicals. even white thread may become "tender" from the chemicals used in bleaching it. sewing silk and cotton should be kept in a closed box to exclude the light and air. for sewing cotton or linen the best cotton thread should be used. woolen, silk, and velvet should be stitched with the best machine silk. the thread should match the material in color. cotton thread fades or loses its brightness when exposed to the light, therefore for stitching that will show it is always better to use silk. the thread on the bobbin should be wound evenly and carefully to insure an even stitch and the tension of both threads should be equal, otherwise the stitch will not be perfect. as a lock stitch machine requires two threads while in hand sewing only one is used, the two need not be as coarse as the single thread. for ordinary home sewing, underwear, thin gowns and the like, no. 70 to no. 100 will be found satisfactory. finer thread may be used when the materials demand it, but no coarser than no. 50 should be used in the machine and this only with the coarsest material. [sidenote: fastening threads] much time may be saved in fastening the threads at the ends of tucks, hems on sheets, towels, etc., by careful manipulation of the machine. for example, on sheets begin to stitch along the hem at the selvage, or if the end of the hem is over-sewed, begin an inch from the edge and stitch the hem towards the selvage, then lift the presser-foot so as to turn the work, and retrace the bit of stitching, continuing across the whole hem. when the end is reached, release the presser-foot, turn the work, and stitch back for an inch or more in the same line, as was done at the beginning of the hem. by this method the threads are fastened much more easily and quickly than by drawing them through on to the wrong side and tying or sewing them by hand and, of course, it is more satisfactory than the "shop" way of cutting them off short. tucks or seams may be fastened in the same way. if fine thread is used the double stitching at the ends is hardly noticeable. [sidenote: bias side next feed] when stitching a seam having one bias and one straight side, let the bias side come next to the feed, that is, on the underside. this is especially important in thin materials. if the material is very sheer, strips of soft paper--newspaper will answer for ordinary purposes--should be sewed in the seam. this will insure a seam free from puckers and when finished the paper can be pulled away easily. [sidenote: stitching gathers] in sewing gathers on a band they should also come next the "feed," as it takes up the side next to it a little faster than the upper side. when the bias, or cross-way side of the seam, or gathers are next to the "feed" the material runs along smoothly, but if the straight side is towards it there is apt to be a pucker. stitching can be done more easily on the right of the presser foot with the bulk of the material lying to the left. the tendency of the "feed" or teeth is to crowd the work off the edge as well as forward and the stitching may be guided better on the right side. all straight seams should be stretched to the full extent of their straight edge in stitching, as the work passes under the presser foot. when a large amount of machine sewing is to be done--such as household linen, sheets, pillow cases and underwear--it is a good plan to do all the basting and hand work first and keep the machine stitching for a rainy or a damp day, as the thread is then less apt to break. a current of air or a breeze from an open window on a dry day will often cause the thread to snap. for the same reason the machine should never stand near the fire or radiator. textiles and clothing part ii read carefully. this test consists of two parts,--answers to the questions and the making of models. both should be sent to the school for inspection and correction. all models should be made about 4 by 6 inches so that they may be put into the envelope provided without being folded. two series of models are given; either or both may be made. 1. what instruction have you ever had in sewing? (b) has the subject any educational value? 2. what are the common basting stitches, and for what are they used? 3. can you make the running stitch properly? how is it done? 4. for what purpose may the cat stitch be used? 5. hems and seams: describe the different kinds for thick and thin materials, including those for flannel and state when they should be used. 6. describe three kinds of plackets. 7. how are gathers made, and how sewed into a band? 8. what can you say of fastenings? 9. with what sewing machine are you most familiar, and what are its peculiarities? 10. what stitches or methods described in this lesson are new to you? note: after completing the answers, sign your full name. models, first series i. stitches. on a piece of cotton about 4 by 6 inches, make with colored thread (1) a line of even basting stitches, (2) uneven basting stitches, (3) tacking, (4) running, (5) back stitch, (6) running and back, (7) half back. with embroidery silk make a row each of (1) cat stitch, (2) single feather, (3) double feather, (4) chain, (5) rows of french knots with border of outline stitch. make your initial in one corner, using any stitch preferred. overcast one long edge of the model, double overcast the opposite side, finish one end with plain loop or blanket stitch, and the other end with some fancy loop stitch. fasten all threads as described in the text. ii. seams and hems. (a) join two pieces of fine cotton with a french seam at the long edge, about 2 by 5â½ inches, with warp running lengthwise. (b) cut a piece of muslin on a true bias and attach the bias edge to _a_ with a felled seam. (c) trim the model and hem all sides so that the finished model may measure 4 by 6 inches. iii. darning and patching. (a) in gingham or figures cotton, make an underset patch of a square hole, matching the goods. (b) darn a three-cornered tear. iv. fastenings. the proper distance from the edge of folded goods make (a) button hole, one end rounded and the other finished with a bar tack. (b) under it make a partly finished, _barred_ buttonhole. (c) below this make an eyelet hole, (d) below the eyelet hole a loop, and sew on an eye. on a second piece of folded goods opposite the first buttonhole, (a) sew a four-hole button, corresponding in size to the buttonhole. (b) opposite the second buttonhole sew on a two-hole button; (c) below, sew on two hooks corresponding in position to the loop and eye. make the two parts of the model so that the corresponding fastenings will join. v. apron. using fine muslin, make a doll's apron, gathering into band at top. above hem at the bottom, make two clusters of tucks of three each. models. second series. for experienced workers i. rolled hem; hem stitching. make a doll's apron of fine muslin, attach top to band with rolled, whipped gathers. make two clusters of tucks of three each at the bottom and hem stitch the bottom hem. ii. sleeve placket. make a taped sleeve placket as shown in the illustration. iii. make a slot seam, using dress goods and finish with an arrow head. (b) make a large cloak buttonhole. iv. mitre embroidery and finish as shown in the illustration. (b) match and join the same. v. embroidery: make something small and useful--a doily, stock, collar--illustrating some style of embroidery, or make a model of the first series which will afford you the most new experience. [illustration: making mexican drawn-work] textiles and clothing part iii dressmaking [sidenote: good tools necessary] the greatest obstacle to home sewing of any kind is the failure to provide suitable materials with which to do the work. to do good work--to make attractive gowns--the simple tools which the work requires must be provided. first, there should be needles and pins of the best quality and make. they should be fine and well pointed. the needle should be suitable to the material to be sewn and sufficiently large to carry the thread easily. a blunt or bent needle should never be used. long or milliner's needles are preferred by many for basting. [sidenote: thread] a good supply of thread should be kept on hand--not too great a quantity, but the stock should be added to as it is used. there should be both silk and colored cotton, also twist for button holes, loops and arrow heads and knitting silk to sew on and finish feather bone. [sidenote: scissors] two pairs of scissors are required--one with long, sharp blades, and a pair of medium sizes for snipping machine stitches. among the other necessary articles are a tape measure, cake of wax, pencils or tailor's chalk, tracing wheel, emery, lap board. canvas, scrim, or any like material should be kept in the sewing room, as these are invaluable for facings, linings of collars, cuffs, etc. hooks, eyes, buttons, tape, linings, featherbone and shields are requisites not to be forgotten. [sidenote: tapes] tape is constantly needed. linen tape is thinner and makes a neater finish for some purposes than cotton tape. the bias tape or binding now kept by the larger stores is very useful for binding curved edges and for other purposes. [sidenote: cutting table] if a regular cutting table is not available, the dining room table should be used. skirts, bodices, ruffles, and bias bands should be cut on firm, even, and large surfaces. if cut upon the floor or bed and pressed on a coarse crash towel, the garment will have the undesirable home-made look. [sidenote: pressing board] a good pressing board should be provided and if possible a sleeve board. in the process of garment making of any kind too much stress cannot be laid upon constant and careful pressing. the ironing board should have for its outside cover a _finely_ woven, perfectly smooth cloth, tightly stretched, free from wrinkles, and securely tacked. where there is gas, a small, portable stove should be kept near the sewing table with a medium-sized flat iron. lacking gas, one of the single burner oil stoves may be used. an electric flat iron is especially convenient. [sidenote: bust form] a bust form is a great convenience in fitting and almost a necessity for one who does much home dressing. these may be purchased at department stores. some kinds are adjustable, but it is always best to make a carefully fitted lining for it and pad out to the correct shape and size. the pattern should be one that extends well over the hips and heavy unbleached muslin may be used. after padding firmly, the front opening should be oversewed. special care should be taken with shoulders and neck and the neck band should be carefully adjusted on the figure. [illustration: padded bust form (from dressmaking up-to-date, butterick co.)] a padded sleeve lining is also very useful in making sleeves. dressmaking never should be begun until each needed article required for the work has been purchased. the sewing room should be in order; the machine well oiled and wiped before any work is undertaken. [sidenote: skill and taste] if the finished garment is to be perfect, careful attention must be given to _every_ detail of the cutting and making up. to possess mechanical skill alone is not sufficient. a successful garment depends not only upon the dexterity with which the worker manipulates the actual tools of her craft, but upon all her faculties and her power of applying them. she must have a comprehension of the laws of beauty in dress, construction, ornament, color, selection, economy. the artisan knows the technical part only, and looks upon each dress--each piece of lace and velvet--as so much material to be snipped and cut and sewed, copying from the fashion plate, making gown after gown alike. the artist, on the other hand, makes the gown to suit the individual wearer, considering each dress no matter how simple--and the simpler, the more artistic--as a creation designed to suit the woman for whom it was planned. people who study economy from principle will never adopt anything extreme in weave, or color, or make. these extreme fashions are never lasting; they are too conspicuous and are vulgarized by bad copies, while a thing which is known to be good and beautiful once will remain so for all time. those who are beginners in the art of dressmaking should select plain designs until skill is acquired. the making up and finishing of new fabrics and new or untried methods are problems that often dismay even the most experienced dressmaker. patterns [sidenote: selection of patterns] the makers of good and reliable patterns are many. always buy patterns of firms that make proportion of figure as well as fashion a study. these patterns state length of skirt, waist and hip measure and quantity of material required in all widths. buy a skirt pattern with correct hip size, as it is much more difficult to change this than to alter the dimensions of a waist. adjust the pattern to the figure for which the garment is to be cut and see that it is right in all of its proportions. always follow the notches indicated in the seams of the pattern, and thus avoid putting wrong pieces together. be sure that the pattern is placed correctly upon the material with the _straight grain_ or warp threads of the goods running directly on a line with the _straight perforations_ indicated in the pattern. lay the entire pattern upon the cloth. this gives an idea just where every piece is to come out. [sidenote: what the pattern gives] all patterns give one-half of the bodice and the skirt, from center of back to center of front. the plain waist pattern consists of back, curved side piece, under arm piece (sometimes these two pieces are in one) front, upper and under sleeve, collar or neck band. some patterns allow for seams--others do not. skirt patterns give only one-half of the front gore. the _seam_ edges of front gore are marked by _one_ notch near the waist line. the front or straight edge of the _first_ side gore has one notch, and two on the back edge of side gore. all the gores may be distinguished from the edges of the back gores by the lesser number of notches. this is true of all skirt patterns. if the patterns are studied carefully, all skirt cutting becomes very easy. the object of goring a garment is to take out unnecessary fullness at the top; reducing the weight, making the garment less clumsy, and giving a nicety of finish which could not be done in heavy material if all the goods were left to fit into a band. skirts may be lined or unlined, gored or full. seven-gored skirt the style may vary with the fashion, but a well-fitting skirt should hang even around the bottom edge, should fit easily around the hips without being strained or defining the figure too closely, or "ride up" when sitting, should flare slightly from hips to the bottom of the skirt, should not fall in between the feet, the back should fall well behind the figure. for heavy goods, as little material as possible consistent with the prevailing style should be used. plan of skirt making shortening or lengthening of pattern if necessary. placing of goods. pinning on of pattern so there is no waste. cutting. removing and care of patterns. pinning, basting, or tacking of skirt to lining. joining of seams, fitting. stitching. pressing. finishing of seams and placket hole. making and putting on waist-band. marking length and finishing the bottom. fastenings, loops, braids, hooks and eyes. [sidenote: lengthening or shortening patterns] to lengthen or shorten a skirt pattern, measure the figure and regulate the length of the patterns by making a fold in each gore two-thirds of the way from the top of the pattern if too long. this is for the simplest skirt pattern. the shape of the skirt may require two folds, one two-thirds from the top and a small fold near the bottom to preserve the outline. if too short pin the pattern on the material, cut around the top of gore and on each side two-thirds of the distance from the top of gore. unpin and draw the pattern down to the bottom and cut the required length. except for wash material, do not turn a gored skirt up at the bottom to form a wide hem, as the fullness made by turning is hard to dispose of neatly and the right curve at the bottom of the skirt may be lost. another way to lengthen the pattern is to cut it in two, two-thirds the distance from the top. see that all pleats or tucks are exactly the same width and at the exact distance from the top or bottom of the gore, also that all seams are of the right length. a shorter skirt must be proportionately narrower. [sidenote: testing patterns] it is well to test the skirt and waist patterns by using inexpensive materials, such as calico, gingham, or cheap lining. cut, baste, fit, and make this as carefully as if it were the best cloth or silk. if the skirt and waist are satisfactory, the pattern will do duty for several seasons. the plain waist pattern is the foundation for _any_ waist and many changes can be made easily with a well-fitting skirt and plain waist pattern as a basis. [sidenote: cloth patterns] as paper patterns soon wear out, after a waist and skirt have been perfectly fitted, it is a good plan to cut an exact pattern of cambric, both skirt and waist, tracing seams and notching the parts. this will enable the home dressmaker to cut and make all ordinary dresses with little trouble and with but one trying on. it is always well to try on once, as materials differ in texture and a slight change may be necessary. [illustration: placing patterns at the left, on plain or symmetrical designs; at the right, on figured or napped goods. _a_--half of front gore; _b_--second gore; _c_--third gore; _d_--back gore; _e_--front waist; _f_--under arm piece; _g_--side back; _h_--back; _i_--outside sleeve; _j_--under sleeve; _c' d'_--piecing of gores _c, d_.] [sidenote: placing patterns] if the material is plain, has no nap, or if the design is perfectly symmetrical, the gores may be alternated, the top of one gore coming opposite the bottom of the next. the half pattern of the front gore is always laid on a _lengthwise fold_ of the goods. if the goods is wide, the other gores may be cut double with the cloth folded lengthwise. with narrow goods, the cloth may be folded end to end after the middle gore has been cut out, and the other gores cut double. care should be taken that the line of holes in the middle of the gores runs exactly in a line with the warp of the material, i. e., parallel to the selvage. if the goods has a figure, the design should run upwards. any nap should run downward, except with velvet or velveteen, in which it should run upwards. with such goods, the gores if cut double must be placed on a lengthwise fold, with the lengths running the same way. if the goods is narrow, the gores may have to be cut single, reversing the pattern (turning it over) so that both pieces may not be for the same side. [sidenote: pinning patterns] pin the middle of the pattern to the goods and smooth towards each end, pinning securely at top and bottom. avoid too many pins and pin carefully, otherwise the pattern will be displaced. [sidenote: cutting out] after the pattern is securely pinned, cut out the gores, using long, sharp shears. care should be taken not to lift the material from the table, not to have jagged, uneven edges, as both time and material will be wasted in straightening them. open the shears as wide as possible, taking a long sweep of the material, and do not allow the points of the shears to come together. mark all notches with basting thread, tailor's chalk, or notch the goods if it does not ravel. the back gores should be cut in the same way. they are usually wider than the front gores and may require piecing, which should be done along the warp threads. now remove the pattern, pin carefully all pieces together and fold as little as possible. the trinity--_pin_, _baste_, _press_--should be written in large letters in every sewing room, for much of the beauty of the gown depends upon these three. [sidenote: joining the skirt] to join the skirt, pin the side gores to the front gores, beginning at the top, with pins running across the seams, then begin at the top of the skirt and baste downward, allowing all unevenness to come out at the bottom. baste straight and evenly, taking one stitch at a time. several stitches should never be taken at once on thick or piled goods, as the side next to the sewer is apt to be fuller in that case. when all seams are basted, try on the skirt and make all changes necessary before stitching. both the outside skirt and any under or "drop" skirt should be fitted as carefully as a waist. [sidenote: lined skirt] if the skirt is to be lined the lining should be made and fitted first, then ripped and the outside carefully basted on the lining, being well stretched over the lining, care being taken to have the warp of the outside and the lining run the same way. this will prevent the lining from drawing the goods. [sidenote: stitching skirts] a stitch of medium length should be used on all seams whether white goods or cloth. if the stitch is too long, the seam will "gap" and will show the thread; if too short, the seam is apt to draw. the line of stitching must be absolutely parallel inside or outside of the basting or the curve will be ruined. use silk or the best cotton for stitching skirts and be sure that the needle is not too coarse. [sidenote: finishing seams] after stitching, all bastings along the seams should be taken out by cutting the thread in several places. never pull a basting the length of the skirt. the seams should be opened and pressed according to directions. the seams may be finished with a taffeta binding, overcast, stitched flat or notched, as the case demands. [sidenote: stiffening] if stiffening is used at the bottom of a lined skirt it should be fitted to each lining gore separately and securely stitched. a light weight canvas should be stitched to a heavy cloth skirt at the bottom, if several rows of stitching or braid are to finish the bottom of the skirt. [sidenote: placket] the placket may be finished before the two back gores are pinned to the front, if preferred. if done before joining the gores the placket can be pressed better and the front is not so liable to be crushed. on the left side of the skirt sew an underlap of sufficient length to extend well below the end of the opening. face the right side of the opening with a piece of the goods, or tape not too wide, hem or cat-stitch to the skirt, and finish with hooks and eyes, loops, or any fastening that will secure the placket. [sidenote: putting on band] the skirt is now ready for the band, which should be narrow. always cut parallel with the selvage and the length of the underlap longer than the waist measure, allowing for turning at the ends. the band should never be thick and clumsy and not too tight. try on the skirt and fit the band carefully, marking the seam with pins, a line of basting, or chalk. hold the skirt easy on the band and baste with small stitches, then stitch on the machine. if the skirt is too tight around the hips the plaits will fall apart at the back. if the skirt is stretched on the band the seams will not fall in a straight line. after the band is securely stitched and finished with hooks and eyes adjust the length by turning under at the bottom and pinning, after which baste all around and try on again to make sure that the length is correct. [sidenote: finishing the bottom] a gored outside garment should be finished with a true bias or a fitted facing, carefully stitched on. it is possible to finish the bottom of a simple house dress or thin skirt with a hem if the fullness made by turning is disposed of in gathers or fine pleats. a bias facing, however, is always preferable. if of heavy or lined goods the finish should be velveteen or braid the same color as the skirt. these bindings come in different widths and grades. braids should always be shrunken by wetting and drying thoroughly; one wetting is not enough. velveteen should be applied loosely, so as not to shrink or draw after it becomes damp on the skirt. [sidenote: applying velveteen binding] the right side of the velveteen should be carefully basted with small, even stitches to the edge of the facing. it may be hemmed to the facing or machine stitched just inside the basting, which need not be removed. it is then turned, allowing a very narrow portion to show below the edge, and basted with close stitches, pressed, hemmed down to the facing by hand, or cat stitched without turning the edge. be careful not to let the stitches show on the right side, nor let the binding twist or pucker. the joining of the velveteen should be near the seam in the back. another method is to cut off the bottom edge of the skirt a quarter of an inch from the turning line; apply the wrong side of the velveteen to the right side of the skirt, baste carefully close to the edge and stitch on the machine through velveteen, cloth, and lining (or facing) just inside the basting which is left in. the bottom of the raw edge is turned up, basted close to the edge allowing the velveteen to show a very little. the upper edge of the velveteen is secured as before by turning and hemming or catstitched without turning. the illustration shows this method of applying the velveteen which is first stitched to the lining and turned with the edge. this makes a firm, rather stiff finish. [sidenote: braid] braid is stitched on to the bottom of a skirt with a narrow edge showing, or it may be applied like the velveteen, with a doubled edge at the bottom. the doubled edge will wear better. [sidenote: finish of wash skirts] skirts that are to be washed and therefore which are very likely to shrink must be finished at the bottom with a wide hem--at least six inches--the fullness made by turning being disposed of carefully in pleats or gathers. [illustration: applying velveteen binding] if desired, the bias seam down the back of the skirt may have a narrow woven tape or selvage of thin goods stitched in with the seam. this strengthens the seam and prevents dragging. the skirt when finished should always be longer in front than in the back. all cloth dresses demand every detail of finish to make them complete and able to stand hard usage, but simple house dresses and thin summer dresses do not require such careful finish. shirt waists [sidenote: trace seams] in planning a waist the same rules should be observed in placing patterns, etc., as described for skirts, except that the lines and seams should be traced with a tracing wheel or marked carefully. in making a waist of any kind care must be taken to cut all the pieces the proper way of the material. [sidenote: baste lavishly] the difficulty of putting garments together after they have been cut properly is due to undue haste, lack of care in details and insufficient pressing. the apparently simple act of basting is really of primal importance, particularly in the making of a waist. one need never be afraid of basting too much or too carefully. economize cloth and time in cutting, but use basting lavishly. [sidenote: altering waist patterns] the waist pattern may be made shorter by laying folds across both back and front. the fold across the back should be two inches above the waist line and across the front two inches below the arm's eye (in the back). securely pin or baste the folds in the pattern. if the pattern is of nearly the correct size it may be only necessary to make the waist shorter and smaller. the neck and arm's eye will seldom need altering. the sleeves may be shortened in the same way by laying folds in the pattern, above and below the elbow. plan for making a shirt waist after the waist is cut, remove and care for the patterns. make the sleeves, cuffs and collar band first. make box plait on right or left side as liked by the wearer and hem on the other side or face. baste shoulders and under-arm seams. try on the waist, making all changes necessary by enlarging or taking up seams. pin for neck band and mark for seams. fit sleeves and mark places for seams. arrange fullness and place tape at back of waist line. [sidenote: making plain sleeve] if the pattern is for a plain, one-seam sleeve with the cuff opening at the end of the seam, hem each side of the opening one or two inches from the bottom, gather the bottom between the notches, lay the gathers, baste the right side of the sleeve band or cuff to the wrong side of the sleeve, stitch and _press_, fold in a hem on all edges of the cuff, fold the cuff over on the wrong side of the sleeve, baste, oversew the ends of the cuff, _press_ and stitch the cuff close to all edges. after thus attaching the cuff, baste and stitch the long seam of the sleeve and gather at the top between notches. the cuff is usually cut in the direction of the warp of the goods. the sleeve described is the simplest that can be made. if the sleeve is to open at the back and finished with a tape, with a placket, strap or fancy lap, the seam in the sleeve is stitched first and the cuff afterward adjusted. [illustration: plain sleeve with cuff, showing general methods of sewing on bands] the box plait is made if desired and the under arm and shoulder seams basted when the shirt waist is ready to try on. make any change in the seams necessary. the neck band is put on in the same way as the cuffs, sleeves sewed in, fullness arranged at the back and a tape placed at the waist line. three hooks or other fastenings should always be placed at the back to attach to corresponding fastenings in the skirt band. the bottom edge of the waist may be finished by overcasting. [sidenote: bottom finish] if it is desired to have the fullness cut away at the waist line in front, determine the length, allowing sufficient for a blouse, gather the waist at the bottom and sew the fullness on to a band. sometimes this band is carried entirely around the waist. [sidenote: fit of collar] the fit of the collar or neck band is very important in any kind of a waist. both the front and the back may be cut higher than the pattern, as it is easy to cut off in adjusting and more goods cannot be added. to the unskilled the simplest garment is sufficiently difficult. it is wiser to make two or three perfectly plain garments before attempting to make an elaborate one. after the pattern has been tested, fitted and all necessary changes made, cut a pattern from the fitted waist of cambric or cheap _new_ muslin and mark or trace all seams. (never use old, worn-out sheets from which to cut a pattern.) after this permanent pattern has been made, do not change a single line. [sidenote: tucked waist] [sidenote: full busted waist] if a plaited or tucked waist is to be made, all plaiting and tucking should be done first, after which the same order of making is to be followed for a plain waist. no waist should draw or strain across the bust. this is especially important in tucked or pleated waists. to guard against this tendency, a graduated tuck can be pinned on either side of the front, beginning with nothing at the shoulders and widening at the waist line. this is done before the pattern is cut and will allow for especially full bust. the fold should be _on a thread_ of the goods. lined waists the plain, closely fitted, lined waist, with the curved back and side forms is the most difficult to make and requires the greatest nicety in handling from beginning to finish. [illustration: typical bodice patterns (_a_) front. (_b_) under arm piece. (_c_) side of back. (_d_) back. (_e_) collar. (_f_) outside sleeve. (_g_) inside sleeve.] the pattern for a bodice of this kind should be of such a shape that in each part the woof threads will go as straight around the waist as possible. this makes the warp threads perpendicular and will give almost a perfect bias on the current seams in the back. do _not_ cut the side forms out of _any_ piece that is big enough, without regard to the warp and woof threads. if this is done, the threads in each will run differently and all ways but the right one. in a well-designed pattern the back forms should be nearly as wide at the arm's eye as they are at the waist line. the swell of bust and shoulders should be accommodated by the back and front forms. when material is to be cut on the bias be careful to have a _true_ bias (the diagonal of a square) around the waist and up the front and back seams. plan for making fitted, lined waist. pin pattern to lining, cut out trace seams. baste all seams on traced lines. try on lining. make changes. rip lining, baste on outside and cut by fitted lining. baste seams and try on. make changes if necessary. mark the turn for hem down the front, face and mark for fastenings. stitch and finish seams. put on featherbone. put on collar; sew in sleeves. finish. [sidenote: finish lining first] in making a lined waist, the lining is cut, basted, and fitted before the outside is cut. after fitting, the lining is ripped apart and the outside cut by it. for all firm, heavy materials the lining should be slightly fuller than the outside, that is, the dress goods should be well stretched over the lining, just as in a lined skirt, and basted closely and evenly, the warp and the woof threads of the outside and lining corresponding. in laying the pattern for cutting the lining, just as much attention should be paid to the direction of the threads as in cutting a striped or figured goods. [sidenote: marking seams] all seams should be traced on the lining with the tracing wheel, with a slow backward and forward movement, making the perforations clear and distinct. soft spongy goods that cannot be traced may be marked with a line of basting, tailor's chalk or by taking stitches with a pin along the line to be marked and twisting them in the goods. this will make holes that can be seen, but the twisting does not harm the goods. always trace or mark the waist line, as this is the starting point from which to pin or baste. bodice seams should never be begun at the top or bottom, but at the marks or notches that show the waist line, working towards the top and bottom. after the lining is cut out, the seams should be basted exactly along the traced lines, with seams out, when it is ready to be tried on. [sidenote: making changes in straight seams] if the pattern has been cut or drafted by the correct bust measure, the back seams should never be changed. if possible, make all changes required by letting out or taking in on the straight under-arm seams, leaving the curved ones and the darts untouched. [sidenote: pinning and basting] pins should be used plentifully while the fitting is being done, but they should be replaced with regular basting as soon as they are removed. do not be afraid of taking up fullness in the lining by darts crosswise at the top of the corset or where the fullness naturally falls in front or back. such darts should be basted, stitched and pressed flat. if the lining is too short, it may be lengthened by letting out the shoulder seams. [sidenote: outside cut by lining] after the lining is fitted, it is ripped apart, the outside cut, basted to it and the seams are basted, beginning at the waist line. never use a long thread in basting and always use short, even stitches, especially where any curved seams are to be stitched on the machine. this rule must be followed invariably if puckering is to be avoided. [illustration: waist lining basted, seams out] [sidenote: shoulder seams] the pattern at the shoulder seams should be shorter in front than at the back. in joining this seam, pin the two portions so that the ends of the seam meet exactly at the neck and arm's eye. in basting, stretch the front piece to fit the back, holding it in or puckering it if need be. pressing will banish the pucker and give an easy seam that will hug the curve of the shoulder, as in a man's coat. [sidenote: fitting] when the waist is on the figure, pull it well down to the waist line, pin the front linings together beginning with the neck, then lift the waist a little in front to give fullness and pin to the waist line. mark for the hem down the front, finish the edge with a well-fitted facing under which is a thin bias strip of canvas interlining for buttons or hooks and eyes. marks showing the position of fastenings should be made at this time. [sidenote: fitting of neck and sleeves] the neck and arm's eye should be fitted by making slashes in the curve--never cut around the curve. for the collar or neck band have a true bias of thin canvas or crinoline and draw it around the neck and pin with the ends _out_, towards the worker. (never lap any edges of waist, belt or collar when fitting.) mark on the waist where the lower edge of the neck band touches. draw the sleeve on the arm, pin and mark where it sets right, seeing that the elbow fullness is in the right place and that it does not twist at the hand. as in the lining, all changes necessary in fitting should, if possible, be made in the straight seams, as it is difficult to preserve the proper lines of the curved ones. the shoulder seams should be the last one to be basted. after all faults are remedied, the seams are carefully stitched along the line or basting, the bastings removed, the seams pressed and finished. the last seam to be stitched securely should be the one at the shoulder. by leaving this open, all fullness can be smoothed upwards and any trimming can be let into the seam. [illustration: back of waist, well matched] [sidenote: boning] sew in featherbone by cat stitching to the seam, first finishing the ends by button-holing. all seams should be stretched well when sewing on bones of any kind. curved seams should be notched every one or two inches at the curve and bound or overcast. this allows them to lie flat. [sidenote: draped waist] in a draped waist the lining is made separate and not stitched into any seam of the outside except at the shoulder. in fitting the outside the back is pinned on to the lining firmly, then the front and finally at the underarm seams. the seams are then basted, the waist tried on again, alterations made, if necessary, seams stitched and the bottom finished with the lining, as desired. three eyes or other fastenings should always be sewed at the seams in the waist line at the back to secure the skirt to the waist, thus preventing it from sinking below the waist line. [sidenote: finish of bottom of waist] the finish of the lower edge of the waist is often a problem. if the waist is to be worn under the skirt, just how to finish or whether to finish it at all is a question. the first step is to trim the edges evenly. a line of stitching and simple overcast will show less through a close-fitting skirt of light weight material. when binding is used, it should lie perfectly flat, twice stitched and pressed well. if the waist is to be worn outside the skirt, a narrow bias strip of canvas should be basted on the wrong side, the waist turned up over this as directed for sleeve and collar finish. over this a bias facing of silk may be hemmed or cat-stitched. [sidenote: fitting irregularity of figure] in spite of careful measuring and all care in cutting, the waist may not fit, owing to some deformity or peculiarity of the figure. such figures require especially careful fitting and the hollow place should be filled out with wadding. this needs to be done with the greatest care and nicety. [illustration: making bias strips for facings] avoid too frequent fittings. the bias portions of the bodice are liable to stretch out of shape and too much handling of the waist takes away the freshness. this is one reason why it is advisable to make the sleeves and collar first in order that the whole waist may be fitted at once and all alterations made to fit both sides. a perfect figure is the exception rather than the rule and the side that is not developed should be well fitted, whether sleeve or bodice. coat or tight fitting sleeves [sidenote: altering patterns] if it is necessary to lengthen the sleeve, say two inches, cut the pattern at right angles to the lines indicated by the dots, above and below the elbow. the slashing should be done exactly at the same distance apart in the upper and under portions of the sleeve in order to retain the proper shape and size of the top and bottom. separate the parts, allowing one inch above and one inch below the elbow. to shorten the sleeve, lap the slashed part or lay a fold in the pattern instead of slashing. in either case, care should be taken that the fold or lap is of even width all the way across, so that the original shape of the sleeve will not be lost. [sidenote: placing of patterns] too much care cannot be taken in arranging the pattern of the sleeve according to the thread of the goods. especially is this the case in the two-piece or coat sleeve. generally the top part of the outside seam and the lower part of the same side should be placed at the edge or fold of the goods, so that the two run in the same straight line. in all cases, the foundation sleeve or lining should be cut and fitted before the outer portion is adjusted. ample time should be given to the fitting and basting of the sleeve. the "set" of the sleeve is very often unsatisfactory because the cutting and original basting was done in a careless manner. remember that greater care is required in sleeve making than in any part of the garment. each sleeve is complete in itself and one must not deviate from the other in size, arrangement or ornament, or general appearance. they should be cut, basted and fitted alike and if the arms differ in size or length the sleeves must be so adjusted as to conceal the inequality. the sleeves should be made at the same time and before the cuffs, then the cuffs, puffs, or whatever special trimming is to be applied to them should be put on both sleeves at the same time. if the second sleeve is not made or trimmed until after the first is finished, it will be much more difficult to secure exactly the same effect. if it is impossible to complete both sleeves at one time, make the sleeves one day and the cuffs or trimming the next day. in making the coat sleeves the general methods are the same, but each season brings out new styles which the maker will have to understand before proper making and finishing can be acquired. always master the simple and standard patterns and the minor changes dictated by fashion--new fancies and effects--will not be difficult to acquire after a little experience has been gained. the lining for both sleeves should be fitted and the outside cut by them. [sidenote: joining the parts] after economical cutting, trace the seams carefully, and baste the outside to the lining, basting both uppers before the under sections. join the under and upper parts by pinning and basting, the outside seam first, beginning in the middle of the sleeve and working toward each end. the outside seams should be begun at the notch at the elbow, working toward each end. where the sleeve calls for gathering the fullness should be distributed between the notches and the two portions of the sleeve should be secured at this point, before or after basting the upper or lower portions of each sleeve. [illustration: finishing of seams notched at curves and bound or overcast.] stitch the seams just outside the basting, then remove the line of basting along the seam and press. trim off all rough edges. the inside seam is opened and notched at the bend of the elbow and an inch or two above and below and bound with silk binding ribbon or evenly overcast with twist or mercerized cotton. [sidenote: adding cuffs] if an elaborate cuff or trimming is to be added to the sleeve, whether full or plain, it should be made separately and blind stitched to the faced sleeve. in case the sleeve is gathered the fullness can be put into a narrow band, the exact size of the cuff, the cuff then sewed on the band. [sidenote: putting in sleeves] in putting the sleeve in the armhole, be sure that both seams are at the same point, that both have the same amount of fullness at the top, and that the plaits or gathers are equally distributed from front to back. the sleeve should be held next to the worker and should lie easy from seam to seam at the under arm. baste with close, even stitches or back stitch with coarse cotton or twist the same color as the waist. stitch in the sleeves on this line of basting, keeping the armholes curved while the stitching is being done. trim off edges and finish with binding or close overcasting. the most careful binding is clumsy compared to the overcast finish. turn the seam toward the shoulder and hem to the lining over the shoulders. this will do away with the stand-up look that sleeves sometimes have. [sidenote: finish at wrist] for the sleeve finished plainly around the wrist, a piece of bias crinoline should be fitted at the hand. to do this, turn the sleeve _right_ side out and slip the crinoline in the sleeve over the left hand and adjust by moving the fingers until the crinoline shapes itself to the sleeve perfectly, then pin and baste at the top and bottom. in this way the crinoline will be neither too short nor too loose and all wrinkling will be prevented. turn the sleeve inside out and cut off the crinoline one-fourth of an inch from the edge, keeping a perfectly true edge, turn the sleeve over the crinoline, baste the outside part of the sleeve and cat-stitch to the crinoline, then cat-stitch the crinoline to the lining. remove the lower basting and press. a bias strip of silk sufficiently wide to cover the crinoline is hemmed at the lower edge and to the sleeve lining just above the interlining. whenever it is possible to do so use the cat-stitch. it is a neat finish, easily and quickly done, takes less time than hemming, besides being less bulky. if the bottom of a coat sleeve is to be left open at the back or slashed, an interfacing of light weight canvas will be necessary. turn the outside portion of the sleeve over the canvas, care being taken to turn all corners at the slash, and curves, press and stitch, face after the stitching is done. it may be stitched better if the back seam is left open. [sidenote: pressing sleeves] in the coat sleeve both seams are curved and should be pressed on a curved board. a rocking chair inverted, with the rocker covered with soft cloth, makes a good board on which to press the curved seams of a sleeve. collars the shaped, standing collar is worn with waists of all kinds and is always a popular neck finish. in a close-fitting collar made of heavy material an interlining of canvas or crinoline is necessary. the interlining should be cut one-fourth of an inch smaller all around if the collar is to be blind stitched to the waist. if it is to be sewed to the neck, in a seam, the lining should be the same size as the collar at the neck. baste this interlining to the collar material, cut out the corners of the material, and hem the extended portion to the interlining. the interlining should always be cut bias, whether the outside is bias or straight. hem the collar lining to the collar. [sidenote: putting on collars] to sew the collar to the neck of the garment, first pin, beginning at the back seam and baste towards the end. the lining may be left free at the lower edge and felled over the neck edge after the collar has been stitched to the garment, or the lining may be stitched in the seam, the seam pressed open and a bias facing of silk or light weight material hemmed on over the seam. the beauty of collars and cuffs depends largely upon the exact turning of corners and finish of ends. these should never be left bulky or clumsy. if preferred, the lining and outside of collar may be seamed and turned. place the right sides of outside and lining together, the interlining next to the lining, stitch around both ends and top of collar, then turn and press. these rules may be followed in making sailor or any lined collars. collars made of all over embroidery should be faced with tape on the wrong side before the trimming is applied to cover the edge of ruffle or lace. the plain or shirt waist pattern will do duty for many garments--corset cover, night dress, dressing jacket, etc. the upper part of the waist will answer for yoke pattern of different shapes. seamless yokes [sidenote: pattern for yoke] to make a pattern for a seamless yoke baste together the shoulder seams of the fitted waist pattern, place the upper part of the pattern on cambric or stiff paper, with the front of waist on straight edge or fold of paper, trace the shape of the neck yoke any desired depth below the neck line. the lower edge can be cut in any shape, the neck either high or low, round or square. this perfectly fitted yoke pattern can be used for a foundation for lace, velvet, ribbon, net, or any thin material. the circular yoke made of lace and ribbon or bias strips can be made to open in front or back. the strips of inserting and ribbon should be basted on the paper pattern and joined by fancy stitches or over sewed. the parts next the neck will need to be held fuller than the outside curve of the inserting. all yokes to be worn under the gown should be made on a well-fitted lining. never trust to pinning, basting, or hooking the yoke to the waist. the finish of collar, cuffs, girdle and placket are hallmarks of good dressmaking. well finished ends and corners, the careful adjustment of fastenings, shields carefully fitted to the arm's eye and caught smoothly to the lining--all these are little things that count for more than money spent in expensive ornament. pressing [sidenote: pressing board] the success of the finish of every garment depends upon the pressing, whether the material be heavy or light, cotton or wool. garments are always pressed on the wrong side, when being made. the iron used should neither be too hot nor too heavy and the work should be done on a perfectly smooth, well-covered board. for pressing black or dark cloth, the cover of the board should be dark and free from lint, while a perfectly clean light cover should be substituted when white or light goods are to be pressed. [sidenote: placing the iron] the whole face of an iron should never be put down on a seam or any part of a waist, but the side or point should be used, care being taken _not_ to stretch a curved seam. a small rolling pin, a broom stick, a chair rocker, or any rounded stick well covered can be used for pressing curved seams or sleeves. this lessens the danger of marking the seams on the right side. these are only makeshifts; a regular half round sleeve bound should be obtained if much work is to be done. in pressing, the iron should never be shoved or pushed, as in ironing. only heavy materials require great strength. it is possible to press too much as well as too little. whatever the material, pressing is work that requires to be done carefully and slowly. allow the iron to touch only the center of the seam, the edges of the seam will not then be outlined upon the goods. piled goods require infinite care. uncut velvet, crape, etc., should _never_ be pressed with the iron flat on the seam. the seam should be opened carefully and over the rounded surface of the board, covered with very soft cotton flannel into which the pile can sink without being flattened. run the iron with the pile, or the iron may be placed on the side or flat end and the seams drawn slowly along the edge of the iron the same way the pile runs--only the edge of the iron touching the edge of the seam. corded seams should be pressed in the same way to avoid flattening the cord. [sidenote: wet pressing] very heavy cloths and chinchilla should have a small stream of water carried along the seam, followed by the iron; or the seam may be dampened by a soft cloth--very wet. this is the "wet pressing" used by tailors, which is adapted to the requirements of materials used by them, such as serge, tweeds, etc. pressing on the right side under a damp cloth is apt to give marks if the cloth gets too dry or if the iron is too hot, but is necessary on finished wool garments. silk scorches easily and should be pressed very carefully with a cool iron, light in weight. some light colors fade or change in pressing. try a piece of the goods before pressing the garment. if the color does not come back when cold or when exposed to the light, do not use a hot iron on the garment. construction and ornament for dress [sidenote: principles of ornament] many of the principles governing architecture and art apply equally as well to art in dress. both in architecture and dress, construction should be decorated--decoration should never be purposely constructed. it is by the ornament of a building that one can judge more truly of the creative power which the artist has brought to bear upon his work. the general proportion may be good, the mouldings accurate, but the instant ornament is attempted, the architect or the dressmaker reveals how much of an artist he is. to put ornament in the right place--where it serves a purpose--is indeed difficult; to render that ornament at the same time an added beauty and an expression of the desired unity is far more difficult. [sidenote: purpose of ornament] all decoration should be planned to enrich--not to assert. all jewelry or ornament should form a note in the general harmony of color--a decorative touch to add beauty and to be subordinated to the object decorated. it should serve the purpose of seeming to strengthen the whole or to protect the parts receiving most wear. ornament is everywhere attempted. we see ornament at every turn--good and bad alike--in our homes, on clothes, linen, and kitchen utensils. carlyle tells us that "the first want of barbarous man is decoration." we have no record of when this need was felt first. primitive man after supplying his actual needs, seemed to develop a longing for the beautiful, so he ornamented his own body, scratched rude patterns on his tools and weapons and gradually developed the artistic sense. this love of ornament dates back to the beginnings of the human race and there are no records of a race or a period devoid of it. [sidenote: errors in ornamentation] we see gowns totally lacking in good results because too much has been attempted. the wearer has not considered the effect as a whole, but has gratified her liking for a multiplicity of ornaments and color which, perhaps would be good in themselves, if applied separately, but which becomes an incongruous mixture when brought together on one garment. garments which seem to have required great effort in the making and which appear complex in construction should be avoided, for the effect is not pleasing. the gown should set off the wearer, not the wearer the gown. to avoid committing errors against good taste it is essential first to consider the use of any garment and see if it answers the purpose for which it was designed. if any part appears meaningless, this is a sure indication that it is wanting in grace and beauty. the ornament should harmonize with the materials, use, and construction of the object to which it is applied. the color must be massed with effect and detailed with care. [sidenote: embroidery] there can be no ornamentation equal to that which is worked into the material, such as embroidery. the design should be appropriate in form and color and always conventional. flowers are used most frequently for embroidery and passementerie and the simple, single flowers are the most effective, such as the daisy, the wild rose, and the flowers of the lily family. these simple flowers are the best because they radiate from a central point, have strong forms and decided proportions, can be most fully expressed in a few stitches requiring the fewest shades of color, and are admirably adapted for amateur workers. [sidenote: flowers as ornament] old indian stuffs, jewelry, and enamels are rich in suggestions of conventionalized flowers. the simple, single flowers are repeated constantly, the daisy appearing to be the favorite in these beautiful ornaments. the most beautiful of all conventional flower work, jewel studded, is found in samples of work of the fifteenth century. they simply suggest the forms of nature. the repetition of the same flower in all its aspects is more pleasing and less tiresome to the eye than a variety of flowers or figures. [sidenote: geometrical designs] we find upon analysis that the simple forms are the basis of all decorative art work. geometrical designs and arabesques are the most difficult, requiring the most exacting and careful work. narrow bands, braided, outlined, or chain-stitched in simple designs are effective, easily done, and wear well. braids and any of these stitches may be combined, making durable and effective trimming for sleeves and neck. these simple designs are also appropriate for children's frocks. the french knots are ornamental and durable. all embroidery and passementerie should be rich, close, and continuous. it should not be cut up into pieces and sewed on where it does not serve, or appear to serve, a purpose. [illustration: passementerie of good design] [illustration: poor design, weak connection] [sidenote: passementerie] there is very little passementerie that is at all suitable for forming edges, as it is not sufficiently substantial, but when it can be found firm and of the right shade it is one of the most beautiful ornaments to edge neck and sleeves. it may be allowed to extend beyond the dress material, so that the flesh tints may show through the design, thus gradually softening the outline. often a narrow passementerie can be found with one strong edge and a good border can be made by joining the two. this cannot be done where the pattern is united by a band running through the center of the ornament. [illustration: joining narrow passementerie to form a border] [sidenote: bands] a band of velvet or cloth embroidered in outline stitch and french knots of same shade as the garment is a satisfactory edge. except for yokes, the knots should always be held together with the outline edge. the rich silk braids and passementeries are made of silk wound or woven over cotton and should be used only on dresses which are not intended for hard wear. such trimmings are, of course, inappropriate on serges and homespuns and soon become shabby if given much rough service. [sidenote: use of laces] laces, like all trimmings, have defined limits within which they should be used, though they are often worn indiscriminately. machine made laces, often good in make and design, are now very common, but the best machine-made laces are not cheap in price. [sidenote: design of lace] handsome lace should be applied rather plainly, as the pattern is often lost in the gathers. fine laces are out of harmony with heavy or coarse materials. when lace is desired for flounces that with running patterns which neither advance nor retreat, except in the folds which may be made, will be found most pleasing. distinct objects, such as baskets, crowns, vases, etc., which suggest weight, are unsuitable patterns for so light a fabric as lace. [sidenote: placing of decorations] attention to details is essential in the placing of these decorations, as in the selection or making of them. the worker should take into consideration the shape and size of the bands or pieces of trimming and should note carefully the chief characteristics of the design and above all the junction of leaves, flowers, arabesques, especially in the finishing of the corners of collars and cuffs. [sidenote: simplicity and harmony] those at all skillful with the use of the needle can attain the most beautiful and artistic results if right laws in color and design are adhered to, even by the use of the simplest stitches, for the beauty of dress lies not so much in the richness and variety of material used as upon simplicity and harmony--a fact too often disregarded. [sidenote: the bow] perhaps no ornament is more abused than the bow. in order not to appear intrusive, ribbons require the most delicate handling. the only excuse for a ribbon as an ornament is when it makes a pretense of tying. when used as a sash where folds or gathers are confined, the tone of the ribbon should, in general, vary scarcely from that of the dress. [sidenote: fitness of place] whatever the ornament used, whether embroidered band, a ribbon, a cord that laces, a diamond pin, or a jeweled buckle, though it may possess great intrinsic value and beauty, it cannot be considered of real worth as an ornament unless it fulfills the most important condition--fitness of place. although the art of dress admits of innumerable variations, like all other arts it is subject to the three rules of beauty--order, proportion and harmony. ornaments are appropriate on the hems or edges of garments where it serves the purpose of strengthening and protecting the parts most worn, and not simply where fancy or fashion dictates. [sidenote: natural centers] the natural fastenings and fold centers should be along the axis or center of the body. any jewelry, buckle, brooch, or ornament used to fasten, secure, or strengthen these centers or to hold bands of embroidery, collar, or folds together should be sufficiently strong to serve the purpose. there must be a reason for position and the purpose of its use must be apparent to satisfy the eye. the eye is unconsciously and irresistibly drawn to these natural centers and demands some object there on which to rest--some substance from which the fold emanate--some reason for their detention. if this ornament at the throat or waist fastening collar or holding folds by a girdle or clasp is omitted, the eye is disappointed. this does not mean that the ornament, jewel, passementerie, or embroidery should always be placed in the axis or central line of the figure--this may be carried too far. slight irregularities often give an effect to hat or gown that is charming. [illustration: passementerie covering facing] [sidenote: trimming] remember that trimming is not intended to cover up, but to beautify and strengthen. when, for economy's sake, it is used to cover worn places or other defects, it must be selected and applied with great care or it will loudly proclaim its mission. [sidenote: unity in dress] trimming should mean something--whether jewelry or passementerie. bands that bind nothing, straps, bows, buckles, or pins that confine nothing offend the taste. a girdle should seem, even if it does not, to belt in fullness; it has no use on a close-fitting, plain waist. no draperies should be invisibly held; supply some apparent means of confining the gathers. to preserve the lines of the figure there should be unity in the dress. a tight-fitting skirt below a gathered waist or a full, gathered skirt below a plain waist gives the appearance of two portions of the body instead of the oneness desired. the figure should never be cut across, either above or below the waist-line with contrasting colors, different shades of the same color, or bands of different texture. below the waist-line the figure should suggest the elements of strength and these horizontal bands cut the lines of the figure at an angle of opposition, destroying the rhythm and grace of the lines. much experience is required in placing horizontal lines of ornament on a skirt effectively. in general, rows of tucks or ornament should diminish in width from the bottom towards the top. the plain spaces should be greater than those ornamented. when ornament gives absolute evenness of space division in skirt or waist the effect is apt to be monotonous and unsatisfactory. the natural places of support for garments are the neck, shoulders and waist. ornamentation which emanates from these centers or when used for borders, if appropriate in design, is usually successful. ornament of textiles in addition to ornament added to garment, the ornament in the textile itself must be considered. [sidenote: appropriate designs] textiles may be beautiful in weave, but spoiled by the design. quite as important as intrinsic beauty is appropriateness of pattern. how often do we see woven on our curtains, carpets, and garment materials fans, bunches of roses tied with ribbons--bows with long, fluttering ends--landscapes, snow scenes, etc. nothing is beautiful out of its place. a fan suggests coolness and grace of motion, but woven in our textiles it gives the same impression as a butterfly mounted on a pin--something perverted, imprisoned, or robbed of its natural use. nothing is or ever can be beautiful without use--without harmony. decorations on textiles are not to tell stories. there is a difference between landscape painting and using landscapes as a motive for decorating textiles or pottery. in one case the aim is to annihilate surface by producing the impression of distance; in the other, the object is to glorify the surface only. [sidenote: advantage of plain material] for the woman of limited income it is wiser to select plain material of good texture and weave. such material is never conspicuous, can be made over, and is always restful and may be interesting. any good textile must impress itself upon the mind by its suggestiveness and beauty of color. there is a difference between what may be called artistic and decorative embellishment of textiles. each has its place in the world of beauty, but one is the poetry, the other the prose of the art. [sidenote: stripes] there is a dignity and restfulness in plain material which is never obtained by varied patterns. when a stripe is used to vary the material, the style of the textile is changed, elongated if the stripe is vertical, and widening if it is horizontal. if the main stripe is cut at right angles with a second stripe, the textile appears more complicated and repose is lost. the same is true of checks, but no pattern is more distracting than large plaids, especially when used for waists, because the regularity of the design renders very conspicuous any inequalities in the shoulders or bust, and the great variety of colors detracts from the dignity of the dress. with small checks and narrow, self-colored stripes the effect is different, causing the texture to appear only shaded and not destroying the unity. [sidenote: conventionalized designs] on garment fabrics the ornamentation should be flat, without shadow or relief. the pattern must enhance and not mar the figure. if flowers, foliage, or other natural objects are used for the designs, they should be conventionalized--not direct copies of nature. a figured textile requires more careful planning than plain material. it may be beautiful when used properly, but it will appear hideous if distorted in the making. a conventional fleur-de-lis pattern, or a long dash which appears and disappears when used in long, graceful folds, adds to the apparent height. these same figures wrongly used spread out awkwardly or become distorted. [sidenote: size of design] the size of the design should be regulated by the material--small patterns being used for close, thick fabrics and larger designs, with more delicate colors, for thin material of open texture. thick, heavy fabrics require rich, warm colors and the pattern likewise should be rich and decorative. velvets, velveteens, and heavy cloths for dresses are beautiful in themselves and should not be marred by patterns or trimmings. spirals or curved lines running crosswise on textiles distort the natural curves of the figure by making seeming undulations where none should be and accentuating the prominence of hips and bust. such patterns should not be used in folds. color [sidenote: texture and color] much is to be considered in choosing colors and it is folly to suggest a particular shade for a person without taking into account texture of the textile. though the color may be good, the weave may destroy what might otherwise have been a success. not only must color in itself be studied, but quality of color in textiles as well. a shade of red, for example, in dull silk or lusterless material may be most unbecoming for a woman of a certain type, while it may be worn successfully if made in rich velvet or glossy silk. some women maintain that they cannot wear green, but nearly all can dress becomingly in this color if the shade and texture is selected carefully. the same may be said of other colors for the many variations should be taken into consideration. the average woman in selecting materials for gowns or house furnishings is apt to be influenced too much by details, as she would judge the merits of a fine piece of needlework, hence the value of good, broad color schemes fails to appeal to her. the chenille curtain, perhaps, suits her because it is full of complex decoration. [sidenote: harmony not contrast] after having determined the prevailing color of a costume, the details should be in _harmony_, rather than in _contrast_ with it. different tones of one color are more satisfactory than striking contrasts, and even strong patches of light and shade of the same color should be avoided, as well as patches of crude and vivid color. the pleasing contrasts found in nature cease to be happy when attempted in textiles. use few colors, avoid bright shades except in small quantities. all bright colors should be placed near the face, rather than on or near the bottom of skirts or the edge of sleeves. avoid strong contrasts; the brighter the color and the greater the contrast with other colors, the louder and cruder will be the effect. "no color harmony is of a high order unless it involve indescribable tints." children's clothes [sidenote: infants' clothing] plainness, purity, softness of texture rather than elaborate ornament should be the main consideration for infants' clothes. the finest and softest of french and scotch flannels, french linen, dimity, nainsook, and india silk are always dainty and they should be made up very simply with little trimming, but that of the finest. hems and seams should be small and neatly done with, perhaps, the daintiest beading inset by hand and feather stitched. hemstitching is always beautiful, but makes a weak spot which is apt to give out in the constant laundering necessary for children's clothes. the skirt and shirt made in one piece, with sleeves to slip into the little outside garment, both to open down the back so that all may be slipped on at the same time without worry to either nurse or baby, will be found a great convenience. [sidenote: stockinet undergarments] stockinet or webbing, all wool, partly wool, or all cotton, is preferred by many to the plain cloth. the cotton is non-shrinkable, easily made, and finished. this garment fabric has reached such a high degree of perfection that for infants and children of larger growth nothing better can be desired for shirts, skirts, drawers, and tights. it may be had in either light or heavy weight, is easily laundered and elastic, having all the qualities desired in undergarments. garments made of this material in the manner described give perfect freedom for all organs, besides evenness of covering for the body and lightness of weight--all important considerations in infants' and children's clothing. there should be the same simplicity in construction and material in the garments of children of larger growth. the design should be smaller, more realistic and the color brighter than for grown people. [sidenote: children's dresses] for children's dresses, the pretty ginghams in small checks, chambray, dimity, serge, flannels, cashmere are appropriate and serviceable. in making up these simple materials nothing better can be suggested than the plain, straight waist, fitting easily, to which a full skirt is fastened. the sleeves may be of any fashion to add variety. such a frock is simple and dignified and has a certain archaic beauty and quaintness that the huge, ugly collars and like ornament can never give. with the plain body the grace of the childish form is not lost. the body may be short or long, with the trimming at the bottom or edge of the skirt. the gathers fall in long lines or folds, no element of opposition destroying the rhythm and grace of the figure contour, when the trimming is placed at the bottom of the frock instead of several bands dividing the skirt. the waist should always be wider in front than in the back. the discomfort and injury caused by ill fitting garments, graded according to age instead of according to size, thus restricting the expansion of the chest and the play of the lungs, cannot be estimated. with the proper kind of frock a child can indulge in any game without becoming in the least disordered. dresses for little girls may have drawers made of the same material, thus permitting them the same freedom as the boys. the life of the child is play. unfortunate is the child whose clothing is too good to play in. of course there should be frocks for gala occasions. children are sensitive to color and receive much innocent enjoyment from being prettily dressed. a child may be made unhappy and timid by ugly clothes, but plainness need not mean ugliness. there are many artistic and simple patterns now being put on the market and many of the ready-made frocks found in the best shops are satisfactory. care of clothing ruskin says, "clothes carefully cared for and rightly worn, show a balance of mind and self respect." [sidenote: little attentions] the freshness of gown or wrap may be preserved by the little attentions bestowed upon it each time it is worn, which take but a few minutes and mean so much in all departments of dress. by carefully brushing and shaking into folds, removing all spots, hanging right side out, picking and pulling straight flowers, bows, and ribbons as soon as removed, adding buttons and taking up dropped stitches when needed,--all these little attentions if given promptly will keep a wardrobe fresh and in good order. new braid on the bottom of skirts, sponging and pressing, little alterations and addition of new trimming to collar and cuffs, will help to preserve the original freshness of the gown and cause the wearer to appear well dressed. waists should be turned wrong side out when removed and allowed to air near a window. shields should be cleansed with alcohol and water. ribbons should be rolled up immediately when taken off and if treated in this way will last much longer and look much daintier. clothing if moist and dusty and tossed into a dark corner of a closet or trunk can never appear fresh again, and will betray the character of the wearer. it is not the wearing of clothes which tells so sadly upon them, but the manner in which they are cared for. a few garments nicely made, well fitted and properly cared for are far preferable to twice the number of inferior quality and make. [sidenote: ruffled skirts] skirts of thin material having ruffles around the bottom should be hung upside down by loops sewed under the ruffles at the seams. by hanging in the opposite direction from which they fall when worn, ruffles regain their freshness. [sidenote: packing away clothing] all clothing for the season should be put away in perfect order to be ready for any sudden emergency which may arise. no clothing of any kind should be stored for the season without thorough cleaning and repairing where necessary. garments that are outgrown should be disposed of, instead of packing them away. wool garments should be carefully brushed and hung in the sun to remove and destroy any eggs of moths which may be present. they may be hung in tight cotton bags or packed in tight boxes with all openings posted over as a protection against moths. tailors' boxes which come flat are not expensive and are useful for this. they should be plainly labeled with their contents. [sidenote: folding garments] to fold, lay all articles on the bed or table and fold on the seams if possible. particular attention should be given to sleeves and collars. coat lapels should be turned to lie flat, collars turned up, and the coat folded directly through the center seam. skirts and coats with bias seams are not improved by hanging as the bias parts are apt to stretch out of shape. [sidenote: remove pins] no clothing should be put away for the night, even, without first removing all steel pins, as the least dampness may cause rust spots. [sidenote: hangers] clothes forms and hangers are so inexpensive that every gown and coat should have its own. skirts should be hung exactly on the form and no part of the band should be allowed to sag. if fancy waists are put in drawers or boxes, they should have the sleeves filled with tissue paper and the collars and bows should be pulled straight. cleaning large garments require the greatest care in handling and in order to be done successfully, they should be sent to the professional cleaner. [sidenote: fruit and wine stains] all stains and spots should be removed as soon as possible. fruit and wine stains may be removed by stretching the fabric over a vessel and pouring boiling water through the cloth from a height of a foot or two. the water _must_ be boiling. [sidenote: ink stains] ink stains can be taken out of clothing by dipping the cloth in milk, squeezing the blackened milk into one dish and dipping immediately into clear milk until the stain has disappeared. then finish by washing the cloth in warm water and in soapy water to remove the fat in the milk. [sidenote: iron rust] iron rust may be removed from linen and cotton by using lemon juice and salt. wet the spot with the juice of a lemon, cover with salt and lay in the sun, repeating the operation until the stain is removed, then rinse out the lemon and salt thoroughly. this of course cannot be used on colored fabrics, as it fades the color. [sidenote: grease spots] grease is one of the worst foes to garments and the greatest care is needed to remove such spots from delicate fabrics. if not done at once, the dust and grease together often prove ruinous. when the color and fabric will not be injured by it, warm water and soap is the best agent, otherwise absorbents may be used. french chalk or magnesia powdered, placed upon the spot, and allowed to remain for a time will often absorb the grease effectually. if the first application is not effective, brush off, and apply again until the spot disappears. where water can be used without injuring the cloth, the chalk or magnesia can be made into a paste and spread over the spot. when dry, brush off with a soft brush. in removing fresh grease spots, blotting paper with a warm iron may often be used effectively. if the heat changes the color of the cloth, the iron should be held above the goods. [sidenote: blood stains] blood stains may be removed by making a paste of starch and applying it to the spot. several applications may be necessary. [sidenote: solvents] [sidenote: cleaning garments] [sidenote: soap and ammonia with gasoline] only the best and purest benzine, naphtha, gasoline, and turpentine should be used for cleaning garments. for removing paints from coarse cloth, pure turpentine is useful, while for silks, velvets and woolens, benzine, naphtha and gasoline are to be preferred. the secret of success in the use of any of these cleansing agents lies in immersing the garments in _large quantities_ of the liquid. not less than a gallon should be used for a waist and two gallons will do the work far more satisfactorily. an effort should be made to remove all the worst spots before immersing the whole garment. those which have not disappeared should then be marked with white thread, colored thread may leave a mark. it is a good plan to enclose the spot with a line of basting. soak the garment for some time in the liquid, then soap all spots thoroughly and rub gently between the hands until they disappear. finally wash and rinse the garment in clear liquid and hang in the open air until all odor has passed away. soap may be used freely with gasoline with good effect. some professional cleaners use a little of the strongest ammonia in their gasoline tanks. the goods should be shaken well and all folds pulled out straight with the threads of the goods. velveteen, corduroy, and like piled fabrics can be cleaned successfully if not too much worn, but no amount of cleaning will restore the pile that is worn off. if allowed to stand until the impurities have settled and the clear liquid poured into clean bottles, it may be used for a number of times. this should always be done in the open air. chloroform may be used for cleaning the most delicate silks, though this is rather expensive. [sidenote: absorbing pad] whenever any of these liquids are used to remove spots alone, the spots should be placed upon a soft pad of several thicknesses of old cloth or blotting paper to absorb the surplus liquid and the spot should be rubbed from the outside towards the center. a hole may be cut in very soft cloth or blotting paper and placed around the spot to absorb the solvent around the stain and prevent the dark ring being formed. the cloth should be rubbed lightly and briskly until it is dry. if the fabric is light colored, a sponge or a soft piece of light cloth should be used, while for dark fabrics, the cloth used for rubbing the spot should also be dark and free from lint. the rubbing should be done lightly so as not to wear or injure the texture of the fabric. the blotting paper or cloth underneath should be changed frequently until the spot has entirely disappeared. [sidenote: cleaning velvet] velvet hats and bonnets, after all trimming is removed, may be cleaned by repeated dippings in benzine or gasoline. the vessel used should be large enough to hold a sufficient quantity of the liquid to completely cover the hat. of course all dust should be carefully brushed off and all folds ripped and loosened before putting the hat into the liquid. the secret of success lies in having the article entirely free from dust and using a large quantity of the benzine or gasoline. [sidenote: before sending to cleaners] before sending out garments to be dyed or cleaned, be sure that they are in good condition. all worn places should be mended carefully and all buttons should be removed. garments that are ripped should have all cut threads pulled out and be free from dust. dust silk fabrics with a piece of clean flannel and woolen material with a brush or broom. repairing [sidenote: economical mending] fabrics are so much cheaper and so much easier to obtain that patching has almost become one of the lost arts. the twentieth century woman feels that her time is too valuable to be spent in mending the old clothes and that she can better afford to buy new. however that may be, no one disputes the utility of mending. like so many other duties, mending is half done when well begun. a well made garment of good material should not be discarded when slightly worn, for a patch well put in or a neat piece of darning detracts in no way from the value of a garment and may even be a work of art. the children's clothes particularly should be kept in good order, for they are made uncomfortable by wearing garments that are out of repair, to say nothing of the demoralizing effect upon their characters. [sidenote: laundering and repairs] laundering is the great ally to tears and not only doubles the size of the hole, but pulls the threads apart so that it is impossible to make the mended place neat and smooth, therefore all clothing should be mended before washing. stockings and woven underwear are much worn by the rubbing on the washboard and thin places going into the washing frequently come out as holes, so that it is true economy of effort and time to "run" or darn the thin places before they are worn through. it requires much less time and the garments last longer. it is a good plan, especially in knees of stockings and knitted underwear, to baste a piece of fine net over a worn or broken place and darn over it. (see darning.) thread used for darning should be as near as possible the size of the threads in the garment. darning cotton, linen, wool, and silk of all shades can be bought, so that the problem of matching is no longer a difficult one. [sidenote: boys' trowsers] in mending the knees of boys' trousers a round patch should never be used. the seams should be ripped and the piece set in then, if the seams are pressed well, the patch will scarcely be noticeable. [sidenote: sleeves] when bodices are worn under the arm, rip the seams and set in a new "under arm" piece. a good plan for one whose dresses are apt to wear through quickly is to have the under arm pieces and the adjacent parts of the front made of two thicknesses of the goods; then, as the outside wears through, the edges can be hemmed down or taken into the seam. [sidenote: table cloths] when table cloths begin to wear in the middle fold or along the edge of the table, a few inches cut off one end and one side of the cloth will change the fold and the place where it falls over the table and give it a new lease of life. if the hem is turned down once and cat stitched, it will resemble the selvage more than a twice turned hem. [sidenote: lengthening garments] in repairing or lengthening garments that have become too short, much can be done by adding to the bottom of the skirt and sleeves material of different texture. a cloth or serge skirt may be lengthened by facing with velvet of the same shade, covering the line of sewing with cord, braid, or passementerie of the same shade or black. there should be an underfacing of light-weight crinoline to make the bottom of the skirt firm and to give strength. the same facing and passementerie may be used at neck and sleeves. [sidenote: extension hem and tucks] thin gowns of lawn, dimity, etc., can be lengthened with a faced or extension hem, the line of sewing to be covered with feather stitch or any of the fancy stitches of white or colored thread. if the lawn or dimity has a colored figure, the embroidery silk or cotton may match this. under skirts and drawers may be lengthened in the same way or rows of tucks may be added. [sidenote: waist repairing] in waist repairing, the sewing silk should match the material. set the patch into the seams when possible and trust to careful pressing. if the material begins to wear near the end of the bones, cut off the bones an inch and take in the dart or seam. if the silk wears off around the hooks and eyes, move them along ever so little. make a virtue of worn out seams by taking them in and covering them with fancy stitching. if the garment is lined, the outside should be carefully basted to the lining before stitching to take in the seam. it has been said that silk waists are serviceable as long as the upper parts of the sleeves remain good. if garments have not been well cared for from the first and beyond a certain point, "making over" is poor economy. never attempt cleaning and making over old clothes unless the material is good enough to make it worth while to do the work well. [sidenote: mending baskets] the mending basket is an important adjunct of mending and should be well supplied with darning cotton of all colors and sizes, good english tape, black and white, of different widths, linen tape, bias tape, different kinds and sizes of needles,--sewing, darning, shoe, carpet, and tape needles. [sidenote: use of tape] for repairing bands and facings, where buttons have been torn off by wringer or iron, and for strengthening weak places, tape is invaluable. it saves the time required to turn in the edges of the cloth and is less clumsy and bungling. [sidenote: use of judgment in mending] the mender should use good judgment as to the amount of work to be applied to each garment. she should substitute the machine needle whenever possible and not put tiny stitches by hand into half worn garments or in unseen places. ripped tucks and bands can be sewed in a few minutes on the machine. serviceable darning can be done on the machine. before putting away freshly laundered clothes it is a good plan to take out the clothes already in the drawers and lay the ones washed last on the bottom, thus all garments will wear alike, each article in its regular turn. bibliography home and school sewing, frances patton, ($.60, postage 6c). school needlework, olive c. hapgood, ($.75, postage 6c). sewing course for schools, mary schenck woolman, ($3.50, postage 20c). progressive lessons in needlework, catherine f. johnson, ($.90, postage 8c). sewing and garment drafting, margaret l. blair, ($1.25, postage 10c). manual of exercises in hand sewing, margaret l. blair, ($1.25, postage 10c). dressmaking up to date, butterick pub. co., ($.25, postage 8c). note: the above books may be borrowed, one at a time, by members of the school. send the postage given with request. they may be purchased if desired. test questions the following questions constitute the "written recitation" which the regular members of the a. s. h. e. answer in writing and send in for the correction and comment of the instructor. they are intended to emphasize and fix in the memory the most important points in the lesson. textiles and clothing part iii read carefully. to make this test of greatest value to you, write fully from your personal standpoint and experience. try as many methods given in the text as your time will allow so that you may ask for explanation if the descriptions are not clear to you. methods are many; if you do not agree with these given, suggest better ones. 1. (a) what are the requisites for good dressmaking? (b) how does dressmaking differ from white sewing in make, finish, and ornamentation? 