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TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT

by

JAMES ARTHUR







Reprinted from
Popular Mechanics Magazine

Copyright, 1909, By H. H. Windsor

Chicago, 1909




CONTENTS


 CHAPTER I

 HISTORIC OUTLINE

 Time as an abstraction. -- Ancient divisions of day and night.
 -- Night watches of the Old Testament. -- Quarter days and hours
 of the New Testament. -- Shadow, or sun time. -- Noon mark dials.
 -- Ancient dials of Herculaneum and Pompeii. -- Modern dials. --
 Equation of time. -- Three historic methods of measuring time. --
 "Time-boy" of India. -- Chinese clepsydra. -- Ancient weather and
 time stations. -- Tower of the winds, Athens, Greece          Page 13


 CHAPTER II

 JAPANESE CLOCKS

 Chinese and Japanese divisions of the day. -- Hours of varying
 length. -- Setting clocks to length of daylight. -- Curved line
 dials. -- Numbering hours backwards and strange reasons for
 same. -- Daily names for sixty day period. -- Japanese clock
 movements practically Dutch. -- Japanese astronomical clock. --
 Decimal numbers very old Chinese. -- Original vertical dials
 founded on "bamboo stick" of Chinese clepsydra. -- Mathematics
 and superstition. -- Mysterious disappearance of hours 1, 2, 3.
 -- Eastern mental attitude towards time. -- Japanese methods of
 striking hours and half hours                                 Page 25


 CHAPTER III

 MODERN CLOCKS

 De Vick's clock of 1364. -- Original "verge" escapement. --
 "Anchor" and "dead beat" escapements. -- "Remontoir" clock. --
 The pendulum. -- Jeweling pallets. -- Antique clock with earliest
 application of pendulum. -- Turkish watches. -- Correct designs
 for public clock faces. -- Art work on old watches. -- 24-hour
 watch. -- Syrian and Hebrew hour numerals. -- Correct method of
 striking hours and quarters. -- Design for 24-hour dial and
 hands. -- Curious clocks. -- Inventions of the old clock-makers
                                                               Page 37


 CHAPTER IV

 ASTRONOMICAL FOUNDATION OF TIME

 Astronomical motions on which our time is founded. -- Reasons
 for selecting the sidereal day as a basis for our 24-hour
 day. -- Year of the seasons shorter than the zodiacal year. --
 Precession of the equinoxes. -- Earth's rotation most uniform
 motion known to us. -- Time stars and transits. -- Local time.
 -- The date line. -- Standard time. -- Beginning and ending of
 a day. -- Proposed universal time. -- Clock dial for universal
 time and its application to business. -- Next great improvement
 in clocks and watches indicated. -- Automatic recording of
 the earth's rotation. -- Year of the seasons as a unit for
 astronomers. -- General conclusions                           Page 53




ILLUSTRATIONS


                                                                  Page
 Portrait of James Arthur                                            8

 Interpretation of Chinese and Japanese Methods of Time Keeping     15

 Portable Bronze Sundial from the Ruins of Herculaneum              16

 Noon-Mark Sundials                                                 17

 Modern Horizontal Sundial for Latitude 40°-43´                     18

 The Earth, Showing Relation of Dial Styles to Axis                 18

 Modern Sundial Set Up in Garden                                    18

 "Time-Boy" of India                                                19

 "Hon-woo-et-low," or "Copper Jars Dropping Water"--Canton, China   19

 Modern Sand Glass or "Hour Glass"                                  20

 Tower of the Winds, Athens, Greece                                 20

 Key to Japanese Figures                                            25

 Japanese Dials Set for Long and Short Days                         25

 Japanese Striking Clock with Weight and Short Pendulum             26

 Japanese Striking Clock with Spring, Fusee and Balance             26

 Japanese Clock with Vertical Dial, Weight and Balance              27

 Japanese Clock with Vertical Dial Having Curved Lines, Weight
 and Balance                                                        27

 Japanese Vertical Dials                                            28

 Japanese Striking Clock with Two Balances and Two Escapements      29

 "Twelve Horary Branches" and "10 Celestial Stems" as Used in
 Clocks                                                             30

 Key to "12 Horary Branches" and "10 Celestial Stems"               30

 Dial of Japanese Astronomical Clock                                31

 Use of "Yeng Number" and Animal Names of Hours                     32

 Public Dial by James Arthur                                        37

 Dial of Philadelphia City Hall Clock                               37

 Verge Escapement                                                   37

 De Vick's Clock of 1364                                            38

 Anchor Escapement                                                  38

 American Anchor Escapement                                         39

 Dead Beat Escapement                                               39

 Remontoir Clock by James Arthur                                    40

 Remontoir Clock Movement                                           40

 Antique Clock, Entirely Hand-Made                              41, 42

 Double-Case Watch of Repoussé Work                                 42

 Triple-Case Turkish Watches                                        43

 Watch Showing Dutch Art Work                                       43

 Triple-Case Turkish Watch                                          44

 Watches Showing Art Work                                           45

 Antique Watch Cock                                                 46

 "Chinese" Watch                                                    46

 Musical Watch, Repeating Hours and Quarters                        47

 Syrian Dial                                                        47

 Hebrew Numerals                                                    48

 Twenty-four Hour Watch                                             48

 Domestic Dial by James Arthur                                      49

 Local Time--Standard Time--Beginning and Ending of the Day         57

 Universal Time Dial Set for Four Places                            61


[Illustration: James Arthur

Mr. Arthur is an enthusiastic scientist, a successful inventor and
extensive traveler, who has for years been making a study of clocks,
watches, and time-measuring devices. He is not only a great authority
on this subject, but his collection of over 1500 timepieces gathered
from all parts of the globe has been pronounced the finest collection
in the world. Mr. Arthur is a pleasing exception to the average
business man, for he has found time to do a large amount of study and
research along various scientific lines in addition to conducting an
important manufacturing business in New York City, of which he is
president. Mr. Arthur is 67 years of age.--H. H. Windsor.]




CHAPTER I

HISTORIC OUTLINE

 Time as an abstraction. -- Ancient divisions of day and night.
 -- Night watches of the Old Testament. -- Quarter days and hours
 of the New Testament. -- Shadow or sun time. -- Noon mark dials.
 -- Ancient dials of Herculaneum and Pompeii. -- Modern Dials. --
 Equation of time. -- Three historic methods of measuring time. --
 "Time-boy" of India. -- Chinese clepsydra. -- Ancient weather and
 time stations. -- Tower of the winds, Athens, Greece.


Time, as a separate entity, has not yet been defined in language.
Definitions will be found to be merely explanations of the sense in
which we use the word in matters of practical life. No human being
can tell how long a minute is; only that it is longer than a second
and shorter than an hour. In some sense we can think of a longer
or shorter period of time, but this is merely comparative. The
difference between 50 and 75 steps a minute in marching is clear to
us, but note that we introduce motion and space before we can get a
conception of time as a succession of events, but time, in itself,
remains elusive.

In time measures we strive for a uniform motion of something and
this implies equal spaces in equal times; so we here assume just
what we cannot explain, for space is as difficult to define as time.
Time cannot be "squared" or used as a multiplier or divisor. Only
numbers can be so used; so when we speak of "the square of the time"
we mean some number which we have arbitrarily assumed to represent
it. This becomes plain when we state that in calculations relating
to pendulums, for example, we may use seconds and inches--minutes
and feet--or seconds and meters and the answer will come out right
in the units which we have assumed. Still more, numbers themselves
have no meaning till they are applied to something, and here we are
applying them to time, space and motion; so we are trying to explain
three abstractions by a fourth! But, happily, the results of these
assumptions and calculations are borne out in practical human life,
and we are not compelled to settle the deep question as to whether
fundamental knowledge is possible to the human mind. Those desiring
a few headaches on these questions can easily get them from Kant
and Spencer--but that is all they will get on these four necessary
assumptions.

Evidently, man began by considering the day as a unit and did not
include the night in his time keeping for a long period. "And the
evening and the morning were the first day" Gen. 1, 5; "Evening and
morning and at noonday," Ps. LV, 17, divides the day ("sun up") in
two parts. "Fourth part of a day," Neh. IX, 3, shows another advance.
Then comes, "are there not twelve hours in a day," John XI, 9. The
"eleventh hour," Matt. XX, 1 to 12, shows clearly that sunset was
12 o'clock. A most remarkable feature of this 12-hour day, in the
New Testament, is that the writers generally speak of the third,
sixth and ninth hours, Acts II, 15; III, 1; X, 9. This is extremely
interesting, as it shows that the writers still thought in quarter
days (Neh. IX, 3) and had not yet acquired the 12-hour conception
given to them by the Romans. They thought in quarter days even
when using the 12-hour numerals! Note further that references are
to "hours;" so it is evident that in New Testament times they did
not need smaller subdivisions. "About the third hour," shows the
mental attitude. That they had no conception of our minutes, seconds
and fifth seconds becomes quite plain when we notice that they
jumped down from the hour to nowhere, in such expressions as "in an
instant--in the twinkling of an eye."

Before this, the night had been divided into three watches, Judges
VII, 19. Poetry to this day uses the "hours" and the "watches" as
symbols.

This 12 hours of daylight gave very variable hours in latitudes some
distance from the equator, being long in summer and short in winter.
The amount of human ingenuity expended on time measures so as to
divide the time from sunrise to sunset into 12 equal parts is almost
beyond belief. In Constantinople, to-day, this is used, but in a
rather imperfect manner, for the clocks are modern and run 24 hours
uniformly; so the best they can do is to set them to mark twelve at
sunset. This necessitates setting to the varying length of the days,
so that the clocks appear to be sometimes more and sometimes less
than six hours ahead of ours. A clock on the tower at the Sultan's
private mosque gives the impression of being out of order and about
six hours ahead, but it is running correctly to their system. Hotels
often show two clocks, one of them to our twelve o'clock noon system.
Evidently the Jewish method of ending a day at sunset is the same
and explains the command, "let not the sun go down upon thy wrath,"
which we might read, do not carry your anger over to another day. I
venture to say that we still need that advice.

This simple line of steps in dividing the day and night is taken
principally from the Bible because everyone can easily look up the
passages quoted and many more, while quotations from books not in
general use would not be so clear. Further, the neglect of the Bible
is such a common complaint in this country that if I induce a few
to look into it a little some good may result, quite apart from the
matter of religious belief.

Some Chinese and Japanese methods of dividing the day and night are
indicated in Fig. 1. The old Japanese method divides the day into
six hours and the night also into six, each hour averaging twice as
long as ours. In some cases they did this by changing the rate of the
clock, and in others by letting the clock run uniformly and changing
the hour marks on the dial, but this will come later when we reach
Japanese clocks.

It is remarkable that at the present time in England the "saving
daylight" agitation is virtually an attempt to go back to this
discarded system. "John Bull," for a long period the time-keeper
of the world with headquarters at Greenwich, and during that time
the most pretentious clock-maker, now proposes to move his clocks
backward and forward several times a year so as to "fool" his workmen
out of their beds in the mornings! Why not commence work a few
minutes earlier each fortnight while days are lengthening and the
reverse when they are shortening?

This reminds me of a habit which was common in Scotland,--"keeping
the clock half an hour forward." In those days work commenced at six
o'clock, so the husband left his house at six and after a good walk
arrived at the factory at six! Don't you see that if his clock had
been set right he would have found it necessary to leave at half
past five? But, you say he was simply deceiving himself and acting
in an unreasonable manner. Certainly, but the average man is not a
reasonable being, and "John Bull" knows this and is trying to fool
the average Englishman.

[Illustration: Fig. 1--Interpretation of Chinese and Japanese Methods
of Time Keeping]

Now, as to the methods of measuring time, we must use circumstantial
evidence for the pre-historic period. The rising and the going down
of the sun--the lengthening shadows, etc., must come first, and we are
on safe ground here, for savages still use primitive methods like
setting up a stick and marking its shadow so that a party trailing
behind can estimate the distance the leaders are ahead by the changed
position of the shadow. Men notice their shortening and lengthening
shadows to this day. When the shadow of a man shortens more and
more slowly till it appears to be fixed, the observer knows it
is noon, and when it shows the least observable lengthening then
it is just past noon. Now, it is a remarkable fact that this crude
method of determining noon is just the same as "taking the sun" to
determine noon at sea. Noon is the time at which the sun reaches his
highest point on any given day. At sea this is determined generally
by a sextant, which simply measures the angle between the horizon
and the sun. The instrument is applied a little before noon and the
observer sees the sun creeping upward slower and slower till a little
tremor or hesitation appears indicating that the sun has reached his
height,--noon. Oh! you wish to know if the observer is likely to make
a mistake? Yes, and when accurate local time is important, several
officers on a large ship will take the meridian passage at the same
time and average their readings, so as to reduce the "personal
error." All of which is merely a greater degree of accuracy than that
of the man who observes his shadow.