2. from your point of view what do you consider a successful garment? 3. give methods of altering patterns. 4. give briefly the cutting and making of a wool garment from patterns: (a) waist, (b) sleeve, (c) skirt, (d) collar, including methods of stitching, pressing and finish, stating how patterns should be placed on lining and outside materials. 5. how may pressing be done to give the best results? what garments require little or no pressing, and why? 6. (a) state some of the principles and purposes of ornament. (b) what is your idea of ornament applied to garments? (c) give some errors in ornamentation not named in text. 7. cut from magazines illustrations showing your idea of good and faulty ornamentation in dress. give reason for your opinion. 8. illustrate in some way, either by picture, drawing, embroidery, braid, or stitching, some design appropriate for ornament work on neck or sleeve. 9. where should ornament be placed, and why? 10. (a) give your idea of appropriate design on textiles. (b) the advantage and disadvantage of plain materials. 11. make a color card of silk, wool, paper or raffia showing colors that contrast. (b) colors that harmonize. 12. what colors do you find satisfactory for your own wear, and why? 13. what materials are best suited for infants' garments? (b) what can you say in regard to children's clothing? 14. what is your opinion of the care of clothing? (b) what experience have you had in cleaning (a) cotton, (b) wool, (c) linen, (d) silk, (e) velvet? 15. do you consider it economy to repair garments? can you suggest better methods than those given in the text? 16. if possible make some garment, shirt waist, skirt, or simple dress while studying this lesson and describe in detail how you went about it, the result, time taken, total cost. tell why you selected the design, the color, the material. 17. have you found the ready made garments satisfactory in underwear and dresses? 18. tell of some of your failures in dressmaking and give the reasons for your lack of success. 19. what methods, new to you, have you tried in connection with this lesson? what questions have you to ask? 20. can you add any suggestions that would be helpful to others in this work? 21. wherein have the lessons been of practical value to you? 22. _for teachers._ draw up an outline for a course in sewing to combine two considerations: (a) adaptability to the child's interests and capacities, (b) orderly sequence in the technical part. note: after completing the answers, sign your full name. references: ornament and design bachelder--principles of design in america. ($3.00.) brown--history of decorative art. ($1.25.) carter, mrs. h. j.--historic ornament in color. (15c. a sheet). prang. clifford--period decoration. ($3.00.) crane--claims of decorative art. (out of print.) crane--line and form. ($2.25.) daniels--teaching of ornament. ($1.50.) day--application of ornament. ($1.25.) day--nature in ornament. ($4.00.) day--ornamental design. (out of print.) day--planning of ornament. (out of print.) day--decorative design of all ages. ($0.40.) day--ornament and its application. ($3.25.) day--ornamental design, anatomy of pattern, planning of ornament. ($3.00.) day--some principles of everyday art. (out of print.) glazier--manual of historic ornament. (new edition in press.) hulme--birth and development of ornament. (out of print.) jones--grammar of ornament. ($18.00.) prang--art and ornament in egypt. ($1.50.) _note_--the books out of print may be found in some public libraries. references: history of costume earle--costume of colonial times. ($1.25.) earle--two centuries of costume in america, 2 vols. ($2.50 each.) evans--chapters on greek dress. (out of print.) fairholt--costume of england, 2 vols. ($1.50 each.) hill--history of english dress. (out of print.) mcclellan--historic dress in america. ($10.00.) planchet--history in british costume. ($1.50.) quegly--what dress makes of us. ($1.25.) racinet--costume. ($2.00.) rhead--chats on costume. ($1.50.) schild--old english peasant costume from boadicea to queen victoria. (out of print.) supplementary program arranged for class study on textiles and clothing meeting i (study pages 1-59) primitive methods endeavor to obtain a colonial spinning-wheel in working order, and get some one to operate it. if possible, obtain samples of weaving done on a hand loom. examine a hand-loom if possible. they may be seen at the manufacturers of rag and remade carpets. _references:_ woman's share in primitive culture, mason, chapter iii, the weaver. ($1.75, postage 16c.) colonial days in old new england, by earle. ($1.25, postage 12c.) textile fibres collect an exhibit of raw fibres and fibres in process of manufacture. send to the u. s. department of agriculture, department of botany, washington, d. c., for small samples; to manufacturers of thread; to friends in manufacturing towns. test the various fibres by burning. examine under a microscope with a small hand-glass, if greater power cannot be obtained. try warm acid--sulphuric, hydrochloric, or oxalic--on the fibres; let the fibres dry. also try a solution of caustic soda on the fibres. _references:_ the textile fibres, by matthews. ($3.50, postage 16c.) textile fibres and cotton fibre, pamphlets of the american school of correspondence. (50c. each, postage 4c. each.) send for all the government bulletins mentioned in the bibliography, page 104. note that the _free_ bulletins are obtained simply by addressing the department of agriculture, washington, d. c., but _the sale_ bulletins only by sending coin or money order to the superintendent of documents, washington, d. c. meeting ii (study pages 59-102) modern methods visit a textile mill if possible, after studying the text. practice home dyeing. read carefully the directions given by the manufacturers of the dyes. see the booklet "diamond dyes," to be obtained at many drug stores, or send for it to wells richardson, burlington, vermont. _references:_ text-books of the american school of correspondence--especially textile chemistry and dyeing. (parts i, ii, iii, and iv, postage 4c. each.) the dyeing of textile fabrics, by hummell. ($1.75, postage 12c.) bleaching and calico printing (containing samples), by duerr. ($4.00, postage 14c.) weaves and fabrics show as many different kinds of weaves as possible. separate the threads and examine under a hand microscope. get the local dry-goods or department store to co-operate with you in getting up an exhibit of samples of standard goods--cotton, woolen, worsted, linen, and silk. label each sample with the width and price. test some of the samples of wash goods for fastness to washing and light, by washing in warm water and soap (or boiling in the soap and water) and expose to sunlight all day for three or four days. _keep a part of each sample for comparison._ (select a composite set of answers to the test questions on part i and send to the school, with report on the supplemental work done and meetings i and ii.) meeting iii (study pages 107-123) sewing: plain stitches send to manufacturers for samples showing the process of manufacture of pins, needles, etc. demonstrate different ways of making the same stitches; discuss best methods. embroidery show how all the embroidery stitches are made. get up an exhibit of all kinds of embroidery, including oriental, japanese, old samplers, etc. have members make model i, first series. _references:_ home and school sewing, by patton. ($0.60, postage 6c.) school needlework, by hapgood. ($0.75, postage 6c.) manual of exercise in hand sewing, by blair. ($1.25, postage 10c.) _topic:_ educational value of sewing in the public schools. methods. see "a sewing course," by mary s. woolman, introduction ($3.50, postage 20c.), and "the teaching of domestic science in the united states of america," by alice ravenhill, pages 9-10, 43-46. ($0.75, postage 12c.) meeting iv (study pages 123-165) hems, seams, fastenings, darning, patching have all members make models ii, iii, iv, and v. previously assign members to furnish models or examples of all other hems, seams, fastenings, patches, darns, etc., illustrated or described in the text, and as many more as possible. machine sewing get the local sewing machine agent to give a demonstration of the workings of the attachments of the machine. (select models and answers to test questions on part ii and send them to the school, with a report of meetings iii and iv.) meeting v (study pages 167-200) dressmaking get the local dry-goods or department store to lend different kinds of dress forms. show how patterns are altered to suit the figure. (see text and "dressmaking up to date.") as many as possible cut out and begin making a simple shirt-waist or skirt. show finished garment at next meeting, giving accurate account of cost and time spent. _references:_ dressmaking up to date, the butterick co. ($0.25, postage 8c.) sewing and garment drafting, by margaret l. blair. ($1.25, postage 12c.) meeting vi (study pages 205-228) construction and ornament in dress; color collect illustrations showing good and faulty ornamentation. procure samples of fabrics showing good and faulty ornamentation. make a color card showing contrast and harmony of color. (see question 11.) _references_: see list on pages 234 and 235. children's clothing get up an exhibit of simple and satisfactory clothing for children, including color, material, style and make. discuss children's clothes in reference to laundering. care and repair of clothes show examples of successful repairing. try some of the methods of cleaning. (see, also _chemistry of the household_ pages 73-84.) (select answers to test questions on part iii and send them to the school, with report on meetings v and vi.) index adulteration of linen, 87 alpaca, 90 altering sleeve patterns, 194 angora wool, 39 aniline dyes, 79 arrow heads, 123 back stitch, 112 basting, 108 bibliography, 103, 229 bleaching, 78 bobbin, 19 boning waist, 192 bow, the, 208 burling, 83 bust form, 168 button holes, 141 large, 145 making, 144 buttons, sewing on, 145 carding, 59 care of clothing, 219 cassimere twills, 73, 75 cat stitch, 116 catch stitch, 116 chain stitch, 116 checks, 213 children's clothes, 216, 217 cleaning, 59, 221 collars, 198 putting on, 199 color in dress, 214 colors, mordant, 79 combing, 60 conventional designs, 213 costumes, references, 234 cotton, 29 boles, 32 fibers, 34 cotton goods, 85 home of, 30 nankin, 34 sea island, 30 upland, 30 cross stitch, 120 cuffs, 196 cutting table, 168 darning, 155 on machine, 158 over net, 157 decorations, placing, 208 distaff, 12 double cloth, 77 draped waist, 192 drawing tapes, 140 dressmaking, 167 dyeing, 78 home, 80 dyes, aniline, 79 dyestuffs, natural, 80 embroidery, 204 as ornament, 204 eyelet, 122 shadow, 123 stitches, 114 extension hem, 227 eyelet embroidery, 122 eyelets, 149 fabrics, 85 list of, 96-102 names of, 94 primitive, 27 width of, 93 facing, bias, 141 skirt, 179 fastening the thread, 109 fastenings, 141 feather stitch, 118 fibers, 29 cotton, 29 flax, 43 silk, 53 wool, 37 finishes, 139 finishing skirt, 179 seams, 196 waist, 192 finishing, woolens, 83 fitting, 173, 193 sleeves, 190 waists, 190 flax, 43 fibers, 47 hackling, 44, 47 flocks, 83 folding garments, 220 french hem, 127 knots, 119 seam, 131 fulling, 83 fur, 40 gathering, 111, 138 gathers, whipped, 127 gauging, 112 gigging, 83 gingham, 86 grease spots, 122 hand sewing, 107 harmony in dress, 215 harness, the, 70 heddle, 17 hemp, 50 hem stitch, 118 hems, 123 bias, 124 faced, 124 flannel, 127 french, 127 folding, 123 hems, rolled, 126 herringbone stitch, 116 home dyeing, 80 hook and eyes, 147 hydroscopic moisture, 42 jacquard loom, 70 joining lace, 160 jute, 50 knit goods, 72 lace, design of, 208 laces, use of, 207 laundering, 225 lengthening garments, 226 linen, 86 adulteration of, 87 characteristics of, 47 lining, cutting, 188 loading silk, 56 looms, 17 colonial, 19, 21, 22 development of, 19 diagram of, 23 fly shuttle, 26 four harness, hand, 21 jacquard, 70 japanese, 20 modern, 25, 69 navajo, 18 swedish hand, 24 loop stitch, 116 madder bleach, 78 machine darning, 158 sewing, 162 mending, 83, 225 mitering embroidery, 158 modern methods, 59 mohair, 90 mordant colors, 79 muslin, 85 nankin cotton, 34 natural dyestuffs, 80 olona, 53 ornament, 203 embroidery as, 204 fitness of, 209 flowers as, 205 of textiles, 212 ornamental stitches, 108, 114 ornamentation, errors in, 204 outline stitch, 114 overcasting, 114, 142 oversewing, 113 packing clothing, 220 passementerie, 206 patching, 149 patterns, 171 altering, 173 cloth, 174 lengthening, 173 pinning, 176 placing, 176 selection of, 171 testing, 174 use of, 172 picking, 59 piled fabrics, 91 plackets, 135 faced, 137 plaids, 213 plain material, 212 plush, 77 pressing, 201 board, 168, 201 wet, 202 primitive methods, 3 printing, 81 block, 81 machine, 81 warps, 82 ramie, 50 raw silk, 56 reed, 19 reeling silk, 54 repairing, 225 retting flax, 45 roving, 61 running stitch, 110 sateen weave, 79 satin, 91 stitch, 121 scouring agents, 41 sea island cotton, 30 seams, 128 beaded, 131 felled, 128 flannel, 135 french, 131 lapped, 133 slot, 131 serges, 88 seven-gored skirt, 172 sewing, hand, 107 machine, 162 sewing machines, 162 care of, 162 types of, 162 use of, 164 shadow embroidery, 123 sheep, 39 shirt waists, cutting, 182 plan for making, 183 shuttle, 19 silk, 53 artificial, 58 boiling off, 56 fiber, 53 loading, 56, 90 production, 53 raw, 56 twilled, 91 silk, wash, 91 silk worm, 54 silks, 90 singeing, 78 skirt, 172 band, 179 skirt binding, 180 braid, 180 making, 177 placket, 178 plan of making, 173 stiffening, 178 sleeve making, 183 patterns, 194 sleeves, cutting, 194, 195 finish of, 197 pressing, 198 putting in, 197 slip-stitching, 125 slot seams, 131 speck dye, 83 spindle, 6 whorl, 6 spinning, 3, 59 primitive, 3 wheel, 12 with spindle, 6 stains, 221 stitches, 107 ornamental, 108, 114 plain, 107 stockinet undergarments, 216 stripes, 213 stroking gathers, 111 table linen, 87 teazels, 83 textile arts, origin of, 3 textiles, 85, 212 design of, 212 list of, 96, 102 ornament of, 212 weaves, 72 texture, 214 trimming, 210 tweeds, 88 harris, 89 twills, 74 cassimere, 73, 75 uneven, 75 tucked waist, 185 tucking, 108 tucks, 128 unity in dress, 211 upland cotton, 30 velvet, 92 weave of, 77 velveteen, 92 waists, 185 lined, 186 plan for making, 187 repairing, 227 tucked, 185 wash silk, 91 warping, 69 weave, 72 diagrams, 73 plain, 73 basket, 76 double cloth, 77 rib, 76 sateen, 76 twill, 74 velvet, 77 weaving, 14, 69 wet pressing, 202 wheel spinning, 12 whipping stitch, 113 whorl, spindle, 6 widths of fabrics, 93 wool, 37 characteristics of, 37 fiber, 36 quality of, 38 scouring, 40 sorting, 40 value for clothing, 37 woolens, 88 worsteds, 88 yokes, 20 transcriber's note: minor spelling and punctuation inconsistencies have been harmonized. italic text has been marked with _underscores_. obvious typos have been corrected. companion volume by the same author chats on old furniture _illustrated by 72 full-page plates._ contents chapter i. the renaissance on the continent ii. the english renaissance iii. stuart or jacobean (early seventeenth century) iv. stuart or jacobean (late seventeenth century) v. queen anne and early georgian styles vi. french furniture: the period of louis xiv. vii. french furniture: the period of louis xv. viii. french furniture: the period of louis xvi. ix. french furniture: the first empire style x. chippendale and his style xi. adam, hepplewhite, and sheraton styles xii. hints to collectors chats on cottage and farmhouse furniture books for collectors _with coloured frontispieces and many illustrations._ _large crown 8vo, cloth._ chats on english china. by arthur hayden. chats on old furniture. by arthur hayden. chats on old prints. by arthur hayden. chats on costume. by g. woolliscroft rhead. chats on old lace and needlework. by e. l. lowes. chats on oriental china. by j. f. blacker. chats on miniatures. by j. j. foster. chats on english earthenware. by arthur hayden. (companion volume to "chats on english china.") chats on autographs. by a. m. broadley. chats on old pewter. by h. j. l. j. massé, m.a. chats on postage stamps. by fred j. melville. chats on old jewellery and trinkets. by maciver percival. chats on cottage and farmhouse furniture. by arthur hayden. (companion volume to "chats on old furniture.") london: t. fisher unwin. new york: f. a. stokes company. [illustration: sideboard of carved oak. english, seventeenth century. (_in the victoria and albert museum._) _frontispiece._] chats on cottage and farmhouse furniture by arthur hayden author of "chats on old furniture," etc. with a chapter on old english chintzes by hugh phillips and seventy-three full-page illustrations new york frederick a. stokes company publishers (_all rights reserved._) to my old friend frederic arup i dedicate this volume in memory of a happy labour of love completed preface the number of works dealing with old english furniture has grown rapidly during the last ten years. not only has the subject been broadly treated from the historic or from the collector's point of view, but latterly everything has been scientifically reduced into departments of knowledge, and individual periods have received detailed treatment at the hands of specialists. museums and well-known collections, noblemen's seats and country houses have furnished photographs of the finest examples, and these, now well-known, pieces have appeared again and again as illustrations to volumes by various hands. it is obviously essential in the study of the history and evolution of furniture-making in this country that superlative specimens be selected as ideal types for the student of design or for the collector, but such pieces must always be beyond the means of the average collector. the present volume has been written for that large class of collectors, who, while appreciating the beauty and the subtlety of great masterpieces of english furniture, have not long enough purses to pay the prices such examples bring after fierce competition in the auction-room. the field of minor work affords peculiar pleasure and demands especial study. the character of the cottage and farmhouse furniture is as sturdy and independent as that of the persons for whom it was made. for three centuries unknown cabinet-makers in towns and in villages produced work unaffected by any foreign influences. linen-chests, bacon-cupboards, bible-boxes, gate tables, and other tables, dressers, and chairs possess particular styles of treatment in different districts. the eighteenth-century cabinet-makers scattered up and down the three kingdoms and in america found in chippendale's "director" a design-book which stimulated them to produce furniture of compelling interest to the collector. the examples of such work illustrated in this volume have been taken from a wide area and are such as may come under the hand of the diligent collector in various parts of the country. in view of the increased love of collecting homely furniture suitable for modern use, it is my hope that this book may find a ready welcome, especially nowadays, when so many of the picturesque architectural details of old homesteads are being reproduced in the garden suburbs of great cities. it is possible that the authorities of local museums may find in this class of furniture a field for special research, as undoubtedly specimens of local work should be secured for permanent exhibition before they are dispersed far and wide and their identity with particular districts lost for ever. in regard to the scientific study of farmhouse and cottage furniture, the ideal arrangement is that followed at skansen, stockholm, and at lyngby, near copenhagen. in the former a series of buildings have been erected in the open air, in connection with the northern museum, gathered from every part of sweden, retaining their exterior character and fitted with the furniture of their former occupants. it was the desire of the founder, dr. hazelius, to present an epitome of the national life. similarly at lyngby, an adjunct of the _dansk folkemuseum_ at copenhagen, the life-work of hr. olsen has been given to gathering together and re-erecting a large number of old cottages and farmhouses from various districts in denmark, from iceland, the faroe islands, and from norway and sweden. these have their obsolete agricultural implements, and old methods of fencing and quaint styles of storage. the furniture stands in these specimen homes exactly as if they were occupied. it is a remarkable open-air museum, and the idea is worthy of serious consideration in this country. old cottages and farmhouses are fast disappearing, and the preservation of these beauties of village and country life should appeal to all lovers of national monuments.[1] [1] those interested in the method pursued in sweden and denmark and the grave necessity for speedy measures to preserve our national cottages and farmhouses from effacement will find illuminating articles on the subject from the pen of "home counties" in the _world's work_, august, october, and november, 1910, and in the american _educational review_, february, 1911, in an article by lucy m. salmon. "old west surrey," by gertrude jekyll (longmans & co.), 1904, contains a wealth of suggestive material relating to cottage furniture and articles of daily use of old-style country life now passing away. in connexion with farmhouse furniture, old chintzes is a subject never before written upon. a chapter in this volume is contributed by mr. hugh phillips, whose special studies concerning this little known field enable him to present much valuable information which has never before been in print, together with illustrations of chintzes actually taken from authentic examples of old furniture. a brief survey is made of miscellaneous articles associated with cottage and farmhouse furniture. some specimens of sussex firebacks are illustrated, together with fenders, firedogs, pot-hooks, candle-holders, and brass and copper candlesticks. the illustrations have been selected in order to convey a broad outline of the subject. my especial thanks are due to messrs. phillips, of the manor house, hitchin, for placing at my disposal the practical experience of many years' collecting in various parts of the country, and by enriching the volume with illustrations of many fine examples of great importance and rarity never before photographed. to messrs. a. b. daniell & sons i am indebted for photographs of specimens in their galleries. in presenting this volume it is my intention that it should be a companion volume to my "chats on old furniture," which records the history and evolution of the finer styles of english furniture, showing the various foreign influences on english craftsmen who made furniture for the wealthy classes. arthur hayden. contents chapter i page introductory note 25 the minor collector--the originality of the village cabinet-maker--his freedom from foreign influences--the traditional character of his work--difficult to establish dates to cottage and farmhouse furniture--oak the chief wood employed--beech, elm, and ash used in lieu of mahogany and satinwood--village craftsmanship not debased by early-victorian art--its obliteration in the age of factory-made furniture--the conservation of old farmhouses with their furniture in sweden and in denmark--the need for the preservation and exhibition of old cottages and farmhouses in great britain. chapter ii seventeenth-century styles 43 typical jacobean furniture--solidity of english joiners' work--oak general in its use--the oak forests of england--sturdy independence of country furniture--chests of drawers--the slow assimilation of foreign styles--the changing habits of the people. chapter iii the gate-leg table 83 its early form--transitional and experimental stages--its establishment as a permanent popular type--the gate-leg table in the jacobean period--walnut and mahogany varieties--its utility and beauty contribute to its long survival--its adoption in modern days. chapter iv the farmhouse dresser 113 the days of the late stuarts--its early table form with drawers--the decorated type with shelves--william and mary style with double cupboards--the queen anne cabriole leg--mid-eighteenth-century types. chapter v the bible-box, the cradle, the spinning-wheel, and the bacon-cupboard 137 the puritan days of the seventeenth century--the protestant bible in every home--the variety of carving found in bible-boxes--the jacobean cradle and its forms--the spinning-wheel--the bacon-cupboard. chapter vi eighteenth-century styles 155 the advent of the cabriole leg--the so-called queen anne style--the survival of oak in the provinces--the influence of walnut on cabinet-making--the early-georgian types--chippendale and his contemporaries. chapter vii the evolution of the chair 189 early days--the typical jacobean oak chair--the evolution of the stretcher--the chair-back and its development--transition between jacobean and william and mary forms--farmhouse styles contemporary with the cane-back chair--the queen anne splat--country chippendale, hepplewhite, and sheraton--the grandfather chair--ladder-back types--the spindle-back chair--corner chairs. chapter viii the windsor chair 243 early types--the stick legs without stretcher--the tavern chair--eighteenth-century pleasure gardens--the rail-back variety--chippendale style windsor chairs--the survival of the windsor chair. chapter ix local types 265 welsh carving--scottish types--lancashire dressers, wardrobes, and chairs--hertfordshire, bedfordshire, cambridge, and essex tables--isle of man tables. chapter x miscellaneous ironwork, etc. 285 the rushlight-holder--the dipper--the chimney crane--the scottish crusie--firedogs--the warming-pan--sussex firebacks--grandfather clocks. chapter xi old english chintzes. (by hugh phillips) 315 the charm of old english chintz--huguenot cloth-printers settle in england--jacob stampe at the sign of the calico printer--the queen anne period--the chippendale period--the age of machinery. index 343 list of illustrations sideboard of carved oak (english, seventeenth-century) _frontispiece_ chapter i--introductory note page chests (sixteenth century) 29 elizabethan chair 35 chest (seventeenth century) 35 interior of farmhouse parlour 39 interior of cottage 39 chapter ii monk's bench 53 oak chest with drawers underneath 53 joint stools 57 oak table 57 chest (restoration period) 63 early oak table (middle seventeenth-century) 63 small oak table (_c._ 1680) 65 jacobean chest of drawers (_c._ 1660) 65 chests of drawers 69 chest of drawers (cabriole feet) 73 william and mary table (_c._ 1670) 73 children's stools 77 rare bedstead (_c._ 1700) 77 chapter iii triangular gate table 87 oak side-table 87 small gate table (very early type) 91 gate table (middle seventeenth-century) 91 rare table with double gates 93 rare table with double gates and only one flap 93 gate-leg table (restoration period) 97 gate-leg table (yorkshire type) 97 gate-leg table with six legs ("barley-sugar" turning) 99 gate-leg table (ball turning) 99 collapsible table with rare =x= stretcher 101 primitive gate-leg table 101 william and mary gate-leg table 105 square-top gate-leg tables 105 mahogany gate-leg tables 109 chapter iv oak dresser (about 1680) 117 oak dresser (period of james ii.) 117 oak dresser (early eighteenth century) 119 oak dresser, urn-shaped legs (restoration period) 119 middle-jacobean dresser 123 william and mary oak dresser 127 oak dresser. square-leg type 127 unique dresser and clock combined 131 oak dresser. queen anne cabriole legs 135 lancashire oak dresser 135 chapter v bible-boxes. early examples 143 bible-boxes (middle seventeenth-century and ordinary type) 145 oak cradles 149 yarn-winder and spinning-wheel 151 buckinghamshire bobbins 151 chapter vi lancashire oak settles 159 cupboard with drawers 163 queen anne bureau bookcase 163 oak tables (early eighteenth century) 165 queen anne glassor china-cupboard 171 georgian corner-cupboard 171 oak tables 173 oak tables, with typical country cabriole legs 177 queen anne tea-table 181 oak revolving book-stand 181 country chippendale table 181 square mahogany flap-table 183 tripod table (_c._ 1760) 183 country chippendale and country adam tables 187 chapter vii oak arm-chairs (one dated 1650) 191 chestnut arm-chair and oak arm-chair (_c._ 1690) 191 yorkshire chair (restoration period) 197 cromwellian chairs 197 oak settle (_c._ 1675) 201 oak arm-chairs (one dated 1777) 201 oak chairs (_c._ 1680) in walnut styles 205 oak chairs, showing various transitional stages 209 chairs in queen anne style 213 country chippendale and hepplewhite chairs 215 oak settees in chippendale style 219 country chairs in chippendale and sheraton styles 225 grandfather chair 231 arm-chair and bacon-cupboard 231 spindle-back and ladder-back chairs 235 corner chairs 237 chapter viii chairs of earliest form with stick legs 247 oliver goldsmith's chair 251 chairs with fiddle-splat and cabriole legs 255 chippendale and hepplewhite windsor chairs 257 sheraton style windsor chairs 261 chapter ix chest, dated 1636 (welsh) 269 cupboard, dated 1710 (welsh) 269 elm wardrobe (welsh). oak dresser (lancashire) 273 flap-top table (hertfordshire type) 275 spindle-back chairs (lancashire) 275 oak chest of drawers (yorkshire type) 279 lancashire oak settle (_c._ 1660) 279 three-legged table (isle of man) 281 cricket tables (hertfordshire, south beds, cambridge, and essex) 281 chapter x rushlight-holders, scotch crusie, candle-dipper, pipe cleaner, etc. 289 queen anne pot-hanger, with original grate 291 kettle trivet 291 country firedogs and fire-grate (eighteenth century) 297 sussex iron firebacks 301 sussex iron firebacks and original wood pattern 303 grandfather clock and warming-pans 307 brass dial of thirty-hour clock 309 chapter xi--old english chintzes old trade card showing calico printers at work 319 huguenot printed chintz with portraits 319 hand-printed chintzes. queen anne period and chinese style 323 exotic bird and gothic styles (eighteenth century) 327 hand-printed chintz by r. jones (old ford) 331 hepplewhite period and victorian period designs 335 victorian chintz (in the collection of mrs. cobden unwin) 339 chapter i introductory note chapter i introductory note the minor collector--the originality of the village cabinet-maker--his freedom from foreign influences--the traditional character of his work--difficulty to establish dates to cottage and farmhouse furniture--oak the chief wood employed--beech, elm, and ash used in lieu of mahogany and satinwood--village craftsmanship not debased by early victorian art--its obliteration in the age of factory-made furniture--the conservation of old farmhouses with their furniture in sweden and in denmark--the need for the preservation and exhibition of old cottages and farmhouses in great britain. in regard to launching another volume on the market dealing with old furniture, a word of explanation is desirable, for nowadays of making books there is no end, and much study is a weariness to the collector. in the present volume attention has been especially given to that class of furniture known as cottage or farmhouse. there is no volume dealing with this phase of collecting. prices for old furniture of the finest quality have gone up by leaps and bounds, and for those not possessed of ample means the collection of superlative styles is at an end. singularly enough, the most native furniture and that most typically racy of the soil has not hitherto attracted the attention of wealthy collectors. the plutocrats who buy only the finest creations of chippendale, who have immediate private information when an exquisitely designed sheraton piece is found, who amass a mighty hoard of gilt stuart furniture, or who boast of an unrivalled collection of elizabethan oak, do not touch the minor furniture made during a period of three hundred years for the common people. the finest classes of english furniture made by skilful craftsmen for wealthy patrons must always be beyond the range of the minor collector. every year brings keener zest among those interested in furniture of a bygone day, and it is therefore increasingly difficult for persons of taste and judgment who cannot afford high prices to satisfy their longings. it is obvious that specimens of massive appearance finely carved in oak of the tudor age, or of elegantly turned work in walnut of jacobean days, must be readily recognised as valuable. sumptuous furniture tells its own story. it is unlikely nowadays that such wonderful "finds," concerning which imaginative writers are always telling us, will occur again--except on paper. popular enthusiasm has been awakened, and more often than not the possessor of some mediocre piece of furniture or china attaches a value to it which is absurd. the publication of prices realised at auction has whetted the cupidity of would-be sellers who convert early nineteenth-century chairs by a nod of the head into "queen anne," and who aver with equal veracity that ordinary blue transfer printed ware has "been in the family a hundred years." [illustration: chest. middle sixteenth century. gothic carving. solid wood ends, forming feet. made from six boards; with hand-forged nails and large lock, characteristic of gothic chests.] [illustration: chest. sixteenth century. lozenge panels, disc turning, and gothic brackets (rare). (_by the courtesy of mr. f. w. phillips, hitchin._)] cottage and farmhouse furniture may be said to be in somewhat parallel case to english earthenware. a quarter of a century ago, or even ten years ago, collectors in general confined their attention mainly to porcelain. the rage was for worcester, chelsea, derby, or bow. with the exception of wedgwood and turner, the staffordshire potters had not found favour with the fashionable collector. nowadays toft dishes, staffordshire figures by enoch wood, vases by neale and palmer, and the entire school of lustre ware, have received attention from the specialist, and scientific classification has brought prices within measurable distance of those paid for porcelain. what earthenware is to porcelain, so cottage and farmhouse furniture are to the elaborate styles made for the use of the richer classes. the french insipidities and rococo ornament of chelsea and derby and the oriental echoes of worcester and of bow are as little typical of national eighteenth-century sentiment as the ribbon-back chair and the chinese fretwork of chippendale or the satinwood elegances of sheraton. to staffordshire and to local potteries scattered all over the country from sunderland to bristol, from lambeth to nottingham, from liverpool to rye, one instinctively turns for real individuality and native tradition. similarly farmhouse furniture exhibits the work of the local cabinet-maker in various districts, strongly marked by an adherence to traditional forms and intensely insular in its disregard of prevailing fashions. it is as english as the leather black-jack and the home-brewed ale. contemporaneous with the great cabinet-makers who drew their inspiration from foreign sources--from italy, from france, from holland, and from spain--small jobbing cabinet-makers in every village and town had their patrons, and when not making wagons or farm implements, produced furniture for everyday use. as may readily be supposed, there is in these results a blind naïveté which characterises a design handed down from generation to generation. this is one of the surprising features of the village cabinet-maker's work--its curious anachronism. the sublime indifference to passing fashions is astonishingly delightful to the student and to the collector. there is nothing more uncertain than to attempt with exactitude to place a date upon cottage or farmhouse furniture. the bacon-cupboard, the linen-chest, the gate-table, the ladder-back chair and the windsor chair, were made through successive generations down to fifty years ago without departing from the original pattern of the charles i. or the queen anne period. oak chests are found carved with the gothic linen-fold pattern. they might be of the sixteenth century except for the fact that dates of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century are carved upon them. whole districts have retained similar styles for centuries, and the fondness for clearly defined types is almost as pronounced as that of the asiatic rug-weaver, who makes the same patterns as his remote ancestors sold to the ancient greeks. the village cabinet-maker's work knows no sequence of ages of oak, walnut, mahogany, and satinwood. his wood is from his native trees. his chairs come straight from the hedgerows. his history can be spanned in one long age of oak, intermingled here and there with elm and yew-tree and beech. the early days of primitive work go back to the marked class distinction between gentles and simples, and the end came only in the last decades of the nineteenth century, when the village craftsman was obliterated by the rapid advance of factory and machine made furniture. it may at first be assumed by the beginner that cottage and farmhouse furniture is throughout a weak and feeble imitation of finer pieces. but this is not so. the craftsmen who made this class of furniture formed for themselves special types which were never made by the london cabinet-makers. for instance, the jacobean gate-table, the lancashire wardrobe, the dresser, and the windsor chair, have styles peculiarly their own. in many of the specimens found it will be seen that the village cabinet-maker displayed very fine workmanship, and there are clever touches and delightful mannerisms which make such pieces of interest to the collector. in early days of the villeins, furniture was limited to a stool, a table, and perhaps a chest. nor was the use of much furniture at the farm or in the cottage a feature in tudor and early stuart days. gorgeously carved oak and richly turned walnut filled the mansions of the wealthy, but one does not find its simpler counterpart made for cottages till nearly 1660. the few pieces essential to every dwelling-house may be placed not earlier than the late sixteenth or early seventeenth century--the chest, the table, the form, and the protestant bible-box. chests with scratched gothic mouldings, tables of the trestle type as used to-day, forms of the most simple construction, exist, and may be said to belong to the sixteenth century. bible-boxes became common during the early seventeenth century, and without change in their style were made till the late eighteenth century. in mid-seventeenth-century days the well-known gate-table was introduced. of early pieces we illustrate a few examples, though in connection with farmhouse and cottage, the early days afford a poor field, as the furniture of those days now remaining was mostly made for great families. the two sixteenth-century chests illustrated (p. 29) are interesting as showing the early styles. the upper photograph is of a middle sixteenth-century chest, with gothic carving and solid wood ends forming feet. this type of chest is made from six boards. the hand-forged nails show the rough joinery, and the large lock is characteristic of such gothic chests. the lower chest is also of the sixteenth century. it has lozenge panels, and is further ornamented by disc turning. the gothic brackets at the base are rare, and it is an interesting example. [illustration: elizabethan chair. this is of scandinavian origin, and was known in england before the roman conquest, being shown in mediæval mss. such designs survived the gothic styles. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] [illustration: chest. seventeenth century. panels with early scratched mouldings (_i.e._, not mitred). mitreing came into general use about 1600.] that the chest remained in somewhat primitive form is shown by the illustration of a seventeenth-century specimen (p. 35). it will be observed that the panels have early scratched mouldings, that is to say they are not mitred. the fashion of mitreing in cabinet-work came into general use about the year 1600, but minor examples of country furniture often possess scratched moulding at a much later date. on the same page is an elizabethan chair. this type is of exceptional interest. it has a long and proud history. they are, according to mr. percy macquoid, "of byzantine origin; their pattern was introduced by the varangian guard into scandinavia, and from there doubtless brought to england by the normans. they continued to be made until the end of the sixteenth century." these turned chairs are interesting as having spindles, which came into use at a much later period in the spindle-back chair. with the growth of prosperity and the increased use of domestic comforts, cottage furniture becomes a wider subject. carved oak bedsteads, simple four-posters, bacon-cupboards, linen-chests became more common. in eighteenth-century days there was quite an outburst of enthusiasm, and the small cabinet-maker gained knowledge of his craft and became ambitious. on the promulgation of chippendale's designs he made copies in elm and oak and beech for village patrons and essayed to follow hepplewhite and even sheraton. but this wave of success was followed by the competitive inroad made by factory-made cabinet-work, and during these last days the local cabinet-maker adhered closer than ever to the early oak examples of his forefathers. the village craft practically came to an end in the fifties, but it was a glorious end, and it is happy that it did not survive to produce bad work of atrocious design. the passing of cottage and farmhouse furniture may be said to be like the disappearance of dialect. the modern spirit has entered into village life, the town newspaper has permeated the country-side and disturbed the old-world repose. the lover of english folk-ways and the simplicity of rural life may echo the line of wordsworth, "the things that i have seen i now can see no more." in the illustrations of two interiors shown on p. 39 it will be seen how happily placed the furniture becomes when in its old home. the atmosphere of these rural homesteads is at once soothing and restful, and the pieces of furniture had an added dignity. it seems almost sacrilege to tear such relics of bygone days from their ancient resting-place. but the collector is abroad, and few sanctuaries have escaped his assiduous attention. the lower illustration shows the interior of a cottage with its original panelled walls. this cottage actually has tudor frescoes. [illustration: interior of farmhouse parlour.] [illustration: interior of cottage. with original panelled walls. this cottage has tudor frescoes.] the study of old farmhouse and cottage furniture has not been pursued in this country in so scientific a manner as in sweden and in denmark. the conservation of national heirlooms is a matter which must be speedily dealt with before they become scattered. it is a point which cannot be repeated too often. at skansen, stockholm, old buildings have, under state supervision, been re-erected, and with their furniture they afford a practical illustration of the particular type of life of the district of their origin. at lyngby, near copenhagen, a series of farmhouses similarly illustrate old types of homesteads from various localities in denmark, and from iceland and the faroe islands. by such a systematic and permanent record of farm and cottage life and the everyday art of the people it is possible to impart vitality to the study of the subject. the english method of museum arrangement in dry-as-dust manner, with rows of furniture and cases of china, is a valley of dry bones compared with such a fresh and vigorous handling and method of exposition as is followed in scandinavia. if old english furniture is worth the preservation for the benefit of students of craftsmanship or as a relic of bygone customs, there is undoubted room for due consideration of the best means of exhibiting it. a series of representative farmhouses could be re-erected at some convenient spot. there are many parks around london and other great cities which would be benefited by such picturesque buildings. before it is too late, and many of these beautiful structures have been destroyed to make room for modern improvements, and village life has become absorbed by the growing towns, it should be possible to step in and preserve some of the most typical examples for the enjoyment of the nation. the real interest shown by the public in out-of-door object-lessons of this nature is indicated by the great crowds at exhibitions at earl's court and the like, which flocked to tudor houses replete with old furniture, and villages transplanted in lath and plaster to simulate the real thing, which seemingly has been neglected from an educational point of view. the mountain farms and the homesteads of the men of the dales, fen farms, and stone cottages from the cotswolds, half-timbered farms from surrey, from cheshire, and from hampshire, dating back to early stuart days--are not these worthy of preservation? in the welsh hills, and nestling in the dips of the grampians and the cheviots, from wessex to northumbria, from the border country to the extremity of cornwall, from east anglia to the lakes, are treasures upon which the ruthless hand of destruction must shortly fall. or far afield in harris and in skye, or remote connemara, there are types which should find a permanent abiding place as national records of the homes of the men of the island kingdom. this should not be an impossible nor unthinkable problem to solve before such are allowed to pass away. the intense value of such a faithful record is worthy of careful consideration by the authorities, either as a national undertaking or under the auspices of one of the learned societies, such as the society of antiquaries, or the society for the protection of ancient buildings and monuments, interested in the safeguarding of the national heritage bequeathed us by our forefathers. chapter ii seventeenth-century styles chronology james i. (1603-25) =1606= second colonisation of virginia begun; raleigh's first colony in virginia was founded in 1585. =1611= the colonisation of ulster begun. publication of the _authorised version_ of the _bible_. =1620= the sailing of the _mayflower_ and the foundation of new england by the puritans. charles i. (1625-49) =1630= john winthrop and a number of puritans settle in massachusetts. =1633= reclamation of forest lands. =1634= wentworth introduces flax cultivation into ireland. =1635= taxes for ship money levied on inland counties. =1637= john hampden, a country gentleman, refuses to pay ship money. civil war (1642-49) =1642= battle of edgehill. formation of eastern association. norfolk, suffolk, essex, cambridge, and hertford unite for purpose of defence against the royalists. =1643= battles of reading, grantham, stratton, chalgrove field, adwalton moor (near bradford), lansdown, roundway down, bristol, gloucester, newbury, winceby, hull. =1644= battles of nantwich, copredy bridge, marston moor, tippermuir, lostwithiel, newbury. =1645= battles of inverlochy, naseby, langport, kilsyth, bristol, philiphaugh, rowton heath. =1648= battles of maidstone, pembroke, preston, colchester. the commonwealth (1642-58) =1649= battle of rathmines. storming of drogheda and wexford by cromwell. =1650= montrose defeated at corbiesdale and executed. battle of dunbar. =1651= battle of worcester. =1652= war with holland. =1656= war with spain. =1657= destruction of spanish fleet by blake. =1658= battle of the dunes. victory of english and french fleet over spain. interregnum (1658-60) =1659= rising in cheshire for charles. charles ii. (1660-85) =1672= _the stop of the exchequer._ charles refuses to repay the principal of the sums he had borrowed and reduces interest from 12 per cent. to 6 per cent. this resulted in great distress, felt in various parts of the country. james ii. (1685-88) =1685= insurrection of argyll in scotland. monmouth rising in west of england. revocation of edict of nantes. the expulsion of a large number of french protestant artisans. settlement of skilled silk-weavers and others in england. william iii. and mary (1689-94) william iii. (1689-1702) =1689= siege of londonderry. =1690= battle of the boyne. william defeats james, who flees to france. =1691= capitulation of limerick; 10,000 irish soldiers and officers joined the service of the french king. =1692= battle of la hogue, french fleet destroyed. chapter ii seventeenth-century styles typical jacobean furniture--solidity of english joiners' work--oak general in its use--the oak forests of england--sturdy independence of country furniture--chests of drawers--the slow assimilation of foreign styles--the changing habits of the people. to the lover of old oak, varied in character and essentially english in its practical realisation of the exact needs of its users, the seventeenth century provides an exceptionally fine field. the chairs, the tables, the dower-chests and the four-post bedsteads of the farmhouse were sturdy reflections of sumptuous furniture made for the nobility and gentry in jacobean and elizabethan times. the designs may have been suggested by finer and early models, but the balance, the sense of proportion, and the carving, were the result of the village carpenter's own individual ideas as to the requirements of the furniture for use in the farmhouse. obviously strength and stability were important factors, and ornament, as such, took a subsidiary place in his scheme. but, although coarse and possessing a leaning towards the unwieldy, and often massive without the accompanying grandeur of the highly-trained craftsman's work, there is a breadth of treatment in such pieces which is at once recognisable. they were made for use and no little thought was bestowed on their lines, and, rightly appreciated, they possess a considerable beauty. there is nothing finicking about this seventeenth-century farmhouse furniture. there is no meaningless ornament. produced in conditions suitable for quiet and restrained craftsmanship, contemplative cabinet-makers began to evolve styles that are far removed from the average design of furniture made to-day under more pretentious surroundings. the gate table, with its long history and its amplification of structure and ornament, to which a separate chapter is devoted (chapter iii), is a case in point. it was extensively used in inns and in farmhouses and found itself in set definite types spread over a wide area from one end of the country to the other. its practicability caught the taste of lovers of utility. its added gracefulness of form, in combination with its adaptability to modern needs, has recaptured the fancy of housewives to-day. it is the happy survival of a beautiful and useful piece of ingenious cabinet-work. to-day one finds unexpectedly a london fashion lingering in the provinces years afterwards. a stray air from a light opera or some catch-phrase of town slang is gaily bandied about as current coin in bucolic jest long after its circulation in the metropolis has ceased. the fashions in provincial furniture moved as slowly. half a century after certain styles were the vogue they crept imperceptibly into country use. in speech and song the transplantation is more rapid, but in craftsmanship, the studied work of men's hands, the use of novelty is against the grain of the conservative mind of the country cabinet-maker. therefore throughout the entire field of this minor furniture it must be borne in mind that it is quite usual to find examples of one century reflecting the glories of the period long since gone. =solidity of english joiners' work.=--the love of old country furniture of the seventeenth century is hardly an acquired taste. old oak is at once a jarring note in a sheraton drawing-room with delicate colour scheme of dainty wallpaper and satin coverings. but as a general rule, when it is first seen in its proper environment, in an old-world farmhouse with panelled walls, and mullioned windows, set squarely on an oak floor and beneath blackened oak beams ripe with age, it wins immediate recognition as representative of a fine period of furniture. it is admitted by experts, and it is the proud boast of possessors of old oak, that the joiner's work of this style--the seventeenth century at its best--stands unequalled for its solidity and sound practical adhesion to fixed principles governing sturdy furniture fashioned for hard and continued usage. of course, there were no screws used in those days, and little glue. the joints dovetailed into each other with great exactness and were fastened by the wooden pins so often visible in old examples. the modern copyist has a fine regard for these wooden pegs. he knows that his clients set store by them, and he accordingly sees to it that they are well in evidence in his replicas. but there is yet a distinction which may be noticed between his pegs and the originals. his are accurately round, turned by machinery to fit an equally circular machine-turned hole. they tell their own story instantly to a trained eye, to say nothing of the piece of furniture as a whole, which always has little conflicting touches to denote its modernity. as an instance of the form of the sixteenth century continuing in use until mid-seventeenth-century days the illustration of an oak table (p. 63) brings out this point. the heavy baluster-like legs, only just removed from the earlier bulbous types, and the massive treatment belong to the days of james i., and yet such pieces really were made in cromwellian days. the rude simplicity of much of the farmhouse furniture is indicated by the monk's bench illustrated (p. 53). the back is convertible into a table top. the early plainness of style for so late a piece as 1650 is particularly noteworthy. this specimen is interesting by reason of its exceptionally large back. on the same page is illustrated a chest with two drawers underneath. this form is termed a "mule chest," and is the earliest form of the chest of drawers. these cromwellian chests with drawers continued to be made in the country for a hundred years, but in more fashionable circles they soon developed into the well-known jacobean chest of drawers, the prototype of the form in use to-day. as an instance of this lingering of fashion the chest illustrated is dated 1701, quite fifty years after its first appearance as a new style. [illustration: monk's bench. _c._ 1650. with back convertible into table top. exceptionally large back. (note early plainness of style.) (_by courtesy of messrs. a. b. daniell & sons._)] [illustration: oak chest with drawers underneath. termed a "mule chest." the earliest form of chest of drawers. this piece in style is middle seventeenth century, but is dated 1701.] =oak general in its use.=--the oak as a wood was in general use both in the furniture of the richer classes and in the farmhouse furniture of seventeenth-century days and earlier. inlaid work is unknown in furniture of this type. it was sparingly used in pieces of more important origin. the room shown at the victoria and albert museum from sizergh castle has inlays of holly and bog oak. and the suite of furniture at hardwicke hall made for bess of hardwicke was made by english workmen who had been in italy, the same persons who produced similar work at longleat. small panels with rough inlaid work are not uncommon in the seventeenth century in chests, bedsteads, and drawers. but the prevailing types of oak without the added inlays of other woods were rigidly adhered to in cabinet-makers' work for the farmhouse. the great oak forests, such as sherwood, furnished an abundance of timber for all domestic purposes, and up to the seventeenth century little other wood was used for any structural or artistic purpose. practically oak may be considered as the national wood. from the _harry grâce à dieu_ of henry viii. and the _golden hind_ of drake to the _victory_ of nelson, the great ships were of english oak. the magnificent hammer-beam roof of westminster hall is of the same wonderful wood. all over the country are scattered buildings timbered with oak beams, from cathedrals and ancient churches to farmhouses and mills. the oak piles of old london bridge were taken up after six centuries and a half and found to be still sound at the heart. the mass of furniture of nearly three centuries ago has survived owing to the durability of its wood. to this day english oak commands great esteem, although foreign oak has taken its place in the general timber trade, yet there is none which possesses such strong and lasting qualities. it will stand a strain of 1,900 lbs. per square inch transversely to its fibres. =sturdy independence of country furniture.=--the hardness of the oak as a wood is one of the factors which determined the styles of decoration of the furniture into which it was fashioned. it was not easily capable of intricate carved work, even in the hands of accomplished craftsmen. the fantastic flower and fruit pieces of grinling gibbons and other carvers were in lime or chestnut, and the age of walnut, a more pliant and softer wood to work in than oak, was yet to come. the country maker, little versed in the subtleties of cabinet-work, contented himself with a narrow range of types, which lasted over a considerable period. this is especially noticeable in his chairs, and specimens are found of the same form as the middle seventeenth century belonging to the last decade of the eighteenth century. [illustration: early oak table. _c._ 1640. retaining elizabethan bulbous form of leg and having cromwellian style feet. brass handles added later.] [illustration: joint stools. height, 1 ft. 10-1/2 ins. height, 1 ft. 8-1/2 ins. height, 1 ft. 5 ins. (about 1640.) (about 1660.)] the typical sideboard of the seventeenth century only varies slightly in form according to the part of the country from which it comes. the general design is always permanent. a large cupboard below, two smaller ones above, set somewhat back from the front of the lower one, the sides of the upper ones sometimes canted off, leaving two triangular spaces of flat top at the ends of the bottom one. the whole is surmounted by a top shelf, supported by the upper cupboards and two boldly turned pillars. this is usually the design. the decoration is of the simplest, and presents nothing beyond the powers of the village carpenter. the mouldings are simple; there is slight conventional carving, frequently consisting of hollow flutings, and the pillars, boldly turned, are very rarely enriched by any ornament. a careful examination of such pieces is always interesting from a technical point of view. the framing of the panels is seen to be worked out by the plane, but the panels themselves more often than not have been reduced to approximate flatness with an adze. if viewed in a side light the surface is thus slightly varied, showing the differences in the planes of the various facets produced by the adze and giving an effect entirely different from the mechanical smoothing of a surface by the use of a plane. the framing of the front and ends of these sideboards is in detail exactly like the ordinary jacobean wall panelling or wainscot. the mouldings are all worked on the rails or styles, not mitred and glued on, no mitred mouldings being used except occasionally in the centre panel between the doors. the framing is mortised together and pinned with oak pins. the doors are usually hung on iron strap hinges, and the handles of the doors are of wrought iron. frequently the doors of the upper cupboards are hung on pivots, not hinges. such a sideboard belongs to the middle period of the seventeenth century, and is representative of a wide class used in farmhouses. it is easier to follow the various movements in the design of the seventeenth-century table than a century later, when more complex circumstances governed its use. the illustrations on p. 57 give early forms, with some suggestion as to the progression in design. the early oak table is a curious compound of design. it has retained the elizabethan bulbous form of leg and has the cromwellian foot. in date the piece is about 1640. the brass handle has been added later. the joint stools on the lower half of the page afford a picture of slowly advancing invention in turned work. the one on the left of the group is the earliest, and is about 1640 in date. its legs are seen to be of coarser work, roughly turned, but typically early jacobean in breadth of treatment. the two on the right are about 1660 in date. the left-hand one shows the urn-shaped leg of the strong, broad treatment (as in the table illustrated p. 63), brought into subjection and exhibiting a gracefulness of form and balance that make furniture of this type so lovable. the smaller stool shows the ball-carving associated with the restoration period, and found in gate tables. a combination of these styles of turning is shown in the graceful oak table illustrated p. 65, in date about 1680. =chests of drawers.=--the conservative spirit of the minor craftsmen is especially noticeable in the articles of everyday use. the merchant's account ledger with its green back and cross-stitched pattern in vellum strips, still in use, is to be found in the same style in holbein pictures of the days of the hanseatic league. brass and copper candlesticks have a long lineage, and their form is only a slight variant from very early examples. the evolution of ornament is especially interesting; the old stoneware bellarmine form still remains in the bearded mask at the lip of china jugs at the beginning of the nineteenth century. the two buttons at the back of the coattails continue long after their primary use to loop up the sword-belt has vanished. in america the early carved chests of the puritan colonists were followed by similar designs contemporary with our own jacobean style for a period well towards the end of the seventeenth century. the panels on chairs and chests have the same arcaded designs as found in elizabethan bedsteads and fireplaces. these become gradually crystallised in conventional form, and lockwood, the american writer on old colonial furniture, has reduced the types coincident with our own jacobean styles into ten distinct patterns, until the advent of the well-known chests of drawers with geometric raised ornament laid on, which pieces of furniture in restoration days were set upon a stand. we have shown in the illustration (p. 53) the earliest form of the chest with drawers underneath. the stage transitional between this and the multifarious designs with bevelled panels in geometric design is exemplified by the chest, in date about 1660, illustrated (p. 63), having two drawers and a centre bevelled panel, and with two arcaded panels on each side of this and also arcaded panels at the ends of the chest. this form was rapidly succeeded by the well-known chests of drawers on ball feet or on stand so much appreciated by collectors. we illustrate a sufficient number of pieces to cover the usual styles and to assist the beginner to identify examples coming under his observation. although it should be noted that as these chests of drawers are so much sought after they are manufactured nowadays by the hundred and out of old wood, so that great care should be exercised in paying big prices for them unless under expert guidance. the specimen appearing on p. 65 is a fine example, in date 1660, and when the ball feet are original, as in this example, the genuineness of the chest of drawers is undoubted. too often stands or feet are added, and it is exceedingly rare to find that the brass handles are original. quite an industry is carried on in reproducing old brass escutcheons and handles from rare designs and carefully imparting to them signs of age, so that they may be used in made-up chests of drawers and tables. of types of stands, the two chests of drawers illustrated p. 69 are fair examples. the upper chest is a curious jacobean type with sunk panels and having an unusually high stand. there is a suggestion that this has been added later, as the foot is eighteenth-century in character. the lower chest is of the charles ii. type with sunk panels and having the arcaded foot of that period. it will be observed that in addition to the four drawers it has a drawer at the bottom. [illustration: oak table. _c._ 1650.] [illustration: chest. about 1660. with bevelled panels and drawers and arcaded panels and ends. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] [illustration: small oak table. _c._ 1680. showing two forms of mouldings in legs and stretcher. (_by courtesy of messrs. a. b. daniell & sons._)] [illustration: jacobean chest of drawers. _c._ 1660. height, 2 ft. 11-3/4 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 11 ins.; width, 3 ft. 3-1/2 ins. the ball foot, not always present, indicates genuine example.] the treatment of the stand or legs of these chests exercised the ingenuity of various generations of cabinet-makers. in the specimen illustrated p. 69, the eighteenth century is reached. the transition from passing jacobean styles into those of queen anne is clearly seen. the bevelled panels still remain, with added geometric intricacies of design, and a new feature appears in the fluted sides. but the most interesting feature is the cabriole leg, so definitely indicative of the eighteenth century. =the slow assimilation of foreign styles in furniture.=--farmhouse furniture almost eschewed fashion. in seventeenth-century days it pursued the even tenor of its way untrammelled by town influences. england in those days was not traversed by roads that lent themselves to neighbourly communication. a hundred years later wedgwood found the wretched roads in staffordshire, where waggons sunk axle-deep in ruts and pits, a hindrance to his business, and william cobbett in his _rural rides_ leaves a record of surrey woefully primitive at hindhead, with dangerous hills and bogs, where the "horses took the lead and crept down, partly upon their feet and partly upon their hocks." from the days of james i. to those of james ii., from the first stuart sovereign to the last of that ill-starred house, the country passed through rapid stages of volcanic history. the opening years of the century saw the colonisation of ulster by the scots and the english settlers, and the sailing of the _mayflower_ and the foundation of new england by the puritans, nine years after the publication of the authorised version of the bible. under charles i. came the struggle between the despotic power of the crown and the newly awakened will of the people. parliamentary right came into conflict with royal prerogative. the smouldering fire burst into flame when john hampden, a country gentleman, refused to pay ship money, which was levied on the inland counties in 1637, and the arrest of five members of parliament in 1642--hampden, pym, holles, haselrig, and strode--precipitated the country into civil war. for seven years a continual series of battles were waged by the contending forces. the eastern counties formed themselves into a martial association, and the king set up his standard at nottingham. from bristol to hull and from nantwich to newbury fierce engagements tore the country asunder. an irish army was raised for the king, and the scots under leslie crossed the border in the parliamentarian cause. with the execution of charles i. came other dangers; the sword was not sheathed, nor had revolution left a contented country-side. cromwell divided the kingdom into eleven military districts, and under his rule england took her place at the head of the protestant states in europe. [illustration: oak chest of drawers. curious jacobean type, with sunk panels and unusually high stand. this stand is the well-known eighteenth-century foot.] [illustration: oak chest of drawers. charles ii. type, with sunk panels and arcaded stand and feet typical of the period.] with the death of the protector and the restoration of the stuarts, when charles ii. returned home, came an influx of foreign customs and foreign arts learned by expelled royalists in their enforced sojourn on the continent. london and the court instantly became the centre of voluptuous fashion. the pages of pepys's _diary_ afford instructive pictures of the last quarter of the century at whitehall with the merry monarch exhibited in vivid colours, and more intimate still are the word-portraits cleverly etched by the count de grammont in his _memoirs_ of the gay circle at court. and after charles came his brother james, nor were civil strife and court intrigue memories of the past. restlessness still characterises the closing years of the century. the insurrection of monmouth in the west of england was followed by the bloody assize of judge jeffreys. the air is filled with trouble, and blundering statecraft brings fresh disaster, culminating in the ignominious flight of the king. nor does this complete the changing scenes of the seventeenth century. a new era under william the dutchman brought new and permanent influences, and religious toleration and constitutional government became firmly rooted as the heritage of the people of this country. it is essential that a rough idea of the period be gained in order to appreciate the kaleidoscopic character of the events that rapidly succeeded each other. the paralysis of the arts during the civil war had not a little influence on the furniture of the period belonging to the class of which we treat in this volume. the wealth of noble and patrician families had been scattered, estates had been confiscated, and sumptuous furniture and appointments pillaged and destroyed, especially when it offended the narrow tastes of the puritan soldiery. some of the minor pieces no doubt found their way into humbler homes and served as models for simpler folk. with a dearth of aristocratic patrons there were no new art impulses to stir craftsmen to their highest moods, but in spite of war and disturbances affecting all classes, furniture for common use had to be made, and the ready-found types exercised a continued influence on all the earlier work. in regard to farmhouse furniture the following types represent in the main the seventeenth-century styles: the bedstead, the sideboard or dresser, the table and the chair in its various forms, the bible-box and the cradle. the jacobean chest of drawers, a development of the dower-chest, came in mid-seventeenth-century days, and prior to the william and mary styles. the sideboard, a development of the bacon-cupboard, came into fashion in the middle of the century. it was a reflex of the grander furniture of the manor house and the nobleman's mansion. it is difficult to fix exact dates to jacobean furniture of this character. as a general rule it is safer to place it at a later date than is the usual custom. [illustration: oak chest of drawers. showing transition to queen anne type. cabriole feet, bevelled panels, and fluted sides.] [illustration: william and mary table. _c._ 1670. with finely turned legs and stretcher and scalloped underwork. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] =the changing habits of the people.=--the shifting phases of the restless seventeenth century make it exceedingly difficult, in spite of experts, to decide definitely as to the exact date of furniture. the country being in such an unsettled state obviously influenced the manufacture of domestic furniture. its natural evolution was broken and the restraint of the jacobean forms was in the main due to the conditions prevailing in regard to their manufacture. the long list of battles given in the chronological table at the commencement of this chapter is advisedly recorded to show the intense upheaval which was caused by the civil wars which raged from north to south, from east to west, and convulsed any artistic impulses which may have been in process of materialisation. it is obvious the class of table of the william and mary period, in date about 1670, illustrated (p. 73), with finely turned legs and stretcher and scalloped underwork, belongs to a period far more advanced in comfort than the days when such a table as that illustrated p. 63 was the ordinary type. by the end of the century the growth of sea power and the astonishing development of trade brought corresponding domestic luxuries. the two children's stools illustrated (p. 77) must have come from a country squire's or wealthy provincial merchant's house. their upholstered seats emulate the grandeur of finer types. the rare form of oak bedstead illustrated on the same page is a survival of the early type. in date this is about 1700; not too often are such examples found, for enterprising restorers and makers have seized these old jacobean bedsteads and converted them into so-called jacobean "sideboards," wherein nothing is old except the wood. it requires some little imagination to conjure up what the daily meals were in the days of the early stuarts. there was the leather jack, the horn mug, and the long table in the hall where the farmer and his servants ate together. an old black-letter song, entitled "when this old cap was new," in date 1666, in the roxburgh "songs and ballads," has two verses which paint a lively picture:- "black-jacks to every man were fill'd with wine and beer; no pewter pot nor can in those days did appear; good cheer in a nobleman's house was counted a seemly show; we wanted not brawn nor souse when this old cap was new. we took not such delight in cups of silver fine; none under the degree of knight in plate drank beer or wine; now each mechanical man hath a cupboard of plate for show, which was a rare thing then when this old cap was new." the "mechanical man" is a delightful touch of the old song-writer. we fear he would have been shocked at the degeneracy of a later day, when in place of the mug that was handed round came the effeminate teacups. the change from ale, at breakfast and dinner and supper, to tea the beverage of the poor, would be a sad awakening from the ideals set up by the rollicking song-writer of restoration days. but such innovations must needs be closely regarded by the student of furniture. we wish sometimes that historians had spared a few pages from military evolutions and court intrigues to let us know what the parlours and bedrooms of our ancestors looked like. a rough résumé from macaulay's "state of england in 1685," wherein he quotes authority by authority, holds a mirror to seventeenth-century life. [illustration: children's stools, _c._ 1690.] [illustration: rare bedstead. _c._ 1700. survival of early type.] at enfield, hardly out of sight of the smoke of the capital, was a region of five-and-twenty miles in circumference, which contained only three houses and scarcely any enclosed fields, where deer wandered free in thousands. red deer were as common in gloucestershire and hampshire as they are now in the grampians. queen anne, travelling to portsmouth, on one occasion, saw a herd of no less than five hundred. agriculture was not a greatly known science. the rotation of crops was imperfectly understood. the turnip had just been introduced to this country, but it was not the practice to feed sheep and oxen with this in the winter. they were killed and salted at the beginning of the cold weather, and during several months even the gentry tasted little fresh animal food except game and river fish. in the days of charles ii. it was at the beginning of november that families laid in their stock of salt provisions, then called martinmas beef. the state of the roads in those days was somewhat barbarous. ruts were deep, descents precipitous, and the way often difficult to distinguish in the dusk from the unenclosed fen and heath on each side. pepys and his wife, travelling in their own coach, lost their way between newbury and reading.