[Illustration: Fig. 2--Portable Bronze Sundial from the Ruins of
Herculaneum]

The gradual development of the primitive shadow methods culminated
in the modern sundial. The "dial of Ahas," Isa. XXXVIII, 8, on which
the sun went back 10 "degrees" is often referred to, but in one of
the revised editions of the unchangeable word the sun went back 10
"steps." This becomes extremely interesting when we find that in
India there still remains an immense dial built with steps instead of
hour lines. Figure 2 shows a pocket, or portable sundial taken from
the ruins of Herculaneum and now in the Museo National, Naples. It
is bronze, was silver plated and is in the form of a ham suspended
from the hock joint. From the tail, evidently bent from its original
position, which forms the gnomon, lines radiate and across these wavy
lines are traced. It is about 5 in. long and 3 in. wide. Being in the
corner of a glass case I was unable to get small details, but museum
authorities state that names of months are engraved on it, so it
would be a good guess that these wavy lines had something to do with
the long and short days.

In a restored flower garden, within one of the large houses in the
ruins of Pompeii, may be seen a sundial of the Armillary type,
presumably in its original position. I could not get close to it, as
the restored garden is railed in, but it looks as if the plane of the
equator and the position of the earth's axis must have been known to
the maker.

Both these dials were in use about the beginning of our era and were
covered by the great eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D., which destroyed
Pompeii and Herculaneum.

Modern sundials differ only in being more accurately made and a few
"curiosity" dials added. The necessity for time during the night,
as man's life became a little more complicated, necessitated the
invention of time machines. The "clepsydra," or water clock, was
probably the first. A French writer has dug up some old records
putting it back to Hoang-ti 2679 B.C., but it appears to have been
certainly in use in China in 1100 B.C., so we will be satisfied
with that date. In presenting a subject to the young student it
is sometimes advisable to use round numbers to give a simple
comprehension and then leave him to find the overlapping of dates and
methods as he advances. Keeping this in mind, the following table may
be used to give an elementary hint of the three great steps in time
measuring:

 Shadow time, 2000 to 1000 B. C.

 Dials and Water Clocks, 1000 B. C. to 1000 A. D.

 Clocks and watches, 1000 to 2000 A. D.

I have pushed the gear wheel clocks and watches forward to 2000 A.D.,
as they may last to that time, but I have no doubt we will supersede
them. At the present time science is just about ready to say that
a time measurer consisting of wheels and pinions--a driving power
and a regulator in the form of a pendulum or balance, is a clumsy
contrivance and that we ought to do better very soon; but more on
this hoped-for, fourth method when we reach the consideration of the
motion on which we base all our time keeping.

It is remarkable how few are aware that the simplest form of sundial
is the best, and that, as a regulator of our present clocks, it is
good within one or two minutes. No one need be without a "noon-mark"
sundial; that is, every one may have the best of all dials. Take a
post or any straight object standing "plumb," or best of all the
corner of a building as in Fig. 3. In the case of the post, or tree
trunk, a stone (shown in solid black) may be set in the ground;
but for the building a line may often be cut across a flagstone of
the footpath. Many methods may be employed to get this noon mark,
which is simply a north and south line. Viewing the pole star, using
a compass (if the local variation is known) or the old method of
finding the time at which the shadow of a pole is shortest. But the
best practical way in this day is to use a watch set to local time
and make the mark at 12 o'clock.

[Illustration: Fig. 3--Noon-Mark Sundials]

On four days of the year the sun is right and your mark may be set at
12 on these days, but you may use an almanac and look in the column
marked "mean time at noon" or "sun on meridian." For example, suppose
on the bright day when you are ready to place your noon mark you read
in this column 11:50, then when your watch shows 11:50 make your noon
mark to the shadow and it will be right for all time to come. Owing
to the fact that there are not an even number of days in a year, it
follows that on any given yearly date at noon the earth is not at
the same place in its elliptical orbit and the correction of this
by the leap years causes the equation table to vary in periods of
four years. The centennial leap years cause another variation of 400
years, etc., but these variations are less than the error in reading
a dial.

 SUN ON NOON MARK, 1909
 -------------------------------------------------------
           Clock               Clock               Clock
  Date     Time       Date     Time       Date     Time
 -------------------------------------------------------
 Jan.  2   12:04     May   1   11:57     Sep. 30   11:50
   "   4   12:05       "  15   11:56     Oct.  3   11:49
   "   7   12:06       "  28   11:57       "   6   11:48
   "   9   12:07     June  4   11:58       "  10   11:47
   "  11   12:08       "  10   11:59       "  14   11:46
   "  14   12:09       "  14   12:00       "  19   11:45
   "  17   12:10       "  19   12:01       "  26   11:44
   "  20   12:11       "  24   12:02     Nov. 17   11:45
   "  23   12:12       "  29   12:03       "  22   11:46
   "  28   12:13     July  4   12:04       "  25   11:47
 Feb.  3   12:14       "  10   12:05       "  29   11:48
   "  26   12:13       "  19   12:06     Dec.  1   11:49
 Mar.  3   12:12     Aug. 11   12:05       "   4   11:50
   "   8   12:11       "  16   12:04       "   6   11:51
   "  11   12:10       "  21   12:03       "   9   11:52
   "  15   12:09       "  25   12:02       "  11   11:53
   "  18   12:08       "  28   12:01       "  13   11:54
   "  22   12:07       "  31   12:00       "  15   11:55
   "  25   12:06     Sep.  4   11:59       "  17   11:56
   "  28   12:05       "   7   11:58       "  19   11:57
 Apr.  1   12:04       "  10   11:57       "  21   11:58
   "   4   12:03       "  12   11:56       "  23   11:59
   "   7   12:02       "  15   11:55       "  25   12:00
   "  11   12:01       "  18   11:54       "  27   12:01
   "  15   12:00       "  21   11:53       "  29   12:02
   "  19   11:59       "  24   11:52       "  31   12:03
   "  24   11:58       "  27   11:51
 -------------------------------------------------------
 The above table shows the variation of the sun from "mean"
 or clock time, by even minutes.

[Illustration: Fig. 4--12-Inch Modern Horizontal Sundial for Latitude
40°-43´]

[Illustration: Fig. 5--The Earth, Showing Relation of Dial Styles to
Axis]

The reason that the table given here is convenient for setting clocks
to mean time is that a minute is as close as a dial can be read, but
if you wish for greater accuracy, then the almanac, which gives the
"equation of time" to a second for each day, will be better. The
reason that these noon-mark dials are better than ordinary commercial
dials is that they are larger, and still further, noon is the only
time that any dial is accurate to sun time. This is because the
sun's rays are "refracted" in a variable manner by our atmosphere,
but at noon this refraction takes place on a north and south line,
and as that is our noon-mark line the dial reads correctly. So,
for setting clocks, the corner of your house is far ahead of the
most pretentious and expensive dial. In Fig. 4 is shown a modern
horizontal dial without the usual confusing "ornamentation," and in
Fig. 5 it is shown set up on the latitude of New York City for which
it is calculated. This shows clearly why the edge FG of the style
which casts the shadow must be parallel to the earth's axis and why
a horizontal dial must be made for the latitude of the place where
it is set up. Figure 6 is the same dial only the lines are laid
out on a square dial plate, and it will give your young scientific
readers a hint of how to set up a dial in the garden. In setting up a
horizontal dial, consider only noon and set the style, or 12 o'clock
line, north and south as described above for noon-mark dials.

[Illustration: Fig. 6--Modern Sundial Set Up in Garden]

A whole issue of Popular Mechanics could be filled on the subject
of dials and even then only give a general outline. Astronomy,
geography, geometry, mathematics, mechanics, as well as architecture
and art, come in to make "dialing" a most charming scientific and
intellectual avocation.

During the night and also in cloudy weather the sundial was useless
and we read that the priests of the temples and monks of more modern
times "went out to observe the stars" to make a guess at the time
of night. The most prominent type after the shadow devices was the
"water clock" or "clepsydra," but many other methods were used, such
as candles, oil lamps and in comparatively late times, the sand
glass. The fundamental principle of all water clocks is the escape
of water from a vessel through a small hole. It is evident that such
a vessel would empty itself each time it is filled in very nearly
the same time. The reverse of this has been used as shown in Fig. 7,
which represents the "time-boy" of India. He sits in front of a large
vessel of water and floats a bronze cup having a small hole in its
bottom in this large vessel, and the leakage gradually lowers this
cup till it sinks, after which he fishes it up and strikes one or
more blows on it as a gong. This he continues and a rude division of
time is obtained,--while he keeps awake!

[Illustration: Fig. 7--"Time-Boy" of India]

[Illustration: Fig. 8--"Hon-woo-et-low" or "Copper Jars Dropping
Water"--Canton, China]

The most interesting of all water clocks is undoubtedly the "copper
jars dropping water," in Canton, China, where I saw it in 1897.
Referring to the simple line sketch, which I make from memory, Fig.
8, and reading four Chinese characters downwards the translation is
"Canton City." To the left and still downwards,--"Hon-woo-et-low,"
which is,--"Copper jars dropping water." Educated Chinamen inform me
that it is over 3,000 years old and had a weather vane. As they
speak of it as "the clock of the street arch" this would look quite
probable; since the little open building, or tower in which it stands
is higher than surrounding buildings. It is, therefore, reasonably
safe to state that the Chinese had a _weather and time station_
over 1,000 years before our era. It consists of four copper jars
partially built in masonry forming a stair-like structure. Commencing
at the top jar each one drops into the next downward till the water
reaches the solid bottom jar. In this lowest one a float, "the bamboo
stick," is placed and indicates the height of the water and thus in
a rude way gives the time. It is said to be set morning and evening
by dipping the water from jar 4 to jar 1, so it runs 12 hours of
our time. What are the uses of jars 2 and 3, since the water simply
enters them and drips out again? No information could be obtained,
but I venture an explanation and hope the reader can do better, as
we are all of a family and there is no jealousy. When the top jar is
filled for a 12-hour run it would drip out too fast during the first
six hours and too slow during the second six hours, on account of
the varying "head" of water. Now, the spigot of jar 2 could be set
so that it would gain water during the first six hours, and lose
during the second six hours and thus equalize a little by splitting
the error of jar 1 in two parts. Similarly, these two errors of jar 2
could be again split by jar 3 making four small variations in lowest
jar, instead of one large error in the flow of jar 1. This could
be extended to a greater number of jars, another jar making eight
smaller errors, etc., etc. But I am inclined to credit our ancient
Chinese inventor with the sound reasoning that a human attendant,
being very fallible and limited in his capacity, would have all he
could properly do to adjust four jars, and that his record would
average better than it would with a greater number. Remember, this
man lived thousands of years before the modern mathematician who
constructed a bell-shaped vessel with a small hole in the bottom,
and proportioned the varying diameter in such a manner that in
emptying itself the surface of the water sank equal distances in
equal times. The sand glass, Fig. 9, poetically called the "hour
glass," belongs to the water-clock class and the sand flows from one
bulb into the other, but it gives no subdivisions of its period, so
if you are using one running an hour it does not give you the half
hour. The sand glass is still in use by chairmen, and when the oldest
inhabitant gets on his feet, I always advise setting a 20-minute
glass "on him."

[Illustration: Fig. 9--Modern Sand Glass or "Hour Glass"]

[Illustration: Fig. 10--"Tower of the Winds"--Athens, Greece]

In the "Tower of the Winds" at Athens, Greece (Fig. 10), we have a
later "weather bureau" station. It is attributed to the astronomer
Andronicos, and was built about 50 B. C. It is octagonal in plan
and although 27 ft. in diameter and 44 ft. high, it looks like a
sentry box when seen from one of the hills of Athens. It had a
bronze weather vane and in later times sundials on its eight sides,
but all these are gone and the tower itself is only a dilapidated
ruin. In making the drawing for this cut, from a photograph of the
tower, I have sharpened the weathered and chipped corners of the
stones so as to give a view nearly like the structure as originally
built; but nothing is added. Under the eaves it has eight allegorical
sculptures, representing wind and weather. Artists state that
these sculptures are inferior as compared with Grecian art of an
older period. But the most interesting part is inside, and here
we find curious passages cut in solid stone, and sockets which
look as if they had contained metal bearings for moving machinery.
Circumstantial evidence is strong that it contained a complicated
water clock which could have been kept running with tolerable
accuracy by setting it daily to the dials on the outside. Probably
during a few days of cloudy weather the clock would "get off quite a
little," but business was not pressing in those days. Besides, the
timekeeper would swear by his little water wheel, anyway, and feel
safe, as there was no higher authority wearing an American watch.

Some very interesting engravings of Japanese clocks and a general
explanation of them, as well as a presentation of the Japanese mental
attitude towards "hours" and their strange method of numbering them
may be expected in the next chapter.




CHAPTER II

JAPANESE CLOCKS

 Chinese and Japanese divisions of the day. -- Hours of varying
 length. -- Setting clocks to length of daylight. -- Curved line
 dials. -- Numbering hours backwards and strange reasons for
 same. -- Daily names for sixty day period. -- Japanese clock
 movements practically Dutch. -- Japanese astronomical clock. --
 Decimal numbers very old Chinese. -- Original vertical dials
 founded on "bamboo stick" of Chinese clepsydra. -- Mathematics
 and superstition. -- Mysterious disappearance of hours 1, 2, 3.
 -- Eastern mental attitude towards time. -- Japanese methods of
 striking hours and half hours.