[2] in some parts of kent and sussex none but the strongest horses could, in winter, get through the bog in which they sank deep at every step. the coaches were often pulled by oxen.[3] when prince george of denmark visited the mansion of petworth he was six hours travelling nine miles. throughout the country north of york and west of exeter goods were carried by long trains of packhorses. [2] _pepys's diary_, june 12, 16 8. [3] postlethwaite's "dictionary of roads." the capital was a place far removed from the country. it was seldom that the country squire paid a visit thither. "towards london and londoners he felt an aversion that more than once produced important political effects" (macaulay). apart from the country gentlemen were the petty proprietors who cultivated their own fields with their own hands and enjoyed a modest competence without affecting to have scutcheons and crests. this great class of yeomanry formed a much more important part of the nation than now. according to the most reliable statistics of the seventeenth century, there were no less than a hundred and sixty thousand proprietors, who with their families made a seventh of the population of those days, and these derived their livelihood from small freehold estates. such, then, were the chief differences dividing the life of the country from the life of the town. the london merchants had town mansions hardly less inferior to the nobility. chelsea was a quiet village with a thousand inhabitants, and sportsmen with dog and gun wandered over marylebone. general oglethorpe, who died in 1785, used to boast that he had shot a woodcock in what is now regent street, in queen anne's reign. the days of the stuarts were not so rosy as writers of romance have chosen to have us believe. at norwich, the centre of the cloth industry, children of the tender age of six were engaged in labour. at bristol a labyrinth of narrow lanes, too narrow for cart traffic, was built over vaults. goods were conveyed across the city in trucks drawn by dogs. meat was so dear that king, in his "natural and political conclusions," estimates that half the population of the country only ate animal food twice a week, and the other half only once a week or not at all. "bread such as is now given to the inmates of a workhouse was then seldom seen even on the trencher of a yeoman or a shopkeeper. the majority of the nation lived almost entirely on rye, barley, and oats." the change from these conditions to those we associate with the eighteenth century was not a sudden but a slow one. with the increase of average prosperity came the additional requirements in household furniture. it is impossible now to state accurately what the exact furniture was of the various classes of the community. many of the seventeenth-century pieces now remaining have been treasured in great houses and belong to a variety which in those days was regarded as sumptuous. now and again we catch glimpses of the former life of the men and women of those days. little pieces of conclusive evidence are brought to light which enable safe conclusions to be drawn. but the everyday normal character has too often gone unrecorded. we are left with court memoirs, diaries of the great, literary proofs of the more scholarly, but the simple annals of the poor are, in the main, unrecorded. in view of this series of queer and remarkable facts strung together to afford the reader a rough and ready picture of those dim days, one comes to believe that much of the ordinary seventeenth-century furniture must be regarded as having belonged to the great yeoman class of the community. with this belief the collector very rightly regards it of sterling worth, as reminiscent of the men from whose sturdy stock has sprung a great race. chapter iii the gate-leg table chapter iii the gate-leg table its early form--transitional and experimental stages--its establishment as a permanent popular type--the gate-leg table in the jacobean period--walnut and mahogany varieties--its utility and beauty contribute to its long survival--its adoption in modern days. the gate-leg table is always regarded with veneration by collectors. it has a charm of style and beauty of construction which afford never-ending delight to possessors of old examples. it is an inspired piece of cabinet-work which belongs to the middle of the seventeenth century, and exhibits the supreme effort of the early jacobean craftsmen to break away from the square massive tables, the lineal descendants of the great bulbous-legged table of the elizabethan hall. dining-tables with the device of slides to draw out when occasion required, even in early days became a necessity. it is a note indicating the changing habits of the people. a table was no longer used for one purpose. the large table required a permanent place in a large room. but smaller houses fitted with minor furniture had their limitations of space, and so the ingenuity of a table that would close together and stand against a wall, or could be used as a round table for dining, was a welcome innovation. =its early form.=--the series of illustrations in this chapter afford a fairly comprehensive survey of the progress and differing character of the gate-leg table during the hundred years that it held a place in domestic furniture. it is difficult to say with exactitude which are the earliest forms, or whether the round table without the moving gates was a sort of transitional form prior to the use of the movable legs. it is quite possible that in his attempt to invent something more convenient than the heavy square dining-table the progressive cabinet-maker of the middle seventeenth century did strike the half-way form. but on the other hand it must be admitted that there is the possibility that the gate-leg table came first, and that the types with three legs and half circular tops stand by themselves as later types. on the whole, one is inclined to the belief, especially as it prettily illustrates forms of natural evolution, that the three-legged table with fixed legs and half round top came first. [illustration: oak side table. _c._ 1660. plain style. the precursor of the gate-leg table.] [illustration: triangular gate-leg table. _c._ 1640. fine example. with arcaded spandrils and gate. this is the next stage of development to above table. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] the two tables illustrated on p. 87 belong to this three-legged type. the upper one is half circular at the top and the three legs are stationary. this particular table is in date about 1660, and although in this instance it is obviously later than other forms we illustrate having gate-legs, yet by the theory we have advanced above, it belongs to a type prior to the use of a gate. the lower one is a fine example, in date about 1640, of a triangular gate-leg table. the top is round, and the illustration shows the gate open at right angles to the stretcher. the arcaded spandrils are an interesting and rare feature. =transitional types.=--not only is the feeling towards the gradual establishment of this new form of table shown in its construction, first with four legs until it developed into a table with twelve legs and double gates, but the styles of ornament used in the turning differ greatly in character. the leg is capable of wide and differing treatment. there is the urn leg, a rare and early type, the ball turned leg, egg-and-reel turned leg, and the straight leg. in regard to the stretcher similar varieties occur. sometimes it is entirely plain, and when it is decoratively turned it varies from the early survival of the gothic trestle to the rare cross stretcher of the late collapsible table. in some types of yorkshire tables the stretchers are splat-form, like a ladder-back chair. the feet differ in no less degree from the usual jacobean type to the scroll or spanish foot at a later date. in the early eighteenth century there is the interesting series of queen anne flap tables which have gate-legs. some have the bottom stretcher to the gate-leg. these belong to the walnut period, when a greater vivacity became noticeable in english cabinet work. it is this picturesque and endless stream of designs which appeals to the collector. it is quite worthy of study to follow the difference in the cabinet-work of these gate tables. the long line of craftsmen who fashioned them added here and there not only touches of ornament that were personal, but invented details of construction as improvements to existing forms. a very early type with urn legs and having plain gates is that illustrated p. 91. it is small in size and belongs to the first half of the seventeenth century. the survival of the gothic trestle feet of an earlier type is noteworthy. the table on the same page has the trestle ends still retained. there is still the single leg at each end, as in the example above. the gates are square and plain and the legs are ball turned, a combination representing an early type. the size of this piece is small and its date is about 1650 or somewhat later. =its establishment as a popular type.=--the varied improvements and the slightly differing characteristics make it perfectly clear, when examined in detail, that the gate table in various parts of the country had firmly established itself and had won popular approval as a permanent type. in the search for tables of this form, however wide the net is spread by those indefatigable seekers in out-of-the-way places, and by the small army of trade collectors who scour the country for the purpose of unearthing something rare and unique, the story is always the same. in the most remote districts such tables are still found: the growth of the use of this gate-leg form permeated every part of the country. it was copied and recopied, native touches were added, and the old leading lines followed by generation after generation of craftsmen. it had as great a vogue during the long period of its history as the styles of chippendale chairs had at a later date, when every country cabinet-maker was seized with the desire to produce minor chippendale in oak or beech or elm. [illustration: small gate table. very early type. length, 3 ft.; breadth, 2 ft. 4 ins.; height, 2 ft. 3 ins. urn legs with plain gates with survival of gothic trestle feet.] [illustration: gate table. middle seventeenth century. early example. height, 2 ft.; top, 2 ft. 9 ins. × 2 ft. 3 ins. square gates and turned leg indicate early type. trestle ends still retained. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] [illustration: rare table. with double gates. egg and reel turning. turned stretchers. (examples such as this are worth £18 to £35 owing to rare form.)] [illustration: rare gate table. with double gates with only one flap and having turned stretchers. tables with one flap are rare and usually have two gates. {_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] =the jacobean period.=--essentially the flower of the popular creations of the jacobean furniture-designer, the gate table must always stand as reminiscent of the days of charles i. and charles ii. no picture of this period is considered artistically complete unless there be a gate-leg table with its picturesque lines adding a technical touch of correctness to interiors. the portrait of herrick, the parson-poet of devon, imaginative though it be, whenever it appears on canvas or illustrating his lyrics, shows the poet beside a fine gate-leg table. stage tradition is equally sure on the same point. a company of swaggering cavaliers at an inn is not complete without a group arranged at one of these tables quaffing wine from flagons. without doubt the finest examples are to be found from the year 1660 to the end of the reign of charles ii. a new impetus had been given to furniture-making in restoration days. the country had settled down in tranquillity and the domestic arts began again to thrive in natural manner following the earlier motives of the days of charles i. the recent civil wars had arrested their development, and now they burst forth again with renewed youth. ripe examples of the best period may be assigned to the last three or four decades of the seventeenth century. these, it should be explained, are in oak. we illustrate (p. 93) a particularly pleasing specimen with double gates which belongs to this finest period. there are, it will be observed, twelve legs, and the stretchers are finely turned with what is known as the egg-and-reel pattern. as a matter of fact pieces such as this, on account of the rare form, bring from £15 to £35, and they are rapidly being gathered into the folds of collectors. another rare form is shown on the same page. this, too, has double gates, and the stretchers are similarly turned. there is only one flap to this table, and it will be observed that it makes another variation from accepted styles in having a rectangular instead of a circular top. tables with one flap are always rare, and when found they usually have two gates. it will be seen that there are pleasant surprises in following changing forms all through the period. on p. 97 a table is illustrated with two gates on one stretcher. this in date is about 1660. the table below, on the same page, exhibits florid turning in the legs. the stretchers across the two legs are half way up and are the yorkshire form of splat stretcher. this type is found as early as 1660 and as late as 1750. the difference in structure is noticeable in two tables shown on p. 99. the one has six legs and the other eight legs. the first has finely turned legs and stretchers in what is familiarly known as the "barley-sugar" pattern. among its exceptional features are the legs being only six in number, the gates being hinged to stretcher, two legs thus being dispensed with, and the additional bar across the two central stretchers. this is a rare piece and in date is about 1670. the gate table on the same page with eight legs is a good example of ball turning. this is a type which survived well into the eighteenth century. [illustration: gate table. _c._ 1660. rare form. two gates on one stretcher. length, 3 ft. 10 ins.; width, 3 ft.] [illustration: gate table. exhibiting florid turning and yorkshire type of splat stretchers. examples are found as early as 1660 and as late as 1750. length, 4 ft. 7-1/2 ins.; width, 3 ft. 3-1/2 ins. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] [illustration: gate table. fine "barley sugar" turned legs and stretchers. exceptional features: only six legs (gates hinged to stretcher, two legs thus dispensed with). additional bar across two central stretchers. rare example. date 1670.] [illustration: gate table. good example of ball turning. a type which survived well into the eighteenth century. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] [illustration: collapsible table with rare x stretcher. _c._ 1660. the top folds over. fine example. (_in the collection of lady mary holland._)] [illustration: primitive gate-leg table. seventeenth or early eighteenth century. gates at one end. made by a local carpenter or wheelwright not conversant with turning.] as exhibiting two types as wide asunder as the poles, and yet not far removed in point of time, the two tables illustrated, p. 101, make a curious contrast. the upper one, in date about 1660, is a slender, graceful example, with the unusual =x=-shaped stretcher. it will be seen from the illustration that the two stretchers when closed fit flat with the legs and the top flaps over, thus making the table practically collapsible. the lower table, of late seventeenth or early eighteenth century, is a somewhat primitive form, with the gates at one end. this has obviously been made by a local carpenter or wheelwright not conversant with turning, as the shaping of the legs is strongly suggestive of the rude fashioning of the shafts of a farm wagon. =walnut and mahogany varieties.=--as the mid-jacobean period is left behind, and walnut is the chief wood used in ornamental turned work, so the character of the gate table begins to incline towards the technique more suitable to walnut than to oak. the turning, more easily done in the former wood, becomes more intricate. hence some examples appear which are practically types of the walnut age. but, in general, the old gate-leg table is a survival throughout the william and mary and queen anne periods, wherein country makers clung to the oak form and employed oak still in its manufacture. the william and mary gate table illustrated (p. 105) is constructed with one gate. it is small in size, practically being an ornamental or occasional table. it has a fine character, and the "barley sugar" pattern is deeply turned. side by side with this is a small square-topped gate table with the pillar-leg, denoting a reversion to early type. the stretcher is of the old trestle form. both these pieces, on account of their small size and well-balanced construction, show that considerable attention was being paid to symmetry. such specimens can readily be transplanted to more modern surroundings, and yet in some subtle manner harmonise with later furniture. they share this peculiarity with objects of oriental art of the highest type. old blue nankin and old lac cabinets, although anachronisms amid furniture of a later date, possess the property of being in sympathy with their new environment, much in the same manner as an old persian rug becomes a restful acquisition in a luxurious western home. some of the forms are so rare as to be almost unique. it is seldom that so interesting a piece is found as the table illustrated (p. 105) with the scroll feet in spanish style. it has only one gate, and the top of the table lifts up, forming a box. the lock is shown at the front in the photograph. the adjacent table has a corrupted form of the spanish foot, doubled under in cramped fashion like the flapper of a seal. this also has one gate; in date this piece is about 1680. [illustration: early gate table. with square top and pillar leg. stretcher: old trestle form. top, 2 ft. 4 ins. × 1 ft. 10 ins. william and mary gate table. fine character deep-turning "barley sugar" pattern with only one gate. top, 2 ft. 6 ins. × 2 ft. (_by the courtesy of messrs. a. b. daniell & sons._)] [illustration: gate table with square top. _c._ 1680 having one gate and corrupted form of carved spanish foot.] [illustration: gate-leg table. _c._ 1660. with one gate. top lifts up to form box. the feet are in spanish style.] the days of mahogany, with chippendale in his prime and hepplewhite, ince and mayhew, robert manwaring, matthias lock, william shearer, and a crowd of others, brought intricate carving in mahogany into intense prominence. this was the golden age of furniture design. an outburst of enthusiasm, following the architectural triumphs of the brothers adam, wherein they raised interior decoration to a level as high as that in france, had swept over the country. in spite of the rich profusion of new design being poured out in illustrated volumes and in executed furniture, the old gate-leg table still survived. in form it was the same, but the richness of the new wood was too enticing for the cabinet-maker not to employ. accordingly we find examples in mahogany. in the chippendale period =x=-shaped, cluster-leg, gate tables are found, and turning was used in this cluster-leg form. the ripe inventiveness of such a design as the gate-leg table was too evident to escape the adoption by famous makers. when ingenuity of construction was at its zenith the gate-leg was not likely to be discarded in fashionable furniture. on p. 109 two specimens of this period are shown. the upper one is of somewhat unusual type, having a cupid's bow underframing. it is seen that the spanish foot has still survived into the eighteenth century. the lower table is again a rare form. it is probably early in date for mahogany, being about 1740. the spanish foot is employed, but in a coarsened form, unusually inelegant, and suggestive of a golf club. =its utility and beauty.=--it is a natural question that one may ask as to the reason that the gate table had such a prolonged life. it passed through several strong periods of fashionable styles that were overthrown in turn by newer designs. the reason is not far to seek. it survived because the public could not do without it. there must have been a continuous demand, unchecked by the excitements of contemporary substitutes. but apparently there was nothing to take its place, or which could permanently supplant it. its utility is undoubtedly one of its most marked features. this alone affected its stability as a possession with which the farmer's wife and the cottager would not part. customs long established in the country were not easily discontinued. mother, daughter, and granddaughter clung to the old and practical form of table. nowadays there are families in the shires whom nothing would induce to sell their old gate tables. partly this is for love of the old home, but mainly is it the common-sense attitude which rebels against the sale of any piece of furniture which is in constant use. many objects long gone into disuse, but really valuable from an artistic point of view, are readily dispensed with. the cottager imagines that if he disposes of a mere ornament for a sum of money with which he can buy something useful he has effected a good "deal." [illustration: mahogany gate table. unusual type. with "cupid's bow" underframing. spanish foot surviving into eighteenth century. height, 2 ft. 5 ins.: diameter of top, 3 ft. 6 ins.; width, 4 ft.] [illustration: mahogany gate table. rare form. probably made of the new fashionable wood about 1740. use of spanish foot dying out. diameter of top, 4 ft. 5-1/2 ins. × 4 ft. 4 ins. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] so much for its utility. its beauty is a quality which has appealed to persons of higher artistic instincts. it is not the quaintness, because there are scores of other objects equally quaint, nor is it altogether the antiquity, though, of course, nowadays that is a determining factor, but it is the actual symmetry of form and ingenious form of construction, enhanced by the wide range of decorative treatment, which irresistibly appeal to the lover of the beautiful. these manifold reasons, therefore, endowed the gate-leg table with great vitality. its hold of the people was not relaxed till the age of the factory-made furniture. the banalities of the early-victorian period, which destroyed taste in persons of finer susceptibilities than the common folk, supplanted the old historic form, and it was made no more. =its adoption in modern days.=--after william morris and his school had preached the revival of taste and the return to the simple and the beautiful, and ruskin with flowing rhetoric had instilled a love for homespun into men's minds, there came newer ideals which, with gradual dissemination, have grown into a great modern movement which has become so overwhelmingly popular that the pendulum has almost swung the other way. it has now become almost a truism that the person of taste to-day sees nothing good in anything that is not old. with this in view, artists and persons of advanced notions, if they could not procure the old, had copies made for them of some of the most beautiful styles suitable for modern requirements. in this there was always the great morrisian principle in view that the highest art must show a full utilitarian purpose; so it came about that the gate table was revived and came gloriously into its own again. to-day, as in the seventeenth century, there is no more popular form of table, and the modern cabinet-maker is manufacturing hundreds of these tables. the life-history of the gate-leg table is, therefore, shown to be an interesting one. it is one of our oldest forms, and its construction nowadays, save that it is now produced in a factory, is singularly similar to that in the days when oliver cromwell was establishing our power as a voice in europe, when james ii. had an eye towards the supremacy of our navy, and when later our troops fought in flanders. chapter iv the farmhouse dresser chapter iv the farmhouse dresser the days of the late stuarts--its early table form with drawers--the decorated type with shelves--william and mary style with double cupboards--the queen anne cabriole leg--mid-eighteenth-century types. the various types of dresser associated with farmhouse use are interesting as being apart from the sideboard, a later fashion belonging to furniture of a higher type. it was not until the late days of chippendale, and after, that the side table began to be designated a sideboard, which later became a receptacle for wine, with a cellaret, and had a drawer for table-linen. the sideboard is not a modern term, for the word is found in dryden and in milton. in the late eighteenth-century days the sideboard had a brass rail at the back, and was ornamented by two mahogany urns of massive proportions. usually these were used for iced water and for hot water, the latter for washing the knives and forks. the adam sideboard with its severe classical lines, and sheraton's elegant bow fronts and satinwood panels decorated with painting, belong to the later developments of the sideboard as now known. the dresser is something more homely. it is indissolubly connected with homeliness and with the farmhouse and the country-side. in its various forms it has appealed to lovers of simple furniture, and farmhouse examples have found their way into surroundings more or less incongruous. the dresser in its more primitive form requires the necessary environment. it loses its charm when placed in proximity to pieces of more pretentious character. the cupboard dresser, or the type with open shelves, is less decorative than some of the forms without the back. that is to say, it requires the exactly suitable accompaniment to prevent its simple lines from being eclipsed by furniture of a higher grade. the dresser is, therefore, especially desirable to the collector furnishing a country cottage in harmonious character; but its inclusion in the modern drawing-room is an incongruity and its presence in the dining-room is more often than not an unwarrantable intrusion. =the days of the late stuarts.=--it will be seen that the early types have fronts finely decorated with geometric designs panelled in the same fashion as the jacobean chests of drawers, such as that illustrated p. 69. the split baluster ornament is a noticeable feature in this style, and the fine graceful balance of the panels with the drawers with drop brass handles is an attractive feature beloved by connoisseurs of the late stuart period. the decoration in the fronts of these early dressers is as diverse in character as the fronts of the contemporary chests of drawers. this variety is indicative of the personal character imparted to the work of the old designers. it is rare to find two examples exactly alike. they differ in details, much in the same manner as the brass candlesticks of the same period, which possess the same charm of individuality. [illustration: oak dresser. about 1680. with finely decorated front. (_by the courtesy of messrs. a. b. daniell & sons._)] [illustration: oak dresser. fine example of the period of james ii.] [illustration: oak dresser of unusual type. early eighteenth century. with arched formation below and serpentine outline at sides. height, 6 ft. 8-1/2 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 6 ins.; width, 6 ft. 2 ins.] [illustration: early oak dresser. about 1660. with urn-shaped legs. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] of this particular type of oak dresser the two examples illustrated (p. 117) have characteristics which are common to the class. the geometric front panels, the laid-on moulding, and the jacobean leg--in most cases the back legs of these side dressers are square--should be intently noticed. in regard to the number of the legs, this is governed by the length of the dresser. in the lower example it will be seen that there are six legs and that the stretcher is continued round three sides. in this example the legs begin to show indications of the late-jacobean style of more delicate turning. in the upper example the legs are bolder. these are oak specimens; the walnut varieties of similar design offer more sumptuous decoration and belong to furniture more suitable for the manor house than for the farm or cottage. an earlier type, in date about 1660, illustrated p. 119, exhibits a less ornate appearance and has the split urn-shaped legs in front and flat legs at the back. the split legs are found sometimes in gate tables, but when such is the case it may safely be conjectured that these tables are not of english origin, as the split leg did not find great favour with the english cabinet-makers. before passing to later examples it should be observed that this particular form of dresser is most frequently found without a top with shelves. examples there are which, as we shall show, have the original top, but as a rule it is advisable to note this feature in examining these jacobean dressers, for there are a great number in the market to which later tops have been added, as suitable to more modern requirements, or as likely to prove more attractive to those collectors not familiar with the dresser in its earlier form. originally in early dressers with shelves there is no back, that is to say, the shelves showed the wall behind them. this deficiency has been obligingly supplied by later hands. the dresser, as it found itself after certain transitional stages had been passed through, is shown in the early eighteenth-century piece illustrated (p. 119). this is of the early days of the eighteenth century, that is to say, in the reign of queen anne. it is here seen that the dresser is a set piece of furniture possessing attributes instantly marking it as having been carefully designed with a due observance as to the purpose to which it was to be put. the shelf at the bottom was evidently intended for use; the arched formation below the drawers has been planned in that manner to admit of utensils placed there being taken out and replaced with ease. one can only conjecture what may have stood there, maybe a barrel of cider, or perhaps only a breadpan. =the decorated type with shelves.=--the back with shelves was a useful addition, which, as will be seen in the earlier examples leading up to this later development, had borne several experiments in the way of cupboards. in this particular specimen the broken or serpentine outline at sides of shelves is a noticeable feature, and always adds a grace and charm to the dresser when employed by the cabinet-maker. another example in which this is effectively used is illustrated on p. 123. [illustration: dresser. early jacobean. length, 6 ft. 5 ins.; height, 7 ft. 3 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 8-1/2 ins. dresser. earliest decorated type. date about 1670. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] to return to the early-jacobean types: two interesting pieces are illustrated together (p. 123). that on the left, with four legs and stretcher, has three drawers, and the upper portion or back is ornamented by a primitive scalloped design suggestive of the country hand. the other, on the right, has six legs and four drawers, and the upper portion is beginning to receive detailed treatment in regard to spacing of the shelves, and a small cupboard on each side fills the growing need of cupboards and drawers, a rapidly growing taste in english furniture for domestic use as the home-life began to be more complex. about this time nests of boxes and drawers in lac work from the east began to be imported into this country in the better houses, first as articles of great luxury and beauty, on account of their colour and fine gold work, and later as being something new and essentially utilitarian in regard to the accommodation they afforded for the treasures the housewife wished to put away from the prying eyes of her curious neighbours. as time went on, the art of the cabinet-maker became more intricate. it is not the place here to enter into the minutiæ of the development of drawers and bureaus and cabinets, but the late eighteenth century brought such furniture, apart from points in relation to beauty of design, to great constructive skill. the age was one of hidden contrivances and intricately cunning mechanism concealing secret drawers or receptacles. such pieces were never made for farmhouse use; but the germ of the idea is ever present in all furniture with indications of locked drawers and cupboards. this is the note of intense civilisation as against the simpler modes of primitive folk who have no bolt to their door and no lock to guard their possessions. =william and mary style with double cupboards.=--the variety with double cupboards are interesting as giving a date to the dressers in which they are found. it is usually accurate to place such pieces in the william and mary period, that is to say from the year 1689 to the end of the seventeenth century. the tendency in this class of furniture is to cling tenaciously to older forms, especially in certain portions of the cabinet-work which presented difficulties to the local cabinet-maker. the legs retained their early-jacobean character even when associated with much later styles. this is noticeable in the william and mary example illustrated (p. 127). the arcaded doors are inlaid, the canopy is decorated, the underwork beneath the drawers belongs essentially to the "orange" period of design in its feeling. that the dresser could be made an ornamental piece of furniture and found its place as an important possession in the farmhouse, bright with an array of china, or pewter, or even silver, is amply shown by the two examples illustrated together of which the foregoing is one. the other oak dresser has at the top, where the mugs are hanging, the original mug-hooks. it is of the square-leg type and the arcaded work below the drawers gives distinction to its lines; it possesses also the broken or serpentine ends to the shelves. these curves and simple touches of ornament all contribute to make such dressers pleasing in character and representative of native work attempting with strong endeavour to produce artistic results suitable to their environment. [illustration: william and mary oak dresser. date _c._ 1689. decorated canopy, arcaded doors, inlaid and turned legs. height, 6 ft. 8-1/2 ins.; length, 6 ft. 4 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 8 ins.] [illustration: oak dresser. square leg type; with original mug hooks. height, 6 ft.; length, 4 ft. 3 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 5 ins.] =the queen anne cabriole leg.=--it is not to be expected that the long-continued triumph of the cabriole leg of the eighteenth century would leave the dresser without making its mark thereon. the exact curve of the cabriole leg is dangerous in the hands of a novice, who rarely if ever gets the correct balance in conjunction with the rest of the construction. accordingly, in farmhouse pieces this tells its own story. it is as though the cabriole leg were a sudden afterthought. this touch of representative want of repose is shown in the specimen illustrated (p. 135). in date this is about 1740, and is a somewhat rare form, having double cupboards. a unique dresser and clock combined is illustrated (p. 131). the form of the dresser, it will be seen, is quite different from other specimens. the back is only sufficiently high to carry a row of small drawers. the legs are circular and tapered, terminating in circular feet. in the centre of the dresser is a clock of the familiar grandfather form in miniature. this clock is not an addition to the dresser, but is a portion of the dresser and was made with it. the illustration shows the size of the door of the clock-case, with its hinges not cut down or in any way interfered with, and the lock on the other side is in the centre of the panel. it is obvious that no later hand has tampered with this fine example, and it stands as a remarkable dresser and unique in form in its construction with this clock. =mid-eighteenth-century types.=--in the lancashire dresser illustrated (p. 135) the top is reminiscent of early types. the cupboard has removed its position to the middle, a departure from all earlier forms. this is a very characteristic example, and the ample drawer accommodation shows the speedy transition from the old form of dresser through its varied stages to the later modern variety of the kitchen dresser, devoid of poetry and lacking interest to the collector, and yet to the student having traces of its ancient lineage. the eighteenth-century farmhouse varieties offer no great departure. they aim at being capacious and massive. they make no pretensions to approach the niceties of the sideboard in use in the better houses. they supply an undoubted want in the farmhouse for storage. there were cordials and home-made wines and much prized linen and a bright array of silver and sheffield plate and pewter, and no doubt tea services or porcelain from the new english factories of worcester, derby, bow, or maybe plymouth or bristol, to be shielded from breakage. the farmer's wife and the farmer's daughters were less than human if they did not follow the new fashions in some degree, more or less, in tea-drinking and in becoming the proud possessors of tea services and dinner services somewhat more delicate than the old delft and coarse staffordshire ware. the cupboards had ample accommodation for these more valuable accessories of the farmhouse parlour. the cabinet-maker therefore developed on lines exactly suitable for the country clients whom he served. [illustration: unique dresser and clock combined. the clock is not an addition, but is a portion of the dresser, and was made for it. (_in the collection of d. a. bevan, esq._)] the late forms show this marked tendency to provide innumerable drawers and cupboards, in the farmhouse dressers contemporary with chippendale. many examples are found which are practically elongated chests of drawers; the old characteristics of the dresser are absent, the back has disappeared altogether. there is no top with shelves. eight large drawers and two capacious cupboards give great storage room in a piece often 9 feet in length. there is nothing finicking in this type of furniture. it stands for homely comfort and love of domestic order. we may be sure that the good dame who used this lower piece, with its eight solid drawers with sound locks, was a person of frugal habits and love of the old farmstead. we may safely assume that she had a well-filled stocking hidden away somewhere in this old-fashioned repository, put by for the rainy day. in conclusion it may be said that a good deal has been talked about welsh dressers, as though they were a type absolutely apart from any other. the differences are not great, as the carving, in which the welsh craftsman offers characteristics of his own, is absent in pieces of furniture such as the dresser. then there is the normandy dresser, a much-abused term: a considerable number of these, and others, too, from brittany, have been imported and the terms have become trade descriptions. but in the main the english dresser has passed through the phases we have described, and the outlines herein suggested may be filled in by the painstaking collector. in the chapter dealing with local types there is an illustration of a lancashire dresser (p. 273) which adds one more example to the gallery of dressers we give as types in this chapter. [illustration: oak dresser. date about 1740. with early double cupboards. legs in queen anne style. height, 6 ft. 7 ins.; width, 9 ft. 5-1/2 ins.; depth, 2 ft. 2-1/2 ins.] [illustration: lancashire dresser. middle eighteenth century. top reminiscent of early types. ample drawer accommodation. transition to modern dresser. deeply cut panels. cupboard in middle as distinct from earlier forms at sides. height, 7 ft. 2 ins.; width, 6 ft. 7 ins.; depth, 2 ft.] chapter v the bible-box, the cradle, the spinning-wheel, and the bacon-cupboard chapter v the bible-box, the cradle, the spinning-wheel, and the bacon-cupboard the puritan days of the seventeenth century--the protestant bible in every home--the variety of carving found in bible-boxes--the jacobean cradle and its forms--the spinning-wheel--the bacon-cupboard. the authorised version of the holy bible, "translated out of the original tongues and with the former translations diligently compared and revised," by his majesty's command, found a place in every household in stuart days. the letter of the learned translators "to the most high and mighty prince james, by the grace of god, king of great britain, france, and ireland, defender of the faith," &c., retains its place in modern editions. it is an historic document worthy of preservation, and perhaps those who have forgotten its terms may be glad to have their memory refreshed. it is of surpassing moment to all who recognise the protestant derivation of the bible as we now know it, and the sectarian feelings which inspired the translators under king james in their fulsome dedication to the modern solomon. "great and manifold were the blessings, most dread sovereign, which almighty god the father of all mercies bestowed upon us the people of england, when first he sent your majesty's royal person to rule and reign over us. for whereas it was the expectation of many, who wished not well unto our _sion_, that upon the setting of that bright occidental star, queen elizabeth, of most happy memory, some thick and palpable clouds of darkness would so have overshadowed this land, that men should have been in doubt which way they were to walk; and that it should hardly be known who was to direct the unsettled state; the appearance of your majesty, as the sun in its strength, instantly dispelled those supposed and surmised mists, and gave unto all that were well affected exceeding cause of comfort; especially when we beheld the government established in your highness and your hopeful seed, by an undoubted title, and this also accompanied by peace and tranquillity at home and abroad." it is, as we affirm, an interesting document as showing the puritan tendencies at a time when much was in the melting-pot and the first of the stuarts, with his broad scots accent and his ungainly ways, came down to st. james's from the north. compare the above literary dedication to james the first with the word-portrait painted by green the historian, and one may draw one's own inferences. "his big head, his slobbering tongue, his quilted clothes, his rickety legs, stood out in as grotesque a contrast with all that men recalled of henry or of elizabeth as his gabble and rodomontade, his want of personal dignity, his buffoonery, his coarseness of speech, his pedantry, his contemptible cowardice. under this ridiculous exterior, however, lay a man of much natural ability, a ripe scholar with a considerable fund of shrewdness, of mother-wit, and ready repartee." =the protestant bible in every home.=--himself a theologian, james influenced his contemporaries. "theology rules there," said grotius of england only two years after elizabeth's death. there was an indifference to pure letters and persons were counted fine scholars who were diligent in the study of the bible. the language of the people became enriched with this study, which extended to all classes. john bunyan, the son of a tinker at elstow, learned his intense prose from the bible. the peasant absorbed the bible till its words became his own. with the puritan movement came the production of men of serious type, and with it too came the disappearance of the richer and brighter life and humour of elizabethan days. it was a literary movement and a religious movement which penetrated to the lower classes and often left the upper classes and gentry unmoved. in dealing with this and its reflex upon the domestic habits of the people, the visible effects in regard to furniture are strikingly evident in the plethora of bible-boxes belonging to those in this period of biblical study, to whom shakespeare and ben jonson were unknown and spenser's _faerie queene_ and milton's _comus_ were sealed books. it would almost seem that in many cases the bible was the only book which was read and treasured. it was incorporated in the home life. it served as a register to record the names and dates of birth and death or marriage of members of the family. some of these family registers have been most valuable in tracing details in biography where parish registers have failed to supply the necessary information. =the variety of carving found in bible-boxes.=--we give a series of illustrations indicating some of the interesting details of carving to be found on such boxes, where, as in work intended for a treasure-chest to preserve a sacred book, considerable zeal has gone to the elaboration of ornament. these seventeenth-century relics of a wave of religious enthusiasm are the crude puritan likenesses, belonging to a less innately artistic race, of the tabernacles and ivory carved madonnas and saints of the italian renaissance. they both, though poles asunder in realisation, represent the instinctive love of man for ornament in connection with his religious emotions. savage races with another ritual produce religious and ceremonial woodcarving representative of their best. here, then, is the puritan craftsmanship, mainly of provincial origin and found scattered over various parts of the country, following _motifs_ executed by the same hands as jacobean chairs and dressers, but bearing rich touches of ornament, betraying much originality, within the limited scope of jacobean design. the carving has nothing of the humour or strong bold relief of the miserere seats of the palmy days of the woodcarver in the fifteenth and early sixteenth century in details that might well have been applied to the bible-box. the ambition of the puritan woodcarver never reached figure-work, or he might have represented biblical scenes if his abhorrence of graven images had not demoralised his fancy. some of the early boxes have bold carving. we illustrate a fine example (p. 143) of the time of james i., about 1600. the design is floral, which embodies the well-known conventional rose. illustrated on the same page is another carved box of unusual pattern with floriated design. it was a frequent practice to treat the front of the box as though it were continuous and the pattern leaves off at the ends much in the same manner as modern wallpaper. in the box above it will be seen that the front is panelled and the design is confined to the circumscribed area. [illustration: carved oak bible-box. fine example. time of james i. about 1600. length, 2 ft. 4 ins.; width, 1 ft. 4 ins.; height, 11-1/2 ins.] [illustration: carved bible-box of unusual pattern. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] [illustration: bible-box of very rare pattern. about 1650. this type always had the same kind of clasp.] [illustration: bible-box of usual pattern commonly found.] another piece with very rare pattern, in date about 1650, has a bold type of carving in the two semicircles stretched across the front. this use of semicircles occurs in types usually found. the example illustrated (p. 145) has incised carving or "scratch." it will be seen that there is never an attempt at inlay or any of the delicacies of the refined craftsman. among the various types of "scratch" boxes the use of circles and heart-shaped ornament is constant. the locks found on this type of box are always of the class as shown in the illustration, and the clasp is well known. in the collection of bible-boxes the novice must carefully learn the exact limitations of the school of woodworkers in this minor field. the touch of the foreign craftsman should be easily recognisable, with its piquancy and real artistic feeling. these puritan bible-boxes have flat lids, and in order to give some touch of romance to them or whet the appetite of the collector they are frequently described as "lace-boxes," though it is very doubtful if such boxes were ever used for storing lace. sometimes similar boxes with sloping lids were used as early forms of writing-desks. =the jacobean cradle.=--the specimens of this type of furniture always exhibit, in the oak variety associated with farmhouse use, a plainness as a noticeable factor. they are usually panelled, but the panel has received no carved ornament and is especially simple. of course they always have rockers. in the examples illustrated the slight variation in these rockers will be observed. sometimes they are plain and sometimes they have slight ornamental curves. the only other ornament may be found in the turned knobs at the foot and sometimes at the head. sometimes there are fine knobs on the hood. the hood is sometimes shaped and exhibits a naïve attempt at symmetrical design. these cradles have long been familiar objects in cottagers' homes, but are now being displaced by modern wicker cradles. the picture _a flood_ (1870), by sir john e. millais, shows one of these cradles floating in a flooded meadow. the baby is crowing with delight, and a black cat sits at the foot of the cradle. the holes in the example illustrated (p. 149) are intended to receive a cord stretched across the cradle to protect the occupant. [illustration: oak cradle. with shaped hood and turned knobs at head and foot.] [illustration: oak cradle. with shaped hood with turned ball ornaments. holes on each side to fasten rope to protect occupant.] [illustration: yarn-winder and spinning-wheel.] [illustration: buckinghamshire bobbin's. turned wood bobbins with coloured beads to identify the bobbins from each other. (_in the collection of the author._)] =the spinning-wheel.=--to this day the spinning-wheel is used in scotland, in the highlands. the wool or yarn winders are usually in windlass form with six spokes. the turning upon these winders and spinning wheels resembles the spindles on the spindle-back chairs. there is in buckinghamshire bobbins a similar turning, individual in character and exhibiting considerable artistic beauty. in spinning-wheels there is considerable scope for the use of fine touches of ornament, in such practical objects dear to the housewife. bone sometimes was used in the turned knobs. the making of these spinning-wheels was undertaken by persons desirous of winning the esteem of those who used them. many of them have come down as heirlooms in families and have not been held as objects of art, to be regarded as curiosities, but as articles of everyday use. the use of the spinning-wheel was not confined exclusively to the farmer's wife. in early days great ladies were adepts at spinning. by the time of george iii. it was employed by the ladies of titled families. mrs. delany, when staying with the duchess of portland at bulstrode, writes: "the queen came about twelve o'clock, and caught me at my spinning-wheel, and made me spin on and give her a lesson afterwards; and i must say she did it tolerably for a queen." this letter, dated 1781, goes to prove two things, that spinning was a real task still undertaken by great ladies, and not a fashionable amusement. had it been the latter mrs. delany would not have used the expression "caught me at my spinning-wheel," wherein she indicates that the occupation was somewhat of a menial one. in regard to the buckinghamshire bobbins, sometimes finely carved in bone, those illustrated (p 151.) indicate the character of the cottagers' treasures in the pillow-lace-making districts. the patterns of these bobbins are not repeated. individual touches are given to these bobbins by the village turners which are not duplicated. in use, the bobbin has to be identified by some mark, and beads of different colours are employed, which are affixed by means of a wire to the bobbin, as is shown in the illustration. =the bacon-cupboard.=--another class which it is convenient to place among miscellaneous objects is the bacon-cupboard. the illustration (p. 231) shows the type of bacon-cupboard with seat and arms and drawers beneath. the position held by the bacon-cupboard in the farmhouse is shown by the growing dignity in the character of these cupboards. the gradual growth and development are shown in many specimens of the queen anne period, frequently of lancashire origin. such pieces, with classic pilasters, broken cornice, and bevelled panels and drawers beneath, are typified in wardrobes and dressers belonging to eighteenth-century farmhouse furniture. the development of capacious cupboards for various domestic uses is noticeable in this class of furniture up to early nineteenth-century days. chapter vi eighteenth-century styles chapter vi eighteenth-century styles the advent of the cabriole leg--the so-called queen anne style--the survival of oak in the provinces--the influence of walnut on cabinet-making--the early-georgian types--chippendale and his contemporaries. the dawn of the eighteenth century practically commenced with the reign of queen anne. the times were troublous. as princess, in the days of william the dutchman and her sister mary, she was forbidden the court as john churchill, then earl of marlborough, designed to overthrow william and place anne on the throne. "were i and my lord marlborough private persons," william exclaimed, "the sword would have to settle between us." at the death of mary the princess anne, together with the marlboroughs, was recalled to st. james's. at the death of william, in 1702, anne came to the throne. only just in her thirty-seventh year, she was so corpulent and gouty that she could not walk from westminster hall to the abbey, and was carried in an open chair. during the coronation ceremony she was too infirm to support herself in a standing position without assistance. the age of anne is remarkable for its restless intrigues. court plots were rife when queen anne "mrs. morley" in her private letters to the duchess of marlborough, who was "mrs. freeman," finally broke with the overbearing duchess and made abigail hill, one of the marlborough creatures, her chief confidant. the protestant whig party favoured the long war in the low countries and in spain, although conducted by a tory general, marlborough, who, by the way, did not take the field in flanders till he was fifty-two, a remarkable achievement for so great a military career, wherein he never fought a battle in which he was not victorious. the greatness of marlborough is indisputable. his fond love for his wife runs like a gold thread through the dark web of his life. his wife had, during a large part of anne's reign, despotic empire over anne's feeble mind. "history exhibits to us few spectacles more remarkable," says lord macaulay, "than that of a great and wise man who, when he had contrived vast and profound schemes of policy, could carry them into effect only by inducing one foolish woman, who was often unmanageable, to manage another woman who was more foolish still." [illustration: lancashire oak settle. _c._ 1760. length, 6 ft.; depth, 2 ft. 1 in.] [illustration: lancashire queen anne settle. showing transition into later type of modern settee. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] to us now, with the secret springs of history laid bare, there is much to marvel at, much to deplore as trivial. in regard to matters of high state and the suppleness of time-servers, memoirs and private journals have exposed many a skeleton carefully hidden from public gaze. but of the life of the people, especially the life in the country districts, the picture is somewhat blurred. men of letters flocked to the town--the town was london. provincial life lies behind a curtain. there were spanish doubloons coming up from bristol and prize-money from the wars was scattered inland from the ports. scotland was united to england by the act of union. "i desire," said the queen, "and expect from my subjects of both nations that from henceforth they act with all possible respect and kindness to one another, and so that it may appear to all the world they have hearts disposed to become one people." this wish has been amply fulfilled and the union has become something more than a name. never have two peoples different in thought, in tradition, and in established law become so completely welded together. but the war of the spanish succession must have drained english blood as it taxed english pockets. "six millions of supplies and almost fifty millions of debt," wrote swift bitterly. the tide of marlborough's success was undoubtedly secured by the outpouring of english lives. stalwart levies of men from the shires went to join the strange medley of the forces of the allies commanded by marlborough. dutchmen, danes, hanoverians, würtembergers, and austrians jostled shoulders with each other in his troops. he launched them with calm imperturbability against his opponents at malplaquet, for example, where with a pyrrhic triumph he lost twenty-four thousand men against half that number of the french behind their entrenchments. it is little wonder that the war was unpopular in the country, where the spanish succession and the "balance of power" were only symbols for so much pressure on the needs of the labouring classes. bonfires might be lit for blenheim, but many a village mourned those who would never return. in spite of this intermingling of england with european politics, the general life of the people remained untouched from outside influence in regard to arts and manufacture. cut off from intercourse with france, the grandeur of the art of louis quatorze was as far removed from early eighteenth-century england as though boulle and jean bérain and lepaute were in another continent and the château of versailles in the fastnesses of the urals. it is true that louis xiv. presented two wonderful cabinets to the duke of monmouth, exquisite examples of metal inlay and coloured marquetry, but such pieces were beyond the capabilities of any english craftsman to emulate. the chief innovations of the early eighteenth century followed the dutch lines familiarised in the preceding days of william and mary. oak remained in farmhouse and country furniture, but in the fashionable world walnut was extensively used, and occasionally mahogany. corner cupboards were introduced early in the reign of anne, and hooped chairs, familiar in engravings of flemish interiors, came into general use. fiddle-splat chairs were also common in the first half of the eighteenth century. in regard to feet, the ball-and-claw, and club foot were introduced. caning of chairs went out of fashion till the end of the century. shell and pendant ornament on knees of chair-legs became marked features, and, above all, the cabriole leg to chairs and tables is associated with the early years of the reign, and the term "queen anne" is always applied to such pieces. [illustration: cupboard with drawers. _c._ 1700. with "swan head" pediment. pedestal at top for delft or china. round beadings to drawers.] [illustration: queen anne bureau bookcase. farmhouse oak variety. emulating a finer walnut or mahogany piece.] [illustration: fine example oak table. _c._ 1720. well-proportioned legs, club feet, original undercutting. exemplary of professional country cabinet-maker's highest work.] [illustration: oak table. _c._ 1720. with hoof feet and knee, possibly copied from a fine queen anne piece, exemplifying the best work of country cabinet-maker. height, 2 ft. 7 ins.; top, 1 ft. 7-1/2 ins. × 2 ft. 3 ins. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] =the cabriole leg.=--this form of leg, swelling into massive proportions where it joins the seat, and curving outwards and tapering to a ball-and-claw foot or a club foot, lasted till end of chippendale period, roughly, for nearly half a century. it assumed various forms until it was supplanted by the straight leg, and the stretcher, which had disappeared with the use of the cabriole leg, again came into use. examples of the cabriole leg appear as illustrations to various types of furniture in this chapter. at first its use did not interfere with the employment of the stretcher, but about 1710 the stretcher disappeared. the lancashire queen anne settle illustrated (p. 159) shows the stretcher joining the front leg to the back. in the settle illustrated above, in date 1760, it will be seen the stretchers have vanished. =the so-called queen anne style.=--fashions slowly adopted in cabinet design do not readily arrange themselves in exact periods coinciding with the reigns of individual sovereigns. but it is convenient to affix a label to certain marked changes and attribute their general use to a particular reign. the innovation of the square panel with broken corners and ornamental curves at top is found in queen anne settles. the departure from the square panel and line of the curved and broken top is exhibited in the second great seal of anne, commemorating the union with scotland. it is reminiscent of the dutch influence, and is found in sussex firebacks of an earlier period. the straight lines of early-jacobean cabinet-work were rapidly undergoing a change; the square wooden back of the chair was shortly to be replaced by fiddle splats, which in their turn, in late-georgian days, became pierced and fretted and carved under the genius of chippendale's hand. the two settles illustrated (p. 159) show several interesting points. the panels are typical of the love of the curved line, which hogarth defined as the line of beauty. in the upper one the arms still retain the old jacobean form in this farmhouse example. the ball foot still clings to the earlier form. the seat is sunk to receive a long cushion. in the adjacent specimen the seat with its cushion and the curved =s= arms upholstered show the transition into the later type of modern settee. the curved outline finds similar expression in the hood of grandfather clock-cases and in the shape of metal dials. a cupboard with drawers illustrated (p. 163) has what is known as a "swan head." the panels to the doors have similarly novel features in their structure. it will be observed that there is a square pedestal at the top of this piece, which was intended as a stand for a delft or chinese jar. the drawers of this cupboard have round beadings. the typical instance of curved design with not a single straight line, not even the back legs, which are bowed, is the grandfather chair with the high back, upholstered all over. the cabriole legs with ball-and claw-feet, the =c=-shaped arms, the scroll upholstered wings, and the oval back, depart from the rectilinear; even the underframing of the seat is bow-shaped. similarly, the walnut arm-chairs of the period from 1690 to 1715 had bold curves. the arms always possessed a curious scroll, the backs had broad splats with curling shoulders, and often a broad bold ribbon pattern making two loops to fill up the top of the hoop at the back, with a carved shell at the point of intersection. big pieces of furniture, such as bureaus, had the broken arch pediment, and smaller objects, such as mirrors, had the arched or broken top; and when these dressing mirrors had small drawers, these disdained the straight front and became convex. under the dutch influence, in the first period of english veneer work, from about 1675 to 1715, very fine cabinets and bureaus and chests of drawers were made. walnut was the wood employed, with the panels inlaid with pollard elm, boxwood, ebony, mahogany, sycamore, and other coloured woods. figured walnut was beloved by the cabinet-maker beginning to feel his way in colour schemes of decoration. bandings of herring-bone inlay and rounded mouldings to drawers are very characteristic. bureaus and important pieces had birds and flowers and trees or feather marquetry after fine dutch models. picked walnut, especially exhibiting a fine feathered figure, was used as veneer, and with these and other glorious creations of the walnut school of cabinet-workers the age of walnut may be said to have been in full swing. =the survival of oak in the provinces.=--the foregoing descriptions apply to fashionable folks' furniture. such fashions did not come into usage in the farmhouses and in the cottages. oak was still employed without being displaced by the walnut of the town maker. oak was in the main more suitable for the particular class of furniture which was likely to receive less delicate care than the writing-cabinets and bureaus and the china-cupboards of more fastidious people. tea-drinking had become the luxury of the great world of society, and had hardly come into general use in the country till late in the reign of anne, though by 1690 it had gained considerable favour in london. coffee was introduced slightly earlier, and many invectives in broadsides and in poetical satires appear in the late seventeenth century against coffee and coffee-houses. in 1674 the "women's petition against coffee" complained that "it made men as unfruitful as the deserts whence that unhappy berry is said to be brought; that the offspring of our mighty ancestors would dwindle into a succession of apes and pigmies, and on a domestic message a husband would stop by the way to drink a couple of cups of coffee." the prejudice against coffee, and especially against coffee-houses, was lasting, and coffee failed to establish itself as a national beverage. the labouring classes declined to be weaned from their ale and other stronger drinks. the spaniards brought chocolate from mexico; roger north, attorney-general to james ii., uttered a violent polemic against chocolate houses, perhaps more on account of the political clubs gathered there than against the beverage itself. "the use of coffee-houses," says he, "seems much improved by a new invention called chocolate-houses, for the benefit of rooks and cullies of quality, where gaming is added to the rest, as if the devil had erected a new university, and those were the colleges of its professors." [illustration: queen anne glassor china-cupboard. spun glass doors. heavy bars mark early type prior to tracery. georgian corner cupboard. late eighteenth century. broken architraves and cushion top. having original hinges. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] [illustration: small oak table. 1700-1720. height, 2 ft. 4-3/4 ins.; width, 2 ft. 3 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 9-3/4 ins. graceful proportion with cabriole leg.] [illustration: oak table. showing at a later period the last traces of the cabriole leg.] the varying phases of town life, of which the above quotations give a passing glimpse, found little reflex in the sturdy unchanging life of the provinces. generation after generation, men farmed the same lands and their dependents lived in cottages adjacent; tillers of the ground, herdsmen, toilers in the fields, living by the sweat of their brow. they were content with simpler pleasures, which centred round the alehouse and the village green, or maybe the village church, if the hunting rector and the studious vicar were not too heedless of the fate of their flock. but other influences were soon to be at work to break the lethargy of those of the clergy who slumbered. wesley founded the methodist movement. whitefield began his sermons in the fields and looked down from a green slope on several thousand colliers grimy from the coalpits near bristol to see, as he preached, tears "making white channels down their blackened cheeks." later again, hannah more drew sympathy to the poverty and crime of the agricultural classes. =the influence of walnut on cabinet-making.=--if oak was the wood which the country joiner loved best, he was not without some sympathetic leaning towards the effects which could be produced in the softer walnut. such styles accordingly began slowly to have a marked influence upon the farmhouse furniture in early-georgian days. it was not easy to produce curved lines in the refractory oak, tough and brittle, but the village craftsman essayed his best to please his patrons whose taste had been caught by the newer fashions observed in the squire's parlour when paying rare visits. in the two examples illustrated of farmhouse cupboard and bureau bookcase (p. 163) it will be seen that here is the country maker definitely trying his skill in his native wood to emulate the finer walnut examples of town cabinet-makers. this is even more noticeable in regard to some of the tables actually found in farmhouses belonging to as early as the first quarter of the eighteenth century. the two specimens illustrated (p. 165) exemplify this tendency to imitate the designs of trained workers. the country touch always betrays itself in the cabriole leg, whether in chair or in table. the upper table has less _naïveté_ than most examples found. there is a balance in its construction rarely found in provincial work. the legs, always the stumbling-block to the less experienced artificer, are here of exceptionally fine proportions, terminating in club feet. the lower table shows a less capable treatment of the cabriole leg. the hoof foot and the carved knee have obviously been copied from a fine queen anne model. in the underframing of both tables there is an experiment in ornament and form rarely attempted except in the highest flights of the country maker, and as such these two fine examples must be regarded. [illustration: oak table. showing clumsy corners and indicating the _naïveté_ of the country cabinet-maker.] [illustration: oak table. showing transition from cabriole leg to straight leg of 1760.] =the early georgian types.=--treating of the early-hanoverian period from the death of queen anne in 1714, and including the reigns of george i. from 1714 to 1727 and george ii. from 1727 to 1760, furniture of all types begins to assume a complexity of construction. at the final outburst the fine masterpieces of creation of the great schools of design during the last half of the eighteenth century, embodied the life-work of chippendale, the brothers adam, hepplewhite, sheraton, and many others. this period from 1750 to 1800 was the golden age of design in england. it has had a far-reaching effect, and still casts its glory upon the present-day schools of designers, whose adaptations and lines of progress are based upon the finest flower of the eighteenth-century styles. the massive walnut chairs with deep underframing and broad hoop backs departed from the solid splats of the anne style and endeavoured to become less squat by the employment of banded ribbon-work, coarse, heavy, and ponderous in style. settees, arm-chairs and single chairs in this style came as the final efforts of the walnut school. the graceful ribbon designs interlacing each other in knots, and the flowing carving in mahogany of chippendale, put a period to all dullness and heavy design. with the new style and the new wood a splendid field was opened to cabinet-makers, and the quick appreciation of these opportunities signalised their work as of permanent artistic value. among more important pieces, though still falling under the category of farmhouse styles, may be mentioned the queen anne glass or china cupboard, and the georgian corner cupboard, illustrated p. 171. the former has heavy bars, which mark the early type prior to tracery, and it has spun-glass doors. porcelain factories at bow, worcester, and derby brought such cupboards into more general use after the middle of the century. staffordshire earthenware tea and coffee services were found in great numbers in farmhouses and cottages. after the days of delft and stoneware came the prized china services of the housewife. pewter was largely used, but the number of ale-jugs of toby form, or cider-mugs with rural subjects to suit the tastes of the users, indicate that more modern ideas and taste, once exclusive to the world of fashion, had penetrated the country districts. the georgian corner cupboard shows the broken architraves and cushion top. the hinges should be noticed as being original. =chippendale and his contemporaries.=--at first using the cabriole leg with ball-and-claw foot, not quite as he found it, but reduced to slightly more slender proportions to be in symmetry with his less massive backs to chairs, chippendale came to the straight line. he employed it in the legs of tables and in the seats of chairs, in the bracket supports, and in the top rail of his chairs. chippendale in his day, made the first straight top rail to the chair. it is interesting to note the phases of changing design in country-made furniture prior to his time, and the sudden mastery of form which became the common inheritance of all after his and other contemporary design-books were promulgated broadcast. [illustration: queen anne tea table. _c._ 1710. with scalloped edge for cups. height, 2 ft. 4 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 9 ins.; length, 2 ft. 8 ins.] [illustration: oak revolving book-stand. _c._ 1720. rare form. diameter of top, 2 ft.; height, 2 ft. 8 ins. (_in the collection of miss holland._)] [illustration: country chippendale table. leg with exaggerated knee, claw, and ball foot. accuracy in straight joinery. failure in curved work. top, 2 ft. 7 ins. × 1 ft. 3 ins.; height, 2 ft. 4 ins.] [illustration: square mahogany flap table. _c._ 1730. height, 2 ft. 4 ins.; length, 3 ft. 10-1/2 ins.; width, 2 ft. 1 in. round cross stretcher. rare form.] [illustration: tripod table. _c._ 1760. chippendale style, probably unique. elaborate rococo work. (_in the collection of harold bendixon, esq._)] in the table the cabriole leg showed early signs of passing away. the two examples illustrated (p. 173) clearly indicate this. the upper one, of the time of queen anne, shows the cabriole leg in fine proportion under due subjection, and is a delicate example of fine cabinet-work. the lower one sees the leg losing its cabriole curve, but still rounded and still possessing the club foot. even more interesting are the two tables illustrated (p. 177). the country maker was slow to adopt the cabriole leg when it was fashionable, but when it became unfashionable he was equally loth to depart from his accustomed style. these clearly point to the transition between the cabriole leg and the straight leg of chippendale, and are about 1760 in date. the forms of design of tables of eighteenth-century date are extremely varied in character, denoting the rapidly changing habits of the people. the queen anne tea-table, with scalloped edges for cups, marks the note of preciosity creeping into country life. a revolving bookstand in table form, of about 1720 in date, is another rare piece. the adjacent table (p. 181) is country chippendale. the exaggerated knee and the feeble ball-and-claw foot mark the failure of the provincial hand at curved work, accurate though he might be in straight joinery. the "cupid's bow" underframing is interesting in combination with the rest of the design. the tripod table offered difficulties of construction and is not often found. the example illustrated is probably unique in form. in date it is about 1760, and is remarkable for the attempt at elaborate rococo work. sometimes, though not often, mahogany was used in farmhouse examples. the table illustrated (p. 183) is an instance of the use of this wood instead of oak. it is about 1730 in date, and exhibits an unusual form in the round cross stretcher, a touch of originality by the maker. it is, as will be seen, a square-topped table with flaps. elaboration of a high order was happily not often attempted by the country workman, or the results with his limited experience would have been disastrous. instead of a fine series of really good, solid, and well-constructed furniture made for practical use we should have had a wilderness of failures at attempting the impossible. a copy of a fine chippendale side-table illustrated (p. 187) is a case in point. there is the usual want of balance in the poise of the leg, but the carving is of exceptional character. the table beneath, with its long and tapering legs, has all the characteristics of the adam style. the beaded decoration on the legs, the classic fluting and the carved rosette claim distant relationship with the classic inventions of robert adam. the wood is pinewood, and as an example it is of singular interest. the rapid survey of eighteenth-century influences bearing on the class of furniture of which this volume treats will perhaps induce the collector to scrutinise more carefully all pieces coming under his notice, with a view to arriving at their salient features in connection with the native design of more or less untutored craftsmen. [illustration: elaborate table. country attempt to imitate fine chippendale side table. note the want of balance in leg.] [illustration: pinewood country-made adam table. note the unusually long leg.] chapter vii the evolution of the chair [illustration: oak arm-chair. date _c._ 1675. with elaborate scroll back.] [illustration: oak arm-chair. date 1650. with scratched lozenge.] [illustration: chestnut arm-chair. date 1690.] [illustration: oak arm-chair. date 1690.] (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._) chapter vii the evolution of the chair early days--the typical jacobean oak chair--the evolution of the stretcher--the chair-back and its development--transition between jacobean and william and mary forms--farmhouse styles contemporary with the cane-back chair--the queen anne splat--country chippendale, hepplewhite, and sheraton--the grandfather chair--ladder-back types--the spindle-back chair--corner chairs. in order to deal exhaustively with the evolution of the chair from its earliest forms to the latest developments in sumptuous upholstery, it would be necessary to make an extended survey of furniture, dating back to early classic days. to enumerate the manifold varieties belonging to various countries and to trace the gradual progress in form, which kept pace with the advance in civilisation, would be of sufficient interest to occupy a whole volume. man, as a sitting or lounging animal, has grown to require more elaborate forms of chair, or settee, or sofa, and the modern tendency has been towards comfort and luxury. in regard to english furniture the intense contrast between the days of elizabeth and those of victoria is at once noticeable. according to lord macaulay in his comparison between the manners of his day and those of the past, the furniture of a middle-class dwelling-house of the nineteenth century was equal to that of a rich merchant in the time of elizabeth. in general this may be true, though not as regards the spacious structure and the massive grandeur of the tudor house. in many details the differences are most noteworthy. the wide gulf dividing the modern world from the days of the armada may be realised by reflecting on such an astounding fact that queen elizabeth possessed at one time the only pair of silk stockings in her realm, which were presented to her by mistress montague, "which pleased her so well that she would never wear any cloth hose afterwards." the sturdy character of the yeomen of the days of the tudors is exhibited in their furniture. the illustrations of this chapter in regard to the chair and its structural development indicate the slowly acquired tastes, running some decades behind the fashionable furniture, strong with foreign influences, which had come into more or less general use. "england no longer sent her fleeces to be woven in flanders and to be dyed in florence. the spinning of yarn, the weaving, fulling, and dyeing of cloth, was spreading rapidly from the towns to the country-side. the worsted trade, of which norwich was the centre, extended over the whole of the eastern counties. farmers' wives everywhere began to spin their wool from their own sheep's backs into a coarse homespun." the rough and wattled farmhouses were being replaced by dwellings of brick and stone. the disuse of salt fish and the greater consumption of meat marked the improvement which was taking place among the countryfolk. the wooden trenchers in the farmhouses were supplanted by pewter, and there were yeomen who could boast of their silver. carpets in richer dwelling-houses superseded the wretched flooring of rushes. even pillows, now in common usage, were articles of luxury in the sixteenth century. the farmer and the trader deemed them as only fit "for women in child-bed." the chimney-corner came into usage in elizabethan days with the general use of chimneys. the mediæval fortress had given place to the grandeur of the elizabethan hall in the houses of the wealthy merchants. the rise of the middle classes brought with it in its wake the corresponding advance of the yeomen and their dependents. visions of the new world "threw a haze of prodigality and profusion over the imagination of the meanest seaman." =early days.=--of farmhouse types that can authoritatively be attributed to tudor days there are few, but the succeeding age of the stuarts is rich with examples of undoubted authenticity. many of them are dated, and they all bear a strong family resemblance to each other, owing to the narrow range of _motifs_ in the carved panels. there is a fixed insularity in these early examples, and the same traditional patterns in scrollwork or in conventional lozenge design retained their hold for many generations. the oak arm-chair of a farmhouse kitchen made in the days of charles i. was still followed in close detail in the days of george iii., as dated examples testify, and it would puzzle an expert, without the date to guide him, to say whether the piece was eighteenth or seventeenth century work. it may be added that as a general rule there is a marked leaning towards generosity in imparting age to old furniture. it is now very generally recognised that, like wine, it gains prestige with length of years. it therefore grows in antiquity according to the fancy of the owner or the imagination of the collector. among the early forms of chairs falling under the category of farmhouse furniture may be noticed examples of rough and massive build, eminently fit to serve the purpose for which they were designed. ornament is reduced to a minimum, and they stand as rude monuments to the cabinet-maker's craft in fashioning them and following tradition to suit his client's tastes. in regard to the sixteenth century there cannot be said to be any type falling under the heading of cottage or farmhouse chairs. we have already illustrated (p. 35) an early form of elizabethan days, but such examples are rare. practically cottagers had only stools in common use. it was not until about 1650 that a simplified form of the well-known variety of the chairs of the jacobean oak period came into general use. [illustration: yorkshire chair. date 1660. late example, with ball turning in stretcher.] [illustration: cromwellian chairs. date 1660. with indication of transition to charles ii. period. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] =the typical jacobean oak chair.=--the seventeenth century offers a wide field of selection, and many examples exist which undoubtedly were in use in farmhouses at that period. the arm-chair illustrated p. 191, with the initials "w.i a.", is evidently made for the farmhouse. it is noticeable for its complete absence of ornamental carving except a thinly scratched lozenge. in date this is from 1650 to 1700, and if made for a wealthier person at that date it would be richly carved. the adjacent chair shows the next advance in type. it is a superior farmhouse chair of the period. it has a carved top with scroll cresting. the holes in the seat, it should be observed, originally held ropes, upon which a cushion was supported. the wooden seat is an addition made in the eighteenth century. the two other chairs illustrated on the same page are later examples, in date about 1690. one of these is fashioned of chestnut. the form of these backs is related to the contemporary high-back cane chairs of the time of charles ii. and james ii. but these fashions influenced the proportions only of farmhouse chairs. in arriving at the date of such specimens as these the bevelled panel is an important factor in determining the late period. cushions had no place in the effects of the farmhouse in early days, although ropes were sometimes used to support cushions, as we have shown. but as a general rule the wooden seats show tangible signs of rough usage of centuries, and the stretcher has its worn surface marked by generations of owners who found it protective against the cold flagged or rush-strewn floor and the draughts in days prior to carpets and rugs. =the evolution of the stretcher.=--in making a study of the evolution of the chair the stretcher is an important factor. for obvious reasons, as explained above, no early chairs were made without the stretcher across the front, a good sound serviceable piece of british oak to stand rough wear and tear. gradually, keeping time with the march of comfort, the front stretcher begins to leave its old position near the floor, and in later examples it is half-way up the front legs. it still had a use, and a very important one: it added considerable strength and solidity to the chair, and is nearly always found in chairs intended for use. in the series illustrated herein there are only few examples without the front stretcher. later it took another form, as the illustrated specimens in this chapter show: it united the two side stretchers, and crossed the chair underneath in the centre at right angles to the side stretchers. its purpose in adding stability to this class of furniture was evidently never lost sight of. at first strictly utilitarian, the stretcher was a solid foot-rest; later, when partly utilitarian in adding to the strength, it became suitable for ornamentation, although in the class of furniture here under review such ornament never took an elaborate form, there are examples slightly differing in character from chairs intended for the use of the wealthier classes, and these are evidently a local effort to keep in touch with prevailing taste. [illustration: oak settle. with back panel under seat made from older oak chest. date 1675.] [illustration: oak arm chair. date 1675. with bevelled panels.] [illustration: oak arm chair. date 1777. with initials a.s. c.b.] finely turned stretchers, such as are found in gate tables, are a feature of a certain class of local chairs, such as those illustrated on p. 197. this kind of chair without arms is rather more decorated and conforms more to the styles of furniture made for higher spheres than the farmhouse. the upper chair with its light open back and ornate decoration is a yorkshire type, and the ball turning in the stretcher shows the transition period to charles ii. the other two are cromwellian chairs, but showing indications of the next period. in date they are all three about 1660. =the chair-back and its development.=--another point in connection with the ordered progress of the chair-maker is the gradual development of the back of the chair. at first it was straight upright, and no attempt was made to impart an angle to rest the back of the sitter. types such as the arm-chair with square panel (p. 191) and the upright settle with the five panels illustrated on p. 201 indicate this feature of discomfort. the next stage is a slight inclination in the back, still possessing a flat panel. this angle, while not conforming to modern notions of ease, was an attempt to offer greater comfort than before. this style, in a hundred forms, with the minimum of inclination in the back, continued for a very considerable period. it is found in the nearly straight-backed chairs of derbyshire and yorkshire origin, with the turned stretchers, and it actually in later days became almost upright in the series of chairs following the later stuart types with cane back and cane seat, noticeable for their tall narrow backs with a resemblance to the _prie-dieu_ chair of continental usage. the settle illustrated is a plainer variety of the settle made for use by fashionable folk with delicately panelled back. very often, in cottage furniture, chests and other pieces are broken up to make into smaller furniture or to be incorporated into furniture of a later design. often it is found that the underframing of an old gate table made in the seventeenth or eighteenth century is from an earlier chest. in the present instance it will be seen that the back panels of the settle have been made from an older chest, which bears the inscribed initials, still visible, "i.e." in date this settle is about 1675, and is contemporary with the square-backed chair illustrated on the same page. here the panel in back projects, that is, it is slightly bevelled forward. the bevelling of the panel is always a sign that a chair is later in date than the year 1670. illustrated on the same page is a remarkable chair having the initials "a.s.c.b." and the date 1777 carved on it. it is a striking instance of the adherence to old time-honoured form by the local cabinet-maker, with touches that, even although the date were not present, would tell their own story. this dull wood proclaims a message in accents no less sure than the sturdy yeoman's to lady clara vere de vere, and as a chair in date _anno domini_ 1777 may afford to "smile at the claims of long descent" of more pretentious and fashionable furniture. it is like a rich vein of dialect running in some old country song ripe with phrase of saxon days. it seems incredible that this survival of early-jacobean days should have been put together by a village craftsman true to convention and exact in seat and arms and stretcher. but it was not done unthinkingly. here is a chair, astounding to note, made when sheraton was creating his new styles to supplant chippendale, and when hepplewhite stood between the two masters as a _via media_. and the back of this village chair has two distinct features translated from hepplewhite's school--the wheatear crest and the panel with its broken corner! [illustration: oak chairs. date about 1680. showing the inclination of the craftsmen to assimilate designs then being fashioned in walnut. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] =transition between jacobean and william and mary forms.=--the rapid growth of the finer specimens of furniture made in walnut brought a new note into the farmhouse variety. the elegance and grace of the newer styles were at once evident. in the same manner as the grandiose splendour of elizabethan woodcarving was succeeded by a less massive style in oak, degenerating into a rude simplicity in farmhouse examples, so in turn jacobean lost favour. walnut lent itself to more intricate turning, and lightness and greater delicacy claimed the popular favour of fashionable folk. the cane seat and the cane back at once indicate this new taste. the use of cushions became general and the sunk seat for the squab cushion is a feature in the later years of the seventeenth century. oak still remained the favourite wood of the country craftsman, in spite of its more refractory qualities. but when the walnut styles became so firmly established that clients demanded furniture in this fashion, elm and beech and yew were found pliable enough to conform to the more slender touches and the finer turning considered desirable. walnut was in its turn supplanted by mahogany, and it will be shown later how farmhouse furniture followed the dictates of fashion in days when the outburst of splendid design by chippendale, hepplewhite, and sheraton, together with a crowd of lesser known men, spread far and wide new principles in the art of furniture-making and brought country furniture another stage in its evolution. farmhouse furniture slowly assimilated the technique and design of the walnut age. the love for the native oak was so pronounced that country makers did not desert this wood and essayed to produce effects by its employment that were exceedingly difficult and oftentimes unsuccessful. the three chairs illustrated p. 205 show this transition style, about the year 1680, struggling with technical difficulties and affording a fine series of points in the evolution of design. =farmhouse styles contemporary with the cane-back chair.=--farmhouse furniture rarely, if ever, had cane-work in the back or in the seat. but the craftsman, while appreciating the delicacy of the cane back in adding lightness to the chair, circumvented his inability to work in cane by substituting thin vertical splats to give the necessary effect of transparency. the three chairs illustrated show each in varying degree the quaint compromise made between the technique of oak and the technique of walnut, and the attempt to reproduce the walnut designs. the arm-chair exhibits strong relationship with the older jacobean chair in its turned legs and uprights, but these have assumed a more slender proportion. the front stretcher is in the newer manner. the sunk seat is intended to receive a cushion. there should be no difficulty for the amateur correctly to assign a date to such a piece. the process of reasoning would be somewhat as follows:--the lower half of the chair is jacobean, but the front stretcher suggests the charles ii. period, borne out by the open back, which removes it from the cromwellian period, and the details of the top rail with its curved top indicate that the country maker had seen the tall straight-back chairs of the william and mary period with the cane-work panel. [illustration: oak chairs. with cresting rail, of charles ii. period, retained and perforated arch centre peculiar to walnut designs. with elaboration in turned legs, and uprights, of william and mary period retained, and having queen anne splat of 1710. with sunk seat for squab cushion, turned uprights and legs and curious back, showing transition from lath back to splat back.] the middle chair more closely approaches the upright chair of the charles ii. period. there is a straight top-rail, supplemented by a lunette, giving the top a character of its own. this specimen is exceptionally interesting. the right-hand chair in its seat and legs is pronouncedly jacobean. but the back with the three splats and the coarsely carved top-rail betray the hand of the country craftsman following in oak the more graceful curves of the worker in walnut of the days of charles ii. it will be seen that these three chairs, each in varying manner, evade the difficulties of the light cane-back by the substitution of thin rails, and, as will be seen from the illustration of three other chairs (p. 209), the next stage of walnut design with fiddle-shaped splat offered equal problems to the makers of cottage furniture. sometimes they eliminated the splat altogether, while adopting other points of design found in chairs with the queen anne splat of 1710. in every case the fondness for old established styles is exhibited in the fact that the country cabinet-maker clings doggedly to these and appears too conservative or too timid to break wholly away from tradition. in consequence, his work, with patches of newer design welded on to the old, is quaintly incongruous. there is thus an absence of "thinking out" the design as a whole. the minor maker thought out the parts as he went along. some of his results are extraordinary in their characteristics: they resemble that freak of fashion termed "harlequin" tea services, where the cups are of one pattern and the saucers of another. bearing in mind these unfailing proclivities of the maker of cottage and farmhouse furniture, the collector should not find it difficult to recognise the country hand at once. now and again one is struck with the extraordinary ingenuity of some of the work, or one is charmed with the faithfulness with which designs have been translated from the golden bowl to the silver, or, to be literal, from walnut and mahogany to oak and elm and beech. but one is never amazed at the delicacy of proportion, the balanced symmetry, or the fertility of invention--these attributes belong to cabinet-makers on a higher plane. of three chairs illustrated on p. 209, that on the left in the legs and seat shows the moribund jacobean style. the stretcher indicates the oncoming of the newer styles, and the back with its cresting rail is of the charles ii. period. its retention is curious, and the perforated arched centre is peculiar to designs found in walnut; its use in oak by the maker of this chair was a blunder, as oak is too hard a wood to employ for such a design. [illustration: queen anne chair. entirely oak form except back and splat.] [illustration: queen anne chair. in oak, with strong inclinations towards walnut styles.] illustration: queen anne chair. walnut design made in oak for farmhouse use.] [illustration: queen anne arm-chair. with shaped front, walnut design executed in oak. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] [illustration: country chippendale chair, style merging into hepplewhite. less pronounced cupid's bow top.] [illustration: two chairs country hepplewhite style made entirely in oak. left-hand chair with prince of wales's feathers.] [illustration: types of cottage chairs in oak. having features of the three styles--queen anne, chippendale, and sheraton. two chairs queen anne style. chair country chippendale style.] the middle chair shows an equal admixture of styles. the elaboration in the turned legs and uprights belongs to the william and mary period and the splat is the queen anne fiddle pattern of 1710. the seat begins to show another form in having the middle sunk for the use of a squab cushion. the right-hand chair parts with the underframing below the seat, which gives a touch of lightness to the construction. the turned legs and uprights have departed from the coarse early-jacobean style and perceptibly depend on walnut prototypes for their character. the back shows the transition from the lath back (such as in the chairs simulating the cane-work) to the splat back. it is an interesting and rare example, marking the slow assimilation of new forms by isolated makers. this specimen came from ireland and evidently possesses native touches of originality which defy the connoisseur to determine its exact date. =the queen anne splat.=--the fiddle-shaped splat of 1710 marks a turning-point in the construction of the chair. the walnut chairs with caned backs of the time of james ii. and the early days of william iii. were carved richly, and sometimes there was a splat dividing the caning at the back, which later, also in caned-back examples, is curved and plain. the general tendency in the reigns of william and mary, especially towards the close of the period, was one of economy, and elaborate carving began to disappear. the queen anne smooth splat of fiddle form rapidly became popular. this anglo-dutch style became acclimatised here, and is characteristic of the homely examples of the queen anne period. in walnut it was comparatively easy to carry out carving. in oak such elaboration was well-nigh impossible. it was therefore natural that in the farmhouse examples the plain dutch splat would readily find favour as more easily executed. by the time that the fiddle splat had become popular the stretcher joining the cabriole legs commenced to disappear. the splat plays an important part as indicating sharp variations in design--walnut with open carving, intricate and floriated; walnut with the plain fiddle splat, with its corresponding minor form in oak; mahogany, with the advent of chippendale, with the splat again open, carved with graceful ribbon-work. the arm-chair illustrated p. 213 is a remarkable instance of intermingling of styles. the front legs are in jacobean style, and are continued in the same manner as the usual type of oak chair as supports for the arms, but an original touch and naïve departure is in the curve given to this upright from the seat upwards. the seat is shaped like that of the windsor chair. the arms are somewhat stiff for the back with its cupid's-bow design, which has a sprightliness and grace making it a thing apart. the whole is not unpleasing. it is a remarkable instance of the attempted assimilation of several diverse styles by an undeveloped cabinet-maker with strong ideas of his own. the oak form is rigidly retained in all except the back and splat of queen anne days. [illustration: country-made oak settee with double back in chippendale style. the shaped underframing is a feature only found in farmhouse varieties.] [illustration: country-made oak settee in chinese chippendale style. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] the adjacent chair, with its tall back with curved splat and its cabriole legs, marks the transition between william and mary and queen anne. the top rail indicates by its clumsy joinery the touch of the immature country cabinet-maker. it is an attempt to approach a fine model with insufficiency of skill by the maker. the use of the cabriole leg either in chairs or in dressers in homely furniture has always proved a stumbling-block to the minor craftsman. the delicacy of balance required in order to preserve the harmony of the whole has proved too subtle a problem for him to handle, and to the practised eye these farmhouse pieces at once proclaim their origin. the broad splat and the straight square front and the bold cabriole leg of the queen anne type in walnut were often copied in oak. the example of the chair with the later tapestry covering, illustrated p. 213, is a case where the local cabinet-maker has faithfully copied detail for detail from some fine original in walnut. his is in oak for more strenuous usage. the adjacent arm-chair is of the queen anne style, with a shaped front that is very rarely found in such pieces. the maker here has not been so successful in catching the bold lines of his original. there is a sense of something lacking in the curves of the back. the touches of his own that he has added in the arms, reverting to an earlier jacobean type, reveal the unpractised hand. =country chippendale, hepplewhite, and sheraton.=--a word in passing may be said in regard to the unique character of furniture of these types. it is obvious that factory-made furniture turned out by the hundred pieces can offer nothing personal, whatever its merits or demerits of design or workmanship. it is this personal note, the love of a craftsman in his creation, that appeals to the collector, whether it be of persian rugs or of old brass candlesticks. it is absent in art produced in a wholesale manner. blunderingly as the village craftsmen went to work, they often stumbled into great things, and they always produced original results. prior to the publication of the design-books of the great eighteenth-century masters of cabinet-making, the furniture of certain localities began to assume a character of its own, the result of long tradition, and designs such as the dragon found in welsh carving became established. the term "unique" is peculiarly appropriate to furniture of this calibre, for rarely are two pieces found to be exactly alike. not only did different makers add novel features, but the same craftsman apparently did not repeat himself. the permutations of form governing furniture are illimitable, associated as they are with so many details of construction. to take the chair--the leg, its shape, and the design of its turning; the style and character of the work on the stretcher; the form of the seat; the decoration and formation of the front; the back, its length, and the variety of splats and panels; and the top rail with its variations--these are only the salient features in which differences appear. such modifications of design and piquant touches of personal character appeal to the collector, who loves the foibles and fanciful moods of the native craftsman, be he ever so humble. chippendale published his "director" in 1754, and it became a working guide to all ambitious craftsmen. ince and mayhew, cabinet-makers of broad street, golden square, had issued "household furniture" in 1748, and hepplewhite & co. followed later with the "cabinet maker and upholsterer's guide" in 1788, where the delicacies of ornament were related to the chaster classic models, and in 1794 came sheraton with his "drawing book," rich with subtle suggestiveness. a rough generalisation shows the chippendale school holding sway from 1730 to 1780, the hepplewhite school from 1775 to 1795, and the sheraton school from 1790 to 1805: and behind all, the strong influence of the brothers adam in their classic revival. what had previously been tradition came very speedily into line with current modes. fashion, as we have shown, had a slow and impermanent effect upon village ideals. but the output of these great illustrated volumes, with working drawings, undoubtedly had a wide-reaching influence. the last quarter of the eighteenth century saw an intense outburst of interest in the arts of interior decoration. a great amount of finely designed and beautifully executed furniture belongs to those days, and the echo of the splendid achievements in mahogany and in satinwood is seen in the farmhouse and cottage furniture, which came singularly close upon the heels of fashion. chippendale furniture in oak, elm, or beech is being largely collected. we illustrate a sufficient number of types to show that this class of design known as "cottage chippendale," has peculiar charms of its own. the arm-chair illustrated p. 225 is in elm, and is in the style chippendale employed in his rich mahogany creations in 1760. the fine interlaced carving of the back is graceful and well proportioned. the adjacent chair, in elm, still follows the chippendale style. the seat is rush, and the maker has confined himself to his own limitations and avoided in the splat the too intricate work of more sumptuous models. he has arrived at a very finely balanced result. the heart cut out of the splat is frequently found in cottage examples, suggesting that some of the more ornate examples may have been made as wedding presents for young couples just setting up housekeeping, or possibly the village cabinet-maker himself had thoughts in that direction, and such work was destined to equip his own home. the illustration of a chair, in beech, with a plain wooden seat, has a somewhat intricate ribbon-like pattern terminating in the prince of wales's feathers. the heart is present in the design at the base of the splat, cut out in fretwork. the arm-chair on the right, with its dipped seat, is in oak, and is an instance representing the adaptations of sheraton styles in the provinces. another page of chairs in oak (p. 215) shows the influences at work in moulding the character of the styles of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century farmhouse furniture. of the three chairs at top of p. 215, the left-hand one is in chippendale style merging into hepplewhite. the cupid's bow at the top rail has become less pronounced. the other two chairs on right are typically hepplewhite in character. the prince of wales's feathers, so often associated with hepplewhite's own work, are embodied in the splat of one. [illustration: elm chair. country chippendale style. 1760.] [illustration: elm chair, country chippendale style.] [illustration: beech chair. country chippendale style.] [illustration: oak chair, country chippendale style. with dropped seat.] in the lower group, the right-hand chair is of the chippendale type. the other two chairs have features of three styles--the queen anne, the chippendale, and the sheraton. it is this piquancy and incongruous combination of styles adjacent to each other in point of time, but having little other relationship, which make the provincialisms of the cabinet-maker of exceptional interest. at times more ambitious attempts were made in oak, following the lines of the chippendale style in mahogany. these have pronounced features always recognisable as belonging to the farmhouse variety of furniture. two examples are illustrated, p. 219. the upper example of country-made oak settee, with double back, at once indicates that it is provincial by the shaped underframing, which is never found in other classes of furniture. the lower example of farmhouse oak settee is clearly in chippendale's chinese style. a reference to the "gentleman and cabinet maker's directory," published by thomas chippendale in 1754, shows that this chinese style adopted by the local maker is very far removed from the series of delicate fretwork designs illustrated by chippendale in his volume. it is true that the old designer of st. martin's lane sent forth his work with the sub-title stating that it was "calculated to improve and refine the present taste, and suited to the fancy and circumstances of persons in all degrees of life." the great master cabinet-maker, in scattering his designs far and wide, evidently had in mind the formation of a new style. he builded better than he knew. the importance of his book of designs cannot be overrated. it was subscribed for in yorkshire, in devon, in westmorland, and in ireland, and straightway minor men looked upon these delightful inventions and began to follow to the best of their ability the ideals set forth by chippendale the dreamer. that he was an idealist in this book of designs is naïvely explained in his preface: "i frankly confess that in the executing many of the drawings my pencil has but faintly copied out those images that my fancy suggested, and had they not been published till i could have pronounced them perfect, perhaps they had never seen the light." but chippendale was also a practical cabinet-maker as well as a designer. he has a lingering doubt that after all, perhaps, the country cabinet-maker and those who bought the book for use might not be able to carry out his designs. evidently this had struck others too. perhaps he was accused of fobbing-off in a design-book mere fanciful work that was too far above the plane of ordinary cabinet-work. he meets this objection with a declaration, so to speak, upon honour, with which he winds up his preface, which is a pretty piece of eighteenth-century advertising:-"upon the whole, i have given no design but what may be executed with advantage by the hands of a skilful workman, though some of the profession have been diligent enough to represent them (especially those after the gothic and chinese manner) as so many specious drawings, impossible to be worked off by any mechanic whatsoever. i will not scruple to attribute this to malice, ignorance, and inability, and i am confident i can convince all noblemen, gentlemen, or others, who will honour me with their commands, that every design in the book can be improved, both as to beauty and enrichment, in the execution of it, by--their most obedient servant, thomas chippendale." enough has been said to prove that "country chippendale" is not a misnomer. it is equally true that the hepplewhite style was disseminated in like fashion in the provinces. it must be remembered that these trade catalogues, as they really were, brought out somewhat in rivalry with each other by the great london designers and cabinet-makers, were the only literature the country makers had to indicate town fashions. these volumes therefore served a double purpose in procuring clients for the firm and in stimulating the art of the country designer. that they were in part intended to be educational is shown by the preface to the "cabinet maker and upholsterer's guide," published by a. hepplewhite & co., cabinet-makers. we quote from the preface of the third edition, "improved," 1794. the preface opens with a lament that owing to "the mutability of all things, but more especially of fashions," foreigners who seek a knowledge of english taste and workmanship may be misled by the "labours of our predecessors in this line of little use." "the same reason in favour of this work will apply also to many of our own countrymen and artisans, whose distance from the metropolis makes even an imperfect knowledge of its improvements acquired with much trouble and expense." "in this instance we hope for reward; and though we lay no claim to extraordinary merit in our designs, we flatter ourselves they will be found serviceable to young workmen in general, and occasionally to more experienced ones." in view, therefore, of the books of design we have enumerated, it is obvious that the country designer had a new field open to him, and now and again he made ample use of his opportunities. during the last quarter of the eighteenth century there was quite an outburst of literature on furniture, much of it forgotten and much of it waiting to be disinterred by patient research; and with the dissemination of these fine designs some of the most perfect examples of country-made furniture began to exhibit touches of skill of the practised hand. =the grandfather chair.=--from the illustration given on p. 231 it will be seen that the type known as the "grandfather" has a humble lineage. it will be found with the same wings and curved arms and plain wooden seat in the alehouse or in the ingle nook of the farmhouse. the specimen we illustrate does duty as a bacon-cupboard as well as a chair. usually such pieces have the cupboard opening at the back, but in this instance the cupboard opens in front. [illustration: country grandfather chair.] [illustration: arm-chair and bacon-cupboard. opens at foot. this type usually opens at back.] as early as the opening years of the eighteenth century there were upholstered chairs of a somewhat similar type to the so-called "grandfather" with scrolled arms or wings. the example we illustrate is representative of those which may be met with in the country farmhouse. =ladder-back types.=--the ladder-back chair belongs to the northern half of england, and similarly the spindle-back chair is found in the same locality. the windsor chair, on the other hand, is mainly confined to the southern half of the country. these are points which become noticeable after years of systematised research, and although nowadays these three varieties of chair may still be found, somewhat scattered, their real home and place of origin is as indicated. another feature of interest is that both ladder-back and spindle-back varieties, with but slight differences, are found on the continent. it will be observed that this class of chair has a rush seat. this feature it has in common with the spindle-back chair. the rush-bottom chair covers a wide area. it comes with an air of _naïveté_ and rustic simplicity. one recalls the long lines of green rushes by the river-bank and the rush-gatherers in idyllic placidity slowly trimming the banks, disturbing coot and moorhen with their punt, and adding another human touch to the lonely angler. they are pursuing a calling as old as the river itself, and the use of rush for floor, for lighting, or for seating furniture, found occupation for generations of men plying curious trades, of which the plaiting of osiers into baskets and the thatching of cottage roofs may be numbered among the decaying industries. indeed, this latter art and the making of birch and heath brooms may be almost said to be extinct. a good artisan who can thatch in the old artistic style is much sought after. of course ricks have still to be thatched, but the picturesque skill of masters of this old-world craft is absent, and corrugated iron sheets have found favour in lieu of the old style. the ladder-back chair is, as its name denotes, decorated with horizontal supports, ladder fashion. these are capable of the most pleasing variation. the perfection of form of this type is seen in the arm-chair illustrated p. 237. the well-balanced proportion of the ladder rails is a test as to the excellence of the design. they are not meaningless ornaments put in place, unthinkingly, to create a new style. the two examples illustrated on page 235 show other types of the ladder-back chair. the left-hand one shows the later stages in the development of the design, and its top rail is of the sheraton period. the right-hand one, with arms, is composite in its character, and is in date about 1820, and exhibits a touch of the sheraton slenderness of style in the splats and the round turning of arms. both examples show the quaint survival of the queen anne foot. the ladder-back form survived the eighteenth century and lasted down to within fifty years ago, when it became merged into that of the windsor chair. [illustration: ladder-back type of chair. showing empire influence in curved back. dated 1820-1830.] [illustration: spindle-back nursing chair with rocker. three rows of spindles.] [illustration: spindle-back chair. two rows of spindles.] [illustration: ladder-back chairs with rush seat. both chairs showing quaint survival of the queen anne feet. late eighteenth century, with top rail in sheraton style. later form of splat with turned ends. dated 1820.] [illustration: country barber's chair.] [illustration: ladder-back chair. perfect specimen in regard to style.] [illustration: oak corner chair.] [illustration: ladder-back form of corner chair with rush seat. probably lancashire. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] =the spindle-back chair.=--the spindle-back chair is of long lineage. as early as the reign of charles i. this type was known. there is still treasured in america the chair of governor carver, with simple turning in legs and back, which practically consisted of upright posts rounded and having slight ornament. the back was set with "spindles." the older types of these chairs had thick upright posts, the back and back legs being two posts and the front legs, continued upward beyond the seat, forming supports for the arms. these posts are often six or seven inches in circumference, and belong to early-jacobean days. the type found its way to america in puritan days and has continued to be a favourite. hickory wood was used for american specimens, and considerable attention has been paid to this form of chair and its varieties, the differing heights of the posts and the number of the spindles and their character, by american collectors. in england examples are not easily found of early date. the examples illustrated (p. 235), a nursing chair on rockers and an ordinary spindle-back chair, are of eighteenth-century days, and are sufficient to indicate the type of chair, but these two represent the style when it had become of more general use. practically it was not until the eighteenth century that such types were commonly used in cottages and farmhouses. these turned chairs, turned in every portion but the rush seat, lend themselves to the above-mentioned two styles of treatment. their upright posts forming the open back can be treated with vertical splats divided by horizontal divisions, or they can, as in the ladder form, receive horizontal splats. the complete simplicity of this attitude towards the back absolved the homely cabinet-maker from dangerous experiments. avoiding curved backs, he had not to face the intricacies of the nicety of balance in the splat. altogether it was a very satisfactory solution, and in practice resulted in the production of a wide range of chairs, differing in slight details but well within the range of the local workman's art. the unassuming simplicity of this class of chair made its appeal to madox-brown, who held that simplicity and utility were the two desiderata, united with soundness of construction, for domestic furniture. veneer was as abhorrent to him as to all genuine lovers of the artistic. "let us be honest, let us be genuine in furniture as in aught else," were his words. "if we must needs make our chairs and tables of cheap wood, do not let them masquerade as mahogany or rosewood; let the thing appear that which it is; it will not lack dignity if it be good of its kind and well made." accordingly he put his theories into practice and designed some furniture. in a chair in the possession of mr. harold rathbone he has employed the rush seat and used spindles to decorate the back, and in another chair in the same collection he has adhered to the horizontal ladder-back style, coupled with the rush seat, with pleasing effect. =corner chairs.=--among interesting types of chairs often with lingering traces of the jacobean style and additional features of splats that may be regarded as standing on the threshold of the chippendale period, corner chairs stand in a class alone. the illustrations on p. 237 show some typical examples. the chair with the double tier is the oak adaptation of chippendale with the retention of the old jacobean form of support for the arm. these chairs with this added tier are often used as country barber's chairs. the rush-seated corner chair on the same page, probably made in lancashire, is suggestive of the ladder-back form, and there are indications in its construction that it is subsequent to the hepplewhite period. with these notes relative to the evolution of the chair, and with carefully selected illustrations of types likely to be of use to the collector, enough has been said to whet the curiosity of the reader to study the matter for himself. it requires keen and discriminating judgment to allocate specimens with passing exactitude as to time and place. the taste for the subject must be natural and not acquired. training alone will give the eye the readiness to detect false touches and modern additions. the search for bargains goes on apace, and those who enjoy stalking their quarry in out-of-the-way places have an exciting quest nowadays for fine pieces. to those with endless patience, forbearing under disappointment, and having plenty of leisure, the search will offer abundant delight, if, to quote mrs. battle, they enjoy "the rigour of the game." chapter viii the windsor chair chapter viii the windsor chair early types--the stick legs without stretcher--the tavern chair--eighteenth-century pleasure gardens--the rail-back variety--chippendale style windsor chairs--the survival of the windsor chair. the windsor chair in its early form is coincident with the early years of the eighteenth century. its history and development therefore exhibit traces of the various styles in furniture which ran their courses throughout the century. it is essentially a chair which belongs to minor furniture, and in its use it is bound up with the country farmhouse, the country inn, or in the metropolis with the chocolate-houses and taverns, and later with the innumerable pleasure gardens which sprang up around the metropolis in the eighteenth century. there is more than a strong suggestion that the type originated in the country. the first forms have a similarity to the easily made three-legged stools. the seat is one piece of wood into which holes are bored to admit the legs. the origin of the term "windsor chair," according to a story largely current in america, is that george iii., the farmer king, saw a chair of this design in a humble cottage near windsor, and was so enamoured of it that he ordered some to be made for the royal use. the chair had a singular vogue in america, and it is stated that george washington had a row of windsor chairs at his house at mount vernon, and jefferson sat in a windsor chair when he signed the declaration of independence in 1776. =the stick legs without stretcher.=--obviously this is the earliest type, and the illustrations of these primitive forms (p. 247) show the simplicity of the joinery. the chair on the left with its almost straight top rail suggests a probable date. it was not till 1768 that chippendale made the first straight top rail in english furniture. the seat is of the saddle-form. the spindles at the back in the lower row taper at each end. it will be observed in all the types we illustrate in this chapter that the arms extend in one piece around the chair. nor has every example the saddle seat. on the same page is illustrated one with a plain seat, but still having the stick legs set at an angle towards the centre of the chair. whatever interest attaches to this early type, from a collecting point of view, they cannot compare in beauty with the finer varieties of a later period, with cabriole leg and with pierced splat, displaying a pleasing diversity of patterns in pierced work, no two of which are always quite alike. [illustration: windsor chairs. earliest form; stick legs with no stretcher. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] =the tavern chair.=--it was dr. johnson who declared that a tavern chair was the throne of human felicity. undoubtedly the eighteenth century found the need of a comfortable chair for club meetings at taverns and alehouses. the country inn to-day has its windsor chairs, many of them of great age. nor were chairs of this type always with arms. there are many plainer chairs without arms and having what is termed "fiddle-string" backs; more often than not across this back there is a rail put transversely to strengthen it. many of these chairs were made by local carpenters and wheelwrights. they employed any wood that happened to be in their workshop at the time; in consequence the variety of woods in which these chairs are found is great. sometimes the seat is made from beech or elm and the arms are fashioned from the wood of the pear-tree. the curved horseshoe rails and back are more often than not constructed from the ash. =eighteenth century pleasure gardens.=--there is no doubt that we owe the considerable output of windsor chairs in the middle of the eighteenth century to the growth of coffee-houses, and especially the numerous tea and pleasure gardens on the outskirts of london and other great towns. these semi-rural resorts began to be in great demand as a recreation for jaded eighteenth-century town-dwellers. the nobility and persons of fashion had bath and tunbridge wells to fly to for country air and open-air recreation. the citizen and mechanic, the society beau, and the politician, crowded to ranelagh gardens, to vauxhall, to sadler's wells, and to hampstead, to enjoy sunny afternoons and summer evenings in the open air, or to spend sundays. it was the eighteenth-century diversion similar to the nineteenth-century crystal palace and the twentieth-century earl's court. to quote mr. percy macquoid in his lordly work on english furniture, "so great were the numbers of visitors to these places that attention was called to their increase in one of the contemporary weekly journals, where a calculation was made that on sundays alone two hundred thousand people visited the tea-gardens situated on the northern side of london; and as half-a-crown per head was probably the least sum expended by them, it can be no exaggeration to state that £20,000 on a fine sunday was taken at these places of amusement. many cheap chairs must have been required at such places of entertainment." between the year 1760 and the end of the century the windsor chair was being made for general country use. "the backs and arms of these," continues mr. macquoid, "are made of hoops of yew, held together by a number of slender uprights and a perforated splat of the same tough and pliant wood; the seats were generally invariably of elm, as yew cut into a superficies of any size is liable to split; the legs and stretchers were generally of yew." [illustration: oliver goldsmith's chair. wood, painted green, with circular seat, curved arms, and high back. bequeathed by oliver goldsmith in 1774 to his friend, dr. hawes. (_bethnal green museum._)] =the rail-back variety.=--we have alluded to the use of the rail placed across the back from the top rail to the seat, crossing the uprights. it is not an elegant device, but it was used as a means of strengthening the back. it seems almost unnecessary, although possibly these chairs received a good deal of rough usage. later, when the fiddle splat began to be employed, this transverse rail--sometimes there were two used--was discontinued. an historic example of the chair with transverse rails is that which was once in the possession of oliver goldsmith. there is no doubt about the authenticity of this, as it was bequeathed by the poet to his medical attendant, dr. hawes, who, by the way, was the founder of the royal humane society. goldsmith told his farmer friends at his cottage at edgware that he should never in future spend more than two months a year in london, and at the time of his death in 1774 he was negotiating the sale of the lease of his temple chambers. this chair (illustrated p. 251) has a rather small shaped seat, curved arms, a top rail that is of exceptional interest considering the date, which is, say, from 1770 to 1774, perhaps a little earlier. this was at the commencement of the hepplewhite period, which lasted till 1790. the year 1768 was, as we have already said, the date at which chairs with straight top rails, designed by adam and executed by chippendale, were first made. the turned legs are interesting, showing the hoofed foot, and the turned stretcher retains an earlier form. the chair is of soft wood, probably beech, and is painted green. it is preserved at the bethnal green museum, with the distinctive label on the stand: "oliver goldsmith's chair." =the splat back and the cabriole leg.=--it is here that the windsor chair assumes a character essentially charming and attracts the admiration of connoisseurs of styles that are peculiarly english. the splat back is a feature only found in english varieties of the windsor chair. in america a great deal of attention has been paid to old types, and there the pliant hickory wood is used in the making of chairs of this form; but the splat back is never used in america, and when found by collectors there the piece is attributed to english manufacture. the splat, with its varying forms, denotes the date of the chair. from 1740 to 1770 the form with cabriole legs and with finely ornamented fiddle splat was at its best. we illustrate a sufficient number of specimens to show how graceful and perfectly well balanced these chairs had become. in contemplating pieces remarkable for the highest style, it must be admitted that their artistry and their simple unaffected sense of comfort do make a direct appeal to those who are willing to recognise fine qualities in minor furniture. the two chairs illustrated (p. 255) differ slightly in details of construction. that on the left has the plain urn splat, a survival of the queen anne type. the seat is finely shaped and the legs are cabriole form. the top rail is almost straight, and is ornamented at the two ends with turned discs. the three stretchers are turned, and in the adjacent chair the stretchers are similar, save in a slight variation in the pattern of the turning. but here the splat is perforated with an intricate design suggestive of the lines of chippendale; the top rail is a departure in form, imparting a distinctiveness which lifts the chair from the ordinary type. [illustration: windsor chair. with plain fiddle splat of queen anne type, chippendale top rail and cabriole legs, and three turned stretchers.] [illustration: windsor chair. with pierced fiddle splat, shaped arms, cabriole legs, and three turned stretchers. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] [illustration: chippendale windsor chairs. chippendale splats. the type of splat indicates the date of windsor chairs.] [illustration: hepplewhite windsor chair. exceptionally fine legs back and front. urn back. probably welsh carving.] [illustration: hepplewhite period windsor chair. with wheel back, in yew. (_by courtesy of messrs. a. b. daniell & sons._)] =chippendale style windsor chairs.=--the page of chairs (p. 257) tells its own story. the beautiful sweep of the curved back is always a sign of the old and true form. later imitations or replicas seem somehow to lose this effect. it has been suggested that the back of this style was produced by the village wheelwright in horseshoe form, but possibly that is a conjecture which is more fanciful than real. it has also--collectors are often fond of inventing theories to fit little-known facts--been asserted that the wheel-back variety, which is of somewhat more modern growth, is due to the same origin. this wheel is fretted with six triangular openings. one chair on this page has the wheel unperforated. in the examination of the details of the four examples there is nothing of great importance to differentiate them from each other in construction. the two at the top are suggestive of chippendale in the ornament employed in the splat. the lower two incline more to the slightly later hepplewhite period. of these the one on the left has only fourteen upright rails at the lower portion and six in the upper portion of the back, in comparison with sixteen and eight in the other chairs. the legs of this chair are exceptionally fine both back and front. the work in the splat is slightly suggestive of welsh carving, especially that style associated with welsh love-spoons. following the influence of chippendale and hepplewhite came the style of sheraton, which after 1790 began to affect the character of some forms of minor furniture. that this was a very real factor is often shown most unexpectedly in cottage and farmhouse pieces. the satinwood and the painted panel, and the intricacies and subtleties of his employment of colour, were of course too far removed from the simple cabinet-work of the country maker to have the least effect upon him, even if he ever saw them. but the slenderness and elegance of the sheraton styles did in a small degree have weight with cabinet-makers as a whole in the provinces. so that it is quite within reasonable surmise to attribute certain forms to the sheraton school, or rather to the oncoming of the early nineteenth-century mannerisms. on p. 261 two examples are illustrated showing this influence. the one with the horseshoe back is devoid of the splat, which had now disappeared. the turned legs begin to show signs of modernity. the other has the top-rail familiar in later forms of cottage chair. the turned rails for the arms and the type of turning in the legs show signs of decadence. the fine days of the old windsor chair were coming to an end. [illustration: windsor chair. horseshoe back, saddle seat, turned legs, with stretcher. sheraton style.] [illustration: windsor chair. curved top rail, turned arms, legs, and stretcher. sheraton style, pierced fiddle splat.] =the survival of the windsor chair type.=--apart from the love of the simple form and especially well-conceived design of the windsor chair, which have made it at once the especial favourite of artists and lovers of simplicity and utility, it has won the practical approval of generations of innkeepers, who to this day store hundreds of chairs for use at village festivals. what we have said in regard to the popularity of the gate-leg table applies in greater degree to the windsor chair. the industry of turning the legs and rails of this type of chair is still carried on in buckinghamshire. until recent years much of this turning was done by hand by villagers in the district surrounding high wycombe, where the parts are sent to be finished and made up. to this day some of the old chair-makers use the antiquated pole lathe. but the chairs have departed from their old stateliness. it is true that they have survived, almost in spite of themselves. they are not now the objects of beauty they once were. but they have, by reason of modern requirements, found a fresh field of usefulness. will it be supposed that the modern office chair is in reality a windsor? an examination will at once show this, even in the latest american types. the saddle-shaped seat is there, the straight turned legs, and the back is the same except that the upper extension has disappeared and the old centre rail has become broader as a properly-formed rest for the tired clerk's back. a perusal of a few catalogues of up-to-date office furniture will establish this. here, then, is the last stage of the country windsor chair. the twentieth-century windsor has come to town and graces the head cashier's private office in a bank or the senior partner's room of a firm of stockbrokers. chapter ix local types chapter ix local types welsh carving--scottish types--lancashire dressers, wardrobes, and chairs--hertfordshire, bedfordshire, cambridge, and essex tables--isle of man tables. the charm of collecting cottage and farmhouse furniture lies in the wide area over which it is found. those who have given especial attention to collecting it have learned instinctively to differentiate between the work of various localities. some well-defined types of cottage furniture are only to be found in certain counties, and nowhere else. take for example the ladder-back and the spindle chairs. the latter are usually found in the northern half and the former in the southern half of england. it is obvious that craftsmen developing on original lines, or on lines more or less apart from outside influence, must establish designs peculiarly identified with their field of labours. the sturdy insularity of the british peasant, and his uneasy reception of foreign suggestion, have had a very pronounced influence upon his methods of work. he has the defects of his qualities, the stern, almost uncompromising conservatism in habit of mind and in his daily pursuits. a close study of the thoughts, and as far as is recorded the written ideals, of the rural labouring population exhibit an extraordinary fixity of purpose in clinging tenaciously to old customs. the country songs more often than not express disapproval of innovations and call up the memories of slowly vanishing customs. the farm hands recall wistfully the old style of shearers' feasts and harvest homes, when great festivities with song and dance and old country sports enlivened the company. in yorkshire this was termed the mel supper, in kent the kern supper, and in parts of the north of england it was called the churn supper. annual feasts were given to labourers such as the wayzgoose or bean feast, which later name remains to this day. the good old days is a refrain not confined to the cottager in his relation with the farmer. the farmer, imbued with the same wistful regard for the vanished past, bewails the may day tenants' feast of the eighteenth-century english squire. we get touches of disdain for the oncoming fashion of seclusion which invaded the farmhouse in "a farmer's boy," by robert bloomfield. he laments that the annual feast of the harvest home had lost its former joviality. this was written in 1798. "the aspect only with the substance gone." evidently the mug that passed around was becoming a thing of the past. "the self-same horn is still at our command, but serves none now but the plebeian hand." the picture he draws of the farmer who, in face of prevailing fashion, "yields up the custom that he dearly loves" is pathetic. the long table and dining in common together had seemingly vanished. "the _separate_ table and the costly bowl" touch the rustic poet's pride. he italicises the word "separate." [illustration: chest. dated 1636. with welsh inscription on lid. (standing on table of later date.)] [illustration: welsh cupboard. with typical coarse style of carving. should be 1650 at latest. inscribed i.s. 1710.] this loving regard for the past is natural at a time when the rural population jealously feared the oncoming of the age of machinery, which threatened to supersede many of their local industries and finally succeeded in so doing. the obstinate adherence to old forms was possibly part of a nervous fear of the unknown future. the love for existing forms of furniture was therefore part of this apprehensive retention of tradition. not only was the resistance of town fashions a strong feature, but local prejudices prevailed against the adoption of designs belonging to rival counties. to this day the staffordshire clothes-horse, carried on pulleys to the ceiling when not in use, differs from the clothes-horse of the cottager in the south with no such mechanical device. in edinburgh, in the narrow closes, there is a kind of gallows projecting from the windows. these apparently minor details which find their embodiment in articles of everyday use, fascinate and hold the attention of the acute collector of cottage furniture. the same local types apply to the art of the potter and are well known to collectors. there are sussex "tygs" and nottingham "bears" and sunderland and newcastle jugs and mugs. bristol had its characteristic earthenware, and the lowestoft china factory was strongly suffolk in its homely inscriptions with a touch of dialect. =welsh carving.=--wales is famous for the abundance of the oak farmhouse furniture proudly kept to this day in families who have held the same homestead sometimes for centuries. one of the most noticeable features is the elaboration of the carving and its native representation, coarsely carved, without foreign influence, of birds and beasts and heraldic monsters which largely figure in the decorative panels of chests, and especially dressers. so popular was oak that it might almost be advanced that there never was any mahogany in wales. but it is indisputable that the great outburst in carved mahogany chairbacks coincident with the advent of chippendale and the publication of his _director_, never penetrated wales, although it led to the foundation of a remarkable school of woodcarving on the new lines in ireland, known as irish chippendale, a study of which can be made in mr. owen wheeler's volume on old furniture. the intense love of the welsh woodcarver for intricacy is hardly less than that of the sturdy swiss craftsmen environed by mountains. perhaps the long winters and the solitary life influence the development of individual character in the applied arts. the welsh love-spoons of wood, linked together and exhibiting delicate pierced work and minute carving of no mean order, are among other attractive specimens of native art. ironwork of fine quality is also to be found in wales. [illustration: lancashire dresser. about 1730-1750. oak inlaid with mahogany.] [illustration: elm wardrobe (welsh). about 1670.] (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._) [illustration: flap-top table. rare hertfordshire example. diameter of top, 2 ft. 6 ins. (_by the courtesy of messrs. a. b. daniell & sons._)] [illustration: lancashire spindle-back chairs.] a carved oak chest of welsh origin, dated 1636, with welsh inscription on lid, is illustrated (p. 269). the table on which it stands is of a later date. the carving in this piece is delicate and the middle panel is typical of the representation of birds and foliage. the welsh cupboard on the same page typifies the coarse woodcarving associated with welsh farmhouse art. in style this really belongs to a date not later than 1650. but it is dated 1710 and bears the initials "i.s." this is an interesting example, showing how middle-jacobean styles lingered in country districts remote from outside influence until the early eighteenth century. an elm wardrobe, probably about 1670 in date, shows another type, but still retaining the coarse character of its carving and its well-filled panels and uprights (illustrated p. 273). =scottish types.=--scotland has antiquities of her own which are closely allied to those of all the gaelic races. as with welsh carved farmhouse furniture, there is a marked leaning towards coarse style. as a rule it is too utilitarian in appearance to display much carving. the spinning-wheel is still found in farmhouses, and is still used in harris and the outlying islands. sometimes these old highland spinning-wheels come into the market with the smooth surface worn by generations of workers, a surface impossible to reproduce. the scottish ironwork is especially interesting. perhaps the most curious of the scottish antiquities is the crusie. this is undoubtedly a survival of the classic oil lamp. it consists of a shallow trough with a spout in which the wick stands, the oil being contained in the trough (see illustration, p. 289). =lancashire furniture.=--the especial characteristics of lancashire-made furniture are a strong leaning to solid structure and a very noticeable reticence in carving. well-balanced as a rule, and possessing good joinery, they have been favourites with collectors of furniture designed for modern use. a queen anne oak dresser illustrated (p. 135) shows this lancashire sturdiness at its best. this style of large dresser with cabriole legs is associated with lancashire cabinet work. a lancashire dresser, the date of which is from about 1730 to 1750, shows the oak dresser inlaid with mahogany. the carved pediment and the carved underwork beneath the drawers mark this as an unusual specimen (p. 273). a typical lancashire oak settle is illustrated (p. 279), showing the jacobean style in the carved work and in the arms. in date this is about 1660. it will be noticed that the front of the seat has a row of holes, which, prior to the upholstered cushion, a later addition, were intended for ropes to support a cushion, much in the same manner as the iron laths of a modern bedstead. on the same page is illustrated an oak chest of drawers of yorkshire origin, in date about 1770. its plain lines suggest the hepplewhite types of subdued character. in regard to spindle-back chairs, lancashire offers distinctive varieties. two examples are illustrated (p. 275) as indicating this local type. [illustration: oak chest of drawers. _c._ 1770. yorkshire type. height, 3 ft. 3 ins.; width, 3 ft. 1 in.; depth, 1 ft. 5-1/2 ins.] [illustration: lancashire oak settle. _c._ 1660.] [illustration: isle of man table. showing three legs with knee breeches and buckle shoes.] [illustration: "cricket" table. _c._ 1700.] [illustration: "cricket." _c._ 1750. (these types are found in hertfordshire, south bedfordshire, south cambridge, and essex.)] =three legged tables.=--hertfordshire, bedfordshire, cambridge, and essex have produced a type of tables termed colloquially "cricket tables," possibly because the three legs are suggestive of three stumps. the term is a foolish one and not very appropriate. a very interesting flap-top table with the three flaps to turn down, illustrated (p. 275), is a very rare hertfordshire example. this is small in size, having only a diameter of two and a half feet. two other tables, one in date about 1700 and the other, of slender form, in date about 1750, are typical of this class of table. a very interesting table is a specimen from the isle of man having three carved legs with knee-breeches and buckle shoes. sussex is also well-known for her ironwork (see chapter x.). norfolk and suffolk used to have a class of oak furniture of quaint type, less cumbersome than the welsh. a type of sheraton windsor chair, often inlaid with brass, used also to be found there. on the whole, those localities which are removed from important towns are the richest in cottage furniture, for example, wales, devonshire, cumberland, northumberland, and parts of yorkshire. in places, where the prosperity of the peasants is of long standing, the cottage furniture has been maintained whole almost until the present day. altogether the study of local types affords considerable scope for critical study. it is essential that such pieces should be identified and classified before it is too late. rapidly all cottage and farmhouse furniture is being scattered over all parts of england. collectors transfer furniture from the north to the south, and the rural treasures of the peasant have been brought to towns and dispersed to alien districts. the education act of 1870 and the halfpenny newspaper have brought town fashions to the door of the cottager, and the motor has laid a heavy tribute on rustic seclusion. chapter x miscellaneous ironwork, etc. chapter x miscellaneous ironwork, etc. the rushlight-holder--the dipper--the chimney crane--the scottish crusie--firedogs--the warming-pan--sussex firebacks--grandfather clocks. the everyday iron utensils and implements of the cottages were simple. it is one of the curious features of the english peasantry that just as they clung to their oak of generations back when mahogany was in vogue, so they adhered tenaciously to ironwork of almost mediæval character when other metals were in fashionable everyday use. thus the cottager did not feel the oncoming desire for the brass, or later silver and plated candlesticks, but remained firm in his affection for the rushlight-holders in iron, the same types which his ancestors had used, and the firedogs and firebacks of earlier type remained to decorate his hearth. thus ironwork and rarely brasswork form the sum total of the metal portion of cottage furniture. we will deal with these various utilitarian objects one by one. it must be remembered that the country farmer was not familiar with ready-made candles, and it probably no more entered his head to purchase candles in a town than it occurred to him to do other than bake his own bread. the cottager therefore made his candles for himself. if he were well-to-do and could afford to entertain his friends in modest fashion, he would doubtless like to illuminate his table with candles of symmetrical form. in which case he would use a candle-mould, and the wax bought in towns would serve for this purpose. but he was not always so rich, and perhaps he was happiest of all with the faintly glimmering rush dips which his forbears used. these afforded a rough-and-ready form of lighting. they burned and spluttered like a torch or flickered faintly as the tallow grew thin. their form closely resembled an amateur's first attempt at making a cigarette. they were made in the following manner: the thin wirelike rushes which grew by the water's edge were gathered and stripped of their green surface till only the soft white pith remained. this served as a wick. the wax was then melted over a fire in a trough or candle-dipper, of which an illustration appears (p. 289). across this long receptacle the pith wicks were laid till the wax soaked into them. they were then taken out for the wax to cool and were dipped once or twice afterwards in order to form their outer coating. by such a primitive process a kind of thin taper was formed. it was not parallel along its sides, but bulged and narrowed throughout its length in primitive manner. [illustration: rushlight holders. showing rush fixed ready for lighting. scotch crusie. with holder. rushlight holders. showing forceps for holding rushlight.] [illustration: suffolk pipe cleaner. the long clay "churchwarden" pipes were placed in this iron rack and put into the fire, after which they came out perfectly cleaned. candle-dipper. (_in the collection of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] [illustration: queen anne pot-hanger. with original grate. same date. (_by the courtesy of messrs. phillips, hitchin._)] [illustration: kettle trivet. brass and iron. dated about 1770.] such a taper, from its uneven thickness, would naturally not fit the socket of a candlestick, and the only receptacle would be a scissor-like mechanism with jaws capable of clasping it at any point. thus we find the rushlight-holder of common use, as illustrated (p. 289). the illustrations show two rush-holders with the rushlights affixed in position ready for lighting, and one showing how the jaws or forceps clip the rushlight. in practice about an inch or an inch and a half was above the clip and the rest below. a rushlight some twelve to fifteen inches long would burn half an hour, and it had to receive constant attention, being pushed upwards every five minutes. but it must be remembered that the persons who used this primitive form of light did not use it for reading nor for a long period at a time. they usually went to bed early after sunset. in regard to rushlight-holders the earliest form was without the accompanying candle-socket, but when the use of tallow dip candles became prevalent, later forms are found, as illustrated, with the candle-socket in addition to the holder for the rushlight. the scottish crusie is an iron trough of dimensions like a small sauceboat, which was used for lighting purposes, and was often suspended, as in the one illustrated (p. 289), from a crane or hanger. this crusie was filled with oil and the illumination given by a floating wick, much in the same manner as classic examples, to which the shape bears a distant resemblance. the firedogs were always simple, doubtless the product of the local blacksmith. where they had hooks along the backs they held crossbars to prevent the logs falling into the room. the dates of these, as of all cottage ironwork, are almost impossible to fix, owing to the survival of the earlier types even so late as the middle of the nineteenth century. =the chimney crane.=--a most important part of the cottager's fireplace was his chimney crane. these were of two kinds, the pot-hook and the swing-arm variety. the pot-hook hung in the chimney from a chain, and from its teeth was fixed a catch which might be lowered or raised to keep the cauldron at a level with the flames. the swing-arm type is more elaborate, and was made to fit very large fireplaces, where the fire might not invariably be in the same spot on the hearth. this type was used in the kitchens of the better farmhouses. its end was fixed to the wall of the hearth, and the pot could be swung backwards and forwards and sideways, besides being raised or lowered to the fire. the pot-hook is of great antiquity, and belongs to days when man first learned to cook his food. frequently in this country early examples are dug up. there are fine specimens to be seen of the late celtic period at the owens college museum, at the northampton museum, at the liverpool museum, at the pitt rivers museum at farnham, at the victoria and albert museum, and elsewhere. "pot-hooks and hangers" is an english phrase denoting the beginning of things academic, and the french phrase _pendre la crémaillère_ (literally to hang the pot-hook) is used to-day in reference to what we term a "house-warming" party on settling in a new abode. another interesting cottage treasure is the cake-baker. this was a kind of thick frying-pan having a lid, which protected the dough from the heat when it was held over the smouldering ashes. the tops of these are often incised with quaint patterns, the impress of which appears on the cake. kettle-trivets are sometimes found in cottages, possibly relics from better houses or having belonged to the more prosperous farmer. they are not wholly of iron, being partly of brass. the specimen illustrated (p. 291) is of late eighteenth-century days. =the warming-pan.=--there is an especial charm in the old brass warming-pan of the farmhouse and the treasured highly-polished ornament of many a proud cottager to-day. many modern-made warming-pans from holland and elsewhere have found their way into the possession of unsuspecting collectors. but fine old english warming-pans are interesting, and summon up memories of careful housewives and well-aired lavender-smelling sheets in ancient old-world inns. on fine examples inscriptions may be found, and the incised work of the pattern on the brass covers is often individual in character. of the examples illustrated (p. 307) one has an incised inscription around the edge, "the lord only is my portion." the other has a dotted geometrical pattern with a star-like design of conventional floral incised work. it is unfortunate that the diligence of the housewife has often obliterated much of the fine work of some of these designs. the warming-pan offers in itself a complete field for the collector. he can compare the work of seventeenth-century dutch examples, with their quaint religious inscriptions and their finely embossed and engraved ornamentation, with english specimens of the same date. that the warming-pan was in use in elizabethan days is proved by references in shakespeare. it has a long history, from sir john falstaff, when bardolph was bidden to put his face between the sheets and do the office of a warming-pan, to mr. pickwick--to quote sergeant buzfuz, "don't trouble yourself about the warming-pan--the warming-pan! why, gentlemen, who does trouble himself about a warming-pan?" =sussex firebacks.=--the fireback was usually part of the cottager's belongings, though perhaps only one would figure in his house, where possibly his only hearth was in his living-room. these were cast and forged in various parts of the country, and large numbers appear to have been made in sussex, which is, or rather was, the greatest hunting-ground for good specimens of cottagers' ironwork. some highly interesting specimens of these are to be herein illustrated. the records of the sussex iron industry go back to a very early date, and the town of lewes, in the thirteenth century, raised taxes by charging a toll on every cartload of iron admitted. under edward iii. the sussex ironworks provided three thousand horseshoes and twenty-nine thousand nails for the english army in its campaign in scotland. the local rhyme- "master hogge and his man john they did cast the first cannon"-is not without reason, as in bodiam castle and elsewhere are mortars of sussex work of fifteenth-century style. in the sixteenth century a considerable number of firebacks was made, some with the royal arms and with the royal cipher, "e.r.," and bearing dates and sometimes makers' names. [illustration: country firedogs. eighteenth century.] [illustration: fire grate. eighteenth century.] the earliest form was stamped with the _fleur-de-lys_ or with portions of twisted cable to form some sort of symmetrical design. we are enabled, by the kindness of mr. c. dawson, f.s.a., of lewes, to reproduce some sussex firebacks from his collection. an example of the first half of the sixteenth century, illustrated (p. 301), shows the rope-like border impressed on the sand mould, and the field impressed with repetitions of a _fleur-de-lys_ from a single stamp. another interesting fireback is the "royal oak" design, with the initials "c.r." this is commemorative of the escape of charles ii. from pursuit by cromwell's ironsides and his refuge in the oak-tree. it will be observed that this specimen has a moulded edge, which is from a single wood pattern carved in one piece. amidst the oak foliage will be seen three crowns, and this exuberance of loyalty bears a resemblance to certain chairs of the period (copied by the score nowadays), in which the crown finds a place in the stretcher. one fireback illustrated (p. 303) shows an ironmaster with his hammer at his forge. the adjacent piece has the tudor rose surmounted by the royal crown, and bears the date 1650, slightly earlier than the "royal oak" example. all the foregoing specimens are native in their conception of design. they approximate closely to the jacobean carved panel with its narrow range of subjects, and have a relationship to stuart needlework with its royal symbolism. later came the dutch influence, most marked in its effect upon the shape, height, and character of these firebacks. this became especially noticeable in the eighteenth century, and in the illustrations (p. 303) of two wooden patterns from which the firebacks were made at ashburnham, sussex, this is clearly shown. the designs are ornate and represent either some scriptural or mythological subject. the woodcarving is of a style strongly under dutch influence, and the tall proportions suggest gravestones (indeed, in sussex there are headstones made of iron, with pictures and inscriptions). the mode of casting these iron firebacks in sand and the employment of wooden patterns to form the mould into which the molten metal was to run is familiar to any foundry in casting iron. in regard to the early examples with the twisted cable rim, it is conjectured that pieces of twisted rope were actually laid on the wet sand to produce this pattern--that is, before the use of carved wooden patterns such as are illustrated. in regard to the bolder "cable twist" pattern, it is believed this was produced by impression of pieces of rope stiffened with glue, and twisted around iron rods. [illustration: sussex iron fireback. first half of sixteenth century. rope-like border impressed on sand mould. the field impressed with repetitions from a single _fleur-de-lys_ stamp.] [illustration: sussex iron fireback. the royal oak design, commemorative of the restoration. late seventeenth century. moulded edge and carved in one piece from a single pattern. (_in the collection of charles dawson, esq., f.s.a., lewes._)] [illustration: sussex firebacks. tudor rose surmounted by royal crown. dated 1650. depicting ironmaster at his forge. (very rusty and worn.)] [illustration: original wooden patterns. dutch influence. eighteenth century. from which firebacks were made at ashburnham, sussex. (_by the courtesy of charles dawson, esq., f.s.a., lewes._)] the size of the wooden pattern is slightly larger than the resultant fireback, owing to the shrinkage of the metal on cooling. this diminution in design is a factor in the potter's art, when figures in some cases lose nearly a third of their original proportions when moulded in the clay prior to firing. firebacks have attracted a considerable amount of interest. there are many collectors, and a great deal of close study has been applied to the subject. country museums in the vicinity of the weald of sussex and kent contain many notable examples, especially those of lewes, hastings, brighton, rochester, maidstone, and guildford. in the first mentioned there are some very rare and beautiful examples of sussex firebacks. especially interesting in connection with the sussex ironworks is the illustration (p. 309) of a clock face made by a local maker, beeching of ashburnham, in the late seventeenth century. this brass dial of a thirty-hour clock, with single hand and alarum, is ornamented with designs showing various phases of the iron industry as carried on in sussex. there is a cannon with diminutive figures holding the match. there are cannon-balls, and a liliputian fireback with a crown on it. men with pickaxes, men felling trees, and others tending the furnaces, symbolise the business of a foundry. it was not until 1690 that the minute numerals were placed outside the minute divisions in clock faces, so that this face, having the minute numerals absent and the minute divisions in the inner circle, presumably belongs to the late seventeenth century. =grandfather clocks.