The ancient methods of dividing day and night in China and Japan
become more hazy as we go backwards and the complications grow. The
three circles in Fig. 1 (Chapter I) are all taken from Japanese
clocks, but the interpretation has been obtained from Chinese and
Japanese scholars. The Japanese obtained a great deal from the
Chinese, in fact nearly everything relating to the ancient methods of
time keeping and the compiling of calendars. I have not been able to
find any Chinese clocks constructed of wheels and pinions, but have a
number of Japanese. These have a distinct resemblance to the earlier
Dutch movements, and while made in Japan, they are practically Dutch,
so far as the "works" are concerned, but it is easy to see from the
illustrations that they are very Japanese in style and ornamentation.
The Dutch were the leaders in opening Japan to the European nations
and introduced modern mathematics and clocks from about 1590 A. D.
The ancient mathematics of Japan came largely from China through
Corea. In Fig. 11 are given the Japanese figures beside ours, for the
reader's use as a key. The complete day in Japan was divided into
twice six hours; that is, six for daylight and six for night, and
the clocks are set, as the days vary in length, so that six o'clock
is sunrise and sunset. The hour numerals on Fig. 12 are on little
plates which are movable, and are shown set for a long day and a
short night.

[Illustration: Fig. 11]

[Illustration: Fig. 12 Fig. 13.

Japanese Dials Set for Long and Short Days]

In Fig. 13 they are set for short days and long nights. The narrow
plates shown in solid black are the half-hour marks. In this type
the hand is stationary and always points straight upward. The dial
rotates, as per arrow, once in a full day. This style of dial is
shown on complete clocks, Fig. 14 being a weight clock and Fig. 15 a
spring clock with chain and fusee. The hours are 9 to 4 and the dials
rotate to make them read backwards. The six hours of daylight are 6,
5, 4, 9, 8, 7, 6 and the same for night, so these hours average twice
as long as ours. Note that nine is mid-day and mid-night, and as
these do not change by long and short days they are stationary on the
dial, as you can easily see by comparing Figs. 12 and 13, which are
the same dial set for different seasons. Between these extremes the
dial hours are set as often as the owner wishes; so if he happens to
correspond with our "time crank" he will set them often and dispute
with his neighbors about the time. Figure 16 shows a clock with the
hour numerals on a vertical series of movable plates and it is set
for uniform hours when day and night are equal at the equinox. The
ornamental pointer is fastened to the weight through the vertical
slit, plainly visible in illustration, and indicates the time as it
descends. This clock is wound up at sunset, so the six on the top of
the dial is sunset the same as the six on the bottom. Figure 17 shows
how this type of dial is set for long and short days and explains
itself, but will become plainer as we proceed. This dial is virtually
a continuation of the old method of marking time by the downward
motion of the water in the clepsydras and will be noticed later.

[Illustration: Fig. 14--Japanese Striking Clock with Weight and Short
Pendulum]

[Illustration: Fig. 15--Japanese Striking Clock with Spring, Fusee and
Balance]

Figure 18 represents a clock which is a work of art and shows great
refinement of design in providing for the varying lengths of days.
The bar lying across the dial is fastened to the weight through the
two slits running the whole length of the dial. On this cross bar
is a small pointer, which is movable by the fingers, and may be set
to any one of the thirteen vertical lines. The numerous characters
on the top space of dial indicate the dates on which the pointer is
to be set. This clock is wound up at sunset, and it is easy to see
that as the little pointer is set towards the right, the night hours
at the top of the dial become shorter and the day hours longer on
the lower part. The left edge of the dial gives the hours, reading
downwards, and as the pointer touches any one of the curved lines the
hour is read at the left-hand end. The curved lines formed of dots
are the half-hours. The right-hand edge of the dial has the "twelve
horary characters" which will be explained later. For dividing the
varying days into six hours' sunshine it would be difficult to
think of a more artistic and beautiful invention than this. It is
a fine example of great ingenuity and constant trouble to operate
a system which is fundamentally wrong according to our method of
uniform hours at all seasons. Clocks having these curved lines for
the varying lengths of days--and we shall find them on circular dials
as we go on--must be made for a certain latitude, since the days vary
more and more as you go farther from the equator. This will become
plain when you are reminded that a Japanese clock at the equator
would not need any adjustment of hour numerals, because the days and
nights are equal there all the year. So after such infinite pains in
forming these curved lines the clock is only good in the latitude
for which it was made and must not be carried north or south! Our
clocks are correct from pole to pole, but all clocks must be set to
local time if they are carried east or west. As this is a rather
fascinating phase of the subject it might be worth pointing out that
if you go north till you have the sun up for a month in the middle
of summer--and there are people living as far up as that--the Japanese
system would become absurd and break down; so there is no danger of
any of our polar expeditions carrying Japanese clocks.

[Illustration: Fig. 16--Japanese Clock with Vertical Dial, Weight and
Balance.]

[Illustration: Fig. 17--Japanese Vertical Dials]

[Illustration: Fig. 18--Japanese Clock with Vertical Dial Having
Curved Lines, Weight and Balance.]

Figure 19 shows a very fine clock in which the dial is stationary and
the hand moves just as on our dials. This hour hand corresponds to
the single hand of the old Dutch clocks. When the Japanese reached
the point of considering the application of minute and second hands
to their clocks they found that these refinements would not fit their
old method and they were compelled to lay aside their clocks and
take ours. On this dial, Fig. 19, nine is noon, as usual, and is on
top side of dial. Hand points to three quarters past _seven_, that
is, a quarter to _six_, near sunset. Between the bell and the top of
the clock body two horizontal balances, having small weights hung on
them, are plainly shown, and the clock has two verge escapements--one
connected with each balance, or "foliot." Let us suppose a long
day coming to a close at sunset, just as the hand indicates. The
upper balance, which is the slow one, has been swinging backwards
and forwards measuring the long hours of the day. When the clock
strikes six, at sunset, the top balance is thrown out of action and
the lower one, which is the fast one, is thrown into action and
measures the short night hours. At sunrise this is thrown out and
the top one in again to measure the next day's long hours. As the
days vary in length, the balances, or foliots, can be made to swing
faster or slower by moving the weights inwards or outwards a notch
or two. The balance with small weights for regulation is the oldest
known and was used in connection with the verge escapement, just
as in this clock, by the Dutch about 1364. All the evidence I can
find indicates that the Japanese clocks are later than this date. In
design, ornamentation and methods for marking varying days, however,
the Japanese have shown great artistic taste and inventiveness.
It is seen that this dial in addition to the usual six hours,
twice over, has on the outside circle of dial, the "twelve horary
branches" called by the Japanese the "twelve honorary branches," thus
indicating the whole day of twelve Japanese hours, six of them for
day and six for night. By this means they avoided repeating the same
hours for day and night. When it is pointed out that these "twelve
horary branches" are very old Chinese, we are not in a position to
boast about our twenty-four hour system, because these branches
indicate positively whether any given hour is day or night. When we
print a time table in the twenty-four hour system so as to get rid
of our clumsy A. M. and P. M., we are thousands of years behind the
Chinese. More than that, for they got the matter right without any
such pressure as our close running trains have brought to bear on
us. These branches have one syllable names and the "ten celestial
stems" have also one syllable names, all as shown on Fig. 20. Refer
now to Fig. 21 where two disks are shown, one having the "twelve
horary branches" and the other the "ten celestial stems." These disks
are usually put behind the dial so that one "branch" and one "stem"
can be seen at the same time through two openings. The clock moves
these disks one step each night, so that a new pair shows each day.
Running in this manner, step by step, you will find that it takes
sixty moves, that is sixty days, to bring the same pair around again.
Each has a single syllable name, as shown on Fig. 20, and we thus get
sixty names of two syllables by reading them together to the left.
The two openings may be seen in the dials of Figs. 15 and 19. So the
Japanese know exactly what day it is in a period of sixty which they
used in their old calendars. These were used by the Chinese over four
thousand years ago as the names of a cycle of sixty years, called the
"sexagenary." The present Chinese year 4606 is YU-KI which means the
year 46 of the 76th "sexagenary." That is, 76×60+46 = 4,606. In Fig.
20, we read TSU-KIAH, or the first year. If you will make two disks
like Fig. 21 and commence with TSU-KIAH and move the two together
you will come to YU-KI on the 46th move. But there is another way
which you might like better, thus: Write the twelve "branches,"
or syllables, straight downwards, continuously five times; close
to the right, write the ten "stems" six times. Now you have sixty
words of two syllables and the 46th, counting downwards, will be
YU-KI. Besides, this method gives you the whole sixty names of the
"sexagenary" at one view. Always read _left_, that is, pronounce the
"stem" syllable first.

[Illustration: Fig. 19--Japanese Striking Clock with Two Balances and
Two Escapements; Dial Stationary, Hand Moves]

Calendars constitute a most interesting and bewildering part of time
measuring. We feel that we have settled the matter by determining
the length of the year to within a second of time, and keeping the
dates correctly to the nearest day by a leap year every fourth and
every fourth century, established by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582, and
known as the "Gregorian Calendar." In simple words, our "almanac" is
the "Gregorian." We are in the habit of saying glibly that any year
divisible by four is a leap year, but this is far from correct. Any
year leaving out the _even hundreds_, which is divisible by four
is a leap year. _Even hundreds_ are leap when divisible by four.
This explains why 1900 was a common year, because _19 hundreds_ is
not divisible by four; 2000 will be a leap because _20 hundreds_
is divisible by four; therefore 2100, 2200 and 2300 will be common
years and 2400 a leap, etc., to 4000 which must be made common, to
keep things straight, in spite of the fact that it is divisible by
four both in its hundreds and thousands. But for practical purposes,
during more than two thousand years to come, we may simplify the
rule to: _Years_ and _even hundreds_ divisible by four are leaps.
But great confusion still exists as a result of several countries
holding to their own old methods. The present Chinese year has 384
days, 13 months and 13 full moons. Compared with our 1909 it begins
on January 21st and will end on February 8, 1910. Last year the
China-Japan calendar had 12 months, or moons, but as that is too
short they must put in an extra every thirtieth month. We only allow
the error to reach one day and correct it with our leap years, but
they are not so particular and let the error grow till they require
another "moon." The Old Testament is full of moons, and even with all
our "modernity" our "feasts" and holy days are often "variable" on
account of being mixed up with moons. In Japan the present year is
the 42nd of Meiji, that is, the 42nd of the present Emperor's reign.
The present is the Jewish 5669. These and others of varying lengths
overlap our year in different degrees, so that in trade matters great
confusion exists. The Chinese and Japanese publish a trade almanac
in parallel columns with ours to avoid this. It is easy to say that
we ought to have a uniform calendar all over the world, but the same
remark applies just as much to money, weights, measures, and even to
language itself. Finally, the difficulty consists in the facts that
there are not an even number of days in a year--or in a moon--or moons
in a year. "These many moons" is a survival in our daily speech of
this old method of measuring by moons. Just a little hint as to the
amount of superstition still connected with "new moon" will be enough
to make clear the fact that we are not yet quite so "enlightened" as
we say we are. While our calendar, or almanac, may be considered as
final, we must remember that custom and religion are so mixed up with
the matter in the older countries of the East that they will change
very slowly. Strictly, our "era" is arbitrary and Christian; so we
must not expect nations which had some astronomical knowledge and a
working calendar, thousands of years before us, to change suddenly to
our "upstart" methods.

[Illustration: Fig. 20--Key to "12 Horary Branches" and "10 Celestial
Stems"]

[Illustration: Fig. 21--"12 Horary Branches" and "10 Celestial Stems"
as Used in Clocks]

[Illustration: Fig. 22--Dial of Japanese Astronomical Clock]

In Fig. 22 we have the dial of a very complicated astronomical
clock. This old engraved brass dial did not photograph well, so I
made a copy by hand to get clean lines. Commencing at the centre,
there is a small disk, B, numbered from 1 to 30, giving days of the
moon's age. The moon rises at A and sets at AA, later each day, of
course. Her age is shown by the number she touches on disk B, as
this disk advances on the moon one number each day. Her phases are
shown by the motion of a black disk over her face; so we have here
three motions for the moon, so differentiated as to show _phase_,
_ascension_ and _age_. Still further, as she is represented on the
dial when below the horizon, it can be seen when she will rise, and
"moonlight" parties may be planned. Just outside the moon's course
is an annulus having Japanese numbers 1 to 12, indicating months.
Note the recurring character dividing the months in halves, which
means "middle," and is much used. If you will carefully read these
numbers you will find a character where _one_ would come; this means
"beginning" or "primary" and is often used instead of one. The clock
hand is the heavy arrow and sweeps the dial once in a whole day, same
direction as our clocks. This circle of the months moves along with
the hand, but a little faster, so as to gain one number in a month.
As shown on the figure it is about one week into the sixth month.
Next outward is the broad band having twelve curved lines for the
hours ending outwardly in a ring divided into 100 parts, marked off
in tens by dots. These curved lines are numbered with the Japanese
numerals for hours which you must now be able to read easily. These
hour lines, and the dotted lines for half hours, are really the same
as the similar lines on Fig. 18 which you now understand. As the
hand sweeps the dial daily it automatically moves outward a little
each day, so it shortens the nights and lengthens the days, just as
previously explained for Fig. 18. But there is one difference, for
you will notice that the last night hour, on which the arrow hand
now stands, is longer than the other night hours before it, and that
it is divided into _three_ by the dotted lines. The last day hour,
on the left of dial, is also long and divided into _three_. That is,
while all the dials previously described have equal hours for any
given day, or night, this dial has a _last long hour_ in each case,
divided into three instead of the usual half-hours. This is a curious
and interesting point having its origin long before clocks. In the
early days of the clepsydra in China, a certain time was allowed
to dip up the water from the lowest jar, each morning and evening
about five o'clock of our time, see Fig. 8 (Chapter 1). During this
operation the clepsydra was not marking time, and the oriental
mind evidently considered it in some sense outside of the regular
hours, and like many other things was retained till it appeared
absurdly on the earlier clocks. This wonderful feat of putting an
interval between two consecutive hours has always been impossible to
modern science; yet President Roosevelt performed it easily in his
"constructive" interregnum! Referring to the Canton clepsydra, Fig.
8, we find that the float, or "bamboo stick," was divided into 100
parts. At one season 60 parts for the day and 40 parts for the night,
gradually being changed to the opposite for short days. The day hours
were beaten on a drum and the night hours blown on a trumpet.

Later the hour numerals were made movable on the "bamboo stick."
This is virtually a vertical dial with movable hour plates, so their
idea of time measuring at that date, was of something moving up or
down. This was put on the first clocks by the Japanese; so that the
dial of Fig. 16 is substantially the float of the Chinese clepsydra.
Further, in this "bamboo stick" of 100 parts, we have our present
system of decimal numbers, so we can afford to be a little modest
here too. Before leaving Fig. 22 note the band, or annulus, of stars
which moves with the month circle. I cannot make these stars match
our twelve signs of the Zodiac, but as I have copied them carefully
the reader can try and make order out of them. The extreme outer edge
of the dial is divided into 360 parts, the tens being emphasized, as
in our decimal scales.

As we are getting a little tired of these complicated descriptions,
let us branch off for a few remarks on some curiosities of Eastern
time keeping. They evidently think of an hour as a _period of time_
more specifically than we do. When we say "6 o'clock" we mean a
point of time marked by the striking of the clock. We have no names
for the hour periods. We must say "from 5 to 6" or "between 5 and
6" for an hour period. The "twelfth hour" of the New Testament, I
understand to mean a whole hour ending at sunset; so we are dealing
with an oriental attitude of mind towards time. I think we get that
conception nearly correct when we read of the "middle watch"
and understand it to mean _during_ the middle third of the night.
Secondly, why do the Japanese use no 1, 2, 3 on their dials? These
numbers were sacred in the temples and must not be profaned by use on
clocks, and they mentally deducted these from the clock hours, but
ultimately became accustomed to 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4. Thirdly, why this
reading of the hours backwards? Let us suppose a toiler commencing
at sunrise, or six. When he toiled one hour he felt that there was
one less to come and he called it five. This looks quite logical, for
the diminishing numbers indicated to him how much of his day's toil
was to come. Another explanation which is probably the foundation
of "secondly" and "thirdly" above, is the fact that mathematics and
superstition were closely allied in the old days of Japan. If you
take the numbers 1 to 6, Fig. 23, and multiply them each into the
uncanny "yeng number," or nine, you will find that the last digits,
reading downwards, give 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4. Stated in other words:
When 1 to 6 are multiplied into "three times three" the last figures
are 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, and _1, 2, 3, have disappeared_; so the common
people were filled with fear and awe. Some of the educated, even now,
are mystified by the strange results produced by using three and nine
as factors, and scientific journals often give space to the matter.
We know that these results are produced by the simple fact that nine
is one less than the "radix" of our decimal scale of numbers. Nine is
sometimes called the "indestructible number," since adding the digits
of any of its powers gives an even number of nines. But in those days
it was a mystery and the common people feared the mathematicians, and
I have no doubt the shrewd old fellows took full advantage of their
power over the plebeians. In Japan, mathematics was not cleared of
this rubbish till about 700 A. D.

[Illustration: Fig. 23--Use of "Yeng Number" and Animal Names of
Hours]

On the right-hand side of Fig. 23 are given the animal names of
the hours, so the day and night hours could not be mistaken. In
selecting the _rat_ for night and the _horse_ for day they showed
good taste. Their forenoon was "before horse" and their afternoon
"after horse." Japanese clocks are remarkable for variety. It looks
as if they were always made to order and that the makers, probably
urged by their patrons, made extreme efforts to get in wonderful
motions and symbols relating to astronomy and astrology. Anyone
examining about fifty of them would be likely to conclude that it was
almost hopeless to understand them all. Remember, this is the old
Japanese method. Nearly all the clocks and watches I saw in Japan
were American. It will now be necessary to close this chapter with a
few points on the curious striking of Japanese clocks.

In those like Figs. 14, 15, 19, the bell and hammer can be seen. In
the type of Fig. 16, the whole striking mechanism is in the weight.
In fact, the striking part of the clock is the weight. On each of the
plates, having the hour numerals, Fig. 16, a pin projects inwards and
as the weight containing the striking mechanism, descends, a little
lever touches these and lets off the striking just when the pointer
is on the hour numeral. Keeping this in mind, it is easy to see that
the clock will strike correctly when the hour is indicated by the
pointer, no matter how the hour plates are set for long or short
days. Similar pins project inwards from movable plates on Figs. 12,
13, 14, 15, so they strike correctly as each hour plate comes to the
top just under the point of the fixed hand. In Fig. 19, the striking
is let off by a star wheel just as in old Dutch clocks. Clocks
like Figs. 18-22 do not strike. In all cases the hours are struck
backwards, but the half-hours add another strange feature. The _odd_
numbered hours, 9, 7, 5, are followed by one blow at the half hour;
and the _even_ hours, 8, 6, 4 by two blows, or stated altogether--

 9_{1} 8_{2} 7_{1} 6_{2} 5_{1} 4_{2}.

Here the large figures are the hours and the small ones the
half-hours. Only one bell is used, because there being no one and
two among the hours, the half-hours cannot be mistaken. This is not
all, for you can tell what half hour it is within two hours. For
example, suppose you know approximately that it is somewhere between
9 and 7 and you hear the clock strike 2, then you know it is half
past 8. See the large and small figures above. This is far superior
to our method of one at each half-hour.

By our method the clock strikes _one_ three times consecutively,
between 12 and 2 o'clock and thus mixes up the half hours with one
o'clock. Some interesting methods of striking will be explained in
the third chapter when we deal with modern time keeping.




CHAPTER III

MODERN CLOCKS

 DeVick's clock of 1364. -- Original "verge" escapement. --
 "Anchor" and "dead beat" escapements. -- "Remontoir" clock.
 -- The pendulum. -- Jeweling pallets. -- Antique clock with
 earliest application of pendulum. -- Turkish watches. -- Correct
 designs for public clock faces. -- Art work on old watches. --
 Twenty-four hour watch. -- Syrian and Hebrew hour numerals. --
 Correct method of striking hours and quarters. -- Design for
 twenty-four hour dial and hands. -- Curious clocks. -- Inventions
 of the old clockmakers.

[Illustration: Public Dial by James Arthur Dial of Philadelphia City
Hall Clock

Fig. 24]


Modern clocks commence with De Vick's of 1364 which is the first
unquestioned clock consisting of toothed wheels and containing the
fundamental features of our present clocks. References are often
quoted back to about 1000 A. D., but the words translated "clocks"
were used for bells and dials at that date; so we are forced to
consider the De Vick clock as the first till more evidence is
obtained. It has been pointed out, however, that this clock could
hardly have been invented all at once; and therefore it is probable
that many inventions leading up to it have been lost to history. The
part of a clock which does the ticking is called the "escapement"
and the oldest form known is the "verge," Fig. 25, the date of which
is unknown, but safely 300 years before De Vick. The "foliot" is on
the vertical verge, or spindle, which has the pallets A B. As the
foliot swings horizontally, from rest to rest, we hear one tick, but
it requires two of these single swings, or two ticks, to liberate
one tooth of the escape wheel; so there are twice as many ticks
in one turn of the escape wheel as it has teeth. We thus see that
an escapement is a device in which something moves back and forth
and allows the teeth of an "escape wheel" to escape. While this
escapement is, in some respects, the simplest one, it has always
been difficult to make it plain in a drawing, so I have made an
effort to explain it by making the side of the wheel and its pallet
B, which is nearest the eye, solid black, and farther side and its
pallet A, shaded as in the figure. The wheel moves in the direction
of the arrow, and tooth D is very near escaping from pallet B. The
tooth C on the farther side of wheel is moving left, so it will fall
on pallet A, to be in its turn liberated as the pallets and foliot
swing back and forth. It is easy to see that each tooth of the wheel
will give a little push to the pallet as it escapes, and thus keep
the balance swinging. This escapement is a very poor time-keeper,
but it was one of the great inventions and held the field for about
600 years, that is, from the days when it regulated bells up to the
"onion" watches of our grandfathers. Scattered references in old
writings make it reasonably certain that from about 1,000 to 1,300
bells were struck by machines regulated with this verge escapement,
thus showing that the striking part of a clock is older than the
clock itself. It seems strange to us to say that many of the earlier
clocks were strikers, only, and had no dials or hands, just as if
you turned the face of your clock to the wall and depended on the
striking for the time. Keeping this action of the verge escapement
in mind we can easily understand its application, as made by De
Vick, in Fig. 26, where I have marked the same pallets A B. A tooth
is just escaping from pallet B and then one on the other side of
the wheel will fall on pallet A. Foliot, verge and pallets form one
solid piece which is suspended by a cord, so as to enable it to
swing with little friction. For the purpose of making the motions
very plain I have left out the dial and framework from the drawing.
The wheel marked "twelve hours," and the pinion which drives it, are
both outside the frame, just under the dial, and are drawn in dash
and dot. The axle of this twelve-hour wheel goes through the dial
and carries the hand, which marks hours only. The winding pinion and
wheel, in dotted lines, are inside the frame. Now follow the "great
wheel"--"intermediate"--"escape wheel" and the two pinions, all in
solid lines, and you have the "train" which is the principal part
of all clocks. This clock has an escapement, wheels, pinions, dial,
hand, weight, and winding square. We have only added the pendulum,
a better escapement, the minute and second hands in over 500 years!
The "anchor" escapement, Fig. 27, came about 1680 and is attributed
to Dr. Hooke, an Englishman. It gets its name from the resemblance of
the pallets to the flukes of an anchor. This anchor is connected to
the pendulum and as it swings right and left, the teeth of the escape
wheel are liberated, one tooth for each two swings from rest to rest,
the little push on the pallets A B, as the teeth escape, keeping the
pendulum going. It is astonishing how many, even among the educated,
think that the pendulum drives the clock! The pendulum must always be
driven by some power.

[Illustration: Fig. 25--Verge Escapement]

[Illustration: Fig. 26--De Vick's Clock of 1364]

[Illustration: Fig. 27--Anchor Escapement]

[Illustration: Fig. 28--American Anchor Escapement]

This escapement will be found in nearly all the grandfather clocks in
connection with a seconds pendulum. It is a good time-keeper, runs
well, wears well, stands some rough handling and will keep going
even when pretty well covered with dust and cobwebs; so it is used
more than all the numerous types ever invented. Figure 28 gives the
general American form of the "anchor" which is made by bending a
strip of steel; but it is not the best form, as the acting surfaces
of the pallets are straight. It is, therefore, inferior to Fig. 27
where the acting surfaces are curved, since these curves give an
easier "recoil." This recoil is the slight motion _backwards_ which
the escape wheel makes at each tick. The "dead beat" escapement is
shown in Fig. 29, and is used in clocks of a high grade, generally
with a seconds pendulum. It has no recoil as you can easily see that
the surfaces O O on which the teeth fall, are portions of a circle
around the center P. The beveled ends of these pallets are called the
impulse surfaces, and a tooth is just giving the little push on the
right-hand pallet. It is found in good railroad clocks, watch-makers'
regulators and in many astronomical clocks. These terms are merely
comparative, a "regulator" being a good clock and an "astronomical,"
an extra good one. Figure 30 gives the movement of a "remontoir"
clock in which the dead beat shown is used. The upper one of the
three dials indicates seconds, and the lever which crosses its center
carries the large wheel on the left.