=--a volume on cottage and farmhouse furniture would be incomplete without some reference to grandfather clocks. at the beginning of the eighteenth century this type of clock had become popular. the early brass-bracket clock known as "cromwellian," varying from six to ten inches in height, had a spring. with the use of the long pendulum and revolving drums, around which catgut is wound to support the heavy weights, these unprotected parts required a wooden case. the "lantern" or "bird-cage" clocks (wallclocks from which the pendulum and weights hung unprotected) lasted till about 1680, when the first grandfather type with wood case came into use. the early examples with cases exhibiting fine marquetry are outside the scope of the class of furniture now under consideration. in such specimens there is frequently a round or oval opening covered with glass in the centre of the panel. in earlier types the metal dial is square, and later it became lunetted at top, and the wood case had a corresponding curve. in clocks made for great houses there were chimes, and their works were by well-known town makers. but in cottage examples, instead of the eight-day movement, more often than not the clock only ran for twenty-four hours. there is little attempt at ornament in these plain oak varieties. the case is soundly constructed, and sometimes, in exceptional examples, the head is surmounted by brass ball finials, as in the finer examples. as a rule the country cabinet-maker confined himself to an ornamental scrolled head. in later examples the metal dial--and these come at the beginning of the nineteenth century--is painted with some rustic scene with figures, and frequently there is a revolving dial showing the days of the month. [illustration: warming-pans. finely decorated with incised work. one with inscription, "the lord only is my portion." (_by the courtesy of mr. s. g. fenton._)] [illustration: grandfather clock. with oak case. made by j. paxton, st. neots. height, 6 ft. 10 ins.] [illustration: brass dial of thirty-hour clock. single hand and alarum. late seventeenth century. ornamented with designs showing various phases of the iron industry, as carried on at ashburnham, sussex. (_in the collection of charles dawson, esq., f.s.a., lewes._)] the entire head covering the dial is often removable in old clocks to which there is no hinged door, as in later made examples. these country grandfather clocks are much treasured by their owners, and have been handed down in families for generations. owing to the indefatigability of collectors and their persistent and tempting offers, many have left their old homes. the demand has been great, and thousands of "grandfather" clocks have been made during the last twenty years and sold as "antique," or old cases with plain panels have received the unwelcome attention of the modern restorer and have been carved to please a popular whim for carved oak panels. in regard to dates of grandfather clocks the records of the clockmakers' company give a list of makers of the eighteenth century, enabling the period to be fairly accurately fixed. the walnut cases inlaid with floral marquetry, often attributed to the period 1690-1725, that is william and mary and queen anne, frequently belong to a quarter of a century later. the case-makers clung more closely to old designs than did the clockmakers. hence the case very often is of apparently older style than the works, though both were made contemporaneously. in addition to this, new clocks were put in older cases, or _vice versa_, which, like putting new pictures in old frames, adds to the gaiety of collecting. in general the london clock-cases are only roughly indicative, in comparison with the company records, of contemporary styles of furniture. in country-made pieces the wood cases are anything from twenty to forty years behind london fashions. for example, the arched top occurs after 1720 in london, and after 1735 in the provinces. in the _director_ of chippendale and in sheraton's and hepplewhite's books of designs there are illustrations of clock cases. the progression of styles of eighteenth-century grandfather clock cases is from plain oak to figured walnut, black and red lacquer, floral, "seaweed," or mosaic marquetry, and in the latter decades of the eighteenth century inlaid mahogany cases, and many of these have finely veneered panels. in many country clocks oak cases are veneered in mahogany, but as a rule country made grandfather cases are plain oak. the example illustrated (p. 307) indicates the plain type of solidly made provincial piece. the clock was made by j. paxton at st. neots. the mahogany-cased grandfather clock is never found in cottages. there are no chippendale styles in this field for the collector to search for. the plainness of the country style has happily in many instances preserved them from alien hands. an interesting revival, chiefly on account of expense, is found in the dutch clock, with china face painted with flowers, which the cottager bought in early and middle nineteenth-century days. this form of clock reverted to the unprotected pendulum and weights, and is an object-lesson in what the style of english clock was before the use of a long wooden case. but these dutch clocks are interesting rather than valuable, and have not yet claimed the attention of collectors. chapter xi old english chintzes chapter xi old english chintzes by hugh phillips the charm of old english chintz--huguenot cloth-printers settle in england--jacob stampe at the sign of the calico printer--the queen anne period--the chippendale period--the age of machinery. the present chapter has been added with perhaps some justification, since it seemed to the writer that such a subject as old english chintzes might appropriately take its place beside the equally homely craft of the rural cabinet-maker. for the chintz is the _tapisserie d'aubusson_ of the peasant--it covers his chairs and drapes his windows, giving warmth and wealth of colour to the otherwise barren appearance of his cottage. further, it reflects his simple horticultural tastes, for the brilliantly coloured roses, pansies, and convolvuluses which shine prominently on the glazed surface of the cloth are those flowers which are always to be found in his garden. chintz or printed cotton is the only decorative fabric known to the village upholsterer. when persons of wealth hung their windows with silk brocades and covered their chairs with costly needlework and damasks, the rural cabinet-maker was supplying his modest _clientèle_ with these homely patterns printed upon common cloth. these unassuming fabrics were as much cherished by the cottagers as anything which they possessed. the classical ornament of expensive silks they did not understand, and the freely treated birds and flowers which figured on chintz represented the alpha and omega of beauty in textile design. so great, indeed, is the fascination of these for the cottagers that to-day, in districts less penetrated by modern advance, the rural populace will not extend their affections to the up-to-date designs of upholsterers, but insist upon the old spot and sprig patterns of their ancestors. there is much wisdom in the conservative taste of the peasant, for the old chintz of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries was of the highest artistic merit. in the heyday of its fame the fabric was exceedingly fashionable amongst the richest persons, and there are abundant records of the popularity of old english chintzes upon the continent. for, at its best periods, the chintz was not a base imitation of more expensive fabrics; it did not, for instance, occupy the relationship of pewter to silver or moulded composition to genuine woodcarving. on the contrary, the designing of chintzes is an art of distinction, governed by canons which bear little relationship to other decorative textile crafts. for where the silk-weaver is confined to solid patterns which will appear in his transverse threads, the printer of cloths can wander unrestrained into designs of wonderful intricacy and beauty: every colour in nature he can imitate, and no object is too delicate or too rich to stamp upon his cotton. indeed, his art stops little short of that of the painter of pictures. [illustration: old trade card showing calico printers at work. "jacob stampe living at ye sighn of the callico printer in hounsditch prints all sorts of callicoes lineings silkes stuffs new or ould at reasonable rates." (_from old print at british museum._)] [illustration: english printed calico. about 1690. with contemporary portraits. (_by courtesy of mr. t. d. phillips._)] a glance at the illustrations will more closely confirm this, for such designs could not be imitated by any other textile process, the multitudinous twists and curves and the delicate shades and patches of colour being only possible to the printer. interesting as is the study of old chintzes, the history of the art in england is even more fascinating. from the obscurity of a small local craft it became one of our great national industries. of its earliest history in england we know nothing, and a search among old documents fails to reveal any traces of chintz-printing before the renaissance. there are several vague references to the subject in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but none of them disclose any solid information. thus the question of who was the first chintz-printer remains an unsolved riddle. it appears, however, that in the seventeenth century there was a gradual immigration of foreign workmen of dutch and french nationalities who were well versed in the art of cotton-printing--then well established upon the continent. these people came over in gradually increasing numbers, their arrival culminating in the huge influx of foreigners about 1650 to 1700. the majority of them were by trade silk-weavers and printers. their departure was a serious blow to france, for they transferred to england what had been great national industries in france. settling in and about london, the refugees peaceably recommenced their work, and soon the weaving of silks in spitalfields and the printing of chintzes in richmond, bow, and old ford became a source of great prosperity to this country. on p. 319 is an illustration of a seventeenth-century trade card of one of the chintz-printers, or, as they were then called, calico-printers. here we see in a most lucid manner the process by which chintzes were produced in the time of james ii. the inscription runs: "jacob stampe living at ye sighn of the callico printer in hounsditch prints all sorts of callicoes lineings silkes stuffs, new or ould, at reasonable rates." a printer is standing at a table upon which is stretched a length of cloth, which falls in folds on the floor. he holds in his hand a wooden block, which he is applying at intervals to the cloth. the other hand contains a mallet, which is about to strike the wooden block and stamp the colour firmly into the threads of the material. behind him is an apprentice boy, standing over a tub of colour, preparing the blocks for his master to use. [illustration: hand-printed chintz. queen anne period.] [illustration: hand-printed chintz. chinese style. middle eighteenth century.] by so clumsy a process very delicate work could not be produced, and, indeed, the few examples of this period which remain are very heavy in character. one of these, which has been lent by mr. j. d. phillips, the owner, is illustrated on p. 319. it belongs to the end of the seventeenth century and corresponds to the william and mary period of english furniture, being contemporary with the pieces illustrated on pp. 77, 117 in the earlier chapters. it will be seen that this example contains two portraits in costume of the late stuart period, possibly intended for portraits of william and mary. their portraits are of frequent occurrence on lambeth delft of this period. the printer has only produced the outline, the colour being added by hand with a brush, for at this date the printing of colour by the successive application of blocks had not been mastered. the black ink to-day lies thick upon the cloth, as coarsely as though it had been dabbed on with a stencil. the material is a rough hand-woven canvas. printed cloths of the period of charles ii. and james ii. and william and mary are exceedingly rare and seldom met with, as, owing to their roughness, they have been destroyed by subsequent owners. a few, however, are to be found on walnut chairs under the coverings of later date. often, indeed, one meets a chair covered in victorian horsehair which will reveal underneath the successive coverings of many generations of owners, including perhaps the material in which it was first upholstered. as the seventeenth century wore on and we enter upon the early years of the eighteenth century--the days of queen anne--the chintz-printers became more prosperous. their work, owing to its increasing delicacy, met with great public approval, and it began to supplant woven silks for the purposes of curtains, coverings, and dresses. thus the silk-weavers of spitalfields found a declining market for their goods and soon came into friction with the printers. much bad feeling ensued, and eventually their quarrels resulted in the distribution of defamatory literature which is to-day most amusing. the weavers circulated the curious "spittlefields ballad" against "calico madams," or the ladies who wore chintz dresses. the spittlefields ballads or the weaver's complaint against the callico madams our trade is so bad that the weavers run mad through the want of both work and provisions, that some hungry poor rogues feed on grains like our hogs, they're reduced to such wretched conditions, then well may they tayre what our ladies now wear and as foes to our country upbraid 'em, till none shall be thought a more scandalous slut than a tawdry callico madam. when our trade was in wealth our women had health, we silks, rich embroideries and satins, fine stuffs and good crapes for each ord'nary trapes that is destin'd to hobble in pattins; but now we've a chince for the wife of a prince, and a butterfly gown for a gay dame, thin painted old sheets for each trull in the streets to appear like a callico madam. [illustration: hand-printed chintz. exotic-bird style. middle eighteenth century.] [illustration: hand-printed chintz. gothic style. late eighteenth century.] the poet in several long stanzas warms in his indignation, and finally directs his verse against the male friends of all fair wearers of chintzes, suggesting that- "it's no matter at all if the prince of iniquity had 'em, or that each for a bride should be cursedly tied to some damn'd callico madam." it is not surprising that the weavers should find it difficult to set their productions against those of the cloth-printers, for the chintzes of this period are surpassingly beautiful. one of them is illustrated on p. 323. here the material is no longer a rough canvas, but is now a light dress cambric, similar to the thin smooth chintz cloth which has survived till to-day. a delicate pattern of intertwining stems winds upwards, the stalks having blossoms of finely cut outline and brilliant colours. old chintzes of this period may be recognised by their lightness and by the long thin designs of intermingling flowers of indian type. these were all more or less borrowed from the marsupalitan printed cloths brought over by the india trading companies, and the flowers and colourings of this date are nearly always very closely copied from eastern originals, the cornflower and carnation being among those most frequently met with. the ill-feeling between the printers and weavers was of long duration, and eventually took the form of open riots and street demonstrations similar to those of to-day. on one occasion, in 1719, they went from spitalfields to westminster and protested against the popularity of chintzes and suggested that their use be forbidden. on the return journey they manifested their feelings by tearing off the chintz gowns of various ladies whom they met upon the route. evidently parliament pandered to these labour riots, for in 1736 printed cloths were forbidden by act of parliament, but this legislation was of short duration; the act was soon repealed and the fascinating material became the rage once more. the next stage at which we look upon chintz-printing is about 1760, in the middle of the period of chippendale furniture. this is the golden period of its printing. technically and artistically the hand-printed chintz now reached its climax. colour-work by superimposed blocks was in full swing, and the designer had, in the works of contemporary artists, a wider field for the selection of subjects suitable for his fabric. among the many varieties of chintzes which we find at this date the most prominent are the gothic and chinese designs to suit the current taste in furniture, and the exotic bird patterns, which are perhaps the finest of all. [illustration: hand-printed chintz. about 1760. by r. jones, of old ford, london.] the formation of the designs has changed considerably by this time and we no longer find the intertwining or serpentine form as in the queen anne chintzes. the flowers and objects to be printed are now massed together and represented as little disjointed islands floating in mid-air. by this distinctive feature they may easily be recognised. one of these charming exotic bird chintzes is illustrated on p. 327. here a pheasant is resting under a palm-tree upon a small island of densely packed foliage. the whole idea of the design is taken from the chinese porcelain of the period. the bird, the flowers, and every object portrayed come from the east and are drawn in the manner constantly seen upon the _famille rose_ dishes and vases of the period. these exotic bird patterns are not exclusively found upon chintzes, for the collector of english porcelain will be familiar with them in the early productions of the bow and worcester factories. another feature which one notices in printed fabrics at this date is the buff ground. the cloth is white, and the pattern is printed upon it in this state so that the pinks, blues, and greens of the flowers may have every advantage of transparency. the buff background is then printed in afterwards, leaving a thin margin around the design. in this manner great richness and depth is given to the colours without undue harshness, which would be the result if they were exhibited upon a white background. the illustration on p. 323 shows a chintz in the chinese manner, designed to conform with the oriental furniture of chippendale. here again we see the detached islets of vegetation, but instead of exotic birds we have chinese vases containing flowers, and in the foreground a rococo shell, one of the then little-known species from the east greatly treasured in england. the carnations and foliage will be readily recognised as copies from chinese paintings. one might illustrate a very large number of these chinese chintzes, but space will only permit one example. this particular specimen is probably unique; it is taken from an old roll of chintz printed about 1760 and left over after the owner had curtained his house. the roll (about twenty yards long) has been carefully preserved and handed down from generation to generation, so that its original colours and soft glaze remain intact. a chintz in the gothic manner is illustrated on p. 327. it differs slightly from the others in that the island formation is combined with serpentine foliage. in the centre is a patch of ground upon which are the ruins of a gothic church. the artist, however, has not forgotten to please those patrons who might prefer the chinese style, and therefore he has quietly added the incongruous elements of prunus flowers in the foreground and palm-trees in the background. at first this quaint admixture may appear a bad art, but it must be remembered that at this quaint period the whole principle of decorative design was upset by the rococo school, and quaintness and delicacy of detail outweighed the greater considerations of line and proportion. we find a similar treatment of design later on in many spode plates, especially in blue transfer-printed subjects. [illustration: printed chintz. hepplewhite period.] [illustration: printed chintz. victorian period.] in the third quarter of the eighteenth century we enter upon a new era in the history of chintzes. we may appropriately call it the age of machinery, for from this date the mechanical processes came in whereby chintz-printing was raised from the position of a comparatively small craft to that of a huge national industry. the great manufacturing towns in the north, such as manchester, were rising in importance, and lancashire was forming the basis of its gigantic cotton trade. following these trade movements, the old industry of cloth-printing gradually left its centre in london and was developed on a larger scale in the north of england. in spite of this great commercial spirit which seized the printing of textiles, hand-block printing did not pass away, for it has survived till to-day as the best method for fine artistic work; cretonnes and chintzes produced in this manner, even during the nineteenth century, are always good. mechanical roller work, however, was responsible for a large output of work which is little worthy of preservation, and in the nineteenth century we find much machine-printed chintz which, to say the least, is not reminiscent of the fine handwork which preceded it in the mid-eighteenth century. the earliest machine-work was carried out by means of engraved copper plates applied to the cloth in a printer's press. one of these is illustrated on p. 331. it is exceedingly fine in its details, and very few old specimens of this pattern are in existence. in several places are inserted the printer's name and date, "r. jones, old ford, 1761." the design is doubtless borrowed from the _toiles de jouy_, printed by a bavarian at jouay, near versailles, about this time. the drawing, however, is finer than any specimens of his work which have come to the author's notice. a shepherdess is tending to her flock amid a classical ruin while she is listening to the music of a flute. in another portion of the design, a cock and hen are mourning for the loss of one of their brood which has been carried off by an eagle. this design is worthy of interest for its superior quality, as it must have been produced for some very fine house. there is another specimen printed in red in the victoria and albert museum. the one which is illustrated here was found upon an exceedingly fine chippendale bedstead. during the hepplewhite and sheraton periods of furniture the chintz ceases to have its pattern detached and grouped. architectural details with figures disappear, and once more the designer returns to flowers as his subject for illustration. the foliage, however, now takes the form of vertical stripes, being contained within lace-like ribands placed at even distances. on p. 335 is an illustration of a chintz about 1790 in which these features will be noticed. in the nineteenth century we find the chintz covered with disjointed sprigs, as though the flowers had been plucked and cast upon the cloth. their outline is softened by a margin of dots. an illustration of this style is shown on p. 335. [illustration: printed chintz. from the calico printing factory at sobden, in lancashire. printed in 1831 under the direction of richard cobden. (_in the collection of mrs. cobden unwin._)] one need not pursue the history of chintzes further, for to do so would entail a discussion of modern methods. suffice it to say that in the nineteenth century we come across the hideous black grounds, the base imitation of woven designs, leopard skins, and other inartistic perversions. we must rather bid adieu to this beautiful art ere it has begun to decline. it will afford the reader much pleasure if he should form a collection of old specimens and frame them around his walls, for then he will fully appreciate their charm. in examining his own collection the author has spent many a pleasant hour, for these gaily coloured chintzes are among the most articulate relics which have come down to us. they breathe the spirit, the feelings, and the ideals of the periods wherein they were made. they show lucidly the various changes in fashion and the rise and wane in the popularity of certain forms of decoration. so delectable are their soft, faded colours, so fascinating are the designs, and above all, so enchanting is the old-world musty scent which always clings to them, that it would be hard indeed to withhold one's affection from them. index adam style table, 186 america, the windsor chair acclimatised in, 246 america, spindle-back chairs, 239 america, carved chests of puritan colonists, 60 america, types coincident with jacobean, 60 anachronism in country makers' work, 204 anne, queen, chintz printing in time of, 325 anne, queen, style--cabriole leg, advent of, 167 anne, queen, chests of drawers, 67 anne, queen, scandal at court of, 158 anne, queen, so-called style, 167 back--the chair, and its development, 203 bacon cupboards, 154 ball and claw foot, introduction of, 162 "barley sugar" turning, illustrated, 105 bedfordshire tables, 283 bedstead, jacobean, illustrated, 77 bevel of panel indicating date, 204 bible-boxes, 34, 139-154 bloomfield, robert, quoted, 268 bobbins, buckinghamshire, 153 brittany dressers, 134 broken corners, queen anne style, 167, 169 buckinghamshire bobbins, 153 bureau bookcase and cupboard, 176 bureaus, marquetry in coloured woods, 169 byzantine types of furniture existent in elizabethan days, 37 cabriole leg, advent of the, 167 cabriole leg (queen anne period), 129 cambridge tables, 283 candle dipper, the, 288 cane-back chairs, 203, 207 cane-back chairs, late stuart, 199 cane-back chair, its influence on farmhouse styles, 208 caning in chairs out of fashion, 162 chairs- america, windsor chair, types of, 246 back, the, its development, 203 caned-back chair, its influence on farmhouse styles, 208 caned chairs, late stuart, 199, 203, 207 caning out of fashion, 162 charles ii. period styles, 211 chippendale styles, 179 chippendale, windsor styles, 254 corner chairs, 240 country chippendale, hepplewhite and sheraton, 221 cupid's bow top rail, 218 cushions, their use with, 199, 207 derbyshire chairs, 203 elizabethan turned chairs, 37 evolution of the chair, 189-241 fiddle splat chairs, introduction of, 162 fiddle splat, queen anne style, 217 fiddle splat, windsor, at its best, 254 "fiddle-string" backs, 249 goldsmith, oliver, his chair, 253 grandfather variety, 168, 230 hepplewhite country styles, 221 hepplewhite windsor chairs, 254 horseshoe back, windsor, 259, 260 jacobean, typical form, 196 ladder-back chairs, 233 lancashire rush-bottom chairs, 241 lancashire spindle back chairs, 278 modern office-chair, derivation of, 260 prince of wales's feathers in back, 227 ribbon-back, introduction of, 179 rush-bottomed chairs, 233 shell ornament employed, 167 sheraton country styles, 221 sheraton windsor chairs, 259, 260 spindle-back chairs, 234 splat, queen anne, the, 217 straight-backed chairs, 203 stretcher, evolution of the, 200 tavern chairs, 249 wheel-back windsor chairs, 259 woods used, windsor chairs, 249, 250 charles ii. chests of drawers, 62 charles ii. period, impetus given to furniture design, 95 charles ii. period, styles of chairs, 211 chests, gothic, 34 chests, sixteenth century, 34 chests, welsh carving, 277 chests of drawers, 60 chests of drawers, charles ii. period, 62 chests of drawers, queen anne style, 67 children's stools, jacobean, illustrated, 77 chimney crane, the, 294 china and glass cupboards, 180 chinese designs in chintzes, 333 chinese style of chippendale, 227 chintz printing becomes a national industry, 321 chintzes, old english, 317-341 chippendale and his contemporaries, 180 chippendale clock cases, 312 chippendale quoted, 227, 228 chippendale, ribbon designs of, 179 chippendale style, provincial, 221 chippendale style windsor chairs, 254 chocolate houses, polemic against, 170 chronology, seventeenth-century, 45-48 claw-and-ball foot, introduction of, 162 clock and dresser combined, 129 clocks, grandfather, 306 club foot, introduction of, 162 cobbett, william, quoted, 67 coffee-drinking and coffee-houses, 170 coffee, women's petition against, 170 corner chairs, 240 cottage furniture and earthenware compared, 31 country cabinet-maker, his mixture of styles, 211 country chippendale, hepplewhite and sheraton, 221 country furniture, its sturdy independence, 24 country makers little influenced by contemporary fashion, 50 cradles, 148 cromwellian chests with drawers, 52 crusie, the scottish, 277, 293 cupboard, the bacon, 154 cupboard, welsh carving, 277 cupboards, corner, introduction of, 162 cupboards and drawers, taste for, 125 "cupid's bow" underframing, 107, 185 "cupid's bow" top rail of chair, 218 cushions, their use with chairs, 199, 207 delany, mrs., quoted, 153 denmark, the conservation of old farmhouse furniture in, 38 derbyshire chairs, 203 design books, eighteenth-century, publication of, 222 _director_, by chippendale, a working guide, 223 drawer accommodation a feature in late dressers, 130 drawers, chests of, 60 drawers, chests of, charles ii. period, 62 drawers, chests of, queen anne style, 67 dresser and clock combined, 129 dressers, farmhouse, 115-135 dressers- brittany, 134 lancashire, 134 normandy, 134 welsh, 133 dutch artisans print early english chintzes, 321 dutch influence early eighteenth century, 168, 170 earthenware and cottage furniture compared, 31 eighteenth-century dressers, 130 eighteenth-century pleasure gardens, 249 eighteenth-century styles, 157-187 elizabethan turned chairs, 37 english chintzes, old, 317-341 english farmhouse furniture, desirability of its preservation, 42 english joiners' work, its solidity, 51 essex tables, 283 exotic bird patterns in chintzes, 333 "farmer's boy" (robert bloomfield) quoted, 268 farmhouse furniture (english), desirability of its preservation, 42 farmhouse furniture influenced by walnut styles, 208 farmhouse styles contemporary with the cane-back chair, 208 feet- arcaded foot, charles ii. period, 62 ball, 62; illustrated, 65 claw-and-ball foot, introduction of the, 162 club foot, its introduction, 162 hoof foot, the, 176 scroll or spanish foot, 104, 203 spanish foot, the, 104, 203 spanish foot, in corrupted form, illustrated, 105, 109 trestle, in gothic style, 90 fiddle splat chairs, introduction of, 162 fiddle splat, queen anne style, 217 fiddle splat windsor chair at its best, 254 "fiddle-string" backs, 249 firebacks, sussex, 296 firebacks, sussex, fine examples exhibited, 305 firedogs, cottage and farmhouse, 294 food of country population, seventeenth century, 81 foreign styles, slow assimilation of, 67 french artisans print early english chintzes, 321 gate-leg tables, 85-112 gate-leg table, double gates, 96; illustrated, 93 gate-leg table, established as a popular type, 90 gate-leg table, square top, illustrated, 105 geometric panels, chests of drawers, 61; dressers, 121 georgian styles, early types, 179 gibbons, grinling, the style of, 56 goldsmith, oliver, his chair, 253 gothic brackets to chests, 34 gothic chests, 34 gothic trestle, gate-leg table, 89 grandfather chair, the, 230 grandfather chair, curved lines of, 168 grandfather clocks, 306 grandfather clock combined with dresser, 129 great seal of queen anne, showing style of ornament, 168 hardwick hall, suite at, 55 hepplewhite clock cases, 312 hepplewhite influence on village work, 207 hepplewhite quoted, 229, 230 hepplewhite style, provincial, 221 hertfordshire tables, 283 hogarth, the line of beauty the curve, 168 hoof foot, the, 176 horseshoe-back windsor chairs, 130, 257, 260 incongruity of provincial cabinet-maker, 211 inlaid work rarely employed, 55 inlaid work with walnut, 169 inlaid work, woods used, 169 irish chippendale, 272 ironwork, miscellaneous, 287-313 ironwork, scottish, 277 isle of man tables, 283 jacobean cradles, 148 jacobean dressers with geometric panels, 121 jacobean furniture, typical styles, 49 jacobean oak chair, typical form, 196 jacobean period, its characteristics, 95 jacobean period, late styles of, 115 jacobean style, its transition to william and mary, 207 jacobean sussex firebacks, 299, 300 joinery, the solidity of english, 51 jones, r., of old ford, chintz printer, 337 kettle trivet, the cottager's, 295 lacquer employed in clock-cases, 312 ladder-back chair, the, 233 lancashire chintzes, 337 lancashire dressers, 134 lancashire furniture, 278 lancashire queen anne settle, 167 lancashire rush-bottom chair, 241 legs- "barley sugar" turning illustrated, 105 cabriole leg, introduction of the, 167 egg and reel turning, 43; illustrated, 93 eight legs (gate table), 99 elizabethan bulbous leg, 60 jacobean straight-turned leg, 60 jacobean, various forms of turning, 89 queen anne cabriole leg, 129 six legs, gate table, illustrated, 99 split urn leg, illustrated, 91, 119 straight leg again in vogue, 180 urn-shaped leg, 60 urn-shaped splat, 121; illustrated, 91, 119 linen-fold pattern on chests, 32 local types, 33 local types of furniture, 267-284 london and the vicinity, chintz printed in, 322 longleat, oak furniture at, 55 lyngby (near copenhagen), collection of old farmhouse furniture at, 41 macaulay quoted, 158 macaulay, "state of england in 1685" quoted, 76 mahogany gate-leg tables, 103 mahogany styles, their gracefulness, 179 mahogany, the chief designers of, of the golden age, 104 marlborough, duchess of, and her intrigues, 158 marquetry bureaus in coloured woods, 169 marquetry, woods used in, 169 minor cabinet-makers' work lacking harmony, 212 modern office-chair, derivation from windsor type, 263 more, hannah, and the agricultural classes, 175 morris, william, his influence on furniture, 111 "mule" chests, 52 norfolk, oak furniture, 283 normandy dressers, 134 normans, furniture, styles of, introduced by, 37 north, roger, quoted, 170 oak, erroneously used to carry out walnut designs, 212 oak, general in its use, 55 oak supplanted by walnut in fashionable furniture, 207 oak the chief wood employed, 33 office-chair, derivation from windsor type, 263 oriental patterns in chintzes, 333 panelling, bevel of, indicating date of, 204 panels, sunk, jacobean style, 62 patterns, wood, used for firebacks, 300 people, changing habits of the, in seventeenth century, 72 pepys's _diary_, quoted, 79 pleasure gardens, eighteenth-century, 249 pot-hook, the, 294 pot-hooks, fine examples, where exhibited, 294 prince of wales's feathers, 227 provincial furniture many decades behind fashion, 50 queen anne, cabriole leg, 129 queen anne dressers, 122 queen anne flap tables, 89 queen anne period, the splat of the, 217 restoration period, chests of drawers, 62 ribbon designs, introduction of, 179 roads in provinces, bad state of, 79 rush-bottom chair, the, 233 rushlight holder, the, 288 scandinavian origin of elizabethan chair, 37 scotland, union with, proclamation by queen anne, 161 scottish types of ironwork, 277 "seaweed" marquetry in clock-cases, 312 settle, lancashire form, 278 settle, queen anne style, 167 seventeenth-century, chronology of, 45-48 seventeenth-century settle (lancashire), 278 seventeenth-century sideboard, typical style, 56 seventeenth-century styles, 49-82 seventeenth-century styles, types of, 72 shell ornament, early eighteenth-century, 167 sheraton clock-cases, 312 sheraton influence on country makers, 234 sheraton influence in windsor chairs, 259 sheraton style, provincial, 221 sideboard, typical seventeenth-century style, 56 sixteenth-century chests, 34 sizergh castle, oak room at, 55 spanish foot, its use, 104, 107 spanish succession, war of the, 161 spindle-back chair, the, 234 spindle-back chairs (lancashire), 278 spinning-wheels, 153 spitalfields weavers, complaint as to chintz fashions, 326, 330 splat, the queen anne, 217 staffordshire pottery and cottage furniture compared, 31 stands for chests of drawers, 67 stockholm, collection of farmhouse furniture at, 38 stools, children's jacobean, illustrated, 77 straight-backed chairs, 203 stretcher, evolution of the, 200 stretcher, yorkshire splat form, 96 suffolk oak furniture, 283 sussex firebacks, 296 sussex ironworks, the, 295, 296 "swan head" to cupboard, 168 sweden, the conservation of old farmhouse furniture in, 38 swift quoted, 161 tables- adam style, 186 arcaded spandrils, illustrated, 179 bedfordshire types, 283 cambridge types, 283 collapsible form (charles ii.), 103 cross stretcher, =x= form, 103 cupid's bow underframing, 107; illustrated, 109 elizabethan bulbous-leg form, 60 essex types, 283 flap tables (queen anne), 89; (georgian), illustrated, 183 gate-leg, 85-112 gothic trestle, gate-leg table, 89 hertfordshire types, 283 isle of man table, 283 scalloped-edge tea-table, illustrated, 181 scalloped underframing, illustrated, 73 sixteenth-century style, 52 spandrils, arcaded, illustrated, 179 stretchers, splat form, 89; illustrated, 97 tea-table, queen anne style, 185 three-legged, 283 underframing, cupid's bow, illustrated, 109 various local types, 283 yorkshire type, 89 tapers, how made by cottagers, 288 tavern chair, the, 249 tea-drinking becomes national, 170 tea-gardens, eighteenth-century, 249 tea-table, queen anne style, 185 three-legged tables, 283 transition from jacobean to william and mary styles, 207 trestle in gate-leg table, 89 triangular gate form, 86; illustrated, 87 tripod tables, 185 turning, various patterns in jacobean leg, 89 union with scotland, 161 varangian guard introduce byzantine furniture into scandinavia, 37 veneer, in walnut, early eighteenth-century, 169 village cabinet-maker, originality of, 32 wales, prince of, feathers in chair back, 227 walnut gate-leg tables, 103 walnut in general use, 207 walnut styles, early eighteenth-century, 169 walnut supplanted by mahogany, 207 warming-pan, the, 295 wardrobe, lancashire type, 278 welsh carving, 272 welsh dressers, 133 wesley and the methodist movement, 175 whitefield and the colliers, 175 wheel-back windsor chairs, 257 william and mary dressers, 126 william and mary gate-leg tables, 104 william and mary period, finely turned work, 75 william and mary style, its development from jacobean, 207 windsor chair, the, 243-263 windsor chair, the, sheraton influence, 259 windsor chair, its survival, 260 windsor chairs, chippendale style, 254 wood patterns used for firebacks, 300 woods employed in farmhouse furniture, 33 woods used in windsor chairs, 249, 250 woods used in walnut marquetry, 169 women's petition against coffee, 170 yorkshire chairs, 203 yorkshire splat stretcher to tables, 96 unwin brothers, limited, the gresham press, woking and london. volumes for collectors by the same author chats on old furniture companion volume to "chats on cottage and farmhouse furniture" _press notices, first edition_ "mr. hayden knows his subject intimately."--_pall mall gazette._ "the hints to collectors are the best and clearest we have seen; so that altogether this is a model book of its kind."--_athenæum._ "a useful and instructive volume."--_spectator._ "an abundance of illustrations completes a well-written and well-constructed history."--_daily news._ "mr. hayden's taste is sound and his knowledge thorough."--_scotsman._ "a book of more than usual comprehensiveness and more than usual merit."--_vanity fair._ "mr. hayden has worked at his subject on systematic lines, and has made his book what it purports to be--a practical guide for the collector."--_saturday review._ chats on english china _press notices, first edition_ "a handsome handbook that the amateur in doubt will find useful, and the china-lover will enjoy for its illustrations, and for the author's obvious love and understanding of his subject."--_st. james's gazette._ "all lovers of china will find much entertainment in this volume."--_daily news._ "it gives in a few pithy chapters just what the beginner wants to know about the principal varieties of english ware. we can warmly commend the book to the china collector."--_pall mall gazette._ "one of the best points about the book is the clear way in which the characteristics of each factory are noted down separately, so that the veriest tyro ought to be able to judge for himself if he has a piece or pieces which would come under this heading, and the marks are very accurately given."--_queen._ chats on english earthenware (companion volume to "chats on english china") "complementary to the useful companion volume, in this 'chats' series, on english china which mr. hayden issued five years ago."--_times._ "is a compendious account of our native english faïence, abundantly illustrated and accurately written."--_guardian._ "a thoroughly trustworthy working handbook."--_truth._ "it is a mine of knowledge, gathered from all quarters, and the outcome of personal experience and research, and it is written with no little charm of style."--_lady's pictorial._ "mr. hayden knows and writes exactly what is needed to help the amateur to become an intelligent collector, while his painstaking care in verifying facts renders his work a stable book of reference."--_connoisseur._ "the volume has been written as a companion to mr. hayden's 'chats on english china' in the same series, and those who recall the admirable character of that book will find this to be in no way inferior."--_nation._ "the illustrations are profuse and excellent, and the author and the publishers must be commended for offering us so many reproductions of typical specimens that have not appeared in any previous handbook. the illustrations alone are worth the cost of the book."--_manchester guardian._ "mr. hayden's book is filled to overflowing with beautiful and most instructive and helpful illustrations, and altogether it is one that will give immense pleasure to collectors, and much information to the admiring but ignorant."--_liverpool courier._ chats on old prints a practical guide to collecting and identifying old engravings. "mr. hayden writes at once with enthusiasm and discrimination on his theme."--_daily telegraph._ "any one who, having an initial interest in matters of art, wants to form sound and intelligent opinions about engravings, will find this book the very thing for him."--_literary world._ "these 'chats' comprise a full and admirably lucid description of every branch of the engraver's art, with copious and suggestive illustrations."--_morning leader._ transcriber's note italic text is denoted by _underscores_. bold text is denoted by =equal signs=. large-size letters used to describe shapes or trade marks are denoted by @at-signs@. obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources. more detail can be found at the end of the book. piece goods manual. piece goods manual. fabrics described; textile, knit goods, weaving terms, etc., explained; with notes on the classification of samples. _compiled and illustrated, as an aid to members of the chinese maritime customs service_, by a. e. blanco, _second assistant, a, chinese maritime customs_. shanghai: statistical department of the inspectorate general of customs. 1917. preface. the following pages represent an attempt to compile, primarily for the benefit of members of the chinese maritime customs service, descriptions of cotton, woollen, and other fabrics, their weaves and finishes, etc., together with other information concerning terms currently used in the piece goods trade which are likely to be met with in invoices, applications, or contracts. this manual does not embrace all textiles known to the trade, but it does cover all those enumerated in the "revised import tariff for the trade of china," as well as many others. as far as possible the commonly accepted trade name has been used. it should, however, be borne in mind that many fabrics are known in the trade by a variety of names, so that one branch of the trade may not recognise a name applied to the same fabric by another branch. the descriptions have been built up from information obtained first hand from practical weavers, manufacturers, wholesale and retail merchants, buyers, etc., as well as from personal visits to mills in the manchester and huddersfield districts, and from standard works on weaving. to mr. g. w. shaw, of botham hall, huddersfield, i am indebted for introductions to the principal manufacturers in that district, enabling me to go through such mills as those of mr. a. whitwam and messrs. godfrey sykes, where every phase of manufacture from raw material to finished goods was shown and explained with characteristic yorkshire thoroughness. i am indebted for either information or actual samples, or both, to:- mr. a. f. h. baldwin, american commercial attaché, london. john bright & bros., limited, rochdale. mr. a. j. brook, huddersfield. mr. c. w. bunn, deputy appraiser, new york. mr. f. chitham, director, selfridge & co., limited, london. mr. w. e. dale-shaw, huddersfield. drey, simpson, & co., limited, stockport. "dry goods economist," new york. w. & c. dunlop, bradford. fisher & co., huddersfield. mr. w. r. gandell, board of trade, london. horrockses, crewdson, & co., limited, preston. w. g. humphreys & co., london. mr. a. f. kendrick, board of education, london. the london chamber of commerce. mccaw allan & co., lurgan. selfridge & co., limited, london. mr. a. sutton, piece goods expert, board of trade, london. tanner bros., greenfield. mr. f. walker, huddersfield. william watson & co., london. alfred young & co., limited, london. the board of trade (through their piece goods expert, mr. a. sutton), john bright & bros., limited, and selfridge & co., limited, realising the value of classified information concerning descriptions of piece goods, have very kindly supplied me with ranges of samples. the following works have been consulted, and their contents have materially assisted me. i take the opportunity of acknowledging my indebtedness to their authors, as well as to those of any other works consulted but which may have been omitted from this list:- "analysis of woven fabrics," by a. f. barker and e. midgley. bennett's "glossary of fabrics." "cotton," by r. j. peake. "cotton goods in china," by ralph m. odell, u.s. commercial agent. "how to buy and judge materials," by h. b. heylin. house of representatives document no. 643 (report of tariff board on schedule 1 of the tariff law). "silk," by l. hooper. "textiles," by william h. dooley. "textiles," by paul h. nystrom, ph.d. "the cotton weaver's handbook," by h. b. heylin. the cotton year book. "the draper's dictionary," by s. william beck. the wool year book. "wool," by j. a. hunter. i wish specially to acknowledge my indebtedness to mr. a. sutton, piece goods expert to the board of trade, london, for having perused the manuscript of the "piece goods manual" and for the painstaking manner in which he pointed out where modifications were advisable. his suggestions have enabled me to revise definitions so as to make them agree with accepted trade interpretations. a. e. blanco. london, 1915-16. list of illustrations. plain weave figure 1. three-end twill weave " 2. four-end twill weave " 3. four-end weft twill weave " 4. two-and-two twill weave " 5. irregular twill weave " 6. five-end warp sateen weave " 7. five-end weft sateen weave " 8. simple plain gauze weave " 9. weft-pile weave " 10. [illustration: figure 1. plain weave. a. weft threads. b. warp threads. figure 1 shows the simplest manner of interlacing warp and weft threads. this style of weave is called plain, calico, or "one-over and one-under" weave.] [illustration: figure 2. three-end twill weave. this figure illustrates the interlacing of warp (shaded) and weft (white) threads, so as to produce a regular "three-end twill" weave. it also shows the direction of twill. in this figure the warp threads are shown interlaced with the weft threads in three distinct positions. there is a distinct predominance of warp threads thrown to the surface by this style of interlacing, and a fabric woven on this system would be "warp-faced." this weave is called a two-warp and one-weft regular twill, also regatta and galatea weave.] [illustration: figure 3. four-end twill weave. this figure illustrates a four-end, three-warp and one-weft, regular twill, also known as a florentine twill, or a "three-up and one-down twill." the twill produced by this style of interlacing is well marked. the warp (shaded) predominates, and for this reason a cloth woven on this system of interlacing would be termed "warp-faced," or warp twill.] [illustration: figure 4. four-end weft twill weave. this figure, in which the weft threads predominate on the surface, illustrates a four-end, one-warp and three-weft, regular weft twill, in which three-quarters of the weft threads are thrown to the surface and the remaining quarter is warp. it is the reverse of figure 3.] [illustration: figure 5. two-and-two twill weave. this figure illustrates a four-end, two-warp and two-weft, regular twill. neither warp nor weft predominates on the surface. this style of twill is known as harvard twill.] [illustration: figure 6. irregular twill weave. this figure illustrates a broken or irregular twill, also known as a broken harvard or stockinette weave.] [illustration: figure 7. five-end warp sateen weave. this figure illustrates the method of interlacing warp (shaded) and weft threads so as to produce a five-end warp sateen, or satin twill. this weave, in which the warp predominates on the surface, is reversed in figure 8.] [illustration: figure 8. five-end weft sateen weave. this figure illustrates a five-end weft sateen. sateen weaves are virtually a form of broken or rearranged twill. the weft sateen weave, represented by this figure, shows weft predominating on the face: it is practically the reverse of the weave shown by figure 7.] [illustration: figure 9. simple plain gauze weave. in this figure a are threads known as crossing threads and are typical of gauze weave; they are binding threads holding b (weft threads) and c (warp threads) firmly together. it will be noticed that b and c do not interlace to form a plain weave. if crossing threads a were removed, no fabric would remain. these crossing threads in this figure are shown as always passing over the weft threads b and always under the warp threads c. this style of weave, when combined with a few "plain-weave" picks, produces leno.] [illustration: figure 10. weft-pile weave. in this figure a is a weft-pile pick or flushing thread; b is a backing or ground cloth pick; the dots show cross section of warp threads. it will be seen that the ground picks b, together with the warp threads (shown cut through), form the foundation fabric. pile thread a is shown bound into the fabric by the second, eighth, and fourteenth warp thread. pile threads are cut after leaving the loom at a point indicated by the arrows; the pile produced is then sheared level and suitably finished.] piece goods manual. =actual.=--the terms "actual" and "nominal" are used in the trade to indicate (1) that the width should be taken as stated or (2) that a certain amount of allowance should be made. "actual" implies that the width is not less than stated. "nominal" means that the width of the cloth may vary as much as half an inch below width given on contract. =agaric.=--a cotton fabric of loop yarn construction, having a surface somewhat similar to a fine turkish towelling. =albatross.=--a dress fabric of worsted warp and worsted filling of open texture and fancy weaves. when the name is applied to a cotton fabric it is used to designate a plain-woven all-cotton fabric, soft, fine, and free from ornamentations, made in imitation of the worsted fabric of the same name. it has a fleecy surface, is generally sold in white, black, or solid colours, being used instead of bunting for flags. not often used for printing, for which purpose it is not well adapted. =alhambra quilt.=--an all-cotton counterpane woven with a coarse waste weft known as candlewick. a loosely woven coloured warp yarn is used for the figuring and a grey "sticking" warp for securing the weft in position. =alpaca.=--this name is given to a fabric woven with a cotton warp and an alpaca wool weft. the fabric is classed as a lustre fabric, this being due to the predominance of the lustrous weft. generally plain woven with a simple one-over and one-under weave, alpaca is, when solid coloured, a cross-dyed fabric, i.e., one in which the cotton warp yarns were dyed prior to weaving and the piece of fabric piece-dyed after leaving the loom. similar to lustre orleans, mohair brilliantine, and mohair sicilian, which are typical lustre fabrics. =alpaca wool= is the fleece of the peruvian sheep, which is a species of llama. the staple is of good length and soft, but is not quite as lustrous as mohair. the natural colours are white, black, brown, and fawn. =alpacianos.=--nothing seems to be recorded in any modern book dealing with textiles or in any technical dictionary concerning any fabric known by the name of alpacianos. the name, however, appears in the revised import tariff for the trade of china, from which it would appear to be an all-cotton fabric, piece-dyed after leaving the loom, probably averaging between 28 and 31 inches in width and about 25 yards in length. the name is probably of south american origin. =american sheetings.=--a rather coarse make of plain-woven grey cloth, woven from coarse yarns (about 20's counts), 48 threads of warp and the same number of weft picks to the inch, and generally woven with "twist way" weft. another name for this material is cabot. average width, 36 inches; length, 40 yards per piece. weight varies. the use of the name sheeting, as applied to this class of material, is now firmly established but incorrect, sheetings originally being a two-and-two twill fabric having a width of as much as 120 inches. =angola.=--this name is used to designate a plain or twill weave fabric having a cotton warp and a weft made from cotton and wool scribbled together prior to being spun. the proportion of wool to cotton varies. this scribbled wool and cotton yarn, or angola wool as it is called, generally contains about 20 per cent. of cotton and 80 per cent. of wool. =angola yarn or wool.=--a yarn spun from a mixture of 80 per cent. wool and 20 per cent. cotton. =angora.=--angora is the name of a species of goat which yields a wool commercially known as mohair. this kind of wool enters largely into the classes of goods known as astrakhan, crépon, plushes, brilliantine, zibelines, fine cashmeres, and other fabrics usually sold as all wool. it enters into the manufacture of very high-grade fabrics in combination with silk. more lustrous than wool, it has not, however, the warmth-retaining properties of the latter. =angora goat.=--a species of goat originally bred in asia minor, producing mohair fibre. from the long silky hair of this goat was made turkish yarn or camel yarn. the name camel yarn has led to mistakes; it has no reference to the camel, but is derived from the arabic word _chamal_, fine. =animalised cotton.=--to increase the affinity of cotton for dye-stuffs and at the same time increase its lustre, cotton is sometimes treated with solutions of wool, silk, or gelatine in such a manner that when the solvent has evaporated the coated surface remains sufficiently pliable not to crack under normal conditions. =armure.=--a weave which produces a fine pebbled surface. =artificial silk.=--in the making of artificial silk, cellulose prepared from wood or cotton is turned into a nitro-cellulose by treatment with nitric acid. this nitro-cellulose is made liquid by dissolving it in ether and alcohol, then forced under pressure through very fine tubes, or forced through holes of about 1/250th of an inch pierced in a platinum plate, in the form of very fine threads, from which the ether and alcohol evaporate readily, leaving the nitro-cellulose as a fine lustrous fibre. artificial silk is often used in the ornamentation of figured fabrics. it bears a very deceptive resemblance to true silk, but the individual fibres are coarser and burn very quickly, without the typical smell of true silk and without the hard bubble of ash. its value is about a third of that of the best silk, but as an offset to this must be taken its higher specific gravity. if of equal thickness, the length of thread, weight for weight, is only from half to two-thirds that of real silk. =astrakhan.=--a fabric having a curly, wavy surface resembling astrakhan fleece. there are three varieties of this kind of fabric, each produced on a different principle: (1) on the weft principle, in which, owing to shrinkage of the ground texture, the pile weft is thrown up and forms a curly loop; (2) on the warp texture principle, in which a thick curly warp yarn is brought over wires to form the necessary loops; and (3) the cheapest form, as a knitted fabric. astrakhan varies as regards the size of the loop which goes to make the curl. the lustre yarn that is used is curled before use, the curl being fixed by heat. the ground texture is cotton. width varies from 48 to 50 inches; weight from 19 to 36 ounces per yard of the 50-inch wide material. the heavier grades run 35 to 40 yards per piece, the lighter grades from 50 to 55 yards. generally met with in solid black or a grey produced by blending black and white fibres, also in solid white. astrakhans have generally an uncut pile, but are sometimes finished with part of the loop curls cut, say, 50 per cent., which gives the fabric the appearance of woolly fur with complete curls at intervals. =back cloth.=--an unbleached, reinforcing, all-cotton cloth, plain woven, used in printing fabrics to support the fabric which is being printed. =backed cloth.=--to add weight to certain single texture fabrics, extra threads running either in the direction of the warp, i.e., lengthways of the piece, or weftways across the piece, are stitched on to the back of the fabric. fabrics having such extra threads stitched on to them are called backed cloths. =baffetas.=--plain-woven cloth, bleached or dyed blue. =baize.=--a coarse, harsh, loosely woven woollen fabric of plain weave, having a long nap on both sides like flannel. baize is generally dyed in bright colours and is known under the name bayetas. average width 66 to 67 inches, length 30 to 45 yards per piece. =balbriggan.=--named after the town of balbriggan, ireland. first applied, in 1845, to full-fashioned hosiery made from unbleached cotton. about 1860 the term was applied to knit underwear of the same material. it was originally used only on high-class goods, but now covers everything in light-weight flat underwear made of yarn stained to the shade of egyptian cotton. =bale of cotton.=--the standard bale of cotton, according to the usage of the trade in england and america and generally accepted elsewhere, weighs 500 pounds. the following is the average weight and density of cotton bales:- density weight. per cubic foot. --- --- egyptian about 700 lb. 34 lb. american " 500 " 24 " east indian " 400 " 30 " brazilian " 250 " 20 " =baline.=--a coarse canvas, mostly made of better grades of jute, flax, and hemp, used for upholstery purposes, interlinings, tailoring purposes, etc. =balzarine brocades, dyed.=--the cotton variety of this class of fabric would be an all-cotton fabric having a gauze weave and net-like appearance which had been embellished by the addition of certain figures or designs woven into the fabric either by means of combination of the warp and weft threads or by means of an additional thread or threads. but lappet or swivel figured balzarines would not be considered brocades in the true sense, as such style of figuring is not brocaded. dyed balzarine brocades are piece-dyed after leaving the loom. =balzarines.=--very few books of reference make mention of this kind of fabric. of "uncertain origin," this name is said to have been given to "a light-weight mixed fabric of cotton and wool for women's dresses commonly used for summer gowns before the introduction of barége (or barrège)." barége was, for the name seems to have fallen into disuse, "an open fabric resembling gauze, but more open in texture and stouter in thread. it was made of various materials but is best known as made of silk warp and worsted weft. it was first employed as ornament for the head, especially for sacred ceremonies, as baptism and marriage." it would appear, therefore, from the above that balzarines--of the cotton variety--would be a gauze weave or net-like fabric woven from cotton warp and cotton weft. they may have been either bleached, dyed, printed, or brocaded. the exact difference between balzarines and other gauze fabrics does not appear in any modern works dealing with textiles. the fabric probably approximates 30 inches in width and from 28 to 30 yards in length per piece. unless specially designated as such, balzarines are free from brocaded ornamentation; but from the fact that they are found associated with lenos, they may, like these, have some plain weave combined with the main gauze structure--probably running in stripes lengthways of the piece. =bandanna= is a term applied to materials that have been dyed in a somewhat unusual manner, the cloth being tied in knots prior to being dipped into the dye-stuff. a peculiar clouded effect is produced, as the dye-stuff does not reach the knotted parts equally with the rest of the surface. this term is met with most frequently in connexion with a large handkerchief, of which great quantities were imported into india for sale to the natives. =barré.=--a striped or barred design, woven or printed, running from selvedge to selvedge. =basket cloth.=--a plain-woven all-cotton fabric woven with two or more warp threads grouped together without twisting and woven as a unit of matt weave. =batiste.=--a fabric of french origin; the term has come to mean commercially a light, sheer cloth, made of fine quality of yarns and woven with a plain weave. a light fabric, with a swiss finish, in distinction from a nainsook, and usually wider and heavier than the latter fabric. in 32-inch widths and up a line of batistes runs 14 to 16 square yards to the pound. there are bleached and unbleached cotton batistes, also linen and coloured batistes. the cotton are largely ecru, and the linen are most commonly in the grey. there is a gradual variation in qualities ranging from a comparatively coarse to a very fine batiste. there are also wool batistes. =bayadère.=--applied to fabrics in which the stripe, whether woven or printed, runs crosswise, that is, from selvedge to selvedge. =bayetas.=--the spanish for baize, which is a coarse, harsh, loosely woven woollen fabric having a long nap on both sides like flannel. bayetas are generally dyed in bright colours and have an average width of 66 to 67 inches and a length of 30 to 45 yards per piece. =beavers.=--a heavy cloth manufactured of fine wool with a finish on face made to imitate the appearance of the beaver's fur. when the surface is made with a long and dense nap this fabric becomes known as fur beaver. =beaverteen.=--a heavy, twill-weave, all-cotton fabric of the fustian or uncut pile variety, usually dyed in shades of grey or tan and generally used for garments having to withstand rough wear. =bedford cords.=--fabrics having cords or ribs running in the direction of the length of the cloth, produced by interweaving the weft, in plain or twill order, with alternate groups of warp threads. the ribs may be emphasised by the addition of wadding or stuffing warp threads. bedford cords may be woven as either an all-cotton, all-wool, or wool and cotton fabric. the ribs of bedford cords are but slightly separated from each other. cotton bedford cords closely resemble a wide-welt piqué. _see_ welt. =beige.=--a dress fabric, generally twilled weave, made of yarns spun from wool which has been dyed in the stock prior to being spun, mostly met with in greys, browns, and mottled or mixed effects. in america the term is used to designate a dress fabric of fine texture woven from yarns in which two threads of different colours are twisted together or wherein printed yarns are employed. =bengal stripes.=--an all-cotton plain-woven fabric of the striped gingham variety. warp yarns partially white, balance dyed indigo blue. =bengaline.=--a silk fabric having thick threads or cords at intervals, from selvedge to selvedge. frequently the cord is of wool, covered with silk in the process of weaving, or cotton and silk are combined together to produce this kind of material. when made of all cotton and known as a cotton bengaline, it is generally mercerised. the warp yarn is often of two-ply. bengaline has much the appearance of poplin. silk or part-silk bengalines are often treated to an embossing process, which method presses a figure upon the fabric very similar in appearance to a jacquard woven effect. a common name for reps, also similar to poplin, but generally of a heavier corded appearance with the cord running transversely across the face of the fabric. =binding cloth.=--a muslin dyed and stamped or embossed, used to cover books by bookbinders. =bleached.=--this term is used to designate either raw cotton, cotton yarn, or more often cotton fabrics which have been rendered white. the most generally used agent for bleaching is chloride of lime. the process of bleaching varies according to whether the fibres being bleached are in the loose, the yarn, or the woven state. prior to being bleached fabrics are said to be in the "grey"; after bleaching they are said to be "white." =bleached domestics.=--a term commonly used referring to the cheaper grades of bleached cotton cloths, either plain or twilled. =bombazine.=--bombazine is the name given to a twilled fabric of which the warp is of silk and the filling is worsted. =book-fold muslin.=--a trade designation meaning muslin put up in 24-yard lengths, folded in such a way as to open book-wise from the centre, the various folds resembling the leaves of a book. =botany.=--a term applied to worsted yarns made from botany wool. it is considered the finest of all worsted yarns and is used for making fine fabrics of close texture. the name botany is commonly used to designate a fine grade of australian wool. =bouclé.=--having knots, loops, or curls on the surface; usually employed for cloakings. imitation astrakhan is a type of the kind of fabric coming under the heading bouclé. =bourette.=--a rough-surfaced effect produced by introducing lumpy, knotted yarns at intervals in the weaving. =broadcloth.=--broadcloth is a soft, closely woven material made with an all-wool warp and filling having a satin finish. the beauty of broadcloth depends on its even, nappy, lustrous surface. the three main points that go towards fixing its value are the quality of the wool used, the uniformity of the nap, and the perfection of finish. it is most often twill woven, double plain, but it is also met with in a plain weave. =brocade.=--the ordinary cotton brocade is a figured fabric of single texture. more elaborate brocades, used for dress and upholstery purposes, may have several wefts, in which case the cloth is one-sided, the warp forming the ground on the face, and the wefts appearing only where required to produce figure. soft-spun wefts are often used in brocades and similar kinds of cloths, the better to fill and throw up the figure used in their ornamentation. it is a term commonly applied to fabrics of different weaves or combinations of weaves in which the design appearing on the surface of the fabric is of a fancy figured or floral effect, usually of elaborate design; also used as an adjective to denote "woven figured." =brocatelle.=--the real brocatelle is a rich upholstery fabric, which has a raised figure of silk warp and weft interwoven in satin order, on a ground formed by a linen weft and a special binder warp. the name is also applied to quilts having a coarse white weft and two colours of warp, which latter change places for figuring purposes. =broché.=--the french term for brocade. elaborate figures woven on the surface of the fabric. =brown sheeting.=--this term is the equivalent of "plain grey cloths" and covers all weights of cotton goods in the grey or unfinished condition. =brown shirting.=--the term is restricted usually to mean such grey cotton cloths as have a width of 40 inches or less from selvedge to selvedge. =bugis.=--this name is given to a fine make of cotton sarong having only one side decorated with a border design. it is used by sewing two pieces together plain edge to plain edge, thus converting it into a sarong with both edges ornamented. ="bump" yarns.=--cotton yarns of coarse numbers below 3's, used for weft purposes in counterpanes and other coarse fabrics, are termed "bump" yarns. sometimes the term candlewick is used for very coarse counts. the counts in the case of "bump" yarns are denoted by the number of yards weighing 1 ounce. this kind of weft is extensively used for coarse and heavy goods, such as bagging, alhambra quilts, etc. _example._--a yarn weighing 60 yards to the ounce would be termed 60's "bump." =bunting.=--a plain, loose, even-thread weave of mohair wool or worsted, used mostly for making flags. bunting, which is a material having to be dyed, is made of wool and not cotton or other vegetable fibre for the reason that wool has a greater affinity for dye-stuffs than cotton and retains them better. there is, however, a cotton fabric woven from low-count yarns, generally known as either butter muslin or cheese cloth, which is sometimes called bunting. =burlaps.=--a plain-woven, coarse, and heavy fabric made from jute, flax, or hemp, used for wrappings, upholstery, etc. =butcher's linen.=--a coarse, heavy, plain-weave linen. =cabled yarns.=--cabled yarns are produced by folding together "two-fold" threads. under the heading "folded yarn" it will be seen that when two single threads of 60's count yarn are twisted together they produce a two-fold 60's, written thus: 2/60. when three such two-fold yarns are twisted together they produce a six-fold 60's thread. sewing cottons, known in the trade as spool cotton, are good examples of cabled yarns. =cabot.=--a levant term for a rather coarse make of plain grey cloth, woven from coarse yarns (about 20's counts); 48 warp threads and the same number of picks to the inch. lancashire-made cabots are usually heavily sized. considerable quantities of this cloth are made in south carolina mills in 36-inch width and shipped to china under the name of american sheetings. =calico.=--this name is used to designate most plain-woven cotton fabrics which have simple designs printed on their face in either one or more colours. calicoes are usually in two colours, that is, one colour for the ground and the other for the figure or design. the ground colour is generally effected by piece-dyeing the fabric in some solid colour. after the cloth is dyed the design is printed on the cloth. being cheap fabrics, calicoes are generally given a "cheap common dye"--by this is meant that the colours are not fast and will run or fade when washed. the printing of calicoes is done by the aid of a machine whose main feature is a revolving cylinder on which the design has been stamped or cut out. such machines are capable of printing several colours in one design. calico is woven with a plain one-over and one-under weave. as a textile term it is applied to cheaper grades of plain cotton cloth, and the name is rightly applied when such cloths are printed. in the manchester district and in great britain generally the term calico is used only to designate a plain grey or white shirting or sheeting free from any ornamentation. =camel's hair.=--a loosely woven fabric of long-fibre wool. the term in its original sense is used to describe the soft downy fibre from the haunches and under parts of the camel. =camlets (woollen).=--an all-wool plain-woven fabric free from any ornamentation of weave produced either by combination of weave or extra warp or weft threads. it is invariably woven with the plain one-over and one-under weave from worsted yarns, which make the fabric somewhat lustrous. in width averaging 30 to 31 inches and in length 60 to 61 yards. camlets are only divisible into two kinds, dutch and english. the former variety appears to be no longer made, and one manufacturer states that practically 99 per cent. of the camlets imported into china are of the english variety. not unlike an alpaca in feel, though somewhat less lustrous, camlets may be compared to a very fine wool bunting. =camlets, dutch (woollen).=--this heading apparently covers a type of material which has almost disappeared from the market. originally a rough cloth made from camel's hair, it was known as either camlet or camelot. a somewhat ancient description is "a rough fabric composed of wool and cotton, or hair and silk with a wavy or variegated surface." a firm of manufacturers in bradford, written to for information under this heading, writes as follows: "this is a very ancient heading, and camlets now are only made in this country, and although there are about three qualities shipped to china, practically speaking, 99 per cent. are in the quality of the sample shown." the sample in question shows the fabric to be a plain, all-wool, fairly loosely plain-woven fabric dyed a bright vermilion. both warp and weft are of worsted yarn and hence it is a somewhat lustrous fabric; in width it averages between 30 and 31 inches, in length from 60 to 61 yards, and its average value during the 10 years 1904-14 was 40_s._ 5_d._ per piece. camlet somewhat resembles a fine bunting and has a harsh handle; somewhat stiff, it has the feel of an alpaca fabric. =camlets, english (woollen).=--this fabric is described under camlets, dutch. a typical sample of english-made woollen camlets showed the fabric to be a plain, all-wool, fairly loosely plain-woven fabric dyed a bright vermilion. both warp and weft are of worsted yarn, and hence it is a somewhat lustrous fabric, averaging 30 to 31 inches in width and 60 to 61 yards in length. average value of the quality generally imported into china was for the 10 years 1904-14 40_s._ 5_d._ per piece. somewhat harsh of handle, it resembles a fine bunting with the stiff feel of an alpaca. the earliest mention of english camlets is to be found in camden's "brittania," 1610, where, speaking of coventry, it is said: "its wealth, arising in the last age from the woollen and camblet manufacture, made it the only mart of this part." in the next century those of brussels are said to exceed all other camlets for beauty and quality, those of england being reputed second. =caniche.=--name given to a curled wool fabric showing the effect of the coat of the _caniche_, or french poodle. =canton flannel.=--this term is used to designate an all-cotton flannel, first made for and exported to canton. canton flannel will be found more fully described under "cotton flannel." it is a narrow heavy fabric, twill woven, showing twill on one side and having a long, soft, raised nap on the other. woven as a four-shaft twill for winter weights and as a three-shaft twill for the summer weight. width from 27 to 30 inches. canton flannel is taken direct from the loom, measured, napped, and folded, and packed for shipment. the yarn used to make this class of cloth is spun from low-grade cotton of from three-fourths to 1 inch in length of staple, generally dyed in bright colours. =canvas.=--canvas is a coarse plain-weave fabric woven from yarn which is hard twisted. it is often woven from folded yarn, and this may readily be seen in what is known as embroidery canvas. canvas used for sails is generally a stout strong-built cloth woven with "double warp coarse flax yarns." a term applied to heavy, plain, unbleached, dyed or yarn-dyed fabric, of different grades or weights properly made of ply yarns, although the term more frequently applies to fabrics of such similar appearance made without or partially of ply yarn. various sorts of canvases are known in different trades, such as embroidery canvas, duck, dress canvas, mercerised canvas, etc. dress fabrics, the principal part of which are of such a construction, are still termed canvas in the distributing trade when they contain stripes or fancy effects of other weaves. =carbonising.=--all-wool cloths and even raw wool very often contain a certain amount of vegetable matter, such as burrs, the chemical composition of which is similar to that of cotton, and as it is at times very desirable to extract this vegetable matter, the cloth or fibre is for this purpose subjected to a process known as carbonising. the material is passed through a bath containing sulphuric acid of a suitable strength and temperature. upon drying, the acid concentrates upon the vegetable matter, converting it into hydrocellulose, which, being in the form of a powder, is easily removed, while the wool, not being acted upon by the acid to any considerable extent, remains intact. this system would be employed to test the percentage of cotton in any union fabric: by carefully weighing the sample prior to treatment and again after all the vegetable matter had been carbonised the proportion of cotton to wool can readily be ascertained. =casement cloth.=--a plain-woven fabric used for casement window curtains and usually white or cream-coloured. casement cloth is made from either mohair, alpaca, or cotton. the cotton variety is made from high-class yarns, well woven, and is mercerised before bleaching or dyeing. =cashmere.=--a cloth made from the hair of the cashmere goat. the face of the fabric is twilled, the twills or diagonal lines being uneven and irregular owing to the unevenness of the yarn. cashmere was originally made from hand-spun yarn. in the knitted goods trade the word cashmere, when applied to hosiery or underwear, means goods made of fine worsted yarns spun from saxony or other soft wools. cashmere has been described as being a lightly woven woollen fabric of twilled construction and soft finish, having the twill on the "right" side, _i.e._, on the face of the fabric. it is sometimes woven with a cotton warp and fine botany wool weft. an all-cotton variety, woven in the same way as the true cashmere, is also met with: it is known as cotton cashmere. =cashmere double.=--a cashmere cloth having as a distinctive feature a twill face and a poplin-corded effect on the reverse. =cashmere wool= is the fine, extremely soft, grey or white fur of the cashmere goat, which is bred in tibet. there are two kinds of fibre obtained: one, which is really the outer covering, consisting of long tufts of hair, beneath which is found the other, the true cashmere wool of commerce, a soft downy wool of brownish grey tint having a fine silky fibre. =castor.=--a heavy cloth, manufactured of fine wool with a finish on the face made to imitate the fur of the beaver. this cloth differs from beaver cloth only in its weight, castor cloth being lighter than beaver. =cellular cloth.=--a plain leno fabric having an open cellular structure, which is specially suited for shirtings and underwear. cellular cloth is also found with stripes of different weave, though still a form of leno weave to the rest of the fabric. =ceylon or ceylon flannel.=--a coloured striped cloth woven with a cotton and wool mixture weft. the warp threads which form the stripes are dyed in the yarn prior to weaving. =challis.=--the name is given to a light-weight plain or figured material made either of cotton or wool or a mixture of both. an all-wool challis has, when plain woven, the appearance of a muslin delaine. usually printed. =chambray.=--chambray is a staple fabric of many years standing, being next in line of the cotton goods after the better grades of gingham. it is a light-weight single cloth fabric, always woven with a plain weave and a white selvedge. it is woven from warp and weft which may be either all cotton, cotton and silk, or all silk: it has an average width of 27 or 30 inches and weighs 2 to 3½ ounces per finished yard. when made as an all-cotton fabric it is finished in the same way as a gingham. =charmeuse.=--a light-weight satin having a high natural lustre. =checks.=--fabrics having rectangular patterns formed by crossing the threads of a striped warp with weft threads of the same order. "mock" checks are produced by combining weave effects. when checks are woven without a highly variegated colouring they are known as ginghams. =cheese cloth.=--a very open and lightly constructed thin cotton fabric of light weight and low-count yarns, woven with a plain weave, weighing from 9 to 12 yards to the pound. cheese cloth is often used for bunting, by which name it is sometimes known. the cheese cloth used for wrapping round cheese and butter after they have been pressed is a bleached cloth. =cheviot.=--most stout woollen fabrics which have a rough or shaggy face are described as cheviots, which has become a term denoting more a class of goods than a particular fabric. it has a slightly felted, short, even nap on the face, and is often made of "pulled wool," which is the wool taken from the pelts of dead sheep. mungo, shoddy, and a fair percentage of cotton enter into the composition of the yarn from which it is made. irrespective of the quality of the yarn used, however, cheviots are finished either with a "rough" or a close finish. the weave may either be plain or twill. =chiffon.=--a sheer silk tissue of plain weave and soft finish. the word is often used to indicate light weight and soft finish, as chiffon velvet. =chinchilla.=--a fabric made of fine wool, having a surface composed of small tufts closely united. the name is spanish for a fur-bearing animal of the mink species, and the fabric is an imitation of the fur. =chiné.=--warp-printed: a fabric wherein the design, being printed on the warps, appears somewhat faintly and in indefinite outline. the weft is not printed, but is generally in the white. some varieties, occasionally met with, have a coloured weft. this class of fabric is also known as a shadow cretonne, when the designs are of the variety generally used in cretonne fabrics. =chintz.=--when this name is applied to a fabric other than a printed chintz it is used to designate a woven chintz, which is a fabric on the warp threads of which, before being woven into cloth, various coloured designs have been printed. many silk ribbons are chintz woven. where the colours seem to have run in the pattern the name chene is sometimes used. warp-printed chintz is also known as shadow cretonne, from the softness of the design due to the white weft blurring the sharpness of the design printed on the warp. =clip spots.=--figured muslins ornamented by small detached figures of extra warp or weft, the floating material between the spots being afterwards clipped or sheared off. =coated cotton cloths.=--this name is given to a cloth having one or both surfaces coated with paint, varnish, pigments, or other substances. examples of coated cloths are tracing cloth, bookbinder's cloth, imitation vellum, oilcloths, and oilskins. =collarette.=--a wide knitted neckband used on men's undershirts in lieu of binding. =coloured.