[Illustration: Fig. 29--Dead Beat Escapement]

[Illustration: Fig. 31--Remontoir Clock by James Arthur]

[Illustration: Fig. 30--Remontoir Clock Movement]

This wheel makes the left end of the lever heavier than the right,
and in sinking it drives the clock for one minute, but at the
sixtieth second it "remounts" by the action of the clock weight;
hence the name, "remontoir." Note here that the big weight does
not directly drive the clock; it only rewinds it every minute. The
minutes are shown on the dial to the right and its hand jumps forward
one minute at each sixtieth second as the lever remounts; so if you
wish to set your watch to this clock the proper way is to set it to
the even minute "on the jump." The hour hand is on the dial to the
left. By this remounting, or rewinding, the clock receives the same
amount of driving force each minute. The complete clock is shown
in Fig. 31, the large weight which does the rewinding each minute
being plainly visible. The pendulum is compensated with steel and
aluminum, so that the rate of the clock may not be influenced by hot
and cold weather. Was built in 1901 and is the only one I can find
room for here. It is fully described in "Machinery," New York, for
Nov., 1901. I have built a considerable number, all for experimental
purposes, several of them much more complicated than this one, but
all differing from clocks for commercial purposes. Pallets like O
O in Fig. 29 are often made of jewels; in one clock I used agates
and in another, running thirteen months with one winding, I used
pallets jeweled with diamonds. This is done to avoid friction and
wear. Those interested in the improvement of clocks are constantly
striving after light action and small driving weights. Conversely,
the inferior clock has a heavy weight and ticks loud. The "gravity
escapement" and others giving a "free" pendulum action would require
too much space here, so we must be satisfied with the few successful
ones shown out of hundreds of inventions, dozens of them patented.
The pendulum stands at the top as a time measurer and was known to
the ancients for measuring short periods of time just as musicians
now use the metronome to get regular beats. Galileo is credited with
noticing its regular beats, but did not apply it to clocks, although
his son made a partially successful attempt. The first mathematical
investigation of the pendulum was made by Huyghens about 1670, and
he is generally credited with applying it to clocks, so there is a
"Huyghens" clock with a pendulum instead of the foliot of De Vick's.
Mathematically, the longer and heavier the pendulum the better is
the time-keeping, but nature does not permit us to carry anything to
the extreme; so the difficulty of finding a tower high enough and
steady enough, the cumbersomeness of weight, the elasticity of the
rod, and many other difficulties render very long and heavy pendulums
impracticable beyond about 13 ft. which beats once in two seconds.
"Big Ben" of Westminster, London, has one of this length weighing 700
lb. and measuring, over all, 15 ft.

It runs with an error under one second a week. This is surpassed
only by some of the astronomical clocks which run sometimes two
months within a second. This wonderful timekeeping is done with
seconds pendulums of about 39 in., so the theoretical advantage of
long pendulums is lost in the difficulties of constructing them.
Fractions are left out of these lengths as they would only confuse
the explanations. At the Naval observatory in Washington, D. C.,
the standard clocks have seconds pendulums, the rods of which are
nickel steel, called "Invar," which is little influenced by changes
of temperature. These clocks are kept in a special basement, so
they stand on the solid earth. The clock room is kept at a nearly
uniform temperature and each clock is in a glass cylinder exhausted
to about half an atmosphere. They are electric remontoirs, so no
winding is necessary and they can be kept sealed up tight in their
glass cylinders. Nor is any adjustment of their pendulums necessary,
or setting of the hands, as the correction of their small variations
is effected by slight changes in the air pressure within the glass
cylinders. When a clock runs fast they let a little air into its
cylinder to raise the resistance to the pendulum and slow it down,
and the reverse for slow. Don't forget that we are now considering
variations of less than a second a week.

The clock room has double doors, so the outer one can be shut before
the inner one is opened, to avoid air currents. Visitors are not
permitted to see these clocks because the less the doors are opened
the better; but the Commander will sometimes issue a special permit
and detail a responsible assistant to show them, so if you wish
to see them you must prove to him that you have a head above your
shoulders and are worthy of such a great favor.

[Illustration: Fig. 32--Antique Clock, Entirely Hand-Made]

[Illustration: Fig. 33--Antique Clock, Entirely Hand-Made]

[Illustration: Fig. 34--Triple-Case Turkish Watches]

The best thing the young student could do at this point would be
to grasp the remarkable fact that the clock is not an old machine,
since it covers only the comparatively short period from 1364 to the
present day. Compared with the period of man's history and inventions
it is of yesterday. Strictly speaking, as we use the word clock, its
age from De Vick to the modern astronomical is only about 540 years.
If we take the year 1660, we find that it represents the center of
modern improvements in clocks, a few years before and after that date
includes the pendulum, the anchor and dead beat escapements, the
minute and second hands, the circular balance and the hair spring,
along with minor improvements. Since the end of that period, which
we may make 1700, no fundamental invention has been added to clocks
and watches. This becomes impressive when we remember that the last
200 years have produced more inventions than all previous known
history--but only minor improvements in clocks! The application
of electricity for winding, driving, or regulating clocks is not
fundamental, for the timekeeping is done by the master clock with
its pendulum and wheels, just as by any grandfather's clock 200
years old. This broad survey of time measuring does not permit us to
go into minute mechanical details. Those wishing to follow up the
subject would require a large "horological library"--and Dr. Eliot's
five-foot shelf would be altogether too short to hold the books.

A good idea of the old church clocks may be obtained from Fig.
32 which is one of my valued antiques. Tradition has followed it
down as the "English Blacksmith's Clock." It has the very earliest
application of the pendulum. The pendulum, which I have marked by a
star to enable the reader to find it, is less than 3 in. long and
is hung on the verge, or pallet axle, and beats 222 per minute.
This clock may be safely put at 250 years old, and contains nothing
invented since that date. Wheels are cast brass and all teeth
laboriously filed out by hand. Pinions are solid with the axles, or
"staffs," and also filed out by hand. It is put together, generally
by mortise, tenon and cotter, but it has four original screws all
made by hand with the file. How did he thread the holes for these
screws? Probably made a tap by hand as he made the screws. But the
most remarkable feature is the fact that no lathe was used in forming
any part--all staffs, pinions and pivots being filed by hand. This is
simply extraordinary when it is pointed out that a little dead center
lathe is the simplest machine in the world, and he could have made
one in less than a day and saved himself weeks of hard labor. It is
probable that he had great skill in hand work and that learning to
use a lathe would have been a great and tedious effort for him. So we
have a complete striking clock made by a man so poor that he had only
his anvil, hammer and file. The weights are hung on cords as thick
as an ordinary lead pencil and pass over pulleys having spikes set
around them to prevent the cords from slipping. The weights descend
7 ft. in 12 hours, so they must be pulled up--not wound up--twice a
day. The single hour hand is a work of art and is cut through like
lace. Public clocks may still be seen in Europe with only one hand.
Many have been puzzled by finding that old, rudely made clocks often
have fine dials, but this is not remarkable when we state that art
and engraving had reached a high level before the days of clocks.
It is worthy of note that clocks in the early days were generally
built in the form of a church tower with the bell under the dome
and Figs. 32, 33 show a good example. It is highly probable that the
maker of this clock had access to some old church clock--a wonderful
machine in those days--and that he laboriously copied it. It strikes
the hours, only, by the old "count wheel" or "locking plate" method.
Between this and our modern clocks appeared a type showing quarter
hours on a small dial under the hour dial. No doubt this was at that
time a great advance and looked like cutting time up pretty fine. As
the hand on the quarter dial made the circuit in an hour the next
step was easy, by simply dividing the circle of quarters into sixty
minutes. The old fellows who thought in hours must have given it up
at this point, so the seconds and fifths seconds came easily.

[Illustration: Fig. 35--Triple-Case Turkish Watch]

[Illustration: Fig. 36--Double-Case Watch of Repoussé Work]

The first watches, about 1500, had the foliot and verge escapement,
and in some early attempts to govern the foliot a hog's bristle was
used as a spring. By putting a ring around the ends of the foliot
and adding the hair spring of Dr. Hooke, about 1640, we have the
verge watches of our grandfathers. This balance wheel and hair spring
stand today, but the "lever" escapement has taken the place of the
verge. It is a modification of the dead beat, Fig. 29, by adding
a lever to the anchor, and this lever is acted on by the balance,
hence the name "lever watch." All this you can see by opening your
watch, so no detailed explanation is necessary. Figure 34 shows two
triple-cased Turkish watches with verge escapements, the one to the
left being shown partly opened in Fig. 35. The watch with its inner
case, including the glass, is shown to the right. This inner case
is complete with two hinges and has a winding hole in the back. The
upper case, of "chased" work, goes on next, and then the third, or
outer case, covered with tortoise shell fastened with silver rivets,
goes on outside the other two. When all three cases are opened and
laid on the table, they look like a heap of oyster shells, but they
go easily together, forming the grand and dignified watch shown to
the left in Fig. 34. Oliver Cromwell wore an immense triple-case
watch of this kind, and the poor plebeians who were permitted to
examine such a magnificent instrument were favored!

[Illustration: Fig. 37--Watches Showing Art Work]

[Illustration: Fig. 38--Watch Showing Dutch Art Work]

[Illustration: Fig. 39--Antique Watch Cock]

[Illustration: Fig. 40--"Chinese" Watch]

Our boys' watches costing one dollar keep much better time than this
type of watch. Comparing the Syrian dial, Fig. 42, with that on
Fig. 35, it is evident that the strange hour numerals on both are a
variation of the same characters. These, so-called, "Turkish watches"
were made in Europe for the Eastern trade. First-class samples of
this triple-case type are getting scarce, but I have found four, two
of them in Constantinople. Figure 36 shows the double-case style,
called "pair cases," the outer case thin silver, the figures and
ornaments being hammered and punched up from the inside and called
"repoussé." Before we leave the old watches, the question of art work
deserves notice, for it looks as if ornamentation and time-keeping
varied inversely in those days--the more art the worse the watch. I
presume, as they could not make a good time-keeper at that date, the
watch-maker decided to give the buyer something of great size and
style for his money. In Fig. 37 four old movements are shown, and
there is no doubt about the art, since the work is purely individual
and no dies or templates used. In examining a large number of these
watches, I have never found the art work on any two of them alike.
Note the grotesque faces in these, and in Fig. 39 which is a fine
example of pierced, engraved work. Figure 38 is a fine example of
pierced work with animals and flowers carved in relief. Figure 40
is a "Chinese" watch but made in Europe for the Chinese market. In
Fig. 41 we have what remains of a quarter repeater with musical
attachment. Each of the 24 straight gongs, commencing with the
longest one, goes a little nearer the center of the large wheel,
so a circle of pins is set in the wheel for each gong, or note,
and there is plenty of room for several tunes which the wearer can
set off at pleasure. Figure 43 is a modern watch with Hebrew hour
numerals. Figure 44 is a modern 24-hour watch used on some railroads
and steamship lines. I have a pretty clean-cut recollection of one
event in connection with the 24-hour system, as I left Messina
between 18 and 19 o'clock on the night of the earthquake! Dials and
hands constitute an important branch of the subject. The general
fault of hands is that they are too much alike; in many instances
they are the same, excepting that the minute hand is a little longer
than the hour. The dial shown on the left of Fig. 24 was designed by
me for a public clock and can be read twice as far away as the usual
dial. Just why we should make the worst dials and hands for public
clocks in the United States is more than I can find out, for there
is no possible excuse, since the "spade and pointer" hands have been
known for generations. Figure 45 is offered as a properly designed
dial for watches and domestic clocks, having flat-faced Gothic
figures of moderate height, leaving a clear center in the dial, and
the heavy "spade" hour hand reaching only to the inner edges of the
figures. For public clocks the Arabic numerals are the worst, for at
a distance they look like twelve thumb marks on the dial; while the
flat-faced Roman remain distinct as twelve clear marks.

[Illustration: Fig. 41--Musical Watch, Repeating Hours and Quarters]

Do you know that you do not read a public clock by the figures, but
by the position of the hands? This was discovered long ago. Lord
Grimthorp had one with twelve solid marks on the dial and also speaks
of one at the Athenæum Club, both before 1860. The Philadelphia City
Hall clock has dials of this kind as shown on right side of Fig. 24.
It has also good hands and can be read at a great distance. Very few
persons, even in Philadelphia, know that it has no hour numerals on
its dials. Still further, there is no clock in the tower, the great
hands being moved every minute by air pressure which is regulated by
a master clock set in a clock room down below where the walls are 10
ft. thick. Call and see this clock and you will find that the City
Hall officials sustain the good name of Philadelphia for politeness.
Generally, we give no attention to the hour numerals, even of our
watches, as the following proves. When you have taken out your watch
and looked at the time, for yourself, and put it back in your pocket,
and when a friend asks the time you take it out again to find the
time for him! Why? Because, for yourself, you did not read hours and
minutes, but only got a mental impression from the position of the
hands; so we only read hours and minutes when we are called on to
proclaim the time.