=--this term, when applied to textile fabrics, is used to show that the fabric which is designated as "coloured" has been dyed in the yarn and not dyed subsequently to having been woven, _i.e._, it has been woven from coloured yarns. =coloured crimp cloth.=--like all other fabrics that are designated as "coloured," coloured crimp cloth is dyed in the yarn and not piece-dyed. coloured crimp cloth is essentially a crimp cloth which has been woven from previously dyed yarn; apart from this difference it answers the description given under crimp cloth, plain or crimps. =coloured lists.=--all serges, etc., that are dyed in the wool or yarn, as against those dyed in the piece, have coloured lists or edging. the word "list" is another name for selvedge. =coloured woollen and worsted yarns.=--the most important coloured woollen and worsted yarns are: (_a._) mixtures, (_b._) mélanges, (_c._) marls, and (_d._) twists. (_a._) _mixtures._--a mixture yarn is one composed of fibres of two or more colours which have been thoroughly blended. in woollens the wool is dyed after scouring and the mixing accomplished during the carding process. (_b._) _mélange._--this is a fine mixture yarn produced from a top-printed sliver. the result is obtained by printing at regular intervals the required colours on the top of the sliver. the mixing of the fibres and colours is brought about during the drawing and spinning processes. as a rule only long fibres such as mohair are subjected to this method of treatment. in these yarns, on many fibres two or more colours may be clearly seen under the microscope. (_c._) _marls._--a term sometimes applied to three-fold twist yarns, but more correctly applied to a yarn which is between a twist and the mixture yarn. it is produced by combing two or more slivers of different colour in the later drawing operations, and in consequence the colours are not so thoroughly blended as in the case of mixture yarns. (_d._) _twists._--this class of yarn is produced by simply twisting or folding together two or more yarns of different colours. =corduroy.=--corduroy, like many other low-grade cotton fabrics woven with a pile weave, such as cotton velvets, velveteens, moleskins, is really a fustian. the pile surface of corduroys does not cover the surface of the fabric uniformly, as in the case of velveteens, for instance, but runs in straight lines or ribs, which may be of different sizes and have round or flat tops. when a corduroy has a twill back it is known as a "genoa" backed corduroy; when, as in the lighter makes, the back shows a plain weave it is known as "tabby" backed. corduroy is a cotton fabric with the ribs running lengthways of the piece. the pile is a weft pile. corduroys are made in many varieties--known as fine reed, eight shafts, thicksets, constitution, cables, etc. constitution and cables have broad floats or races which are some distance apart. the term corduroy, when applied to hosiery, is used to designate stockings which are commonly known as two-and-two rib, or two ribs alternating on face and back of children's stockings. =côtelé.=--a ribbed weave in flat, rather wide effect. =cotton.=--cotton is the most used of all vegetable fibres for the manufacture of textiles. length and fineness of individual fibres go towards making quality; shortness and coarseness of fibre make for low qualities. the chief classes of cotton are known as sea island, egyptian, american, brazilian, peruvian, east indian, the first mentioned being the highest and the last the lowest quality. qualities are designated in each class as follows:- 1. fair. 2. middling fair. 3. good middling. 4. middling. 5. low middling. 6. good ordinary. 7. ordinary. east indian type of cotton fibres measure on an average but half an inch, as compared with 2 inches in sea island type. =cotton duck.=--duck being a fabric which is sometimes woven in linen, to refer to it simply as duck might be misleading; hence, although when used by itself the term duck is generally recognised to mean a cotton fabric, to differentiate between the two the word cotton or linen is used. this fabric is described under "duck." =cotton flannel.=--as the name implies, cotton flannel is a material woven in cotton in imitation of the real all-wool flannel. it is either a plain or a twill woven fabric which has had the weft on one or both sides of the fabric "raised" or "napped." this is done by passing the fabric, whilst it is tightly stretched, over a revolving cylinder, the surface of which is covered with small steel hooks or teasels; these, scratching as they do the surface of the fabric, tear up very slightly the short fibres and cover the fabric with a "nap," which is afterwards cut down uniformly. cotton flannel was first made for the canton market. cotton flannels may be either "single raised" or "double raised"; in the first only one side of the fabric is raised, in the second both sides are raised. whilst cotton flannel clearly shows that the fabric is a cotton one, the term flannelette does not necessarily mean that it is a purely cotton fabric identical with cotton flannel. flannelette may contain wool, even if only in very small percentage, but by trade usage the name is used to designate only an all-cotton fabric. =cotton plush.=--the term plush being a generic term applied to cut-pile fabrics having the pile deeper than ordinary velvet, velveteen, etc., it follows that cotton plush is essentially a cotton-pile fabric with a somewhat deeper pile than velveteen. cotton plushes may be woven with either plain or twill back, the plain-backed variety being known as a "genoa" plush and the twill-backed variety as a "tabby" plush. =cotton yarn measures.=- 54 inches = 1 thread (or circumference of wrap reel). 4,320 " = 80 threads = 1 lea. 30,240 " = 560 " = 7 lea = 1 hank. 1 hank = 840 yards. 1 bundle is usually 10 lb. in weight. the french system of numbering cotton yarns is as follows:- 1,000 metres weighing 500 grammes = no. 1's. 1,000 " " 250 " = no. 2's. 1,000 " " 50 " = no. 10's. 1,000 " " 25 " = no. 20's. the count is therefore arrived at by dividing the number of metres reeled by twice the number of grammes they weigh. =counts.=--the size of yarn is technically called the "count," and it is based upon the number of hanks, "cuts," or "runs" of a given length which are required to weigh 1 pound. the standard length of the hank varies according to the nature of the yarn. cotton yarn measures 840 yards per hank; worsted yarn measures 560 yards per hank; woollen yarn measures 256 or 300 yards per "cut," "run," or hank, according to district; linen measures 300 yards per lea; and spun silk, 840 yards per hank. the number of such "cuts," "runs," hanks, or leas required to weigh 1 pound avoirdupois equal the number of the count. when woollen yarn is in gala cuts of 300 yards the number of such cuts required to weigh 24 ounces equal the count: this becomes equivalent to the number of 200 yards required to weigh 1 pound. =coutil.=--french for drill. a strong three-thread twill cloth with herring-bone stripes dyed drab or french grey and used for corset-making. =covert.=--a wool or worsted cloth, usually in fine twill weave, in small mixture effect. there are various grades of coverts and they all have as a distinctive feature neutral tones of colour. the real covert cloth is always made from double and twist warp yarns and single fillings. the weave is such that the filling yarn does not show on the face of the cloth, therefore almost any shade similar in general tone to the warp may be used as filling. cheap grades are made as a piece-dyed union mixture containing up to 30 per cent. cotton. they are also known as venetian coverts when they have a pronounced whipcord effect. the weave is a sateen weave of the warp-face variety. =crabbing.=--one of the many processes through which cloth goes from the time it leaves the loom on its way to being turned out as a finished fabric. the object of crabbing is to fix or set the cloth at the width it has to be as a finished fabric. the actual operation of crabbing consists of running the cloth at a tension on to a steaming or boiling roller. the axle or core of the roller is hollow and perforated; the cloth having been tightly wound round, steam is forced through the perforations and right through the mass of tightly wound cloth. the superheated steam sets the cloth. =crape cloth, plain.=--plain crape cloth is an all-cotton fabric, plain woven from hard-twisted cotton yarns and is free from any woven or printed ornamentation. the nature of the hard-twisted yarn is such that it readily shrinks or curls in length when not kept at a high tension; this, together with subsequent finishing operations, causes a considerable contraction to take place, resulting in an uneven crinkled surface, which is the chief characteristic of crape. the crinkled surface in true crape is obtained in several ways: (1) by combination of materials; (2) by weave combination; (3) by combination of (1) and (2); (4) by mechanical arrangements during weaving; (5) by subjecting fabrics specially constructed to a special chemical process during finishing. the cheaper grades of crape have the crinkled effect produced by suitably prepared rollers through which the cloth is passed, and the crinkled effect in cotton crapes is not always the result of true crape weaving, which relies on the irregularity of the interweaving of threads to produce the crape effect. in width crape seldom exceeds 30 inches, but is made up in pieces of varying length. the name is also applied to a thin, transparent, "crisp" or crumpled silk material, usually black, which is used in mourning, as well as to a sort of thin worsted material of which the dress of the clergy is sometimes made. =crash.=--a coarse plain-weave linen material in which the unevenness of the weft yarns gives a rough surface to the cloth. there are various grades of crash, of which the coarser and more irregular kinds are used for towelling, whilst the finer are dress materials. some crash fabrics are woven from waste cotton. =cravenette.=--a waterproofing process applied to fabrics made of silk, wool, or cotton. not a fabric. =crêpe de chine.=--a sheer silk having a minute crape effect in the weave. the name in its correct acceptance applies to an all-silk fabric, but there are also cotton and silk mixed fabrics which bear this name, and at times even all-cotton fabrics have been so designated--by the retailer, at least. all the materials which are known by this name are of comparatively light weight. in practically all these fabrics the lustre is imparted by the warp yarns, which are likely to be of better silk than the filling. the filling yarns are twisted harder than for ordinary cloth. the hard twisting of any yarn will so curl up the fibres that they will not lie parallel and so will not reflect light and give lustre. all-silk crêpe de chine fabrics have a width of about 40 inches, whilst all-cotton and cotton and silk mixtures average 27 inches in width. the all-cotton variety is most often simply designated as crêpe. =crêpe meteor.=--a lustrous silk crêpe. =crepoline.=--a fabric of a warp rib character in which the regular order of the weave is so broken as to give a "rib crape" effect. =crépon.=--a dress fabric of silk or wool in which the design is produced by using yarns having a different degree of stretch, so that portions of the fabric are crisped, crinkled, or apparently blistered, either irregularly or in set designs. =cretonne.=--this fabric is essentially a printed cotton fabric woven either with a plain twill satin or oatmeal weave. the weft is generally made from waste and is not very regular. cretonnes, being used mainly for curtains, hangings, or furniture coverings, are generally printed with large, bold, and highly coloured designs. it is woven with a bleached or grey cotton warp and filling in widths ranging from 25 to 36 inches, and for curtains in widths up to 50 inches. their main feature is their large bright-coloured floral designs, and their value depends to a great extent upon the artistic merits of these designs. sometimes a fancy weave or small brocaded effect may occur in this class of fabric, but it is seldom met with, and it is not representative of the true cretonne fabric. flax also is said to be used in the manufacture of certain grades of cretonnes, without, however, taking them out of the class to which cretonne fabrics belong. =crimp cloth, plain, or crimps.=--crimps are plain-woven all-cotton fabrics which have as their distinctive feature "cockled" striped effects. these "crimped" or "cockled" stripes are produced by dividing the warp threads into two separate "beams," one of which is under greater tension than the other; that is to say, the warp threads from one of the beams will be tight and the others slack. these slack threads in the process of weaving are "taken up" more rapidly and form the "crimped" stripes. crimps may also be produced by subjecting fabrics specially constructed to a special chemical process during finishing, or by passing the material through suitable rollers which will stretch the material in some places more than in others and thus artificially produce the "cockled" stripe. crimps are made up in widths seldom exceeding 30 inches; the length of pieces, however, may vary considerably. it is also known as seersucker or crinkle. =crinkle, or seersucker.=--names given to striped fabrics of the crimp type. seersucker originally meant a silk fabric. =cross-dyed.=--cross-dyed goods may be described as fabrics woven with black or coloured cotton warps and wool or worsted fillings and afterwards dyed in the piece. this process is resorted to because the warp and filling of a fabric woven with a cotton warp and a wool filling, and then piece-dyed, would not become identical in colour, as cotton and wool have not the same attraction for dye. cross-dyeing is generally used in mohair, alpaca, and lustre fabrics, and the principal cloths in this classification are cotton warp figured melroses, florentines, glacés, brilliantines, lustres, alpacas, and mohairs. _see_ union cloth. =crossover.=--this name is given to fabrics having stripes, of either colour or weave effect, extending across the width of the cloth from selvedge to selvedge. =cut goods.=--underwear made of either ribbed or flat webbing knitted into long rolls and cut to the proper lengths and sections for garments, after which the various parts are sewed together. =cuttling.=--plaiting cloth in folds; used in the same sense as lapping and folding, as opposed to rolling into bolts. =damask.=--the name damask is technically applied to certain classes of fabrics richly decorated with figures of foliage, fruits, scrolls, and other ornamental patterns, usually of a large and elaborate character. the weaves usually employed are twills (mostly satin twills), and the figures in the fabric are made by alternately exchanging warp for weft surface or _vice versa_. the materials employed vary according to the purpose to which the fabrics are to be applied. in the manufacture of upholstery cloth for hangings and furniture covering, silk or worsted is used; while for table covers, towels, napkins, etc., linen is generally employed, except in the cheapest grades, when cotton is the material used. damask was originally applied only to silken fabrics whose designs were very elaborately woven in colours and often with either gold or silver threads. although in the majority of damask fabrics nothing but satin twill weaves are employed (principally five and eight shaft), very good effects are obtained by combining other weaves with satin twills. where damasks are made all of one colour, as in white linen table covers, the effect is given by the threads lying at right angles to each other; the light falling upon them brings the pattern in bold relief and makes it easily visible. =damassé.=--applied to fabrics having a rich woven design. similar to damask. =delaine.=--a term applied to plain-woven materials made "of wool." the term probably originated in france and was applied there to all plain-woven fabrics of light weight made of wool. as used at present, the term may be combined with another name, and then purely designates the nature of the material used in the manufacture of the fabric, such as in muslin delaine. =denim.=--a stout cotton warp-faced twill cloth, generally woven as a four-end twill. the warp is dyed either blue or brown before weaving, whilst the weft is grey; they are both of coarse counts. denim, being a warp-faced material, has the warp on the surface; and as the warp is made of coloured yarns, the cloth when woven shows a solid coloured surface. the back of the fabric shows the bulk of the weft threads, and these, being in the grey, give the back of the cloth a distinctive lighter colour than the face of the cloth. like all warp-faced twill weave, the back of the cloth shows a plain-weave effect. denims have generally a white edging forming the selvedge; they range from medium to heavy weight and are largely used in the manufacture of workmen's overalls. =derby rib.=--applied to hosiery having six ribs on the face alternating with three on the back. =diagonal.=--this name is applied to plain or figured twills of bold character and originates in the twill effect, which, in relation to the length of the fabric, runs in a diagonal direction. this twill effect is produced by raising warp threads in groups in a progressive order, the filling thus making them stand out in ridges or heavy twill. =diaper.=--this term as applied to fabrics is used to describe two distinct styles, the first of which consists of a small diamond weave, while the second and true diaper has rectangular figures or dice interwoven on the damask principle. in cotton fabrics it is confined to diced or diamond reversible patterns on a small scale. the weave is produced by the interchanging of warp and weft. in linen fabrics, also, it is used to produce diced, diamond, and bird's-eye patterns, and also small reversible damask patterns. in some districts the names dorneck and diced are used instead of diaper. =dimity.=--a fine cotton fabric, plain or printed, having a cord design running lengthways of the piece. the figures are often arranged in alternate stripes and appear as if embossed, this effect being due to the coarse weft "flushes." a cheaper kind is sometimes made by arranging a reversed woven stripe of warp-face and weft-face twill on a plain ground texture. =discharge printing.=--in what is known as the "discharge" style of printing, the cloth is first impregnated throughout its whole substance by being either vat-dyed or pad-dyed; then the cloth is dried, but the colour is not fixed. it is next passed through the printing machine, and chemicals having the property of preventing the development are printed on it, either alone or in combination with other colouring matters. the ground colour is then developed by steaming, and the printed pattern, white or coloured, is obtained upon a coloured ground. =dobbie, or dobby.=--this name is used to describe a type of loom used for the production of certain classes of figured fabrics which have a great many points of similarity with fabrics produced by means of a jacquard loom. the distinctive feature of a dobby loom is the series of lattices into which pegs are inserted, which control the lifting of heald shafts in their proper order, so as to form the shed, the heald shafts being pulled down again by means of springs after having been lifted up to form a shed. =domestics.=--this term is used in the textile producing districts of great britain to denote a class of medium and heavy weight grey cloths, plain or twill woven, the better qualities of which are not exported but used for home or domestic consumption. =domet.=--a strong, heavy, twill-woven cotton fabric resembling canton or cotton flannel, having a raised or napped surface on both sides of the fabric. domet may be either in the grey or white and is a plain fabric. =double cloth weave.=--where two single cloths are so woven that they are combined together and make but one, it becomes known as a double cloth and is the result of double-cloth weaving. double cloth is woven either to obtain two well-defined and finished faces or to allow of a heavy material being made with a good quality face and with the back made up of a cloth composed of inferior material. this style of weaving is resorted to when the object is to produce certain kinds of bulky or heavy overcoating. =double sole, heel, and toe= means an extra thread added to hosiery at points mentioned. strictly speaking, "double" applies only to single-thread goods. =double warps.=--the name double warp is used to designate various kinds of fabrics of good quality in which the warp threads consist of two-fold yarn. not to be mistaken as designating two-ply or double-weave fabrics. =drap d'été.=--allied to cashmere in weave, but heavier. =dresden.=--a small unobtrusive design in pastel colourings. =drills.=--drills are strong, heavy, warp-faced fabrics woven from yarns of good quality with a three (two warp and one weft), four (three warp and one weft), or five (four warp and one weft) end twill weave. when so woven they are known as florentine drills, of which the khaki drill so often met with in the colonies is a good example. drills are also woven with a warp sateen weave which have--as the twill effect is done away with--a smooth surface. drills may be either linen or cotton fabrics, grey or white, bleached or dyed, printed or striped. they average 40 yards in length per piece and vary in weight from under 10 to 12¾ pounds or over per piece and 31 inches in width. the name is from the latin _trilex_, of three threads, and is applied to a "three-thread twilled cloth." cotton drill is a medium weight single cloth weighing from 4 to 6 ounces and composed of all-cotton yarns, warp, and filling, and is generally woven as a three-end twill-weave fabric. =drillette.=--this is a cotton fabric, finer and lighter in make than the ordinary cotton drill. drillette of 30-inch width is imported into colonial markets, where it is largely used for linings and pocketing. =duchesse.=--a satin fabric having the back woven in flat twills, with a smooth surface. =duck.=--duck is a heavy single-cloth cotton fabric made of coarse two-ply yarn of plain weave. lighter than canvas, duck is woven on the same principle as canvas. duck on leaving the loom is finished by washing and sizing, drying and pressing; this gives the finished material a peculiar, hard, stiff feel. there are linen ducks, but they are specially designated as linen ducks, the term duck being used to denote the cotton variety. better qualities of duck, such as are used for tropical suitings, are woven with a two-and-two matt dice or hopsack weave. the term "two-and-two" means that two weft threads pass alternately under and over two warp threads, exactly as if a plain weave had been doubled and the weave worked with two threads instead of one; the plain weave is often termed a one-and-one weave. _see_ cotton duck. =dungaree.=--a stout cotton warp-faced twill cloth woven as a four-end twill from coarse-count warp and weft. the only difference between this fabric and a denim is that in the latter the weft is grey, whereas in a dungaree both the warp and the weft have been dyed prior to weaving. dungaree, being a warp-faced material, has the warp on the surface, and as both warp and weft are dyed yarns, the cloth, when woven, shows a solid coloured surface. =duplex prints.=--fabrics which have one set of patterns printed on the face of the cloth and another different pattern or design printed on the reverse side are generally styled duplex prints. they differ from fabrics which have been printed in colour on one face, but in such a manner that the printed pattern has soaked through and shows--though less sharply--on the back of the fabric. the duplex print is the result of two distinct printing operations, first on one side, then on the other side, of a fabric. this being the essential condition for a duplex print, it follows that the two patterns need not be different. fabrics printed on one side only, but in such a way that the design shows equally or nearly so on both sides, are not duplex prints. =dyeing.=--this term is used to describe the colouring of materials to enhance their value and appearance. there are five methods of producing colour in the fabric:- 1. raw material dyeing. 2. yarn dyeing. 3. cross dyeing. 4. mixed dyeing. 5. piece dyeing. unless the process is specially mentioned when a fabric is spoken of as "dyed," it can be taken that what is meant is that the fabric was "piece-dyed," _i.e._, dyed in the piece after being taken off the loom. a dyed fabric is one which has been impregnated with some colouring matter and this irrespective of the means adopted to so impregnate it. whether the fabric once woven has been allowed to- 1º. remain in a dye vat soaking up dye, or 2º. whether it has been drawn through a series of troughs containing dye (continuous or pad-dyeing process) with a view to its absorbing the dye-is immaterial. where both sides of a fabric are equally coloured, and where a fabric shows that there has been thorough saturation, that fabric is said to be dyed. =dyed and printed.=--this term is used to designate any fabric which has been first impregnated with colouring matter either by being vat-dyed or pad-dyed, and which in addition has been ornamented by having certain designs impressed on the surface of the fabric in either one or more colours. this is known as direct printing. fabrics may be dyed and printed by various styles of printing, such as "discharge," which consists of printing chemicals upon dyed fabrics in designs, the chemicals causing the dye to come out wherever applied, leaving the printed design either white or in a different colour from that of the dyed ground. "resist" or "reserve" style of printing is a process used to obtain white figures on a coloured ground. in this process the designs are printed in substances that are impervious to the dye into which the cloth is subsequently placed. the cloth is dyed, but all parts covered by the resist agent remain white. =dyed alpacianos.=--this fabric is found grouped in the revised import tariff for the trade of china under "dyed cottons." alpacianos, as the name of a fabric, seems to have fallen into disuse and is probably a very old name. dyed alpacianos would appear to be an all-cotton fabric piece-dyed after leaving the loom, probably averaging between 28 and 31 inches in width and about 25 yards in length per piece. the particular weave of alpacianos is not described in any modern book of reference dealing with textiles. names of fabrics vary, come into fashion, and die out. few connected with modern textile industries could describe, say, fabrics such as "durant," "tammy," or "everlasting webster," yet not so very long ago there were fabrics currently sold under these names. =dyed balzarines.=--the cotton variety of this somewhat ancient fabric was an all-cotton light-weight open fabric resembling gauze, approximating 30 inches in width and 30 yards in length per piece, piece-dyed in solid colours after leaving the loom. _see_ balzarines. =dyed cambrics.=--real cambric is essentially a plain-woven linen fabric of light weight and soft finish, but the kind of cambric most often met with is a cotton fabric of similar weave. dyed cotton cambrics are piece-dyed after leaving the loom and, like white cambrics, are generally finished with a smooth glazed surface. the differentiation between cotton cambrics and muslins is somewhat difficult, as the term cambric is often applied to what are in reality muslins. =dyed corduroys (cotton).=--the term is used to describe a pile-weave ribbed cotton fabric which has been coloured in the piece with a view to enhance its value and appearance. =dyed cotton lastings.=--this fabric is a plain all-cotton twill or kindred weave material firmly woven from hard-twisted yarns and piece-dyed after weaving. lastings enter largely into the manufacture of uppers for boots and shoes. =dyed cotton spanish stripes.=--a plain-woven all-cotton fabric woven with a plain weave, having both surfaces raised, giving the fabric the general appearance of flannelette; being a dyed fabric, it is piece-dyed after leaving the loom. as a distinctive feature, spanish stripes have a list or edge of different colour to the main body of the fabric. the warp threads are finer and harder twisted than the filling threads, which are soft and full to facilitate the raising during the process of finishing. in width this fabric may vary between 28 and 64 inches, and in length it averages 25 yards. a similar fabric woven from dyed yarns would be a coloured woven fabric and would not belong to the dyed cotton variety. =dyed crimp cloth.=--an all-cotton fabric having the distinctive "cockled" striped effect of crimp cloth. this cockled effect is produced by greater tension in some of the warp threads than in others. dyed crimp cloth is piece-dyed after leaving the loom and is distinguishable from coloured woven crimp cloth, which is woven from coloured yarns. this material seldom exceeds 30 inches in width, the length per piece varies. =dyed drills.=--a heavy twill-woven all-cotton fabric, the weave of which is described under "drills," which has been dyed in the piece, _i.e._, impregnated with a uniform colour over its whole surface. =dyed figured cottons.=--under this heading may be grouped all such fabrics which (_a_) are made of all cotton, (_b_) are figured by having any design, large or small, woven or embossed, on their surface, (_c_) are dyed in any colour, and (_d_) are not otherwise enumerated. the fabrics coming under this heading include both fabrics which have not been subjected to any special process of finishing and those which have been so treated, irrespective of the style of finish. the ribs or reps of such fabrics, which are known as "reps" or "ribs," do not in themselves constitute figures. printing produces a style of ornamentation which does not rightly belong to this class of goods, in which it must only be the result of weaving or embossing. =dyed figured cotton italians.=--this name is used to designate an all-cotton fabric having the characteristic even, close, smooth surface of the plain italian cloth, but which, in addition, has had its surface ornamented with any figures, floral or geometrical effects, etc., this figuring having been produced either by means of extra threads, or by combining the warp and weft threads, or by having the pattern or outline of the design impressed, stamped, or embossed in the fabric, which, as it is a "dyed" fabric, has been coloured after leaving the loom. =dyed figured cotton lastings.=--this fabric is essentially an all-cotton twill or kindred weave material firmly woven from hard-twisted yarn, which has been figured or ornamented in the weaving by the introduction of a small floral or geometrical design. the fabric, being a "dyed fabric," is piece-dyed. like plain lastings, this material enters largely into the manufacture of uppers for boots and shoes. =dyed figured cotton reps.=--this name is used to designate an all-cotton material which is primarily a rep fabric. it combines the prominent reps or ribs running transversely across the face of the cloth, which is the distinctive feature of a plain rep fabric, with certain small figures, floral or geometrical effects, etc., which are introduced for the purpose of ornamentation. this figuring may be produced either by means of extra threads on the surface of the cloth, by the mode of interlacing the warp and the weft threads on the surface of the cloth, or by having the pattern or outline of the design impressed or stamped in the fabric, which, as it is a dyed fabric, has been coloured after leaving the loom. this kind of material averages 32 inches in width and 32 yards in length per piece. =dyed figured ribs.=--this name is used to designate a fabric which is primarily a rib material having the characteristic rep or rib running from selvedge to selvedge, or, in some cases, lengthways of the fabric, but which, in addition, has had its surface ornamented with any figures, floral or geometrical designs. this ornamentation constitutes the figuring and is produced either by means of extra threads or by having the pattern or outline of the design impressed, stamped, or embossed in the fabric, which, as it is a dyed fabric, has been coloured after leaving the loom. a dyed figured cotton rib would be an all-cotton material with an average width of 32 inches and averaging 32 yards to the piece. =dyed fustians.=--fustians embrace two classes of finished goods, some of which are characterised in finishes by a nap raised on the fabric, such as moleskins, beaverteens, etc. the other class comprises cut pile fabrics, variously known in the trade by distinctive names, such as velveteen and corduroy. fustians are essentially all-cotton fabrics. dyed fustians are piece-dyed fabrics and not woven from coloured yarns. =dyed imitation turkey reds.=--the fabric of which this class of goods is an imitation is generally a twill-faced all-cotton cloth piece-dyed with a cochineal dye, which is fast to light and washing. the dyed imitation turkey red is similar in construction of fabric, but depends for its colouring upon a chemical or synthetic dye which, while it resembles cochineal, has not the same qualities of fastness. dyed imitation turkey reds are piece-dyed fabrics averaging in width 32 inches and in length 25 yards per piece. fabrics coming under this heading are invariably plain, _i.e._, unornamented either through weave combination, printing, or embossing. =dyed in the piece or piece-dyed.=--these terms virtually explain themselves. when a fabric is impregnated with a uniform colour over its whole surface it is said to be dyed in the piece or piece-dyed. piece-dyeing is open to produce cloud spots, stains, etc., which would not appear if the yarn had been dyed previously to being woven, for in that case even if the yarn had in parts got stained it would not show as a clearly defined stain in the fabric once woven. piece-dyed fabrics may sometimes be distinguished from yarn-dyed fabrics by unravelling threads of each kind. in the case of yarn-dyed fabrics, the dyestuff has penetrated through the yarn, while in the case of piece-dyed fabrics the dye-stuff has not the same chance of penetrating yarn as completely. the term "dyed in the grey" (_see under_ union cloth) has a similar meaning to "dyed in the piece" or "piece-dyed." =dyed lawns= are plain-woven light-weight cotton fabrics of soft finish which have been piece-dyed, _i.e._, impregnated with a uniform colour over their whole surface after leaving the loom. they vary in weight from 1¼ to 2¼ ounces per square yard and in width from 27 to 46 inches. they answer to descriptions of white lawns (which see), and differ from them only in regard to the fact that they are piece-dyed. =dyed lenos.=--this fabric or class of fabric is an all-cotton material woven with a gauze and leno weave and subsequently piece-dyed. the description of leno fabrics given in a united states government publication reads: "a term frequently used where various weaves or combination of weaves also have warp threads crossing over one or more warp threads instead of lying parallel to one another throughout the fabric. the warp threads which thus appear in a zig-zag way either on the surface or closely interwoven in the fabric, are, in addition to interlacing with the filling threads, also crossing their neighbouring warp threads that continue in a parallel line with the selvedges." leno fabrics generally show stripe effects, the exception to this being the all-over leno, which resembles in weave the ordinary cellular cloth. =dyed leno brocade.=--this term is used to designate a fabric woven in the leno style, that is to say, in a combination of "gauze weaving" and any other style of weave, and the term brocade shows that it is a figured fabric having a figure chiefly constructed by weft threads floating on the surface of the material. as in this class of fabric the threads are not dyed prior to weaving, the term "dyed" shows that the material has been dyed after it has left the loom. _see also_ lenos. =dyed muslins.=--dyed muslin is an all-cotton fabric of light weight, plain woven, which has been piece-dyed, _i.e._, impregnated with a uniform colour over its whole surface. there is a difficulty in describing muslins, for the term muslin, according to one government publication, is "a generic term for thin plain-woven cotton cloth. the name, however, is frequently used in conjunction with such names as dotted, fancy, figured, spot, check, swiss, etc., which in each case would denote some combination weave, or as containing stripes or checks, but the fabric still preserving a light weight." from this, however, it seems clear that a muslin is a plain non-figured fabric of light weight. =dyed plain cottons.=--under this heading may be grouped all such fabrics which (_a_) are made of all cotton, (_b_) have a surface which has not been ornamented by the introduction of any small figures, floral or geometrical designs, whether produced by means of extra threads or by the mode of interlacing the warp and weft threads on the surface of the cloth or by having the pattern or outline of the design impressed or stamped in the fabric, (_c_) are dyed in any colour, and (_d_) are not otherwise enumerated. the fabrics coming under this heading include both fabrics which have not been subjected to any special process of finishing and those which have been so treated, irrespective of the style of finish. =dyed plain cotton italians.=--the fabric answering to this description is primarily an all-cotton italian cloth whose surface does not show any ornamentation produced either by weaving, printing, embossing, or any other process. the fact that the fabric has been specially finished, to improve its appearance, by being mercerised, schreinered, gassed, silk or electric finished, does not alter its nature of a "plain" cloth. the fabric, being a "dyed" fabric, is one which has been coloured after leaving the loom. as italian cloths are generally woven from a black warp and grey weft and, after weaving, dyed in the piece, they are really "cross-dyed." =dyed real turkey reds.=--turkey reds are a class of staples whose salient distinctive feature is the fact that the dye used in their manufacture is cochineal dye. real turkey reds are absolutely fast dyed, the colour will not run when washed, and it will not appreciably fade when exposed to the action of the sun. turkey reds are piece-dyed, that is to say, the cotton fabric is woven, generally a twill-faced cloth, and the piece is dyed. it is not woven of yarn previously dyed. there does exist a yarn dyed with turkey red; this, however, is principally used for weaving in to the ends of pieces of white shirting or sheeting certain distinguishing red weft threads, markings that are placed there by the manufacturer of the grey goods (1) to facilitate recognition of his goods when they come back from the bleacher, (2) to denominate quality of goods by acting as a distinctive mark, (3) to prevent the piece being cut at either end and the part cut off stolen whilst at the bleachers. this yarn is also used for markings which are to withstand washing without running. the cost of dyeing the grey or white fabric into a turkey red is often greater than the original value of the fabric. =dyed reps= are fabrics which have as a predominant feature a rep or rib running transversely across the face of the cloth from selvedge to selvedge and which have been piece-dyed after leaving the loom. even without the term "dyed" being used the term rep by itself would generally be used to designate a dyed plain cotton fabric of the rep variety. for particulars of weave, _see under_ rep. =dyed ribs.=--fabrics which are either warp or weft ribbed, _i.e._, having ribs running either from selvedge to selvedge as in warp ribs, or lengthways of the material as in weft ribs, and which have been piece-dyed after leaving the loom. for particulars of distinctive weave, _see under_ warp ribs and weft ribs. =dyed sheetings.=--it would appear that when a true cotton sheeting fabric has been dyed it is no longer known as a "sheeting," and this is supported by the remark under the heading sheetings which appears in a united states government publication to the effect that "should a sheeting be dyed or printed, it is never sold as sheeting, but under some other name." a dyed sheeting would, of course, be a stout all-cotton fabric answering to the description of a bolton sheeting, woven from coarse yarns, as a four-shaft two-and-two twill, and measuring in width up to 120 inches; but the fabric most likely to be described as a dyed sheeting is the narrower variety, which is most often plain woven, measuring 36 inches by 40 to 80 yards, and slightly heavier than shirtings of the same measurements which, subsequent to weaving, has been piece-dyed. =dyed shirtings.=--the term in its narrower sense is used to designate what is virtually an all-cotton cloth, woven with a plain weave and having the warp and weft approximately equal in number of threads and counts, which has been coloured by being piece-dyed after weaving. the actual fabric, apart from the dyeing, is that of a grey shirting or grey sheeting, which are more fully described under their respective headings. =dyed t-cloths.=--piece-dyed all-cotton plain-woven fabric, woven from low-quality yarns, generally put up in 24-yard lengths. =dyed velvet cords (cotton).=--this fabric differs from dyed velveteen cords only as regards the length of the pile, which is longer or deeper in dyed velvet cords than in dyed velveteen cords. the difference between this fabric and corduroys is that corduroys have perfect half-round regular pile ribs, separated by a dividing line between each stripe or pile rib, showing both warp and filling threads, whilst velvet cords have no such dividing line. =dyed velveteen cords (cotton).=--like the plain velveteen, this fabric is essentially an all-cotton pile fabric in which the distinguishing effect is formed by the points of the fibres in the filling yarns, termed the pile, being presented to the vision, and not the sides of the yarns as in the majority of cases. the cords are produced by a process of cutting away the pile so as to form raised cord-like corrugations running lengthways of the piece. being a dyed fabric, it is coloured uniformly all over the piece in some solid colour. it differs from dyed velvet cords only as regards the length of pile, which in the velveteen variety is shorter. the difference between this class of material and a corduroy is that corduroy has a dividing line between each stripe or cord of pile, showing both warp and filling threads, whilst velveteen cords have no such dividing line. =embossed velvet (cotton).=--the term cotton velvet is generally recognised in the manufacturing and distributing trade to be a misnomer, and the material or fabric which would appear to come under this classification is in reality an embossed velveteen, which see. =embossed velveteen (cotton).=--this term is used to designate an all-cotton pile-weave fabric generally woven as a weft-pile weave, the pile surface, consisting of threads or fibres in the filling yarn which forms the pile, standing up at right angles to the back of the fabric. the distinctive feature of this class of fabric is the embossed design or pattern, which is essentially an indented ornamentation produced by pressure and heat. the embossing machine for giving an indented ornamentation to velvet or velveteen and other fabrics has engraved copper rollers, which are heated by enclosed red-hot irons or series of gas jets when operating on dampened goods. the engraved rollers have designs in intaglio, which confer a cameo ornamentation upon the fabric being embossed. =embroideries.=--when applied to woven fabrics this name is used to designate a fine plain-woven cloth made from fine yarns and used for embroidery purposes. generally a linen fabric. =end.=--when the word "end" is used in connexion with weaving it signifies the warp threads, while each filling or weft thread is called a "pick." when used to designate a class of twill-weaving such as "a five-end twill," it refers to the total number of warp and weft threads in the twill pattern; thus, "a five-end twill" designates the interlacing of four warp and one weft. under "twill weave" will be found the generally recognised ways of arranging the order of interweaving. =english foot.=--a stocking having two seams in the foot, one on each side of the sole. =eolienne.=--a sheer silk and wool material. also in silk and cotton. =éponge.=--a french term for sponge cloth. =equestrienne tights.=--tight-fitting knitted drawers for women's use, made of ribbed cloth, either with or without feet. =étamine.=--french name for bolting or sifting cloth, generally made of silk yarn and used for the purpose of sifting flour. the term is used in america to designate mesh or net weaves. étamine, though often made of silk, is found also in wool, cotton, linen, etc. plain weave and open-work structure are its salient features. it is equally used for sifting powdered solids and filtering liquids. =extract= is a comprehensive term used to indicate a special class of fibres which have been obtained by "pulling" or beating to pieces material which may have been milled or unmilled, but which was partly composed of cotton, this cotton being got rid of or destroyed by the treatment which is known as carbonising. =extracted.=--goods in which the pattern has been printed, first applying the design with a material which, after dyeing, permits the colour, as it affects the design, to be washed out or "extracted." =façonné.=--having a figure or design raised on the surface. =faille.=--a soft flat-ribbed silk. =fancies.=--fancy is a term used to designate those fabrics which are not woven in the same way year after year, but which show variations in weave, colour, or both colour and weave. the principal fancies of the dress goods variety are brocades, cuspettes, meliores, hopsacking, stripes, checks, plaids, mélanges, and mixtures. =fents.=--when a full-sized piece of cloth is found to be imperfectly woven in parts or damaged through stains, etc., and unsaleable as a whole piece, it is cut up into short lengths; these short lengths are called "fents." the name also is applied to short lengths cut from piece ends and is equivalent to the term "remnant." the value of fents is much less per yard than for similar cloth in the full piece. =figured.=--when used with reference to textiles the term "figured" means that for the purpose of ornamentation certain extra threads--known as figuring threads--have been introduced on the surface of a plain ground structure or on other ground structural weaves, and afterwards allowed to lie loosely or "float" underneath the ground cloth structure. when the extra threads introduced run lengthways in the piece the figured fabric produced is known as an "extra warp" figured cloth. when, similarly, the figured effect is obtained by the introduction of extra threads running across the face of the material, the figured fabric produced is known as an "extra weft" figured cloth. the most elaborate effects, however, are produced by means of the extra warp effects. a cloth may be figured without the addition of any extra warp or weft thread but by combination of weave. =figured muslin.=--when an ordinary plain-weave fabric of the muslin variety has been ornamented by means of combination of weave or an extra thread, whilst still retaining the characteristic light weight, etc., of the true muslin fabric, it is known as a figured muslin. unless specially designated, a figured muslin would be an all-cotton fabric. =figure weaving.=--when complicated and elaborate designs are required the cloth must be woven with the aid of a jacquard, which is an apparatus for automatically selecting warp threads and manipulating them to facilitate the passage of the filling. this style of weave produces figured effects on the face of the fabric and is generally used to produce patterns of great width. such figured and elaborate designs are classed under the name of jacquards. =filled cotton cloth.=--this form of cloth has the interstices between the threads filled with glue, china clay, white lead, chalk, plaster of paris, glauber salts, glucose, or other filling substances. =filling.=--this term is given to the process of adding weight to a fabric by subjecting it to an operation, whereby it will have been made to absorb certain chemicals or substances. the principal filling agents are zinc chloride, magnesium sulphate, magnesium chloride, glue, gelatine, dextrine, starch, and water glass (alkali silicate). the term "filling" is also used to designate the material used in weighting the fabric and has the same value as "loading" or "weighting." when the word "filling" is used in connexion with weaving it always signifies the weft threads, each of which is also called a "pick." =flannel (woollen).=--the true woollen flannel should be an all-wool fabric, into the making of which no fibres other than wool enter. woven with either a plain or twill weave, flannel is a soft-finished material, which, in the better grades, should be of a non-shrinking character. when a very small percentage of cotton is found in so-called all-wool flannel, it is sometimes due to cotton having remained in the machines used for the carding of the wool prior to making it into yarn. in some countries as much as 1 per cent. of cotton is allowed in an all-wool flannel. when a higher percentage is found the fabric is no longer considered an all-wool flannel. when cotton is made to form part of flannel it is scribbled or carded with the wool to increase the strength of the thread and improve its spinning properties. such yarns are known as carded unions and when woven will produce a woollen flannel, which is distinct from an all-wool flannel. inasmuch as the term "woollen" is commonly used in opposition to "all-wool," and that it is recognised in england that wastes, shoddy, and blends of material other than wool are referred to as "woollen," the term woollen flannel is applicable to a fabric that is not an all-wool material. =flannelette.=--like cotton flannel, this fabric is woven from soft mule-spun yarn, which is more suitable for a raised material than a ring-spun yarn. flannelette may be either plain or twill woven and may be either piece-dyed or woven with coloured warp and weft yarns to form either stripes or checks. flannelette is a cloth produced to imitate flannel and has, owing to its raised surface, a "woolly" feel. by being subjected to a special treatment, flannelette can be rendered "fireproof"; if untreated, it is a highly inflammable material. the better qualities of flannelette are distinguished from the lower grades by the former being more closely woven in the warp, and the raised nap is shorter in the better grades. flannelettes are sometimes printed, in which case they would be more correctly described as "printed flannelettes," the ordinary flannelette of commerce not being as a rule "printed." whereas in certain countries it is not legal to sell as "pure wool flannel" a material containing cotton, there is nothing to prevent a manufacturer from selling as flannelette a material in whose composition a certain amount of wool may enter. unlike cotton flannel, which from its very name shows that the material is of cotton, and by inference cotton only, the term flannelette may not always designate an all-cotton material, although by general acceptance in the trade flannelette should be an all-cotton fabric. =flat underwear.=--goods knitted in plain stitch. =fleece-lined.=--applied to a variety of heavy-weight undergarments knitted with three threads--namely, face yarn, backing yarn, and a third thread of yarn tying the face and back together. the heavy nap or fleece is produced by running the cloth through wire rolls, called brushers. the term "fleece-lined" is often misapplied to ordinary single-thread underwear which has been run through the brushing machine for the purpose of raising a light nap on the inner surface. =floconné.=--having small flakes, in white or colour. =florentine drills.=--when a drill is woven with a twill weave it is known as a florentine drill, to distinguish it from satin drill, which is woven with a warp-faced sateen weave. =folded yarn.=--folded yarn is produced by twisting together two or more single yarns. when two single threads are twisted together the folded yarn produced would be called a "two-fold." if the single yarn used in producing the "two-fold" yarn was of 40's count (that is to say, of yarn of which it took 40 hanks of 840 yards to weigh 1 pound), the "two-fold" yarn produced would really become equivalent to 20's count (that is to say, it would take 20 hanks to weigh 1 pound); however, it would not be referred to as being a 20's count, but as a two-fold forties and designated 2/40's. all folded yarns are designated by two sets of figures separated by a line, which shows on one side the number of threads folded together and on the other the "count" of the single threads thus folded together. by dividing the number of the single threads into the counts the actual number of hanks of the folded yarn per pound is ascertained thus:- two-fold 40's, written 2/40 = 20 folded hanks per pound. three-fold 30's, " 3/30 = 10 " " " " three-fold 60's, " 3/60 = 20 " " " " four-fold 60's, " 4/60 = 15 " " " " four-fold 120's, " 4/120 = 30 " " " " all folded yarn is not composed of single threads of the same count. where such folded yarns are met with, and when it is desired to ascertain the number of hanks of such folded yarn per pound, the simplest way to proceed is to take the highest count and divide it first by itself and the other counts in succession, then divide the sum of the various quotients into the highest count, and the answer will be hanks per pound:- 30 ÷ 30 = 1 30 ÷ 20 = 1½ - 2½ ) 30 - 12 answer. -in folding yarn part of the length of the original threads folded is taken up in the twist; hence, when folded, they will no longer measure the regulation 840 yards per hank, but slightly under. =foulard.=--a soft twilled silk, usually printed. =french foot.=--a hosiery term meaning having only one seam, and that in the centre of the sole. =full regular= (sometimes called looped).--a term applied to hosiery or underwear in which the seams have been connected by hand knitting. =full-fashioned.=--a term used to designate hosiery knitted in a flat web, which is shaped by the machine so as to fit the foot, leg, or body. the webs, or sections, are sewn together to form hosiery, underwear, etc. =fustian.=--this name is given to designate low grades of cotton fabrics woven with a pile weave, such as cotton velvets, velveteens, corduroys, moleskins, cordings, etc. fustian is also applied to such fabrics when they are made in a combination of cotton and flax or other vegetable fibre. it is more used as a generic term designating a class of fabrics than to designate one particular kind of fabric. one class of fustians has a raised "nap" on one or both sides, and includes cantoons or diagonals, which have a pronounced weft twill on the face side and are used for riding breeches. =galatea.=--a cotton fabric having coloured stripes; the weave is usually a three-shaft, but sometimes a four-shaft, warp twill weave. the stripes may be either simply coloured, whilst retaining the twill weave, or they may be plain woven as well as coloured. this material is often used for washing uniforms for nurses and hospital attendants. the weave of galatea is similar to that of jean, nankeen, or regatta twill. =gauge.=--applied to the number of meshes or wales to the inch in underwear or hosiery. for example, a 16-gauge fabric will have 16 wales or ribs to the inch. =gauze weave.=--in gauze weaving all the warp threads are not parallel to each other, but are made to intertwist more or less amongst themselves. this style of weaving produces light, open fabrics allowing the introduction of many lace-like combinations. the warp is double, one set being the usual or ground warp and the other the "douping," or warp that intertwines itself on the ground warp. gauze weaving produces fabrics which are peculiar for their openness, lightness, and strength. when gauze is combined with plain weaving it is styled "leno." =gingham.=--gingham is an all-cotton fabric, always woven with a plain weave--a yarn-dyed cotton cloth in stripes or checks. it is woven in various grades, having from 50 to 76 ends per inch in the reed and of 1/26's to 1/40's cotton yarn in both warp and weft. it is a washing fabric made in both checks and plaid patterns, into which a great variety of colour combinations are introduced. ginghams are made with from two colour warp and filling to eight colour in warp and six in filling. during the finishing process the loom-state fabric is sewed end on piece to piece until a continuous length of cloth of several hundred yards is obtained (this is done to facilitate handling). it is damped by a sprinkler to make it more readily take up the starch size with which it is liberally treated. one variety of gingham known as madras gingham is distinctly a shirting fabric. ginghams, when having a highly variegated colouring, are described as checks. =glacé.=--originally applied to a fabric having a glossy, lustrous surface. now often applied to "shot" silks, that is, plain weaves wherein the warp and filling are of different colours. =granité.=--a weave in which the yarns are so twisted as to create a pebbled surface. =grenadine.=--a somewhat elastic term used to describe an openwork, diaphanous material of silk, wool, or cotton. =grey, in the grey, or grey cloth.=--these terms are used to designate fabrics that are in the loom state and that have been woven from yarn that was neither bleached nor dyed. a grey shirting would no longer be called a grey shirting after it had been bleached. in the woollen industry the term "grey" is applied to the web in its loom state previous to its being put through the various necessary processes to make it into a finished cloth. =grey drills.=--grey cotton drills are all-cotton medium and heavy weight single cloths woven from unbleached yarns as a three-shaft twill (two warp and one weft) which have not been bleached, dyed, or printed from the time they left the loom. varying in weight according to quality, they are, however, generally put up in pieces measuring 31 inches in width by 40 yards in length. they are more fully described under drills. the pepperell drill is a grey drill of superior quality made from high-class yarns and exceedingly well woven. =grey jeans.=--this name is given to an all-cotton fabric woven as a three-shaft twill having either (_a_) each weft thread passing over one and under two warp threads, or (_b_) each weft thread passing over two and under one warp thread, the warp and weft intersections traversing one thread and one pick further from their respective positions each time a pick of weft is inserted. when woven as a warp-faced twill fabric from strong yarns, the cloth is often called a drill, and is used for suitings, boot linings, corseting, etc; when woven from lighter yarns as a medium-weight weft-faced twill fabric, the cloth is largely used for linings. in width it varies from 28 and under to 31 or more inches and in length from 30 to 40 yards per piece. a "grey" jean is a jean in the loom state, _i.e._, which has not been bleached by being treated with bleaching powders, etc. =grey sheeting.=--there are two distinct varieties of grey sheeting. the first kind is used for bed sheeting and is a stout cotton cloth woven from coarse yarns, usually in a four-shaft two-and-two twill weave, and having a width of as much as 120 inches. the weave of this material being a twill weave having an equal number of warp and weft threads to the inch, the twill lines or diagonal produced will be at an angle of 45 degrees to a line drawn across the width of the material. this diagonal effect is produced by the warp and weft intersections traversing one thread and one pick further from their respective positions each time a pick or weft is inserted. this kind of sheeting is known as bolton sheeting, which is a grey material, _i.e._, unbleached. in length the piece may measure up to 80 yards. the second kind of sheeting is waste sheeting, made from waste and condenser wefts, _i.e._, wefts made from certain waste cotton which accumulates during the process of spinning yarn. this waste is treated by special machinery, which prepares it and spins it into a full, level, and soft yarn, which is used for weft in the weaving of sheetings. waste sheetings are woven like bolton sheeting, with the exception of the lower qualities, which are often plain or calico woven. the lower grades of grey sheeting are often simply grey calico cloths of about 36 inches in width and resembling very closely grey shirtings, the only difference being that they are slightly heavier in the yarn than the ordinary grey shirting. grey sheeting is generally made up into pieces of from 40 to 80 yards in length and varying in weight according to count of yarn used. =grey shirting.=--a grey shirting is an unbleached cotton cloth woven with a plain weave and having the warp and weft approximately equal in number of threads and counts; the fabric has a plain, even surface, which, when the threads are evenly spaced, is said to be well "covered." grey shirting, a staple import into the eastern markets, is made up in pieces measuring from 36 to 40 yards in length, a width of from 36 to 45 inches, and weighing from 7 to 11 pounds and over per piece, according to the count of the yarn and the amount of size used. this class of fabric has the warp threads heavily sized. the exact difference between grey shirtings and certain grades of grey sheetings is at times non-apparent. again, a grey shirting may be termed a calico, which in the trade has become a general term used to designate practically any cotton cloth coarser than muslin. =grey t-cloths.=--all-cotton plain-woven unbleached fabric of low quality and heavily sized yarns nearly always put up in 24-yard lengths. the name is said to be derived from the mark @t@ of the original exporters. =grosgrain.=--a silk fabric having a small ribbed effect from selvedge to selvedge. when the rib runs lengthways the fabric is known as a millerayes. =habit cloth (woollen).=--an all-wool cloth similar to medium, broad, and russian cloth. average width, 54 to 74 inches. in the better grades it is a high-priced fabric generally used for riding habits. met with in dark shades of green or else in black. =habutai.=--a plain-weave silk, of smooth and even texture, originally made in japan on hand looms. =hair-cord muslin.=--a plain-weave fabric having stripes or checks formed by coarse threads, which stand out in a clearly defined manner. =hand looms and power looms.=--the difference between these two kinds of looms lies in the fact that in the former (hand loom) the weaving is the result of the loom being worked and controlled by hand and foot, whereas in the power loom, whether belt driven or driven by electric motor, the power transmitted to the loom works all the essential parts, which are:- 1. warp beam. 2. heddles. 3. shuttle. 4. reed or beater-in. 5. cloth roll. when a power loom has been suitably tuned up, _i.e._, timed so that the various movements necessary for the forming of the "shed" and the passing of the shuttle and the beating-in occur in the right sequence and at a correct interval of time, the weaver (who, in the case of power looms, is oftener called the overlooker) only has to attend to the broken warp threads or replenishing of the weft shuttle. with a hand loom the weaver controls the heddles which form the shed, throws the shuttle carrying the weft thread through the shed, and as fast as each filling thread is interlaced with the warp beats it in close to the previous one by means of a reed which is pulled by hand towards, and recedes from, the cloth after each passage of the shuttle. this is done to make the cloth firm. the movement of the reed in the hand-power loom (or, more correctly, in the hand and foot power loom) being controlled by the weaver and not mechanically, accounts for irregularity in firmness of weave not found in fabrics woven on a power loom. =handle.=--this term is used either as a "wool term" in connexion with wool or as a general textile term in connexion with fabrics. as a wool term it refers or designates all the attributes which determine quality, _i.e._, softness, fineness, length, and elasticity--noticeable when wool is judged by the feel. easier to define than to acquire, "handle" also enters into the judging of woven fabrics. it is then used to denote the hardness, harshness, softness, smoothness, etc., which similarly are factors of quality and which are often best appreciated by the sense of touch. =harvard shirting.=--this style of shirting is generally recognised by its broken twill effect, which may be combined with plain stripes, small diamond patterns, etc., woven from dyed yarns. the salient feature of harvard shirtings is the above effect in different colours. the ground weave is generally a two-and-two twill. =henrietta.=--a soft, lustrous, twilled fabric of wool; similar to a cashmere, but finer and lighter. =herring-bone.=--a binding often used in facing the neck and front opening of undershirts. also applied to the stitching which is made to cover the edge of the split sole in hosiery. used in connexion with textiles, it is applied to striped effects produced by alternating a left-hand and a right-hand twill-weave stripe. =hessian.=--a strong, coarse, plain-woven packing or wrapping cloth made from jute or hemp yarns. a standard make of this material weighs 10½ ounces to the yard, is 40 inches wide, and averages 13 shots per inch. =hog, or hoggett wool=, is another name for lambs' wool; it is the product of the first clipping of the young sheep and can be distinguished by the fact that its ends are pointed, whereas subsequent clippings yield wether wool with blunt and thickened ends. =honeycomb.=--this designates a style of weave and not an actual fabric. marked ridges and hollows, which cause the surface of the fabric to resemble that of a honeycomb, are the salient characteristics of this style of weave. the term is also applied to leno weaves when consecutive crossing ends cross in opposite directions. =huckaback.=--this name designates a class of weave mainly used in the weaving of towels or towelling, which combines a small design with a plain ground. the short floats of warp and weft and the plain ground of these weaves give a rough surface combined with a firm structure. the small design entering into this class of weave varies, but is always a geometrical design and not floral. =imitation rabbit skin.=--generally an all-cotton pile-weave fabric having a long pile, which has not the same amount of lustre as either a silk or mohair pile, being duller in appearance. this kind of fabric may be distinguished from a silk or mohair pile material by the fact that its pile will crush more readily than either. its pile will not spring back into place readily, more especially when the pile is long. generally 48 to 50 inches wide and 60 yards long, it is shipped on frames, on which it is fastened by a series of hooks. these hooks hold the material by the selvedges, which are made specially strong. two 60-yard frames are generally packed in one box or case. =ingrain.=--a term for knitted goods applied to raw material or yarn dyed before knitting. =irishes.=--this generic name is applied to linen fabrics, which are a speciality of ireland. irishes have been imitated in cotton, and when such a fabric is met with it should be designated as a cotton irish. the term irishes would cover such fabrics as irish cambric, irish duck, and irish linen. =irish cambric.=--this fabric, like all true cambrics, is an all-linen fabric, plain woven, without a selvedge. it has been imitated in cotton, and the name is now currently used to designate an all-cotton plain-woven fabric finer than lawn, in which the warp yarn is often of a different thickness from that used for the filling and is finished with a smooth glazed surface. =italian cloth.=--a plain cloth generally made of standard materials, _i.e._, fine botany weft and a cotton warp. italian cloth is usually a weft-faced fabric. like all fabrics woven with a weft-faced satin weave, the weft or filling threads are practically all on the surface of the cloth, producing an even, close, smooth surface capable of reflecting light to the best advantage. italian cloth is generally cross-dyed, that is to say, woven from a black warp and grey weft, afterwards dyed in the piece. it may be woven either as an all-cotton, a cotton and worsted, a cotton and wool, or a cotton and mohair fabric. its chief characteristic is its smooth, glossy, silky appearance obtained by various processes of finishing given to the cloth after it is woven. all finishes have the same tendency and purpose, which is to improve the appearance and enhance the value of the cloth. whilst italian cloth may be either plain, figured, embossed, printed, etc., or a combination of these varieties, the name is applied to a "plain dyed cotton fabric." =italian cloth, figured, cotton warp and wool weft.=--this fabric, in addition to the characteristics of the plain italian cloth woven from cotton warp and wool weft, has had its surface ornamented by the introduction of figures or floral or geometrical designs produced either by combination of weave or by means of certain extra threads known as "figuring threads." these figures may be produced by means of either extra warp or extra weft threads. in this class of material, where the weft is wool, the extra figuring thread is generally a weft thread. the figuring thread, after having served the purpose of ornamenting the face of the cloth, is allowed to lie loosely or "float" underneath the ground cloth structure. where the figuring is produced by combination of weave no such floating threads appear. =italian cloth, plain, cotton warp and wool weft.=--under the heading "italian cloth" it will be seen that such a fabric is essentially a weft-faced satin-weave material having practically the whole of the weft or filling threads on the surface. when it is woven from a wool weft and a cotton warp the material shows the face of the cloth as a wool face, the main bulk of the cotton warp showing on the back of the fabric. when woven with cotton warp and wool weft, italian cloth still retains the characteristic smooth surface of all weft-faced satin-weave fabrics. very simple tests by burning will show the nature of both warp and weft, and this class of fabric illustrates clearly, by contrast between the two sets of threads, the nature of weft-faced satin or kindred weave fabrics. such italians are generally cross-dyed, _i.e._, woven with dyed warp and grey weft, and then piece-dyed. =jaconet.=--there are two varieties of jaconets, both of which, however, are all-cotton fabrics. one is a hard-finished fabric similar in weight to victoria lawn, having a smooth, lustrous, cambric finish. the other is a soft-finished material which can hardly be distinguished from a heavy soft-finished nainsook. jaconet is a plain-woven fabric which has been variously described as a "thin, soft muslin," or as a "plain-woven cotton fabric lightly constructed, composed of light yarns." bleached, dyed, or printed in the grey piece length, similar to mulls, nainsooks, cambrics, etc. it is also spelt jaconettes. =jacquards= is a loose term applied to elaborate designed fabrics produced by means of a machine called a jacquard, the distinctive feature of which is an apparatus for automatically selecting warp threads and moving them independently of each other. jacquards are the produce of what is termed figure weaving, in which complicated figures are woven into the fabric. =jaeger.=--this name is used to designate the products of a certain manufacturer whose material is described as being an "all-wool" material. generally applied to underwear and fabrics into whose composition camel wool is said to enter largely. =jean.=--a jean is an all-cotton fabric woven as a three-shaft twill similar to a dungaree. good-quality jeans, woven from coloured warp, are often used as sailors' collars and for children's clothing. woven in the grey as a weft-faced twill and subsequently dyed, they are used for lining cloths. the weave of a jean fabric, which is its salient characteristic, is described under "grey jeans," which is the kind of jean most often met with. =jeanette.=--a three-shaft weft twill fabric having warp and weft threads about equally proportioned in number and thickness. the name "jeanette backed" is applied to certain pile fabrics that have a three-end twill back. applied to a cotton material, it would correspond to a jean type fabric not as stoutly woven as a jean. one authority, however, claims that it is "a similar fabric to the jean in which the warp predominates." =jouy.=--printings in small floral effects on silk or cotton, similar to pompadour designs. named after a frenchman who established a plant for such work during the reign of louis xv. =kerseymere.=--seldom met with under this name. kerseymere is a fine woollen cloth of a serge-like character, woven with a three-shaft weft-faced twill weave. =khaiki.=--a japanese silk of plain weave, not so fine as habutai. =khaki.=--a colour resembling that of the ground. this word is derived from the hindustani word for "earth." a term applied to a special shade of brown or greenish brown largely employed in soldiers' uniforms. ladies' cloth.--a dress fabric of plain weave, similar to a flannel in construction, but with a high-finished surface, which gives the fabric a broadcloth effect. =lappet weave.=--lappet weaving is used to produce on a light fabric small designs which have the appearance of having been embroidered upon the fabric, such as the detached spots in dotted swiss, or narrow and continuous figures running more or less in stripes. this form of weaving is used mainly on plain and gauze fabrics, and the figures are practically stitched into the fabric by means of needles in a special sliding frame. the yarn which produces the figured design is an extra warp thread known as a "whip yarn." lappet weaving produces the design on one side only of the fabric, and this feature will enable this style of weave to be recognised from other processes, such as swiss embroidery. the loose threads existing between the figures when the goods leave the loom are usually cut away, leaving a somewhat imperfect figure or spot with a bit of the figuring thread protruding at either extreme edge of the figure or spot. lappet-figured fabrics are not brocades. =lastings.=--a plain twill or kindred weave fabric firmly woven from hard-twisted wool or cotton yarns. smooth in appearance but having a somewhat hard handle, lasting is a fine, durable, generally piece-dyed, material, of which there are several varieties, such as the printed and the figured. it is sometimes employed in the making of uppers for boots and shoes. =leas.=--a term used to denote the count of linen yarn, each lea being a measure of length equal to 300 yards. when used with reference to cotton yarn, it is a measure of length equal to 4,320 inches, or 120 yards. _see under_ cotton yarn measures. =leather cloth.=--this name is given to a cloth which is known in the bradford district as a melton. it is a union cloth woven from cotton warp and woollen weft having the warp threads running in pairs or, as it is called, in "sisters." generally measuring from 50 to 56 inches in width and weighing from 20 to 24 ounces per yard, it is finished with a bright, smooth face. the system of interlacing of warp and weft is not apparent either on the face or back of the cloth. by pulling away one or two weft threads it is easy to see that the warp threads are of cotton and that they are in pairs. leather cloth is free from any figuring and is generally dyed in dark colours. =leno.=--where a fabric is woven with a combination of gauze weaving and a few plain picks it is said to be a leno. it is a term now currently used to designate all classes of light fabrics into which the gauze weave (in which kind of weaving all the warp threads do not run parallel or at right angles to the weft but are more or less twisted round each other) is introduced in combination with any other kind of weave. lenos may have either an "all-over effect" or "stripes." the introduction in lenos of the gauze weave tends to strengthen a material which from its very nature can only be but light. lenos may show, in addition to the "all-over effect," an extra weft figure or spot. whilst all these would be known as lenos, their more correct designation would be figured lenos, or extra weft spot figured lenos. the term is now loosely used, and sometimes a "lace" stripe muslin will be called a leno. the crossing threads used in the true or "net" lenos are often of two or three fold yarn. the common so-called lace curtains are lenos. the common varieties of lenos are extensively used for the purpose of mosquito nets. =liberty.=--a light-weight silk having a satin finish. a trade name applied to a satin-finish silk of light weight now generally applied to such silks, although not the original "liberty." =linen yarn.=--when the count of linen yarn is given, it is denoted by "leas." each lea is a measure of 300 yards, and 10 leas = 1 hank and 20 hanks = 1 bundle. it will be seen that as the "counts" increase, the weight per bundle decreases. =lingerie.=--this comprehensive term embraces ladies' and children's undergarments, such as skirts, undershirts, etc., infant's long and short dresses, stockings, chemises, night-robes, drawers, corset covers, etc. =lining.=--a cloth usually made from cotton warp and cotton, alpaca, or botany weft, according to the type of cloth required, generally woven with a sateen weave. italian cloth is a typical example of lining cloth. the name denotes a class of fabrics rather than a given fabric. =lisle thread.=--yarns made of long-staple cotton, somewhat tightly twisted and having a smooth surface produced by passing the yarn over gas jets. =loading worsted and woollens.=--when the natural weight of any fabric is artificially increased, it is subjected to a treatment called "filling," "loading," or "weighting." wool fabrics, by reason of their great hygroscopic properties, are usually weighted by being impregnated with hygroscopic substances, such as magnesium chloride. other agents employed for filling worsted and woollen goods are zinc chloride, dextrine, starch, and water glass (alkali silicate). zinc chloride is a most useful loading agent on account of it possessing great hygroscopic properties. when a wool fabric has passed through solutions containing this agent the chloride is absorbed and permanently retained in the form of moisture, and a slippery handle or feel is imparted. =longcloth.=--this name is used to designate a fine cotton fabric, either plain or twill woven, of superior quality, made from a fine grade of cotton yarn of medium twist. the fabric is used for infants' long dresses, from which it derives its name, also for lingerie. longcloth to some extent resembles batiste, fine muslin, india linen, and cambric. it is, however, distinguished from these fabrics by the closeness of its weave. it has, when finished, a very good white appearance, due to the closeness of the weave and the soft twist of the yarn. the surface is rendered smooth by undergoing a "gassing" process. =long ells (woollen).=--this name is given to an all-wool twill-weave fabric woven with a worsted warp and a woollen weft, averaging in width from 28 to 30 inches and having a length of 24 yards to the piece. calendered, finished, and often dyed a bright vermilion. long ells averaged in value during the 10 years 1904-14 about 17_s._ per piece. they are not met with in a large range of qualities, the most usual type answering to the above description. =long stick.=--this term is used to describe a yard of 36½ inches in length. the abbreviated manner of writing this term on documents referring to textiles is ls. it is only used in connexion with textile fabrics and in opposition to "short stick," a yard of 36 inches. one authority states that "the yard is generously reckoned at 37 inches by manufacturers in the united kingdom." this statement, however, should be taken with reserve, although in the woollen trade it seems to be a common practice. in addition to this extra 1 inch per yard, a quarter of a yard in every 10 is generally allowed, so that a nominal 40-yard piece would actually measure 40 yards + 40 inches + 1 yard = 42 yards 4 inches. the long stick measure is only used in the woollen trade. =louisine.=--a silk fabric having an uneven surface like that of an armure, but finer in effect. =lustre dress fabrics.=--this class of union fabric, when woven with a fast black dyed cotton warp and a worsted mohair weft, is representative of union fabrics in general, and the treatment of this material when in its grey state applies to the majority of union fabrics. the warp is generally a 2/80's, _i.e._, a strong yarn, and the weft, say, a 1/14's. the warp being dyed prior to weaving, there only remains the weft to be dyed after the unfinished cloth leaves the loom. this is called cross-dyeing. the grey cloth, in its loom state, possesses a visible appearance of non-lustrous cotton. this appearance is changed and replaced by the lustre effect through the process of "crabbing," or drawing out the material in the direction of the cotton warp. the warp threads when drawn straight virtually throw the lustrous weft to the surface, whilst they themselves become embedded out of sight in the cloth. orleans, mohair brilliantine, and mohair sicilian are fabrics which come under this heading. =maco.=--applied to hosiery or underwear made from pure egyptian undyed cotton. =madapolams= are all-cotton plain-weave bleached shirtings or calico cloths. =madras.=--a light-weight cotton fabric or a cotton and silk mixture sold in widths varying from 27 to 32 inches, usually made from dyed yarns. extensively used to designate light-weight shirting materials as used for men's shirts, the term is equally applied to similar weight fabrics printed in simple designs frequently elaborated in weaving by stripes or figures woven on a dobby loom. in the distributing trade, comprising various subdivisions of the trade, the names madras, gingham, madras gingham, zephyr, etc., are so closely allied as to be impossible of separation. the original intent of these several designations has apparently been completely lost. madras may either be woven as a plain or twill or kindred weave fabric. whilst this name is primarily applied to an all-cotton fabric, it is also used to designate a cotton and silk mixture, when it is sometimes described as a silk gingham. the salient characteristic of madras is the plain white and fancy coloured narrow stripes running in the direction of the warp. =madras gingham.=--this name is applied to all-cotton fabrics made in part or to a considerable extent of dyed yarns of various colours, woven into stripes or checks woven either plain or fancy or with a combination of two or more weaves, and of a weight distinctly suitable for a shirting material in countries lying in the temperate zone. in the united states the introduction of a leno or satin stripe for the purpose of elaboration or ornamentation does not change the trade designation of such gingham. madras gingham may be woven either plain, diamond, gauze and leno weave, or a combination of these weaves. _see_ madras. =madras handkerchiefs.=--plain-woven coloured cloths, with large bold checks. the yarns are dyed with a loose top, and the cloth is treated with acids, which cause the colours to bleed or run and give an imitation of block printing. =maline.=--a fine silk net of gauze-like texture. practically the same as tulle. =market descriptions of standard cloth.=--certain standard cloths are known on the market by an expression such as "36--76, 19 x 22, 32/36". this stated at length means that the cloth is 36 inches wide, 76 yards long, and contains 19 "ends" (or warp threads) and 22 "picks" (or weft threads) per quarter inch, whilst the twist (or warp) is 32's and the weft 36's--all being actual, not nominal, particulars. =marl.=--a term applied to a particular kind of coloured two-fold or single yarn. in the former (the two-fold) one or both threads making the two-fold yarn are spun from two rovings of different colours, causing the single thread to have a twist-like appearance; or the process may be begun earlier, by the two colours being run together in the thick roving, thus producing a twist-like effect in the smaller roving immediately preceding the spinning. these single twist-looking threads are usually folded with a solid colour, frequently black. if folded with each other they are called double marls; a single-yarn marl is this yarn without the folding. =marquisette.=--a sheer plain-weave fabric of silk or cotton, having a mesh more open than that of voile. =matelassé.=--a heavy compound-weave figured cloth, having a raised pattern, as if quilted or wadded. =matt weave.=--similar to a plain or one-over-one weave, with this difference, that instead of lifting one thread at a time two are lifted over two. it might be described as a double plain weave. this style of weave is noticeable in some varieties of embroidery canvas. =medium cloth (woollen).=--this is an all-wool fabric, plain woven from a wool weft and wool warp. in width it varies from 54 to 74 inches and in length from 19 to 36 yards per piece. the average value of this fabric per yard for the period 1904 to 1914 was 4_s._ 3_d._ this fabric approximates to, and by some is said to be identical with, broad, habit, and russian cloth. =mélange.=--the french word for "mixture." name given to a yarn produced from printed tops. this class of yarn can be distinguished from mixture yarn in that many fibres have more than one colour upon them. in mixture yarn each fibre would only have one colour. =melton.=--stout, smooth woollen cloth, similar to broadcloth, but heavier. a heavily milled woollen in which the fibres have been raised, then the piece cut bare to obtain the typical melton. both light and heavy meltons are made with cotton warp and woollen weft. =mercerised cotton.=--cotton fibre roughly resembles a tube which, being hollow and collapsed on itself, presents an uneven, twisted, tape-like appearance with a good many surface markings. by chemical treatment (mercerising) with caustic soda, and the application of tension at the right period of the treatment, remarkable changes in the structure and appearance of the cotton fibre are produced. it is made to swell, to become more transparent, to lose its twisted tube-like appearance, and to become more lustrous, translucent, and elastic. mercerised cotton gives an impression of silk to the naked eye, its microscopic appearance being changed, the fibre having swelled out and assumed a rounded rod-like appearance which, whilst resembling silk, still differs from silk by the absence of the characteristic swellings so distinctive to silk. the mercerising process improves the dyeing properties of cotton. the most effective mercerisation is obtained with egyptian cotton. =mercerising.=--the object of this very important operation in the manufacture of cotton goods, yarn, or cloth is to give them lustre, making them resemble silk, the use of which they have replaced in many instances. the process, which takes its name from the inventor (mercer), consists of passing the yarn or cloth, preferably bleached or partially bleached, through a concentrated solution of caustic soda, which causes the straightening of the cotton fibres, and would also cause it to shrink considerably were it not for the fact that the material being treated is kept under tension, which prevents the shrinking. to this tension more than anything else is the lustre imparted due. mercerising is only applicable to vegetable fibres. animal fibres dissolve in caustic soda. the caustic soda solution is only allowed to react on the fibre for about two minutes, when it is washed out by abundant application of fresh water. _see_ mercerised cotton. =merino.=--applied to hosiery or underwear made of part cotton and part wool mixed together. (_note._--the word "merino" on a box label is often misleading, as it frequently happens that goods so called are composed wholly of cotton.) =mesh underwear.=--all knit underwear cloth is mesh in varying degree, but the common application of the term means a woven or knitted fabric having a net-like appearance. =messaline.=--a light-weight satin of fine quality. =mixture yarn.=--this class of yarn is spun from fibres which have previously, and separately, been dyed various colours. the fibres are then mixed together to produce the desired mixture tone and spun in the usual way. this class of yarn differs from mélange yarn, which is composed of fibres upon which more than one colour has been printed. =mock leno.=--mock or imitation lenos are ordinary woven cloths, that is, the warp threads do not cross each other, the open effect being less pronounced than in the real leno, resulting in a fabric which is not as strong as the real or true leno. =mock seam.=--applied to stockings made with cut leg and fashioned foot. =mohair= is a lustrous wool obtained from the angora goat. the hair is often pure white, fine, wavy, and of good length, being the most lustrous of the wool or hair class fibres. it is extensively used in the manufacture of plushes and lustrous dress fabrics. the name mohair is used to designate a lustrous fabric made from this class of material. =mohair beaver plush.=--this fabric is a pile-weave material having a long lustrous mohair pile and a cotton back. the mohair pile is generally a "fast" pile in the sense that it is firmly held to the back. the pile is not as lustrous as a silk pile or even a good mercerised cotton pile, but it will not crush as readily as the latter. generally measures from 48 to 50 inches in width and 60 yards in length. to prevent crushing of the pile, this material is shipped on an iron frame, on which it is fastened by a series of hooks which hold the material by the selvedges. generally packed two frames to the box or case. the backs of mohair pile fabrics show a certain amount of loose pile fibres which have worked through during the process of weaving. this is not found in either silk or cotton pile fabrics. =mohair brilliantine.=--a typical lustre dress fabric, plain woven, free from ornamentation, cotton warp and mohair weft; width, 30 to 31 inches; length, 30 to 35 yards per piece. finer in weave appearance than lustre orleans, with a fairly extensive range of qualities. like most lustre fabrics, it is cross-dyed. =mohair coney seal.=--a long mohair-pile fabric, dyed black, in widths of from 48 to 50 inches. the pile of this fabric is mohair, the foundation cloth all cotton. harsher to the touch than a silk-pile fabric, mohair coney seal has, as a distinctive feature, a fuzzy appearance at the back due to the fact that certain of the pile fibres appear to have worked through. if a similar fabric were dyed brown instead of black, it would be known as a mohair beaver plush. if a similar fabric were dyed black and the surface chemically bleached till the dye was all out, producing a pile dyed two-thirds black and the surface third white, it would be known as a silver seal or chinchilla plush. =mohair sicilian.=--similar in construction of weave and components to a mohair brilliantine and differing from this only by the relative coarseness of threads. sicilian is three times as coarse as brilliantine, presenting a surface in which the warp and weft intersections are clearly shown, whereas the brilliantine, being so much finer woven, does not show these so clearly, presenting as it does a smoother surface. the weft threads in sicilian are comparatively much coarser than the warp, whereas in brilliantine this difference is not so apparent. in width sicilian measures up to 54 inches and in length from 30 to 35 yards per piece. =moiré.=--a watered design applied to silks by pressure between engraved rollers, or by the more common process of pressing two fabrics together. _see_ watering. =moleskin.=--an all-cotton fustian, made extra strong by crowding the number of picks to the inch, napped before dyeing and put to the same uses as a strong corduroy. =mottles.=--a variety of velveteen or velveteen cord woven with a pile surface showing a distinct combination of yarn-dyed pile threads. generally found with a pile combining black and white weft-pile threads; mottles are yarn-dyed fabrics. =mousseline de soie.=--a sheer soft fabric of silk, similar to chiffon, but of more open weave. =mule-twist yarn.=--mule-twist yarn can be spun up to the finest counts; it is softer and more elastic than ring-twist yarn; it will take up more "size" than ring-twist and, generally speaking, is more regular in construction. =mull.=--a thin plain fabric usually bleached or dyed, characterised by a soft finish, used for dress wear. various prefixes, such as swiss, india, and silk, are used in conjunction with mull. silk mull is made of cotton warp and silk filling, and generally of higher count, finished either dyed or printed. the swiss and india mulls are fine, soft, bleached cotton fabrics; silk mull is in point of texture twice as fine as some grades of cotton mull. cotton mull is a plain fabric free from any ornamental features or fancy weaves, depending for its beauty or attractiveness entirely on the finish. when coarse-grade mull, intended not for dress wear but for decorative purposes, is made, it is woven coarser than the dress fabric, stiffened in the finishing, and commonly known as starched mull. it is 30 inches wide, and has 36 picks and 40 ends per inch. cotton mull is generally woven from bleached yarns and not bleached in the piece. =mungo and shoddy= are wool products or wool fibres which have previously passed through the process of manufacture. before either mungo or shoddy is produced, the rags, tailors' clippings, pattern-room clippings, or samples from which they are made have to be dusted, sorted, and ground. the last process tears thread from thread and fibre from fibre, leaving the mungo or shoddy ready to be once more made up into a yarn. the name is applied to textiles made up wholly or in great part from mungo or shoddy. there actually exists a technical difference between mungo and shoddy, due to the class of fabric from which they are made. mungo is the product of all types of cloths which have been subjected to the milling process. shoddy is the product of unmilled fabrics, such as flannels, stockings, wraps, etc. mungo is usually shorter and finer in fibre than shoddy, because, in the first place, milled cloths are nearly always made from the shorter kinds of wool; secondly, because the fibres of a milled cloth are very difficult to separate from one another and break in the process of pulling. both mungo and shoddy are rather more comprehensive terms than names for any special type of material; both classes have a number of special divisions with different names. =nainsook.=--nainsook is a light cotton fabric of plain weave which has a very soft finish. it may be distinguished from fine lawns, fine batiste, and fine cambric from the fact that it has not as firm a construction nor as much body, and for that reason is not capable of retaining as much finishing material, the result being that when finished it has a very soft feel when handled. in width it ranges from 28 to 32 inches and in length from 20 to 60 yards per piece. =nankeen.=--the original nankeen fabric was produced in china and was a plain-weave cotton fabric woven on a hand loom from a cotton yarn which had a natural yellow-coloured tinge. the name is now given to a cotton cloth produced in lancashire, woven as a three-shaft twill and dyed a yellowish drab and other colours, often used for corset-making. there is a mass of evidence to show that true nankeen is a class of cloth having as a salient characteristic an inherent peculiar colour which is natural and due to its being woven from cotton of a yellow-brownish tint. the following extracts bear on this point. "the statement that this stuff was made from a cotton of brownish yellow tint was for a long time discredited, but it is now certain that the yellow preserves the colour of the cotton composing it rather than acquires it by any process of dyeing" (s. william beck: "textile fabrics: their history and applications"). sir george staunton, who travelled with lord macartney's embassy through the province of kiangnan, to which province the nankeen cotton is peculiar, distinctly states that the cotton is naturally "of the same yellow tinge which it preserves when spun and woven into cloth" ("embassy to china," by sir george staunton). sir george thomas staunton (son of the above) has translated an extract from a chinese herbal on the character, culture, and uses of the annual herbaceous cotton plant, in which the plant producing "dusky yellow cotton" of a very fine quality is mentioned as one of the varieties ("narratives of the chinese embassy to the khan of the tartars"). van braam, who travelled in china with a dutch embassy and who had been commissioned by european merchants to request that the nankeens for their markets might be dyed a deeper colour than those last received, says: "la toile de nanking, qu'on fabrique fort loin du lieu du même nom, est faite d'un coton _roussâtre_: la couleur de la toile de nanking est donc naturelle, et point sujette à pâlir" ("voyage de l'ambassade de la compagnie des indes orientales hollandaises vers l'empereur de la chine"). "each family (at woosung) appears to cultivate a small portion of ground with cotton, which i here saw of a light yellow colour. the nankeen cloth made from that requires no dye" ("voyage of the ship _amherst_ to the north-east coast of china, 1832," published by order of the house of commons). other authors refer to a nankeen-coloured cotton grown in india and state that the original nankeen fabric was produced in nanking, in china, and was woven from a natural-coloured yellow cotton. as produced in lancashire the cloth is a closely woven three-shaft twill, dyed yellowish drab and other colours and used for stay and corset making and for pocketing. an american government publication (house of representatives document no. 643: report of the tariff board on schedule 1 of the tariff law) gives the general description of nankeens as known in the distributing trade as: "distinguished by their peculiar yellowish brown colour, natural to the colour of the cotton of which made." from the above it would seem clear that true nankeen is a plain native cotton cloth woven on a native hand loom from unbleached and undyed yarn spun from cotton of a yellowish or yellow-brownish natural colour. the weave of nankeen is a plain one-over and one-under shirting weave, such being the type of weave most readily produced on a native hand loom. the finished fabric is marketed in its loom state. true nankeen is therefore devoid of any ornamentation or figuring produced by weave or subsequent printing, embossing, dyeing, or stencilling. the width of nankeen has apparently been always recognised as not exceeding 20 inches. the name nankeen in china was originally used to describe native hand-loom cloths of the above variety only, but as new and slightly different makes of native cloth appeared on the market the practice grew of including them under this heading, until gradually the term was used to describe not only the true nankeen but a whole group of native cloths answering to the following description: all-cotton cloths not exceeding 20 inches in width, woven on a hand loom with a one-over and one-under shirting weave from cotton yarn which has not been previously dyed or mercerised, and including cloths of the above variety which have either been bleached, piece-dyed in solid greyish or blue colour, or woven from yarn previously dyed in greyish or blue colour, and including hand-loom-woven grey or bleached cotton cloths not exceeding 20 inches wide which have been ornamented by the introduction in the weave of a yarn-dyed blue stripe or yarn-dyed blue checkered design. this loose application of the term continued until the 2nd may 1917, when the chinese maritime customs, in their notification no. 876 (shanghai, 2nd may 1917) laid down an authoritative definition of this class of piece goods reading as follows:- 1. the cloth must be of plain shirting weave, woven on a hand loom of the old style; it must not exceed 20 inches (english) in width. 2. the "count" of the yarn (whether chinese or foreign) from which the cloth is made must not exceed 20's. the yarn must be single in both warp and weft; it must not be "gassed." 3. the cloth may be of the natural colour, _i.e._, undyed, or it may be bleached or dyed in the yarn. it must not be dyed in the piece. chinese cotton cloth that does not fulfil the above conditions will not be treated as nankeen. =noils= are the rejected fibres from the process of combing the different wools and hairs prior to making them up into yarn. the primary object of combing is to sort or separate the long from the short fibres. =ombré.=--having graduated stripes in colour effect which shade from light to dark. =opera hose.=--women's stockings of extra length ordinarily measuring 34 inches. =organzine.=--this name is given to a hard and strong finished silk thread which has been given a great deal of twist in the throwing. organzine is used for warps, as strength and regularity are needed in warp threads so that they may bear the strain and friction of weaving. when silk is thrown with less twist, and is therefore softer and more or less flossy, it is known as tram and is used for the weft in weaving. =orleans.=--this fabric, also known as a lustre orleans, is one of the many varieties of lustre dress fabrics met with and described elsewhere. woven with cotton warp and lustre weft, free from ornamentation, it is a simple one-over and one-under plain-weave fabric. average width, 30 to 31 inches; length, 30 yards; price in normal times averaging, for the usual type, as low as 8½_d._ per yard. in fineness of appearance it lies midway between a mohair brilliantine, which is of finer weave, and a mohair sicilian, which is of similar weave, coarser, but more lustrous in appearance. =ottoman.=--a silk or cotton weave having thick ribs at various intervals. originally, the thick cord ran crossways. when the cord runs lengthways the fabric is often known as an ottoman cord. this material is also called a persian cord, which is a cloth made from worsted or cotton warp and worsted weft employing the plain weave, but with the warp threads working in twos, thus giving a rib effect. =outsize.=--when used as a knitted goods term it is applied to women's stockings made in extra widths. =oxford.=--originally a wool fabric in dark grey and white mixtures. of late years heavy cotton and linen fabrics have been known by this name. =oxford shirting.=--this fabric is an all-cotton fabric woven with a plain-weave ground and ornamented by the introduction of broken twill or fancy twill weave. it is woven with white and coloured yarns, which go to make the pattern or design--which in the main takes the form of stripes--of broken twill weave running lengthways of the material. where the design is produced by printing, the material would not be an oxford shirting, but would more correctly be classed as an "imitation" or "printed" oxford. oxford shirting has been described as "a matt weave of coloured yarns, forming small checked effects or basket effects." as the name shows, it is extensively used in the making of shirts and ranges in quality from a low-grade to a high-quality fabric. =padded back linings.=--when a fabric is printed black on one side, or backed, to prevent the printed pattern on the face of the cloth from showing through, it is known as a padded back lining. a natural back lining is a solid-coloured lining printed on one side only. this class of fabric is generally woven from all-cotton yarns, but may include fabrics which contain wool, silk, or other fibres. =pad-dyeing.=--fabrics are generally piece-dyed after leaving the loom by being immersed in a bath of dye or colouring material. with a view to quickening more than actually cheapening the process of dyeing, "pad-dyeing" was evolved. this roughly consists in threading the cloth to be dyed into a machine the main features of which are dye baths and rubber rollers. the cloth is made to pass over rollers, dip into a dye bath and pass through rollers which squeeze out the superfluous dye, allowing same to fall back into the dye bowl or bath. in "pad-dyeing" the cloth may pass as often as six times through the dye liquor before it enters the first set of squeezers, and it may be given as many as four more passes through the liquor before the second set of squeezers are gone through; this, according to experts, gives "thorough saturation to any and all goods difficult to penetrate." it is generally recognised that any degree of saturation can be attained by the process of pad-dyeing, and cloth may be run through a machine at the rate of some 275 yards per minute and yet be well saturated. in a description of a pad-dyeing machine the nature of the operation performed by this machine is called "dyeing" and not "printing." the only difference therefore between piece-dyeing in a vat and in a pad-dyeing machine is that in the one instance the cloth is made to circulate in a dye bath or through a series of dye baths instead of being allowed to remain still in a dye vat until impregnated. the object aimed at and attained, _i.e._, the saturation of the cloth with a dye or colouring liquor, is identical. all fabrics showing thorough saturation of ground colour (_i.e._, where both sides of the fabric are equally dyed) are considered as dyed whether they have been dyed by vat-dyeing or pad-dyeing. =panne.=--a light-weight velvet with "laid" or flattened pile. applied to a range of satin-faced velvets or silk fabrics which show a high lustre, which is produced by pressure. the word _panne_ is french for plush. =panung.=--the nether garment of the siamese. made from cloth of the papoon style or from woven or printed checks. papoon is a plain-woven cloth having warp and weft of different colours. it is also woven in two-and-two checking. =panama canvas.=--an all-cotton plain matt weave fabric, similar to basket cloth, but woven from dyed yarns. =papoon.=--an all-cotton fabric woven from coloured yarns, the warp being of a different colour to the weft or filling threads. exported to siam, where it is extensively used for panungs. =paramatta.=--a thin union fabric woven as a three-shaft weft-faced twill from cotton warp and botany worsted weft, used extensively for the manufacture of waterproof articles. =pastel.=--applied to tones of any colour when exceptionally pale. =pastille.=--a round or oval spot. =peau de cygne.=--a closely woven silk having a lustrous but uneven surface. =peau de soie.=--a closely woven silk having a somewhat uneven satin-like surface. literally, "skin of silk." a variety of heavy, soft-finished, plain-coloured dress silk woven with a pattern of fine close ribs extending weftways of the fabric. the best grades are reversible, being similarly finished on both sides; lower grades are finished on one side only. the weave is an eight-shaft satin with one point added on the right or left, imparting to the fabric a somewhat grainy appearance. =pekiné, or pekin stripes.=--a colour design in stripes of equal width and with equal space between. =pepperell drill.=--the very superior qualities of drills, woven from the highest quality yarns, are distinguishable by their carefully woven appearance and known as pepperell drills. =percale.=--a plain-weave cotton fabric of fine or medium count, used for shirtings, dresses, linings, etc. percale is usually printed on one side with geometrical figures, generally black, although other colours are sometimes used. the fabric is bleached before printing and has an entire lack of gloss, differing from percaline, which has a very glossy finish. it is often printed in stripes and, when so printed, is known as percale stripes. =percaline.=--a highly finished and dressed light-weight percale, piece-dyed in solid colours and not printed. percaline is an all-cotton, plain, closely woven fabric, generally met with in shades of blue, green, black, brown, and tan. highly calendered and glossed. =persian cord.=--a worsted or cotton warp and worsted weft fabric woven with a plain weave, but with the warp threads working in twos, thus giving a rib effect. also called ottoman. =pick.=--when the word "pick" is used in connexion with weaving, it always signifies the filling or weft threads, while each warp thread is called an "end" or a "thread." picks run across the width of the fabric. =piece goods.=--a usual trade reference for fabrics which are woven in lengths suitable for retail sale by linear measure. =pile fabrics.=--materials of silk or cotton wherein the surface is woven with raised loops, which are afterwards cut, forming a raised "pile." they include plushes, velvets, velveteens, and corduroys. the threads that go towards making the pile are special threads independent of the warp and weft threads necessary to make a fabric that will hold together. if the raised loops are left uncut, as more frequently is the case with warp piles, the fabric is spoken of as "terry." if cut, as is sometimes the case with warp piles, and usually the case with weft piles, the fabric is spoken of as "cut-pile." a generic name, used more in the elementary distributing trade, covering the classes of goods known amongst retailers and consumers as velveteen, corduroy, turkish towelling, plush, etc. =pile weave.=--numerous varieties of cloth woven with a pile surface, such as plush, velvet, velveteen, silk seals, pony skin, beaver, chinchilla plush, and carpeting of various kinds, are produced by this style of weave. the distinctive feature of this weave is that the surface consists of threads standing closely together like bristles in a brush. these threads appear either as threads sheared off smooth, so as to form a uniform or even surface, as in the case of velvet, or may appear in the form of loops, as in the case of towelling. the threads forming the pile are fixed to the back in a more or less firm manner and are known as "loose" or "fast" pile: the former takes the form of the letter @u@ and the latter of the letter @w@. the loose pile may be driven out of the material by pressure, as there are not the same binding threads holding it as in the fast pile, or, again, they may be drawn out through the back of the material by relatively little scratching with, say, the edge of a paper-knife. the fast pile cannot be so withdrawn, as one of the warp threads passes in each of the two surface depressions as well as under the centre bend of the @w@, thus firmly binding it to the cloth. all other conditions being equal, a fast-pile material would be the better and more expensive of the two, and for upholstery or where there is much wear the "fast" pile is essential. pile-weave materials are shipped on iron frames of about 60 yards, the material being hooked on to the frame by the selvedge so as to prevent the crushing of the pile. for export two frames are boxed together, separated by a wood partition. =piqué.=--a stout cotton fabric having as a distinguishing feature wide or fine welts, running "lengthways in the piece" and extending side by side from selvedge to selvedge. it is woven in the unbleached state and bleached before being placed on the market. it is also made in part of dyed yarns, forming ornamental stripes. it is sometimes referred to as welts or bedford cords. this fabric is described in the english market as a fabric having "transverse ribs or welts, produced by stitching tightly weighted warp threads through a fine plain-woven cloth which has its warp lightly tensioned." the ribs or welts are sometimes emphasised by the introduction of wadding weft. in america this material is sometimes described as "p.k." =p.k.=--an american way of writing piqué. this abbreviated designation of the word is limited to america and seldom met with on english invoices. =plain.=--as a weaving term the word "plain" is used to designate the simplest weave, in which the weft thread passes under one and over one warp thread. this system of interlacing produces a "plain" or "one-over and one-under" or "shirting" weave. the term is also used to denote that a fabric is not figured, _i.e._, that it is free of ornamentation produced by either extra threads or combination of weaves. =plain velvet (cotton).=--an all-cotton pile fabric, which is more often known under the name of velveteen. there would appear, however, to be a difference between the two fabrics, which lies only in the length of the pile, the pile of velvet being if anything a little longer than that of velveteen and shorter than that of plush. this fabric may, like velveteen, be either of a weft or warp pile weave, which is more fully described under "velveteen." being plain, it is free from any ornamentation produced by printing, embossing, or combination of weave, and of uniform colour throughout the width and length of the material. =plain velveteen (cotton).=--this fabric, like all true velveteens, is an all-cotton pile fabric which has not been ornamented or figured in any way, either by being printed or embossed or by combination of weave, and would be of uniform colour throughout the width and length of the material. =plain (or homespun) weave.=--plain cloth is the simplest cloth that can be woven. in this weave one series of threads (filling or weft) crosses another series (warp) at right angles, passing over one and under one in regular order, thus forming a simple interlacement of the threads. this weave is used in the production of muslin, gingham, broadcloth, taffetas, etc. checks are produced in plain weaving by the use of bands of coloured warp and coloured filling. this weave produces a strong and firm cloth. it is also called calico or tabby weave, and referred to as a "one-over and one-under" weave. =plated.=--an american term used in connexion with goods having the face of one material and the back of another; for instance, a garment having a wool face and cotton back is "plated." the face may also be of one colour and the back of another, both of the same material. =plissé.=--french for pleated; applied to fabrics which have as a distinctive feature a narrow lengthways fold like the pleats of a closed fan. also known as tucks. =plumetis.=--a sheer cotton fabric ornamented with tufts at intervals. a figured muslin or lawn of high quality and price which shows on its face dots or small sprigs of flowers which closely imitate real hand embroidery. these designs are the result of swivel figuring. this fabric is also known as plumety. =plush.=--as a distinctive fabric plush would appear to be a pile fabric having a fairly long pile woven on the same principle as velvet, but composed of wool, mohair, or mixed fibres, and sometimes from a silk pile and cotton back. used as an adjective, the word "plush" would mean woven with a pile somewhat longer than velvet. it is generally used in conjunction with a prefix showing the nature of the materials from which the pile is made. it is generally recognised that plushes and velvets are so generally part cotton that a silk plush should be considered as having a cotton back unless it is definitely stated that it is "silk backed." this practice is recognised by manufacturing, wholesale, and retail branches of the trade and is accepted by such authorities as paul h. nystrom and recorded in his book, "textiles." =plush of silk mixed with other fibres.=--this class of material includes all pile fabrics which, in the first instance, answer to the description of plush, _i.e._, have their pile longer than that of velvet, and the pile of which, whilst being partly of silk, contains other animal fibres such as wool or mohair and which may contain even vegetable fibres such as cotton. in plushes belonging to the above class the nature of the back or foundation cloth may vary, but in the great majority of cases they would be found to be of cotton. where it is clearly stipulated that they are "plushes of silk mixed with other fibres and having cotton backs," the foundation cloth must not contain warp or weft threads wholly or in part composed of any material other than cotton. =plush velveteen.=--a plain all-cotton pile fabric, either weft or warp pile, but generally the former, which differs from velveteen only in the length of the pile. as the name velveteen stands for "an all-cotton fabric," it would be as correct to describe a plush velveteen as "an all-cotton plush" or as a "long-piled velveteen." the terms plush and velveteen are explained elsewhere. =pointillé.=--having a design in small dots. =pompadour.=--a term used to describe small floral designs in silk fabrics. =poncho cloth.=--this name is apparently more used to describe a class of fabric than a particular and distinctive material. used presumably in the manufacture of ponchos, which are blanket-shaped garments having a slit in the centre through which the head is passed, and extensively used in mexico. poncho cloth was originally a fine all-wool fabric. poncho cloth is now described as a union cloth, _i.e._, composed of two materials, such as wool and cotton, otherwise than by blending. it is also similar to what is known as leather cloth, produced in the morley district, which is heavier than the boiled and teazled goods known in that district as "unions." true poncho cloth is a union cloth woven with cotton warp and woollen weft, measuring from 72 to 74 inches wide and having a distinctive 1-inch hair list at each selvedge. it resembles but is lighter in weight than a union or leather cloth, averages from 16 to 20 ounces per yard, and is given a high finish on the face. in the bradford district such a cloth would be known and sold as a "melton" unless shipped as a poncho cloth at the request of the buyer. =pongee.=--a fine plain-woven cotton fabric, mercerised, dyed, and schreinered, having a soft handle or feel like the real silk pongee of which it is an imitation. pongees are met with having stripes produced by coloured warp threads. the fabric has a lustrous silky appearance. average width, 28 inches. the ground colour of pongees is most often of a shade similar to real silk pongee. =pony skin.=--as a textile term, it is used to describe a pile fabric which is made to imitate the true russian pony skin fur. always dyed a solid black, this fabric has a mohair pile which has been laid and fixed by heat. the density of the pile and the lustre are the best guides to value. like many imitation fur fabrics, it came into the market owing to the vogue of the real fur it imitates. average width, 48 to 50 inches; length, 30 to 33 yards per piece. =poplin.=--a fabric having a silk warp and a wool weft, with a corded surface. goods in which a similar effect is produced, but made in all silk, all wool, or cotton, are also called poplins. it is a warp-ribbed fabric with a plain weave and was originally made with a fine silk warp and a comparatively thick gassed worsted weft which gave the ribbed effect, with the silk warp threads thrown to the surface and completely hiding the worsted weft. it is similar to, but generally softer finished than, repp or rep. =printed.=--this term, when used with reference to textiles, indicates that the fabric has been submitted to a process whereby certain designs, either simple or complex, have been impressed on the surface of the fabric in either one or more colours. calico is perhaps the most typical of printed fabrics. the printing of fabrics is generally done by the aid of a machine, its main feature being a revolving cylinder on which the design has been stamped or cut out. the cloth in passing through the machine comes in contact with the impression cylinder. the cylinder revolving in a colour trough takes up the colour and leaves the impression of the design on the cloth. when fabrics are printed by hand from blocks, the design never joins so perfectly that it cannot be detected, and, if looked for, certain marks will be found that are used as "guides" to show the operator where the next impression with the block is to be made. roller-printed designs, being continuous, show no such marks or irregularities. a recent process known as the "lithographic" or transfer process has been introduced, and it is a modified form of block printing, an engraved stone being used as for lithographic work. a fabric that is printed will not show continuous coloured threads, but threads coloured in places and not in others; whereas in fabrics having the pattern woven the coloured threads are continuous. an "indigo print" is distinguished from a regular print by having a printed figure on a solid indigo blue ground, whereas the ground of an ordinary print-cloth pattern is white or of a light colour. an indigo-print pattern is obtained either by indigo block printing, indigo discharge printing, or indigo resist printing. =printed balzarines.=--the general structure and appearance of balzarines is given under that heading. the cotton variety would be an all-cotton fabric having a gauze weave and net-like appearance. the printed variety would consist of similar fabrics which had been subjected to a process whereby certain simple or complex designs had been impressed upon the surface of the fabric in either one or more colours. the fabric would approximate 30 inches in width and probably from 28 to 30 yards in length per piece. =printed calico.=--this fabric is described under "calico." =printed cambrics.=--as the name shows, printed cambrics are cambrics which have been submitted to a process whereby certain simple or complex designs in either one or more colours have been impressed on their surface. cambric being a light-weight, soft-finish, plain-weave fabric of linen or cotton, the term printed cambric is therefore applicable to either a linen or cotton fabric. the more correct designation would be either printed linen cambric or printed cotton cambric. the majority of cambrics met with are cotton cambrics, and, unless specially designated, a printed cambric would be a cotton fabric. whereas in the plain white a cambric is finer than a lawn, printed cambrics, on the other hand, are coarser than lawns. =printed chintzes.=--this fabric is essentially a multicoloured printed cotton fabric. it is the style of printing and the large bright and gay coloured patterns of flowers and other subjects used for ornamentation of the fabric that are the distinctive features of this material, which is mainly used for curtains and furniture coverings. chintz is but a plain-woven fabric elaborately ornamented with designs by means of the printing machine. after printing, the fabric is passed through a calender press, the rolls of which are well heated and tightly set, which gives the glazed finish which the fabric in most cases possesses. =printed cotton drill.=--a strong all-cotton warp-faced or warp sateen faced fabric which, after leaving the loom, has been suitably prepared for and subjected to a process whereby certain ornamentation in the form of simple or complex designs in either one or more colours has been impressed on its surface. for particulars of weave, _see_ drills; florentine drills; satin drill. =printed cotton italians.=--this name is given to an all-cotton fabric woven generally with a weft-faced satin weave having an even, close, smooth surface, upon which--for the purpose of ornamentation and to enhance the value of the fabric--certain simple or complex designs in either one or more colours have been impressed. whilst the name of this fabric does not indicate whether it is a grey, white, or dyed one, nevertheless, as an italian cloth itself is a dyed cotton fabric, so a printed cotton italian is a dyed and printed cotton fabric. =printed cotton lastings.=--this fabric is essentially a plain all-cotton twill or kindred weave fabric firmly woven from hard-twisted yarns, piece-dyed after leaving the loom, and subsequently subjected to a printing process whereby certain designs, whether simple or complex, are impressed upon the surface of the cloth in either one or more colours. =printed crapes.=--any all-cotton crape cloth, which has been ornamented by having certain designs or patterns impressed upon its surface in one or more colours, is termed a printed crape. the crinkled appearance--which is the distinctive feature of crape cloth--remains unchanged in the printed crape. the various methods of obtaining this crinkled effect is given under "crape cloth, plain." =printed crimp cloth.=--any all-cotton crimp cloth which has been ornamented by having certain designs or patterns impressed upon its surface in one or more colours is known as a printed crimp. the "cockled" stripes--which are the distinctive feature of crimp cloth--remain unchanged in the printed crimps. the method of obtaining these "cockled" stripes is given under "crimp cloth, plain." =printed furnitures.=--this name, like many others used with reference to textiles, denotes more a class of goods than any given fabric. chintz, cretonne, and any other printed cotton fabrics which enter into the manufacture of chair or sofa coverings, curtains, hassocks, screens, etc., may be termed printed furnitures. this name, however, seems to be unknown to both manufacturer and distributor, and it is not in use in any of the many branches of commerce concerned with textile fabrics. as a generic term it has its value; but if it was ever used as the name of any given fabric, it is so used no longer. =printed lawns.=--as the name shows, printed lawns are lawns which have been submitted to a process whereby certain simple or complex designs in either one or more colours have been impressed on their surface. lawn being a light-weight, soft-finished, plain-weave fabric woven from cotton yarns varying from 1/40's to 1/100's or from a linen yarn, the term printed lawn is therefore applicable to either a cotton or linen fabric. the more correct designation would be either printed cotton lawn or printed linen lawn. the majority of lawns met with are cotton lawns, and unless specially designated, a printed lawn would be a cotton fabric. whereas a plain white lawn is coarser than a white cambric, a printed lawn, on the other hand, is finer than a printed cambric. it varies in width from 27 to 45 inches. =printed leno.=--when a leno has been submitted to a process whereby certain simple or complex designs in either one or more colours have been impressed on its face, it is then known as a printed leno. =printed muslin.=--as the name shows, printed muslins are muslins which have been submitted to a process whereby certain simple or complex designs in either one or more colours have been impressed on their surface. muslin, like lawn and cambric, is an open, plain-weave, light-weight, soft-finished cotton fabric. the better qualities of muslin may be recognised by their evenness of weave and fineness of yarn, whilst in the lower grades occasional warp or weft threads will be irregular, having the appearance of being thicker in some parts than in others. =printed reps.=--as the name indicates, this class of fabric is essentially of rep construction, _i.e._, having as a predominant feature a rep or rib running transversely across the face of the cloth, which is described in detail under "rep." when a cloth or fabric of rep construction has had its face ornamented by having certain designs or patterns impressed on it in either one or more colours, it is known as a printed rep. this class of fabric is generally met with as an all-cotton fabric, and unless specially designated, the material so described would be a printed plain (in the sense of not figured) cotton fabric. =printed sateens.=--these are essentially light-weight cotton fabrics finished to imitate silk satin, and the common italian cloth is a sateen fabric. the ornamentation of printed sateens is the result of a printing process whereby certain designs are impressed on the surface in contradistinction to coloured sateens, in which the ornamentation is produced by combination of coloured warp and filling threads. _see also_ sateens; satin. =printed satinets.=--an imitation of the true satin in mercerised cotton or other yarns which has been printed after leaving the loom. the four-shaft satin weave, which does not fulfil the conditions of the real satin as regards order of intersections, is known as a satinet weave and is the basis of this class of fabric. similar to sateen, but somewhat lighter in weight. =printed sheetings.=--this name is given to an all-cotton fabric woven either as a four-shaft two-and-two twill or with a plain weave, as in the case of low-grade sheetings, in which waste and condenser wefts are used. the actual fabric is woven as described under "grey sheeting," then "singed," "bleached," and "calendered" to prepare it for the process of printing, which consists of impressing on the face of the material certain designs in either one or more colours. this term is very seldom met with in the trade and is considered a misnomer. =printed shirtings.=--printed shirtings are essentially an all-cotton fabric woven with a plain weave, having the warp and weft approximately of the same count, which have had their surface ornamented by being submitted to a process whereby certain simple or complex designs in either one or more colours have been impressed upon them. printed shirtings, like all other cotton fabrics, undergo a process of "singeing," "bleaching," and "calendering" prior to being printed. the first process removes the surface hairs, which form a sort of nap to the surface of the cloth, which if allowed to remain would interfere with the uniform application of the colours, and the other two processes further prepare the fabric for printing. =printed t-cloth.=--this fabric is an all-cotton plain-woven fabric, generally woven from poor-quality yarn, which, after leaving the loom, has been bleached and printed. this fabric answers the description of a printed calico and would by many be known under that name. beyond the actual manufacturer, the jobber or exporter, and those merchants in such markets as manchester and china where the term is currently used, few even in the textile business would know the value of the term _t_-cloth. =printed turkey reds.=--fabrics designated as printed turkey reds are essentially all-cotton fabrics of good quality dyed turkey red (_see_ dyed real turkey reds) and subsequently ornamented by having certain designs impressed on their surface in either one or more colours. they are usually plain woven or of small twill weave. =printed twills.=--this term is applied to all cotton fabrics of twill weave, having the diagonal effect or twill running across the face of the fabric, which subsequent to being woven have been ornamented by having certain designs, either simple or complex, impressed on their surface in either one or more colours. =printed velvet (cotton).=--like a plain cotton velvet, this fabric is virtually a velveteen, _i.e._, an all-cotton pile fabric, which has been ornamented by having certain designs or patterns impressed on its face in either one or more colours. =printed velveteen (cotton).=--this fabric, like all true velveteens, is an all-cotton pile fabric which has been ornamented by having certain designs, whether simple or complex, impressed on its surface in either one or more colours. =printers.=--plain-woven cotton cloths either exported plain or more often used for printing. burnley printers, or "lumps," are usually 32 inches wide by 116 yards in length and 16 square, _i.e._, 16 ends and 16 picks to the quarter inch. glossop or cheshire printers are about 36 inches by 50 yards and average 19 ends and 22 picks to the quarter inch. printers are generally well woven from pure yarns of good quality. a variety woven from low-grade yarns is also manufactured. =pure silk plush.=--a pile fabric, not often met with woven entirely from silk, _i.e._, having both pile face and back warp threads of silk. woven as a velvet but with a somewhat longer pile. most branches of the trade consider a pure silk plush to be a fabric having an all-silk pile, irrespective of whether the foundation fabric is silk or not. paul h. nystrom, in his book, "textiles," states that velvets and plushes are so generally part cotton that a silk velvet or a silk plush should be considered as having a cotton back unless it is definitely stated that it is "silk backed." the term "pure silk" when applied to a plush qualifies the pile of the fabric and not the fabric as a whole; it does not mean that the fabric is composed entirely of silk. =pure silk velvet.=--an all-silk pile fabric, not often met with woven entirely from silk, similar to an all-silk plush, from which it differs only in length of pile. the pile of velvet is shorter than that of plush. a pure silk velvet is generally understood to be a pile fabric having an all-silk pile, irrespective of the nature of the foundation fabric. velvets are so generally part cotton that a silk velvet should be considered as having a cotton back unless it is definitely stated that it is "silk backed." "silk," or "pure silk," refers to the pile and the pile only, in the general acceptance of the trade, and not to the fabric as a whole; it does not mean a fabric composed entirely of silk. =raised back cloths.=--fabrics requiring a "raised back" are usually warp faced and weft backed. by constructing the cloth in this manner, the raising machine, in the subsequent processes, partially disintegrates the weft fibres and gives that soft and woolly feel which one is accustomed to in such cloths as swansdown, cotton trouserings, and some classes of fabrics used for dressing-gowns, pyjamas, etc. =raised cotton cloth.=--any material woven in all cotton and having either one or both sides "raised" or "napped" would be a raised cotton cloth. the "raising" or "napping" of the cloth is a process which the fabric is put through with the view of giving it a soft "woolly" feel. by passing the fabric, whilst it is tightly stretched, over a revolving cylinder which has its surface covered with small steel hooks or teasels, the surface of the fabric is scratched and the short fibres of the yarn used in the weaving are opened up and raised, resulting in a nap covering the whole of the surface. raised cotton cloths allow of the use of coarse inferior yarns and are better looking than had they not been raised. the raising hides defects of weave and produces a warmer, better-looking cloth than could be produced by any other process at the price. raised cloths, like certain flannelettes, are sometimes chemically rendered "fireproof." =ramie, rhea, china grass.=--a fibre obtained from a plant of the nettle family which grows in india and china. the fibre is strong and lustrous and lends itself to the weaving of various materials, especially underclothing, and it is used also in the manufacture of incandescent gas mantles. the diameter of ramie and china grass fibres is from two to three times that of flax. ramie and china grass are not absolutely identical, the latter containing 78 per cent. of cellulose as compared with 66 per cent. in ramie. when spun into threads they produce a lustrous effect. effects resembling silk-woven textures are produced with the finest yarns, and when dyed in delicate shades they give a brilliancy comparable with silk. =ratine.=--a wool material similar to a chinchilla, but having smaller tufts with wider spacings between. this material is always plain woven and is of comparatively recent creation; it can be described as a very rough surface dress fabric, properly in part of wool, but now also made entirely of cotton. the characteristic rough surface is caused by the use of special fancy weft threads which are composed of two or more different size yarns so twisted together as to produce knob effects at intervals in the thread. a more expensive fabric is made of filling threads composed of braided yarns. the trade now applies the name to imitation effects produced by terry weaves, turkish towelling fabrics, bouclé and bourette effects. =rayé.=--this is the french term for "striped" and is applied to patterns running longitudinally with the warp in textile fabrics, produced by employing a special weave or two or more colours of warp specially arranged. =reed and pick= are terms applied in the cotton industry to the number of threads in a given space--usually ¼ inch or 1 inch--in the warp and weft respectively. these terms are not generally employed, however, in all textile districts; the term "make" or "ends and picks per inch" is applied to worsted cloths, whilst "sett" and "shots" are used with the same meaning in the linen industry. the word "counts," which refers to the number or thickness of yarn, is sometimes erroneously used in this connexion, probably owing to the fact that the expression "counts to the 1-inch glass" is also used in reference to reed and pick. =rembrandt rib.=--applied to women's stockings having groups of five drop-stitches, separated by 1 inch of plain knitting running the full length. =rep.=--the name rep is used to designate certain fabrics that have as a predominant feature a rep or rib running transversely across the face of the cloth. the term may also be applied to the actual weft rib which appears in the material. reps are what is known as warp-ribbed fabrics, _i.e._, fabrics with the rib or rep running weftways, and for that reason may be considered the opposite of cords. the term "warp-ribbed" might at first sight appear to designate a rib running warpways, that is to say, in the longitudinal direction of the cloth, whereas a warp rib is a warp surface weave in which, owing to the thickness of the weft picks or to the grouping of a number of weft picks together, the warp threads are made to bend round them, and being thus thrown to the surface produce a ribbed appearance across the piece. reps, unless specially designated, are dyed plain cotton fabrics with an average width of 32 inches and a length of 32 yards per piece. =resist or reserve printing.=--this style of printing is a process used to obtain white figures on a coloured ground by means of printing the designs in substances that are impervious to the dye into which the cloth so printed is subsequently placed. the cloth is dyed, but all parts of it which were covered by the resist agent remain white. =reversible cretonnes.=--the salient features of cretonnes are the bold type of highly coloured designs with which the fabric is ornamented through printing. the weave employed for this style of fabric is either plain, twill, satin, or oatmeal weave; the width of the material varies from 25 to 50 inches. sometimes, though rarely, a small brocaded effect of fancy weave is introduced. reversible cretonnes differ from ordinary cretonnes in that they are printed on both sides of the fabric. a recent variety of reversible cretonne, called a shadow cretonne, is purely a warp-printed fabric, sometimes containing yarn-dyed threads. a cretonne printed with the same design on face and back would be known as a reversible cretonne, whilst the same fabric printed with one pattern on the face and a different pattern on the back would be known as a duplex printed cretonne. =rib.=--the name given to any kind of cord effect or to a weave in which either, owing to the interlacing or to the yarns used, warp or weft is the stronger and remains comparatively straight while the weaker does all the bending. thus, in warp ribs the weft is the stronger and causes the warp to bend and form a warp surface rib running from selvedge to selvedge, while in weft ribs the warp is the stronger and develops a weft surface rib running lengthways of the piece. =rib crape effect.=--this term is used to designate the effect produced by breaking up the regular order of weave so as to produce a warp-rib effect on a fabric which is of the crape variety, the crape weave being distinguishable by the interlacing of warp and weft in a more or less mixed or indiscriminate order, so as to produce an appearance of a finely broken character. rib crape effect is found in fabrics known as crepoline. =richelieu rib.=--applied to women's plain stockings having a single drop-stitch at intervals of three-quarters of an inch running the full length of the stocking. =right and wrong side of fabrics.=--in certain goods it is difficult to tell the right from the wrong side. in plain worsteds the diagonal ought always to run from right to left, that being the right side. in all textiles which are not reversible, but are similar on both sides, the right side can be detected by the quantity of down, which is less on the right side than the wrong side. to determine this it is often necessary to hold the cloth under examination to the light. when both sides are well finished, but with different patterns, it is the neater of the two which is generally the right side. in a comprehensive way, shaving and neatness indicate the right side. =ring-spun yarn.=--ring-spun cotton yarn is generally a harder spun thread than mule-twist, which is more fibrous and more elastic. ring-spun yarn will not take up as much "size" as the more fibrous and softer spun thread of the mule. ring-spun yarn is rounder than a mule-spun thread. ring-spinning differs from mule-spinning in this essential: the former is spun on the "continuous system" upon spindles that are fixed, whereas in mule-spinning the spindles are mounted on a carriage which moves backwards and forwards for a distance of some 5 feet. when the spindles reach their greatest distance the rolls producing the yarn are automatically stopped, and the thread that has been spun during the outward move of the carriage is wound on the spindles while the carriage is being moved back toward the rolls. =robes.=--a name given to printed twill cotton fabrics made from 64-square printing cloth. originally made for use as wraps, they were made in cashmere effects. now, although made in large bright-coloured furniture coverings, curtains, etc., they still retain the name robes when made from 64-square printing cloth. =russian cloth (woollen).=--an all-wool fabric, plain woven from a wool weft and wool warp, the weave being a plain one-over and one-under weave. owing to the finish of the cloth, the weave is non-apparent. it varies in width from 54 to 74 inches and in length from 19 to 36 yards. it does not differ materially from broad, medium, and habit cloth. average value for period 1904 to 1914, 4_s._ 3_d._ per yard. =russian prints.=--this class of fabric does not differ materially from any other print. they originate in odessa, whence they come by steamer to chinese ports or to vladivostock, from which points the majority are brought overland into manchuria. many of the designs on russian prints are similar to those on american prints. measuring 24/25 or 26 inches wide, 88 by 68 or 88 by 64 ends and picks, and 30 yards per piece, they are generally packed 30, 40, and sometimes 60 pieces to a bale. on the whole, russian prints are not a high-grade material. =samples and their classification.=--unless some definite system, which provides means for ready reference to any of the individual samples forming part of the collection, is adopted from the very start, sample collections are of comparatively small value. the successive pasting into a book of samples which represent fabrics of different materials, different weaves, and different finishes--and under the heading "finishes" would be included dyeing, printing, embossing, etc.--is of no great value, for it becomes impossible after a time to readily turn up any given sample. even with an index to the collection so formed it is only possible to turn up a sample of material the name of which is known. a person wishing to turn up in such a collection a sample of a certain type of fabric the name of which he did not know at the time could not do so, and the more specimens or samples were added to the collection the more difficult it would become to turn up a given sample, and the value of the collection would lessen instead of increase. if fabrics are divided into 17 headings representing the main divisions into which they may be classed, and each division or section is subdivided into numbered sub-sections, the task becomes simpler, and there results therefrom a series of key-numbered collections each containing samples of fabrics of a similar type but of varying quality and value. each collection (or sub-section) becomes known by a combination of two numbers, one of which is the main division or section number and the other the number of that particular sub-section. these numbers precede the name of the division and the name of the subdivision. the 17 main divisions or groups, together with their respective subdivisions, which will in practice be found to be ample are as follow:- section number. sub-section number. --- --- { 1. shirtings and sheetings. { 2. drills and jeans. 1. grey cottons { 3. shirtings and sheetings, native. { 4. drills and jeans, native. { 5. not specially enumerated. { 1. plain. { 2. plain (with finish). { 3. brocades. { 4. brocades (with finish). { 5. striped or spotted shirting. 2. white cottons. { 6. striped or spotted shirting { (with finish). { 7. crimps and crapes. { 8. crimps and crapes (with { finish). { 9. lenos. { 10. not specially enumerated. { 1. plain. { 2. plain (with finish). { 3. furnitures. { 4. crapes. { 5. crimps. 3. printed cottons. { 6. muslins, lawns, and cambrics. { 7. lenos and balzarines. { 8. duplex or reversible. { 9. blue and white _t_-cloth. { 10. not specially enumerated. { 1. plain. { 2. plain (with finish). { 3. crimps. { 4. crimps (with finish). { 5. drills, twills, and jeans. 4. dyed plain cottons. { 6. lawns, muslins, and cambrics. { 7. hongkong-dyed. { 8. lenos and balzarines. { 9. native. { 10. native (with finish). { 11. not specially enumerated. { 1. figured. { 2. figured (with finish). 5. dyed figured cottons { 3. native. { 4. native (with finish). { 5. not specially enumerated. { 1. plain. { 2. dyed. { 3. printed. { 4. duplex printed. 6. raised cottons. { 5. dyed and printed. { 6. dyed and duplex printed. { 7. yarn-dyed. { 8. figured white. { 9. not specially enumerated. { 1. plain. { 2. plain (with finish). { 3. figured. { 4. figured (with finish). 7. coloured woven { 5. crimps. (_i.e._, yarn-dyed) { 6. crimps (with finish). cottons { 7. plain native. { 8. plain native (with finish). { 9. figured native. { 10. figured native (with finish). { 11. not specially enumerated. { 1. plain. { 2. plain (with finish). { 3. crimps. { 4. crimps (with finish). 8. dyed and printed cottons { 5. figured. { 6. figured (with finish). { 7. native. { 8. not specially enumerated. { 1. plain. { 2. printed or embossed. 9. velvets and velveteens { 3. embroidered. (cotton). { 4. dyed cords and corduroys. { 5. undyed moleskins. { 6. not specially enumerated. { 1. plain pure silk. { 2. figured or embossed. { 3. silk seal (with cotton back). { 4. silk with cotton back. 10. plushes and velvets { 5. silk mixed with other fibrous { materials (with cotton { back). { 6. all-cotton plush (including { with finish). { 7. not specially enumerated. { 1. plain. { 2. figured. { 3. plain native. 11. silk piece goods { 4. figured native. { 5. ribbons (all silk and mixtures). { 6. not specially enumerated. 12. silk and cotton fabrics { 1. plain. { 2. figured. { 1. plain. { 2. figured. { 3. poncho cloth. 13. woollen and cotton { 4. spanish stripes. mixtures { 5. union cloth. { 6. plain lustres. { 7. figured lustres. { 8. not specially enumerated. { 1. habit, medium, russian, and { broad cloth. { 2. bunting. { 3. camlets, dutch. 14. woollen fabrics { 4. camlets, english. { 5. flannel. { 6. lastings (all kinds). { 7. spanish stripes. { 8. long ells. { 9. not specially enumerated. 15. linen and linen unions { 1. plain. { 2. figured. 16. hemp and hemp mixtures { 1. plain and figured. { 2. yarn-dyed. 17. miscellaneous. whether the loose-leaf system with folders to contain the samples is used or whether they are entered into special books is a matter for the individual, but the loose-leaf or card-index system with folder is infinitely preferable, admitting of the removal of any given sample for reference or comparison. the index to such a collection of samples would be alphabetical (even though not absolutely so), and if a sample of italian (of the plain variety) were added to the collection, it would be added under section 4, dyed plain cottons. if the sample of italian thus added to the collection was the fifth sample of dyed plain cottons (with finish), it would appear in the index to the sample collection under 1 and would be entered as follows:- name of fabric. section sub-section sample number. number. number. --- --- --- --- italian 4 2 5 a sample of bunting, on the other hand, would be filed under section 14, sub-section 2; and if it were the thirty-first sample filed under that sub-section, it would be indexed under the letter b as bunting, 14: 2: 31. this decimal system of numbering and classifying samples lends itself to a refinement of subdivision unattainable in any other. generally speaking, samples, unless accompanied by certain descriptive information, are of little value, and care should be taken to describe briefly any salient feature connected with the fabric. this information may concern either the trade-mark, the importer, the value, or the date when the sample was entered into the collection, and brief particulars of the shipment of which it is a sample. this kind of information is of material value where the sample concerns a class, style, or quality of fabric not hitherto met with. with a comparatively small amount of trouble it would be possible to get together very valuable collections of samples. and if the individual would but give a little time and thought to the question of textile samples, and but a tithe of the time devoted to any hobby he may have, he will be amply repaid by the added knowledge he will acquire. all samples should be of uniform size (7 inches by 4 inches will be found a very useful size) and should invariably be in duplicate--one to use in obtaining all particulars necessary for classification and the other for the actual sample collection. weave structure, nature of yarns, etc., may be studied and tests for components made and recorded. nothing will give a better idea of relative values of fabrics than knowledge of components, style of weave, etc. this, of course, does not apply to extrinsic values, _i.e._, values due to fashion, exclusive designs, or proprietary articles. there is nothing to go by in such cases better than market values; but in the plainer staples knowledge of construction, finish, etc., means ability to classify fabrics and estimate their approximate relative values. provisions for an index to sample collection have been made at the end of this book, enabling the ready adoption of the system now advocated. =sateens.=--this material is a light-weight cotton fabric finished to imitate silk satin. in weaving cotton sateens the same style of weave is adopted as in weaving silk satin, the object aimed at being an even, close, smooth surface and one capable of reflecting light to the best advantage. in a "warp sateen" weave the warp only appears on the surface, the filling or weft threads being effectually and completely hidden by the warp threads. in passing over the filling the warps do not interweave at regular, but at irregular, intervals--thus they may pass over five, eight, ten, twelve, or sixteen, then under one and over eight more, and so on. sateens average 30 inches wide and from 30 to 60 yards in length per piece. sateens are woven on the same principle as italians. the common sateen cloth is produced on a "five threads and picks" system. sateens are woven either as "warp sateen" or "weft sateen"; the peculiarities of these weaves are given under those headings. =satin.=--a term applied to silk goods woven on the same principle as sateens, either warp sateens or weft sateens. in weaving most silk fabrics the warp and weft, or filling, are made to intersect each other every alternate time (as in plain weaving) or every third or fourth time in regular order (as in ordinary or plain twill weaving). in weaving satin the same style of weave is adopted as in weaving cotton sateens, the object aimed at being an even, close, smooth surface and one capable of reflecting light to the best advantage. in a warp-weave satin the warp only appears on the surface, the filling or weft threads being effectually and completely hidden. in passing over the filling the warps do not interweave at regular intervals; thus, they may pass over five, eight, ten, twelve, or sixteen, then under one and over eight more, and so on. common satin is what is technically known as an eight-leaf twill, the order in which the filling thread rises being once in eight times. the filling in the better qualities of satin is of silk, whilst in the lower grades of this fabric cotton is generally used for the filling. rich satins may be woven on almost any number from five to twenty leaf twills. satin at the time of leaving the loom has a somewhat flossy and rough surface--this is removed by passing the fabric over heated metal cylinders, which destroy the minute fibrous ends and increase the brilliance of the silk. black satins are often woven with a selvedge which is of a different colour to the piece. =satin drill.=--when a drill is woven with a warp-faced sateen weave it is known as a satin drill, to distinguish it from a drill woven with a twill weave, which is known as a florentine drill. =satin weave.=--in weaving a satin design the filling thread is made to pass under one and over eight, ten, twelve, or a greater or lesser number of warp threads, and the order in which this is done is irregular. the filling by this process is thus placed practically all on the face of the cloth, and this style of weave is sometimes called a filling-face satin weave. by reversing the process and bringing practically all the warp to the surface or face of the cloth a warp-face satin is produced. cloth produced by this system of weave has a close, smooth surface reflecting light to a high degree and giving it the appearance of satin cloth, a fabric which is best described as a cloth made of silk woven with a satin weave. =satinet or satinette.=--an imitation of the true or silk satin woven from mercerised cotton or other yarns. it is similar to sateen, but somewhat lighter in weight. the term is used to describe the four-shaft satin weave, which does not fulfil the conditions of the real satin as regards the order of intersection of warp and weft. =schreiner finish.=--this, like all other special finishes, is the result of a process through which a fabric is passed with the view of rendering its face more lustrous, _i.e._, capable of better reflecting light and hence having a more silky appearance. a schreiner finish is given to a woven cloth by means of a specially engraved steel roller. this roller is engraved with minute lines running parallel to each other. when this roller has been suitably heated and set with the right amount of pressure the cloth is run between it and a plain backing roller. the engraved roller which comes in contact with the cloth impresses on it minute lines, which can readily be distinguished by means of a counting-glass. in america a schreiner finish is often known as a "milled" finish. =scribbled.=--when any two or more kinds of fibres have been thoroughly mixed together prior to being spun into a thread they are said to be "scribbled." =seamless.=--applied to hosiery knitted in one piece on a circular machine, leaving an opening at the toe to be looped together. the shaping of the leg, heel, and toe is done by steaming and then drying on boards of proper form. =seamless bags.=--all-cotton bags woven on looms which automatically measure the length of what is practically a tubular cloth required for each bag. what are virtually two cloths are "condensed" and woven together to form the bag bottom. in forming the body of the bag the loom weaves two fabrics, one over the other, and in weaving the bottom these are combined into one. =selvedge.=--the edge of any piece of woven fabric. the term is synonymous with "list." the warp threads which go towards the weaving of selvedges are in some cases made of a stronger material than that used for the bulk of the fabric. folded yarns are often used for this purpose, because during the process of weaving single selvedge yarns are liable to break out oftener than any other, generally on account of the pulling action of the weft thread in the shuttle as it is "picked" across. this is more particularly the case with cottons. selvedges are that part of the fabric by which it is held out in a stretched position in many of the stages of finishing. in the textile trade generally it is often stated that "a good selvedge shows a good cloth." velvets and velveteens that are mounted on iron frames, to which they are attached by means of series of hooks penetrating the selvedges, have these selvedges reinforced by stronger warp threads. selvedges, or lists, of a colour different but of a material similar to that of the bulk of the fabric denote that the fabric has been woven of dyed yarns and that it has not been piece-dyed. obviously, if piece-dyed, the selvedge would be of the same colour as the bulk of the fabric. distinctive styles of selvedges have given rise to special names of fabrics, such as spanish stripes. the actual quality of a fabric cannot be always told by the selvedge, but other conditions being equal, it then becomes a good guide to quality. a silk selvedge thread or threads, or the initials of the manufacturer in silk, appearing on the selvedge of an all-wool fabric generally denotes a superior quality of fabric. the following, from a work dealing with cotton fabrics, shows the generally accepted value of selvedges as an indication of quality: "advertising has educated the retail dealers and consumers to the fact that cotton warp goods with a white selvedge, the ground being of colour, are more to be depended upon not to crock than similar cloths of solid colour." =serge (cotton).=--all all-cotton fabric woven with a decided twill and having a special finish imitating wool; usually printed with hair-line stripes to imitate woven effects. =shadow cretonne.=--a fabric of comparatively recent creation having as a distinctive feature the design printed on the warp threads. the filling is generally white, but is sometimes yarn-dyed to a shade approximating the general tone of the large floral decorations which are generally used in this class of fabric. the warp threads take the colouring matter in such a way that when woven the design or pattern appears equally on both sides of the fabric in somewhat blurred and softened tones. from the fact that the fabric is reversible, _i.e._, shows a design on both sides, it has sometimes been called a reversible cretonne, but the true reversible cretonne is the result of printing on a woven fabric and not on the warp threads only prior to weaving. the blurred effect, resembling that of a fabric which might have run in the washing, is at times intensified by the introduction here and there of yarn-dyed warp threads of solid colour. they are not always an all-cotton fabric; flax enters sometimes into their composition. =shantung.=--the real shantung is a chinese silk fabric of the pongee class. this fabric has now been imitated in cotton yarns suitably finished. the yarns used in imitation shantung are spun with thick soft places at irregular intervals in the yarn; this irregularity is more noticeable in the filling yarns. =sheeting.=--a light or medium weight plain-woven all-cotton fabric woven from coarse or medium yarns. the name applies to both bleached and unbleached cloth. under the heading "grey sheeting" will be found a description of the two distinct varieties of fabric known as sheeting. in the trade it would appear that, should a sheeting be dyed or printed, it is never sold as a sheeting, but under some other name. =shirtings.=--a generic term applied to any material originally and usually employed for the making of shirts and covering such varieties as grey, harvard, oxford, zephyr, sateen, grandelle, etc. the term shirting, if used by itself, would in most instances be used with reference to the grey shirting so largely exported from england and america. this grey shirting is a plain-woven cloth of low-quality and heavily sized yarns which has not been bleached. =short stick.=--this term implies a yard of precisely 36 inches, in opposition to the term "long stick," which is by trade custom a yard of 36½ inches in length. =shot.=--a weaving term having the same value as "pick." when a fabric is described as having so many "shots" to the inch it means that there are so many weft threads to the inch. when used to describe a colour effect in fabrics, it applies to fabrics which are woven with different coloured warp and weft, and which, according to the way they are held when looked at, appear to change in colour. =sicilienne.=--a mohair of heavy weight. =silence cloth.=--a heavy all-cotton backed fabric, used to cover the table under the linen cloth, to withstand heat or to prevent damage to the finish of the table. made in widths from 54 to 64 inches. the fabric is a double fabric, reversible, and made from coarse yarns; it is also known as table felting. =silesia.=--a cotton fabric woven with a twill or sateen weave, usually printed in stripes and highly finished. the high finish found in this class of fabric is often a "beetle" finish imparted to the fabric after weaving by subjecting it to a rapid succession of elastic blows from a series of hammers whilst the fabric is wound upon a cast-iron beam. generally woven as a three-shaft twill from single 30's to 40's in warp and filling so as to produce a 45-degree right-hand twill. silesia is essentially a tailoring fabric used for linings. a variety of yarn-dyed striped silesia is also on the market. =silk beaver.=--silk beaver is a pile fabric woven so as to imitate the prepared fur of the beaver. like many other fabrics of this style the pile is all silk and the foundation cloth or back is all cotton. this fabric appears to be dyed invariably a rich brown, and this differentiates it from such similar fabrics as silk seal, which are dyed black. the quality of silk beaver depends upon the depth and closeness of pile. if looked at from behind, the pile threads will distinctly show as small shiny spots where they are bound into the back. the closer these little silk dots are to each other the heavier the pile and the better the quality. the value prior to 1914 ranged from 5_s._ to 12_s._ per yard but has since increased. the pile may have a length of as much as half an inch in the best grades. generally framed in lengths of from 30 to 33 yards. as this is bulky material when framed, the landed cost in the east is greatly increased. average width, 48 to 50 inches. =silk gingham.=--this class of fabric is similar to gingham, madras, madras gingham, zephyr, etc., except that the fabric contains more or less silk in the filling. it sometimes happens that through inadvertence such material is found described simply as a gingham, hence the presence of silk should be looked for in goods so described. =silk mull.