[Illustration: Fig. 42--Syrian Dial]

We must find a little space for striking clocks. The simplest is one
blow at each hour just to draw attention to the clock. Striking the
hours and also one blow at each half hour as well as the quarter
double blow, called "ting tong" quarters, are too well known to need
description. The next stage after this is "chiming quarters" with
three or more musical gongs, or bells. One of the best strikers I
have has three trains, three weights and four bells. It strikes
the hour on a large bell and two minutes after the hour it strikes
it again, so as to give you another chance to count correctly. At
the first quarter it repeats the last hour followed by a musical
chord of three bells, which we will call _one triple blow_: at the
second quarter the hour again and two triple blows and at the third
quarter, the hour again and three triple blows. Suppose a sample
hour's striking from four o'clock, this is what you hear, and there
can be no mistake. "Four" and in two minutes "four"--"four and one
quarter"--"four and two quarters"--"four and three quarters," and the
same for all other hours. This is definite, for the clock proclaims
the hour, or the hour and so much past. It can be set silent, but
that only stops it from striking automatically, and whether so set
or not, it will repeat by pulling a cord. You awake in the night
and pull the cord, and then in mellow musical tones, almost as if
the clock were speaking, you hear--"four and two quarters." This I
consider a perfect striking clock. It is a large movement of fine
workmanship and was made in the department of the Jura, France.
When a clock or watch only repeats, I consider the old "five-minute
repeater" the best. I used this method in a clock which, on pulling
the cord, strikes the hour on a large bell and if that is all it
strikes, then it is less than five minutes past. If more than five
minutes past it follows the hour by one blow on a small bell for
every five minutes. This gives the time within five minutes. It is
fully described and illustrated in "Machinery," New York, for March,
1905. Just one more. An old Dutch clock which I restored strikes the
hour on a large bell; at the first quarter it strikes one blow on a
small bell; at the half hour it strikes the last hour over again on
the small bell; at the third quarter it strikes one blow on the large
bell. But this in spite of its great ingenuity, only gives definite
information at the hour and half hour.

[Illustration: Fig. 43--Hebrew Numerals]

[Illustration: Fig. 44--24-Hour Watch]

Of curious clocks there is no end, so I shall just refer to one
invented by William Congreve, an Englishman, over one hundred years
ago, and often coming up since as something new. A plate about 8 in.
long and 4 in. wide has a long zigzag groove crosswise. This plate
is pivoted at its center so either end can be tipped up a little.
A ball smaller than a boy's marble will roll back and forth across
this plate till it reaches the lower end, at which point it strikes
a click and the mainspring of the clock tips the plate the other way
and the ball comes slowly back again till it strikes the disk at the
other end of the plate, etc. Every time the plate tips, the hands
are moved a little just like the remontoir clock already described.
Clocks of this kind are often used for deceptive purposes and those
ignorant of mechanics are deceived into the belief that they see
perpetual motion. The extent to which modern machine builders are
indebted to the inventions of the ancient clock-maker, I think, has
never been appreciated.

[Illustration: Fig. 45--Domestic Dial by James Arthur]

In its earlier stages the clock was almost the only machine
containing toothed gearing, and the "clock tooth" is still necessary
in our delicate machines. It is entirely different from our standard
gear tooth as used in heavy machines. The clock-makers led for a
long time in working steel for tools, springs and wearing surfaces.
They also made investigations in friction, bearings, oils, etc.,
etc. Any one restoring old clocks for amusement and pleasure will
be astonished at the high-class mechanics displayed in them--nearly
always by unknown inventors. Here is an example: The old clock-maker
found that when he wished to drill a hole in a piece of thick wire
so as to make a short tube of it, he could only get the hole central
and straight by rotating the piece and holding the drill stationary.
By this method the drill tends to follow the center line of
rotation; and our great guns as well as our small rifles are bored
just that way to get bores which will shoot straight. The fourth and
last chapter will deal with the astronomical motions on which our
time-keeping is founded, our present hour zones of time, and close
with suggestions for a universal time system over the whole world.




CHAPTER IV

ASTRONOMICAL FOUNDATION OF TIME

 Astronomical motions on which our time is founded. -- Reasons
 for selecting the sidereal day as a basis for our 24-hour
 day. -- Year of the seasons shorter than the zodiacal year. --
 Precession of the equinoxes. -- Earth's rotation most uniform
 motion known to us. -- Time Stars and Transits. -- Local time.
 -- The date line. -- Standard time. -- Beginning and ending of
 a day. -- Proposed universal time. -- Clock dial for universal
 time and its application to business. -- Next great improvement
 in clocks and watches indicated. -- Automatic recording of
 the earth's rotation. -- Year of the seasons as a unit for
 astronomers. -- General conclusions.


The mystery of time encloses all things in its folds, and our grasp
of its infinite bearings is measured by our limitations. As there
are no isolated facts in the Universe, we can never get to the end
of our subject; so we know only what we have capacity to absorb.
In considering the foundation on which all our time measuring
is based, we are led into the fringe of that Elysian field of
science--astronomy. A science more poetical than poetry--more charming
than the optimistic phantasies of youth. That science which leaves
our imagination helpless; for its facts are more wonderful than our
extremest mental flights. The science of vastness and interminable
distances which our puny figures fail to express. "The stars sang
together for joy," might almost be placed in the category of facts;
while the music of the spheres may now be considered a mathematical
reality. Our time keeping is inevitably associated with these
motions, and we must select one which has periods not too long. That
is, no _continuous_ motion could be used, unless it passed some
species of milestones which we could observe. Consequently, our
clocks do not--in the strict sense--measure time; but are adjusted
to _divide_ periods which they do not determine. We are constantly
correcting their errors and never entirely succeed in getting them
to run accurately to _periods of time_ which exist entirely outside
of such little things as men and clocks. So a clock is better as it
approximates or bears a regular _relation_ to some motion in nature.
The sidereal clock of the astronomer _does_ run to a regular motion;
but our 24-hour clocks _do not_, as we shall see later. Now consider
the year, or the sun's apparent motion in the Zodiac, from any given
star around to the same one again. This is altogether too long to be
divided by clocks, as we cannot make a clock which could be depended
on for anywhere near a year. The next shorter period is that of a
"moon." This is also a little too long, is not easily observed, and
requires all sorts of corrections. Observations of the moon at sea
are so difficult and subject to error that mariners use them only
as a last resort. If a little freedom of language is permissible, I
would say that the moon has a bad character all around, largely on
account of her long association with superstition, false theology
and heathen feasts. She has not purged herself even to this day!
The ancients were probably right when they called erratic and
ill-balanced persons "luny." Now we come to the day and find that it
is about the right practical length--but what kind of a day? As there
are five kinds we ought to be able to select one good enough. They
are:--

 1st. The solar day, or noon to noon by the sun.

 2nd. An imaginary sun moving uniformly in the ecliptic.

 3rd. A second imaginary sun moving uniformly parallel to the
 equator at all seasons of the year.

 4th. One absolute rotation of the earth.

 5th. One rotation of the earth measured from the node, or
 point, of the spring equinox.

The difference between 1st and 2nd is that part of the sun's error
due to the elliptical orbit of the earth.

The other part of the sun's error--and the larger--between 2nd and 3rd
is that due to the obliquity of the ecliptic to the equator.

The whole error between 1st and 3rd is the "equation of time" as
shown for even minutes in the first chapter under the heading, "Sun
on Noon Mark 1909."

Stated simply, for our present purpose, 1st is sundial time, and 3rd
our 24-hour clock time.

This 2nd day is therefore a refinement of the astronomers to
separate the two principal causes of the sun's error, and I think we
ought to handle it cautiously, or my friend, Professor Todd, might
rap us over the knuckles for being presumptuous.

This 5th day is the sidereal day of the astronomers and is the basis
of our time, so it is entitled to a little attention. I shall confine
"sidereal day" to this 5th to avoid confusion with 4th. If you will
extend the plane of the equator into the star sphere, you have the
celestial equator. When the center of the sun passes through this
plane on his journey north, in the Spring, we say, "the sun has
crossed the line." This is a distant point in the Zodiac which can
be determined for any given year by reference to the fixed stars. To
avoid technicalities as much as possible we will call it the point
of the Spring equinox. This is really the point which determines
the common year, or year of the seasons. Using popular language,
the seasons are marked by four points,--Spring equinox--longest day--;
Autumnal equinox--shortest day. This would be very simple if the
equinoctial points would stay in the same places in the star sphere;
but we find that they creep westward each year to the extent of 50
seconds of arc in the great celestial circle of the Zodiac. This is
called the precession of the equinoxes. The year is measured from
Spring equinox to Spring equinox again; but each year it comes 50
seconds of arc less than a full revolution of the earth around the
sun. Therefore _if we measured our year by a full revolution_ we
would displace the months with reference to the seasons till the
hot weather would come in January and the cold weather in July in
about 13,000 years; or a complete revolution of the seasons back to
where we are, in 26,000 years. Leaving out fractions to make the
illustration plain, we have:--

 (1) 360 degrees of Zodiac                  }
     ---------------------   = 26,000 years }
       50 seconds of arc                    }
                                            }
 (2) 1 day of time                          }
     -------------           = 26,000 years }
     3-1/3 seconds                          }     All
                                            } Approximate
 (3) 1 year of time                         }
     --------------          = 26,000 years }
     20-1/3 minutes                         }
                                            }
 (4) 3-1/3 seconds                          }
     -------------       = 1/110 of a second}
     days in a year                         }

In (1) we see that a "precession" of 50 seconds of arc will bring the
Spring equinox around in 26,000 years.

In (2) we see, as 50 seconds of arc represents the distance the earth
will rotate in 3-1/3 seconds, a difference of one day will result
in 26,000 years. That is since the clock regulated by the stars, or
absolute rotations of the earth, would get behind 3-1/3 seconds per
year, it would be behind a day in 26,000 years, as compared with a
sidereal clock regulated by the Spring equinoctial point.

In (3) we see that as 50 seconds of arc is traversed by the earth, in
its annual revolution, in 20-1/3 minutes, a complete circle of the
Zodiac will be made in 26,000 years.

In (4) we see that as the difference between the year of the seasons
and the Zodiacal year is 3-1/3 seconds of the earth's rotation, it
follows that if this is divided by the number of days in a year
we have the amount which a sidereal day is less than 4th, or an
absolute rotation of the earth. That is, any meridian passes the
Spring equinoctial point 1/110 of a second sooner than the time of
one absolute rotation. These four equations are all founded on the
precession of the equinoxes, and are simply different methods of
stating it. Absolutely and finally, our time is regulated by the
earth's rotation; but strange as it may appear, we do not take one
rotation as a unit. As shown above, we take a rotation to a _movable
point_ which creeps the 1/110 of a second daily. But after all, it is
the _uniform_ rotation which governs. This is the one "dependable"
motion which has not been found variable, and is the most easily
observed. When we remember that the earth is not far from being as
heavy as a ball of iron, and that its surface velocity at the equator
is about 17 miles per minute, it is easy to form a conception of its
uniform motion. Against this, however, we may place the friction
of the tides, forcing up of mountain ranges, as well as mining and
building skyscrapers--all tending to slow it. Mathematicians moving in
the ethereal regions of astronomy lead us to conclude that it _must_
become gradually slower, and that _it is_ slowing; but the amount may
be considered a vanishing quantity even compared with the smallest
errors of our finest clocks; so for uncounted generations past--and to
come--we may consider the earth's rotation uniform. Having now found
a uniform motion easily observed and of convenient period, why not
adopt it as our time unit? The answer has been partially given above
in the fact that we are compelled to use a year, measured from the
Spring equinoctial point, so as to keep our seasons in order; and
therefore as we must have some point where the sidereal clocks and
the meantime clocks coincide, we take the same point, and that point
is the Spring equinox. Now we have three days:--

 1st. A sidereal day 1/110 of a second less than one rotation of
 the earth.

 2nd. One rotation of the earth in 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4
 seconds, nearly, of clock time.

 3rd. One mean time clock day of 24 hours, which has been explained
 previously.

Now, isn't it remarkable that our 24-hour day is purely artificial,
and that nothing in nature corresponds to it? Our real day of 24
hours is a _theoretical_ day. Still more remarkable, this theoretical
day is the unit by which we express motions in the solar system. A
lunar month is days--hours--minutes--and seconds of this theoretical
day, and so for planetary motions. And still more remarkable, the
earth's rotation which is _itself_ the foundation is expressed in
this imaginary time! This looks like involution involved, yet our
24-hour day is as real as reality; and the man has not yet spoken who
can tell whether a mathematical conception, sustained in practical
life, is less real than a physical fact. Our legal day of practical
life is therefore deduced from the day of a fraction _less_ than one
earth rotation. In practice, however, the small difference between
this and a rotation is often ignored, because as the tenth of a
second is about as near as observations can be made it is evident
that for single observations 1/110 of a second does not count, but
for a whole year it does, and amounts to 3-1/3 seconds. Now as to
the setting of our clocks. While the time measured by the point of
the Spring equinox is what we must find it is found by noting the
transits of fixed stars, because _the relation_ of star time to
equinoctial time is known and tabulated. Remember we cannot take
a transit of the equinoctial point, because there is nothing to
see, and that _nothing_ is moving! But it can be observed yearly
and astronomers can tell where it is, at any time of the year, by
calculation. The stars which are preferred for observation are
called "time stars" and are selected as near the celestial equator
as possible. The earth's axis has a little wabbling motion called
"nutation" which influences the _apparent_ motion of the stars near
the pole; but this motion almost disappears as they come near the
equator, because nutation gives the plane of the equator only a
little "swashplate" motion. The positions of a number of "time stars"
with reference to the equinoctial point, are known, and these are
observed and the observations averaged. The distance of any time
star from the equinoctial point, _in time_, is called its "right
ascension." Astronomers claim an accuracy to the twentieth part of
a second when such transits are carefully taken, but over a long
period, greater exactness is obtained. Really, the time at which any
given star passes the meridian is taken, _in practical life_, from
astronomical tables in the Nautical Almanacs. Those tables are the
result of the labors of generations of mathematicians, are constantly
subject to correction, and cannot be made simple. Remember, the
Earth's rotation is the only uniform motion, all the others being
subject to variations and even compound variations. This very subject
is the best example of the broad fact that science is a constant
series of approximations; therefore, nothing is exact, and nothing
is permanent but change. But you say that mathematics is an exact
science. Yes, but it is a _logical abstraction_, and is therefore
only the universal solvent in physical science.