=--like mull, this fabric is a plain-woven, soft-finished material, but is made from cotton warp and silk filling and is generally finished undyed. silk mull is finer in texture than cotton mull. the silk filling used in this fabric is raw silk, viz., tram silk. =silk pongee.=--a light-weight fabric made of the silk produced by wild silkworms that feed on oak leaves. pongee is a soft, unbleached, washable silk, shipped from china to europe in large quantities, where it is bleached, dyed, and ornamented in various styles of designs. the name is also applied to a variety of dress goods made in europe woven with a wild-silk warp and a fine worsted weft. this material is of comparatively recent make and is made mostly with narrow stripes, produced by the insertion of certain yarn-dyed threads. =silk seal (cotton back).=--this is an imitation fur fabric made in a range of quality, length, and closeness of pile. in this fabric the pile only is of silk, the foundation cloth being all cotton. silk seal might be mistaken for silk beaver if not judged from the point of view of colour. silk seal is black, silk beaver is brown. there is a variety of this fabric known as a fancy silk seal, similar in construction and components but having stamped in outline by means of rollers a design resembling the irregular scales on a crocodile's skin. along the lines demarcating these scales the pile has been crushed and fixed down by heat. this fabric is not a true silk seal. quality in this, as in other pile fabrics, depends on the closeness and depth of the pile. there is a possibility of mistaking silk seal with cotton back for a silk plush with cotton back, but generally the pile of plush is shorter than that of silk seal. average width, 48 to 50 inches. =silk yarns.=--there are two distinct classes of silk yarns, _i.e._, (_a._) pure, or net, silk and (_b._) spun silk. (_a._) _net silk yarns._--these are constructed from fibres reeled straight from the cocoon, and in the case of organzine (or warp) yarns three to eight fibres are lightly twisted together; subsequently, two or more of these compound threads ("singles" as they are termed) are folded together to form the silk yarn employed as warp. weft yarns, known as tram silk, are made from two or more strands, each made from three to twelve cocoon fibres, which have not undergone any preliminary twisting, so that tram silk is much straighter, softer, and more lustrous than organzine. (_b._) _waste and spun silk yarns._--the fibre is obtained from "pierced" cocoons, _i.e._, cocoons through which the silk moth has forced a way at the time of emerging from same, also from "wild" cocoons. the low qualities are short-fibred and are only suitable for weft yarns, while the longer drafts produce higher quality yarns well suited for warp. counts of spun silk are based upon two distinct systems of numbering. in the french system the number is based on the singles, by metres per kilogramme; two and three cord yarns have one-half, one-third, etc., the length the numbers indicate thus:- no. 100 singles has 100,000 metres per kilogramme. " 2/100 " 50,000 " " " 3/100 " 33,333 " " the other and more general system is the english. the hank is 840 yards and the number of the hanks in 1 pound avoirdupois is the count of the yarn. it is based on the finished yarn, and singles and two and three cord yarns of the same number have all the same number of yards per pound. thus:- no. 50 singles has 42,000 yards per pound. " 50/2 " 42,000 " " " 50/3 " 42,000 " " =sliver.=--a continuous strand of cotton or other fibre in a loose, untwisted condition, ready for the further process of slubbing or roving, preparatory to being spun. =spanish stripes, cotton.=--a plain-woven all-cotton fabric, sometimes woven from dyed yarns, but oftenest met with as a piece-dyed material woven with a simple one-over and one-under weave. the selvedge is often woven with black warp threads to the width of about 1 inch. the filling weft threads are soft and full, the warp threads are much finer and hard-twisted. the surface is raised and the general appearance of the fabric is similar to flannelette. often met with in bright vermilion. average width, 56 inches; length, 25 yards per piece; and value (nominal), 7_d._ per yard. =spanish stripes, woollen.=--essentially an all-wool fabric, free from any ornamentation of weave, printing, or embossing, this class of fabric is woven with a plain one-over and one-under weave. soft of handle, spanish stripes are generally dyed bright red and have as a distinguishing feature a selvedge of coarser warp threads from 1½ to 2 inches in width, some of which are dyed, prior to weaving, a different colour (generally black) to the rest of the warp threads or weft filling threads. these coloured warp threads go towards making generally three separate coloured stripes in the selvedge and have given rise to the name of this particular fabric. in width measuring up to 62 inches and with a length of 29 to 30 yards per piece, woollen spanish stripes are met with in a limited range of quality and the average price of same taken over the period 1904 to 1914 was 1_s._ 8½_d._ per yard. =spanish stripes, wool and cotton.=--this class of fabric, being a mixture and not a union fabric, answers to the description of a woollen spanish stripe but differs from it in that it is woven from yarns which are composed of a mixture of wool and cotton. the "handle" is very nearly that of an all-wool fabric, the average width some 62 inches, and the length per piece 29 to 30 yards. the distinctive selvedge of this class of fabric is maintained in the wool and cotton variety. =split foot.=--refers to black or coloured hosiery having a white or unbleached sole. =sponge cloth.=--a fine cotton or wool fabric having a surface resembling that of a small sponge. =spun silk.=--applied to a low grade of silk used in the cheaper lines of silk hosiery. it is made from floss, injured cocoons, husks, and waste from reeling, and bears the same relation to silk as cotton waste to cotton or shoddy to wool. =staples.=--staples is a term used to designate those fabrics which are woven in the same way year after year, varying only in the colouring given to them, which may change in accordance with the demands of fashion and of the buyer. the principal dress goods staples are brilliantines, sicilians, mohairs, imperial serges, storm serges, cheviots, panamas, batistes, taffetas, voile, muslins, nun's veiling, cashmere, and shepherd's checks. =surah.=--a light, soft, twilled silk. =swansdown.=--like cotton flannel and flannelette, swansdown is a fabric made of cotton with a "raised" or "napped" surface. being raised but on the back of the cloth, it is "single raised": heavy and closely woven swansdown is a typical raised cotton cloth. the weave is on the satin-weave principle. =swiss embroidery.=--this process of ornamentation closely resembles lappet spots, but, unlike lappet spots, they are in reality the result of a subsequent process of weaving. the essential difference in the manner of attaching the thread which is used for the figuring to the cloth can readily be seen. in swiss embroidery there is an equal amount of floating thread used to form the spot on the face of the cloth and on the back, thus producing what may be termed a solid spot on both sides and therefore reversible. =swivel figures.=--high-class fabrics are often ornamented with swivel spots and figures, which are easily distinguished from the lappet or extra warp figures. in this style the figure is interwoven with extra weft by small shuttles into the ground cloth structure. each figure is produced by an independent weft thread quite distinct from the weft pick forming the ground structure or body of the fabric. the figure threads are well bound into the cloth, the bulk of the material being on the surface. where no figure is required in the space between, the shuttles remain idle in the loom, and the single thread from each shuttle joining the swivel figures is often cut away. often used where a silk figure or a mercerised cotton figure is required on a cotton or worsted ground. =tapestry.=--a yarn-dyed figured fabric composed of two sets of warp and weft threads, woven on a jacquard loom. =t-cloth.=--an all-cotton plain-woven fabric, usually woven from low-quality yarns, generally sold in the grey or unbleached state. most of the _t_-cloth imported into china is a heavily sized cheap grey cloth, usually 30 to 32 inches wide, 24 yards per piece, with a woven coloured heading somewhat similar to the heading in grey shirtings. some _t_-cloth is imported measuring 36 inches wide by 24 or 40 yards per piece. these grey _t_-cloths are generally packed 50 to 75 pieces per bale. bleached _t_-cloths, 31 and 36 inches wide, are also imported in small quantities. these are generally packed in cases of 50 pieces. the fabric derives its name from the mark @t@ under which it was first exported. _t_-cloth is also known as "mexican." =teasels, or teazels.=--thistleheads with curved bracts, used in cloth raising. =terry cloth.=--a weave in looped effect. a velvet in which the loops have not been cut. frequently applied to cotton fabrics of the order of agaric and sponge cloth. _see_ turkish towelling. =tests by burning.=--yarns or fibres of different origin burn in different manner. cotton, linen, ramie, rhea, china grass, etc., ignite and burn readily with a bright smokeless and odourless flame, leaving but a small amount of ash, this being the characteristic of vegetable fibres. animal fibres, on the other hand, are slower to ignite, the appearance of the flame is lifeless, and the fibres burn more slowly than vegetable fibres. wool, when burnt, emits a disagreeable odour, and the residue or ash takes the form of a bead or knob. silk burns in the same way as wool when it is free of "weighting." when artificially weighted, silk may have its weight increased to almost any desired extent--from 80 to 200 per cent. increase in weight can be obtained without creating suspicion. when such weighted silk is burnt, instead of forming itself into small black beads or knobs, it burns leaving a distinct ash, which retains somewhat the shape of the original material. artificial or cellulose silk burns readily and in burning does not give off any odour. =test for artificial silk.=--the burning test should in most cases be sufficient to distinguish artificial from true silk, but if a chemical test is necessary, by immersing the suspect sample in a caustic potash solution it will be seen that artificial silk turns yellow, whereas true silk does not change colour. artificial silk, which is a nitro-cellulose, burns very rapidly, leaving practically no ash whatever. a simple way of recognising artificial silk is by testing the threads under moisture. unravel a few threads of the suspected fabric and place them in the mouth and masticate them thoroughly. artificial silk readily softens under this operation and breaks up into minute particles, and when pulled between the fingers shows no thread, but merely a mass of cellulose or pulp. natural silk, no matter how thoroughly masticated, will retain its fibrous strength. =tests for linen.=--linen, like cotton, burns when a light is applied, leaving a white ash. linen yarns are more irregular in their thickness longitudinally than cotton thread taken from similar woven fabrics. this difference makes the detection of linen in a woven cloth comparatively easy. the fibres are straighter, longer, and stronger when separated in the thread than cotton. the threads often snap sharp and clear when breaking them in the fingers. the oil test for linen is based upon the property which linen has of more readily absorbing oil than cotton does. when a linen and cotton mixture fabric which has been freed from dressing by washing and boiling is dipped in oil and then held up to the light it will be seen that the linen fibres look transparent, whereas the cotton remains more nearly opaque. this is due to the linen having absorbed the oil more readily than the cotton. all the cotton contained in a linen and cotton fabric can be readily dissolved by dipping the fabric in a concentrated sulphuric acid bath for one or two minutes. the sample is first freed of dressing. after washing and drying a sample so tested the linen fibre only will remain. =test for mercerised cotton.=--prepare a solution made by dissolving 1¼ ounces of iodide of potassium in 5 ounces of water, then add to this solution ½ ounce of iodine, and mix with another solution made by dissolving 7½ ounces of zinc chloride in 3 ounces of water. the test is applied as follows: take the suspect sample and free it from any dressing or sizing by soaking it in water; then, after freeing the sample from any superfluous water, place it in some of the prepared solution for three minutes, and then rinse the sample in water. should the cotton tested have been mercerised it will appear of a deep blue colour. on washing with water the blue colour fades very slowly and needs long washing, whereas ordinary cotton rapidly becomes white on washing. even dyed piece goods will show the deep blue reaction, which is the result of the testing solution acting upon the caustic soda used in the process of mercerisation. when making this test it is best to treat a "known" unmercerised cotton at the same time as the suspect sample so as to have a basis for comparison. =tests for silk.=--if a silk and wool mixture or union fabric is boiled in strong hydrochloric acid for 15 minutes, it will be found that the wool merely swells, whilst the silk acted upon by the acid completely dissolves. by careful weighing before and after the test it becomes a matter of simple calculation to arrive at the percentage of silk present in the fabric. =test for wool.=--if a fabric suspected of containing wool and cotton or other vegetable fibre is boiled for 15 minutes in a solution made by dissolving either 1 ounce of caustic soda or caustic potash in a pint of water it will be found that all the wool will be destroyed and only the vegetable fibres remain. this test, which is based upon the well-known fact that caustic soda dissolves wool, may be used to ascertain the percentage of wool in a cloth if the sample tested is thoroughly washed, dried, and weighed before the test is applied. after testing and drying, the loss in weight represents the amount of wool which was present and destroyed during the test. this test may be reversed and the cotton destroyed by treating the sample with an 80 per cent. sulphuric acid solution. this, however, is a longer test, necessitating the sample being kept in the sulphuric acid solution for about 10 or 12 hours. prior to drying and weighing the sample should be well washed in alcohol. =textile fibres.=--the principal fibres which enter into the construction of textiles can be divided into the following six classes:- _vegetable._--cotton, flax, ramie, rhea, china grass, jute, hemp, kapok, and marine fibre. _modification of vegetable._--mercerised cotton, artificial silk, animalised cotton, artificial wool, paper yarn. _animal._--sheep's wool, mohair, cashmere, camel hair, alpaca, vicuna, llama, guanaco, rabbit hair, horsehair, cow and calf hair. _animal secretions._--silk and wild silk. _mineral._--asbestos. _metallic._--gold, silver, and other wires, metal-coated fibres. =thickset.=--one of the many varieties of fustian, which comprise corduroys, velveteens, moleskins, thickset, etc. =thread.=--in general, a twisted strand of cotton, flax, wool, silk, etc., spun out to considerable length is called thread. in a specific sense, thread is a compound cord consisting of two or more yarns firmly united together by twisting. thread made of silk is technically known as sewing thread; that made of flax is known as linen thread; while cotton thread intended for sewing is commonly called spool cotton. these distinctions are generally observed by the trade. =three-quarter hose.=--a variety of ribbed-top stockings made for children and reaching nearly to the knees. =ticks, or ticking.=--ticking is a single cloth of either medium or heavy weight woven from cotton yarns of from 14's to 22's in warp and filling or from yarns which would give the same weight material, such as 18's warp and 20's filling. usually woven with two-over-one or three-over-one twill weave. ticking belongs to the class of stiff, hard-faced cotton fabrics. this feature is due to the warp-faced twill weave. these goods are made usually in two coloured warp patterns, dark blue and white and red and white. one feature which is worthy of mention in regard to ticking and other similar lines is that they are to-day being stock-dyed in increasing quantities. this method consists of dyeing the cotton or bleaching it, as the case may be, in the raw state and then carding, drawing, and spinning just as if a grey fabric were to be made. stock-dyeing results in the dye affecting the fibres which form the very centre of a yarn, and for this reason is a better process than dyeing the finished yarn. brushed, sheared, sized, and calendered ticking is either packed lapped or rolled into bolts. =tire cloth.=--a fabric made from strong slackly folded yarns of good-quality cotton used in the lining of tires. the warp threads are very closely set, so as best to withstand strain. the weft threads are very openly set, so as to prevent undue pressure on the warp threads, which should lie straight and so avoid friction or cutting which might arise from the action of the inflated inner tube and the tire whilst in use. the yarn used in this type of cloth is usually made from 30's to 34's count, doubled 11 or 12 fold, necessitating great care in the subsequent twisting to ensure evenness of strength and elasticity, which in this class of cloth is essential. tire fabrics, as used in the manufacture of automobile and bicycle tires, are made from long-staple sea island cotton, the yarn being combed and of a comparatively coarse number, usually 8's to 40's, and from single yarn to 12-ply. a wide range of weights is found in these fabrics, varying from 3 to 20 ounces per square yard. this fabric forms the base of the finished rubber tire. =tram.=--a thrown silk thread taking its name from the french _trame_, meaning weft, softer and more flossy and having less twist than organzine. it is generally used for weft, which, as it bears little strain in weaving, need not be as strong as the warp, but should be soft and bulky, so that when beaten in successive threads will lie close together and fill up the interstices of the web. tram and organzine are, with the exception of spun waste silk, the only kinds of silk thread used for weaving--varying, however, in quality of silk, amount of twist, and in size. =trunk length.=--applied to women's hosiery midway between ordinary and opera length, usually widened gradually above the knee. =tubular cloth.=--the most commonly met with examples of tubular cloths are the ordinary pillow slip, tubular lampwick, tapes, etc., which are in common use. =tulle.=--a plain, fine silk net. practically the same as maline. =turkish towelling.=--essentially terry cloth woven as an all-cotton fabric having as a salient feature an uncut loop-pile surface. sold by the linear yard for the making of bath robes, etc. woven unbleached or with some coloured yarns for bordering effect and subsequently bleached, the coloured yarns used resisting bleaching. otherwise woven in sizes suitable for cutting into lengths, which are then sold as turkish towels. =tussore, or tussah.=--the wild silk from which shantung and pongee are made. applied to these fabrics when heavily and coarsely woven. =tweed.=--rough, unfinished fabric of soft, open, and flexible texture, woven on a plain weave from wool or cotton and wool, usually of yarn of two or more shades. originally the product of the weavers on the banks of the river tweed. the face of the cloth presents an unfinished appearance rather than a sharp and clearly defined pattern. =twill weave.=--a twill weave is a weave that produces diagonal lines across the cloth. in this class of weave the filling threads pass over one and under two, or over one and under three, four, five, or six, or over two or three and under one, two, three, or four, or over four and under four, three, six, etc. where there are the same number of warp and filling threads to the inch, twill lines will form an angle of 45 degrees; if the warp threads are closer together than the filling threads, the twilled lines produced will approach more the horizontal. twill weaving permits the introduction of more material into the cloth than a plain weave and produces, therefore, a closer and heavier fabric. a twill effect in a material is also called a diagonal, from the direction it has in relation to the length of the cloth. this diagonal effect is continually produced by the warp and weft intersections traversing one thread and one pick further from their respective positions each time a pick of weft is inserted. twill weaves may be divided into four common classes: (1) regular, (2) broken, (3) fancy, (4) figured. _regular twills._--a regular twill is referred to as a twill of so many "ends" or "shafts"; by this is meant a twill which contains a number of warp and weft threads which, added together, equal the number of "ends." thus a five-end twill can either have (_a_) four warps and one weft, (_b_) three warps and two wefts, or (_c_) two warps and three wefts--this form of twill will be seen to be a reverse weave to (_b_). _broken twills._--a twill effect produces a twill line which, when the number of warp and weft threads are equal, is at an angle of 45 degrees. in a broken twill effect this line, which may be compared to the left-hand stroke of a letter @v@, is combined with another twill line running in an opposite direction and which is simply a turning or "reversing" of the threads in the regular twill weave. broken twill effect enters largely into the weave design of harvard shirting. _fancy twills._--as the term indicates, fancy twills is a style of weave which, whilst always retaining the main features and essentials of a "regular" twill, has been made fancy by alternating the arrangements of the thread and thus producing "elongated twills," "corkscrew twills," or "combination twills." the description of fancy twills could only be attempted by the use of illustrations and pages of explanations. _figured twills._--figured twills are regular twills with a small figure introduced between the diagonal lines. the designs introduced are generally small figures produced by plain weave or a small diamond-shaped spot made by either the warp or the weft threads being brought to the surface and made to form the design. the designs are never very elaborate. =twin needle.=--a double row of interlocked machine stitching used for covering raw edges and seams of knit underwear. =unclassed native cotton cloth (china).=--all native cotton cloths, whether woven on a hand or power loom, which are not- (_a._) nankeen as defined in customs notification no. 876 (_see_ nankeen); (_b._) specially enumerated in the general tariff of 1858 for the trade of china; or (_c._) the produce of a privileged factory and at the same time enumerated in either the general tariff of 1858 or the revised import tariff-are grouped under the heading "unclassed native cotton cloth." this group comprises:- 1º. all cotton fabrics woven with a plain, satin, or twill weave or a combination of these weaves, in part or whole, from yarns, whether single or folded, which have been either mercerised, gassed, dyed and mercerised, or dyed and gassed prior to weaving, whether woven in a cloth having a solid colour effect or whether woven so as to produce a striped or woven figured effect. 2º. all fabrics woven with a plain, satin, or twill weave or a combination of these weaves from grey, white, or dyed yarns which subsequent to weaving have been mercerised or dyed in the piece. 3º. generally all cotton fabrics woven so as to imitate foreign yarn-dyed fabrics, whether same are devoid of a raised finish or have been raised on either back or face of the cloth, irrespective of whether the yarn has or has not been mercerised prior to weaving and irrespective of whether the cloth has or has not been mercerised after leaving the loom. the term "=native cotton cloth=" (china) is applied to hand-loom fabrics other than nankeen, unclassed native cotton cloths or fabrics that are specifically enumerated in the general tariff of 1858 for the trade of china. the name is given to a group of cloths which answer to the following description:- 1º. all hand-loom plain-weave fabrics which do not exceed 20 inches in width woven from ordinary grey or white single cotton yarn which have been piece-dyed after leaving the loom, but which have not been either mercerised or gassed. 2º. all hand-loom plain-weave fabrics which do not exceed 20 inches in width woven from ordinary grey or white single cotton yarn which have been either resist, discharge, or direct printed but which have not been either mercerised or gassed after leaving the loom. =union broadcloth.=--this fabric, also known under the name of poncho cloth, is a plain-woven cotton warp and woollen weft fabric, woven in the unusual width of 74 inches and averaging in length of piece from 36 to 38 yards. the selvedge of this class of fabric is distinctive, showing a long unshorn hairy surface. the face of the cloth does not show the weave or yarn intersection points, as it has a typical broadcloth finish, but these are distinctly to be seen on the back of the fabric. a union broadcloth of the above description, typical of that generally exported to china, averaged in value during the years 1904 to 1914 about 1_s._ 6_d._ per yard. =union cloth.=--as the name implies, union cloths are woven with warp and weft of different fibres. they are also called "mixed cloths," and the union of the two different kinds of fibres may be arrived at by intermingling the wool and cotton fibres to form the warp or weft of a fabric or, as in most cases, each kind of fibre may be confined to separate threads, forming part or the whole of the warp or weft. union cloths are generally "cross-dyed," although they may also be "dyed in the grey." in the case of "cross-dyeing," the cotton warp is dyed the desired colour and interlaced with a wool weft, which is in a grey or undyed condition, and subsequently the weft only is dyed, this being possible as the affinity of cotton and wool are different. when light colours are desired in the fabric the cotton warp and wool weft are woven in a grey or undyed condition, and then both are dyed in the fabric: this method is styled "dyeing in the grey." in some cases the wool and cotton are treated separately, in others union dyes are employed. the principal union cloths met with are: brilliantines, glacés, and sicilians, plain-weave materials with cotton warp and mohair weft; alpacas, plain or twill weave, cotton warp and alpaca weft; lustres, plain or twill weave, cotton warp and lustre or demi-lustre weft; italians, five-shaft weft, sateen weave, cotton warp, fine botany weft; cashmeres, 2/1 weft twill weave, cotton warp, fine botany weft; beatrice twill, five-end (four weft and one warp) twill, cotton warp, demi-lustre weft. all authorities do not agree as to what constitutes a union, the following definition having been met with: "fabrics are union when composed of two materials otherwise than by blending." in the morley (yorkshire) trade a "union" is a cotton warp cloth of boiled and teazled finish superficially resembling broadcloth. =union yarns.=--these yarns, as the name indicates, are the product of combining two or more different materials into a yarn, generally wool and cotton or wool, and any of the many vegetable fibres capable of being spun. union yarns may be produced by the mixing together of the two or more different fibres when they are still in the state of loose fibres; in such a case the cotton fibres act as binders upon the rest of the fibres. when the various fibres are thoroughly mixed together, the mixture obtained is spun: this produces the variety known as carded union yarns. another form of union yarn is obtained by twisting together two threads of different material. some union yarns have the appearance of pure wool threads, and only careful scrutiny will reveal the presence of cotton fibre; this type of yarn is known by the name of angola yarn. union yarns, being composed of materials that are not affected by dyes in the same way, can be recognised when found in a so-called wool fabric from the fact that the wool in the yarn will have taken up the dye, whereas the cotton will not have done so to the same extent, but will have retained more or less its original colour. =velour.=--this name is given to a soft, thick, nappy flannel used in the making of dressing-gowns, etc., made from either wool or cotton or a combination of both. as a cotton fabric, it is of the coarse, stiff, pile variety. the name is french for velvet, hence its use in connexion with a pile-surface fabric. as a woollen and worsted term, there is a considerable diversity of opinion as to the precise cloth designated by the term velour. some manufacturers would class as velours any cloth having a soft velvety nap, others make finer distinctions, classing one as a "face-finished cashmere," a second as a "saxony," with velour slightly different from either of these. =velvet.=--this name is given to a pure all-silk pile fabric with a pile weave, the distinctive feature of which is that the surface consists of silk threads or fibres standing closely together like the bristles in a brush. these threads appear as threads sheared off smooth, so as to form a uniform or even surface. "all-silk" in this definition of velvet applies to the pile only, for velvets are so generally woven with a cotton back that a silk velvet should be considered as having a cotton back unless specially designated as "silk backed." =velvet finish.=--a finish produced upon woollen fabrics by wet-raising in various directions and subsequently cropping the pile thus raised level, which leaves the velvet-finished material with a fairly dense pile of a velvety appearance. =velvet of silk mixed with other fibres.=--this class of fabric includes all pile fabrics which, in the first instance, answer to the description of velvet, _i.e._, have their pile shorter than that of plush, and the pile of which, whilst being partly of silk, contains other animal fibres, such as wool or mohair, or even vegetable fibres, such as cotton. where it is clearly stipulated that they are "velvets of silk mixed with other fibres and having cotton backs," the foundation cloth must not contain warp or weft threads wholly or in part composed of any material other than cotton. =velveteen.=--this name is given to the class of fabrics that in reality are but cotton velvets. like true velvets, they are woven with a pile weave, the distinctive feature of which is that the surface consists of threads or fibres standing closely together like the bristles in a brush. these threads appear as threads sheared off smooth, so as to form a uniform or even surface. velveteens are generally woven on the weft-pile basis, that is to say, that the "pile floats" or "flushings" are produced with the weft threads--which are afterwards cut--additional to and on a firmly constructed woven ground texture. weft pile can be recognised by removing from the fabric a weft thread, when, upon withdrawing this thread, it will be seen that the bits of "cut pile" are not looped round it or attached to it but remain entangled among the warp threads. common velveteen, which is "all cotton," will be identified as a weft pile in this manner. velveteens are also known as velverets or fustians. standard widths for velveteens are 19 inches, 22½ inches, 24½ inches, and 27½ or 28 inches. =venetians.=--a wool fabric, closely woven in a fine twill. as applied to a cotton fabric, it is used to designate a heavy, warp-face, dress satin (or sateen) of strong texture and closely woven, dyed in the piece, silky and lustrous in appearance. light weights would be sold as sateen or dress sateen. woven with about 200 to 250 threads to the square inch, the style of weave in itself tends to produce lustre; this is intensified by calendering and sometimes by mercerising the fabric. the weave is of an upright warp twill character, and the name was first applied to a dress face woollen cloth; later, worsted dress venetians were made, and later still the name was applied to an all-cotton fabric of similar weave. =vesting (vestings).=--a generic term embracing a wide range of fabrics more or less ornamented, used in most countries for men's vests, but used in china for either men's or women's outer or inner garments. fabrics of several combination of weaves showing fancy stripes or small checkings, and often coloured to the extent of some coloured warp threads appearing here and there on the surface and left floating (where not used) on the back of the fabric are common in this class of goods. this heading covers welts, piqué, fancy piqué, etc. =vigogne.=--the french form of the word "vicuña"; applied to a soft woollen dress material. =vigoreux.=--a worsted material, printed in the yarn so as to produce a mélange, or mixture, effect in colouring. this differs from beige in that the yarns are printed before being spun, giving the finished goods the appearance of having been woven from mixed yarns. =viyella.=--a light cloth, largely made from cotton and wool scribbled together. it is similar to ceylon flannel and differs from it only in name. this fabric is one of many known under "trade-marks 'patented' or 'registered' names," which are sometimes sufficiently popular to embrace many different weaves under one head. =voile.=--this name is used to designate a more or less transparent light fabric made generally of cotton. woven with a square mesh produced by plain one-over and one-under weaving, voile averages 55 meshes per inch, with an average width of 42 inches, and generally in pieces of 60 yards. voile when dyed is piece-dyed and not woven from yarn which was dyed previously to being woven. the yarn used in the weaving of voiles is a hard-twisted yarn. woollen voiles are also woven, the characteristics being similar to cotton voile, but in weaving voiles with worsted yarns, if the yarn is not very free from loose fibres, the fabric is finished by having its face singed or sheared very close, so as to ensure a clear-faced material. =wadding pick.=--a thick weft thread of low quality inserted often without interlacing between the two fabrics in a double cloth and between the two warps in a warp-backed structure. this gives weight and solidity to the fabric. the wadding pick remains out of sight, and the appearance of the fabric is not affected thereby. =wale.=--this term has the same meaning as "warp welt," or "welt," and is used to describe a fabric having thick raised cords at close intervals. =warp.=--warp is the name given to that set of threads that runs lengthways of a piece of cloth. when the word "end" is used in connexion with weaving, it always signifies the warp thread, while each filling or weft thread is called a "pick." =warp pile.=--warp pile can be recognised by simply withdrawing from the fabric being examined a few "picks," or weft threads. if the material is a warp-pile weave, then it will be seen that the loose bits of "cut pile" remain entangled or looped and adhering to some of the drawn weft threads. this can be easily seen if a common velvet ribbon is experimented with, when, upon drawing out the weft threads separately from selvedge to selvedge, it will invariably be seen that each alternate weft thread will have the loose bits of "cut warp pile" attached. where the material is extra closely woven it is possible for every weft thread that is withdrawn to have the loose bits attached in the manner described. warp-pile fabrics include two varieties, the "uncut pile," such as turkish or terry towels and towelling, brussels carpets, patent tapestry carpets, etc., and "cut pile," like warp-pile plushes, velvets, ribbons, etc. =warp print.=--a fabric wherein the design, being printed on the warps prior to weaving, appears somewhat faintly and in an indefinite outline. _see_ chiné. =warp ribs.=--the term "warp ribs" is used to designate a warp-surface weave in which, owing to the thickness of the weft threads (or picks) or to the grouping together of a number of weft picks, the warp threads are made to bend round them and, being thus thrown to the surface of the fabric, produce a ribbed appearance running from selvedge to selvedge in which the warp threads are on the face of the fabric. poplin is a typical warp-ribbed fabric. =warp sateen.=--a common form of cotton sateen cloth is that woven with a "warp sateen" weave on the five threads and picks system, which results in four-fifths of the warp threads appearing on the face of the fabric and therefore four-fifths of the weft threads appear on the back of the fabric. the object of weaving on this principle is to obtain a smooth cloth surface by distributing the interlacing points and so destroying the common "twilled" effect. a warp sateen will be much closer in the warp threads than in the weft threads, and therefore stronger in that direction. =warp welt.=--a fabric having thick raised cords at close intervals, as in the case of bedford cords and piqués. in cotton goods, when the cords run lengthways of the piece, the fabric is known as a "warp welt." sometimes called "wale." =warp-faced cloth.=--a fabric which shows on its face a greater number of warp threads than "picks," or weft threads. =waste and condenser wefts.=--these are made from certain waste cotton which accumulates in certain parts of the machinery during the process of spinning yarn. this waste is treated by special machinery, which spins it into a full, level, and soft yarn, which is used for weft in weaving sheetings. =waste and flocks.=--cotton mill waste is the by-product derived from the cotton in its various processes through the mill. each pound of cotton before it becomes cloth loses on an average 15 per cent. visible and invisible waste. the visible waste is of two kinds, hard and soft; hard waste, which has been made on spinning and subsequent machines, and which bears a slight twist; soft waste, which includes that part of the fibre rejected by all machines up to the spinning frame. the invisible waste is equal to the amount of evaporation of moisture in the cotton during the process of manufacture. flocks are short fibres removed from cloth during the process of napping. =waste cloths.=--cotton fabrics woven from waste yarns, generally plain woven and of low grade. the weft thread is coarse and is spun from waste or short-fibre cotton. =watering.=--as a textile term, it is used to designate the process whereby certain distinctive effects are produced on the face of plain-woven fabrics--especially silks. the process of giving a wavy or wave-like appearance in fabrics by either passing them through suitably engraved metal rollers which, bearing unequally upon the fabric, render the surface unequal, making it reflect light differently. the same result is obtained by pressing two plain-woven fabrics together, when the coarser weft threads of the fabric produce the wave-like indentations on the face of the fabric it is pressed against. a fabric is said to be "watered" when ornamented by either of the above processes. the principle of this operation is that two fabrics of precisely similar build, when pressed together, naturally "water" each other, owing to the coincidence or non-coincidence of the threads or picks causing flatness or ribbedness of a sufficiently marked character under conditions of heat and pressure. "to tabby" is another expression for "to water," and the adjective "tabby," usually referring to a brindled cat, signifies streaked with wavy lines. =weaving.=--every woven piece of cloth is made up of two distinct systems of threads, known as the warp and the filling (this latter is also known as weft), which are interlaced with each other to form a fabric. the warp threads run lengthways of the piece of cloth, and the filling, or weft, threads run across from side to side. the manner in which the warp and filling interlace with each other constitutes the weave. the term "end" in weaving is used to designate the warp thread, while each weft or filling thread is called a "pick." the fineness of a cloth is expressed by saying that it has so many "ends" and "picks" to the inch. the character of the weave offers the best basis for classification of woven goods, and nearly all varieties of cloth may be classified under the following weaves:- plain weave. twill weave. satin weave. figure weave. double-cloth weave. pile weave. gauze weave. lappet weave. =web.=--web is the name given to a piece of cloth at the moment it is taken from the loom and previous to its having been treated to produce the special feature of the class of cloth the web belongs to. =weft.=--when the word "weft" is used in connexion with weaving or woven fabrics, it always signifies the filling threads, each of which is also called a "pick." weft threads run across the width of the fabric. =weft pile.=--weft pile can be recognised by withdrawing from the fabric under examination a few "picks," or weft threads. if the material is a weft-pile weave, then it will be seen that the loose bits of "cut pile" are not entangled or looped round or adhering to the weft thread that has been drawn out, but that they remain entangled among the warp threads. if, however, a few warp threads are withdrawn separately, it will be found that every alternate warp thread, as a rule, will have the loose bits of "cut weft pile" attached or looped round. =weft ribs.=--the only difference between these and warp ribs is that the weft bends and the warp lies straight. the term "weft rib" is used to designate a weft surface weave in which, owing to the thickness of the warp threads or to the grouping together of a number of warp threads, the weft threads are made to bend round them and, being thus thrown to the surface of the fabric, produce a ribbed appearance with the ribs running lengthways, in which the weft threads are on the face of the fabric. =weft sateen.=--a weft sateen is woven on the five threads and picks system, which results in four-fifths of the weft threads appearing on the surface of the fabric, and therefore four-fifths of the warp threads appear on the back of the fabric. the object of weaving on this principle is similar to that aimed at when weaving a warp sateen, that is to say, it is done to obtain a smooth cloth surface by distributing the interlacing points and so destroying the common "twilled" effect. a weft sateen will be closer in the weft threads (or picks) than in the warp threads, and therefore stronger in that direction. =weft-faced cloth.=--a fabric which shows on its face a greater number of "picks," or weft threads, than warp threads. =weight and thickness of woollen cloths.=--the accepted standard of weight and thickness of woollen cloth is-_for ladies' wear_:- 4 ounces per yard represents a "very thin" cloth. 8 " " " "thin" cloth. _for men's wear_:- 12 ounces per yard represents a "thin, or "tropical," cloth. 16 " " " "thin medium" cloth. 20 " " " "medium" cloth. 30 " " " "thick" cloth. 40 " " " "very thick" cloth. naturally, also, the relation of weight to thickness varies with the composition of the cloth and the style of make, some "woolly" makes of 20 ounces being very thick. =weighting.=--the process of adding to the natural weight of a fabric by making it take up certain chemical or other substances. cotton fabrics are generally weighted by subjecting them to a process which causes them to absorb either zinc chloride, magnesium sulphate, magnesium chloride, glue, gelatine, starch, or alkali silicate. woollens and worsteds are generally weighted with zinc chloride. silk is generally weighted with muriate of tin, and few of the silks on the market are free from weighting. modern methods make it possible to increase the weight of pure boiled silk to five or six times its original weight. hooper, in his book on "silk," states: "it was early found that silk would absorb about one-third its own weight of water without feeling wet to the touch. the dyer found that it would absorb other things besides water, muriate of tin amongst them. as a matter of fact, it may be, and indeed it is, made by the dyer to take up, with the dye, so much of that metal that 12 ounces of boiled silk can be increased in weight to 80 ounces, and yet look like very bright silk." the term "weighting" has the same value as "filling" or "loading." =welt.=--the double thick portion or wide hem at top of plain hose. =whip thread.=--the crossing thread in a gauze fabric. =whipcord.=--this name is given to hard-twisted worsted twills in either solid or mixed colours. the twill or diagonal in this class of fabric is well marked and slightly raised, somewhat resembling the hard-twisted fibre lash of a whip. =white.=--as a textile term, this word is applied to fabrics which are not in their loom state, _i.e._, in the grey, but which have been bleached and rendered white. =white brocades.=--under this name would be classed bleached fabrics of different weaves or combinations of weave in which the design appearing on the surface of the fabric is of a fancy, figured, or floral effect, usually of elaborate design. soft spun wefts are generally used in the weaving of brocades and other figured cloths, as they fill and throw up better the figure produced than a hard-twist yarn would do. white brocades are all-cotton goods unless otherwise stated. lappet and swivel figured fabrics would not come under the heading "brocades"; such style of figuring is not brocaded. =white cambric.=--cambric is a plain-weave fine linen fabric of light weight and soft finish. cotton cambric, in which the yarn used is of fine cotton, is mostly met with. it is woven without a selvedge and generally leaves the loom in pieces of 120 yards, which are cut to shorter lengths. in plain white, a cambric is finer than a lawn. cambric of french origin is generally finer in texture than the manchester cambric. cambric varies in width from 32 to 46 inches and in length from 12 to 40 yards per piece. the finer qualities are made from hard-twisted cotton. the warp yarn is often of a different thickness to that used for the filling, and it is generally finished with a smooth glazed surface. the term cambric is also commonly applied to muslins. white cambric is a bleached material. =white drills, or drilling.=--white drills are, when not otherwise specified, all-cotton medium and heavy weight single cloths woven as a three-shaft twill (two warp and one weft), which have been bleached but not dyed or printed. the better qualities of warp-faced sateen-weave drills are known as satin drill, and these are extensively exported to the far east; their distinctive features lie in the closeness of weave, smoothness of surface, and finish. =white goods.=--a generic term covering a great variety of bleached fabrics, plain or fancy, covering various weaves or combination of weaves. =white irishes.=--the term irishes originally was applied to linen fabrics which were mainly produced in and around belfast. it is now used to describe certain cotton fabrics of plain weave similar to white cotton calico. generally in pieces 36 inches wide and 42 yards long, finished with a heavy starch finish. =white italian.=--the name white italian is not generally applied to a white cotton fabric woven and finished as an italian. such a fabric is a white mercerised sateen; however, occasionally an invoice covering coloured italians will be found to include so-called white italians. in such cases the colour assortment list (which generally accompanies, if it does not form part of, the invoice) will show the number of white pieces included in the shipment. the ordinary italian is essentially a coloured or piece-dyed material, and, as white is not, in the piece goods trade, considered to be a colour, a white italian cannot be considered as coming under the classification of dyed plain cottons. =white jean.=--a white jean is an all-cotton fabric woven as a three-end twill, similar in weave to a grey jean, but which has been subjected to a process of bleaching to turn it into what is known as a "market white" fabric. the process of bleaching proper is always preceded by a series of operations that have for their object the improving of the surface of the cloth by removing loose fibres, motes, and ends of yarn, and by cleaning and singeing the surface so as to free it from all "nap." the distinctive weave of this fabric is given under "grey jeans," which is the class of jean most often met with. =white lawn.=--lawn is a plain-weave light-weight cotton fabric of soft finish made from yarns varying from 1/40's to 1/100's. lawn has a soft, smooth feel, which is due to the absence of sizing or starching and to the process of brushing and calendering, _i.e._, passing the fabric through heavily weighted steam-heated rollers. lawns vary in quality and weight similarly to other fabrics, their weight varying between 1¼ and 2¼ ounces per yard; in width they vary from 27 to 46 inches and in length from 12 to 42 yards per piece. lawn in plain white is coarser than a cambric. the yarn used in the weaving of lawn is generally of fine egyptian cotton. white lawns are also made of linen yarn, and when so made would be called linen lawn. india lawn is a calendered fabric, about 12 yards to the pound and 28 to 36 inches wide in book-fold or 40 inches in long-fold. victoria lawn has a very stiff finish. bishop's lawn is slightly heavier in weight than "linon" or "india linon," bleached and finished to a bluish tint, and derives its name from the style of finish. the same fabric finished differently would be known under other names. white lawn is a bleached material. =white muslin.=--muslin is a light-weight, open, plain-weave cotton fabric made generally of low-count yarns, that is to say, of fairly coarse yarn. muslins, lawns, and cambrics are all materials which are similar in construction but vary by their quality, muslin being the lowest grade of the three. a very common kind of muslin is known as butter muslin or cheese cloth. muslins vary in width from 32 to 46 inches and in length from 12 to 40 yards per piece. foundation muslin, book muslin, and butcher's muslin are varieties of muslin so dissimilar to the true muslin that they should not be considered as coming under the classification of true muslin, which, whilst it varies considerably, should always answer to the description of "a fine, soft, thin, open, plain-woven cotton fabric." white muslin is a bleached material. =white sheetings.=--a bleached light or medium weight plain-woven all-cotton fabric. under the heading "grey sheeting" will be found a description of the two distinct varieties of fabric known as sheeting. where such grey sheetings have been rendered white by being bleached and are no longer in their loom state, they are known as white sheetings. =white shirtings.=--essentially a bleached all-cotton fabric woven with a plain one-under and one-over weave, having the warp and weft threads approximately equal in number of threads and counts. it differs from grey shirtings only in finish, white shirting having been subjected to a bleaching process after leaving the loom, whereas grey shirting remains in its loom state, _i.e._, in the same condition as when it was taken off the loom. the same remarks as to the similarity between a grey shirting and a grey sheeting applies to white shirtings and white sheetings. similarly, a white shirting may be termed a white calico, which is a term used to designate practically any cotton cloth coarser than muslin. varying in width and weight, they are generally put up in pieces of from 36 to 40 yards. the length marked on the outside of the piece may not always correspond to the number of yards in the piece if the yard is taken as one of 36 inches. =white spotted shirtings.=--like white striped shirtings, the ornamentation in this class of fabric would be produced by combination of weave and would not be the result of printing or be due to the presence of coloured yarns. the essentials of this class of fabric are similar to those of white striped shirtings, _i.e._, the fabric is all cotton and the ornamentation due to weave and weave only. =white striped shirtings.=--the fabric which would properly come under this classification would be essentially all-cotton fabrics containing stripes, produced by a combination of weave and not the result of printing or due to the presence of coloured yarns. a plain-weave ground may be combined with a sateen-weave stripe. such a fabric would not be called a fancy shirting, which in the trade is generally understood to be "either printed on the woven, bleached fabric, or of fast colours, dyed upon the warp, or combination of each." white striped shirtings are mostly made on a jacquard loom, and in the white condition the woven pattern constitutes the only effect or ornamentation in the finished cloth. =white t-cloth.=--a bleached all-cotton fabric, plain woven from low-quality yarns. an ordinary _t_-cloth which has been bleached. generally sold in lengths of 24 yards and varying in width from 32 to 36 inches. the name is said to be derived from the mark @t@ of the original exporters. =white venetians.=--what has been said of white italians holds good _mutatis mutandis_ of white venetians. such fabrics are in reality white warp-faced sateens, and, white not being considered a colour, they do not come under the classification of dyed plain cottons. =widow's lawn.=--a better quality of lawn made from linen, well woven, very clear and even in texture. =width.=--the practice has grown up in the trade to refer to the width of a fabric either as "actual" or "nominal." the former term explains itself and means that the width as given is actually that of the piece referred to, and that it is not less than stated. "nominal," on the other hand, is understood to mean that the fabric referred to may vary by as much as half an inch below the width specified on the contract. =window holland.=--a plain-woven all-cotton cloth, stiffened after weaving with about one-fifth of its weight in starch or other sizing material. it is used as window shades. =wolsey.=--a proprietary name applied to certain all-wool materials, especially underwear. =wool.=--wool is the soft, curly covering which forms the fleecy coat of the sheep and other similar animals, such as the goat, alpaca, llama, vicuña, and camel. the chief characteristic of wool is its felting or shrinking power. this felting property, from which wool derives its chief value and which is its special distinction from hair, depends in part upon the kinks in the fibre but mainly upon the scales with which the fibre is covered. the process of felting consists in the fibres becoming entangled with each other, and the little projecting scales hooking into each other and holding the fibres closely interlocked. the wool of commerce is divided into three great classes:- 1. short wool, or clothing wool (also called carding wool), seldom exceeds a length of 2 to 4 inches. 2. long wool, or combing wool, varying from 4 to 10 inches. 3. carpet and knitting wools, which are long, strong, and very coarse. combing wools take their name from the process of "combing" which they undergo when being prepared for spinning into yarn. combing wools are longer than carding wools; they are also harder or more wiry and less inclined to be spiral or kinky. carding wools--made to cross and interlace and interlock with one another--are shorter than combing, and, in addition, they possess the power of felting (that is to say, of matting together in a close, compact mass) to a much greater degree. the first and finest clip of wool is called lamb's wool; it is taken from the young sheep at the age of eight to twelve months and, never having been clipped before, it is naturally pointed at the end. all subsequent cut fleeces are known as wether wool and are less valuable than the first clip. the ends of such wool are thick and blunted on account of having been previously cut. wool, unlike cotton, is not capable of being worked into a yarn without first being thoroughly cleansed of its impurities. =wool-dyed.=--a term applied to fabrics dyed in the loose or top form--as distinct from yarn-dyed or piece-dyed. =woollen.=--this term is used in contradistinction to worsted, and implies difference of material and method of manufacture. wastes, shoddy, and blends of material other than wool are referred to as "woollen," in opposition to "all wool." =woollen and cotton flannel.=--a fabric answering to the description of true flannel, usually woven with either a plain or twill weave, soft finished, but which is made from carded union yarn, _i.e._, yarn composed of wool and cotton in varying proportions according to the quality of the material it is intended to produce. if a woollen and cotton flannel were described as a union flannel it would be composed of distinct yarns, some of which were all cotton and some all wool. in its broad acceptance the term is applicable to any fabric woven partly of wool and partly of cotton to resemble true all-wool flannel. =woollen and cotton mixtures.=--this term is used to designate fabrics which are composed of the fibres of wool and cotton which have been blended or scribbled together rather than to fabrics composed of distinct threads which are all-cotton and all-wool yarns woven together. a cotton warp and wool weft fabric is a union, not a mixture. mixtures may be recognised, when dyed, by a careful examination of the fibres constituting the yarn. when such fibres are not of the same colour, it will be found to have been due to the difference of affinity for the dye between cotton and wool. the burning test is not close enough. carbonising is the surest test that can be applied to determine the presence and percentage of cotton in any woollen and cotton mixture fabric. =woollen fabric.=--the typical woollen is a full-handling fabric in which structure and colouring cannot always be defined on account of the threads and picks, and even the fibres, having become thoroughly intermingled in passing through the operations of finishing. strictly speaking, a woollen fabric should be made of fine wool (possibly noils included); but in the english law courts a definition of "woollen" fabrics as being composed of mungo, shoddy, cotton, etc., has been accepted. =woollen lastings, craped.=--a fabric similar in the main to a plain lasting, but which, owing either to special process of weaving, chemical process during finishing, or to the action of suitably engraved rollers through which the material is made to pass, has a face finish resembling crape cloth, plain, under which heading will be found the distinctive characteristics of crape cloth. =woollen lastings, figured.=--like cotton lastings, this fabric is essentially a plain twill or kindred weave fabric, firmly woven from hard-twisted yarns. it is woven from strong wool and can be described as a fine, durable fabric of a somewhat hard handle, but smooth in appearance and ornamented by the introduction of a figure, pattern, or design produced either by means of an extra thread or by combination of warp and weft threads. =woollen lastings, plain.=--a plain twill or kindred weave fabric firmly woven from hard-twisted yarns. it is woven from strong wool and can be described as a fine, durable fabric of a somewhat hard handle, smooth in appearance, and free from any ornamentation produced either by weaving or printing. used extensively in the manufacture of boot and shoe uppers. =woollen yarn= in appearance possesses a fringe-like covering which gives it a fuzzy appearance. this is arrived at by using shorter wool than in the manufacture of worsted yarn and by giving it a twist. this fuzzy appearance distinguishes it from worsted yarn, which is a straight yarn in which the component fibres lie smoothly and parallel to each other. woollen yarn is particularly suitable for the manufacture of cloths in which the colourings require to be blended, the fibres napped, as in tweed, cheviot, doeskin, broadcloth, beaver, frieze, chinchilla, blanket, and flannel. woollen yarn may be said to be a thread in which all the component fibres are entangled into each other and are in all different directions: this results in a yarn which is rough in appearance, non-lustrous, and more irregular than worsted yarn. it is only in this type of yarn that low-grade materials, such as mungo, shoddy, or extract, can be utilised. the fibres which constitute a woollen yarn are not as readily separated from the body of the yarn or cloth as in the case of worsted. in the case of woollen yarn there are numerous systems for denoting the count, varying with the locality in which it is spun and the character of the product. in the united states there are two systems employed, but the one in most general use is known as the "american run counts." this is based on the number of "runs," each containing 1,600 yards, to the pound. thus, a yarn running 8,000 yards to the pound is called a "5-run" yarn, a yarn with 5,200 yards to the pound is equal to a "3¼-run." in the vicinity of philadelphia woollen yarn is based on the "cut," each cut consisting of 300 yards, and the count is the number of cuts in a pound. thus, no. 30 cut yarn consists of 9,000 yards to the pound. a similar system prevails in england, where 200 yards go to the "cut," and the number of "cuts" per pound equals the count. in certain parts of england (yorkshire) 256 yards go to the hank. the count is also arrived at on the basis that the number of yards per dram equals the count. =worsted diagonal.=--the name explains itself and is applied to a worsted cloth having as its chief characteristic a prominent weave effect running diagonally--from left to right--across the face of the cloth. generally in solid colours and finished so as to bring the weave into prominence. =worsted lastings.=--a smooth, warp-faced, sateen-weave fabric woven from worsted warp and weft, having a plain-weave effect on the back of the fabric. generally piece-dyed black. worsted lastings average 30 to 31 inches in width and 29 to 30 yards in length per piece. met with in three grades of quality. average bradford price for the best grade was, for the 10 years ended 1914, about 31_s._ 5_d._ per piece. =worsted yarn= is a straight yarn, _i.e._, a yarn produced from straight fibres; it is invaluable in the production of textile fabrics in which lustre and uniformity of surface are the chief characteristics. they enter into the manufacture of zephyr, saxony, serge, bunting, rep, etc. yarn is measured by a system of "counts"--the number of yards of yarn to the pound. it is put up in hanks of 560 yards each, and the number of such hanks that are necessary to weigh 1 pound determines the count, so that if no. 30 yarn is mentioned, it is a yarn 30 hanks of which, or 16,800 yards, weigh 1 pound. the main characteristic of worsted yarn is the arrangement of the fibres, which are so arranged that they are parallel to each other in a longitudinal direction. the yarn thus produced is a smooth, lustrous, and level yarn, these qualities being absent in woollen yarn. the fibres which constitute a worsted yarn are more readily separated from the body of the yarn or cloth than in the case of a woollen yarn. =w-pile.=--this term is used to designate a fast pile and originates in the form taken by a piece of fast pile when removed from the fabric. in a fast-pile fabric the pile cannot be driven out through the back of the fabric by pressure applied to the pile, owing to the fact that the pile is virtually bound into the material and held in place by two threads from the top and one from behind. _see_ pile weave. =wright's underwear, imitation.=--this class of underwear is essentially a knit cotton underwear made from a combination of bleached cotton yarn and dyed yarn. the knit fabric is raised on the inside. the dyed yarn used in the manufacture of this class of underwear is often of a blue or brown colour. =yarn, cotton, grey or bleached.=--in its unqualified form the term cotton yarn is used to describe "single" yarns, and cotton yarn, grey or bleached, is understood to be cotton thread and carded yarn, warps or warp yarns, in singles, whether in bundles, skeins, or cops, not advanced beyond the condition of singles by grouping or twisting two or more single yarns together and not advanced beyond the condition of bleached by dyeing, colouring, printing, gassing, or mercerising. cotton yarn is subdivided into three groups,--coarse, medium, and fine--according to count:- no. 20's count and under = coarse. nos. 21's to 40's = medium. no. 41's and over = fine. cotton yarn is sometimes found as a mercerised grey yarn. the fact that cotton yarn is in the unbleached state does not necessarily mean that it has not been advanced beyond that stage; it may be in the grey and at the same time be mercerised. _see_ "cabled yarns" and "folded yarn." =yarn-dyed.=--yarn-dyed goods are made of yarns that are dyed before being woven or yarns spun from wool that has previously been dyed. yarn-dyed may be distinguished from piece-dyed fabrics by unravelling the threads of each kind. yarn-dyed fabrics show that the dye-stuff has penetrated through the yarn, while in the case of piece-dyed fabrics the dye-stuff has not the same chance of penetrating the yarn as completely. =zephyrs.=--lightly constructed, coloured, plain-woven cloths, well finished, in the pure state, principally woven from fine cotton yarns. there are also silk and cotton woven zephyrs and woollen zephyrs. _see_ madras. =zibeline.=--the french name for sable, used to designate a dress or cloaking material having a hairy surface. index. index. a. _page._ actual, 1 agaric, 1 albatross, 1 alhambra quilt, 1 all wool; _see_ woollen, 108 all-over leno; _see_ dyed lenos, 29 alpaca, 1 alpaca wool, 1 alpacianos, 2 american run counts; _see_ woollen yarn, 109 american sheetings, 2 angola, 2 angola yarn or wool, 2 angora, 2 angora goat, 2 animalised cotton, 2 armure, 3 artificial silk, 3 astrakhan, 3 b. back cloth, 3 backed cloth, 4 baffetas, 4 baize, 4 balbriggan, 4 bale of cotton, 4 baline, 4 balzarine brocades, dyed, 4 balzarines, 5 bandanna, 5 barré, 5 basket cloth, 5 batiste, 5 bayadère, 6 bayetas, 6 beavers, 6 beaverteen, 6 bedford cords, 6 beetle finish; _see_ silesia, 83 beige, 6 bengal stripes, 6 bengaline, 6 binding cloth, 7 bishop's lawn; _see_ white lawn, 104 bleached, 7 bleached domestics, 7 bolting cloth; _see_ étamine, 33 bolton sheeting; _see_ grey sheeting, 39 bombazine, 7 book muslin; _see_ white muslin, 105 book-fold muslin, 7 botany, 7 bouclé, 7 bourette, 7 broadcloth, 8 brocade, 8 brocades, white; _see_ white brocades, 103 brocatelle, 8 broché, 8 broken twill; _see_ twill weave, 93 brown sheeting, 8 brown shirting, 8 bugis, 8 "bump" yarns, 9 bundle; _see_ cotton yarn measures, 17 bunting, 9 burlaps, 9 butcher's linen, 9 butcher's muslin; _see_ white muslin, 105 c. cabled yarns, 9 cabot, 9 cabot; _see_ american sheetings, 2 calico, 9 cambric; _see_ white cambric, 103 cambrics, dyed; _see_ dyed cambrics, 26 camel's hair, 10 camlets (woollen), 10 camlets, dutch (woollen), 10 camlets, english (woollen), 11 caniche, 11 canton flannel, 11 canvas, 11 carbonising, 12 carded union yarns; _see_ union yarns, 96 carding wools; _see_ wool, 107 casement cloth, 12 cashmere, 12 cashmere double, 12 cashmere wool, 12 castor, 13 cellular cloth, 13 ceylon or ceylon flannel, 13 challis, 13 chambray, 13 charmeuse, 13 checks, 13 cheese cloth, 13 cheviot, 14 chiffon, 14 china grass; _see_ ramie, 71 chinchilla, 14 chiné, 14 chinese customs definition of nankeen; _see_ nankeen, 55 chintz, 14 classification of samples; _see_ samples, 74 clip spots, 14 coated cotton cloths, 14 collarette, 15 coloured, 15 coloured crimp cloth, 15 coloured lists, 15 coloured sateens; _see_ printed sateens, 68 coloured woollen and worsted yarns, 15 combination twill; _see_ twill weave, 93 combing wool; _see_ wool, 107 continuous or pad-dyeing process; _see_ dyeing, 25 corduroy, 15 corkscrew twill; _see_ twill weave, 93 côtelé, 16 cotton, 16 cotton, animalised; _see_ animalised cotton, 2 cotton duck, 16 cotton flannel, 16 cotton plush, 17 cotton velvet, plain; _see_ plain velvet (cotton), 62 cotton yarn, coarse, medium, and fine; _see_ yarn, cotton, grey or bleached, 111 cotton yarn, grey or bleached; _see_ yarn, cotton, grey or bleached, 111 cotton yarn measures, 17 counts, 17 counts of spun silk; _see_ silk yarns, 85 coutil, 18 covert, 18 crabbing, 18 crape cloth, plain, 18 crape weave; _see_ crape cloth, plain, 18 crash, 19 cravenette, 19 crêpe de chine, 19 crêpe meteor, 19 crepoline, 19 crépon, 19 cretonne, 19 cretonne, shadow; _see_ shadow cretonne, 82 crimp cloth, plain, or crimps, 20 crinkle, or seersucker, 20 cross-dyed, 20 crossover, 20 cut; _see_ woollen yarn, 109 cut goods, 20 cuttling, 21 d. damask, 21 damassé, 21 delaine, 21 denim, 21 derby rib, 22 descriptions of standard cloth; _see_ market descriptions of standard cloth, 50 diagonal, 22 diaper, 22 diced; _see_ diaper, 22 dimity, 22 discharge printing, 22 dobbie, or dobby, 22 domestics, 23 domet, 23 dorneck; _see_ diaper, 22 double cloth weave, 23 double sole, heel, and toe, 23 double warps, 23 drap d'été, 23 dresden, 23 drill, pepperell; _see_ pepperell drill, 60 drills, 23 drills, grey; _see_ grey drills, 39 drillette, 24 drilling; _see_ white drills, or drilling, 104 duchesse, 24 duck, 24 dungaree, 24 duplex prints, 24 dyeing, 25 dyed and printed, 25 dyed alpacianos, 25 dyed balzarines, 26 dyed cambrics, 26 dyed corduroys (cotton), 26 dyed cotton lastings, 26 dyed cotton spanish stripes, 26 dyed crimp cloth, 27 dyed drills, 27 dyed figured cottons, 27 dyed figured cotton italians, 27 dyed figured cotton lastings, 27 dyed figured cotton reps, 28 dyed figured ribs, 28 dyed fustians, 28 dyed imitation turkey reds, 28 dyed in the grey; _see_ dyed in the piece, 29 dyed in the grey; _see_ union cloth, 95 dyed in the piece, or piece-dyed, 29 dyed lawns, 29 dyed lenos, 29 dyed leno brocade, 29 dyed muslins, 30 dyed plain cottons, 30 dyed plain cottons; _see_ white italian, 104 dyed plain cotton italians, 30 dyed real turkey reds, 30 dyed reps, 31 dyed ribs, 31 dyed sheetings, 31 dyed shirtings, 31 dyed _t_-cloths, 32 dyed velvet cords (cotton), 32 dyed velveteen cords (cotton), 32 e. elongated twill; _see_ twill weave, 93 embossed velvet (cotton), 32 embossed velveteen (cotton), 32 embroideries, 33 end, 33 english foot, 33 english system of silk cords; _see_ silk yarns, 85 eolienne, 33 éponge, 33 equestrienne tights, 33 étamine, 33 extract, 33 extracted, 33 f. face-finished cashmere; _see_ velour, 96 façonné, 33 faille, 33 fancies, 34 fancy shirtings; _see_ white striped shirtings, 106 fancy silk seal; _see_ silk seal, 84 fancy twill; _see_ twill weave, 93 fast pile; _see_ pile weave, 61 fents, 34 figured, 34 figured cretonne; _see_ cretonne, 19 figured muslin, 34 figured twill; _see_ twill weave, 93 figure weaving, 34 filled cotton cloth, 35 filling, 35 filling (finishing term), 35 flannel (woollen), 35 flannel, cotton; _see_ cotton flannel, 16 flannelette, 35 flat underwear, 36 fleece-lined, 36 flocks; _see_ waste and flocks, 100 floconné, 36 florentine drills, 36 folded yarn, 36 foulard, 37 foundation muslin; _see_ white muslin, 105 french cambric; _see_ white cambric, 103 french foot, 37 french system of cotton counts; _see_ cotton yarn measures, 17 french system of silk counts; _see_ silk yarns, 85 full regular, 37 full-fashioned, 37 fustian, 37 g. galatea, 38 gauge, 38 gauze weave, 38 genoa plush; _see_ cotton plush, 17 gingham, 38 gingham, madras; _see_ madras gingham, 49 gingham, silk; _see_ silk gingham, 84 glacé, 38 granité, 39 grenadine, 39 grey, in the grey, or grey cloth, 39 grey drills, 39 grey jeans, 39 grey sheeting, 39 grey shirting, 40 grey _t_-cloths, 40 grosgrain, 40 h. habit cloth (woollen), 40 habutai, 41 hair-cord muslin, 41 hand looms and power looms, 41 handle, 41 hank; _see_ cotton yarn measures, 17 hank; _see_ counts, 17 hard waste; _see_ waste and flocks, 100 harvard shirting, 41 henrietta, 42 herring-bone, 42 hessian, 42 hog, or hoggett wool, 42 honeycomb, 42 huckaback, 42 i. imitation oxford; _see_ oxford shirting, 58 imitation rabbit skin, 42 imitation wright's underwear; _see_ wright's underwear, imitation, 111 india lawn; _see_ white lawn, 104 india linon; _see_ white lawn, 104 india mull; _see_ mull, 54 indigo print; _see_ printed, 65 ingrain, 43 irishes, 43 irish cambric, 43 italian cloth, 43 italian cloth, figured, cotton warp and wool weft, 43 italian cloth, plain, cotton warp and wool weft, 44 j. jaconet, 44 jaconettes; _see_ jaconet, 44 jacquards, 44 jaeger, 44 jean, 45 jean; _see_ galatea, 38 jeanette, 45 jouy, 45 k. kerseymere, 45 khaiki, 45 khaki, 45 l. ladies' cloth, 45 lamb's wool; _see_ wool, 107 lappet weave, 45 lastings, 46 lawn; _see_ white lawn, 104 lawns, dyed; _see_ dyed lawns, 29 leas, 46 leather cloth, 46 leno, 46 leno brocades, dyed; _see_ dyed leno brocade, 29 liberty, 47 linen cambric; _see_ white cambric, 103 linen, tests for; _see_ tests for linen, 89 linen thread; _see_ thread, 90 linen yarn, 47 lingerie, 47 lining, 47 linon; _see_ white lawn, 104 lisle thread, 47 list; _see_ selvedge, 81 loading worsted and woollens, 47 longcloth, 47 long ells (woollen), 48 long stick, 48 loom state; _see_ grey, 39 louisine, 48 lustre dress fabrics, 48 lustre orleans; _see_ orleans, 57 m. maco, 49 madapolams, 49 madras, 49 madras gingham, 49 madras handkerchiefs, 49 make; _see_ reed and pick, 71 maline, 49 market descriptions of standard cloth, 50 marl, 50 marquisette, 50 matelassé, 50 matt weave, 50 medium cloth (woollen), 50 mélange, 50 mélanges (yarns); _see_ coloured woollen and worsted yarns, 15 melton, 51 mercerised cotton, 51 mercerising, 51 merino, 51 mesh underwear, 52 messaline, 52 mexican; _see_ _t_-cloth, 87 milled finish; _see_ schreiner finish, 80 millerayes; _see_ grosgrain, 40 mixed cloths; _see_ union cloth, 95 mixed dyeing; _see_ cross-dyed, 20 mixture yarn, 52 mixtures (yarns); _see_ coloured woollen and worsted yarns, 15 mock leno, 52 mock seam, 52 mohair, 52 mohair beaver plush, 52 mohair brilliantine, 52 mohair coney seal, 53 mohair sicilian, 53 moiré, 53 moleskin, 53 mottles, 53 mousseline de soie, 53 mule-twist yarn, 53 mull, 54 mungo and shoddy, 54 muslin; _see_ white muslin, 105 n. nainsook, 54 nankeen, 55 nankeen; _see_ galatea, 38 nankeen, chinese customs definition of, 56 native cotton cloth; _see_ nankeen, 55 native cotton cloth; _see_ unclassed native cotton cloth (china), 94 net silk yarn; _see_ silk yarns, 85 noils, 57 nominal; _see_ actual, 1 o. ombré, 57 opera hose, 57 organzine, 57 orleans, 57 ottoman, 57 outsize, 57 oxford, 58 oxford shirting, 58 p. padded back linings, 58 pad-dyeing, 58 panne, 59 panung, 59 panama canvas, 59 papoon, 59 paramatta, 59 pastel, 59 pastille, 59 peau de cygne, 59 peau de soie, 59 pekiné, or pekin stripes, 60 pepperell drill, 60 pepperell drill; _see_ grey drills, 39 percale, 60 percaline, 60 persian cord, 60 pick, 60 piece goods, 60 pile fabrics, 60 pile weave, 61 piqué, 61 "p.k.", 61 plain, 62 plain velvet (cotton), 62 plain velveteen (cotton), 62 plain (or homespun) weave, 62 plated, 62 plissé, 62 plumetis, 63 plumety; _see_ plumetis, 63 plush, 63 plush of silk mixed with other fibres, 63 plush velveteen, 63 pointillé, 63 pompadour, 63 poncho cloth, 64 pongee, 64 pony skin, 64 poplin, 64 print cloth; _see_ printers, 70 printed, 65 printed balzarines, 65 printed calico, 65 printed cambrics, 65 printed chintzes, 66 printed cotton drill, 66 printed cotton italians, 66 printed cotton lastings, 66 printed crapes, 67 printed crimp cloth, 67 printed furnitures, 67 printed lawns, 67 printed leno, 67 printed muslin, 68 printed oxford; _see_ oxford shirting, 58 printed reps, 68 printed sateens, 68 printed satinets, 68 printed sheetings, 68 printed shirtings, 69 printed _t_-cloth, 69 printed turkey reds, 69 printed twills, 69 printed velvet (cotton), 69 printed velveteen (cotton), 69 printed warp; _see_ warp print, 99 printers, 70 pure silk plush, 70 pure silk velvet, 70 r. raised back cloths, 70 raised cotton cloth, 70 ramie, rhea, china grass, 71 ratine, 71 rattine; _see_ ratine, 71 rattinet; _see_ ratine, 71 rayé, 71 reed and pick, 71 regatta twill; _see_ galatea, 38 regular twill; _see_ twill weave, 93 rembrandt rib, 72 remnant; _see_ fents, 34 rep, 72 resist or reserve printing, 72 reversible cretonnes, 72 rhea; _see_ ramie, 71 rib, 73 rib crape effect, 73 richelieu rib, 73 right and wrong side of fabrics, 73 ring-spun yarn, 73 robes, 74 russian cloth (woollen), 74 russian prints, 74 s. samples and their classification, 74 sateens, 79 satin, 79 satin drill, 80 satin weave, 80 satinet, or satinette, 80 satin faced velvet; _see_ panne, 59 schreiner finish, 80 scribbled, 81 seamless, 81 seamless bags, 81 seersucker; _see_ crinkle, or seersucker, 20 selvedge, 81 serge (cotton), 82 sett; _see_ reed and pick, 71 sewing thread; _see_ thread, 90 shadow cretonne, 82 shantung, 82 sheeting, 82 sheetings, american; _see_ american sheetings, 2 sheetings, dyed; _see_ dyed sheetings, 31 sheetings, grey; _see_ grey sheeting, 39 sheetings, white; _see_ white sheetings, 105 shirtings, 83 shirtings, dyed; _see_ dyed shirtings, 31 shirtings, grey; _see_ grey shirting, 40 shirtings, white; _see_ white shirtings, 105 short stick, 83 shot, 83 shot silks; _see_ glacé, 38 sicilienne, 83 sifting cloth; _see_ étamine, 33 silence cloth, 83 silesia, 83 silk beaver, 83 silk gingham, 84 silk mull, 84 silk plush; _see_ pure silk plush, 70 silk pongee, 84 silk seal (cotton back), 84 silk velvet; _see_ pure silk velvet, 70 silk yarns, 85 silver seal; _see_ mohair coney seal, 53 singles; _see_ yarn, cotton, grey or bleached, 111 sliver, 85 soft waste; _see_ waste and flocks, 100 spanish stripes, cotton, 86 spanish stripes, woollen, 86 spanish stripes, wool and cotton, 86 split foot, 86 sponge cloth, 86 spool cotton; _see_ thread, 90 spun silk, 86 spun-silk yarns; _see_ silk yarns, 85 standard cloth; _see_ market descriptions of standard cloth, 50 staples, 87 stock-dyed; _see_ ticks, or ticking, 91 striped; _see_ rayé, 71 surah, 87 swansdown, 87 swiss embroidery, 87 swiss mull; _see_ mull, 54 swivel figures, 87 t. tabby; _see_ watering, 100 tabby plush; _see_ cotton plush, 17 table felting; _see_ silence cloth, 83 tapestry, 87 _t_-cloth, 87 _t_-cloths, dyed; _see_ dyed _t_-cloths, 32 _t_-cloths, grey; _see_ grey _t_-cloths, 40 teasels, or teazels, 88 terry cloth, 88 tests by burning, 88 test for artificial silk, 88 tests for linen, 89 test for mercerised cotton, 89 tests for silk, 90 test for wool, 90 textile fibres, 90 thickness of woollen cloths; _see_ weight and thickness of woollen cloths, 102 thickset, 90 thread, 90 three-quarter hose, 91 ticks, or ticking, 91 tire cloth, 91 tram, 92 trunk length, 92 tubular cloth, 92 tucks; _see_ plissé, 62 tulle, 92 turkey reds, dyed real; _see_ dyed real turkey reds, 30 turkish towelling, 92 tussore, or tussah, 92 tweed, 92 twill weave, 93 twin needle, 94 twists; _see_ coloured woollen and worsted yarns, 15 u. unclassed native cotton cloth (china), 94 union broadcloth, 95 union cloth, 95 union flannel; _see_ woollen and cotton flannel, 108 union yarns, 96 u-pile; _see_ pile weave, 61 v. velour, 96 velveret; _see_ velveteen, 97 velvet, 96 velvet (cotton), printed; _see_ printed velvet (cotton), 69 velvet finish, 96 velvet of silk mixed with other fibres, 97 velveteen, 97 venetian coverts; _see_ covert, 18 venetians, 97 venetians, white; _see_ white venetians, 106 vesting, 97 victoria lawn; _see_ white lawn, 104 vigogne, 98 vigoreux, 98 viyella, 98 voile, 98 w. wadding pick, 98 wale, 98 warp, 99 warp pile, 99 warp print, 99 warp ribs, 99 warp sateen, 99 warp welt, 99 warp-faced cloth, 109 waste and condenser wefts, 100 waste and flocks, 100 waste and spun silk yarns; _see_ silk yarns, 85 waste cloths, 100 waste sheeting; _see_ grey sheeting, 39 watered; _see_ watering, 100 watering, 100 weaving, 101 web, 101 weft, 101 weft pile, 101 weft ribs, 101 weft sateen, 102 weft-faced cloth, 102 weight and thickness of woollen cloths, 102 weighting, 102 welt, 103 wether wool; _see_ wool, 107 whip thread, 103 whipcord, 103 white, 103 white brocades, 103 white cambric, 103 white drills, or drilling, 104 white goods, 104 white irishes, 104 white italian, 104 white jean, 104 white lawn, 104 white mercerised sateen; _see_ white italian, 104 white muslin, 105 white sheetings, 105 white shirtings, 105 white spotted shirtings, 106 white striped shirtings, 106 white _t_-cloth, 106 white venetians, 106 widow's lawn, 106 width, 106 window holland, 107 wolsey, 107 wool, 107 wool, alpaca; _see_ alpaca wool, 1 wool-dyed, 108 woollen, 108 woollen and cotton flannel, 108 woollen and cotton mixtures, 108 woollen fabric, 108 woollen flannel; _see_ flannel (woollen), 35 woollen lastings, craped, 108 woollen lastings, figured, 109 woollen lastings, plain, 109 woollen yarn, 109 worsted diagonal, 110 worsted lastings, 110 worsted yarn, 110 w-pile, 110 wright's underwear, imitation, 111 y. yarn, cotton, grey or bleached, 111 yarn-dyed, 111 z. zephyrs, 111 zibeline, 111 transcriber's note italic text is denoted by _underscores_. bold text is denoted by =equal signs=. large-size letters used to describe shapes or trade marks are denoted by @at-signs@. the original book had a set of blank ledger pages to allow the reader to catalog his collection of fabric samples, preceded by a repeated list of the 17 main fabric groups found on pages 75-78. these pages numbered 112-170 have been omitted from the etext. the index begins at the following page 171. obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources. except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. for example, all-silk, all silk; dyestuff, dye-stuff; vicuna, vicuña. pg 178, 'scheriner finish' replaced by 'schreiner finish'. 