With our imaginary--but real--time unit of 24 hours we are now ready
to consider "local time." Keeping the above explanation in mind, we
may use the usual language and speak of the earth rotating in 24
hours clock time; and since motion is relative, it is permissible to
speak of the motion of the sun. In the matter of the sun's apparent
motion we are compelled to speak of his "rising," "setting," etc.,
because language to express the motion in terms of the earth's
rotation has not been invented yet. For these reasons we will assume
that in Fig. 47 the sun is moving as per large arrow and also that
the annulus, half black and half white, giving the 24 hours, is
fastened to the sun by a rigid bar, as shown, and moves around the
earth along with him. In such illustrations the sun must always be
made small in proportion, but this rather tends to plainness. For
simplicity, we assume that the illustration represents an equinox
when the sun is on the celestial equator. Imagine your eye in the
center of the sun's face at A, and you would be looking on the
meridian of Greenwich at 12 noon; then in one hour you would be
looking on 15° west at 12 noon; but this would bring 13 o'clock to
Greenwich. Continue till you look down on New York at 12 noon, then
it is 17 o'clock at Greenwich (leaving out fractions for simplicity)
etc. If you will make a simple drawing like Fig. 47 and cut the
earth separate, just around the inside of the annulus, and stick a
pin at the North Pole for a center, you may rotate the earth as per
small arrow and get the actual motion, but the result will be just
the same as if you went by the big arrow. We thus see that every
instant of the 24 hours is represented, at some point, on the earth.
That is, the earth has an infinity of local times; so it has every
conceivable instant of the 24 hours at some place on the circle.
Suppose we set up 1,410 clocks at uniform distances on the equator,
then they would be about 17 miles apart and differ by minutes. Now
make it 86,400 clocks, they would be 1,500 feet apart and differ by
seconds. With 864,000 clocks they would be 150 feet apart and vary
by tenths of seconds. It is useless to extend this, since you could
always imagine more clocks in the circle; thus establishing the
fact that there are an infinity of times at an infinity of places
always on the earth. It is necessary to ask a little patience here
as I shall use this local time and its failure later in our talk.
Strictly, local time has never been used, because it has been found
impracticable in the affairs of life. This will be plain when we draw
attention to the uniform time of London, which is Greenwich time; yet
the British Museum is 30 seconds slow of Greenwich, and other places
in London even more. This is railroad time for Great Britain; but
it is 20 minutes too fast for the west of England. This led to no
end of confusion and clocks were often seen with two minute hands,
one to local and the other to railroad time. This mixed up method
was followed by "standard time," with which we are all pretty well
acquainted. Simply, standard time consists in a uniform time for each
15° of longitude, but this is theoretical to the extreme, and is not
even approached in practice. The first zone commences at Greenwich
and as that is near the eastern edge of the British Islands, their
single zone time is fast at nearly all places, especially the west
coast of Ireland. When we follow these zones over to the United
States we find an attempt to make the middle of each zone correct to
local time, so at the hour jumping points, we pass from half an hour
slow to half an hour fast, or the reverse. We thus see that towns
about the middle of these four United States zones have sunrise and
sunset and their local day correct, but those at the eastern and
western edges average half an hour wrong. As a consequence of this
disturbance of the working hours depending on the light of the day,
many places keep two sets of clocks and great confusion results. Even
this is comprehensible; but it is a mere fraction of the trouble
and complication, because the hour zones are not separated by
meridians in practice, but by zig-zag lines of great irregularity.
Look at a time map of the United States and you will see the zones
divided by lines of the wildest irregularity. Now question one of
the brightest "scientific chaps" you can find in one of the great
railroad offices whose lines touch, or enter, Canada and Mexico.
Please do not tell me what he said to you! So great is the confusion
that no man understands it all. The amount of wealth destroyed in
printing time tables, _and failing to explain them_, is immense. The
amount of human life destroyed by premature death, as a result of
wear and tear of brain cells is too sad to contemplate. And all by
attempting the impossible; for local time, _even if it was reduced to
hourly periods_ is not compatible with any continental system of time
and matters can only get worse while the attempt continues. For the
present, banish this zone system from your mind and let us consider
the beginning and ending of a day, using strictly local time.

[Illustration: Fig. 47--Local Time--Standard Time--Beginning and
Ending of the Day]

A civil, or legal, day ends at the instant of 24 o'clock, midnight,
and the next day commences. The time is continuous, the last instant
of a day touching the first instant of the next. This is true for
all parts of the earth; but something _in addition_ to this happens
at a certain meridian called the "date line." Refer again to Fig. 47
which is drawn with 24 meridians representing hours. As we are taking
Greenwich for our time, the meridians are numbered from 0°, on which
the observatory of Greenwich stands. When you visit Greenwich you
can have the pleasure of putting your foot on "the first meridian,"
as it is cut plainly across the pavement. Degrees of longitude are
numbered east and west, meeting just opposite at 180°, which is
the "date line." Our day begins at this line, so far as _dates_ are
concerned; but the _local day_ begins everywhere at midnight. Let
us start to go around the world from the date line, westward. When
we arrive at 90° we are one quarter around and it takes the sun 6
hours longer to reach us. At 0° (Greenwich) we are half around and
12 hours ahead of the sun motion. At 90° west, three quarters, or 18
hours, and when back to 180° we have _added_ to the length of all
days of our journey enough to make one day; therefore our date must
be one day behind. Try this example to change the wording:--Let us
start from an island B, just west of the date line. These islanders
have their 24-hour days, commencing at midnight, like all other
places. As we move westward our day commences later and later than
theirs, as shown above. Suppose we arrive at the eastern edge of
the 180° line on Saturday at 12 o'clock, but before we cross it we
call over to the islanders,--what day is it? We would get answer,
"Sunday;" because all our days have been longer, totalling one day in
the circuit of the globe. So if we step over the line at 12 o clock
Saturday, presto, it is 12 o'clock Sunday. It looks like throwing out
24 hours, but this is not so, since we have lived exactly the same
number of hours and seconds as the islanders. In this supposition
we have all the _dates_, however, but have jumped half of Saturday
and half of Sunday, which equals one day. In practice this would not
have been the method, for if the ship was to call at the island, the
captain would have changed date on Friday night and thrown Saturday
out, all in one piece, and would have arrived on their Sunday; so
his log for that week would have contained only 6 days. It is not
necessary to go over the same ground for a circuit of the globe
eastward, but if you do so you will find that you _shorten_ your days
and on arriving at the date line would have a day too much; so in
this case you would _double_ a date and have 8 days in that week. In
both cases this is caused by compounding your motion with that of the
sun; going with him westward and lengthening your days, or eastward
meeting him and shortening them. Figure 47 shows Greenwich noon, we
will say on Monday, and at that instant, Monday only, exists from 0
to 24 o'clock on the earth; but the next instant, Tuesday begins at
180° B. In one hour it is noon of Monday at 15° West, and midnight
at 165° East; so Tuesday is one hour old and there is left 23 hours
of Monday. Monday steadily declines to 0 as Tuesday steadily grows
to 24 hours; so that, except at the instant of Greenwich noon, there
are always two days on the world at once. If we said that there are
_always_ two days on the world at once, we could not be contradicted;
since there is no conceivable time between Monday and Tuesday; it
is an instantaneous change. As we cannot conceive of _no time_,
the statement that there is only one day on the earth at Greenwich
noon is not strictly permissible. Since there are always two days
on the world at once let us suppose that these two are December
31st and January 1st; then we have _two years_ on the world at once
for a period of 24 hours. Nine years ago we had the 19th and 20th
centuries on the world at once, etc. As a mental exercise, you may
carry this as far as you please. Suppose there was an impassable sea
wall built on the 180° meridian, then there would be two days on the
world, just as explained above; but, _practically_, there would be
no date line, since in sailing west to this wall we would "lengthen
our days," and then shorten them the same amount coming around east
to the other side of the wall, but would never jump or double a date.
This explanation is founded, as it ought to be, on uniform local
time, and is the simplest I can give. The date line is fundamentally
simple, but is difficult to explain. When it is complicated by the
standard time--or jumping hour system--and also with the fact that
some islands count their dates from the wrong side of the line for
their longitudes, scientific paradoxes arise, such as having three
dates on the world at once, etc.; but as these things are of no more
value than wasting time solving Chinese puzzles, they are left out.
Ships change date on the nearest night to the date line; but if they
are to call at some island port in the Pacific, they may change
either sooner or later to correspond with its date. Here is a little
Irish date line wit printed for the first time,--I was telling my
bright friend about turning in on Saturday night and getting up for
breakfast on Monday morning. "Oh," said he, "I have known gentlemen
to do as good as that without leaving New York City!"

As what is to follow relates to the growing difficulties of local
time and a proposed method of overcoming them, let us recapitulate:--

 1st. Local time has never been kept, and the difficulties of
 using it have increased as man advanced, reaching a climax of
 absurdity on the advent of the railroad; so it broke down and
 became impractical.

 2nd. To make the irregular disorder of local time an orderly
 confusion, the "standard time"--jumping by hours--has helped a
 little, but only because we can tell how much it is wrong at
 any given place. This is its only advantage over the first
 method, where we had no means of knowing what to expect on
 entering any new territory. That is, we have improved things by
 throwing out local time to the extent of an hour.

My proposal is to throw local time out _totally_ and establish one,
invariable, _universal time_. Greenwich time being most in use now,
and meridians numbered from it, may be taken in preference to any
other. Still another reason is that the most important timekeepers in
modern life--ship's chronometers--are set to Greenwich time. Universal
time--no local time--only local day and night. Our 24-hour system is
all right, so do not disturb it, as it gets rid of A.M. and P.M. and
makes the day our unit of time. Our railroad time now throws out
local time to the extent of one hour; but I propose to throw it out
entirely and never change the clock hands from Greenwich time. The
chronometers do that now, so let us conduct all business to that time.

Now refer to Fig. 46, in which Greenwich is taken as universal time.
The annulus, half white and half black, indicates the average day and
night, and is a separate ring in the dial which can be set so that
"noon" is on the meridian of the place, as shown for four places in
the illustration. It is the same dial in all four cases set to local
day and night. Strictly, the local time conception is dropped and the
local day left for regulating working and sleeping time. All business
would have the same time. In traveling east we would not have the
short hours; or west, the long hours. All clocks and watches would
show the same time as ship's chronometers do now. The only change
would be the names of the hours for the parts of the local day.
This is just the difficulty, for we are so accustomed to _associate_
a certain number, as seven, with the morning and breakfast time.
Suppose breakfast time in London is 7 o'clock, then according to the
local day it would be 12 o'clock breakfast time in New York; but in
both cases it would be the same time with reference to the _local
daylight_. Let it be distinctly understood that our association of
_12 o'clock_ with _noon_ is not necessary. The Japanese called it
"horse" and "nine"--the ancient Romans, the New Testament writers,
and the Turks called it the "sixth hour"--the astronomers now call it
24 o'clock, and the Chinese represent it by several characters; but,
in all cases, it is simply the middle of the day at any place. By
the proposed universal time, morning, noon, and evening would be--_at
any given place_--the same hours. There would be no necessity of
establishing legal noon with exactness to the meridian, because that
would only regulate labor, meals, etc., and would not touch universal
time. This is an important part of the proposal and is worth
elaborating a little. Sections in manufacturing districts could make
their working hours correspond at pleasure and no confusion would
result. That is, local working hours to convenience but by the same
universal time. Note how perfectly this would work in traveling,--you
arrive in Chicago from the effete east and your watch corresponds
all along with the railroad clocks. As you leave the station you
glance up at the clock and see that Chicago noon is 17.30, so you
set the day and night ring of your watch to match the same ring on
the clock, but no disturbance of the hands. As you register at the
hotel you ask,--dinner? and get answer, 24.30--then breakfast, 12.30.
These questions are necessary now, so I do not add complication
here. When you arrive in a strange city you must ask about meals,
business hours, theater hours, "doors open" hours, etc., etc.; so
all this remains the same. Let us put the matter forcibly,--while we
count days, or _dates_, _something_ must vary with east and west;
I propose the fixing of hours for business and sleep to suit each
locality, but an invariable time. Get rid of the idea that a certain
number, as 7 o'clock, represents the age of the day _at all places_.
See how this would wipe out the silly proposal to "save daylight"
by setting the clock back and forward. Suppose workmen commenced at
12.30 in New York; for the long summer days make it 11.30, but no
change in universal time. As this is the only difference from our
present time system, keep the central conception, firmly,--universal
time--local day and night.

[Illustration: Fig. 46--Universal Time Dial Set for Four Places]

Suppose Chicago decided that "early to bed and early to rise" was
desirable; then it could establish its legal noon as 17.30, which
would be about 20 minutes early for its meridian. You could do
business with Chicago for a lifetime and not find this out, unless
you looked up the meridian of Chicago and found that it was 17.50
o'clock. None of the railroads or steamship lines of the city would
need to know this, except as a matter of scientific curiosity,
for the time tables would all be printed in universal time. For
hiring labor, receiving and delivering goods, etc., they would
only need to know Chicago _business hours_. To state the matter in
different words,--Chicago would only need to decide what portion of
the universal 24 hours would suit it best for its day and which
for its night, and if it decided, as supposed above, to place its
working day forward a little to give some daylight after labor,
nothing would be disturbed and only the scientific would ever
know. Certainly, "save daylight," but do not make a fool of the
clock! Having shown the great liberty which localities could take
without touching the working of the system, the same remarks apply
to ultra-scientific localities. A city might establish its noon to
the instant; so it is possible--even if a little improbable--that
the brilliant and scientific aldermen of New York might appoint
a commission with proper campfollowers and instrument bearers to
determine the longitude of the city to the Nth of a second and tell
us where we "are at." The glory of this achievement--and especially
its total cost--would be all our own and incorruptible time would be
untouched! We thus see that great local freedom and great accuracy
are alike possible. With our present system, accuracy in local time
is impracticable and has never even been attempted, and is confusion
confused since we added the railroad hour jumps. Why did we nurse
this confusion till it has become almost intolerable? Because man
has always been a slave to _mental associations, and habits_.
Primitive man divided the local day into parts and gave them names
and this mental attitude sticks to us after it has served its day.
The advantages of universal time could hardly be enumerated, yet we
can have them all by dropping our childish association of 7 o'clock
with breakfast time! Another example,--you visit a friend for a few
days and on retiring the first night you ask "what is your breakfast
hour"--"8 o'clock." You have to ask this question and recollect the
answer. Now tell me what difference it would make if the answer had
been 13 o'clock? None whatever, unless, perhaps, that is, you do not
like thirteen! You ask, how about ships? Ships now carry universal
time and only change the clock on deck to please the simple minded
passengers. How about the date line? No change whatever, so long
as we use _dates_ which means numbering local days. It is useless
multiplying examples; all difficulties disappear, as if by magic, the
moment we can free our minds of local time and the association of
the _same hour_ with the _same portion_ of the day at _all places_.
The great interest at present manifested in the attempts to reach
the North Pole calls for some consideration of universal time in
the extreme north. Commencing at the equator, it is easy to see
that the day and night ring, Fig. 46, would represent the days and
nights of 12 hours at all seasons. As we go north, however, this
ring represents the _average_ day and night. When we reach the Polar
Circle, still going north, the _daily_ rising and setting of the sun
gradually ceases till we reach the great one-year day at the Pole,
consisting of six months darkness and six months light. Let us now
assume that an astronomical observatory is established here and the
great equatorial placed precisely on the pole. At this point, _local
time_, _day and night_, and _the date line_, almost cease to have
a meaning. For this very reason universal time would be the only
practical method; therefore, it _more_ than stands the test of being
carried to the extreme. Universal time would regulate working and
sleeping here the same as at all other places. Strictly local time in
this observatory would be an absurdity, because in walking around the
telescope (pole) you would be in all instants of the 24 hours within
five seconds! At the pole the day would commence at the same instant
as at some assumed place, and the day and night ring would represent
working and sleeping as at that place. Suppose this observatory to
be in telegraphic communication with New York, then it would be
best for the attendants to set their day and night to New York, so
as to correspond with its business hours. Many curious suppositions
might be made about this polar observatory with its "great night"
and equally "great day." It is evident that to keep count of itself
it would be compelled to note _dates_ and 24-hour _days_ to keep in
touch with us; so it would be forced to adopt the local day of some
place like New York. This choice would be free, because a polar
observatory would stand on all the meridians of the earth at once.

We are now in a position to consider the next possible--and even
probable--improvement in our clocks and watches. To minimize the
next step it might be well to see what we can do now. Clocks are
often regulated by electric impulses over wires. Electricians inform
me that they can do this by wireless; but that owing to the rapid
attenuation of the impulses it cannot be done commercially, over
great distances. In the history of invention the first step was _to
do something_ and then find a way of doing it cheaply enough for
general use. So far as I know, the watch in the wearer's pocket has
not yet been regulated by wireless; but I am willing to risk the
statement that the editor of Popular Mechanics can name more than one
electrician who can do this. A watch to take these impulses might be
larger than our present watches, but it would not stay larger and
would ultimately become much smaller. You know what has happened
since the days of the big "onions" described in the third chapter.
Fig. 34; so get your electric watch and make it smaller at your
leisure. We have made many things commercially practicable, which
looked more revolutionary than this. Now throw out the mainspring,
wheels, pinions, etc., of our watches and reduce the machinery part
to little more than dial and hands and do the driving by wireless,
say, once every minute. I feel certain that I am restraining the
scientific imagination in saying that the man lives among us who can
do this. I repeat, that we now possess the elementary knowledge--which
if collated and applied--would produce such a watch.

Now I have a big question to ask--the central note of interrogation
in this little scientific conversation with you,--does the man
live who can make the earth automatically record its rotation?
Do not be alarmed, for I am prepared to make a guess as to this
possibility. A _direct_ mechanical record of the earth's rotation
seems hopeless, but let us see what can be done. You are aware
that some of the fixed stars have a distinct spectrum. It is not
unreasonable to suppose that an instrument could be made to record
the passage of such a star over the meridian. Ah, but you say, there
is no mechanical force in this. Do not hurry, for we have long been
acquainted with the fact that things which, apparently, have no
force can be made to liberate something which manifests mechanical
force. We could now start or stop the greatest steam engine by a
gleam of sunlight, and some day we might be able to do as much by the
lately discovered pressure of light. That is, we can now liberate
the greatest forces by the most infinitesimal, by steps; the little
force liberating one greater than itself, and that one another still
greater. A good example is the stopping of an electric train, from a
distance, by wireless. The standard clock in Philadelphia, previously
referred to, is a delicate instrument and its most delicate part,
having the least force, moves a little valve every minute, and by
several steps liberates the air pressure, 200 feet higher in the
tower, to move the four sets of great hands. I am not traveling
beyond the record when I say that the invisible actinic rays could be
used to liberate a great force; therefore what is there unreasonable
in the supposition that the displacement of the sodium line in the
spectrum of a star might be made to record the earth's rotation? So
I say to the electrician--the optician--the photographer--the chemist
and the mechanic.--get together and produce this watch. Permit me,
with conventional and intentional modesty, to name the new timepiece
_Chroncosmic_. For pocket use, it would be _Cosmic watch_. In the
first chapter I allowed to the year 2,000 for the production of this
watch, but it is likely we will not need to wait so long.

Having stated my proposal for universal time as fully as space will
permit and given my guess as to the coming cosmic watch, let us in
this closing paragraph indulge in a little mental exercise. Suppose
we copy the old time lecturer on astronomy and "allow our minds to
penetrate into space." Blessed be his memory, he was a doer of good.
How impressive as he repeatedly dropped his wooden pointer, and lo!
It always moved straight to the floor; thus triumphantly vindicating
universal gravitation!!!

We can think of a time system which would discard months, weeks and
days. What is the meaning of the financial almanac in which the
days are numbered from 1 to 365 or 366? Simply a step in the right
direction, _away from the months and weeks_, so that the distance
between any two dates may be seen at a glance. We would really be
better without months and weeks. Now let us consider the year of
the seasons as a unit--long since proposed by the astronomers--and
divide it into 3,000 chrons. Clocks regulated by star transits, as
at present, would divide this decimally, the fourth place being near
enough to make the new pendulums of convenient length. This would
throw out months, weeks and days, local time and the date line.
Each of these chrons would represent the same time in the year,
permanently. For example, 464.6731 would mark to a _dixmilliemechron_
(a little more than one second) the point reached in the year; while
the date does not, as I have shown in the first chapter. But you
still object that this is a great number of figures to use in fixing
a point in the year. Let us see what it takes to fix a point in the
year now, _August 24th, 11-16-32 P. M., New York standard time_. A
pretty long story, but it does not fix the point of the year even
then; for it would require the assistance of an astronomer to fix
such a point in _any given_ year, say 1909. But 464.6731 would be
eternally right in _absolute time_ of the seasons, and has only one
meaning, with no qualifications for any year whatever. I believe
the astronomers should use a method something like this. Ah, but
there is a difficulty in applying this to the affairs of daily life
which looks insurmountable. This is caused by the fact that the
_day_ and _year_ are incommeasurable. One of them cannot be exactly
expressed in terms of the other. They are like the diagonal and side
of a square. The day is now the unit and therefore the year has an
interminable fraction; conversely, if we make the year the unit, then
the day becomes an endless fraction. This brings us face to face with
the local day which we ignored in our scientific year unit. We _must_
regulate our labors, in this world, to day and night and, with the
year unit, the chrons would bear no fixed relation to day and night,
even for two days in succession. So the year unit and absolute time
must be left to the astronomers; but the _day unit_ and the uniform
world day of _universal time_ as explained in connection with Fig. 46
I offer as a practical system.

I am satisfied that all attempts to measure the year and the day
by the same _time yard stick_ must fail and keep us in our present
confusion. Therefore separate them once for all time. Brought down to
its lowest terms my final proposal is:--

 1st. An equinoctial year unit for the astronomers, divided
 somewhat as suggested, but no attempt to make the divisions
 even approximate to days and hours. This would fix all
 astronomical events, absolutely. A variation in the length of
 the year would not disturb this system, since the year _itself_
 would be the unit. In translating this astronomical, or year
 unit time, into clock time, no difficulties would be added, as
 compared with our present translation of sidereal time into
 clock time. Deal with the _year unit_ and _day unit_ separately
 and convert them mutually when necessary.

 2nd. A universal mean time day of 24 hours, as now kept at
 Greenwich, all human business being regulated by this time.
 Dates and the date line as well as leap years all being
 retained as at present.

 3rd. Weight and spring clocks and watches to be superseded by
 the cosmic clocks and watches regulated by wireless impulses
 from central time stations, all impulses giving the same
 invariable time for all places.

 4th. Automatic recording of the earth's rotations to determine
 this time.

To avoid any possibility of misunderstanding, I would advise never
counting a unit till it is completed. We do this correctly with our
hours, as we understand 24 o'clock to be the same as 0 o'clock. But
we do not carry this out logically, for we say 24.30. How can this
be so, since there is nothing more than 24 o'clock? It ought to be
simply 30 minutes, or 0 hour 30 minutes. How can there be any _hour_
when a new day is only 30 minutes old? This brings up the acrimonious
controversy, of some years ago, as to whether there was any "year
one." One side insisted that till one year was completed there could
only be months and days. The other side argued that the "year one"
commenced at 0 and that the month and date showed how much of it had
passed. Test yourself,--is this the year 1909, of which only 8 months
have passed; or is it 1909 and 8 months more? Regarding the centuries
there appears to be no difference of opinion that 1900 is completed,
and that we are in the 20th century. But can you tell whether we are
8 years and 8 months into the 20th century or 9 years and 8 months?
It ought to be, logically 1909 years _complete_ and 8 months of the
next year, which we must not count till it is completed. Take a
carpenter's rule, we say 1/4 in.--1/2 in.--3/4 in., but do not count
an inch till we complete it. When the ancients are quoted,--"about
the middle of the third hour" there is no mistake, because that means
2-1/2 hours since sunrise. If we said the 1909th year that would be
definite too, and mean some distance into that year. Popular language
states that Greenwich is on the "first meridian"; strictly, it is on
the zero meridian, or 0°. These matters are largely academic and I do
not look on them as serious subjects of discussion; but they are good
thought producers. Bidding you good-bye, for the present, it might
be permissible to state that this conversational article on Time was
intended to be readable and somewhat instructive; but especially to
indicate the infinity of the subject, that thought and investigation
might be encouraged.




      *      *      *      *      *      *




Transcriber's note:

Original spelling and grammar have mostly been retained. However, on
page 31, "clepsydral" was changed to "clepsydra".

Figures were moved from within paragraphs to between paragraphs. In
addition, some figures were originally out of numerical sequence;
they are now in sequence.



